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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Friday%20%281910%29
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Black Friday (1910)
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Black Friday was a suffragette demonstration in London on 18November 1910, in which 300 women marched to the Houses of Parliament as part of their campaign to secure voting rights for women. The day earned its name from the violence meted out to protesters, some of it sexual, by the Metropolitan Police and male bystanders.
During the January 1910 general election campaign, H. H. Asquith—the Prime Minister and leader of the Liberal Party—promised to introduce a Conciliation Bill to allow a measure of women's suffrage in national elections. When he was returned to power, a committee made up of pro-women's suffrage MPs from several political parties was formed; they proposed legislation that would have added a million women to the franchise. The suffrage movement supported the legislation. Although MPs backed the bill and passed its first and second readings, Asquith refused to grant it further parliamentary time. On 18November 1910, following a breakdown in relations between the House of Commons and House of Lords over that year's budget, Asquith called another general election and said that parliament would be dissolved on 28November.
The Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) saw the move as a betrayal and organized a protest march to parliament from Caxton Hall in Westminster. Lines of police and crowds of male bystanders met three hundred female protestors outside the Houses of Parliament; the women were attacked for the next six hours. Many women complained about the sexual nature of the assaults, which included having their breasts twisted and pinched. Police arrested 4 men and 115 women, although the following day all charges were dropped. The conciliation committee were angered by the accounts, and undertook interviews with 135 demonstrators, nearly all of whom described acts of violence against the women; 29 of the statements included details of sexual assault. Calls for a public inquiry were rejected by Winston Churchill, then Home Secretary.
The violence may have caused the subsequent deaths of two suffragettes. The demonstration led to a change in approach: many members of the WSPU were unwilling to risk similar violence, so they resumed their previous forms of direct action—such as stone-throwing and window-breaking—which afforded time to escape. The police also changed their tactics; during future demonstrations they tried not to arrest too soon or too late.
Background
Women's Social and Political Union
The Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) was formed in 1903 by the political activist Emmeline Pankhurst. From around 1905—following the failure of a private member's bill to introduce the vote for women—the organisation increasingly began to use militant direct action to campaign for women's suffrage. According to the historian Caroline Morrell, from 1905 "The basic pattern of WSPU activities over the next few years had been established—pre-planned militant tactics, imprisonment claimed as martyrdom, publicity and increased membership and funds."
From 1906 WSPU members adopted the name suffragettes, to differentiate from the suffragists of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, who employed constitutional methods in their campaign for the vote. From 1907 WSPU demonstrations faced increasing police violence. Sylvia Pankhurst—the daughter of Emmeline and a member of the WSPU—described a demonstration in which she took part in February that year:
Parliament was guarded by an army of police to prevent the women approaching its sacred precincts. The constables had their orders to drive them away, making as few arrests as possible. Mounted men scattered the marchers; foot police seized them by the back of the neck and rushed them along at arm's length, thumping them in the back, and bumping them with their knees in approved police fashion. ... Those who took refuge in doorways were dragged down the steps and hurled in front of the horses, then pounced upon by constables and beaten again. ... As night advanced the violence grew. Finally fifty-four women and two men had been arrested.
After one demonstration in June 1908 in which "roughs appeared, organised gangs, who treated the women with every type of indignity", Sylvia Pankhurst complained that "the ill-usage by the police and the roughs was greater than we had hitherto experienced". During a demonstration in June 1909 a deputation tried to force a meeting with H. H. Asquith, the Prime Minister; 3,000 police provided tight security to prevent the women from entering parliament, arresting 108 women and 14 men. Following the police violence used on that occasion, the WSPU began to shift to a strategy of breaking windows rather than attempting to rush into parliament. Sylvia Pankhurst wrote that "Since we must go to prison to obtain the vote, let it be the windows of the Government, not the bodies of women which shall be broken, was the argument".
At a demonstration in October 1909—at which the WSPU again attempted to rush into parliament—ten demonstrators were taken to hospital. The suffragettes did not complain about the rising level of police violence. Constance Lytton wrote that "the word went round that we were to conceal as best we might, our various injuries. It was no part of our policy to get the police into trouble." The level of violence in suffragette action increased throughout 1909: bricks were thrown at the windows of Liberal Party meetings; Asquith was attacked while leaving church; and roof tiles were thrown at police when another political rally was interrupted. Public opinion turned against the tactics and, according to Morrell, the government capitalised on the shifting public feeling to introduce stronger measures. Thus, in October 1909, Herbert Gladstone, the Home Secretary, instructed that all prisoners on hunger strike should be force fed.
Political situation
The Liberal government elected in 1905 was a reforming one which introduced legislation to combat poverty, deal with unemployment and establish pensions. The Conservative Party-dominated House of Lords impeded much of the legislation. In 1909 the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, introduced the so-called People's Budget, which had the expressed intent of redistributing wealth amongst the population. This budget was passed by the House of Commons, but rejected by the Lords. As a result, on 3 December 1909, Asquith called a general election for the new year to obtain a fresh mandate for the legislation. As part of the campaigning for the January 1910 election, Asquith—a known anti-suffragist—announced that should he be re-elected, he would introduce a Conciliation Bill to introduce a measure of female suffrage. The proposal was dismissed by suffrage campaigners as being unlikely to materialise. The election produced a hung parliament, with the Liberals' majority eliminated; although they won the largest number of seats, they returned only two more MPs than the Conservative Party. Asquith retained power after he was able to form a government with the support of the Irish Parliamentary Party.
On 31 January 1910, in response to Asquith's statement, Pankhurst announced that the WSPU would pause all militant activity and focus on constitutional activities only. For six months the suffrage movement went into a propaganda drive, organising marches and meetings, and local councils passed resolutions supporting the bill. When the new Parliament convened, a cross-party conciliation committee of pro-women's suffrage MPs was formed under the chairmanship of Lord Lytton, the brother of Lady Constance Bulwer-Lytton. They proposed legislation that would have enfranchised female householders and those women that occupied a business premises; the bill was based on existing franchise laws for local government elections, under which some women had been able to vote since 1870. The measure would have added approximately a million women to the franchise; it was kept to a relatively small number to make the bill as acceptable as possible to MPs, mostly Conservatives. Although the WSPU thought the scope of the bill too narrow—it excluded women lodgers and most wives and working-class women—they accepted it as an important step.
The Conciliation Bill was introduced into Parliament as a private members bill on 14June 1910. The question of women's suffrage was divisive within Cabinet, and the bill was discussed at three separate meetings. At a Cabinet meeting on 23June, Asquith stated that he would allow it to pass to the second reading stage, but no further parliamentary time would be allocated to it and it would therefore fail. Nearly 200 MPs signed a memorandum to Asquith asking for additional parliamentary time to debate the legislation, but he refused. The bill received its second reading on 11 and 12 July, which it passed 299 to 189. Both Churchill and Lloyd George voted against the measure; Churchill called it "anti-democratic". At the end of the month Parliament was prorogued until November. The WSPU decided to wait until Parliament reconvened before they decided if they were to return to militant action. They further decided that if no additional parliamentary time was given over to the Conciliation Bill, Christabel Pankhurst would lead a delegation to Parliament, demand the bill be made law, and refuse to leave until that was carried out. On 12 November the Liberal Party politician Sir Edward Grey announced that there would be no further parliamentary time given to the conciliation legislation that year. The WSPU announced that in protest they would undertake a militant demonstration to Parliament when it reconvened on 18November.
18 November
On 18 November 1910, in an attempt to resolve the parliamentary impasse arising from the House of Lords veto on Commons legislation, Asquith called a general election, and said that parliament would be dissolved on 28 November; all remaining time was to be given over to official government business. He did not refer to the Conciliation Bill. At noon on the same day the WPSU held a rally at Caxton Hall, Westminster. The event had been widely publicised, and the national press were prepared for the expected demonstration later in the day. From Caxton Hall, approximately 300 members—divided into groups of ten to twelve by the WSPU organiser Flora Drummond—marched to parliament to petition Asquith directly. The deputation was led by Emmeline Pankhurst. The delegates in the lead group included Dr Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, Dr Louisa Garrett Anderson, Hertha Ayrton and Princess Sophia Duleep Singh. The first group arrived at St Stephen's entrance at 1:20 pm. They were taken to Asquith's office where his private secretary informed them that the prime minister refused to see them. They were escorted back to St Stephen's entrance, where they were left to watch the demonstration.
Previous demonstrations at the Houses of Parliament had been policed by the local ADivision, who understood the nature of the demonstrations and had managed to overcome the WSPU tactics without undue levels of violence. Sylvia Pankhurst wrote that "During our conflicts with the ADivision they have gradually come to know us, and to understand our aims and objects, and for this reason, whilst obeying their orders, they came to treat the women, as far as possible, with courtesy and consideration". On the day of the demonstration, police had been drafted in from Whitechapel and the East End; these men were inexperienced in policing suffragettes. Sophia van Wingerden, in her history of the women's suffrage movement, writes that "the differing accounts of the event of that day make it difficult to determine the truth about what happened"; Morrell similarly observes that the government, the press and the demonstrators all provide markedly different accounts.
Groups approaching Parliament Square were met at the Westminster Abbey entrance to the square by groups of bystanders, who manhandled the women. As they moved past the men, the suffragettes were met by lines of policemen who, instead of arresting them, subjected them to violence and insults, much of which was sexual in nature. The demonstration continued for six hours; police beat women attempting to enter parliament, then threw them into the crowds of onlookers, where they were subjected to further assaults. Many of the suffragettes considered that the crowds of men who also assaulted them were plain clothes policemen. Caxton Hall was used throughout the day as a medical post for suffragettes injured in the demonstration. Sylvia Pankhurst recorded that "We saw the women go out and return exhausted, with black eyes, bleeding noses, bruises, sprains and dislocations. The cry went round: 'Be careful; they are dragging women down the side streets!' We knew this always meant greater ill-usage." One of those taken down a side street was Rosa May Billinghurst, a disabled suffragette who campaigned from a wheelchair. Police pushed her into a side road, assaulted her and stole the valves from the wheels, leaving her stranded. The historian Harold Smith writes "it appeared to witnesses as well as the victims that the police had intentionally attempted to subject the women to sexual humiliation in a public setting to teach them a lesson".
Following days
On 18 November, 4 men and 115 women were arrested. The following morning, when those arrested were brought up at Bow Street Police Court, the prosecution stated that Winston Churchill, the Home Secretary, had decided that on the grounds of public policy "on this occasion no public advantage would be gained by proceeding with the prosecution"; all charges were dropped. Katherine E. Kelly, in her examination of how the media reported the suffrage movement in the early 20th century, considers that by dropping the charges against the demonstrators Churchill implemented "a tacit quid pro quo ... [in which] he refused to inquire into the charges of police brutality". On 22November Asquith announced that should the Liberals be returned to power at the next election, there would be parliamentary time for a Conciliation Bill to be put to parliament. The WSPU were angered that his promise was for within the next parliament, rather than the next session, and 200 suffragettes marched on Downing Street, where scuffles broke out with the police; 159 women and 3 men were arrested. The following day another march on parliament was met with a police presence, and 18 demonstrators were arrested. Charges against many of those arrested on 22and 23November were subsequently dropped.
Reaction
On 19 November 1910, newspapers reported on the events of the previous day. According to Morrell they "almost unanimously refrained from any mention of police brutality", and focussed instead on the behaviour of the suffragettes. The front page of The Daily Mirror that day showed a large photograph of a suffragette on the ground, having been hit by a policeman during Black Friday; the image is probably that of Ada Wright. The art editor of the newspaper forwarded the photograph to the Commissioner of Metropolitan Police for comments. He initially tried to explain the image away by saying the woman had collapsed through exhaustion. The image was also published in Votes for Women, The Manchester Guardian and the Daily Express.
Morrell observes that where sympathy was shown by newspapers, it was directed towards the policemen. The Times reported that "Several of the police had their helmets knocked off in carrying out their duty, one was disabled by a kick on the ankle, one was cut on the face by a belt, and one had his hand cut"; The Daily Mirror wrote that "the police displayed great good temper and tact throughout and avoided making arrests, but as usual many of the Suffragettes refused to be happy until they were arrested ... in one scuffle a constable got hurt and had to be led limping away by two colleagues." References to the suffragettes were in tones of disapproval for their actions; after Churchill decided not to prosecute the suffragettes, some newspapers criticised his decision.
On 3 March Georgiana Solomon—a suffragette who had been present at the demonstration—wrote to The Times to say that police had assaulted her. She had been bed-ridden after their manhandling, and had not been able to make a complaint at the time. Instead, she had written to Churchill on 17 December with a full statement of what she had suffered, and the actions she had witnessed against others. She had received a formal acknowledgement, but no further letter from the government on the events. Her letter to Churchill had been printed in full in the suffragette newspaper Votes for Women.
The WSPU leadership were convinced that Churchill had given the police orders to manhandle the women, rather than arrest them quickly. Churchill denied the accusation in the House of Commons and was so angered he considered suing Christabel Pankhurst and The Times, who had reported the claim, for libel. The 25 November 1910 edition of Votes for Women stated that "The orders of the Home Secretary were, apparently, that the police were to be present both in uniform and in the crowd and that the women were to be thrown from one to the other". In her biography of Emmeline Pankhurst, June Purvis writes that the police followed Churchill's orders to refrain from making arrests; the historian Andrew Rosen considers that Churchill had not given any orders to the police to manhandle the demonstrators.
Murray and Brailsford report
When members of the conciliation committee heard the stories of the demonstrators' maltreatment, they demanded a public inquiry, which was rejected by Churchill. The committee's secretary—the journalist Henry Brailsford—and the psychotherapist Jessie Murray collected 135 statements from demonstrators, nearly all of which described acts of violence against the women; 29 of the statements also included details of violence that included indecency. The memorandum they published summarised their findings:
The action of which the most frequent complaint is made is variously described as twisting round, pinching, screwing, nipping, or wringing the breast. This was often done in the most public way so as to inflict the utmost humiliation. Not only was it an offence against decency; it caused in many cases intense pain ... The language used by some of the police while performing this action proves that it was consciously sensual.
A woman, who gave her name as Miss H, stated that "One policeman ... put his arm round me and seized my left breast, nipping it and wringing it very painfully, saying as he did so, 'You have been wanting this for a long time, haven't you'"; the American suffragette Elisabeth Freeman reported that a policeman grasped her thigh. She stated "I demanded that he should cease doing such a hateful action to a woman. He said, 'Oh, my old dear, I can grip you wherever I like to-day'"; and another said "the policeman who tried to move me on did so by pushing his knees in between me from behind, with the deliberate intention of attacking my sex".
On 2 February 1911 the memorandum prepared by Murray and Brailsford was presented to the Home Office, along with a formal request for a public inquiry. Churchill again refused. On 1 March, in response to a question in parliament, he informed the House of Commons that the memorandum:
contains a large number of charges against the police of criminal misconduct, which, if there were any truth in them, should have been made at the time and not after a lapse of three months. ... I have made inquiry of the Commissioner [of Metropolitan Police] with regard to certain general statements included in the memorandum and find them to be devoid of foundation. There is no truth in the statement that the police had instructions which led them to terrorise and maltreat the women. On the contrary, the superintendent in charge impressed upon them that as they would have to deal with women, they must act with restraint and moderation, using no more force than might be necessary, and maintaining under any provocation they might receive, control of temper.
Impact
The deaths of two suffragettes have been attributed to the treatment they received on Black Friday. Mary Clarke, Emmeline Pankhurst's younger sister, was present at both Black Friday and the demonstration in Downing Street on 22November. After a month in prison for breaking windows in Downing Street, she was released on 23December, and died on Christmas Day of a brain haemorrhage at age 48. Emmeline blamed her death on the maltreatment Clarke received at the two November demonstrations; Murray and Brailsford wrote that "we have no evidence which directly connects the death of Mrs Clarke" to the demonstrations. The second victim the WSPU claimed had died from maltreatment was Henria Leech Williams. She had given evidence to Brailsford and Murray that "One policeman after knocking me about for a considerable time, finally took hold of me with his great strong hands like iron just over my heart. ... I knew that unless I made a strong effort ... he would kill me". Williams died of a heart attack on 1January 1911; Murray and Brailsford wrote "there is evidence to show that Miss Henria Williams ... had been used with great brutality, and was aware at the time of the effect upon her heart, which was weak". Her brother Llewellyn later stated that “She knowingly and willingly shortened her days in rendering services to the womanhood of the nation.”
The events that took place between 18and 25November had an impact on the WSPU membership, many of whom no longer wanted to take part in the demonstrations. The deputations to parliament were stopped, and direct action, such as stone-throwing and window-breaking, became more common; this allowed women a chance to escape before the police could arrest them. The historian Elizabeth Crawford considers the events of Black Friday determined the "image of the relations between the two forces and mark a watershed in the relationship between the militant suffrage movement and the police". Crawford identifies a change in the tactics used by the police after Black Friday. Sir Edward Troup, the under-secretary at the Home Office, wrote to the Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police in January 1911 to say that "I think there can be no doubt that the least embarrassing course will be for the police not to arrest too soon or defer arresting too long", which became the normal procedure adopted.
On 17 November 2010 a vigil called "Remember the Suffragettes" took place on College Green, Parliament Square "in honour of direct action".
See also
Suffragette bombing and arson campaign
Notes and references
Notes
References
Sources
Books
Journals
News articles
Websites
1910 in London
1910 protests
Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom
Emmeline Pankhurst
November 1910 events
1910 in women's history
1910 in British politics
H. H. Asquith
Protests in London
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20NASCAR%20Busch%20Series
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2003 NASCAR Busch Series
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The 2003 NASCAR Busch Series began February 15 and ended November 15. Brian Vickers of Hendrick Motorsports won the championship.
2003 teams and drivers
Full schedule
Limited schedule
Notes
Schedule
Races
Koolerz 300
The Koolerz 300 was held on February 15 at Daytona International Speedway. Joe Nemechek won the pole but was suffering from the flu, so Jeff Green started the car from the rear of the field.
Top ten results
8–Dale Earnhardt Jr.
17–Matt Kenseth
21–Kevin Harvick
4–Mike Wallace
1–Jamie McMurray
92–Todd Bodine
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
38–Kasey Kahne
43–Johnny Sauter
27–Chase Montgomery
Failed to qualify: Mark Day (#81), Jay Sauter (#75), C. W. Smith (#67), Joe Buford (#84), Brad Teague (#52), Larry Hollenbeck (#82), Ron Barfield (#91)
Rockingham 200
The Rockingham 200 was scheduled for February 22, but rain pushed it back to February 24 at North Carolina Speedway. David Green won the pole.
Top ten results
1–Jamie McMurray
37–David Green
92–Todd Bodine
7–Randy LaJoie
57–Jason Keller
20–Mike Bliss
26–Kevin Grubb
5–Brian Vickers
43–Johnny Sauter
21–Kevin Harvick
Failed to qualify: Justin Ashburn (#61), Michael Dokken (#72), Jeff Fultz (#86)
Sam's Town 300
The Sam's Town 300 was held on March 1 at Las Vegas Motor Speedway. Stanton Barrett won the pole.
Top ten results
87–Joe Nemechek
21–Kevin Harvick
20–Mike Bliss
8–Steve Park
57–Jason Keller
37–David Green
99–Michael Waltrip
60–Stanton Barrett
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
23–Scott Wimmer
Failed to qualify: Steadman Marlin (#30), Wayne Jacks (#52), Morgan Shepherd (#0), Mike McLaughlin (#01), Troy Cline (#00), Scott Lynch (#08)
darlingtonraceway.com 200
The darlingtonraceway.com 200 was scheduled for March 15 but instead held on March 17 at Darlington Raceway due to rain. Stanton Barrett won the pole as the field was set by 2002 Busch Series owner points due to said rain.
Top ten results
92–Todd Bodine
1–Jamie McMurray
10–Scott Riggs
59–Stacy Compton
21–Johnny Sauter
27–Hank Parker Jr.
5–Brian Vickers
38–Kasey Kahne
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
57–Jason Keller
Failed to qualify: none
Final Busch Series win for Todd Bodine
The end of the race was wild as Jamie McMurray slipped past Todd Bodine for the top spot on the last turn of the last lap, the two banged fenders and McMurray was spun as Bodine took the checkers. The day before, the closest finish in NASCAR Winston Cup Series history happened.
Channellock 250
The Channellock 250 was held on March 22 at Bristol Motor Speedway. David Green won the pole.
Top ten results
21–Kevin Harvick
33–Tony Raines
57–Jason Keller
37–David Green
20–Mike Bliss
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
48–Shane Hmiel
7–Randy LaJoie
92–Todd Bodine
43–Johnny Sauter
Failed to qualify: none
O'Reilly 300
The O'Reilly 300 was held on March 29 at Texas Motor Speedway. Jason Keller won the pole.
Top ten results
87–Joe Nemechek
10–Scott Riggs
48–Shane Hmiel
19–Chad Blount
82–Jimmy Spencer
17–Matt Kenseth
23–Scott Wimmer
38–Kasey Kahne
10–Coy Gibbs
Failed to qualify: Troy Cline (#00), Robby Benton (#85)
Chad Blount received a 25–point penalty for illegal modifications to his car's rear hubs found after the race.
Aaron's 312 (Talladega)
The Aaron's 312 was held on April 5 at Talladega Superspeedway. Joe Nemechek won the pole.
Top ten results
8–Dale Earnhardt Jr.
87–Joe Nemechek
48–Shane Hmiel
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
20–Mike Bliss
1–Jamie McMurray
99–Michael Waltrip
4–Mike Wallace
18–Coy Gibbs
22–Tina Gordon
Failed to qualify: Bobby Gerhart (#55), Kevin Ray (#95), Gus Wasson (#84)
This race was Lyndon Amick's last career start.
Pepsi 300
The Pepsi 300 was held on April 12 at Nashville Superspeedway. Randy LaJoie won the pole.
Top ten results
37–David Green
21–Johnny Sauter
46–Ashton Lewis
20–Mike Bliss
87–David Reutimann
60–Stanton Barrett
1–David Stremme
19–Chad Blount
5–Brian Vickers
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
Failed to qualify: John Hayden (#85), Jeff Streeter (#83), Gus Wasson (#96), Joe Buford (#8), Dion Ciccarelli (#04), Norm Benning (#84) Note: Mike McLaughlin qualified the No. 92 for Todd Bodine.
1–800–Pitshop.com 300
The 1–800–Pitshop.com 300 was held on April 26 at California Speedway. Kevin Harvick won the pole.
Top ten results
17–Matt Kenseth
99–Michael Waltrip
21–Kevin Harvick
38–Kasey Kahne
92–Todd Bodine
1–Jamie McMurray
57–Jason Keller
48–Shane Hmiel
37–David Green
Failed to qualify: Jason Hedlesky (#91), Brad Teague (#52), Greg Pursley (#84)
Hardee's 250
The Hardee's 250 was held on May 2 at Richmond International Raceway. Michael Waltrip won the pole.
Top ten results
21–Kevin Harvick
10–Scott Riggs
33–Tony Raines
99–Michael Waltrip
23–Scott Wimmer
43–Johnny Sauter
59–Stacy Compton
48–Shane Hmiel
37–David Green
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
Failed to qualify: Brad Baker (#28), Kenny Hendrick (#91), Justin Ashburn (#61), Dion Ciccarelli (#84), Randy MacDonald (#72), Jason Rudd (#01)
Charter Pipeline 250
The Charter Pipeline 250 was held on May 10 at Gateway International Raceway. Ashton Lewis won the pole.
Top ten results
10–Scott Riggs
37–David Green
57–Jason Keller
5–Brian Vickers
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
59–Stacy Compton
21–Johnny Sauter
23–Scott Wimmer
60–Stanton Barrett
99–Kenny Wallace
Failed to qualify: Joe Buford (#94) - Withdrew
Goulds Pumps/ITT Industries 200
The Goulds Pumps/ITT Industries 200 was held on May 18 at Nazareth Speedway. Randy LaJoie won the pole.
Top ten results
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
5–Brian Vickers
20–Mike Bliss
37–David Green
92–Todd Bodine
1–David Stremme
7–Randy LaJoie
59–Stacy Compton
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
21–Johnny Sauter
Failed to qualify: Brian Conz (#70) Note: Mike McLaughlin qualified the No. 92 for Todd Bodine and Tim Fedewa qualified the No. 4 for Mike Wallace.
Carquest Auto Parts 300
The Carquest Auto Parts 300 was held on May 24 at Lowe's Motor Speedway. Kevin Harvick won the pole.
Top ten results
17–Matt Kenseth
87–Kyle Busch
10–Scott Riggs
92–Todd Bodine
20–Mike Bliss
38–Kasey Kahne
8–Hank Parker Jr.
46–Ashton Lewis
21–Kevin Harvick
99–Michael Waltrip
Failed to qualify: Morgan Shepherd (#0), Lance Norick (#90), Casey Atwood (#82), Brad Baker(#39), Kenny Hendrick (#91), Jason Schuler (#73) Note: Joe Nemechek qualified the No. 88 for Jeff Fuller.
Kyle Busch made his first Busch series start, and surprised many by finishing 2nd to race winner Matt Kenseth.
MBNA Armed Forces Family 200
The MBNA Armed Forces Family 200 was held on May 31 at Dover International Speedway. Joe Nemechek won the pole.
Top ten results
87–Joe Nemechek
10–Scott Riggs
37–David Green
17–Matt Kenseth
5–Brian Vickers
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
92–Todd Bodine
38–Kasey Kahne
20–Mike Bliss
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
Failed to qualify: Gus Wasson (#96), Brian Weber (#84)
Trace Adkins Chrome 300
The Trace Adkins Chrome 300 was held on June 7 at Nashville Superspeedway. Johnny Sauter won the pole.
Top ten results
10–Scott Riggs
37–David Green
1–David Stremme
7–Randy LaJoie
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
46–Ashton Lewis
60–Stanton Barrett
23–Scott Wimmer
75–Jay Sauter
5–Brian Vickers
Failed to qualify: Brian Weber (#84) Note: Dan Pardus qualified the No. 39 for Jamie Mosley and David Reutimann qualified the No. 87 for Jeff Fuller.
This was Scott Riggs’ final Busch Series win.
Meijer 300 presented by Oreo Happy
The Meijer 300 presented by Oreo Happy was held on June 14 at Kentucky Speedway. Stacy Compton won the pole.
Top ten results
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
57–Jason Keller
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
59–Stacy Compton
5–Brian Vickers
46–Ashton Lewis
27–David Green
14–Casey Atwood
1–David Stremme
Failed to qualify: Jason Rudd (#01), Rick Markle (#68), Jamie Mosley (#39), Justin Ashburn (#61), Mike Potter (#52), John Hayden (#85), Stan Boyd (#72)
GNC Live Well 250
The GNC Live Well 250 was held on June 29 at The Milwaukee Mile. Johnny Sauter won the pole.
Top ten results
57–Jason Keller
5–Brian Vickers
1–David Stremme
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
87–David Reutimann
37–David Green
10–Scott Riggs
92–Todd Bodine
59–Stacy Compton
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
This was Jason Keller's last career NASCAR victory.
Failed to qualify: Brad Teague (#52) - Withdrew, Brad Mueller (#67) - Withdrew, Morgan Shepherd (#70) - Withdrew, Kenny Hendrick (#97) - Withdrew
Winn-Dixie 250
The Winn-Dixie 250 was held on July 4 at Daytona International Speedway. Dale Earnhardt Jr. won the pole.
Top ten results
8–Dale Earnhardt Jr.
99–Michael Waltrip
1–Jamie McMurray
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
21–Johnny Sauter
10–Scott Riggs
5–Brian Vickers
92–Todd Bodine
34–Mike McLaughlin
48–Shane Hmiel
Failed to qualify: Jason Schuler (#73), Dan Pardus (#39), Jason Hedlesky (#91), Jimmy Kitchens (#70), Joe Aramendia (#79)
In addition to winning the pole, Earnhardt Jr would lead all 100 laps to win his third superspeedway race of the season.
Earnhardt Jr’s win marked a season sweep for DEI in the Busch Series restrictor plate races as well as DEI’s 5th straight restrictor plate win across NASCAR as a whole.
Tropicana Twister 300
The Tropicana Twister 300 was held on July 12 at Chicagoland Speedway. Casey Mears won the pole.
Top ten results
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
17–Matt Kenseth
5–Brian Vickers
19–Casey Mears
99–Michael Waltrip
57–Jason Keller
10–Scott Riggs
33–Tony Raines
1–Jamie McMurray
20–Mike Bliss
Failed to qualify: none Note: Joe Nemechek qualified the No. 7 for Todd Bodine and Greg Biffle qualified the No. 88 for Joe Nemechek.
New England 200
The New England 200 was held on July 19 at New Hampshire International Speedway. Kevin Harvick won the pole.
Top ten results
37–David Green
21–Kevin Harvick
17–Matt Kenseth
5–Brian Vickers
23–Scott Wimmer
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
57–Jason Keller
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
38–Kasey Kahne
59–Stacy Compton
Failed to qualify: none
TrimSpa Dream Body 250
The TrimSpa Dream Body 250 was held on July 26 at Pikes Peak International Raceway. Bobby Hamilton Jr. won the pole.
Top ten results
23–Scott Wimmer
57–Jason Keller
10–Scott Riggs
21–Johnny Sauter
27–Joey Clanton
59–Stacy Compton
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
26–Kevin Grubb
46–Ashton Lewis
38–Kasey Kahne
Failed to qualify: Drew White (#28)
Kroger 200
The Kroger 200 was held on August 2 at Indianapolis Raceway Park. Shane Hmiel won the pole.
Top ten results
5–Brian Vickers
57–Jason Keller
59–Stacy Compton
48–Shane Hmiel
10–Scott Riggs
37–David Green
7–Mike Skinner
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
55–Paul Menard
20–Mike Bliss
Failed to qualify: Norm Benning (#84), Brett Oakley (#07), Bill Hoff (#93)
Cabela's 250
The Cabela's 250 was held on August 16 at Michigan International Speedway. Kasey Kahne won the pole. The race was shortened to 110 laps due to rain.
Top ten results
21–Kevin Harvick
38–Kasey Kahne
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
37–David Green
10–Scott Riggs
87–David Reutimann
19–Casey Mears
99–Michael Waltrip
48–Shane Hmiel
31–Dave Blaney
Failed to qualify: Mike Potter (#52), Justin Ashburn (#61), Rick Markle (#68), Larry Hollenbeck (#62) Note: Stan Boyd qualified the No. 22 but he was replaced in the race by Justin Ashburn who DNQed his No. 61.
Food City 250
The Food City 250 was held on August 22 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Jason Keller won the pole.
Top ten results
99–Michael Waltrip
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
6–Ted Musgrave
48–Shane Hmiel
21–Kevin Harvick
81–Martin Truex Jr.
5–Brian Vickers
33–Tony Raines
10–Scott Riggs
46–Ashton Lewis
Failed to qualify: Caleb Holman (#78), Justin Ashburn (#60), John Hayden (#85), Jason White (#70), Dion Ciccarelli (#84), Butch Jarvis (#53), Brett Oakley (#07), Norm Benning (#8), Daniel Johnson (#94) Note: Stanton Barrett qualified the No. 91 for Jimmy Kitchens.
Winn-Dixie 200 presented by PepsiCo
The Winn-Dixie 200 presented by PepsiCo was held on August 30 at Darlington Raceway. Kevin Harvick won the pole.
Top ten results
5–Brian Vickers
87–Kyle Busch
99–Michael Waltrip
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
21–Kevin Harvick
38–Kasey Kahne
57–Jason Keller
59–Stacy Compton
19–Casey Mears
14–Casey Atwood
Failed to qualify: Kenny Hendrick (#94), Jimmy Kitchens (#97), Dan Pardus (#91), Caleb Holman (#78)
Funai 250
The Funai 250 was held on September 5 at Richmond International Raceway. Kevin Harvick won the pole.
Top ten results
43–Johnny Sauter
21–Kevin Harvick
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
5–Brian Vickers
37–David Green
17–Matt Kenseth
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
33–Tony Raines
31–Dave Blaney
48–Shane Hmiel
Failed to qualify: Dion Ciccarelli (#84), Jimmy Kitchens (#97), Paul Menard (#55), Kenny Hendrick (#94), Franklin Butler III (#13), Morgan Shepherd (#89), Hermie Sadler (#02), Jimmy Henderson (#63)
Stacker 200 presented by YJ Stinger
The Stacker 200 presented by YJ Stinger was held on September 20 at Dover International Speedway. Kevin Harvick won the pole.
Top ten results
5–Brian Vickers
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
10–Scott Riggs
38–Kasey Kahne
20–Mike Bliss
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
46–Ashton Lewis
57–Jason Keller
21–Kevin Harvick
4–Mike Wallace
Failed to qualify: Kenny Hendrick (#94), Jeff Streeter (#83), Martin Truex Jr. (#81), Jason Rudd (#01), Morgan Shepherd (#89), Jimmy Henderson (#63), Jimmy Kitchens (#41)
Mr. Goodcents 300
The Mr. Goodcents 300 was held on October 4 at Kansas Speedway. Michael Waltrip won the pole.
Top ten results
37–David Green
21–Kevin Harvick
7–Greg Biffle
57–Jason Keller
8–Hank Parker Jr.
46–Ashton Lewis
23–Scott Wimmer
59–Stacy Compton
87–Joe Nemechek
1–Jamie McMurray
Failed to qualify: Morgan Shepherd (#9), Ron Young (#71), Jeff Streeter (#83), John Hayden (#85), Jamie Mosley (#39), Stanton Barrett (#91), Justin Ashburn (#61)
This race was the last win for Pontiac in the Busch Series, and in any of the top two divisions of NASCAR altogether.
Little Trees 300
The Little Trees 300 was held on October 11 after rain postponed it from October 10 at Lowe's Motor Speedway. Kevin Harvick won the pole.
Top ten results
7–Greg Biffle
99–Michael Waltrip
20–Mike Bliss
5–Brian Vickers
1–Jamie McMurray
37–David Green
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
38–Kasey Kahne
21–Kevin Harvick
57–Jason Keller
Failed to qualify: Shane Hall (#15), Jeff Streeter (#22), Wayne Anderson (#35), Justin Ashburn (#61), Mike Harmon (#44), Jamie Mosley (#39), Gus Wassson (#70)< Brad Teague (#52) Note: Matt Kenseth qualified the No. 17 for Jeff Burton.
Sam's Town 250
The Sam's Town 250 was held on October 18 at Memphis Motorsports Park. David Reutimann won the pole filling for Greg Biffle.
Top ten results
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
57–Jason Keller
21–Johnny Sauter
2–Ron Hornaday Jr.
5–Brian Vickers
23–Scott Wimmer
14–Casey Atwood
20–Mike Bliss
1–David Stremme
46–Ashton Lewis
Failed to qualify: John Hayden (#85), Justin Ashburn (#61), Brent Moore (#96), Jason Hedlesky (#72), Butch Jarvis (#53), Dana White (#39), Dude Teate (#70). Note: David Reutimann qualified the No. 7 for Greg Biffle and won the pole.
Aaron's 312 (Atlanta)
The Aaron's 312 was held on October 25 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Greg Biffle won the pole.
Top ten results
7–Greg Biffle
17–Matt Kenseth
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
99–Michael Waltrip
8–Hank Parker Jr.
10–Scott Riggs
38–Kasey Kahne
37–David Green
21–Kevin Harvick
31–Dave Blaney
Failed to qualify: John Hayden (#85), Jimmy Henderson (#63), Wayne Anderson (#35), Justin Ashburn (#61), Dwayne Leik (#81), Jeff Fuller (#91), Jeremy Clements (#51)
Bashas' Supermarkets 200
The Bashas' Supermarkets 200 was held on November 1 at Phoenix International Raceway. Kevin Harvick won the pole. The race was shortened to 181 laps due to rain.
Top ten results
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
21–Kevin Harvick
5–Brian Vickers
87–Joe Nemechek
10–Scott Riggs
23–Scott Wimmer
14–Casey Atwood
43–Johnny Sauter
7–Greg Biffle
Failed to qualify: Stan Boyd (#51), Blake Mallory (#39), Josh Richeson (#67), Jeff Fuller (#97), Randy MacDonald (#72), John Hayden (#85), Freddy Tame (#73), Jeff Streeter (#83), Clint Vahsholtz (#90)
This would be Hamilton’s 5th and final Busch Series win as well as his fourth of the season.
Hamilton's victory, along with point leader David Green's 17th place finish, tightened up the championship fight. With 2 races to go, 6 drivers were still in contention for the Busch Series crown, while 7th place Scott Wimmer was 502 out of the lead, and therefore mathematically ineligible.
Target House 200
The Target House 200 was held on November 8 at North Carolina Speedway. Brian Vickers won the pole.
Top ten results
1–Jamie McMurray
8–Martin Truex Jr.
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
79–Jeremy Mayfield
30–David Stremme
5–Brian Vickers
87–Kyle Busch
23–Scott Wimmer
43-Johnny Sauter
37–David Green
Failed to qualify: Josh Richeson (#67), Morgan Shepherd (#89), Rich Bickle (#94), Brad Teague (#52), Jason Schuler (#73), Justin Ashburn (#61), Caleb Holman (#78), Dion Ciccarelli (#84), Norm Benning (#81), Jerry Reary (#22), Justin Hobgood (#80)
The championship battle took on a new complexion going into Miami. After polesitter Brian Vickers led the opening 6 laps, none of the title contenders were a serious threat for the win, though all but Keller and Hornaday ran in the Top 10 in the first half of the race. Point leader Scott Riggs dropped from the Top 10 due to a loose condition, exacerbated by a long green flag run. Though he gained several spots in the pit cycle by coming in early, he slid into the wall on Lap 166 and ended his day in the garage in 38th. Hamilton rebounded with another Top 5, with Vickers and Green in the Top 10, Keller on the lead lap in 13th, and Hornaday, who never cracked the Top 10 all day, a lap down in 17th. All this left 20 year old Brian Vickers with a 22 point lead over 1994 champion David Green, with Riggs dropping from the lead to 5th, and 6th place Hamilton still in reasonable contention at 89 points out of the lead. Disregarding what any of his title challengers might do, Vickers would secure the championship if he could finish 3rd or better at Homestead.
Ford 300
The Ford 300 was held on November 15 at Homestead-Miami Speedway. Greg Biffle won the pole.
Top ten results
38–Kasey Kahne
8–Martin Truex Jr.
25–Bobby Hamilton Jr.
00–Jason Leffler
46–Ashton Lewis
21–Kevin Harvick
20–Mike Bliss
19–Casey Mears
37–David Green
99–Michael Waltrip
This was Kahne's first Busch series victory.
Failed to qualify: Morgan Shepherd (#9), Jason Schuler (#73), Clint Vahsholtz (#39), Justin Ashburn (#61), Mike Harmon (#44), Stan Boyd (#51), Joe Aramendia (#79), Brad Baker (#28)
Scott Riggs' championship hopes ended on the first lap, when he crashed in Turn 3 with teammate Jon Wood and the FitzBradshaw Racing duo of Casey Atwood and Tim Fedewa. Riggs' crew would repair the car, but he would only complete 28 laps before ending his day in 41st. Despite the disappointing end to 2003, he would look ahead to 2004 and the start of his Nextel Cup Series career with MBV Motorsports.
Two-time series runner-up Jason Keller was never a factor, and he finished a lap down in 24th. Ron Hornaday Jr finished 15th, leader Brian Vickers 11th, David Green 9th, and Bobby Hamilton Jr 3rd after leading 41 laps.
With Green only gaining 8 points on leader Vickers, the 20 year old from Thomasville, North Carolina won the Busch Series championship by 14 points. He was also the youngest series champion in history, breaking the record set by the late Rob Moroso, who was 21 when he overcame Tommy Houston for the 1989 NASCAR Busch Series title. Vickers, like Riggs, would be a candidate for 2004 Nextel Cup rookie of the year, graduating with Hendrick Motorsports. 18 year old Kyle Busch would take his place in the #5 Busch car for 2004.
Full Drivers' Championship
(key) Bold – Pole position awarded by time. Italics – Pole position set by owner's points. * – Most laps led. ** - All laps led.
Rookie of the Year
Despite not completing a full schedule and running for two different teams, David Stremme was named the 2003 Busch Series Rookie of the Year, posting three top-five finishes. Runner-up Coy Gibbs ran the full schedule and finished 14th in points, but did not accumulate enough rookie points to overtake Stremme. He would retire from racing at the end of the year. Third-place finisher Joey Clanton shared the #27 Brewco Motorsports ride with fellow rookie Chase Montgomery, while Chad Blount finished fourth running part-time with Braun and Carroll Racing. Regan Smith, Damon Lusk, and Chris Bingham were released from their rides during the season.
See also
2003 NASCAR Winston Cup Series
2003 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series
References
External links
Busch Series Standings and Statistics for 2003
NASCAR Xfinity Series seasons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20armoured%20fighting%20vehicle%20production%20during%20World%20War%20II
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British armoured fighting vehicle production during World War II
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This article lists British armoured fighting vehicle production during the Second World War. The United Kingdom produced 27,528 tanks and self-propelled guns from July 1939 to May 1945, as well as 26,191 armoured cars and 69,071 armoured personnel carriers (mostly the Universal Carrier).
Tank design and production
British tank design focused on pre-war requirements for light, cruiser, and infantry tanks created experimentally by J.F.C. Fuller, Percy Hobart and B.H. Liddell-Hart. Their experiments and doctrine led the way in the development of armoured warfare after the first world war, and also had a major influence on Axis development under Heinz Guderian until the outbreak of hostilities. Requirements were raised by Lieutenant General Sir Giffard Le Quesne Martel.
These types were joined later in the war by requirement for a heavier Assault tank, and eventually the Universal tank expected to replace the Cruiser and Infantry tanks. Neither entered production. Light tanks had mostly been discounted by the start of the war in all roles except airborne (generally replaced with the Carrier). As a result, the majority of British wartime tank production focused on the Cruiser and Infantry types.
Roles and responsibilities
Prior to 1936, tank design and production came under the responsibility of the Master General of the Ordnance, who appointed a Director of Mechanisation. The Director of Mechanisation led the Mechanisation Board who represented the various user arms combined to lead the production of tanks and vehicles.
Before the war, the Master General of the Ordnance post (and its holder -General Hugh Elles) had been replaced by Leslie Hore-Belisha, the Secretary of State for War, and Director General of Munitions Production. In 1939 this post was now part of the new Ministry of Supply. As works within the Ministry of Supply scaled up, a new Director General of Tanks and Transport, Peter Bennett, took on the capability of design leadership, and in 1940 added a Controller of Mechanisation (Major-General A.E. Davidson) to supervise the Mechanisation Board, working as before.
In May 1940 the War Cabinet had been established, and formed the Tank Board to investigate and resolve tank design and production problems. The Director General of Tanks and Transport was replaced (now Geoffrey Burton) and now led a Director of Armoured Fighting Vehicles (representing the War Office), and separate Director of Design (A.A.M. Durant) and Director of Production. Under Durant's new Directorate of Tank Design a new Department of Tank Design (DTD) was formed to design the tanks.
The DTD was formed rapidly from available technicians, in many cases lacking experience and lacking in production facilities, while a large number of projects based on General Staff requirements were underway. As such, tank design was increasingly reliant on industry experience and capabilities within Vickers, Vauxhall, Leyland Motors, Nuffield, and later Rolls-Royce.
In 1941 the Tank Board was further re-organized to include a Director of Artillery and representatives from the General Staff.
As 1941 progressed, with development of greater horsepower tank engines, greater stresses were placed on many of the tank components. Rolls-Royce, aided by Leyland and Vauxhall, started to become more involved in improving the design of a greater array of tank components, increasing performance and reliability. This saw the transition from work on an improved Crusader tank, the Cavalier tank, to development of the new Cromwell tank. Rolls-Royce created the Rolls-Royce Meteor, and set its pre-war car design team to work in improving tank design to enable its use.
Later in 1941, the DTD was transferred to the Controller General of Research and Development within the Ministry of Supply. This marked a major change in the focus of the design team. At this stage the DTD began to take on a co-ordinating role. It produced specifications and commissioned pilot models for each tank to assess different companies. One competing company would then be appointed the design lead for further development of that tank. This followed a similar pattern to the RAF's Air Ministry Specifications.
In November 1941, W A Robotham, the Chief Engineer of Rolls-Royce's Chassis Division who had been the main proponent of the Cromwell and Meteor works was seconded into the Ministry of Supply to become the Chief Engineer of Tank Design. Robotham started a fresh look at tank design, starting with welded hulls and final delivery of the 6-pounder anti-tank gun. The role was outside of the usual hierarchy, allowing Robotham to co-ordinate efforts between DTD and industry while adding some much needed technical advice to the Tank Board and General Staff.
In 1942, the Chairman of the AFV Division (Viscount Weir) was appointed as the Chief Executive for Tank Design, and became the chairman of the Tank Board. The Tank Board was reorganised to provide equal representation from Ministry of Supply and the War Office, consisting of:
War Office
Deputy Chief of the Imperial General Staff (Lt. Gen. Ronald Weeks)
Assistant Chief of the Imperial General Staff (Major General Daril Watson)
Director of Armoured Fighting Vehicles (Major General A. W. C. Richardson)
Director of Mechanical Engineering (Maj. Gen. Eric Rowcroft)
Ministry of Supply
Chief Executive for Tank Design, (and chairman) (Viscount Weir)
Chairman of the Supply Council (Sir William Rootes)
Controller General of Research and Development (Mr. Oliver Lucas), later as "Director-General of Fighting Vehicles (Research and Development)"
Chief Engineer of Tank Design (Mr. W A Robotham)
Others
USA Liaison Colonel G. A. Green, (of W. Averell Harriman's staff).
Following the fall of France, US contribution to the war effort became crucial. In early 1942 a Tank Mission was established and sent to the US to exchange information on AFV design, comprising Lucas, Robotham, George Usher (Controller of Tank Production), Weeks and Richardson. The greater manufacturing capacity in the USA resulted in US-made tanks providing the bulk of forces, while US designers, newer to the business of tank design, benefited from British experience.
The Tank Board stayed in similar configuration for the rest of the war, although individuals filling the roles varied. As 1942 progressed, Viscount Weir was replaced by Commander Robert Micklem RN of Vickers as Chief Executive of Tank Design. Archie Boyd replaced George Usher as Controller of Tank Production. Claude Gibb was appointed Director-General of Armoured Fighting Vehicles, although Lucas continued to work under him.
In August 1943, Robotham stepped down as CETD, returning to Rolls-Royce. In 1944 the Directorate of Tank Design returned to designing its own tanks, creating the Centurion tank ready for delivery in late 1945.
Cruiser tanks
At the start of the war, the Cruiser Mk IV was the current model of Cruiser tank based on a second version of the A13 specification.
The Crusader and Covenanter were parallel designs for a cheaper cruiser tank than the A16 design proposed to replace the Cruiser Mark IV. Both designs were ordered in 1939 prior to the start of the war. The first tanks were delivered in 1940. Covenanter never achieved combat readiness, and was used for training in the UK. Crusader was used extensively in North Africa, but suffered from problems with reliability and insufficient numbers were able to be fielded, many returning to workshops for servicing. Works to replace the Crusader continued in Britain, but when its successors were delayed the Crusader was modified to take the 6-pounder gun.
In parallel, Britain started to look at US made tanks to meet the Cruiser requirement, initially requesting the US to build Crusaders. This request was denied as the US tank programme was focussed on producing their own tanks of similar class, the M2 Medium. This fitted the same 37mm weapon as the M3 Light Tank (Stuart) which was already in British service. British experience of the 37mm gun had been underwhelming, and the M2 Medium was turned down. The next version, M3 Medium (later known as Lee/Grant in British service) was already part way through design and had a turret too small for the larger 75mm gun. To meet British requirements, the design was modified to add a larger gun in a side sponson. British needs were then added to the M4 Medium (Sherman) requirements. Both tanks were produced in greater numbers, and Sherman gained the unofficial moniker "heavy cruiser".
The tanks that received the names Cavalier, Centaur and Cromwell were all designs to meet the same requirement for a cruiser tank to replace the Crusader tank. Design work took place in 1941 and 1942, focussed primarily on developments in engine and transmission technologies. The A24 Cavalier and A27L Centaur used the Nuffield Liberty engine while the A27M Cromwell used the more powerful Rolls-Royce Meteor.
When US tanks entered British use, the Cromwell and Centaur design requirement was changed to move from the 6-pounder to 75mm for commonality of ammunition. This reduced the armour penetration. An uprated 75mm High Velocity gun was designed to overcome the issue, but proved too large for the new tanks, placing a renewed focus on the 17-pounder. Cromwell was first used in action with the Normandy landings in June 1944.
The A30 Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger was created as a derivative of Cromwell to meet the needs for a 17-pounder armed cruiser tank, but production was curtailed when a modification to the Sherman, Sherman Firefly, proved easier to produce. This allowed tank production to re-focus on Cromwell and the new Comet design.
A34 Comet improved on Cromwell. It mounted a further upgrade to the High Velocity gun that previously couldn't be fitted to Cromwell, now made capable of firing 17pounder (nominally 77mm) projectiles. It replaced the need for Challenger.
Specification and design of the A41 Centurion began in 1943, also initially mounting the 17-pounder. It entered service just as the war came to an end.
Infantry tanks
At the start of the war, the Matilda I was the current infantry tank, while the Matilda II was in production based on the A12 specification of 1936 and the A12E1 prototype of 1938. This entered service early in 1940. It was supplemented by the Valentine tank, based on Cruiser designs and the Matilda I. The Valentine was a private venture. It did not have a specification number. Design approval was granted just as war broke out in 1939. It was rushed into service to replace losses in the Dunkirk evacuations.
Work on the Churchill infantry tank had begun before the war began, with specification A20. This developed into the A22 specification when France was lost, and frontline requirements changed. A22 had rapid development, with design completed around one month after the specification was released. Tanks began rolling off the production line a year later. The rushed design left a number of faults, and the vehicle was expected to be replaced with the T14 Assault Tank ordered from (and designed in collaboration with) the US in 1942. Parallel development of the A33 Excelsior heavy assault tank was proposed following the Dieppe raid. Both were cancelled when faults with the Churchill were rectified, and the vehicle proved capable of meeting battlefield requirements.
A43 Black Prince was later developed from the Churchill, design commencing in 1943, to be armed with the 17-pounder. By the time it was ready for production (early 1945) the Sherman Firefly and Comet had overcome the immediate need for 17-pounder armed tanks, while the new Centurion offered similar protection in a more agile cruiser tank configuration. Production was cancelled, and with Centurion (and the Universal tank concept) now replacing the need for separate Cruiser and Infantry tanks, this marked the end of the Infantry tank line.
Tank nomenclature
British tank designs and the tanks produced were identified by General Staff specification, tank type, the mark (either of type, or of specific model), a service name, and version.
For example, the A27M specification for a cruiser tank entered service as 'Tank, Cruiser, Mark VIII' (the eighth cruiser design to see service) with the service name 'Cromwell' and was produced in eight variants - Cromwell I to VIII. A related design but with a different engine - specification A27L - was the 'Tank, Cruiser, Mark VIII Centaur'
This means that vehicles may be referenced in part or whole by combination of those elements.
Specification Number
General Staff specification was a reference to the requirements developed by the Directorate of Tank Design e.g. A13. These were specifications for which new tanks were to be designed.
Not all specifications led to vehicles being put into production. More than one design could be drawn up to a single specification and hence more than one tank produced to the same specification. If the vehicle was privately developed it may not have a General Staff number at all.
A significant redesign could lead to the issue of a new specification number without a new Mark, for instance the Infantry Tank Mark IV Churchill - originally built to specification A22 in 1940 - underwent a redesign leading to a better armoured vehicle the Churchill VII. This improved design was first known as A22F then renumbered as A42.
Type name and mark
Secondly by a descriptive name, as with other equipment in the British Army - e.g. "Tank, Infantry, Mark II". This reflected the type and model of tank, i.e. "Tank, Infantry, Mark II" is a different tank to "Tank, Infantry, Mark III".
The scheme was introduced during the First World War but not always applied to earlier designs. The descriptive name could also be modified by the inclusion of "A" denoting an armament change or "*" denoting some other change.
Service name
Thirdly by a name for this model of tank - e.g. Crusader. This could have a number associated for the version of this model of tank, e.g. Crusader II is the second variant or Mark to the Crusader I.
Some tanks had already picked up names, either nicknames or from project names, but in June 1941 the Prime Minister Winston Churchill asked that all tanks be named.
The number can be used for upgrades to the tank (synonymous with a second Mark designation), but can also be used for different capability packages, for instance the fitting of a different gun or engine. This isn't necessarily a refinement or improvement, it's simply adapted to a different need or manufacturing technique. They are all based on the same design of tank however, whereas the mark of tank is applied to evolutions of the tank design/specification.
For example, Valentine and Churchill both mounted a series of different turrets, some of which were improvements, while others were different methods of manufacturing. Valentine was fitted with both petrol and diesel engines determined by availability and manufacturer. Cromwell and Churchill tanks mounted the 75mm gun and 95mm howitzer for different purposes. All were given different numbers to identify the different variants.
Tank production by model
Tank, Infantry, Mk I, Matilda I (A11)
The Matilda I was a machine gun armed infantry support tank. It had been built down to a price and for quick delivery. Those not lost during the fighting of the battle of France were abandoned at Dunkirk. The few left in the UK were retained for training only.
Total production 1937–40: 140.
Tank, Infantry, Mk II, Matilda II (A12)
The Matilda II was produced by Vulcan Foundry, John Fowler & Co., Ruston & Hornsby, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, Harland and Wolff, and the North British Locomotive Company. As well as Marks I, II, III, IV and V of the Matilda, some were rebuilt with the Canal Defence Light
Total production 1937–43: 2,987.
Tank, Infantry, Mk III, Valentine
Valentine was a private development by Vickers that was accepted by the War Office. It used the suspension of their pre-war A10 Heavy Cruiser design with heavier armour. There were eleven marks of Valentine.
Total production 1939–45 of Valentine Mks I, II, III and IV: 8,275.
Tank, Infantry, Mk IV, Churchill (A22)
Total production 1941-45: 5,768
Tank, Light, Mk VI
Tank production : 1,682 tanks between 1936 and 1940
Tank, Light, Mk VII, Tetrarch (A17)
Total production: 177.
Tank, Cruiser, Mk I, (A9)
Total production: 125.
Tank, Cruiser, Mk II, (A10)
Total production 1938–40: 175.
Tank, Cruiser, Mk III, (A13)
Total production 1938–39: 65.
Tank, Cruiser, Mk IV, (A13 Mk II)
The initial production of the Mark IV was by adding extra armour to Mark III. Later production included the extra armour at the time of construction. On top of those converted from the Mk III, 665 of the Mk IVA (with the BESA rather than a Vickers machine gun) were built.
Tank, Cruiser, Mk V, Covenanter (A13 Mk III)
The Covenanter was an unsuccessful design; a result of suffering from engine cooling problems. Total production: 1,700. No A13 Mk III saw combat as all but one (which was sent to North Africa) were stationed in Great Britain during the war and used for training.
Tank, Cruiser, Mk VI, Crusader (A15)
The last production Crusaders were produced without turrets as they were to be converted to artillery tractors or self-propelled anti-aircraft guns.
Total production 1940–43 of Crusader Mks I, II and III: 5,300.
Tank, Cruiser, Mk VII, Cavalier (A24)
Total production 1941–43: 500.
Tank, Cruiser, Mk VIII, Centaur (A27L)
Total production 1942–43: 950.
Tank, Cruiser, Mk VIII, Cromwell (A27M)
Cromwell was produced in several marks: I, III (II was a design that did not proceed to production), IV, IVw, Vw, VI, VII, VIIw, VIII.
Some of these were reworks of earlier Cromwells, some of reworked Centaurs.
Total Production 1943–44 3,066
Tank, Cruiser, Mk VIII, Challenger (A30)
Total production 1943–44: 200.
Tank, Cruiser, Comet I (A34)
Total production 1944–45: 1,186.
Tank, Cruiser, Centurion I (A41)
Total production 1944–45:- 6.
Carrier design and production
Two types of Carrier were produced.
Loyd Carriers were based on the mechanical components of a Fordson 7V truck married to an armoured, tracked body.
Bren and Scout Carriers were based on the Carden Loyd tankette and experience of the Dragon artillery tractor, but still used commercially available truck components for ease of manufacture.
Both types commenced design prior to the war.
The Bren, Scout and Cavalry carriers had the same chassis but there were differences in superstructure and fitted for different roles. They were succeeded by an improved Universal type capable of handling multiple roles and most production was of this Universal Carrier. As the war progressed the Universal Carriers became one of the most numerous armoured vehicles on the battlefield, with some estimates stating as many as 200,000 produced.
Loyd carriers were solely built in Britain, while Universal types were manufactured across the British Commonwealth, with a significant number coming from Canada. A version was also produced in the US, the T16.
Carrier production by model
Loyd Carrier
Carrier, Tracked, Personnel Carrying, No.1 Mk. I & II
Carrier, Tracked, Personnel Carrying, No.2 Mk. I & II
Carrier, Tracked, Personnel Carrying, No.2A Mk. I & II
Carrier, Tracked, Personnel Carrying, No.3 Mk. I & II
Carrier, Tracked, Starting and Charging, No.1 Mk. I
Carrier, Tracked, Starting and Charging, No.2 Mk. I
Carrier, Tracked, Starting and Charging, No.2A Mk. I
Carrier, Tracked, Starting and Charging, No.3 MK. I
Carrier, Tracked, Towing, No.1 Mk. I & II
Carrier, Tracked, Towing, No.2 Mk. I & II
Carrier, Tracked, Towing, No.2A Mk. I & II
Carrier, Tracked, Towing, No.3 Mk. I & II
Carrier, Tracked, Towing, No.1Z Mk. II
Carrier, Tracked, Towing, No.2Z Mk. II
Carrier, Tracked, Towing, No.2AZ Mk. II
Carrier, Tracked, Towing, No.3 Mk. II
Universal Carrier and predecessor models
Carrier, MMG No.1 Mk.I & II
Carrier, MMG No.2 Mk.I & II
Carrier, MMG No.2A Mk.I & II
Carrier MMG No.3 Mk.I & II
Carrier, 3in Mortar No.1 Mk.I & II
Carrier, 3in Mortar No.2 Mk.I & II
Carrier, 3in Mortar No.2A Mk.I & II
Carrier, 3in Mortar No.3 Mk.I & II
Carrier Universal No. 1 Mk. I, II & III, 113,000 produced
Carrier Universal No. 2 Mk. I, II & III
Carrier Universal No. 2A Mk. I, II & III
Carrier Universal No. 3 Mk. I, II & III
Carrier A.O.P No. 1 Mk. III
Carrier A.O.P No. 2 Mk. III
Carrier A.O.P No. 2A Mk. III
Carrier A.O.P No. 3 Mk. III
Armoured cars
Armoured car design and production ran through two distinct development cycles. Early armoured cars were built on the basis of armouring bodies to fit onto normal commercial car (light) and truck (heavy) chassis'. This involved some elements of compromise as the body had to fit an existing shape or size, while the weight shifted with heavy armour and weaponry. Immediately prior to the war, this changed with vehicles such as the Dingo designed from the start for armoured use. Such vehicles provided better handling, along with removing many compromises in design caused by the inherited chassis.
Scout cars
Daimler Dingo (6,626)
Humber Scout Car (4,300)
Light Reconnaissance Cars
Humber Light Reconnaissance Car
Morris Light Reconnaissance Car
Armoured Cars
AEC Armoured Car (629 produced 1942–1943)
Coventry Armoured Car (220)
Daimler Armoured Car (2,694)
Guy Armoured Car (101)
Humber Armoured Car (5,400)
Lanchester Armoured Car
Morris CS9 (99)
Standard Beaverette
Self-propelled guns
The rapid manoeuvre warfare practiced in the North African Campaign led to a requirement for a self-propelled artillery vehicle. This could relocate faster with the flow of battle, compared with traditional field guns. The principle of portee, carrying anti-tank guns on the back of trucks was limited to smaller calibres. The first armoured vehicles were brought into action at the battle of El Alamein and development continued throughout the war.
As the war progressed, self-propelled artillery saw further development in an anti-armour role, with the Archer and Achilles mounting 17-pounder guns. This can be compared with the American "tank destroyer" concept, but in British and Commonwealth use remained with the Royal Artillery. Following the war this transferred to the Royal Armoured Corps and ultimately was replaced with tanks in the same role.
Service names
Ecclesiastical names were chosen for self-propelled artillery. The first was Bishop as its appearance was said to resemble a bishop's mitre. The US-produced 105 mm Howitzer Motor Carriage M7 was given the service name "Priest" by the British, as part of the superstructure was said to resemble a priest's pulpit. The 1942 self-propelled QF 6 pounder anti-tank gun on wheeled chassis was named "Deacon", and the QF 25-pounder on Ram chassis called "Sexton".
Vehicles in the anti-tank role, excepting Deacon, were given names starting with "A".
Production by model
Bishop (150) - expedient conversions of Valentine tank chassis to use 25 pdr, as "Ordnance QF 25-pdr on Carrier Valentine 25-pdr Mk 1"
25pdr, SP, Tracked, Sexton (1500+) - built in Canada on a custom derivative of Canadian Ram and later Grizzly tank chassis' using 25 pdr
Deacon (175) - 6pdr on armoured AEC Matador (wheeled) truck chassis.
Self Propelled 17pdr, Valentine, Mk I, Archer (655) - conversions of Valentine tank chassis to use 17 pdr
17pdr SP Achilles (1,100) - conversions of US produced M10 Gun Motor Carriage to use 17 pdr in turret
Avenger (250) - development of the A30 Challenger tank to use 17 pdr in a self-propelled artillery role.
Alecto - 95mm howitzer on Light Tank Mk VIII hull, a few built.
See also
Comparison of early World War II tanks
French armoured fighting vehicle production during World War II
German armored fighting vehicle production during World War II
Soviet armored fighting vehicle production during World War II
American armored fighting vehicle production during World War II
Notes
References
Production during World War II, British, armored fighting vehicle
World War II armoured fighting vehicle production
Tanks of the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Martin%20O%27Donnell
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Francis Martin O'Donnell
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Francis Martin O'Donnell, GCMM, GCEG, KC*SG, KM, KCHS, KCMCO, (born in 1954), an Irish citizen, has served abroad as an international diplomat in senior representative positions with the United Nations until retirement, and later with the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. He was elected Vice-President of the Genealogical Society of Ireland in September 2022. He is a life member of the Institute of International and European Affairs (under the patronage of the President of Ireland). He currently continues to serve pro bono as an advisor to the Global Partnerships, Forum and is a listed endorser of the NGO consortium known as Nonviolent Peaceforce. He served as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta to the Slovak Republic from December 2009 to March 2013. He previously served as a United Nations official for 32 years, most recently as the Resident Coordinator of the United Nations system in Ukraine, from 30 September 2004 until 31 March 2009, and previously in the same capacity in Serbia-Montenegro. In early 2012, he was appointed to the Council of the Order of Clans of Ireland, and was elected its Chancellor in May 2014. He also served on the Board of Directors, and completed both terms of office in April 2015. Since then, he has participated in Globsec, the InterAction Council, and is a regular participant, panellist or moderator in the annual Global Baku Forum. He is also a speaker and panellist on global policy issues at seminars and forums of the Association of Schools of Political Studies of the Council of Europe, and is a director of the Board of Trustees of its School of Civic Education in London. He is an occasional guest speaker on Irish history and genealogy in Dublin, Madrid, Vienna, and at the Sorbonne in Paris. He is also a published author of historical works and a first volume of poetry.
Background
O'Donnell is the son of the late Patrick Denis O'Donnell, an Irish military historian and retired Commandant of the Irish Defence Forces who served briefly as a Military Observer with UNTSO
Education
Schooled in Jerusalem (Collège des Frères) and Dublin (St. Vincent's C.B.S., Glasnevin), he grew up largely in Fingal, and retains interests there. An honours graduate in Economics and Philosophy from the National University of Ireland at University College Dublin, O'Donnell read International Law and Diplomacy at postgraduate level in Geneva, and qualified in Disaster Management at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
UN career
O'Donnell joined the UN in 1976 on a volunteer assignment with United Nations Volunteers, running its programme in Sudan. He later served as a United Nations staff member with the United Nations Development Programme in Lesotho, Mauritania, Niger, Switzerland, Turkey, and in UNDP headquarters in New York. He then served as UN Resident Coordinator in Serbia & Montenegro and later in Ukraine until his retirement in 2009.
At the end of the Cold War, he was requested in late 1991 to launch a rapid response capability for deploying UN Volunteers (UNV) to UN emergency operations worldwide . Overhauling recruitment methods saw the rapid deployment of thousands of UN volunteers to crisis zones, where they became the front-line link between relief and aid delivery agencies such as UNICEF, UNHCR, WFP, UNDP, and WHO and suffering war victims, refugees and internally displaced persons. The effort saved lives during the years 1992–1994 in Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan and other war-torn countries during the inter-ethnic wars that succeeded the Cold War's proxy conflicts. True life stories from the field featured in Volunteers Against Conflict, a book praised by former presidents Nelson Mandela, Mary Robinson, Jimmy Carter, and Nobel Peace Laureate Rigoberta Menchú Tum.
Later based in Turkey, he helped assure the humanitarian corridor through Turkey into northern Iraq after the first Gulf War from 1994 to 1996, and coordinated earthquake relief in Turkey itself. Subsequently, he held a senior emergency management role in UNDP headquarters in New York, and later led a systemic governance team for crisis countries, developing a new policy approach to tackle root causes for preventing crisis in vulnerable countries.
In 2000, he led UN/UNDP missions that helped the late Sergio Vieira de Mello lay the foundations for public administration capacity in East Timor before independence. He organised a workshop with the Timorese leadership on 1 March 2000, that re-designed the UN administration in East Timor, leading to a reform of the UN mission by the Security Council. O'Donnell organised the joint workshop between UNTAET and the Timorese leadership, the National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction (CNRT), on 1 March 2000 to tease out a new strategy, and identify institutional needs. The Timorese delegation was led by Jose Ramos Horta. The outcome was an agreed blueprint for a joint administration with executive powers, including leaders of the CNRT. The effort was the "two-day retreat" described in Samantha Power's 2008 biography of Sergio, "Chasing the Flame". Further details were worked out in a conference in May 2000. The Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General in East Timor, Sérgio Vieira de Mello, presented the new blueprint to a donor conference in Lisbon on 22 June 2000, and to the UN Security Council on 27 June 2000. On 12 July 2000, the NCC adopted a regulation establishing a Transitional Cabinet composed of four East Timorese and four UNTAET representatives. The revamped joint administration constructed the institutional foundations for independence. On 27 September 2002 East Timor joined the United Nations.
On 13 October 2000, O'Donnell arrived in Belgrade
in the immediate aftermath of the overthrow of the régime of Milošević. There, as UNDP representative, he supported the new democratic forces in bringing stability to the remnant of the former Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), preventing nascent conflict with marginalised ethnic Albanians in the Preševo Valley of southern Serbia, launching reintegration programmes, promoting human rights, and supporting reform of governance institutions and supporting civil society. In 2002, he was appointed by the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan as Resident Coordinator of the UN system, and appointed by the UNDP Administrator Mark Malloch Brown as Resident Representative of the UNDP in Yugoslavia/Serbia-Montenegro,
Following the Belgrade Agreement (2002) brokered by Javier Solana that restructured the remnant Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) into a looser state union of Serbia and Montenegro, O'Donnell held consultations with the president of the federal government of Yugoslavia and leaders of the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, and organised a Strategic Roundtable on Governance Transition in Belgrade, featuring most of the signatories of the Belgrade Agreement, international experts on transition, and a large representation of government officials and the international community. It was the first major public forum bringing together important political players to air crucial constitutional issues. He also contributed to housing sector policy in south-east Europe.
O'Donnell transferred to Ukraine and presented his credentials to outgoing President Leonid Kuchma on 16 November 2004. As Resident Coordinator, he was the designated representative of the UN Secretary-General and led the UN Country Team of UN agencies. Following the Orange Revolution, he fostered international support to the reform process under the auspices of UNDP through its Blue Ribbon Commission for Ukraine. The 2007 Ukrainian political crisis, which lasted from April to June 2007 was part of political stand off between coalition and opposition factions of Verkhovna Rada that led to the unscheduled 2007 Ukrainian parliamentary election, and started on 2 April 2007 as a culmination of long lasting crisis and degradation of the parliamentary coalition when the President of Ukraine (Viktor Yushchenko) attempted to dissolve the parliament. The following day, in light of impending political unrest, O'Donnell as United Nations Resident Coordinator, and following an earlier call to deepen democracy and liberalise the economy, exceptionally issued an advisory statement of principles on behalf of the UN Country Team, followed by a visit by former Estonian President Arnold Rüütel on 23 April.
O'Donnell called for greater awareness of the Holocaust, and decried discrimination against Jews, Muslims, migrants and minorities in many countries. He was also instrumental in tackling racism and xenophobia in Ukraine, by organising regular consultations with the representatives of diplomatic missions and international organisations and jointly bringing this issue to the attention of Government. An ambassadorial working group was formed and a Diversity Initiative, under the leadership of the IOM and UNHCR, was established to provide a forum for developing anti-discrimination policies. As a result of concerted efforts, the Government stepped up its response to this challenge; an official repudiation of racism by President Viktor Yushchenko issued; the Government adopted an Action Plan on Counteraction to Racism; and the Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) established a special unit to counteract xenophobia and intolerance. Policy advice was provided and best practices from European countries was shared with Government. There was a wide-scale information campaign, including broadcasting of public service announcements.
Simultaneously serving as UNDP resident representative in Ukraine, O'Donnell also oversaw the establishment and implementation of the large EU Border Assistance Mission between Moldova and Ukraine, which brought about substantial improvements in border management, including a curtailing of human trafficking, illicit weapons and other contraband smuggling, and corruption. He also coordinated UNDP co-operation under the BUMAD programme with Ukraine, Moldova and Belarus, to reduce illicit drug traffic. O'Donnell drew attention to the negative impact of endemic corruption in Ukraine, on co-operation with its development partners. He also launched a major programme for women's and children's rights, in collaboration with the EC, Council of Europe, and ILO.
The First Lady of Ukraine, Kateryna Yushchenko, in her farewell, thanked Mr. O'Donnell for his work in Ukraine and co-operation with her Ukraine 3000 Foundation. She credited him that UN institutions repeatedly rendered support to the Foundation's initiatives related to education and culture. Also in 2007, the Ukraine 3000 International Charitable Foundation joined the United Nations Global Compact.
Ambassadorship
On completion of O'Donnell's three years' mission as Ambassador of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta to the Slovakia, the Deputy Prime Minister of Foreign and European Affairs, Miroslav Lajčák emphasised O'Donnell's contributions in favour of endangered and marginalised groups of people, and in protecting vulnerable groups such as the Romani people, supporting the integration of Roma children into the school system. O'Donnell was awarded Slovakia's Golden Medal on 1 March 2013. The award was made in recognition of his personal contribution to the development of relations between the Sovereign Order and the Slovak Republic.
Clans of Ireland
O'Donnell served as a director and board member of Clans of Ireland, the independent permanent authority established in 1989 to authenticate and register Irish Clans and historical families, under the patronage of the President of Ireland, and also served on the Council of its Order of Merit, latterly as its Chancellor, until the completion of his term in April 2015. As delegate of the Clan O'Donnell of Tyrconnell, he represented his Clan in 2012, 2013 and 2014 in the annual Parade of Clans at the Mansion House, Dublin. He was a keynote speaker at the O'Donnell Clan Gathering of 5–9 August 2013 in County Donegal, and presented research on the topic of the Ardfert expedition of 1601, as well as on a branch of O'Donnells who were Counts in France until extinct in 1879. In May 2013, on the occasion of the repatriation of the remains of the last reigning royal family of Yugoslavia, accorded a State Funeral by Serbia, O'Donnell laid a wreath at the cask of the late King Peter II of Yugoslavia, in his capacity as delegate of the Clans of Ireland and on behalf of Ireland's ancient royal and noble clans and historic families
Council of Europe
After some years as a resource person/lecturer on matters of globalization, multilateralism, and governance, in October 2019, he was appointed as a director/trustee of the School of Civic Education in London. The School was originally founded as the School of Political Studies (Московская школа политических исследований) in Moscow in 1992, which led to a proliferation of such schools across Central and Eastern Europe. These formed into an Association of Schools of Political Studies to educate civil society leaders in the democratic values, and under the auspices of the Council of Europe.
Public life
O'Donnell proposed an Irish-Arab Society in November 1968, and it took shape through a group of Irish and Arab friends. It was the principal advocate of the Palestinian cause in Ireland during the 1970s and the 1980s and played a key advisory and facilitative role in promoting Irish-Arab trade and cultural links. With its support, Ireland established diplomatic relations with 12 states in the Middle East and North Africa between 1974 and 1976.
O'Donnell has promoted global peace. He has been active as an advisor to the NGO consortium Nonviolent Peaceforce (Brussels), and as strategic advisor to the Global Partnerships Forum (New York City). O'Donnell remains a life member of the Institute of International and European Affairs (Dublin). He also attended the philanthropy roundtable of the World Economic Forum in Davos in 2009.
He contributed towards the first White Paper on Irish Foreign Policy "Challenges and Opportunities Abroad", published in 1996, and is listed on page 342. He is a life member of the Institute for International and European Affairs and has participated in its work.
He is a frequent contributor to international conferences.
In 2014, he also actively advocated for Ukrainian sovereignty and territorial integrity following Russia's annexation of Crimea, and addressed the Irish Oireachtas parliamentary Joint Committee on Foreign Affairs and Trade on 9 April 2014 on "The Current Situation in Ukraine", in Leinster House, Dublin.
He called for a robust and coordinated international response on Irish radio programmes: TodayFM, in English; Raidió na Gaeltachta, the national radio station in the Irish language, and on RTÉ 1, as well as on Serbian TV, RTS. His letter on the crisis was published by the Financial Times on 17–18 April 2014,to coincide with the "Quad" talks (EU, US, Russia, & Ukraine) in Geneva.
O'Donnell participated on 27–29 April 2015 in the 3rd Global Baku Forum on 2–29 April 2015 hosted by the Nizami Ganjavi International Centre in Azerbaijan. The Forum was an informal summit on "Building Trust in the Emerging World Order" attended by over 60 influential current and former heads of states and governments, and about another 140 politicians and prominent global public figures.
He also participated in the 4th Global Baku Forum on 10–11 March 2016, moderating a panel discussion on Ukraine, and comprising Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, President of Latvia (1999–2007), Co-chair of NGIC and President of the Club of Madrid; Viktor Yushchenko, President of Ukraine (2005–2010); Bronisław Komorowski, President of Poland (2010–2015); Bertie Ahern, Taoiseach (Prime Minister) of Ireland (1997–2008); Viktor Zubkov, Prime Minister of Russia (2007–2008) currently chairman of Gazprom; and Daniel Ioniță, State Secretary for Strategic Affairs, Romania, By hosting Global Baku Forum, Azerbaijan doing a great job.
He also participated in the VIII High-Level Meeting in Andorra la Vella, 12–14 June 2016, and moderated two of the four panels of current/former Heads of State/Government and other eminent global leaders These were: (a) the panel on "Re-thinking Globalisation" comprised Abdiweli Sheikh Ahmed, Prime Minister of Somalia (2013–2014); Amre Moussa, Secretary-General of the Arab League (2001–2011); Ana Blazeska, State Secretary for European Affairs, Republic of Macedonia; Ismail Serageldin, Director, Library of Alexandria (Egypt), and former Vice President of the World Bank; Iveta Radičová, Prime Minister of Slovakia (2010–2012); Manuel Montobbio, Ambassador of Spain to Andorra; and Zlatko Lagumdzija, Prime Minister of Bosnia-Hercegovina (2001–2002); and the panel on "The Trump Effect", comprising Boris Tadić, President of Serbia (2004–2012); Eka Tkeshelashvili, Deputy Prime Minister of Georgia (2010–2012), Kateryna Yushchenko, First Lady of Ukraine (2005–2010), and Vaira Vike-Freiberga, President of Latvia (1999–2007) and current President of the Club de Madrid
At the IX High-Level Meeting in Sarajevo, 22–23 November 2016, on "The European Peace: What is the Recipe for a Strong Union for All", he participated in the Panel on "Getting Multiculturalism in Europe Back on Track", moderated by Dr. Franco Frattini, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Italy (2002–2004), along with Emil Constantinescu, President of Romania (1996–2000), Dr. Ismail Serageldin, Farida Allaghi, Libya's Ambassador to the European Union, and Ambassador Jakob Finci, Head of the Jewish Community in Bosnia-Hercegovina.
At the 5th Global Baku Forum in March 2017: he participated in a panel on "Extremism and populism as threats to international security" moderated by Kateryna Yushchenko, First Lady of Ukraine (2005–2010), and including Emil Constantinescu, President of Romania (1996–2000); Laimdota Straujuma, Prime Minister of Latvia (2014–2016); Hikmet Çetin, Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey (1978–1979, 1995) and Speaker (1997–1999), Foreign Minister (1991–1994); Scilla Elworthy, founder of the Oxford Research Group; Alexander Likhotal, former President of Green Cross International; and Farida Allaghi.
Later in that year, on 20 November 2017, he moderated an international forum panel discussion in Brussels on "The Threats of Separatism to International Peace and Security", comprising Victor Yushchenko, President of Ukraine (2005–2010) and former Governor of its National Bank;
Dalia Itzik, President of Israel (2007, ad interim) & Speaker of the Knesset (2006), former Deputy Mayor of Jerusalem; Prof. Hasan Muratović, Prime Minister of Bosnia & Hercegovina (1996–1997), and former university rector; Dumitru Braghiș, Prime Minister of Moldova (1999–2001); Robert Ilatov, Member of the Knesset for the Yisrael Beiteinu Party; Nazim Ibrahimov, Minister/Chairman of the State Committee on Work with Diaspora, Azerbaijan; Jesús López-Medel Báscones, Former Chairperson of the Committee of Human Rights and Democracy of the OSCE; and Ali Hasanov, Public and Political Issues Advisor to the President of Azerbaijan. Later that day, O'Donnell participated in a panel on Cybersecurity in European Politics, along with former President of Ukraine, Victor Yushchenko (2005–2010) on 20 November in the European Horizons' Youth Summit 2017 in the College of Europe in Bruges.
At the 6th Global Baku Forum, 14–17 March 2018, he moderated the panel on "The Religious and Cultural Divide: What role for Political Leadership?". The panel consisted of Fernando Lugo, President of Paraguay (2008–2012); Ali Ahmadov, Deputy Prime Minister of Azerbaijan; Akramsho Felaliev, Vice Chairman of the Parliament of the Republic of Tajikistan; Hikmet Çetin, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Turkey (1991–1994); Ambassador Antonio Zanardi Landi, former Diplomatic Advisor to the President of Italy and current Ambassador of the Sovereign Order of Malta to the Holy See; Maksatbek Toktomushev, Grand Mufti of the Kyrgyz Republic, and Hamad Amar, Deputy Speaker of the Knesset in Israel. He has also participated in the 7th Global Baku Forum, 14–16 March 2019.
He also presented a paper on Brexit "Parturition beyond Partition" to an expert panel and the plenary meeting of the InterAction Council's 34th Annual Plenary Meeting on 30 May-1 June 2017 in Dublin, co-chaired by Bertie Ahern, Taoiseach (Prime Minister) of Ireland, (1997–2008) and Olusegun Obasanjo, President of Nigeria (1999–2007), and has also participated in other IAC high-level expert meetings on social inclusion and migrants and refugees (Limassol, Cyprus, March 2019)
He delivered a talk on "Globalisation and Multilateralism" to seminars on Civic Education for a Society of Citizens, under the auspices of the Association of Schools of Political Studies of the Council of Europe, in Helsinki, Finland, 12 March 2018, co-sponsored by the Council of Europe, Finland (MFA) and the UK ([Foreign and Commonwealth Office]), and in Riga, Latvia 17–21 March 2019, hosted by the Stockholm School of Economics in Riga in collaboration with the Stockholm Institute of Transition Economics. He addressed the subject of globalisation again under the theme "In the Search of Lost Universalism" at the Berlin Forum 2018, under the auspices of Association of Schools of Political Studies of the Council of Europe and hosted by the Konrad Adenauer Foundation, Berlin, 26–27 November 2018. He also presented reflections on Multilateralism and the Future of Global Governance, in a conference presentation, for the subsequent 6th International Berlin Forum In Search of Lost Universalism, held by Zoom online, on 21 November 2020 by the Association of Schools of Political Studies of the Council of Europe in collaboration again with the Konrad Adenauer Foundation.. He lectured on "The Ecology of Multilateralism" at the Segovia Seminar of the Association of Schools of Political Studies of the Council of Europe, held in Spain on 26–29 May 2019. . O'Donnell moderated the panel on "Globalisation and Growing Inequalities" at the IX Global Baku Forum on "Threats to the Global World Order" in Baku, Azerbaijan on 18 June 2022. The panel included Rosalía Arteaga Serrano, former President of Ecuador, Laimdota Straujuma , former Prime Minister of Latvia; Emil Constantinescu, former President of Romania; Katalin Bogyay, President of the 38th Session of the UNESCO General Conference; Mats L. Karlsson, former Vice-President of the World Bank; and Garry Jacobs, President of the World Academy of Art and Science;
Alarmed that the United Nations Security Council has not been able to reach agreement on a draft resolution put before it on COVID-19, O'Donnell is one of the signatories of the global appeal by world leaders to "Support the UN Secretary-General's Urgent Call for an Immediate Global Ceasefire amid the COVID-19 Pandemic". The appeal calls "to put armed conflict on lockdown and to come together to focus on the true fight of our lifetime". O'Donnell was a signatory of the letter démarche of 15 April 2022 of former senior UN system staff urging UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres to act decisively and politically on the Russian aggression against Ukraine, following which he visited Moscow and Kyiv and in a follow-up démarche to the G20 leaders meeting in Bal . O'Donnell was a panellist in the presidential symposium on "The Idea of Europe" , held under the auspices of the President of Lithuania, Gitanas Nausėda, in Kaunas on 25 November 2022, and including the presidents on Latvia, Egils Levits; Poland, Andrzej Duda; and Romania Klaus Iohannis, along with online addresses by the President of the European Commission, Ursula von der Leyen, and the President of Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelenskyy .
Media
O'Donnell has contributed to various print and broadcast news outlets.
Other interests
Based on his original research into various subjects, several of his articles on historical matters have been published in scholarly journals in Ireland, such as The Irish Sword – Journal of the Military History Society of Ireland, and the Journal of the Kerry Archaeological and Historical Society, and on the academic networking site Academia.edu.
The Law Reform Commission has noted his work. leading to the Land and Conveyancing Law Reform Act O'Donnell has a peerage.
O'Donnell also addressed the 2nd International Colloquium on Nobility, hosted in Madrid by the Real Asociación de Hidalgos de España, 21 October 2017, on the subject of "Irish Nobility and Armigerous Families" and also advocated for participating organisations to register their heraldic and nobiliary traditions under UNESCO's 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
In 2018, Academica Press published his book The O'Donnells of Tyrconnell – A Hidden Legacy, to the acclaim of several Irish historians and genealogists. His first volume of poetry No Man's Land - Selected Poetry & Art was published in early 2020.
O'Donnell co-organised the first webinar of the College of St Anthony of Padua, Leuven, held on 21 October 2021, under the theme Memorialising Émigré Dignity.
Published works
Meeting the Humanitarian Challenge – Between Conflict and Development, foreword by Brenda McSweeney, Executive Coordinator (edited by Maria Keating); 43-page booklet published by United Nations Volunteers, Geneva, 1995.
Third Party Civilian Peace Processes in Conflict Situations, second chapter (pp. 11–24) in Civil Intervention – The Role of NGOs in Conflict Prevention, published by Pax Christi International, Brussels, 1995.
International Cooperation for Drug Control, article published in Turkish Daily News, Ankara, 30 June 1995.
Tolerance: Respecting Diversity in a Complex World, pp. 25–38, second chapter of 258-page book Uluslararasi Hosgoru Kongresi – International Congress on Tolerance BILDIRILER published by Ministry of Culture, Turkey, in November 1995. .
Tomorrow's Turkey Today – The Ankara Roundtable on Human Sustainability, (163 pages), contribution in pp. 119–122 on the linkage between global governance and local environmental management, published by Indigenous Development International, Cambridge, UK, in 1996 ().
Some Foreign Policy Options for Ireland (40-page monograph submitted by invitation for consideration by the Government of Ireland in the preparation of a White Paper on Foreign Policy presented to Dáil, Irish Parliament in 1996 Challenges and opportunities abroad : white paper on foreign policy /), Ankara, May 1995. The monograph has been subsequently lodged by the Government of Ireland in the National Archives.
A Day in the Life, published in UCD Connections, worldwide magazine of University College Dublin Alumni, inaugural issue no.1 (), Dublin, Spring/Summer 1997.
Wealth of Dignity, Poverty of Destiny – article published in O'Domhnaill Abu, Newsletter no. 32, Summer 2004 of the Clan Association index of the O'Donnells of Tyrconnell ().
An opportunity for greatness, Kyiv Post, 21 April 2011
Global Stability through Multilateralism – Why a strong United Nations is essential to defend freedom and ensure prosperity, published (pp 11–15 in Ukrainian, and 16–19 in English) in Memory of Centuries: Ukraine in the UN – 60th anniversary, published by the General Directorate for Rendering Services to the Diplomatic Missions [chief editor: Stanislav Nikolayenko], issue no.5 (56) 2005.
The Crisis in Gaza, published in Irish Times, 2 August 2014
The Chevalier Michel O'Donnell (1730–1807) – a Wild Goose from Mullet, published in The Irish Sword, vol. XXX, no. 119, journal of the Military History Society of Ireland, Summer 2015 (pp 71–78; preview: The Chevalier Michel O'Donnell (1730-1807) - A Wild Goose from Mullet).
The Kerry Days of the Knights of Hospitaller, published in the Journal of the Kerry Archaeological and Historical Society, Series 2, Volume 15, Tralee, 2015 (Preview:The Kerry Days of the Knights Hospitaller).
Martyrs for Europe, published on www.academia.edu on 10 September 2015. Martyrs for Europe
Global Baku Forum is an important platform for discussing topical issues, interview published by Azertac, Baku, 13 March 2016 , relayed also on AzerNews .
A personal reflection on St. Patrick's Day and the meaning of life, published on www.academia.edu on 17 March 2016 A personal reflection on St. Patrick's Day and the meaning of life.
Parturition beyond Partition, published on www.academia.edu on 2 April 2017, and presented to the 34th Annual Plenary Meeting of the InterAction Council .
St. Columba (521–597 A.D.), published on www.academia.edu on 24 May 2017 St. Columba (521-597 A.D.).
Princes of the O'Donnells – Some Portraits of the Baronets O'Donnell of Newport, published on www.academia.edu on 27 September 2017 " Princes of the O'Donnells " Some Portraits of the Baronets O'Donnell of Newport.
У России нет никакого страшного оружия (Russia has no terrible weapons – referring to Putin's boasts of nuclear-powered hypersonic missiles), published by Inosmi, Moscow, 20 March 2018 based on relayed interview with Jeyhun Najafov, published by Haqqin (Azeri News Agency), Baku, 20 March 2018
Sir Desmond Lorenz de Silva, QC (1939-2018) - A posthumous appreciation, published on www academia.edu, June 2018 Sir Desmond Lorenz de Silva, QC (1939-2018) - A posthumous appreciation
Une famille partie avec les "Oies Sauvages" oubliée - Les comtes O'Donnell en France, ou le passage de l'ancienne chevalerie militaire à la haute fonction publique, published on www.academia.edu, Sorbonne, October 2018 Une famille partie avec les « Oies Sauvages » oubliée - Les comtes O'Donnell en France, ou le passage de l'ancienne chevalerie militaire à la haute fonction publique
The O'Donnells of Tyrconnell – A Hidden Legacy, published by Academica Press LLC in London and Washington, D.C., 2018, (750 pages), endorsed by several historians and genealogists (). The O'Donnells of Tyrconnell – A Hidden Legacy (Maunsel Irish Research Series) | Academica Press .
Globalisation and Multilateralism, based on his guest lectures in Helsinki and Berlin under the auspices of the Association of Schools of Political Studies of the Council of Europe, and published (in Russian language) by the Moscow School of Civic Education in its quarterly journal, Obschaya Tetrad, no. 3-4 (75), Moscow, 2018 () (pp. 34–51) Московская школа гражданского просвещения Глобализация и общество - (Globalization and Society) [in Russian], published in "Общая тетрадь" (Bulletin of the School of Civic Education), Moscow, 2018 Глобализация и общество - (Globalization and Society) [in Russian]
Irish Nobility and Armigerous Families, his chapter in Actas – Il Coloquio Internacional Sobre La Nobleza (2nd International Colloquium on Nobility, Madrid 20–21 October 2017), published by the Real Asociación de Hidalgos de España, Madrid, 2019 (paperback, ).
The Ghost of Ballyheigue Castle, published on www.academia.edu, 2019 The Ghost of Ballyheigue Castle
An Irish Princess in Exile, published on www.academia.edu, 2019 An Irish Princess in Exile
Early radical action required to fight Coronavirus COVID-19, published on www.academia.edu, March 2020 Early radical action required to fight Coronavirus COVID-19
The Very Rev. Fr. Thomas O'Donnell, C.M. (1864-1949), President of All Hallows College – A Biographical Sketch, published on www.academic.edu, April 2020 Fr Thomas O'Donnell, C.M. - A Biography
Coronavirus and UN Reform, an article in How do we lead in an uncertain world? in the special edition of Global Policy Analysis, the flagship journal of the Nizami Ganjavi International Center, Baku, April 2020
No Man's Land – Selected Poetry & Art, published by Tyrconnell-Fyngal Publishing, Dublin, 2020.() No man's land : selected poetry & art / No Man's Land : Selected Poetry & Art.
Coronavirus - An Opportunity for Global Governance Reform, an article published in Metropole, Austria's English language magazine, Vienna, 4 April 2020 Coronavirus | An Opportunity for Global Governance Reform
How to make the 5th of April a meaningful International Day of Conscience (in Russian), published by the School of Civic Education, under the auspices of the Association of Schools of Political Studies of the Council of Europe Как сделать 5 апреля — Международный день осознанности — по-настоящему осмысленным
The O'Donnells of Tyrconnell – A Hidden Legacy: a note on the research behind my book, article in the annual Journal, Volume 21, 2020, published by the Genealogical Society of Ireland, Dún Laoghaire Journal of the Genealogical Society of Ireland - Volume 21 (2020) - by Genealogical Society of Ireland - Issuu [www.familyhistory.ie].
The Cholera Pandemic of the 1830s, the Code Vicinal and modernization in France, published on www.academia.edu, May 2020 The Cholera Pandemic of the 1830s, the Code Vicinal and modernization in France
Red Hugh O'Donnell – Further background on the search for his remains, published on www.academia.edu, May 2020 Red Hugh O'Donnell - Further background on the search for his remains
The Burial Place of Red Hugh O'Donnell in the Convent of Saint Francis in Valladolid, published on www.academia.edu, June 2020 The Burial Place of Red Hugh O'Donnell In the Convent of Saint Francis in Valladolid
'Red' Hugh O'Donnell merece ser enterrado en la Abadía de Donegal, interview with J. A. Pardal, published 7 June 2020 by El Norte de Castilla, Valladolid, Spain, 7 June 2020.
The Church and the United Nations in 2020 - Reflections, published on www.academia.edu, June 2020 The Church and the United Nations in 2020 - Reflections
Donegal Abbey as a mausoleum for the return of the remains of Red Hugh O'Donnell, Sovereign of Tyrconnell, published on www.academia.edu, June 2020 Donegal Abbey as a mausoleum for the return of the remains of Red Hugh O'Donnell, Sovereign of Tyrconnelll
The O'Donnell Dynasty and Donegal Abbey, published on www.academia.edu, June 2020 The O'Donnell Dynasty and Donegal Abbey
How to Honour the Heritage of Red Hugh O'Donnell, front cover lead story, Ireland's Genealogical Gazette, Vol. 1, No.6, Genealogical Society of Ireland, June 2020 Ireland's Genealogical Gazette (June 2020) by Genealogical Society of Ireland - Issuu
Leadership Challenges in Post-COVID-19 Recovery, published on www.academia.edu, July 2020 Leadership Challenges in Post-COVID-19 Recovery. Also published by the Association of Schools of Political Studies of the Council of Europe, in Russian as Вызовы для лидерства в эпоху восстановления после кризиса COVID-19, in Sapere Aude online - Вызовы для лидерства в эпоху восстановления после кризиса COVID-19;
What did they really look like? An Iconography of the O'Donnells of Tyrconnell: myth, allegory, prejudice and evidence, published on www.academia.edu, August 2020 What did they really look like? An Iconography of the O'Donnells of Tyrconnell: myth, allegory, prejudice, and evidence
Brexit Endgame – the UK's Identity Crisis (A reflection re-visited), published on www.academia.edu, December 2020 Brexit Endgame - the UK's Identity Crisis (A reflection re-visited)
Multilateralism and the Future of Global Governance, conference presentation, 6th International Berlin Forum In Search of Lost Universalism, Zoom online, 21 November 2020; Conference paper published on www.academia.edu Multilateralism and the Future of Global Governance, and Russian summary - Как реформировать ООН и вернуть мир к многосторонности?, published by the Association of Schools of Political Studies in Sapere Aude online - «Государство является одним из нескольких игроков с универсалистским потенциалом, но этот потенциал очень ограничен»; video link:- YouTube
Coronavirus and UN Reform, article in How do we lead in an uncertain world? Special Edition of Global Policy Analysis, the flagship journal published by the Nizami Ganjavi International Center, Baku, April 2020 (pp. 28–31) NGIC
Missing in Action: The Real America, published by Metropole, Vienna, 14 January 2021 also published on www.academia.edu, October 2020 Missing in Action: The Real America
Leadership challenges in Post-COVID19 Recovery, article in Global Policy Analysis, 3rd edition, September–October 2020, published by the Nizami Ganjavi International Center, Baku, Azerbaijan, (pp. 16–17) NGIC
Declaration: Recognizing the global climate crisis and the need for governments worldwide to take immediate decisive action to reduce the impact of climate change, - A call towards the COP26 global summit in Glasgow, signed by over 50 members of the Nizami Ganjavi International Center including 30 former president and Prime Ministers, published by the Nizami Ganjavi International Center, Baku, October 2021 NGIC.
Red Hugh O'Donnell (brief article on archaeological research for remains), in Ireland's Genealogical Gazette, volume 16, number 11, published by the Genealogical Society of Ireland, November 2021 Ireland's Genealogical Gazette (Samhain : नवंबर : November 2021) by Genealogical Society of Ireland - Issuu
Russian Roulette – the Kremlin's game in Ukraine, East-West Bridge, Belgrade, 7 March 2022
UN must impose a no-fly zone over Ukraine, The Kyiv Independent, 10 March 2022
Emergency Now: Urgent UN action is required for Ukraine, New Europe, 11 March 2022
Emergency now: Urgent UN Action is Required for Ukraine, published by Nova Era Global, NE Global Media Ltd., London, UK, 11 March 2022
Nine Months is Enough, article in Katoikos World, Brussels, 3 November 2022, published by the Foundation for Global Governance and Sustainability . Also as headline article in NE Global, 4 November 2022, published by Nova Era Global, NE Global Media Ltd., London, UK
The International Community must prepare for a post-Putin Russia, article published online by the Atlantic Council, Washington DC., 7 November 2022
Пора готовится к тому, какой будет Россия после Путина (Russian) Час готуватися до того, якою буде Росія після Путіна (Ukrainian), published online by NV Media (Novoe Vremya/New Voice) of Media-DK Publishing House LLC, Ukraine, 11 November 2022 , also on Academia.edu
Почему мир должен помочь не только Украине - Как международное сообщество может подготовиться к постпутинской России (Why the world should help not only Ukraine - How the international community can prepare for a post-Putin Russia), published online by Sapere Online, 14 November 2022
Neutral but not neutered: Ireland's security needs to be nurtured, published by Nova Era Global, NE Global Media Ltd., London, UK on 14 December 2022
Policy monographs
The Concept and Promotion of Global Peace Service, paper presented as invited Guest Speaker at the "Global Peace Service" Conference at the Church Center for the United Nations, U.N. Plaza, New York, November 1993.
Humanitarian Access and the Opportunity for Building-up Peace from the Grassroots, paper presented upon invitation to international seminar on "Towards a Global Alliance of Peace Services", held by the Christian Council of Sweden, and Life & Peace Institute, at Stensnas, Stockholm, Sweden, May 1994.
Conflict Prevention, Response, and Post-Conflict Recovery, paper presented at meeting with European Commission (DG VIII), Brussels, November 1997.
Foundations for Governance and Public Administration in East Timor, basic framework for initial capacity building in East Timor, according to the late SRSG Sergio Vieira de Mello, who endorsed and presented it to Lisbon Donors Conference, on 21 June 2000, and reported it to the UN Security Council on 27 June 2000.
Martyrs for a European ideal: how the refugee crisis is transforming European values and outlook, published in www.academia.edu, 10 September 2015.
Other references/citations
Towards a Global Alliance of Peace Services, published by Life and Peace Institute, Uppsala, Sweden, 1994 (co-funded by SIDA and Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs). (one of several contributors).
Seeds of Peace, Harvest for Life by Sr. Mary Evelyn Jegen, SND (Abbey Press, St. Meinrad, Indiana, US, 1994). O'Donnell's contributions quoted and acknowledged in Chapters 2 and 13.
Keeping the Peace: Exploring civilian alternatives in conflict prevention (132 pages), by Lisa Schirch, published by Life & Peace Institute, Uppsala, Sweden, October 1995 ().
Challenges and Opportunities Abroad – The White Paper on Foreign Policy (348 pages), published by the Government of Ireland (Department of Foreign Affairs) in April 1996 (). His contribution acknowledged in list of contributors.
Volunteers Against Conflict (), published in 1996 by United Nations University and United Nations Volunteers, a collaborative effort with the Humanitarianism and War Project of the Thomas J. Watson Jr. Institute for International Studies, Brown University (US). The book includes firsthand accounts of UN volunteers deployed by O'Donnell in Cambodia, South Africa, Mozambique, Rwanda, ex-Yugoslavia, and Somalia. Presidents Mary Robinson (Ireland), Nelson Mandela (South Africa), and Jimmy Carter (US), all endorsed the book. Book project initiated by O'Donnell.
Patterns of Partnership: UN Peacekeeping and Peoples' Peacebuilding by Tatsuro Kunugi, Elise Boulding, & Jan Oberg, published by The Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research, Sweden, 1996. O'Donnell's work cited.
Governance Foundations in Post-Conflict Situations, by Rajeev Pillay, published by UNDP, New York, November 1999 Acknowledgements: Governance Foundations for Post-Conflict Situations: UNDP's Experience, November 1999
Promoting Conflict Prevention and Conflict Resolution through Effective Governance: A Conceptual Survey and Literature Review, by Randolph Kent, published by UNDP, New York, 1999 PROMOTING CONFLICT PREVENTION AND
Transition in Governance: The UNDP Framework and How It Is Being Made Operational, UNDP, New York, June 2000; extract published online by USAID, Washington DC, 2000 USAID Conflict Prevention Workshop Notes
Irishman heads UN programme in Belgrade, by Deaglán de Bréadún, Irish Times, Dublin, 13 October 2000.
You need a Vision! H.E. Francis M. O'Donnell, Resident Coordinator of the United Nations in Serbia & Montenegro, interview in CorD Magazine, Issue no. 2 (pp. 44–46), published by CMA (Consulting & Marketing Agency), Belgrade, February 2004 ().
Housing in South Eastern Europe - solving a puzzle of challenges; Sector note following up the Ministerial Housing Conference for South Eastern Europe (Paris, 23–24 April 2003) within the framework of the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, published by the Council of Europe Development Bank and the World Bank, Paris, March 2004
Millennium Development Goals and the Poverty Eradication Strategy in Serbia - The Thirteenth Meetings of NGOs & UNDP, published by The Chancellery of H.R.H Crown Prince Alexander II of Yugoslavia, Royal Palace, Belgrade, September 2004
The United Nations Development Programme – A Better Way? (372 pages), by Craig N. Murphy, published by Cambridge University Press, New York/US & Cambridge/UK, 2006 (). O'Donnell's work and influence in East Timor in early 2000, cited (page 341).
Book review by Caitlin Bain, & Brian Donovan, Director, Eneclann: The O'Donnells of Tyrconnell: A Hidden Legacy, review thereof published by Eneclann – The Irish Family History Centre, Dublin, 26 January 2020.The O'Donnells of Tyrconnell: A Hidden Legacy
Book review by Michael Merrigan: Celebrating Ireland in Belgrade (front cover story about the book The O'Donnells of Tyrconnell – A Hidden Legacy) published in Ireland's Genealogical Gazette, Volume 15, no. 2, monthly newsletter of the Genealogical Society of Ireland, February 2020.Ireland's Genealogical Gazette (February 2020) by Genealogical Society of Ireland - Issuu
Book review by J. Anthony Gaughan: The Astonishing History of One of Ireland's Great Clans, published in The Irish Catholic, Dublin, 12 March 2020.The astonishing history of one of Ireland's great clans.
Book review by Kenneth Ferguson, LL.B, Ph.D., Honorary Editor of The Irish Sword, the Journal of the Military History Society of Ireland, Volume XXXII, no. 129, Dublin, Summer 2020.
Cultural Diplomacy in the Service of Serbia, by Dr. Vjera Mujović, published by the Institute for Political Studies Belgrade, 2020 (367pp) () (her doctoral dissertation of May 2019 at the Faculty of Media and Communications, Singidunum University, Belgrade, Serbia). (Др Вјера Мујовић, Културна дипломатија у служби Србије, Издавач: Институт за политичке студије Београд, Београд, 2020).
Honours
State awards
: heraldic achievement: The typical O'Donnell "supporters" of a bull and lion rampant, in azure and gold respectively, consistent with historic O'Donnell arms and suitably differentiated therefrom, were added by the Chief Herald of Ireland (Vol. Aa, Folio 72) to his arms recorded in the Register of Grants and Confirmations (Volume Z, folio 87) Home
: Ambassador O'Donnell was awarded the Golden Medal by Miroslav Lajčák, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign and European Affairs of the Slovak Republic on 1 March 2013, in recognition of enhanced bilateral relations with the Sovereign Military Order of Malta during the period 2009–2013, and expanded activities in social work, palliative care, disability and health, and a new programme for the integration of Roma children into the education system.
:Ombudsman's Medal of Honour
: O'Donnell holds the Cross of Honour of Jerusalem , bestowed on him by the Custodia Franciscalis Terra Sanctae in 1965.
Orders
: Grand Cross of the Order pro merito Melitensi, conferred by the Prince and Grand Master of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, Fra' Matthew Festing, on 26 July 2014 in Dublin, pursuant to diploma of 9 October 2013; and conferred in parallel with visit of Grand Master to Dublin in August 2014.
: O'Donnell is also a Knight of Malta (member of the Sovereign Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes, and of Malta), and was accredited, as the Order's Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the Slovak Republic (2009–2013).
: He was decreed into the Pontifical Equestrian Order of St. Gregory the Great, by decree 1566/ON of 10 November 2007, by virtue of which Pope Benedict XVI conferred on him the dignity of papal Knight Commander with Silver Star, a dignity assumed upon his retirement from the UN.
: He was invested into the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem, Irish Lieutenancy, by the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, at St Patrick's College, Maynooth, Ireland on 22–23 July 2011.
Dynastic orders
House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies: He is also a Knight Commander of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George, which shares motto: In Hoc Signo Vinces, inscribed on his coat of arms the main motif of which is a cross-crosslet.
Royal House of Georgia: He was made Grand Cross in the Royal Order of the Eagle of Georgia by Crown Prince David Bagration of Mukhrani, per diploma dated 30 July 2014, and invested in Leixlip Castle.
O'Donnell was elected Fellow of the Genealogical Society of Ireland (FGSI) on 1 December 2022, as announced in its Gazette.
References
External links
Association of Schools of Political Studies (Council of Europe)Sapere Aude: Liberté, Conscience Juridique, Ethiques Авторы
Order of Malta – Slovakia
Clans of Ireland Order of Merit | Clans of Ireland
Swiss TV clip, descendants commemorating Flight of the Earls; March, 2008
Institute of European Affairs, Dublin IEA - Events ENP Group Meeting | Ukraine, ENP, enlargement
Royal Family of Yugoslavia & Serbia
UNDP in Serbia-Montenegro, Belgrade
UNDP in Ukraine, Kiev UNDP Ukraine
United Nations Office in Serbia-Montenegro, Belgrade United Nations in Serbia
United Nations Office in Ukraine, Kiev Site www.un.org.ua
United Nations Volunteers, Bonn Appuyer l'assistance humanitaire et la paix
USAID, Washington, D.C. USAID Conflict Prevention Workshop Notes
Wilton Park Conferences, England
1954 births
Living people
Ambassadors of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta to Slovakia
21st-century diplomats
Irish diplomats
Irish humanitarians
20th-century Irish historians
21st-century Irish historians
Francis Martin
People from Dalkey
People from Fingal
People educated at St. Vincent's C.B.S., Glasnevin
Alumni of University College Dublin
Knights of Malta
Knights of the Holy Sepulchre
Knights Commander with Star of the Order of St. Gregory the Great
Irish officials of the United Nations
United Nations Development Programme officials
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torralba%20and%20Ambrona%20%28archaeological%20site%29
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Torralba and Ambrona (archaeological site)
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Torralba and Ambrona (Province of Soria, Castile and León, Spain) are two paleontological and archaeological sites that correspond to various fossiliferous levels with Acheulean lithic industry (Lower Paleolithic) associated, at least about 350,000 years old (Ionian, Middle Pleistocene).
The sites, traditionally studied together, are about 3 km distant, and belong to the settlements of Ambrona (municipality of Miño de Medinaceli) and Torralba del Moral (municipality of Medinaceli).
From these sites have been obtained fossils of large mammals, mainly elephants (Straight-tusked elephant), with remains of nearly fifty individuals from each site, in addition to large bovines and horses. The sites can be seen as an elephants' graveyard, although the use of the term for a concentration of bones raises a problem of definition.
The sites show evidence of successive occupations by human beings, who had a hunting station or, more likely, scavanged carrion and carried out quartering.
Known since the end of the 19th century, they were excavated first by the Marquis of Cerralbo between 1909 and 1914, later, in the early '60s and early '80s, by the American Francis Clark Howell with the collaboration of the paleontologist Emiliano Aguirre and later, in the '90s, new campaigns were carried out by Manuel Santonja and Alfredo Pérez-González. The remains from the different excavations are scattered, mainly, between the Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, the Museo Arqueológico Nacional, the Museo Numantino de Soria and the museum in situ of Ambrona.
They were declared Bien de Interés Cultural in the category of "archaeological zone" on September 7, 1995. They are also declared as "a place of international geological interest of international relevance" ("Geosite") by the Geological and Mining Institute of Spain, with the designations "VP -07: Loma del Saúco, Torralba" and "VP-07b: Loma de los Huesos, Ambrona", within the category "vertebrate sites of the Pliocene-Spanish Pleistocene".
History
1888: discovery
In the late 19th century it was decided that a new railway line should link Torralba and Soria. The contract was awarded to a Belgian company.
The first remains appeared in 1888, with the works of canalization of the water that the company was carrying out for the first railway station of Torralba (moved later twice, before 1926 and in 1959). Part of that material was acquired by the Escuela Superior de Minas de Madrid and the rest distributed among individuals.
1909–1916: the Marquis of Cerralbo
The first excavations were carried out by Enrique de Aguilera y Gamboa, Marquis of Cerralbo, first in Torralba from 1909 to 1913 and later in Ambrona from 1914 to 1916, and have been considered as the best performed of the first half of the 20th century.
In 1907, when the Marquis of Cerralbo vacationed in the area, he had news of the appearance of "colossal" elephant carcasses; after visiting the place and aware, from the beginning, of the antiquity of the remains, he decided to undertake and pay for the excavations himself, hoping to find evidence of its synchrony with the "most primitive" man. He initiated them in 1909 – a year after taking office as Permanent Academician of the Real Academia de la Historia – and established his paleontological workshop in a palace of his property in Santa María de Huerta, relatively close location.
Cerralbo excavated between 1000 and 2000 m2 of the Torralba site and an unknown, but much smaller, area of Ambrona. Paleontological elements recovered accounted for 525 elephant remains (Straight-tusked elephant), 86 horse (Equus caballus torralbae), 37 of a great bovid (Aurochs), 25 deer (Cervus elaphus) and 3 rhinoceros (Stephanorhinus hemitoechus), and the lithic industry accounted for a total of 557 specimens, including hand axes, cleavers, flakes, cores and Chopping tools.
Cerralbo was accompanied in his excavations by the archaeologist Juan Cabré, the geologist Pedro Palacios and the French paleontologist Édouard Harlé.
The international diffusion of the works in Torralba was due, on the one hand, to the communication that Marquis of Cerralbo himself presented at the International Congress of Prehistory that was held in Geneva in 1912, which he accompanied with a sample of his discoveries, and, on the other hand, to the book by the German paleontologist Hugo Obermaier, The fossil man -reference work during the first third of the 20th century-, in which he describe the findings of Torralba, originally published in Spanish in 1916, with a second edition expanded in 1925 that was translated into English.
1961–1983: Howell and Aguirre
The American anthropologist Francis Clark Howell conducted six excavation campaigns in Torralba and Ambrona, between 1961 and 1963 and in 1980, 1981 and 1983. The results of his studies seemed to have demonstrated the practice of active hunting by the human groups of the time-hypothesis discussed later, in favor of occasional scavenging. Also carbonaceous remains to indicate the presence of homes: the intentional and controlled use of fire.
In 1959, during the Pan-African Congress of Prehistory and Quaternary Studies, in which John Desmond Clark was presenting the concept of "occupation sites", the Spanish archaeologist Lluís Pericot (University of Barcelona) interested the anthropologists F. Clark Howell (University of Chicago) and Pierre Biberson (Museum of the Man of Paris), in the works that the Marquis of Cerralbo had done in Torralba and his concept of "station", very similar to the one they were discussing.
Howell visited Ambrona and Torralba in 1960. He obtained funding and permits to excavate, helped by Biberson, who was also able to provide some funding for the work. An international multidisciplinary team and a modern work methodology were proposed.
In the different campaigns from 1961 to 1963 they were part of Howell's teams: Pierre Biberson (Museum of the Man of Paris, deputy director of the excavations and head of the Ambrona area), Emiliano Aguirre (Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, paleontology of vertebrates), Dolores Echaide (University of Zaragoza, representative in 1961 of the Dirección General de Bellas Artes), Francisco Jordá Cerdá (professor at the University of Salamanca, delegate of Fine Arts in 1962–63), Desmond Collins (University of Cambridge, United Kingdom), Peter Taylor, Richard G. Klein, Blanca Izquierdo, José Viloria (MNCN, preparation and restoration of fossils), Karl W. Butzer (University of Wisconsin, edaphology and geology), Josefina Menéndez Amor (MNCN) and F. Florschutz (palynology and paleobotany, Leslie Gordon Freeman (University of Chicago, record), Thomas Lynch (University of Chicago), Susan Tax (cartoonist), several Spanish and American students denses and more than twenty workers in the area.
Grids were drawn, stratigraphic profiles were raised and each extracted remainder was labeled. As an example of thoroughness, samples of pollen were taken from the clay adhered between the teeth of the elephants, to get as close as possible to the existing environment during the accumulation of the remains.
In 1973 Aguirre directed the systematic excavation of more than 200 m2 around the Museum of Ambrona, built ten years earlier, necessary to correct the humidity that endangered it, recovering more fossils and lithic industry.
The last campaigns of Howel were realized in 1980, 1981 and 1983. The possibility of finding some human fossil facilitated new economic supports, even of the National Geographic Society. For the excavations and analysis of samples of these campaigns, he had the following team: co-directors: Leslie Gordon Freeman (lithic industry) and Martín Almagro Basch (director of the Museo Arqueológico Nacional de España); researchers: Emiliano Aguirre, Karl W. Butzer, Richard G. Klein, M. Teresa Alberdi, A. Azzaroli, J. Bischoff, T. E. Cerling, Katherine Cruz-Uribe, Ignacio Doadrio, Frank Harrold, Manuel Hoyos, P. Preece, Antonio Sánchez-Marco (birds), F. Borja Sanchiz (amphibians), H. P. Schwarcz, Carmen Sesé (micromammals), Kathy Schick, N. P. Toth and Charles Turner.
In all its campaigns, Howell excavated more than 1000 m2 in Torralba, recovering about 700 lithic instruments and more than 2100 fossils, and about 2700 m2 in Ambrona, with more than 4400 lithic instruments and several thousand fossils (of them more of 2000 elephants).
The investigations of these years gave rise to a large number of scientific publications on all related aspects, paleontology, archeology, geology, paleoclimatology, etc., but highlighting, due to its social impact, those related to the presumed hunting activities of primitive man.
1990–2002: Santonja and Pérez-González
As a result of the results of Howell and collaborators, in the following years, extensive discussions took place on some conclusions related to human behavior, mainly those related to active hunting or the use of bone instruments. In order to establish a precise formation model of the deposits, the archaeologist Manuel Santonja and the geologist Alfredo Pérez-González proposed and co-directed a new stage of excavations, focused mainly to establish with precision the geology and the detailed stratigraphy of the same. The approach was based on the realization, prior to the systematic excavation, of trial pits and sections for detailed stratigraphic analysis, since simultaneous excavation in large areas could lead to confusion among very similar facies, mixing levels that should be differentiated with this other method. The works began in the years 1990 and 1991, with the elaboration of surface geological studies complemented with some soundings, and the main excavation campaigns were carried out, this time only in Ambrona, the summers from 1993 to 2000, without interruption, taking place some complementary sampling and other trials between 2001 and 2002.
The team had numerous specialists: Carmen Sesé and Enrique Soto (mammals), Paola Villa (taphonomy), Blanca Ruiz Zapata (palynology), Rafael Mora (area of Torralba, registry and cartography), Josep María Parés (paleomagnetism), Ángel Baltanás (ostracods), Ignacio Doadrio (fishes), Ascensión Pinilla (phytoliths), Borja Sanchiz (amphibians and reptiles), Antonio Sánchez Marco (birds), Juan M. Rodríguez de Tembleque, Joaquín Panera and Susana Rubio (archeology), Christophe Falguères (dating), Alfonso Benito Calvo (geology), C. Álvaro Chirveches, M. Vilà Margalef and Alexandra Vicent (consolidation and restoration). The excavations were carried out by a large number of archeology students, reaching over fifty in one of the campaigns.
In Ambrona a total of 688 m2 were excavated and some surveys and control tastings were carried out in Torralba. Some 975 lithic industry specimens were obtained, however, most paleontological remains were left unexploded, consolidated, covered again and protected to prevent spoilage and looting, in anticipation of a possible future extension of the museum exhibition in situ to a much larger extension of the site.
The works were followed by numerous publications, highlighting an extensive monographic volume of the magazine Zona Arqueológica (vol.5, 2005).
Geology
The sediments in which the deposits are integrated correspond to ancient fluvium-Lake, Discordant deposits, by a soft local pale-relief, on the Triassic materials of the area (locally constituted by lutites and gypsums facies of type Keuper). They were located in the flat and impermeable bottom of an elongated valley from an ancient polje, then open and in the process of erosion.
Stratigraphy
The Ambrona site is located in the "Ambrona formation", whose sediment thickness, as a whole, would not exceed eight meters. Seven levels or litic facies have been identified, grouped into three members: one lower (AS1 to AS5 levels) – gravels, gray silts and clays, another medium (AS6) – sands and gray limes, and the upper one (AS7) – graves and red sands. The AS3 level (silt and clays) is locally eroded, supporting AS4 directly on AS2 at some points. The base, discordant, corresponds to facies of alluvial fans channel (AS1 and AS2). The AS3 level has been interpreted as lacustrine environment. The rest of the lower and middle members (AS4 to AS6) are interpreted as deposited in low-energy shallow fluvial-lacustrine environments, with some sediments of channel and overflow. The upper member (AS7), with a granulometry higher than the previous ones, corresponds again to alluvial fan facies, in which neither fossils nor lithic industry have been found.
The Torralba site, in turn, is integrated into the Torralba Formation. It would be more recent than Ambrona, formed at a later time, not determinable, of the encasement of the fluvial network in the valley, although Aguirre it supposes a probable temporary overlap between the superior members of Ambrona and the inferior ones of Torralba. The maximum recognized thickness of this formation is about 15 meters. In 1965, Butzer differentiated thirteen units in the stratigraphic column, grouped into two "complexes", both with fossils and lithic industry:
Lower complex, of gray tones, characterized by gravels, sands and marls (IIa to IId, IIIa, IIIb, IVa and IVb units).
Superior complex, of reddish colors, composed of sands, marls and gravels (Va to Vd units).
Above the Torralba Formation, the Sahuco Formation, of the Upper Pleistocene, absent in Ambrona, is superimposed.
Dating
Combining the methods of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and uranium-thorium (U-Th), on the enamel and dentin of horse teeth, a dating has been obtained absolute not inferior to 350,000 years, contemporary of OSI 9 or final of OSI 11.
The studies of paleomagnetism have given in all Ambrona samples a normal polarity value, consistent with the cron Brunhes, the current one, which started 779 000 years ago .
Paleontology
Systematics
The lists of taxa identified in the deposits have been changing over time, depending on the discovery of better diagnostic elements or the vagaries of the systematic; we try to present the most up-to-date relation.
Microorganisms
Algae: diatoms (Amphora, Hantzschia, Surriella, Cyclotella, Anomoeoensis, Epithemia, Rhopalodia, Cocconeis, Pinnularia, Nitzschia), chrysophytes.
Vegetation
Herbaceous: Poaceae, Asteraceae, Cichoriaceae, Fabaceae, Rumex, Plantago.
Aquatic: Cyperaceae, Nymphaeaceae, Polygonum , Ranunculaceae, Typha.
Shrubs: juniper (Juniperus), Rosaceae, Cistaceae, Ericaceae.
Trees: pine (Pinus), alder (Alnus), willow (Salix), elm (Ulmus), oak (Quercus), birch (Betula), chestnut (Castanea), hazel (Corylus), walnut (Juglans).
Arthropods
Ostracodes (Candona, Cypris, Cypridopsis, Eucypris, Herpetocypris, Heterocypris, Ilyocypris, Leucocythere, Plesiocyrpdopsis, Potamocypris).
Fishes, amphibians and reptiles
Bermejuela (Chondrostoma arcasii)
Common toad (Bufo bufo)
Runner toad (Bufo calamita)
Spanish painted frog (Discoglosus cf. jeanneae)
European tree frog (Hyla arborea)
Spanish spadefoot toad (Pelobates cultripes)
Common parsley frog (Pelodytes punctatus)
Perez's frog (Rana perezi)
Lizard (Lacertidae indeterm.)
Ladder snake (cf. Elaphe scalaris)
Water snake (Natrix sp.)
Birds
Greylag goose (Anser anser)
Ruddy shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea)
Northern pintail (Anas acuta)
Gadwall (Anas strepera)
Common merganser (Mergus merganser)
Red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator)
Western swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio)
Eurasian coot (Fulica cf. atra)
Northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)
Great bustard (Otis tarda)
Soricomorphs, rodents and lagomorphs
Musk shrews (Crocidura sp.)
Topillo de las brechas (Microtus (Iberomys) brecciensis)
Southwestern water vole (Arvicola aff. Sapidus)
Wood mouse ( Apodemus aff. Sylvaticus )
Rabbit (Oryctolagus sp.)
Carnivores
Early Middle Pleistocene European cave hyena (Crocuta crocuta aff. praespelaea)
Early Middle Pleistocene European cave lion (Panthera leo cf. fossilis)
Fox (Vulpes sp.)
Mosbach's wolf (Canis lupus cf. mosbachensis)
Proboscides, perissodactyla and artiodactyla
Ancient elephant with a septated nose (Palaeoloxodon antiquus platyrhynchus)
Rhinoceros with a septated nose (Stephanorhinus hemitoechus)
Torralba's horse (Equus caballus torralbae)
European red deer (Cervus elaphus)
Fallow deer (Dama cf. dama)
Roe Deer (Capreolus sp.)
Great-horned deer (Megaloceros aff. Savini)
Ancient bull (Bos antiquus) or primitive bull (Bos primigenius)
Primates
Heidelberg's man? (? Homo heidelbergensis). Without skeletal remains in the sites, human presence is identified by the lithic industry and the activity marks on elephant bones. The species is inferred only by correlation with the Sima de los Huesos site of Atapuerca, of similar age.
Paleoecology
The vegetation, identified by the pollen at different levels, shows the evolution of the paleoenvironment during the sedimentation of the same, which in general corresponds to fluvio-lacustrine media under a temperate climate, softer and more humid than the current one. For the lower sections of the sequence (AS1 to AS5) an initial environment is inferred with grasses, riparian trees (alder, willow and elm) and few pines, after which an environment of moorland with junipers, alternating, with an increase towards the end, with pine forests. The AS6 level is characterized by the almost exclusive domain of the pine forests, but on the roof, the return of the moorlands is finally reflected with junipers and grasses (Poaceae).
The diatoms indicate that during the sedimentation of the AS4 and AS5 units the salinity increased in the lagoon and that the water layer was somewhat higher with respect to the previous units -the salts would be contributed by the sediments of the underwater Keuper facies that surround all area-. For the AS6 unit they show that a medium-high salinity is maintained, but with a lower water layer, decreasing until disappearing towards the roof of the unit.
The ostracod Leucocythere mirabilis, present throughout the sequence (AS1 to AS6), indicates oligotrophic water conditions. On the other hand, the salinity of the waters could not be very high, as indicated by the presence of certain ostracods.
The set of frogs indicates a more benign environment than the current one, with less dry summers and less cold winters. The age (stage of ontogenetic development) of some specimens indicates that death occurred between March and summer, most likely in the spring.
The bermejuela, the only fish found in these sites, indicates a small fluvial course or lagoon not very extensive.
Some of the birds found are typical of lacustrine areas with thick marginal vegetation, but no remains of any diving species have appeared, indicating that the lagoon would be shallow, of shallow depth.
Mammals indicate forest environments (Cervus, Dama, Capreolus) and open areas with meadows (Microtus brecciensis, Palaeoloxodon, Stephanorhinus, Bos, Dama, Capreolus), with areas of abundant water (Arvicola, Palaeoloxodon) and more temperate and humid climate than the current one.
Biochronology
Some Pleistocene mammals may provide some biochronologic resolution, and those represented in Torralba and Ambrona have the association and characteristics typical of mid-Middle Pleistocene, between 400 000 and 300 of Ionian age, which lasted from 781 000 to 126 000 years before the present). The most characteristic temporal marker is the Arvicolinae Microtus (I.) brecciensis, which in Ambrona presents some primitive characters, as does Palaeoloxodon antiquus and Bos primigenius, prior to populations recorded in late-Middle Pleistocene sites. On the other hand, Arvicola aff. sapidus, from Ambrona, presents traits that indicate an age after the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene, coinciding with what is indicated by the presence of Palaeoloxodon.
Other sites, with a similar faunal association of mammals or the evolutionary status of the significant species, are those of Áridos (Arganda del Rey) and some terraces of the Manzanares River (Madrid), Pinedo (Toledo), El Higuerón (Rincón de la Victoria, Province of Málaga) or Solana del Zamborino (Fonelas, Province of Granada).
Taphonomy
The bone remains of large mammals are, in general, dispersed, eroded and fragmented, evidencing trawling by fluvial transport, although in clay or silty sediments there are usually elements in anatomical connection, with little or no transport (primary accumulation), and without predators or scavengers, even the skeleton of an elephant specimen (in the so-called "α" concentration) is practically complete. On the other hand, there is evidence of human manipulation in some elephant bones: certain fractures and cut marks by lytic instruments for dying.
The abundant accumulations of elephant remains in Ambrona are similar to the modern sites popularly known as "Elephants' graveyards". In these places, close to water sources, corpses tend to accumulate, mainly elephants, but also other mammals, and have been well studied in African parks. In this environment trampling and fragmentation of exposed or semi-buried remains by elephants or other mammals occurs, which continue to go to the water sources. In Ambrona, the elephant mortality curve also fits into this model, seems to indicate deaths due to natural causes and does not present the typical bias due to selective hunting.
From the excavations of Howell in Ambrona, the alignment of a defense and five long elephant bones of difficult interpretation have been described and in which it has been wanted to see, without any justification, some type of ritual.
Elephants are the most represented mammals in all the fossiliferous levels, except in the AS6 levels of Ambrona (middle member), in which only horse remains appear, and Va de Torralba (upper complex), in which the horse is clearly predominant over the rest.
Archeology
Lithic industry
The lithic industry recovered from these sites has been very numerous, although in relation to the excavated volumes it can be considered scarce. It corresponds to the late Acheulean primitive or middle-ancient Acheulian, dated in the «full» Middle Pleistocene.
The typology is diverse: hand axes, cleavers, racloirs, denticulates, perforators, back knife or burins, among others. The materials are very varied: flint, quartzite, limestone and quartz, from different origins, some transported from long distances (flint and quartzite) and others taking advantage of those available in the area (limestone and quartz).
Between 20% and 65% of the pieces, according to the levels, they seem not to be eroded, while the rest show signs of light bearing, secondary accumulation, with few elements very rolled. There is no evidence of in situ manufacture, only of secondary retouching, and mainly on quartzite elements.
Bone industry
The existence or not of bone industry from bones and elephant defenses in these sites is very controversial.
On the one hand, Villa and collaborators, based on the taphonomic analysis of the types of breaks and superficial alterations of the bones deny the existence of bone industry, at least for the Ambrona site, leaving Torralba with indetermination. In the deposits, more than fifty tips of young elephant tusks have been collected, after almost a century of excavations, which these authors interpret as a result of the natural break during the activity of the animals in the barking of trees or the digging of the ground looking for water, as is the case with today's elephants.
On the other hand, Aguirre, among others, maintains that it is very probable a certain rudimentary industry of trihedral and other bone elements endowed with points and edges. Likewise, Aguirre interprets the tips of ivory of defenses as possible soft hammerstones, selected and purposely prepared by man for use in lithic carving. These affirmations are based on direct experimentation with current elephant bones and comparing the results with the breaking and polishing marks of some bone elements of the sites, with sharpness and with the percussion polishing marks at the tips of the defenses, as well as in the relative abundance of these last ones against complete defenses.
Paleontological Museum
There is a small museum in Ambrona built directly on the site, which shows, in situ, part of the material as it was found.
It was devised by Aguirre in 1963, for which Howell reserved an area of the excavations from which the fossils found were not extracted. Aguirre and Echaide designed the project, which was completed in November of the same year. It was the first museum of its kind to be opened in Spain. Ten years later Aguirre obtained, in addition, that a road was made that facilitated a route of tourist-cultural purpose between the Nacional II, the Museo aqueológico de Ambrona and Sigüenza. In 1985, laboratories and a public exhibition room were built, showing material that was deposited in other museums.
Subsequently, the unrealistic figure of a straight-tusked elephant at its natural size was incorporated into the exterior of the museum.
Other exhibitions
In addition to the aforementioned Museo aqueológico de Ambrona, they house and exhibit material from these sites in the Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, the Museo Arqueológico Nacional de España and the Museo Arqueológico Regional de la Comunidad de Madrid.
References
Archaeological sites in Castile and León
Prehistoric sites in Spain
Lower Paleolithic Archaeological cultures
Middle Pleistocene
Paleontology in Spain
Miño de Medinaceli
Buildings and structures in Medinaceli
Buildings and structures in the Province of Soria
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5090436
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medair
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Medair
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Medair is an international non-governmental organisation (INGO) whose purpose is to relieve human suffering in some of the world's most remote and devastated places. Medair aims to assist people affected by natural disasters and conflict to recover with dignity through the delivery of quality humanitarian aid.
Founded in the Canton of Vaud, Switzerland, in 1989, Medair is inspired by the Christian faith to serve the most vulnerable—regardless of race, gender, religion, age, or nationality. As of 2019, Medair employs more than 1,500 employees worldwide and has an annual operating budget of $90,591,326. More than 3.5 million people worldwide received direct support from the organisation in 2019.
History
Founding
In 1988, Dr. Erik Volkmar and Dr. Josiane Volkmar-André were asked to travel to conflict-torn Soroti, Uganda with the support of three partner organisations—Medicaments pour L'Afrique (MEDAF), Mission Aviation Fellowship (MAF), and Youth with a Mission (YWAM)—to establish an organisation that would combine the efforts of the three organisations in order to respond more quickly and effectively to the growing crisis. This first, unified response provided support to displaced people as they resettled into towns where essential services were destroyed by the conflict.
Medair was co-founded in 1989 in Switzerland by a group of eight volunteers led by Dr. Erik Volkmar and Dr. Josiane Volkmar-André—both trained physicians and experienced humanitarian aid workers.
Early years
In the years following, Medair expanded its programming to include projects assisting internally displaced people in Sudan, Liberia, and Iraq. By 1995, Medair was operating independently from its founding organisations, but continues to partner with Mission Aviation Fellowship (MAF) today when its activities require them to travel to difficult-to-reach places inaccessible by car or foot.
Today
As of 2022, Medair is active in 13 countries and responding to global crises including the Syrian refugee crisis, the Ebola outbreak in DR Congo, and the Rohingya refugee crisis in Bangladesh. With expertise in health and nutrition, emergency shelter, water and sanitation, and cash assistance, more than 3.5 million people worldwide received direct support from the organisation in 2019.
Organisation
Past leadership
Co-founder Erik Volkmar acted as Medair's first CEO for 15 years before stepping down in 2003.
In 2004, Randall Zindler, a graduate of Lancaster University's MBA programme, became CEO. Zindler held a number of corporate positions with companies including Credit Suisse and Swissair before accepting the role of CEO for Medair.
In 2011, Zindler stepped down and Jim Ingram transitioned into the role of CEO that same year. Ingram began working for Medair years prior as its Finance Director and was a member of the Executive Leadership Team.
After seven years of leading the organisation as CEO, Ingram retired in 2018 and David Verboom was appointed CEO by the International Board of Trustees.
After 5 years of leadership under David Verboom, Anne Reitsema took over on April 4, 2023.
https://www.medair.org/press/medair-appoints-anne-reitsema-as-new-ceo/
Current leadership
David Verboom assumed the CEO position in April 2018. David started his career in the humanitarian and development sector in 1996. His first assignment was as Medair's Country Director for Kenya and South Sudan during the devastating drought and famine in 1998. Verboom later joined Medair's Global Support Office in Switzerland to lead operations, expanding Medair's programming in Africa and Asia. In 2002, David returned to the field as Country Director with ZOA, leading their refugee care programme in Sri Lanka and the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami disaster response.
After, David joined EU Civil Protection & Humanitarian Aid (ECHO) as Head of Office for Sri Lanka and the Maldives, later holding the position of ECHO's Head of Regional Office for East Asia and the Pacific. In 2013, he became ECHO's Head of Regional Office for the Middle East, which he held for two years before returning to an implementing agency as National Director for World Vision International's Jerusalem, West Bank, and Gaza programming.
The Board of International Trustees is the organisation's governing body, and is composed of 10 leaders in their respective fields. Together, they are responsible for the missional and financial success of the organisation. Medair's board is appointed or elected by members of the Medair Association. The CEO is responsible for the management of Medair, supported by an Executive Leadership Team.
Global offices
Medair is headquartered in Ecublens, Switzerland. The Global Support Office (GSO) in Switzerland provides programmatic, logistics, and funding support to the country programmes as well as support in human resources and recruitment, finance, fundraising and marketing, and information services.
Medair has six other offices located in Zurich, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Germany, France, and the United States. These affiliate offices don't carry out or coordinate field programming. Instead, they assist with fundraising for field programmes, recruiting international relief workers, and engaging local supporters.
Staffing
Medair recruits experienced and new relief workers with expertise in project management, health services, nutrition, water, human resources, logistics, communications and infrastructure rehabilitation.
Employees are recruited internationally as well as nationally to work in field programmes. Nationally recruited staff make up 80% of their total workforce across all field locations. Internationally recruited staff are expected to align with the organisation's faith value and be experienced professionals in their field.
Prospective Medair staff participate in a Relief and Rehabilitation Orientation Course (ROC). This intensive course takes place multiple times a year and aims to evaluate and train participants before they go to the field.
Programming
As of May 2020, Medair is operational in 11 countries. Medair directly implements its programming in its field locations and works with partner organisations when needed to access hard-to-reach, affected populations.
Medair implements projects to meet the urgent needs of people affected by crisis and natural disaster, including emergency relief, shelter support, medical care, nutrition services, and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). They also provide mental health and psychosocial support, build the capacity of local structures—such as health centres—and improve local infrastructure and disaster preparedness through implementing the Disaster Risk Reduction approach.
Finances
In 2019, Medair's total operating budget was $90,591,326.[iv] According to its 2019 annual report, 92.4% of operating expenses went directly to providing humanitarian aid. The remaining 7.6% was attributed to fundraising and management. Medair's main sources of funding include private donors, governmental and inter-governmental partners, non-governmental and partner organisations, foundations, corporate partners, and other public partners.
In 2019, 73.1% of their operating income came from governmental support such as EU Civil Protection & Humanitarian Aid (ECHO), US Agency for International Development (USAID), and Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). Additional funding came from United Nations agencies, such as The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).
In 2019, corporate, foundation, and other private donations constituted 10.7% of the operating income, followed by other institutions and non-governmental organisations contributing 9.7% to total operating income. Gifts-in-kind provided for 6.1% of their operating income and 0.5% came from other income sources.
Activities
As a signatory of the Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief, Medair provides humanitarian aid to the most vulnerable—regardless of race, gender, religion, age, or nationality.
Medair focuses primarily on four areas of need:
Emergency response
In 2019, Medair responded to emergencies in 13 countries and to some of the worst humanitarian disasters, including the Syrian refugee crisis, the Rohingya refugee crisis, the tsunami in Indonesia, and the Ebola outbreak in DR Congo. In emergencies, Medair focuses on two components:
Emergency relief
When disasters strike, Medair's Global Emergency Response Teams deploy quickly to affected areas to bring life-saving relief in the form of emergency shelter and safe demolition, essential household items, safe drinking water, sanitation, and emergency health care.
Building Back Better
Medair's Building Back Better approach is used in the recovery phase to help affected communities safeguard against future disasters. This is achieved through rebuilding homes and infrastructure using strong building materials and disaster-resilient construction methods. In 2019, 100,055 people in affected areas received training in disaster risk reduction.
Women and children
Women and children are often said to be the most affected by emergencies[i]. To meet their unique needs, Medair states they provide support to vulnerable women and children in three ways:
Nutrition
Medair runs intensive malnutrition treatment programmes for young children, pregnant women, and breastfeeding mothers as well as teaches communities how to prevent malnutrition in the future. In 2019, Medair treated 88,576 malnourished people.
Health care
Medair says they support local health clinics by training and supervising health clinic staff and providing them with essential medicines and supplies. They focus their support on primary health care, vaccinations, and safe childbirth. In 2019, there were 1,524,769 consultations at Medair-supported clinics.
Community health
Medair runs 'Care Groups' of trained women volunteers who regularly visit with women and their families in their community to promote good health, hygiene, and nutrition. In some communities with poor access to health clinics, Medair trains local health workers to visit ill children at home and treat common diseases. They also offer support services for trauma victims and women and girls affected by gender-based violence.
Refugees and displaced people
Medair has been assisting refugees affected by the Syrian crisis since 2012 and the Rohingya crisis since 2017, as well as the large numbers of displaced people as a result of instability in Iraq and South Sudan. According to their website, they support refugees and displaced people through:
Emergency relief
Medair supplies tents to displaced people and refugees to provide immediate protection as well as emergency household supplies and hygiene kits to safeguard against disease.
Emergency health care
Medair establishes emergency health clinics for displaced people and refugees in places like Iraq, Lebanon's Bekaa Valley, and in Kutupalong refugee camp in Bangladesh where the influx of people overwhelms the capacity of local health services.
Clean water, sanitation, & hygiene
Medair provides safe drinking water and latrines to communities and promotes safe hygiene practices. In 2019, 492,390 people gained improved access to safe water, and 358,601 people gained improved access to safe sanitation.
Cash assistance
Medair provides families in crisis with cash assistance to improve their temporary living conditions and assist with the cost of medical care. In 2019, 76,343 people received cash or voucher assistance.
Innovation
Medair uses GIS (Geographical Information Systems) mapping technology to help identify and track refugee communities in Lebanon. In other programmes, they use mobile devices—such as tablets and smart phones—to collect survey data about project participants and their needs.
Current programmes
As of May 2020, Medair is operational in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, DR Congo, Madagascar, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, and Yemen.
Notable past projects
Rwanda
After the Rwandan genocide in 1994, Medair provided emergency relief to the Bugesera region, which had lost 80% of its population to the genocide. Medair worked to get medical centres running again and provided reconciliation seminars. Medair brought in psychiatrists to provide trauma counseling for both Hutus and Tutsis. These workshops brought together mixed ethnic groups to share their stories.
Uganda
Medair spent over a decade in Uganda—from 1999 to 2010—making it one of Medair's longest running programmes. During this time, the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) terrorised the majority of northern Uganda. Medair worked with people living in camps for internally displaced persons (IDPs) at the height of the crisis. Later, Medair helped these people resettle into their home villages again.
Sri Lanka
After the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, staff were operational in the district of Ampara—the hardest hit area of Sri Lanka—within five days. Medair found the greatest needs to be water, sanitation, food, and shelter. Working with Bushproof—a company specialising in water technologies for difficult environments—Medair secured emergency drinking water supplies for people living in remote displacement camps. Over the next year, Medair's Sri Lanka response included shelter construction, restoring the livelihoods of the fishing community through the distribution of boats and nets, and improving public health through latrine construction, well cleaning, and hygiene education.
Pakistan
After a massive earthquake in Pakistan in 2005, Medair responded by distributing shelter and household kits to families as winter was approaching. In the recovery phase, Medair helped restore livelihoods by redistributing livestock and seeds to farmers who had lost theirs in the earthquake. Medair also contributed to the reconstruction of remote, mountainous villages damaged or destroyed during the earthquake.
South Sudan
Medair has worked in South Sudan since 1992 and is one of the most active humanitarian relief organisations in the country. In 2010, Medair made headlines for a study conducted with partner NGO, Save the Children, which revealed high rates of malnutrition in Akobo, South Sudan. With a Global Acute Malnutrition (GAM) level of 45.7% and a severe acute malnutrition (SAM) level of 15.5%, Akobo's rates were three times higher than emergency malnutrition thresholds. Both organisations responded quickly by implementing therapeutic feeding programmes. Medair continues to be on the frontlines of disease outbreaks, including the measles outbreak in 2019.
Haiti
After the Haiti earthquake in 2010, Medair provided transitional shelters to 11,622 people without housing in Jacmel and the surrounding area. These transitional shelters were able to be transformed into permanent homes.
After Hurricane Matthew in 2016, Medair's emergency response team returned to Port-au-Prince within 72 hours of the hurricane. Medair has assembled emergency shelter and hygiene kits, although access to the affected coastal communities of Tiburon Peninsula was very difficult. Instead, Medair teams traveled by sea to distribute 300 hygiene kits to families to help prevent cholera. In total, Medair distributed emergency medical kits with medicine for 20,000 people, provided shelter kits to more than 14,000 people, and gave 16,000 people access to safe drinking water.
Afghanistan
In 2012, Medair staff were abducted in Afghanistan's Badakhshan province. The swift actions of international security forces and a well-rehearsed internal crisis plan led to the safe release of all of staff members. After the incident, Medair closed operations in Badakhshan while continuing to work in Afghanistan's Central Highlands.
Medair worked in Badakhshan from 2000 to 2012 and left a long-term impact in the province, having improved access to water and sanitation, expanded and upgraded the local health care system, and carried out life-saving health and nutrition services in very remote communities.
Syrian Crisis
In 2012, Medair sent emergency teams to Lebanon and Jordan to respond to the flood of refugees arriving from Syria. Shelter was an urgent priority in Lebanon's Bekaa Valley where winters can be harsh. Medair distributed emergency shelter kits and provided families with wood-burning stoves, blankets, and mattresses. Medair continues to support Syrian refugees living in Lebanon and Jordan today, and expanded programming into Syria in 2015.
The Philippines
In 2013, Medair's emergency response team provided relief to isolated communities in the aftermath of Typhoon Haiyan, which killed more than 6,000 people and displaced more than four million people. In its first year, Medair reached more than 60,000 people with emergency shelters, health, and hygiene support.
Medair stayed in the Philippines until 2018 to help communities recover. Through its Build Back Better project, Medair provided 1,680 families with new, typhoon-resilient homes, trained more than 3,000 people in Disaster Risk Reduction techniques, and built 1,250 latrines for families who had lost theirs in the disaster.
Accreditations, affiliations, and partnerships
In 2001, Medair became the first European NGO to obtain ISO 9001:2000 worldwide certification—a family of international quality management standards and guidelines normally applied to industry.
Medair was the first member of the Humanitarian Accountability Partnership International (HAP-I). Other members include CARE International, Oxfam, World Vision, and Save the Children.
In 2013, Medair joined the global Integral Alliance—a network of Christian relief and development agencies that facilitates collaboration and unity among similar humanitarian organisations to increase the capacity and quality of disaster response. Medair is also a member of EU-CORD, a network of European Christian humanitarian organisations that work cooperatively.
Medair's offices in Switzerland have received the ZEWO seal of approval, which is a Swiss label that identifies non-profit organisations who spend funds responsibly. Its United States office has received the Excellence in Giving Transparency Certification[viii] and GuideStar's Gold Seal of Transparency in 2018.
In 2019, Medair was awarded full Core Humanitarian Standard on Quality and Accountability (CHS) certification for its principled, accountable, and high-quality humanitarian action. The CHS sets out nine commitments for humanitarian and development actors to measure and improve the quality and effectiveness of their assistance.
Additional partnerships and affiliations for Medair's offices worldwide includes A.S.A.H., Concord, The Cash Learning Partnership (CaLP), Interaction Switzerland, Bond, the CORE Group, LINGOs, The Global Health Cluster, the European Interagency Security Forum, IDCN, Fundraising Standards Board, NetHope, the Global Logistics Cluster, Coordination Sud, Humanitarian University, the Swiss NGO DRR Platform, the Global Shelter Cluster, NGO Voice, QUAMED, imPACT Coalition, and the Global WASH Cluster.
References
External links
Medair's website
Humanitarian aid organizations
International organisations based in Switzerland
Emergency organizations
Christian charities
Evangelical Christian humanitarian organizations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis%20of%20Western%20European%20colonialism%20and%20colonization
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Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization
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European colonialism and colonization is the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over other societies and territories, founding a colony, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically. For example, colonial policies, such as the type of rule implemented, the nature of investments, and identity of the colonizers, are cited as impacting postcolonial states. Examination of the state-building process, economic development, and cultural norms and mores shows the direct and indirect consequences of colonialism on the postcolonial states.
History of colonisation and decolonization
The era of European colonialism lasted from the 15th to 20th centuries and involved European powers vastly extending their reach around the globe by establishing colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. The dismantling of European empires following World War II saw the process of decolonization begin in earnest. In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill jointly released the Atlantic Charter, which broadly outlined the goals of the U.S. and British governments. One of the main clauses of the charter acknowledged the right of all people to choose their own government. The document became the foundation for the United Nations and all of its components were integrated into the UN Charter, giving the organization a mandate to pursue global decolonization.
Varieties of colonialism
Historians generally distinguish two main varieties established by European colonials: the first is settler colonialism, where farms and towns were established by arrivals from Europe. Second, exploitation colonialism, purely extractive and exploitative colonies whose primary function was to develop economic exports. These frequently overlapped or existed on a spectrum.
Settler colonialism
Settler colonialism is a form of colonisation where foreign citizens move into a region and create permanent or temporary settlements called colonies. The creation of settler colonies often resulted in the forced migration of indigenous peoples to less desirable territories. This practice is exemplified in the colonies established in what became the United States, New Zealand, Namibia, South Africa, Canada, Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, Argentina, and Australia. Native populations frequently suffered population collapse due to contact with new diseases.
The resettlement of indigenous peoples frequently occurs along demographic lines, but the central stimulus for resettlement is access to desirable territory. Regions free of tropical disease with easy access to trade routes were favorable. When Europeans settled in these desirable territories, natives were forced out and regional power was seized by the colonialists. This type of colonial behavior led to the disruption of local customary practices and the transformation of socioeconomic systems. Ugandan academic Mahmood Mamdani cites "the destruction of communal autonomy, and the defeat and dispersal of tribal populations" as one primary factor in colonial oppression. As agricultural expansion continued through the territories, native populations were further displaced to clear fertile farmland.
Daron Acemoglu, James A. Robinson, and Simon Johnson theorize that Europeans were more likely to form settler colonies in areas where they would not face high mortality rates due to disease and other exogenous factors. Many settler colonies sought to establish European-like institutions and practices that granted certain personal freedoms and allowed settlers to become wealthy by engaging in trade. Thus, jury trials, freedom from arbitrary arrest, and electoral representation were implemented to allow settlers rights similar to those enjoyed in Europe, though these rights generally did not apply to the indigenous people.
Exploitation colonialism
Exploitation colonialism is a form of colonisation where foreign armies conquer a country in order to control and capitalize on its natural resources and indigenous population. Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson argue, "institutions [established by colonials] did not introduce much protection for private property, nor did they provide checks and balances against government expropriation. In fact, the main purpose of the extractive state was to transfer as much of the resources of the colony to the colonizer, with the minimum amount of investment possible." Since these colonies were created with the intent to extract resources, colonial powers had no incentives to invest in institutions or infrastructure that did not support their immediate goals. Thus, Europeans established authoritarian regimes in these colonies, which had no limits on state power.
The policies and practices carried out by King Leopold II of Belgium as the absolute ruler of the Congo Free State in the Congo Basin are an extreme example of exploitation colonialism. E. D. Morel detailed the atrocities in multiple articles and books. Morel believed the Leopoldian system that eliminated traditional, commercial markets in favor of pure exploitation was the root cause of the injustice in the Congo. Under the "veil of philanthropic motive", King Leopold received the consent of multiple international governments (including the United States, Great Britain, and France) to assume trusteeship of the vast region in order to support the elimination of the slave trade. Leopold positioned himself as proprietor of an area totaling nearly one million square miles, which was home to nearly 20 million Africans.
After establishing dominance in the Congo Basin, Leopold extracted large quantities of ivory, rubber, and other natural resources. It has been estimated that Leopold made 1.1 billion in 2005 dollars by employing a variety of exploitative tactics. Soldiers demanded unrealistic quantities of rubber be collected by African villagers, and when these goals were not met, the soldiers held women hostage, beat or killed the men, and burned crops. These and other forced labor practices caused the birth rate to decline as famine and disease spread. All of this was done at very little monetary cost. M. Crawford Young observed, "[the concessionary companies] brought little capital – a mere 8000 pounds ... [to the Congo basin] – and instituted a reign of terror sufficient to provoke an embarrassing public-protest campaign in Britain and the United States at a time when the threshold of toleration for colonial brutality was high."
The system of government implemented in the Congo by Leopold and later Belgium was authoritarian and oppressive. Multiple scholars view the roots of authoritarianism under Mobutu as the result of colonial practices.
Indirect and direct rule of the colonial political system
Systems of colonial rule can be broken into the binary classifications of direct and indirect rule. During the era of colonisation, Europeans were faced with the monumental task of administering the vast colonial territories around the globe. The initial solution to this problem was direct rule, which involves the establishment of a centralized European authority within a territory run by colonial officials. In a system of direct rule, the native population is excluded from all but the lowest level of the colonial government. Mamdani defines direct rule as centralized despotism: a system where natives were not considered citizens. By contrast, indirect rule integrates pre-established local elites and native institutions into the administration of the colonial government. Indirect rule maintains good pre-colonial institutions and fosters development within the local culture. Mamdani classifies indirect rule as “decentralized despotism,” where day-to-day operations were handled by local chiefs, but the true authority rested with the colonial powers.
Indirect rule
In certain cases, as in India, the colonial power directed all decisions related to foreign policy and defense, while the indigenous population controlled most aspects of internal administration. This led to autonomous indigenous communities that were under the rule of local tribal chiefs or kings. These chiefs were either drawn from the existing social hierarchy or were newly minted by the colonial authority. In areas under indirect rule, traditional authorities acted as intermediaries for the “despotic” colonial rule, while the colonial government acted as an advisor and only interfered in extreme circumstances. Often, with the support of the colonial authority, natives gained more power under indirect colonial rule than they had in the pre-colonial period. Mamdani points out that indirect rule was the dominant form of colonialism and therefore most who were colonized bore colonial rule that was delivered by their fellow natives.
The purpose of indirect rule was to allow natives to govern their own affairs through “customary law.” In practice though, the native authority decided on and enforced its own unwritten rules with the support of the colonial government. Rather than following the rule of law, local chiefs enjoyed judicial, legislative, executive, and administrative power in addition to legal arbitrariness.
Direct rule
In systems of direct rule, European colonial officials oversaw all aspects of governance, while natives were placed in an entirely subordinate role. Unlike indirect rule, the colonial government did not convey orders through local elites, but rather oversaw administration directly. European laws and customs were imported to supplant traditional power structures. Joost van Vollenhoven, Governor-General of French West Africa, 1917-1918, described the role of the traditional chiefs in by saying, “his functions were reduced to that of a mouthpiece for orders emanating from the outside...[The chiefs] have no power of their own of any kind. There are not two authorities in the cercle, the French authority and the native authority; there is only one.” The chiefs were therefore ineffective and not highly regarded by the indigenous population. There were even instances where people under direct colonial rule secretly elected a real chief in order to retain traditional rights and customs.
Direct rule deliberately removed traditional power structures in order to implement uniformity across a region. The desire for regional homogeneity was the driving force behind the French colonial doctrine of Assimilation. The French style of colonialism stemmed from the idea that the French Republic was a symbol of universal equality. As part of a civilizing mission, the European principles of equality were translated into legislation abroad. For the French colonies, this meant the enforcement of the French penal code, the right to send a representative to parliament, and imposition of tariff laws as a form of economic assimilation. Requiring natives to assimilate in these and other ways, created an ubiquitous, European-style identity that made no attempt to protect native identities. Indigenous people living in colonized societies were obliged to obey European laws and customs or be deemed “uncivilized” and denied access to any European rights.
Comparative outcomes between indirect and direct rule
Both direct and indirect rule have persistent, long term effects on the success of former colonies. Lakshmi Iyer, of Harvard Business School, conducted research to determine the impact type of rule can have on a region, looking at postcolonial India, where both systems were present under British rule. Iyer's findings suggests that regions which had previously been ruled indirectly were generally better-governed and more capable of establishing effective institutions than areas under direct British rule. In the modern postcolonial period, areas formerly ruled directly by the British perform worse economically and have significantly less access to various public goods, such as health care, public infrastructure, and education.
In his book Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Colonialism, Mamdani claims the two types of rule were each sides of the same coin. He explains that colonialists did not exclusively use one system of rule over another. Instead, European powers divided regions along urban-rural lines and instituted separate systems of government in each area. Mamdani refers to the formal division of rural and urban natives by colonizers as the “bifurcated state.” Urban areas were ruled directly by the colonizers under an imported system of European law, which did not recognize the validity of native institutions. In contrast, rural populations were ruled indirectly by customary and traditional law and were therefore subordinate to the “civilized” urban citizenry. Rural inhabitants were viewed as “uncivilized” subjects and were deemed unfit to receive the benefits of citizenship. The rural subjects, Mamdani observed, had only a “modicum of civil rights,” and were entirely excluded from all political rights.
Mamdani argues that current issues in postcolonial states are the result of colonial government partition, rather than simply poor governance as others have claimed. Current systems — in Africa and elsewhere — are riddled with an institutional legacy that reinforces a divided society. Using the examples of South Africa and Uganda, Mamdani observed that, rather than doing away with the bifurcated model of rule, postcolonial regimes have reproduced it. Although he uses only two specific examples, Mamdani maintains that these countries are simply paradigms representing the broad institutional legacy colonialism left on the world. He argues that modern states have only accomplished "deracialization" and not democratization following their independence from colonial rule. Instead of pursuing efforts to link their fractured society, centralized control of the government stayed in urban areas and reform focused on “reorganizing the bifurcated power forged under colonialism.” Native authorities that operated under indirect rule have not been brought into the mainstream reformation process; instead, development has been “enforced” on the rural peasantry. In order to achieve autonomy, successful democratization, and good governance, states must overcome their fundamental schisms: urban versus rural, customary versus modern, and participation versus representation.
Colonial actions and their impacts
European colonizers engaged in various actions around the world that had both short term and long term consequences for the colonized. Numerous scholars have attempted to analyze and categorize colonial activities by determining if they have positive or negative outcomes. Stanley Engerman and Kenneth Sokoloff categorized activities, which were driven by regional factor endowments, by determining whether they were associated with high or low levels of economic development. Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson attempted to understand what institutional changes caused previously rich countries to become poor after colonization. Melissa Dell documented the persistent, damaging effects of colonial labor exploitation under the mit'a mining system in Peru; showing significant differences in height and road access between previous mit'a and non-mit'a communities. Miriam Bruhn and Francisco A. Gallego employed a simple tripartite classification: good, bad, and ugly. Regardless of the system of classification, the fact remains, colonial actions produced varied outcomes which continue to be relevant.
In trying to assess the legacy of colonization, some researchers have focused on the type of political and economic institutions that existed before the arrival of Europeans. Heldring and Robinson conclude that while colonization in Africa had overall negative consequences for political and economic development in areas that had previous centralized institutions or that hosted white settlements, it possibly had a positive impact in areas that were virtually stateless, like South Sudan or Somalia. In a complementary analysis, Gerner Hariri observed that areas outside Europe which had State-like institutions before 1500 tend to have less open political systems today. According to the scholar, this is due to the fact that during the colonization, European liberal institutions were not easily implemented. Beyond the military and political advantages, it is possible to explain the domination of European countries over non-European areas by the fact that capitalism did not emerge as the dominant economic institution elsewhere. As Ugo Pipitone argues, prosperous economic institutions that sustain growth and innovation did not prevail in areas like China, the Arab world, or Mesoamerica because of the excessive control of these proto-States on private matters.
Another angle that can be considered when assessing colonial impacts is examining the institutions that formed across Africa after the withdrawal of European colonizers. In many cases, colonial rule led to the development of weak and flawed institutions in postcolonial Africa. Levitsky and Murillo further examine the importance of institutions with their research on the factors that contribute to institutional strength. They define rule enforcement and institutional stability (durability) as the main factors contributing to the success of an institution. In Africa, formal institutions had low stability and weak enforcement, leading to the emergence of dysfunctional institutions. A major source of the low institutional stability in African countries was the colonial partitioning of African borders, leading to political violence and ethnic conflict. Additionally, weak enforcement in Africa often stems from the creation of “window-dressing” institutions, where superficial democratic policies are implemented to feign democracy.However, these policies are rarely enforced.
Douglass North provides the argument that institutional change is incremental and is a result of “path-dependency”, which means that seemingly insignificant historical events can have major impacts on the formation of eventual institutions. These arguments follow William Brian Arthur’s theories on path-dependency where he states that market lock-in to a subpar technology is determined by “small-event history”. Thus, the colonial history in Africa becomes relevant as the decisions of European colonizers have impacted contemporary African economic and political structures. As a result, African institutions were impacted as well. Collectively, these theories from Levitsky and Murillo, North, and Arthur work to explain how colonialism led to the development and persistence of suboptimal African institutions.
Reorganization of borders
Defining borders
Throughout the era of European colonization, those in power routinely partitioned land masses and created borders that are still in place today. It has been estimated that Britain and France traced almost 40% of the entire length of today's international boundaries. Sometimes boundaries were naturally occurring, like rivers or mountains, but other times these borders were artificially created and agreed upon by colonial powers. The Berlin Conference of 1884 systemized European colonization in Africa and is frequently acknowledged as the genesis of the Scramble for Africa. The Conference implemented the Principle of Effective Occupation in Africa which allowed European states with even the most tenuous connection to an African region to claim dominion over its land, resources, and people. In effect, it allowed for the arbitrary construction of sovereign borders in a territory where they had never previously existed.
Jeffrey Herbst has written extensively on the impact of state organization in Africa. He notes, because the borders were artificially created, they generally do not conform to “typical demographic, ethnographic, and topographic boundaries.” Instead, they were manufactured by colonialists to advance their political goals. This led to large scale issues, like the division of ethnic groups; and small scale issues, such as families’ homes being separated from their farms.
William F. S. Miles of Northeastern University, argues that this perfunctory division of the entire continent created expansive ungoverned borderlands. These borderlands persist today and are havens for crimes like human trafficking and arms smuggling.
Modern preservation of the colonially defined borders
Herbst notes a modern paradox regarding the colonial borders in Africa: while they are arbitrary there is a consensus among African leaders that they must be maintained. Organization of African Unity in 1963 cemented colonial boundaries permanently by proclaiming that any changes made were illegitimate. This, in effect, avoided readdressing the basic injustice of colonial partition, while also reducing the likelihood of inter-state warfare as territorial boundaries were considered immutable by the international community.
Modern national boundaries are thus remarkably invariable, though the stability of the nation states has not followed in suit. Some African states are plagued by internal issues such as inability to effectively collect taxes and weak national identities. Lacking any external threats to their sovereignty, these countries have failed to consolidate power, leading to weak or failed states.
Though the colonial boundaries sometimes caused internal strife and hardship, some present day leaders benefit from the desirable borders their former colonial overlords drew. For example, Nigeria's inheritance of an outlet to the sea — and the trading opportunities a port affords — gives the nation a distinct economic advantage over its neighbor, Niger. Effectively, the early carving of colonial space turned naturally occurring factor endowments into state controlled assets.
Differing colonial investments
When European colonials entered a region, they invariably brought new resources and capital management. Different investment strategies were employed, which included focuses on health, infrastructure, or education. All colonial investments have had persistent effects on postcolonial societies, but certain types of spending have proven to be more beneficial than others. French economist Élise Huillery conducted research to determine specifically what types of public spending were associated with high levels of current development. Her findings were twofold. First, Huillery observes that the nature of colonial investments can directly influence current levels of performance. Increased spending in education led to higher school attendance; additional doctors and medical facilities decreased preventable illnesses in children; and a colonial focus on infrastructure translated into more modernized infrastructure today. Adding to this, Huillery also learned that early colonial investments instituted a pattern of continued spending that directly influenced the quality and quantity of public goods available today.
Land, property rights, and labour
Land and property rights
According to Mahmood Mamdani, prior to colonization, indigenous societies did not necessarily consider land private property. Alternatively, land was a communal resource that everyone could utilize. Once natives began interacting with colonial settlers, a long history of land abuse followed. Extreme examples of this include Trail of Tears, a series of forced relocations of Native Americans following the Indian Removal Act of 1830, and the apartheid system in South Africa. Australian anthropologist Patrick Wolfe points out that in these instances, natives were not only driven off land, but the land was then transferred to private ownership. He believes that the “frenzy for native land” was due to economic immigrants that belonged to the ranks of Europe's landless.
Making seemingly contradictory argument, Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson view strong property rights and ownership as an essential component of institutions that produce higher per capita income. They expand on this by saying property rights give individuals the incentive to invest, rather than stockpile, their assets. While this may appear to further encourage colonialists to exert their rights through exploitative behaviors, instead it offers protection to native populations and respects their customary ownership laws. Looking broadly at the European colonial experience, Acemoglu, Johnson, and Robinson explain that exploitation of natives transpired when stable property rights intentionally did not exist. These rights were never implemented in order to facilitate the predatory extraction of resources from indigenous populations. Bringing the colonial experience to the present that, they maintain that broad property rights set the stage for the effective institutions that are fundamental to strong democratic societies. An example of Acemoglu, Robinson and Johnson hypothesis is in the work of La Porta, et al. In a study of the legal systems in various countries, La Porta, et al. found that in those places that were colonized by the United Kingdom and kept its common-law system, the protection of property right is stronger compared to the countries that kept the French civil law.
In the case of India, Abhijit Banerjee and Lakshmi Iyer found divergent legacies of the British land tenure system in India. The areas where the property rights over the land were given to landlords registered lower productivity and agricultural investments in post-Colonial years compared to areas where land tenure was dominated by cultivators. The former areas also have lower levels of investment in health and education.
Labour exploitation
Prominent Guyanese scholar and political activist Walter Rodney wrote at length about the economic exploitation of Africa by the colonial powers. In particular, he saw labourers as an especially abused group. While a capitalist system almost always employs some form of wage labour, the dynamic between labourers and colonial powers left the way open for extreme misconduct. According to Rodney, African workers were more exploited than Europeans because the colonial system produced a complete monopoly on political power and left the working class small and incapable of collective action. Combined with deep-seated racism, native workers were presented with impossible circumstances. The racism and superiority felt by the colonizers enabled them to justify the systematic underpayment of Africans even when they were working alongside European workers. Colonialists further defended their disparate incomes by claiming a higher cost of living. Rodney challenged this pretext and asserted the European quality of life and cost of living were only possible because of the exploitation of the colonies and African living standards were intentionally depressed in order to maximize revenue. In its wake, Rodney argues colonialism left Africa vastly underdeveloped and without a path forward.
Societal consequences of colonialism
Ethnic identity
The colonial changes to ethnic identity have been explored from the political, sociological, and psychological perspectives. In his book The Wretched of the Earth, French Afro-Caribbean psychiatrist and revolutionary Frantz Fanon claims the colonized must “ask themselves the question constantly: ‘who am I?’" Fanon uses this question to express his frustrations with fundamentally dehumanizing character of colonialism. Colonialism in all forms, was rarely an act of simple political control. Fanon argues the very act of colonial domination has the power to warp the personal and ethnic identities of natives because it operates under the assumption of perceived superiority. Natives are thus entirely divorced from their ethnic identities, which has been replaced by a desire to emulate their oppressors.
Ethnic manipulation manifested itself beyond the personal and internal spheres. Scott Straus from the University of Wisconsin describes the ethnic identities that partially contributed to the Rwandan genocide. In April 1994, following the assassination of Rwanda's President Juvénal Habyarimana, Hutus of Rwanda turned on their Tutsi neighbors and slaughtered between 500,000 and 800,000 people in just 100 days. While politically this situation was incredibly complex, the influence ethnicity had on the violence cannot be ignored. Before the German colonization of Rwanda, the identities of Hutu and Tutsi were not fixed. Germany ruled Rwanda through the Tutsi dominated monarchy and the Belgians continued this following their takeover. Belgian rule reinforced the difference between Tutsi and Hutu. Tutsis were deemed superior and were propped up as a ruling minority supported by the Belgians, while the Hutu were systematically repressed. The country's power later dramatically shifted following the so-called Hutu Revolution, during which Rwanda gained independence from their colonizers and formed a new Hutu-dominated government. Deep-seated ethnic tensions did not leave with the Belgians. Instead, the new government reinforced the cleavage.
Religious changes
Religion was one of the key parts of colony societies that were changed and manipulated. Ghana was one of the key countries that this impacted by British colonial rule. Jedwarb, Meier zu Selhausen, and Moradi (2022) were huge believers that the introduction of Christianity was one of the main reasons that Ghana still struggles to balance two societies in the modern day. "By 1932 the number of missions had expanded to 1,882 with 340,000 followers." At the time this was 9% of the population now in 2020 reportedly "The Christian share has since grown to 80%." Christianity unsettled the traditional African religious beliefs as well as the entire economic and political stability. This occurred not just specifically in Ghana but also in all over colony countries. Congo, one of the worst affected countries, had rules inflicted upon them like banning the practice of non-European religions.Oliver(1952) and Cleall (2009) argued that missionaries, used to teach the native people, were introduced "with little to no information on local circumstances, crossing political boundaries and whose objective was to save souls no matter the cost.” This caused significant damage both short term but especially long term with countries unable to cope with managing the different religions which consequently caused civil wars and infighting.
Civil society
Joel Migdal of the University of Washington believes weak postcolonial states have issues rooted in civil society. Rather than seeing the state as a singular dominant entity, Migdal describes “weblike societies” composed of social organizations. These organizations are a melange of ethnic, cultural, local, and familial groups and they form the basis of our society. The state is simply one actor in a much larger framework. Strong states are able to effectively navigate the intricate societal framework and exert social control over people's behavior. Weak states, on the other hand, are lost amongst the fractionalized authority of a complex society.
Migdal expands his theory of state-society relations by examining Sierra Leone. At the time of Migdal's publication (1988), the country's leader, President Joseph Saidu Momoh, was widely viewed as weak and ineffective. Just three years later, the country erupted into civil war, which continued for nearly 11 years. The basis for this tumultuous time, in Migdal's estimation, was the fragmented social control implemented by British colonizers. Using the typical British system of indirect rule, colonizers empowered local chiefs to mediate British rule in the region, and in turn, the chiefs exercised social control. After achieving independence from Great Britain, the chiefs remained deeply entrenched and did not allow for the necessary consolidation of power needed to build a strong state. Migdal remarked, “Even with all the resources at their disposal, even with the ability to eliminate any single strongman, state leaders found themselves severely limited.” It is necessary for the state and society to form a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship in order for each to thrive. The peculiar nature of postcolonial politics makes this increasingly difficult.
Linguistic discrimination
In settler colonies, indigenous languages were often lost either as indigenous populations were decimated by war and disease, or as aboriginal tribes mixed with colonists. On the other hand, in exploitation colonies such as India, colonial languages were usually only taught to a small local elite. The linguistic differences between the local elite and other locals exacerbated class stratification, and also increased inequality in access to education, industry and civic society in postcolonial states.
Sport
Various traditional games that were played in different countries were overtaken by Western sports during the colonial era. This effect was notable in British colonies, as the British invented many of what later became the world's most popular sports during the colonial era, and propagated these sports in part because they allowed for the perpetuation of class and racial divides beneficial to them, and due to the belief that they would help spread Britain's cilivising values. Towards the end of the colonial era, colonisers' sports often played a significant role in the colonies' independence movements, as sport became an avenue for the colonised peoples to work together and prove their equality. After the colonial era, Western sports often became an important part of nation-building and international relations for former colonies; for example, cricket played a significant role in bringing Indian people together and allowed India to do "cricket diplomacy" with Pakistan, a country which it has had significant tensions with. Western sport has also played a role in fighting racism, as when South Africa was banned from most international sports during the apartheid era.
Ecological impacts of colonialism
European colonialism spread contagious diseases between Europeans and subjugated peoples.
Countering disease
The Spanish Crown organised a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine and establish mass vaccination programs in colonies in 1803. By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans. Under the direction of Mountstuart Elphinstone a program was launched to increase smallpox vaccination in India.
From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a necessity for all colonial powers. The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk. The biggest population increases in human history occurred during the 20th century due to the decreasing mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances.
Colonial policies contributing to indigenous deaths from disease
John S. Milloy published evidence indicating that Canadian authorities had intentionally concealed information on the spread of disease in his book A National Crime: The Canadian Government and the Residential School System, 1879 to 1986 (1999). According to Milloy, the Government of Canada was aware of the origins of many diseases but maintained a secretive policy. Medical professionals had knowledge of this policy, and further, knew it was causing a higher death rate among indigenous people, yet the policy continued.
Evidence suggests, government policy was not to treat natives infected with tuberculosis or smallpox, and native children infected with smallpox and tuberculosis were deliberately sent back to their homes and into native villages by residential school administrators. Within the residential schools, there was no segregation of sick students from healthy students, and students infected with deadly illnesses were frequently admitted to the schools, where infections spread among the healthy students and resulted in deaths; death rates were at least 24% and as high as 69%.
Tuberculosis was the leading cause of death in Europe and North America in the 19th century, accounting for about 40% of working-class deaths in cities, and by 1918 one in six deaths in France were still caused by tuberculosis. European governments, and medical professionals in Canada, were well aware that tuberculosis and smallpox were highly contagious, and that deaths could be prevented by taking measures to quarantine patients and inhibit the spread of the disease. They failed to do this, however, and imposed laws that in fact ensured that these deadly diseases spread quickly among the indigenous population. Despite the high death rate among students from contagious disease, in 1920 the Canadian government made attendance at residential schools mandatory for native children, threatening non-compliant parents with fines and imprisonment. John S. Milloy argued that these policies regarding disease were not conventional genocide, but rather policies of neglect aimed at assimilating natives.
Some historians, such as Roland Chrisjohn, director of Native Studies at St. Thomas University, have argued that some European colonists, having discovered that indigenous populations were not immune to certain diseases, deliberately spread diseases to gain military advantages and subjugate local peoples. In his book The Circle Game: Shadows and Substance in the Indian Residential School Experience in Canada, Chrisjohn argues that the Canadian government followed a deliberate policy amounting to genocide against native populations. During the siege of British-held Fort Pitt in Pontiac's War, the fort's commander, Simeon Ecuyer and his subordinate William Trent distributed blankets infected with smallpox to a Lenape delegation outside the fort. During the conflict, Colonel Henry Bouquet discussed plans to deliberately infect hostile Native American tribes with his superior, General Sir Jeffery Amherst, who wrote back approvingly of Bouquet's suggestion. Historians have been divided on the effectiveness of this particular incident in causing a smallpox outbreak among Native Americans in the region, though it has been recognized as one of the first instances of biological warfare. During the 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic, some scholars argued that the U.S. Army intentionally spread smallpox to Native American tribes, with scholar Ann F. Ramenofsky stating that "in the nineteenth century, the U.S. Army sent contaminated blankets to Native Americans, especially Plains groups, to control the Indian problem."
Historic debates surrounding colonialism
Bartolomé de Las Casas (1484–1566) was the first Protector of the Indians appointed by the Spanish Crown. During his time in the Spanish West Indies, he witnessed many of the atrocities committed by Spanish colonists against the natives. After this experience, he reformed his view on colonialism and determined the Spanish people would suffer divine punishment if the gross mistreatment in the Indies continued. De Las Casas detailed his opinion in his book The Destruction of the Indies: A Brief Account (1552).
During the sixteenth century, Spanish priest and philosopher Francisco Suarez (1548–1617) expressed his objections to colonialism in his work De Bello et de Indis (On War and the Indies). In this text and others, Suarez supported natural law and conveyed his beliefs that all humans had rights to life and liberty. Along these lines, he argued for the limitation of the imperial powers of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor by underscoring the natural rights of indigenous people. Accordingly, native inhabitants of the colonial Spanish West Indies deserved independence and each island should be considered a sovereign state with all the legal powers of Spain.
French writer Denis Diderot was openly critical of ethnocentrism and European colonialism in Tahiti. In a series of philosophical dialogues entitled Supplément au voyage de Bougainville (1772), Diderot imagines several conversations between Tahitians and Europeans. The two speakers discuss their cultural differences, which acts as a critique of European culture.
Modern theories of colonialism
The effects of European colonialism have consistently drawn academic attention in the decades since decolonization. New theories continue to emerge. The field of colonial and postcolonial studies has been implemented as a major in multiple universities around the globe.
Dependency theory
Dependency theory is an economic theory which postulated that advanced and industrialized “metropolitan” or "core" nations have been able to develop because of the existence of less-developed “satellite” or "periphery" states. Satellite nations are anchored to, and subordinate to, metropolitan countries because of the international division of labor. Satellite countries are thus dependent on metropolitan states and incapable of charting their own economic path.
The theory was introduced in the 1950s by Raul Prebisch, Director of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America after observing that economic growth in wealthy countries did not translate into economic growth in poor countries. Dependency theorists believe this is due to the import-export relationship between rich and poor countries. Walter Rodney, in his book How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, used this framework when observing the relationship between European trading companies and African peasants living in postcolonial states. Through the labour of peasants, African countries are able to gather large quantities of raw materials. Rather than being able to export these materials directly to Europe, states must work with a number of trading companies, who collaborated to keep purchase prices low. The trading companies then sold the materials to European manufactures at inflated prices. Finally the manufactured goods were returned to Africa, but with prices so high, that labourers were unable to afford them. This led to a situation where the individuals who labored extensively to gather raw materials were unable to benefit from the finished goods.
Neocolonialism
Neocolonialism is the continued economic and cultural control of countries that have been decolonized. The first documented use of the term was by Former President of Ghana Kwame Nkrumah in the 1963 preamble of the Organization of African States. Nkrumah expanded the concept of neocolonialism in the book Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism (1965). In Nkrumah's estimation, traditional forms of colonialism have ended, but many African states are still subject to external political and economic control by Europeans. Neocolonialism is related to dependency theory in that they both acknowledge the financial exploitation of poor counties by the rich, but neocolonialism also includes aspects of cultural imperialism. Rejection of cultural neocolonialism formed the basis of négritude philosophy, which sought to eliminate colonial and racist attitudes by affirming the values of "the black world" and embracing "blackness".
Benign colonialism
Benign colonialism is a theory of colonialism in which benefits allegedly outweigh the negatives for indigenous populations whose lands, resources, rights and freedoms come under the control of a colonising nation-state. The historical source for the concept of benign colonialism resides with John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), who served as chief examiner of the British East India Company - dealing with British interests in India - in the 1820s and 1830s. Mill's most well-known essays on benign colonialism appear in "Essays on some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy."
Mill's view contrasted with Burkean orientalists. Mill promoted the training of a corps of bureaucrats indigenous to India who could adopt the modern liberal perspective and values of 19th-century Britain. Mill predicted this group's eventual governance of India would be based on British values and perspectives.
Advocates of the concept of benign colonialism cite improved standards in health and education, in employment opportunities, in liberal markets, in the development of natural resources and in introduced governance. The first wave of benign colonialism lasted from c. 1790-1960, according to Mill's concept. The second wave included neocolonial policies exemplified in Hong Kong, where unfettered expansion of the market created a new form of benign colonialism. Political interference and military intervention in independent nation-states, such as Iraq, is also discussed under the rubric of benign colonialism in which a foreign power preempts national governance to protect a higher concept of freedom. The term is also used in the 21st century to refer to US, French and Chinese market activities in African countries with massive quantities of underdeveloped nonrenewable natural resources.
These views have support from some academics. Economic historian Niall Ferguson (born 1964) argues that empires can be a good thing provided that they are "liberal empires". He cites the British Empire as being the only example of a "liberal empire" and argues that it maintained the rule of law, benign government, free trade and, with the abolition of slavery, free labour. Historian Rudolf von Albertini agrees that, on balance, colonialism can be good. He argues that colonialism was a mechanism for modernisation in the colonies and imposed a peace by putting an end to tribal warfare.
Historians L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan have also argued that Africa probably benefited from colonialism on balance. Although it had its faults, colonialism was probably "one of the most efficacious engines for cultural diffusion in world history". The economic historian David Kenneth Fieldhouse has taken a kind of middle position, arguing that the effects of colonialism were actually limited and their main weakness was not in deliberate underdevelopment but in what it failed to do. Niall Ferguson agrees with his last point, arguing that colonialism's main weaknesses were sins of omission. Marxist historian Bill Warren has argued that whilst colonialism may be bad because it relies on force, he views it as being the genesis of Third World development.
However, history records few cases where two or more peoples have met and mingled without generating some sort of friction. The clearest cases of "benign" colonialism occur where the target exploited land is minimally populated (as with Iceland in the 9th century) or completely terra nullius (such as the Falkland Islands).
See also
References
Further reading
Albertini, Rudolf von. European Colonial Rule, 1880-1940: The Impact of the West on India, Southeast Asia, and Africa (1982) 581pp
Betts, Raymond F. The False Dawn: European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (1975)
Betts, Raymond F. Uncertain Dimensions: Western Overseas Empires in the Twentieth Century (1985)
Black, Jeremy. European International Relations, 1648–1815 (2002) excerpt and text search
Burbank, Jane, and Frederick Cooper. Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference (2011), Very wide-ranging coverage from Rome to the 1980s; 511pp
Cotterell, Arthur. Western Power in Asia: Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall, 1415 - 1999 (2009) popular history; excerpt
Dodge, Ernest S. Islands and Empires: Western Impact on the Pacific and East Asia (1976)
Furber, Holden. Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient, 1600-1800 (1976)
Furber, Holden, and Boyd C Shafer. Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient, 1600-1800 (1976)
Hodge, Carl Cavanagh, ed. Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800-1914 (2 vol. 2007), Focus on European leaders
Langer, William. An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed. 1973), very detailed outline; 6th edition ed. by Peter Stearns (2001) has more detail on Third World
McAlister, Lyle N. Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492-1700 (1984)
Ness, Immanuel and Zak Cope, eds. The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism (2 vol 2015), 1456pp
Osterhammel, Jürgen: Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1997.
Page, Melvin E. ed. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (3 vol. 2003); vol. 3 consists of primary documents; vol. 2 pages 647-831 has a detailed chronology
Porter, Andrew. European Imperialism, 1860-1914 (1996), Brief survey focuses on historiography
Roberts, Stephen H. History of French Colonial Policy (1870-1925) (2 vol 1929) vol 1 online also vol 2 online; comprehensive scholarly history
Savelle, Max. Empires to Nations: Expansion in America, 1713-1824 (1975)
Smith, Tony. The Pattern of Imperialism: The United States, Great Britain and the Late-Industrializing World Since 1815 (1981)
Townsend, Mary Evelyn. European colonial expansion since 1871 (1941).
Wilson, Henry. The Imperial Experience in Sub-Saharan Africa since 1870 (1977)
History of European colonialism
Social ethics
colonialism and colonization, Western European
Articles containing video clips
Historiography by topic
Western European colonialism and colonization
Western culture
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5090778
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology%20of%20Western%20colonialism
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Chronology of Western colonialism
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This is a non-exhaustive chronology of colonialism-related events, which may reflect political events, cultural events, and important global events that have influenced colonization and decolonization. See also Timeline of imperialism.
Before the 15th century
334 B.C Granicus River: Alexander the Great of Macedonia invades the Achaemenid Empire and defeats them at the Battle of Granicus River.
333 B.C Issus: Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeats the army of Darius III of Persia at the town of Issus in southern Anatolia.
218 B.C: During the Second Punic War, Hannibal, his men, and three dozen war elephants crossed the Alps in 15 days.
202 B.C Zama: Roman general Scipio defeats Hannibal. Carthage sues for peace.
146 B.C North Africa: The city of Carthage fell into the hands of the Roman Republic after the final attack led by Scipio the Younger. The city was destroyed and the remaining 50,000 Carthaginian citizens were sold into slavery. This battle ended the Punic Wars and practically ceded the remainder of Carthage's territory to the Roman Republic.
55 B.C Great Britain: The first Roman invasion of Britain took place when Julius Caesar and his legions landed on the British coast but were soon pushed from the area. He would return the following year with a much larger force and made better progress. However, Caesar would ultimately make peace with the British people and the Roman Republic would commence trade with them. Later Roman invasions would prove more successful.
821 Ireland: The first recorded Viking raid in Irish history occurred in AD 795 when Vikings, possibly from Norway looted the island of Lambay. The Viking raids on Ireland resumed in 821, the Vikings began to establish fortified encampments, longports, along the Irish coast and overwintering in Ireland instead of retreating to Scandinavia or British bases. The first known longports were at Linn Dúachaill (Annagassan) and Duiblinn (on the River Liffey, at or near present Dublin).
865 Great Britain: The first known account of a Viking raid in Anglo-Saxon England comes from 789, when three ships from Hordaland (in modern Norway) landed in the Isle of Portland on the southern coast of Wessex. From 865 the Norse attitude towards Great Britain changed, as they began to see it as a place for potential colonisation rather than simply a place to raid. As a result of this, larger armies began arriving on Britain's shores, with the intention of conquering land and constructing settlements there. Norse armies captured York in 867.
1000: Norsemen are the first Europeans to discover America. The first American-born European child is Snorri Thorfinnsson. Norsemen are the first Europeans to have a hostile confrontation with the Native Americans. These Viking explorers are likely to have used America as a source of vital goods, such as timber, to sustain the colonies of Iceland and Greenland for centuries. The colony at L'Anse aux Meadows in Canada and the Maine Penny in the United States are the most reliable proof of Norse presence in America.
1095: Pope Urban II proclaims the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont.
1099 Jerusalem: Christian European Crusaders storm Jerusalem and massacre its inhabitants.
15th to 18th centuries
1402: Kingdom of Castile begins with the invasion of the Canary Islands.
1415: The Portuguese Empire begins with the capture of Ceuta (Morocco).
1419: The Portuguese discover Madeira.
1427: The Portuguese discover Azores.
1441: The first consignment of slaves is brought to Lisbon (Portugal).
1452: Papal Bull Dum diversas allows enslavement of pagans.
1455: Papal Bull Romanus Pontifex grants a trade monopoly for newly discovered countries in Africa and Asia to the Portuguese.
1474: João Vaz Corte-Real, a Portuguese navigator, claims to have discovered the New Land of the Codfish, an unidentified island of which there is some speculation that it might be Newfoundland, in present-day Canada.
1481: Papal Bull Aeterni regis.
1482: The Portuguese build the Elmina Castle as the first trading point in Ghana.
1488: Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope for the Portuguese king.
1492: Discovery of the New World and symbolic date of the European Age of Exploration; beginning of the colonization of the Americas and of the Columbian Exchange.
1493: Papal Bull Inter caetera on May 4.
1494: Treaty of Tordesillas dividing the world outside of Europe in an exclusive duopoly between the Spanish and the Portuguese empires along a north–south meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa), roughly 46° 36' W. (This boundary was known as the Line of Demarcation.) The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Spain.
1498: Vasco da Gama sets foot on Kozhikode, starting the Portuguese presence in India.
1500: Pedro Álvares Cabral sails to Brazil for the Portuguese king.
1511: The Portuguese capture Malacca, in present-day Malaysia.
1515: Spanish Leyes de Burgos on January 25.
1519: The Portuguese capture Ormus, in the Strait of Hormuz, in the Persian Gulf.
1542: Spanish Leyes Nuevas ("New Laws").
1542: Creation of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
1550–1552: Valladolid Controversy and publication of A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies by Bishop of Chiapas Bartolomé de las Casas.
1600: Queen Elizabeth I of England grants a Royal charter to the English East India Company .
1602: Establishment of the Dutch East India Company.
1607: The first permanent English settlement in North America at Jamestown, Virginia.
1612-1615: The Portuguese captured Gamru Port and a few other places (like Hormuz Island ) in southern coast of Persia.
1615–1622: Abbas I, king of Persia, battled the Portuguese with the aid of the Royal Navy and the English East India Company and recaptured those lands.
1619: The first African slaves arrive in Jamestown, Virginia.
1624: The English set foot in Surat.
1625: Charles I of England receives Oldman, king of the Miskito Nation, who was taken to England by the Earl of Warwick.
1630: Puritans establish Massachusetts Bay Colony.
1651-1664: Couronian colonization of Africa.
1717: Creation of the Viceroyalty of New Granada.
1775-1783: American War of Independence.
1776: Creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
1776: The original Thirteen Colonies of the United States, also known as the United Colonies, declare independence from Britain.
1784: Britain passes Pitt's India Act.
1787: Britain creates Sierra Leone.
1788: Britain claims and proceeds to settle the eastern half of the continent of Australia.
1791-1804: Haitian Revolution and abolition of slavery by the French First Republic (reestablished by Napoleon in 1804).
1795: Britain invades the Cape region of present-day South Africa.
1798: French Invasion of Egypt.
19th century to World War I
1804–1813: Uprising in Serbia against the presence of the Ottoman Empire.
1810–1820s: Spanish American wars of independence.
1810–1821: Mexican War of Independence.
1815–1817: Serbian uprising leading to Serbian autonomy.
1820: The American Colonization Society (private citizens in the United States) created Liberia.
1821–1823: Greek War of Independence.
1822: Independence of Brazil proclaimed by Dom Pedro I.
1830: Start of the French conquest of Algeria.
1833: British abolish slavery in the West Indies; The owners are reimbursed.
1834: Beginning of the Boers' Great Trek.
1839: Papal Encyclical In Supremo Apostolatus, condemning the slave trade.
1839–1842: First Opium War and First Anglo-Afghan War.
1846–1848: Mexican–American War, which results in the Mexican Cession.
1848: Decree-law Victor Schœlcher which abolish slavery (permanently) in the French colonial empire.
1856–1860: Second Opium War.
1857: Uprising in India against British occupation, which leads to the creation of the British Raj.
1861–1867: French intervention in Mexico ordered by Napoleon III.
1870: Franco-Prussian War.
1870–1880s: Conquest of the Desert in Argentina, led by Julio Argentino Roca.
1877–1878: War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire and March 3, 1878 Treaty of San Stefano.
1878: Treaty of Berlin recognising the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria.
1878–1881: Second Anglo-Afghan War.
1879: Anglo-Zulu War.
1880–81: First Boer War
1881: Indigenous Code in Algeria.
1883: Publication of The Story of an African Farm by Olive Schreiner .
1884–85: Berlin Conference (UK, France, Germany) which sets the right of conquest for the scramble for Africa.
1885: Foundation of the Indian National Congress.
1885: Treaty of Simulambuco (between Portugal and the N'Goyo Kingdom).
1887: France creates the Indochinese Union.
1888: Lei Áurea ("Golden Law") on May 13 in Brazil which abolish slavery.
1889: Foundation of the Republic of Brazil.
1889: British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes chartered by the British government to seek treaties and administer territory between the Limpopo River and African Great Lakes.
1890: Cecil Rhodes sends the Pioneer Column into Mashonaland, starting the process of annexing the territory which became Southern Rhodesia.
1891: The Stairs Expedition to Katanga kills its king, Msiri and obtains treaties from his successors for the territory to become the possession of Leopold II of Belgium.
1895: Treaty of Shimonoseki between Japan and China and Triple Intervention.
1895: Creation of French West Africa (AOF).
1895–1896: First Italo-Ethiopian War .
1896: Anglo-Zanzibar War (on August 27).
1897: Punitive Expedition led by British Admiral Harry Rawson against Benin, which brings to an end the highly sophisticated West African Kingdom of Benin.
1898: Fashoda Incident.
1898: Spanish–American War. United States defeated Spain and seizes Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
1899: Publication of Rudyard Kipling's The White Man's Burden, as well as Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness.
1899--1901: The Boxer Rebellion begins in Qing dynasty China, but is defeated by the Eight Nation Alliance.
1899–1902: Second Boer War.
1899–1913: Philippine–American War.
1902: Anglo-Japanese Alliance: end of Britain's Splendid isolation.
1904–05: Russo-Japanese War won by Japan.
1904–07: Herero Genocide .
1905: Partition of Bengal.
1905: First Moroccan Crisis after the March 31, 1905 visit of Kaiser Wilhelm to Tangiers.
1906: Algeciras Conference to mediate the Tangier Crisis between France and Germany.
1910: Creation of French Equatorial Africa (AEF).
1911: Agadir Crisis .
1911: Chinese Revolution.
1912: France establish a full protectorate over Morocco.
1912–1913: Italo-Turkish War (Tripolitania and Cyrenaica are transferred from the Ottoman Empire to Italy).
1914–1918: World War I.
1916: May 16 Sykes-Picot Agreement.
1916–1918: Arab Revolt initiated by Hussein bin Ali and Emir Faisal.
1918: Woodrow Wilson's January 9 speech on the Fourteen Points.
Interwar period
1919: Foundation of the League of Nations at the Paris Peace Conference and creation of the League of Nations Mandates (Iraq and Palestine — including Transjordan — are passed to Great Britain's control, Lebanon and Syria to France; the Cameroons and Togoland are split between the UK and France; Ruanda-Urundi goes to Belgium and Tanganyika to the UK; Nauru and New Guinea to Australia; the remainder of German New Guinea to Japan as the South Seas Mandate; Samoa to New Zealand and South West Africa to South Africa).
1919: Third Anglo-Afghan War.
1919: Anti-imperialist Non-Cooperation Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi.
1920: San Remo conference in April.
1920: Treaty of Sèvres on August 10 between the Triple Entente (UK, France and Russia) and the Ottoman Empire; Mustafa Kemal leads the Turkish War of Independence leading to the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.
1922: Creation of the Soviet Union.
1923: Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey by Mustafa Kemal on October 29.
1924: British Empire Exhibition.
1925: Foundation of the Algerian Star of North Africa by Messali Hadj .
1921–1926: Rif War in Morocco, led by Abd el-Krim.
1927: May 19 Treaty of Jeddah accords independence to Saudi Arabia led by King Abdul Aziz.
1927–1928: Publication of André Gide's Voyage au Congo (Travels in the Congo).
1931: Paris Colonial Exposition.
1931: Dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa gain independence from Britain.
1932: Independence of Iraq.
1930: Portuguese Colonial Act.
1933: Publication of Gilberto Freyre's Casa-Grande & Senzala ("The Great House and the Slave Quarters" - 1933).
1935: Aimé Césaire coins the word Négritude.
1936: Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (never ratified by France).
1936–1939: Great Arab Revolt in the British Mandate of Palestine.
1935–36: Second Italo-Abyssinian War.
World War II, and Cold War until the Détente
World War II (1939-1945).
1941: Atlantic charter Endorsed by all the Allies of World War II; Calls for self-determination.
1941: Foundation of the Viet Minh by Ho Chi Minh.
1941: Syria proclaims its independence from Vichy France, which is recognized in 1944.
1942: Quit India Movement called for by Gandhi on August 9.
1943: Independence of Lebanon.
1944: Nelson Mandela joins the African National Congress.
1945:Allies of World War II form the United Nations in San Francisco.
1945: Sétif massacre in Algeria on May 8.
1945: Proclamation of the independence of Indonesia by Sukarno & Mohammad Hatta.
1945: Proclamation of the independence of Vietnam by Ho Chi Minh.
1945: Foundation of the Arab League on March 22 (Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Yemen).
1945: Fifty states sign the Charter of the United Nations on June 26.
1945–1950: Chinese Civil War between the nationalist Kuomintang and the Communist Party led by Mao Zedong.
1946–1954: First Indochina War.
1947: Official start of the Cold War (see Cold War (1947-1953) and Cold War (1953-1962)).
1947: Independence of India and of Pakistan (Pakistan came into being on August 14, and India on August 15).
1947: UN Resolution 181 on the partition of Palestine in favor of a Two-state solution.
1947: French repression of the Malagasy uprising. 90 to 100 000 killed.
1948: Declaration of the independence of the State of Israel on May 14 and first Arab-Israeli War.
1948: Colonial exhibition in Belgium.
1949: Proclamation of the People's Republic of China by Mao Zedong.
1951: Publication of Hannah Arendt's The Origins of Totalitarianism (second section dedicated to imperialism).
1952: Alfred Sauvy coins the term "Third World".
1954: French establishments in India cease to exist after de facto transfer to the Republic of India (de jure union accomplished in 1962).
1954: Battle of Dien Bien Phu & 1954 Geneva Accords marks the end of French Indochina.
1955: Bandung Conference.
1956: Suez Crisis between Israel, the UK and France against Egypt, after Nasser's nationalisation of the Suez Canal Company.
1957: Algerian independence militant Larbi Ben M'Hidi murdered in prison, early March.
1957: First country sub-Saharan Africa (Ghana) regains independence.
1958: Foundation of the United Arab Republic as a first step toward a Pan-Arab nation; it is formed by Egypt and Syria (until 1961). Creation also of the short-term Arab Federation of Iraq and Jordan.
1959: Independence of Morocco and Tunisia.
1960: Independence of French colonies in Africa; the UN reach 99 members states.
1961: Assassination of Patrice Lumumba, first prime minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on January 17.
1961: Formation of the Conferência das Organizações Nacionalistas das Colónias Portuguesas on April 18 in Casablanca, Morocco (PAIGC, MPLA, FRELIMO and MLSTP).
1961: Creation of the Non-Aligned Movement.
1961: Soviet premier Khrushchev declares that the Soviet Union would support all "national liberation movements".
1961: Publication of Frantz Fanon' The Wretched of the Earth.
1961: October 17 Paris massacre.
1961: Indian annexation of Goa ends Portuguese India (Goa, Dadra, Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu).
1961–1974: Portuguese Colonial War; See also Angolan War of Independence (1961-1989).
1962: Évian Accords halts the Algerian War and puts end to French rule in North-Africa.
1963 to the fall of the Berlin Wall
1963: Assassination of Sylvanus Olympio on January 13, first president of Togo; he is replaced by Gnassingbé Eyadéma, who ruled over Togo until his death in 2005.
1965–1975: Vietnam War.
1965: Assassination of Mehdi Ben Barka, leader of the UNPF and of the Tricontinental Conference.
1965: Joseph Mobutu becomes the dictator of the Democratic Republic of Congo until his overthrow in 1997 by Laurent-Désiré Kabila.
1969: Assassination of Eduardo Mondlane, leader of the FRELIMO.
1970s: Independence of the former Portuguese colonies, following the April 25, 1974 Carnation Revolution and the Portuguese Colonial War .
1971: Independence of Bangladesh following the war with Pakistan.
1971: Publication of Eduardo Galeano's Open Veins of Latin America.
1971: Publication of Gustavo Gutiérrez's A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, Salvation.
1973: Assassination of Amilcar Cabral, leader of the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) on January 20.
1973: The PAIGC proclaims the independence of Guinea-Bissau on September 24.
1975: Portugal recognizes Mozambique's independence on June 25 and Angola on November 11.
November 1975: Green March during which Morocco annexes Western Sahara, formerly part of Spanish Morocco.
1979: Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and start of the "Second Cold War".
1980: The UN reaches 154 member states.
1980: Assassination of Óscar Romero, prelate archbishop of San Salvador and proponent of the Liberation theology, on March 24.
1982: Latin American debt crisis (in particular in Mexico, Brazil and Argentina).
1988: Assassination of Dulcie September, member of the African National Congress.
1989: Operation Just Cause against Manuel Noriega.
1990: Independence of Namibia, the UN reaches 159 states.
1990s onwards
1994: Nelson Mandela becomes president of South Africa in the nation's first all race election, ending colonial apartheid in the country.
2001: French law recognizing slavery and the Atlantic slave trade as crimes against humanity (Taubira Law).
2005: February 23 French law on the "positive aspects" of "French presence abroad, in particular in North Africa."
2006: Repeal of the February 23, 2005 French law, following criticisms of historical revisionism.
2010: Dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles.
See also
Timeline of European imperialism
Colonialism
International relations (1814–1919)
Wars of national liberation
Decolonization
British colonization of the Americas
Former colonies and territories in Canada
French colonization of the Americas
Spanish colonization of the Americas
List of French possessions and colonies
References
Further reading
Benjamin, Thomas. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism Since 1450 (3 vol. 2006)
Hodge, Carl Cavanagh. Encyclopedia of the Age of Imperialism, 1800-1914 (2 vol. 2007)
Lehning, James. European Colonialism since 1700 (2013)
Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) online
Page, Melvin E. et al. eds. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (3 vol. 2003)
Stuchtey, Benedikt, ed. Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450-1950, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011
History of European colonialism
Western culture
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5090801
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovens%20%26%20Murray%20Football%20Netball%20League
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Ovens & Murray Football Netball League
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The Ovens and Murray Football Netball League (O&MFNL) is an Australian rules football and netball competition containing ten clubs based in north-eastern Victoria, the southern Riverina region of New South Wales and the Ovens and Murray area. The name comes from the Ovens River, the river in the part of north-eastern Victoria covered by the league, and the Murray River, which separates Victoria and New South Wales.
The league features three grades in the Australian rules football competition, with these being Seniors, Reserve-Grade and Under 18s. In the netball competition, there are four grades, with these being A-Grade, B-Grade, C-Grade and Under 16s.
Currently a home and away season consisting of eighteen rounds is played. The best five teams then play off according to the McIntyre system, culminating in the O&MFNL Grand Final, which from 1995 to 2017 was held at the Lavington Sports Ground in the Albury suburb of Hamilton Valley.
History
Beginnings of the O&MFA
Organised competition in the area started as the "Ovens & Murray Football Association" in 1893, with the following foundation clubs – Beechworth Wanderers, Chiltern, Eldorado, Rutherglen, Wangaratta City and Wangaratta West End, with Beechworth Football Club winning premierships in 1893 and 1894 and Rutherglen winning thirteen O&MFA flags between 1895 and 1915.
In 1910, the O&MFA had only three teams – Albury, Excelsior and Rutherglen with Rutherglen winning the premiership.
Then in 1911, both Excelsior and Rutherglen applied to enter the Rutherglen and District Football Association. As a result, the O&MFL folded, with local teams attempting to apply to play in the Rutherglen & DFA. A ballot took place at a Rutherglen & DFA meeting on 29 April at Mackay's Hotel, Rutherglen which resulted in Balldale, North Albury, Rutherglen, South Albury and Wodonga being refused admission to join the association. Corowa, Excelsior and Lake Rovers were club's that were admitted. In 1911, the Albury Football Club was planning to divide the club into South Albury and North Albury teams, but as they were not admitted into the Rutherglen & DFA, the club went into recess in 1911. Rutherglen FC also went into recess in 1911.
Albury FC and Rutherglen FC were admitted into the Rutherglen & DFA in 1912.
In 1913, the Rutherglen & DFA consisting of the following teams – Albury, Balldale, Border United, Howlong, Lake Rovers and Rutherglen, with Albury defeating Rutherglen in the grand final at the Albury Sportground.
The competition reformed under the Ovens & Murray Football Association banner again in 1914, involving the following five teams: Albury, Border United, Howlong, Lake Rovers and Rutherglen. Balldale FC entered the Coreen & District Football League in 1914.
In 1915, Beechworth Football Club and Wangaratta Football Club returned to play in the O&MFA. Howlong Football Club entered the Chiltern & District Football Association and went onto win the premiership, while Rutherglen defeated Lake Rovers in the O&MFA grand final played at Rutherglen.
After a three-year break due to World War I, the O&MFA reformed for the 1919 season with only four clubs, Border United Football Club (Corowa based), Howlong, Lake Rovers and Rutherglen. Albury Football Club was reformed in early 1919 and played in the Albury Senior Football Association with two teams – South Albury and North Albury, with St. Patrick's FC defeating South Albury Football Club in the grand final on the Albury Sportsground.
In 1920 the O&MFA didn't reform; "It seems strange that the O&MFA has apparently been allowed to die a natural death" with only two club's present at the O&MFA – AGM., with some clubs moving to play in the Chiltern & DFA and Coreen & DFA.
The competition reformed in 1921 with Lakes Rovers, Rutherglen, St Patricks, Corowa, Springhurst and Wahgunyah. In 1922, larger town clubs Benalla and Wangaratta joined the OMFA whilst Wahgunyah and Springhurst moved to the Chiltern DFL.
In 1924, Lake Rovers Football Club amalgamated with the Rutherglen Football Club. and Albury FC and the Diggers FC also decided to amalgamate in 1924 and apply for admission into the Ovens and Murray Football League as Albury Football Club.
In 1926, the O&M name was changed from an association to a league, its present form. Around this time the clubs contesting the league included Wangaratta, Hume Weir (which drew many of its players from workers constructing the Hume Dam at the time), Yarrawonga and two clubs from the town of Albury, St Patricks and Albury club). These two clubs were largely divided amongst sectarian lines, St Patricks being Roman Catholic and Albury being Protestant and, after much tension, in 1929 the two clubs agreed to disband and form two new clubs, East Albury Football Club and West Albury Football Club, with the player base to be drawn geographically.
Following the 1930 season, a 19 year old West Albury player, Haydn Bunton, who has sometimes been described as the best ever player of Australian rules, was recruited by VFL club Fitzroy. Bunton won Brownlow Medals in 1931, 1932 and 1935, before transferring to Subiaco in the WANFL, where he won Sandover Medals in 1938, 1939 and 1941. Bunton has remained one of only four triple Brownlow medallists, and the only player to have been awarded three Brownlows and three Sandovers. (Bunton Park, where North Albury Football Club is based, was named after his brother Cleaver Bunton, who was elected president of the O&MFL in 1930 and would serve in that role until 1969. Cleaver Bunton was also mayor of Albury for 30 years.)
In 1930 Hume Weir Football Club and Ebden Rovers Football Club merged to become the Weir United Football Club.
East Albury Football Club and Weir United Football Club merged in 1933 to become the Border United Football Club (Albury based) and wore green and white jumpers. In 1933 West Albury Football Club changed its name to the Albury Football Club and remained in the West Albury colours of maroon and blue.
At the O&MFA's 1936 Annual General Meeting, it was announced that the Border United FC would merge with the Albury Football Club as both clubs were in debt and also due to a lack of players. The newly merged team took on the name of the Albury Football Club. This left the City of Albury with only one football team.
Post-World War II
In 1940, the league went into recess after round 10 for the duration of World War II, before full competition resumed in 1946. In 1945, Rutherglen, played in the Chiltern & District Football Association and Wodonga played in the Albury Border Football Association in 1945. In 1947 North Albury was admitted, followed by Wangaratta Rovers and Myrtleford, who were admitted from the Ovens & King Football League in 1950. Wangaratta won four consecutive premierships between 1949 and 1953, under captain coach, Mac Holten.
The Wangaratta Rovers would go on to dominate the O&M for the remainder of the 20th Century, winning fifteen premierships to date, a number only recently overhauled by Albury with their own streak of flags.
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s the league began to gain a reputation within Victoria as being the strongest competition outside the then VFL and VFA. The best players were often recruited from the O&M to play for one of the "city" clubs, but it was not uncommon for a VFL player to retire from the "big" league and play in the O&M or another country league, and perhaps start a coaching career there as well, often at the same time as a playing coach. One notable example of this, as far as the O&M was concerned, was Bob Rose, who left Collingwood as a player in 1955 and became captain coach of the Wangaratta Rovers and lead them to two premierships in 1958 and 1960, after which he returned to Collingwood to continue his coaching career.
1970s and 1980s
In 1968, the VFL introduced country recruitment zones throughout Victoria and Riverina, which limited the areas from which each VFL club could recruit. The O&MFL was allocated to North Melbourne, and thus quite a few of the better players from the O&M came to play for the Kangaroos, contributing in part to that club's rise to success in the 1970s. These included Mick Nolan, Xavier Tanner, Gary Cowton, Peter Chisnall and John Byrne and later John Longmire, who had a good season with Corowa-Rutherglen as a goal kicking forward in O&M seniors in 1987. The zoning system was discontinued in the late 1980s as the VFL/AFL introduced a draft system.
The Wangaratta Rovers dominated the 1970s, playing in ten grand finals between 1970 and 1980, winning seven premierships and finishing third in 1973.
In 1974 the O&MFL was disaffiliated by the Victorian Country Football League (VCFL) when the O&MFL refused to accept an application from the Lavington Football Club to join the league. By this stage the football club was based at the Lavington Sports Club, an established licensed club, and was strong enough to field teams in both the Tallangatta League and Hume Football League the following year.
The makeup of the competition remained stable until 1979, when Corowa and Rutherglen merged into Corowa-Rutherglen, and the Lavington Football Club was finally admitted from the Farrer Football League, so the number of clubs remained at ten.
Lavington's home ground, the Lavington Sports Club Oval, provided an ideal venue for many sports as the sports club gradually developed it after its construction in the 1970s. The league has designated it as the venue for most of the league's grand finals since the 1980s. Recently, added assistance for the staging of the grand final through regional promotion and in-kind sponsorship has been provided by the Albury City Council.
In 1983, after an unsuccessful debut season playing for Hawthorn the previous year, Gary Ablett played for Myrtleford in the O&M for a year, before he was recruited by Geelong where he recommenced his career in the VFL/AFL and established himself as one of the code's best players, being inducted into the Australian Football Hall of Fame in 2005.
By the late 1980s, the Wodonga Demons of the Tallangatta League had made a number of bids to join the O&M, and in 1989 were accepted into the competition to serve the west of the city of Wodonga, based at Birralee Park. They changed their name to the Wodonga Raiders Football Club so as to not cause confusion with the Benalla Demons and the long established Wodonga Football Club.
The 1990 Bloodbath Grand Final
Shortly after the commencement of the 1990 grand final between Wodonga and Lavington, played at the Albury Sportsground, most of the players of the two teams became involved in a bench-clearing brawl. As the game was televised by a local TV station, the footage received sensationalistic national media coverage where the brawl was generally described as a shocking indictment on the code. Even though over a decade had elapsed, comparisons to this incident were made after the 2004 AFL Cairns Grand Final descended into a similar fracas.
Wodonga eventually won the match by 20 points and thus the premiership, and the league tribunal handed out a number of lengthy suspensions to players from both sides for the following season. Incidentally, the result marked the second premiership for Wodonga's coach of that time, Jeff Gieschen, his first for the club being in 1987, before he went on to coach West Perth and then a stint at Richmond in 1997–1999.
Recent years
In 1998, after a string of unsuccessful seasons in the O&M, Benalla moved to the Goulburn Valley Football League. In 2000 the Penrith Panthers Leagues Club, financiers of the Penrith Panthers National Rugby League team, merged with the Lavington Sports Club. As a result, the Lavington Football Club changed their nickname from the Blues to the Panthers, added "Panthers" to their title, and adopted a guernsey in the same colours as the NRL Panthers, but in the Port Adelaide AFL pattern.
Also around this time, the Wagga Tigers Football Club, which had dominated the Riverina Football League, made a bid to join the O&MFL; however, partially due to concerns from the league's southern clubs about travel times, the bid was rejected. The Wagga Tigers then successfully bid to join AFL Canberra.
In 2000 the O&MFL, in an association with the AFL North Melbourne Football Club, fielded a team in the Victorian Football League called the Murray Kangaroos, playing home games between Coburg and Lavington. However, due to concerns from O&M clubs about player availability, the Kangaroos about travel time, and poor attendances compared with O&M league games, the venture was discontinued after three seasons and the Kangaroos subsequently set up an affiliation with the established VFL club Port Melbourne.
The league operates with a $125,000 salary cap. The Wangaratta Magpies exceeded this in 2022, and the club was stripped of its 2022 premiership flag, a first in country football, among other penalties.
Current clubs
Former clubs
Notes
The club monikers listed above for former clubs are the ones they currently use and may not be their monikers used when playing in the Ovens and Murray league.
Club Mergers
1877: Corowa FC & Wahgunyah FC merged between 1877 & 1905, then 1914 & 1919, and 1944 & 1947 and were known as Border United FC (Corowa based).
1907: Lake Moodemere and Rutherglen FC merged just prior to the start of the 1907 O&MFA season and were then known as Rutherglen FC.
1924: Albury FC and the Diggers FC merge and apply for admission into the Ovens and Murray Football League as Albury FC.
1924: Lake Rovers Football Club amalgamated with the Rutherglen Football Club and be known as Rutherglen FC.
1929: Benalla FC and Benalla Rovers FC merged to become Benalla Rovers FC, before changing back to Benalla FC in 1931.
1930: Hume Weir Football Club and Ebden Rovers Football Club merged to become the Weir United Football Club.
1930: Wangaratta FC (O&MFL) and Wangaratta Rovers FC (O&KFL) merged in 1930 and entered one team in the O&MFL & another team in the O&KFL. Wangaratta Rovers reformed as a stand-alone club in 1945 and entered a team in the O&KFL, before joining the O&MFL in 1950.
1933: East Albury Football Club and Weir United Football Club merge to become the Border United Football Club (Albury based) and wore green and white jumpers.
1933: West Albury Football Club changed its name to the Albury Football Club and remained in the West Albury colours of maroon and blue.
1936: Border United FC would merge with the Albury Football Club and be known as Albury FC.
1979: Corowa FC and Rutherglen FC merge to become Corowa / Rutherglen FC.
League honour boards
Premierships
Records: by competition level
Most premierships
Seniors
(22) Albury
Reserves
(19) Wodonga
Thirds
(12) Wodonga
A Grade
(9) Yarrawonga
B Grade
(9) North Albury
C Grade
(11) North Albury
D Grade
(4) North Albury
Most premierships in a row
Seniors
(4) St. Patrick (1921, 1922, 1923, 1924)
(4) Wangaratta (1949, 1950, 1951, 1952)
Reserves
(3) Wodonga (1969, 1970, 1971)
(3) Yarrawonga (1973, 1974, 1975)
(3) Wodonga (1993, 1994, 1995)
(3) Wodonga Raiders (1997, 1998, 1999)
(3) Wodonga (2004, 2005, 2006)
(3) Albury (2008, 2009, 2010)
Thirds
(4) Wodonga (2004, 2005, 2006, 2007)
A Grade
(4) Yarrawonga (2009, 2010, 2011, 2012)
B Grade
(4) North Albury (2012, 2013, 2014, 2015)
C Grade
(5) North Albury (2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008)
D Grade
(2) North Albury (2014, 2015)
Records
Football: Seniors
Most flags in a row:
4, St. Patrick (1921, 1922, 1923, 1924).
4, Wangaratta (1949, 1950, 1951, 1952).
Most grand finals in a row:
10: Albury: 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018.
7: Wangaratta Rovers: 1970, 1971, 1972, (1973 - 3rd), 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980.(10 grand finals in 11 years)
5: Wangaratta: 1922, 1923, 1924, 1925, 1926.
(bold: premiership years)
Senior Football Premierships (1893-present)
For Grand Final records in all grades click here
Current finals system
Since 1972 the OMFL has used the "McIntyre system". The final series is played over four weekends, with the grand final traditionally being played on the third weekend of September. Also normally there is no home ground advantage is awarded any teams, instead the O&M board deems where the finals will be held, with all finals for both Football & Netball are played at the one venue during each final day. The Grand Final since 1995 has been held at Lavington Sports Ground ("Lavington Panthers Oval") in the Albury suburb of Hamilton Valley.
O&MFNL – Club Championships
Cleaver E. Bunton Football Championships
From 1953 to 1972 total points were based on the most ladder points across the seniors and reserves grades of O&MFL football. Unsure what year this award was first given.
From 1973 onwards, this award is based on the most ladder points across all three grades of O&MFL football.
1964: Wangaratta
1965: Albury
1966: Wangaratta
1967: Wangaratta
1968: Myrtleford
1969: Wodonga
1970: Wodonga
1971: Benalla
1972: Benalla
1973: ?
1974: Yarrawonga
1975: Wangaratta Rovers
1976: ?
1977: Wangaratta Rovers
1978: Wangaratta Rovers
1979: Wodonga
1980:
1981:
1982: Wodonga
1983: Albury
1984: Wangaratta Rovers
1985: Albury
1986: Wodonga
1987: Wodonga
1988: Wangaratta Rovers
1989: Wodonga
1990: Wodonga
1991: Wodonga
1992: Wodonga
1993: Wodonga
1994: Wodonga
1995: Albury
1996: Albury
1997: Wodonga Raiders
1998: Wodonga Raiders
1999: Albury
2000: Albury & Corowa Rutherglen
2001: Wangaratta Rovers
2002: Wangaratta Rovers
2003: Wodonga Raiders
2004: Wodonga
2005: Wodonga
2006: Wodonga & Wangaratta
2007: Wodonga
2008: Albury
2009: Albury
2010: Albury
2011: Albury
2012: Albury
2013: Albury
2014: Albury
2015: Albury
2016: Albury
2017: Albury
2018: Albury
2019: Albury
2020: O&M in recess. COVID-19
2021: Albury
2022: Wangaratta Rovers
2023: Albury
Anne Lawrence Netball Championships
*1997: North Albury
1998: North Albury
1999: Yarrawonga
2000: Albury
2001: Albury
2002: Yarrawonga
2003: Yarrawonga
2004: Wodonga
2005: North Albury
2006: North Albury
2007: North Albury
2008: North Albury
2009: North Albury
2010: North Albury
2011: North Albury
2012: North Albury
2013: Lavington
2014: North Albury
2015: North Albury
2016: Lavington
2017: Lavington & North Albury
2018: North Albury
2019: Corowa Rutherglen
2020: O&M in recess. COVID-19
2021: Yarrawonga
2022: Corowa Rutherglen
2023: Wodonga Raiders
Overall Club Championship
2010: Yarrawonga
2011: Albury
2012: Lavington
2013: Albury & Lavington
2014: Albury
2015: Albury
2016: Lavington
2017: Albury
2018: Yarrawonga
2019: Wangaratta
2020: O&M in recess. COVID-19
2021: Albury
2022: Yarrawonga
2023: Wangaratta
Awards
Football: Seniors Best and fairest
The Morris Medal is given for the best and fairest senior player in the O&MFL during the home and away season at a vote count held in the week preceding the grand final. The award is similar to the AFL's Brownlow Medal, with match day umpires awarding 3, 2 and 1 votes to the best players in each match. The medal has been donated by C H Morris & Sons Wines of Rutherglen since 1933.
The player who has won the most Morris Medals is Robbie Walker, who won five whilst playing for the Wangaratta Rovers, followed by Jim Sandral (Corowa) and John Brunner (Yarrawonga) with three apiece.
In 2000 the O&MFNL awarded retrospective Morris Medals to senior competition footballers (but not to reserves and thirds grade players) who had polled the same number of votes as the winner, but finished second under the count-back system in years gone by and been denied the honour of a medal. The players who received these medals were - Lance Oswald 1957, Bob Rose 1958, Jim Sandral 1964, Alby Dunn 1965, Jack O'Halloran 1975, Mike Andrews 1976, Greg O'Brien 1976 and Ken Boundy 1977.
Football: Reserves Best and Fairest
The Reserves Leo Burke Medal is awarded for the best and fairest seconds football player in the O&MFL during the home and away season. This award was originally called the Ralph Marks Award from 1953 to 1963. Marks was a former president of North Albury and an O&MFL official. Marks was the O&MFL Secretary from 1970 to 1975. This award was then called the Les Cuddon Award from 1964 to 1975, who was an O&MFL official from Rutherglen. Leo Burke from Burke's Hotel, Yarrawonga then took over as the award donor in 1975.
1954 – K Teakle won on a countback. Aitken & Purss, both polled 9 votes in this award, but lost on a count back and have never received a retrospective medal like others have in the Morris Medal.
1957 – Norm Hawking (Rutherglen) also won the 1951 O&MFL Morris Medal too.
1968 – Norm Hogan won on a countback. Alan Benton lost on a count back and has never received a retrospective medal like others have in the Morris Medal.
1969 – Alan Daniel won on a countback. Flower lost on a count back and has never received a retrospective medal like others have in the Morris Medal.
1971 winner, Terry Burgess & 1996 winner, Scott Burgess are father and son.
2013 – Ben Dower (Albury) was ineligible to win after being suspended during the home and away series.
2022 – Xavier Leslie (Yarrawonga) also won the 2013 O&MFNL Morris Medal too.
Football: Under 18 / Thirds Best and Fairest
The Thirds / Under 18 competition commenced in 1973 and the Leo Dean Medal is awarded for the best and fairest thirds football player in the O&MFL during the home and away season. This award was originally called the 3NE Award for the Thirds competition inaugural year in 1973 to 1984.
Leo Andrew Dean was a talented young former Wangaratta player who tragically died on Monday, 3 September 1984, at 20 years of age and this award is in memory of him.
1983 – Rod Brewster (Benalla) won on a countback. Michael Moore (Myrtleford) lost on a count back, but did receive a retrospective medal in 2023.
1985 – John Pulling (Corowa Rutherglen) won on a countback. Paul Greaves (Benalla) lost on a count back, but did receive a retrospective medal in 2023.
1989 – Daine Hochfeld (Wangaratta Rovers) polled the most votes, but was deemed ineligible due to a two-week suspension for abusive language during the home and away series.
1991 – Craig McBrien (Lavington) polled 13 x three votes.
1998 – Myrtleford brothers, Greg, Mark and Justin Knobel have all won a O&MFNL Thirds best and fairest award.
O&MFNL – Rising Star of the Year
The O&MFNL Rookie of the Year was first awarded in 1987.
Rookie of the Year 1987 to 1994
The Richard Hamilton Award (Rising Star of the Year)
1987: John Longmire: Corowa Rutherglen
1988: Chris Naish: Wangaratta
1989: Ben Doolan: Albury
1990: Clinton Cole: North Albury
1991: Damian Houlihan: Corowa Rutherglen
1992: Adrian Whitehead: Wodonga
1993: Trent Montgomery: Wangaratta
1994: Matthew Fowler: Albury
1995: No award
1996: No award
1997: No award
1998: David Willett: Corowa Rutherglen
1999: Joshua Cross: Albury
2000: Cory Brown: Lavington
2001: Matthew Prendergast: Lavington
2002: Andrew Carey: Myrtleford
2003: Matthew Dwyer: Wangaratta Rovers
2004: Daine Porter: Wangaratta
2005: Mark Tyrell: Yarrawonga
2006: Craig Lieschke: Wodonga
2007: Jack Ziebell: Wodonga
2008: Todd Bryant: Wodonga Raiders
2009: Jared Worsteling: Wodonga
2010: Luke McNeil: Lavington
2011: Nico Sedgwick: Lavington
2012: Hayden Filliponi: Corowa Rutherglen
2013: Alex Marklew: Wangaratta Rovers
2014: Josh Minogue: North Albury
2015: Marcus Hargreaves: Yarrawonga
2016: Brad Melville Wangaratta
2017: Joe Richards Wangaratta
2018: Darcy Chellew: Myrtleford
2019: Ky Williamson: Wangaratta Rovers
2020: O&M in recess. COVID-19
2021: Josh Mathey: Wodonga
2022: Isaac McGrath: Albury
2023: Nelson Bowey: Wodonga Raiders
Leading Football Goal Kicker
Most times leading goalkickers
7 – Steve Norman – Wangaratta Rovers
6 – Stan Sargeant – North Albury
4 – Chris Stuhldreier – Lavington
Most centuries of goals kicked
3 – Steve Norman – Wangaratta Rovers
3 – Chris Stuhldreier – Lavington
Most career goals kicked
1096 – Stan Sargeant; 289 games; 3.79 goals per game. North Albury
1016 – Steve Norman; 242 games; 4.19 goals per game. Wangaratta Rovers
O&MFL Grand Final – Best on ground
2007 to 2020 season senior football ladders
O&MFL Representative Match Results
Senior Football
The first known representative match was in 1914 when a team from the Albury, Corowa and Howlong clubs (O&M – NSW) played against a team made of Lake Rovers, Mount Ophir and Rutherglen (O&M – Vic), with the Victorian side defeating NSW by two points on the Albury Sportsground, in the State of Origin match.
In 1958, the O&MFL picked two separate teams, with one team playing the Farrer Football League and the other team playing the Riverina Football League, with both games played on the weekend of the 4 and 5 July 1958.
Caltex had the naming rights of the Victorian Country Championships matches in the 1960s. The 16 league series would run over a two-year period, with knock out matches in the first season, followed by semi finals and a grand final in the following season.
In 1974, the O&MFL were disaffiliated with the VCFL, when the O&MFL refused to accept an application from the Lavington Football Club to join the league and were not allowed to compete in the Victorian Country Championships in 1974. The VCFL Country Championships was put on hold from 1975 to 1977. The O&MFL were re-affiliated with VCFL in 1976.
In 1998, the VAFA defeated the O&MFL at Waverley Park to win the Smokefree Victorian Challenge match, as a curtain raiser to the AFL Ansett Cup Pre season grand final, then the O&MFL turned the tables on the VAFA the following year in the same challenge match at the same venue.
From 2004 to 2006 the championships were decided at a carnival round-robin competition at one venue over a single weekend, with each of the four sides playing the others in matches of two twenty-minute halves. The team on top of the ladder, after these three matches, were declared the winner. Leagues not represented in the top four pools of four participated in other inter-league matches organised by the VCFL.
In 2007, there was no statewide VCFL Championships, just a rivalry round was played between close by leagues, (with the O&MFL playing the GVFL), with the round robin format returning in 2008.
The O&M have gone onto win the first division of the Victorian Country Football League interleague championship fourteen times, the most recent victory being in 2009.
The O&MFL representative teams wears a gold guernsey, emblazoned with a monogram-style black "O&M" initials, with black shorts and black socks.\
VCFL League Rankings
In 2009 the VCFL decided to rank each country football league, with the O&MFL initially ranked number one.
The Metropolitan and Country Football Championships merged in 2016 to create a statewide competition, with the rankings reorganised to include metropolitan leagues in 2017.
The O&MFL were ranked number five in Victoria in the 2019 VCFL Country Championships.
As of 2020, AFL Victoria decided to scrap its traditional interleague competition, but leagues could decide amongst themselves, if they wish to play or not.
2009 – 1
2010 – 3
2011 – 5
2012 – 5
2013 – 3
2014 – 5
2015 – 4
2016 – 5
2017 – 6
2018 – 4
2019 – 5
2020 – AFL Victoria abandon the Victorian Country Football Championships. No interleague competition > COVID-19.
The Ash Wilson Trophy
The Ovens & Murray Football League and the Goulburn Valley Football League have played for this trophy since 2001, to honour two long serving players - GVFL's Stephen Ash and OMFL's Mick Wilson, but the league's have been competing against each other in inter league football matches since 1930, when they first met at the Wangaratta Showgrounds, with the OMFL winning 17 and the GVFL winning 10 matches.
VCFL Championships
VCFL Championships – Division One:
1954, 1955, 1957, 1967/68, 1985, 1987, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2006, 2008, 2009.
Runners Up
1956, 1965/66, 1970, 1980, 2009.
Division Two Champions
1994
Highest Score by the O&MFL
1971 – O&MFL: 30.15 – 195 v Farrer FL No.2 team: 12.8 – 80
Lowest Score by the O&MFL
1970 – Hampden FL: 9.19 – 73 d O&MFL: 3.12 – 30 (VCFL grand final in Warrnambool).
Most O&M Rep games
33: John Smith
23: Mick Wilson (1990–2000)
Most Goals in a match
11 – Norm Minns: 1955 – O&M v Benalla Tungamah FL (VCFL semi final)
11 – Adam Prior: 2014 – O&M v Hampden FL
9 – Terry Bartel: 1971 – O&M v Farrer FL
The Norm Minns Medal
Norm Minns (08/01/1925-29/12/1987) was a former Wangaratta and O&MFL player and captain / coach of Benalla and Corowa. He was also a long time O&MFL selector and life member.
The Norm Minns Medal is awarded to the O&MFL best player in senior representative football and was first awarded in 1997.
1997 – Guy Rigoni – Myrtleford
1998 – Brett Kirk – North Albury
1999 – Tim Hargreaves – Yarrawonga
1999 – Travis McLean – Albury
2000 – Tim Hargreaves – Yarrawonga
2001 – Rod Skender – Myrtleford
2002 – Travis Hodgson – North Albury
2003 – Kade Stevens – Lavington
2004 – Jarrod Twitt – Wodonga
2005 – Peter Taylor – Wangaratta Rovers
2006 – Craig Ednie – Yarrawonga
2007 – Scott Oswald – Yarrawonga
2008 – Matt Prendergast – Lavington
2009 – David Clarke – Corowa Rutherglen
2010 – Matt Pendergast – Lavington
2011 – Michael Stevens – Yarrawonga
2012 – Judd Porter – Wangaratta
2013 – Jarrod Thompson – Yarrawonga
2014 – Joel Mackie – North Albury
2015 – Sam Carpenter – Corowa Rutherglen
2016 – Daniel Cross – Albury
2017 – Jono Spina – Lavington
2018 – Mark Whiley – Yarrawonga
2019 – Nathan Cooper – Wangaratta Rovers
2020 – O&MFL in recess. COVID-19
2021 – No rep football
2022 – Joe Richards
The Peter Johnston Medal
Peter Johnston was a former North Albury FC and O&MFNL official and life member of both organisations.
This medal is awarded to the best Under 18 O&MFNL footballer in representative matches.
2017 – Bailey Frauenfalder: Yarrawonga
2018 – Will Quirk: Myrtleford
2019 – Jake Bradshaw:
2020 – No interleague football > COVID-19
2021 – No interleague football > COVID-19
2022 – Josh Mathey – Wodonga
Ovens & Murray Hall of Fame
The Ovens & Murray Hall of Fame was established in 2005, to recognise and promote the outstanding achievements of some of the league's greatest players, dedicated administrators and club support staff and long serving media representatives.
As of the 2022 ceremony there have been 87 inductees, including three netballers.
Only six people have received the additional honour of being promoted to "Legend" status.
2005 – Cleaver Bunton AO OBE
2007 – Rob Walker
2012 – Neville Hogan
2013 – Jim Sandral
2017 – Stan Sargeant
2022 – Martin Cross
2023 - John Smith
Netball
History
The netball competition's were added to the Ovens & Murray Football League from the 1993 season, with A and B. Grade. The C. Grade competition was established in 1996, with the 17 and under competition commencing in 2012.
The Toni Wilson Medal is awarded for the best and fairest A-Grade netball player in the OMFNL during the home and away season. Wilson (the older sister of Mick Nolan) was the first President of the O&M Netball Association and instrumental in getting the netball competition formed in 1993.
Minor grades
Junior development
More successful has been the Murray Bushrangers TAC Cup Under 18s side, who play their home games in Wangaratta; prior to the AFL national draft and the inception of the TAC Cup, young players in the area would usually play through the grades with their local club, with less likelihood of being scouted by the recruitment staff from AFL clubs. Although there has been some concern from clubs about these players being removed from the local competition, the ones that do not get drafted usually return to their home clubs to play locally once they come of age.
Even in that case, there is some chance that a late-maturing "older" player in their early 20s will be drafted by an AFL club. Several notable examples to be drafted directly from the O&MFL include, Guy Rigoni (Myrtleford/Melbourne), Brett Kirk (North Albury/Sydney Swans) and Karl Norman.
All clubs field sides in the under 18s competition, aside from Myrtleford, which fields a joint team with the "Bright Football Club" wearing navy blue and gold colours & the club will be known as the "Alpine Eagles", and they would also field an under 18s joint team in the "Ovens & King Football League" also wearing navy blue and gold colours & the club will be known as the Alpine Eagles. However the Alpine Eagles alliance between Myrtleford and Bright had strained over the last few seasons before finally after the 2013 season The Myrtleford under-18s announced that they will stop wearing navy blue and gold colours of the "Alpine Eagles" and will be returning to the red, white and black colours & the club will be known as the "Myrtleford Saints", ending their almost 10-year partnership with Bright, in place since the early 2000s.
Albury Wodonga Junior Football League
Notes: Team field by club for that age group; "=Yes" & "=No".
Wangaratta & District Junior Football League
Wangaratta & District Junior Football League
The W&DJFL was established in 1938 and currently has three divisions of football in the Under 12's, Under 14's and Under 16's. All the Wangaratta-based club's in the Wangaratta & District Junior Football League club's are independent incorporated local community sports club's and are not affiliated with any O&MFNL or O&KFNL clubs.
Some of the former W&DJFL players that went onto play VFL / AFL senior football were - John Brady, Lance Oswald, Ian Rowland, Sam Kekovich, Mick Nolan, Mark Browning, Dennis Carroll, Darren Steele, Chris Naish, Steve Johnson, Alipate Carlile, Ben Reid, Sam Reid and Jack Crisp.
AFLNEB Youth Girls League
AFL North East Border Female Football League
The competition age group is from 12-17.
Notes: Team field by club for that season; "=Yes" & "=No".
Premiers
2015: Lavington
2016: Lavington
2017: Wodonga Raiders
O&MFNL Players / Stawell Gift Winners
The following O&MFNL footballers / netballers have won the prestigious Stawell Gift. The year below indicates what year each O&MFNL player won their Stawell Gift.
1908 – Chris King – Rutherglen Football Club (1893)
1928 – Lynch Cooper – Wangaratta Football Club
1929 – Clarrie Hearn – Rutherglen Football Club (1893)
1932 – Roy L. Barker – Yarrawonga Football Club
1934 – Tom L. Roberts – Yarrawonga Football Club
1952 – Lance Mann – Albury Football Club
1954 – Jack Hayes – Rutherglen Football Club (1893)
1986 – Glen Chapman – Albury Football Club
2023 – Bella Pasquali – Wangaratta Rovers Football Club (Women's gift)
Stawell Gift – Hall of Fame Inductees
Jack King – Rutherglen Football Club (1893)
Greg O'Keeffe – Wangaratta Rovers Football Club. Father of Sean O'Keeffe.
See also
Ovens and Murray
Group 9 Rugby League
Murray Cup
AFL Victoria Country: Victorian Country Championships
References
External links
Official Facebook page
Country Footy Scores O&MFL page
1926 - An early history of the O&MFL
O&MFL Inter league match results: 1953 to 2010
VCFL History
VCFL Interleague match results: 2009 to 2022
A Brief History – Ovens & Murray Football League FOX SPORT PULSE
Australian Rules Football Leagues Lists
1923 – Corowa FC team photo
1926 – O&MFL Grand Final photos. St. Patrick's FC & Wangaratta FC
1928 – O&MFL Premiers: Albury FC team photo
1928 – O&MFL Runners Up: St. Patrick's FC
1929 – East Albury FC team photo
1929 – East Albury FC team photo
1931 – O&MFL Premiers: Weir United FC team photo
1932 – Corowa FC & East Albury FC team photos
1934 – Corowa FC & Albury FC team photos
1937 – Corowa FC & Wangaratta FC team photos
1939 O&MFL Premiers – Albury FC - team photo
1944 – Border United FC & Rutherglen FC team photos
1947 – Border United FC team photo
1950 – Corowa FC team photo
1953 – Corowa FC team photo
1963 - O&MFL Runners Up: Corowa FC team photo
1926 – Wangaratta FC & St. Patrick's FC team photos (June, 1926)
1926 – Ovens & Murray FL Grand Final team photos: Wangaratta FC & St. Patrick's FC (September, 1926)
1929 – Wangaratta FC team photo
1930 – Wangaratta FC & East Albury FC team photos
1933 – Wangaratta FC & Border United FC team photo
1934 – Wangaratta FC & Rutherglen FC team photos
1937 – Wangaratta FC & Corowa FC team photos
1938 – Ovens & Murray FL Grand Final team photos: Wangaratta FC & Yarrawonga FC
1969 – O&MFL Grand Final Critic
Australian rules football competitions in New South Wales
Australian rules football competitions in Victoria (state)
Netball leagues in Victoria (state)
Netball leagues in New South Wales
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5091020
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kama%20Sywor%20Kamanda
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Kama Sywor Kamanda
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Kama Sywor KAMANDA(11 November 1952, Congo) is a Congolese French-speaking writer, poet, novelist, playwright, speaker, essayist and storyteller from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He is also a committed intellectual who contributes to the evolution of ideas and the history of Africa. He was born in Luebo in the province of Kasaï Occidental in Congo-Kinshasa on 11 November 1952. His first publication, Les Contes des veillées africaines was an immediate success. From the beginning of his career, his literary work has stood out due to its originality, its unique style and its themes. As per literary critics: Kamanda owes much of his world renown as a writer to his "Kamanda Tales", as they should be called for their evocative power and literary quality, which rank this African writer among the greatest classic authors such as Andersen, Grimm, Perrault and Maupassant. Kama Sywor Kamanda is considered as the Africa's greatest storyteller.
Biography
Kamanda Kama Sywor, writer, poet, novelist, essayist, playwright and storyteller was born on November 11, 1952, in Luebo, Democratic Republic of Congo, from father Malaba Kamenga and mother Kony Ngalula. His political view of this country forced him to leave Africa and live in exile in Europe. Nevertheless, he always stays a great leader of opinion in the world and his works are impregnated with his fight for liberty and justice and real democracy in this country. He wrote many poetry books, drama, novels, essays and fairy tales. Kamanda is a classical writer in Europe, Asia,Africa and America. Many students in the world study his literature. He has earned many literature prizes, including the Heredia prize from the Académie Française. He is spoken of as a potential Nobel Prize laureate in Literature.
After publishing a first collection of stories at the age of 15, Kamanda studied literature, journalism, political science, philosophy and law, and worked in journalism. In 1970, he participated in the creation of the Union of Congolese Writers (Union des écrivains congolais). Forced to leave the Congo in 1977 due to his political activities, Kamanda lived in various European countries before settling in Luxembourg.
In 1985, Kamanda was the founding president of the African Association of Writers, of which L. S. Senghor was the honorary president. As a poet, story teller and novelist, Kamanda subsequently produced a considerable body of literary work, including a dozen anthologies of poetry, several hundred stories, as well as several novels.
Living in perpetual exile, this universal writer has gained worldwide notoriety that has seen him travelling constantly for conferences, poetry readings and festivals.
Kamanda's works have been translated into many languages, including English, Japanese, Italian, and Greek. This writer has earned several major prizes and distinctions, including the Paul Verlaine Prize from the Académie française (1987), the Louise Labé Prize (1990), the Black Africa Grand Prize for Literature (1991), and the Théophile Gautier prize (1993) from the Académie française.In 2005, the International Council for Francophone Studies (Conseil international d'études francophones) conferred upon him the prestigious Maurice-Cagnon Certificate of Honour, for his unique contribution to world francophone literature.
His stories draw their imagery from African traditions, but constitute a universe at the boundary between the fantastic and the author's own reality. His numerous books of poetry focus on the themes of celebrating Africa and of the pain of exile and solitude, all against a backdrop of fervent celebration of love.
Effects
Literary career
Through his story-telling, Kamanda has been able to combine personal memories, tradition and imagination. It is not a collection of stories, but a literary work in its own right, nurtured by folk themes and local legends. Playwright, storyteller, poet and novelist, Kamanda has produced a huge and internationally recognized literary work. Since the publication of his first book, Les Contes des veillées africaines, in 1967, he has written a dozen books totalling a thousand poems, a dozen plays, two essays and several collections bringing together hundreds of stories. His literary output also includes several novels.
Storyteller
He is known for his literary tales which are inspired by his personal experiences, his imagination and the traditions and realities of the African continent. Kamanda’s tales are enchanting stories imbued with the culture and civilization of all African lands. His literary genius has been universally recognized in his lifetime. Due to the originality of the form and the substance of his writings, it is difficult to categorize it in a literary movement.
Poet. Kamanda has breathed new life back into contemporary poetry and restored its grandeur, thanks to the wealth of his language and mastery of metaphor. Critics and some of the greatest poets of his time, including Mario Luzi and Léopold Sédar Senghor, have emphasised the power of his verses and the richness of his imagery. According to the Bulletin Critique du Livre Français (BCLF, No. 529, entry 150655, Jan. 1990): "The poetic cry of Kamanda touches us and overwhelms us all the more because it is truly poetic.The suffering of uprooted lives and dualisms, the quest for love and hope. Elegiac poetry where the plaint takes speech as a fertile source, to speak of the dry land, the indifference of the other, the dead end. But the most heartbreaking cries right through this African tradition take on the warm bright colors of childhood, of a past the exiled poet finds within himself. The jasmine, the wisteria, these "sweet children like the blackness of the ebony", explode with a savour for which we were unable to be guardians or lovers. The poet's struggle is so fundamental, the choice of his words so evident that they rank him among the greatest chanters of misery and compassion. Violent like Hugo, able to use litanies like Peguy, as lyrical as Eluard. His work takes on all forms of the universal clamor which, from the beginning to the end of time, talks continuously to the attentive ear.” Kamanda has received many awards, including, in 2009, the French Academy’s Prix Heredia for Œuvre poétique : édition intégrale i.e., the complete edition of his poetic works.
Novelist
Kamanda constantly embodies Africa and its dreams. His writings reveal him to be a genuine résistant against totalitarian powers, but he also comes to the aid of men and women fighting in silence for their rights or their survival, and that of their children. A committed writer, he has always considered himself a "lost soul between the dreams and the illusions, the joys and the sorrows of the African world." His novels depict the life of African peoples at the time of dictators and under the influence of racist and neo-colonialist sects, and the social and economic consequences of the black populations deprived of any financial clout to influence their own destiny. He highlights the contradictions of the black people of all continents who both serve exclusively the interests of their tormenters, over those in their own community that struggle for their rights and resist predation, and are victims of racist, ideological and religious issues that overwhelm them. L'Insondable destin des Hommes expresses a deep and original reflection on bad governance, political violence and economic predation as the main reasons for the migration of African youth condemned to death in the desert and at sea. In La Joueuse de Kora, he evokes his ideal of justice and truth and his quest for peace and collective happiness without racism or apartheid, while his characters and intrigues in La Traversée des mirages are inspired by the actors and realities of political life.
Playwright
Kamanda surprises by the originality of his theatrical themes and by his erudition. His knowledge of today's Africa and that of yesteryear is indisputable. He shares with his audiences a broad swathe of African memory, for which he is the recognized spokesman, if not the guardian. His theatre is inspired by Africa past and present. Ancient Egypt finds a new literary existence through his playwriting skills. The Pharaohs and Queens of ancient Egypt finally have a new literary life and an author who pays them a long-awaited tribute hoped for a thousand times over. Literary recognition of the great African rulers, to which they were entitled, but which no one hitherto had dreamed of legitimizing. Ramsès II, Candace 1ère, and Toutankhamon are Kama Sywor Kamanda plays that testify to Africa's contribution to universal civilization. Kamanda is not bound by his native Africa; he travels the world and carries us with him through his imagination, poetry and love of peoples and cultures of the world. Thus he invites us to discover Japan and all its traditions in "On peut s'aimer sans se comprendre".
Literary works
Tales
1967 : Les Contes des veillées africaines, Éditions J.M. Bouchain, 1985, Editions l'Harmattan, 1986; Éditions Présence Africaine, 1998.
1988 : Les Contes du griot, Vol. 1, Préface de Léopold Sedar Senghor, 220 pages, Éditions Présence Africaine () second edition 1988.
1991 : Les Contes du Griot, Vol. 2 (La Nuit des Griots), 302 pages, Éditions Présence africaine, 1996; new edition 1997. ()."Grand Prix Littéraire de l'Afrique Noire" in 1991. Republished () La Nuit des Griots, first edition in 1991, 288 pages - Antoine Degive, publisher and l'Harmattan, joint publisher ().
1998 : Les Contes du Griot, Vol. 3 (Les Contes des veillées africaines, expanded edition), 199 pages, Éditions Présence Africaine ()
2000 : Les Contes du crépuscule, 240 pages, Editions Présence Africaine, 2000 ().
2003 : Contes, illustrations de Louise Fritsch, 800 pages, () joint-publication: ().
2004 : Contes (complete works), 1,648 pages, ().
2005 : Les Contes du Griot: Les Contes des veillées africaines, pocket edition, 259 pages. Éditions Magnard, Collection: Classiques & Contemporains ().
2006 : Contes Africains, un choix de contes merveilleux 544 pages, Éditions Grund, ().
2018 : Les Contes de KAMANDA (Choix des contes merveilleux)
Poetry
1986 : Chants de brumes, 148 pages, Preface by Jacques Izoard, 1986 (republished, Paris, in 1997, 2002 and 2019) ()
1986 : Les Résignations, 176 pages, Preface by Mateja Matevski, Paris (1997), republished 2019 ()
1987 : Éclipse d’étoiles,208 pages, Preface by Claude Michel Cluny, Paris (1997 and republished 2019 ())
1989 : La Somme du néant, Preface by Pierrette Micheloud,132 pages, Paris, 1989 (), and 1999, and the definitive edition (2019) (), Prix Louise Labé.
1992 : L’Exil des songes, 272 pages, Preface by Marc Alyn, Paris, and republished 2019 (), Prix de poésie de l'Académie Française.
1992 : Les Myriades des temps vécus, definitive edition, preface by Mario Luzi, 234 pages, Paris, 1992 (republished 1999), Prix Théophile Gautier de l'Académie Française in 1993, (), and republished 2019, 180 pages ()
1993 : Les Vents de l’épreuve,84 pages, Preface by Salah Stétié, Paris (1997 and republished 2019,()
1994 : Quand dans l’âme les mers s’agitent, 192 pages, Preface by Jean-Baptiste Tati Loutard, Paris, 1998, republished 2019,()
1995 : L'Étreinte des mots, 128 pages, Preface by Maria Luisa Spaziani, Paris, 1995 and republished 2019 ()
1999 : Œuvre poétique, 2016 pages, Éditions Présence Africaine (). 1999
2002 : Le Sang des solitudes, republished 2019 ().
2008 : Œuvre poétique complète, édition intégrale, 977 pages, Éditions L'Âge d'Homme, 2008 (); Prix Heredia de l'Académie Française
2018 : La transparence des ombres, 236 pages ()
2019 : L'Éternité des jours, 112 pages ()
Novels
1994 : Lointaines sont les rives du destin, 168 pages, 2019;republished, Eue, 2019 ()
2006 : La Traversée des mirages, 310 pages, 2019, republished, Éditions EUE () .
2006 : La Joueuse de Kora, 131 pages, 2019, republished, Éditions EUE ().
2013 : L'Insondable destin des hommes', 368 pages, 2018, republished, Éditions EUE ()
Dramas
2013 : L'Homme torturé, monologue in one act, 52 pages, 2013, republished EUE, 2019 ()
2015 : Toutankhamon, tragedy, 300 pages, Paris, republished EUE, 2019,()
2015 : Candace, historical drama, Paris, Florida (USA), 2015, 278 pages. Republished EUE, 2019 ( )
2016 : Intrigantes entremetteuses, drama, 108 pages, Paris, 2016; republished, EUE, 2019 ()
2016 : On peut s'aimer sans se comprendre, comedy, 180 pages; republished EUE, 2019 ()
2017 : Ramses II, historical drama, 228 pages, Paris, 2017; republished EUE, 2019 ().
2017 : Akhenaton, historical drama, 196 pages, Paris, 2017, republished EUE, 2019 ()
2017 : La Reine Ranavalona III, historical drama, Paris, 2017; republished EUE, 2019 ().
2019 : Le Roi Béhanzin, historical drama, 115 pages, EUE, 2019 ()
2019 : Les Astuces du manipulateur, drama, 120 pages, EUE, 2019 ()
2019 : Le Pervers narcissique, comedy, 89 pages, EUE, 2019 ()
2019 : La Reine Nzinga Mbandi, historical drama, 139 pages, EUE, 2019 ()
2019 : " Théâtre complets", tome I, 620 pages (), tome II, 620 pages (), tome III, 644 pages ()
2020 : " Le Roi Muntuhotep ",historical drama,150 pages, EUE,2020 ((( )))
2020 : " La Reine Néfertiti ",historical drama,153 pages, EUE,2020 ((( )))
2020 : " La tragédie du Roi Léopold II,historical drama,148 pages, EUE,2020 ((( )))
Essays
2007 : Au-delà de Dieu, au-delà des chimères, 58 pages, 2007, republished 2019, Éditions EUE ()
2016 : Vivre et aimer, 2016, 137 pages, Éditions Eue, 2018 ()
2018 : Évolution et révolution culturelle de l'Homme Noir, 141 pages, 2018, Éditions EUE ()
2018 : Les fondements de l'être, 148 pages, 2018, Éditions EUE ()
Short stories
1993 : Amertume, Diversité, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, U.S.A. ()
1994 : L'Ultime confession, Archipel, Anvers, Belgique
1994 : L'Énigme, Le Non-dit, Belgique
1996 : Le chagrin du danseur, Archipel, Anvers, Belgique
1996 : Les gens du fleuve
2020 : L'Angoisse des éphémères (((978-620-2-545-822 )))
Complete works
2019 : Complete Works, Tales, Volume I,700 pages () and Volume II, 700 pages ()
2019 : Complete Works, Novels, Volume I, (), and Volume II, 2019, ()
2019 : Complete Works, Theater, Volume I, 620 pages (); Volume II, 620 pages, 2019 (); Volume III, 644 pages, 2019 ().
2019 : Complete Works, Poetry, Volumes I, 508 pages () II, 442 pages, () III, 428 pages,() and IV, 406 pages, 2019 ()
2019 : Complete Works, Essays, Volume one, 458 pages, EUE 2019, ()
Translated works
English : Love Beyond Reason, 2022 - English translation of On pet s'aimer sans se comprendre by Charitha Liyanage
English : Wind Whispering Soul, 2001; Tales, 2001
Italian : Le miriadi di tempi vissuti, 2004; La stretta delle parole, 2004
Japanese : Les Contes du griot, t. I, 2000; t. II, 2005
Corean : African fairy Tales from Kama Sywor KAMANDA, 2005
Chinese : Les Contes du griot, t. I, 2003; t. II, 2004
English : Fairy Tales by KAMANDA, Xaragua Editions CO, U.S.A., 2013
English : Tales of KAMANDA (Volume1), Books of Africa, 2016.
English : Amana "The child who was a God", Books of Africa, 2016.
English : Prince Muntu, illustrated by Izumi ISHIKAWA, Books of Africa,2016
English : Fairy Tales by Kama Sywor KAMANDA, (EUE), 2020 ()
International recognition and awards
1987 : Prix Paul Verlaine, Académie française
1990 : Prix Louise-Labé
1991 : Grand prix littéraire d'Afrique noire for La Nuit des griots.
1992 : Poésiades special mention, Institut académique de Paris
1993 : Jasmin d’Argent for poetic originality, Société Littéraire du Jasmin d’Argent
1994 : Prix Théophile-Gautier, Académie française
1999 : Melina Mercouri Award, Association of Greek Writers and Poets
2000 : Poet of the millennium 2000, International Poets Academy, India
2000 : Honorary citizen of Joal-Fadiouth, Senegal
2002 : Grand Prize for Poetry, International Society of Greek Writers
2005 : Top 100 writers in 2005, International Biographical Centre, Cambridge
2005 : International Professional of the Year, 2005, International Biographical Centre, Cambridge
2005 : Man of the Year 2005, American Biographical Institute
2005 : Certificate of Honor for an exceptional contribution to francophonie, Certificat Maurice Cagnon, Conseil international d’études francophones
2005 : Geuest Writer of Honour, EXPO 2005, Aichi, Japan.
2006 : Master Diploma for Specialty Honors in Writing, World Academy of Letters, US
2006 : International Peace Prize 2006, United Cultural Convention, US
2009 : Prix Heredia, Académie française [bronze medal] for Œuvre poétique: édition intégrale.
Studies
Marie-Claire De Coninck, Kama Kamanda : Au pays du Conte, Paris, Ed. L'Harmattan, 1993.
Pierrette Sartin, Kama Kamanda, Poète de l'exil, Paris, Ed. L'Harmattan, 1994.
Marc Alyn (préf.), Kama Kamanda, Hommage, 1997.
Isabelle Cata et Franck Nyalendo, Kama Sywor Kamanda, Luxembourg, Ed. Paul Bauler, 2003.
Marie-Madeleine Van Ruymbeke Stey (dir.), Regards critiques, Ed. L'Harmattan, 2007.
Isabelle Cata :" La Quête du rêve d'absolu", recréer le monde, pénétrer l'infini, mesurer le néant;" Une réflexion critique sur l'oeuvre de Kama Sywor Kamanda.
Sophie Davoine :Kama Sywor Kamanda: histoire d'une oeuvre, histoire d'une vie, entretiens, 100 pages, 2019,()
Charitha Liyanage : The life and work of Kama Sywor Kamanda ,78 pages ,2020. () /dp/B0874L1599 The Life and Work of Kama Sywor Kamanda: Interviews Paperback
. Kheira Merine: Etude critique de l’œuvre romanesque de Kama Sywor Kamanda. L'Afrique au centre des débats,157 pages,édit.EUE, 2021, ISBN 978-613-9-50595-1.
Quotes
"A free people is one that gives itself the means for financial independence to remain master of its destiny."
"To be optimistic is always to look where the sun is rising and not where it is setting."
"Self-censorship is a violation of integrity."
"To love is to discover happiness."
"Our most fruitful passion is to offer man wings that help to fly over the ordeals."
References
Sources
Cata, Isabelle, La Quête du rêve d'absolu: Recréer le monde, pénétrer l'infini, mesurer le néant, une réflexion critique sur l'oeuvre de Kama Sywor Kamanda, Paris, Edition Dagan, 2015.
Sophie Davoine,Kama Sywor Kamanda, histoire d'une oeuvre, histoire d'une vie, entretiens,100 pages,2019,EUE.()
Charitha Lyanage,the life and work of Kama Sywor Kamanda, 78 pages,2020.().
External links
Archived Official Site
/ Classical Writer
Kamanda African Messenger - Selected poems
Selection of Kamanda's Love Poems
Kamanda Porteur de rêves - poèmes choisis
Kama Sywor Kamanda
The Life and Work of Kama Sywor Kamanda : Interviews Paperback https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0874L1599
The Life and Work of Kama Sywor Kamanda: Interviews Kindle Edition https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0876BKC48
1952 births
Living people
People from Kasaï Province
Democratic Republic of the Congo writers in French
Democratic Republic of the Congo poets
Democratic Republic of the Congo journalists
21st-century Democratic Republic of the Congo people
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5092094
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecily%20of%20York
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Cecily of York
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Cecily of York (20 March 1469 – 24 August 1507), also known as Cecelia, was the third daughter of King Edward IV of England and his queen consort Elizabeth Woodville.
Shortly after the death of her father and the usurpation of the throne by her uncle King Richard III, Cecily and her siblings were declared illegitimate. Queen Elizabeth, fearing for the children's lives, moved them to Westminster Abbey, where the late king's family received asylum and spent about a year. After Richard III promised not to harm the children, Cecily and her sisters went to court. Soon there were rumours that the king was going to marry one of his nieces – Elizabeth or Cecily. However, shortly before his death, Richard III arranged the marriage of Cecily to one of his supporters – Ralph Scrope, the younger brother of the 6th Baron Scrope of Masham, who was much lower in status by birth than the princess.
When Richard III died at the Battle of Bosworth and the throne was taken by Henry Tudor, the act recognising the children of Edward IV as bastards was repealed, and Cecily's marriage was annulled as not being in the interests of the dynasty. In 1488, Cecily married John Welles, 1st Viscount Welles, a relative of the king's mother Lady Margaret Beaufort; in this second marriage, Cecily gave birth to two daughters.
In 1499, she became a widow. After several years of mourning, and without the permission of the king, Cecily married a Lincolnshire squire, Sir Thomas Kyme, with whom she gave birth to two more children. Cecily's marriage to Kyme and their children were not recognised by the Crown, and she herself was banished from court and deprived of the possessions inherited from her second husband's will. Nevertheless, the princess maintained a good relationship with the king's mother: it was Lady Margaret Beaufort who paid part of the expenses of Cecily's funeral in 1507.
Birth and family
Cecily was born on 20 March 1469 at Westminster Palace as the third daughter of ten children of King Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville; being the third child from her parents' ten children, the princess also had two half-brothers from her mother's first marriage to John Grey of Groby: Thomas and Richard Grey. From her six full-sisters, only four reached adulthood –one eldest (Elizabeth) and three younger (Anne, Catherine and Bridget). Mary, who was about two years older than Cecily, died at the age of 14 from an unknown illness, and Margaret, who was about three years younger than Cecily, died in infancy. None of Cecily's three full-brothers survived to adulthood: George died at about two years of age, and the other two, Edward V and Richard, disappeared from the Tower in 1483 during the reign of their uncle King Richard III.
Her paternal grandparents were Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (who claimed the rights of the House of York to the English throne) and Cecily Neville, and her maternal grandparents were Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, and Jacquetta of Luxembourg, Dowager Duchess of Bedford. Presumably Cecily was named after her paternal grandmother.
Reign of Edward IV
Crisis of 1469–1471
The birth of Cecily, the third daughter in a row, was a great disappointment for Edward IV. For the first time he suggested that he would not have sons and that the crown could pass to his eldest daughter, Elizabeth. In the first months of Cecily's life, an acute political crisis arose in the country: Edward IV's most powerful supporter, the Earl of Warwick, dissatisfied with the king for a number of reasons, entered into an alliance with Edward's younger brother George, Duke of Clarence. They moved their troops from Calais to England and announced George's claim to the English throne. During this time, Cecily's mother, along with at least two daughters, one of whom was Elizabeth, visited Norwich, where they were received with magnificent celebrations and theatrical performances; it is not known for certain which of the two younger princesses at that time accompanied her mother, however, it was probably Mary rather than Cecily, who was very young. Soon Warwick captured the king, and executed without trial Cecily's maternal grandfather and uncle – Earl Rivers and John Woodville. At the same time, Cecily's maternal grandmother, Jacquetta of Luxembourg, was arrested after being accused of witchcraft and the use of love spells on the king. Although Jacquetta was acquitted, this unpleasant episode, as well as the unmotivated execution of Rivers, showed how far the enemies of Edward IV were ready to go to destroy his wife and her family. Despite all this, the queen herself and her daughters were not harmed during Warwick's brief rise, except that Cecily's mother was assigned a reduced staff of servants.
By the autumn of 1469, Edward IV managed to regain his freedom. Warwick and Clarence fled to France and formed an alliance with the House of Lancaster. In September 1470, as the king prepared for an invasion by the combined forces of his enemies, Cecily, her sisters, and her mother were moved to the Tower of London for their safety. Already in early October, it became known that Edward IV, together with his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, had fled the country, having only a small hope of returning; upon receiving this news, Queen Elizabeth, along with her mother and three sisters hurriedly left the Tower on a barge and arrived in search of refuge at Westminster Abbey. It was then almost empty. The fugitives were taken under their protection by the abbot of Westminster, Thomas Milling, a kind, hospitable man who did not want to place the queen and children with the criminals who had also sought sanctuary there, and instead gave them his house at the western entrance to the abbey. There were three rooms and everything necessary for the comfort of the royal family. It is known that ordinary Londoners provided assistance to the royal family: the butcher John Gould donated half a cow and two sheep a week to the family, and a fishmonger provided them with provisions on Fridays and fasting days.
While in hiding, the princesses spent most of their time with nannies; in early November 1470 their brother Prince Edward was born and Queen Elizabeth was busy caring for him. Cecily and her family spent another five months in sanctuary. In April 1471, Edward IV returned to England and the first thing he did, after attending a thanksgiving service at Westminster Abbey, was to bring his family out of hiding. On the same night, Cecily, along with other family members, was transported to Baynard's Castle, which served as the residence of her paternal grandmother, Cecily Neville. On 11 April Cecily, accompanied by the King's mother, the queen's brother Anthony Woodville and the Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Bourchier went to the royal chambers of the Tower of London, while Cecily's father went north to reclaim the crown. On 13 April, Warwick was killed at the Battle of Barnet, and on 4 May, Edward IV finally defeated the Lancastrian troops at the Battle of Tewkesbury, in which the Lancaster heir Edward of Westminster was killed and Margaret of Anjou was captured. However, on 12 May, while Edward IV was still on his way to London, the last supporters of the Lancasters organised an attack on the Tower, intending to restore Henry VI to the throne; two towers, one of which Cecily and her family were sheltering in, were fired on from the river. The attack was repulsed, but after this the king decided to put his predecessor to death, and on 21 May 1471, King Henry VI was strangled in his dungeon. The death of Henry VI returned Cecily to the position of the daughter of a legitimate and recognised monarch.
Princess of Scotland
In 1474, the first marriage plans for Cecily began to appear: Edward IV negotiated the marriage of his daughter to the heir to the Scottish throne, James, Duke of Rothesay. The formal betrothal took place on 26 October or 26 December 1474 in Edinburgh between the proxies of the bride and groom: the Earl of Crawford and Baron Scrope, respectively. As a widow's share in the event of the death of James during the life of his father, Cecily received all the possessions that the prince himself used, including the Duchy of Rothesay, the County of Carrick and lands that were part of the personal possessions of the House of Stuart. In the event that the prince became King of Scotland or if his mother died during her husband's lifetime, Cecily would receive a third of all lands, possessions and taxes assigned to the queen, or their equivalent. In the event of the premature death of Cecily or James, the hypothetical second son of King James III (at the time of the betrothal, Rothesay was the only child of the king) had to marry any other daughter of Edward IV, if she was not older or younger than the prince by more than three or four years. As a dowry, Cecily received 20,000 marks from her father. These funds were to be paid in instalments: 2,000 marks within three months after the conclusion of the contract, 2,000 more within two years after that, and the rest of the amount was to be paid at a 1,000 marks per year until full payment. Edward IV and James III were to meet at Berwick in the summer of 1475 to hand over the first part of Cecily's dowry. Apparently, the meeting took place, since on 20 June 1475 Edward IV signed a will, according to which his successor would have to pay Scotland the remaining amount of 18,000 marks from the dowry of the princess. Since the conclusion of the engagement, Cecily has been called the "Princess of Scotland".
In 1481, when Cecily reached marriageable age, James III began to insist on her marriage to his son. An embassy was sent to England, which was supposed to deliver the princess to Scotland. But Edward IV felt that the Scottish king was only motivated by the desire to obtain the remainder of Cecily's dowry, and the princess's departure was delayed. A year later, the engagement between Cecily's older sister Elizabeth and the Dauphin Charles of France was broken off, and James III decided to follow the example of his French patron. The formal reason was that James III's brother Alexander, Duke of Albany, who was accused of treason, was hiding at the English court. Demanding the extradition of the rebellious duke, the Scots made several raids on the border territories of England, which caused Edward IV in June 1482 to break off his daughter's engagement and consider instead the betrothal of Cecily to the Duke of Albany, whom the English king intended to help put on the Scottish throne. On 11 June the Treaty of Fotheringhay between Albany and Edward IV was signed. Its terms included agreement to the marriage of Cecily and the Scottish pretender, on condition that the duke succeeded in ending his marriage to his French wife Anne de la Tour d'Auvergne in accordance with all Christian norms within a year. By 1482, Edward IV had helped the Duke of Albany to seize the regency: Alexander renounced his claims to the crown, was forgiven by his brother and received his possessions back.
The Scots were unhappy with the presence of English troops in the country and therefore put pressure on James III to resume the betrothal between his son and Cecily. Edward IV agreed to resume negotiations on the condition that he would be returned that part of his daughter's dowry that had already been paid. However, the negotiations were never resumed, because the Duke of Albany again turned to the English king for help, and his marriage with Cecily was again under consideration. However, negotiations for a marriage with Albany ceased, as Edward IV died in April 1483.
Court life and father's death
Little is known about Cecily's life during the Scottish marriage negotiations. Until December 1475, the princess was probably brought up by the governess Lady Margaret Berners (wife of John Bourchier, 1st Baron Berners, great-grandson of King Edward III and a close friend of the Queen Elizabeth's family); prior to this, Lady Margaret was engaged in the education of the elder sisters of the princess, Elizabeth and Mary. In 1476, Cecily, among others, attended the reburial ceremony for the remains of her paternal grandfather the Duke of York and his second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland at Fotheringay; two years later she attended the wedding of her younger brother Richard, Duke of York and Anne de Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk. In 1480, she, along with her older sister Mary, were made Ladies of the Garter; historian Mary Anne Everett Green in 1851 pointed out that in documents about the renewal of the wardrobe of the royal family for the ceremony of consecration of princesses, Cecily was named before Mary, and expressed doubts about the latter being older.
On 9 April 1483, when Cecily was fourteen years old, Edward IV died suddenly. This was followed by a political crisis that dramatically changed the position of the queen and her children. Cecily's younger brother, Edward V, who succeeded to the throne, was captured by his uncle Lord Protector Richard, Duke of Gloucester. Anthony Woodville and Richard Grey (Cecily's uncle and half-brother respectively), who accompanied the young king, were arrested. Edward V was taken to the Tower of London, where he was later joined by his only full brother, the Duke of York; along with the rest of her children, among whom was Cecily, the now Queen Dowager Elizabeth took refuge in Westminster Abbey. Elizabeth devised a plan according to which one of her elder daughters, Elizabeth or Cecily, was to flee abroad in order to attract foreign supporters to rescue Edward V and Richard of York from the Tower; it was also planned that if the princes could not be saved, this princess, with the support of foreign supporters, would declare her rights to the throne. However, the plan was revealed to Richard of Gloucester by a certain "traitor in the queen's camp". On Gloucester's orders, his squire John Nesfield sent guards to Westminster, who, day and night, inspected everyone who entered and left the sanctuary.
Reign of Richard III
On 22 June 1483 the marriage of Edward IV with Elizabeth Woodville was declared illegal – all the children of the late king were declared illegitimate by the act of parliament Titulus Regius and deprived of their rights to the throne and all titles. A few days later, Cecily's uncle and half-brother, Anthony Woodville and Richard Gray, who had been captured previously, were executed. The Lord Protector, acting on information provided by Robert Stillington, Bishop of Bath and Wells, was offered the crown by the Three Estates of the Realm (Crown and Parliament) on the grounds that his brother's marriage had not been valid, and on 6 July he was proclaimed king as Richard III. Soon afterwards, Cecily's brothers Edward V and Richard of York (the "Princes in the Tower"), who remained locked up in the Tower, disappeared. Their fate has never been definitively resolved, although they are presumed to have died sometime in late 1483, either from disease or having been murdered. On Christmas Day 1483, Henry Tudor, whose mother had been plotting with Elizabeth Woodville against King Richard III, swore at Rennes Cathedral that he would marry the eldest daughter of Edward IV, Elizabeth, or his sister Cecily if marriage with Elizabeth was impossible for any reason, after he took the English throne. However, the uprising of the Tudor party, led by the Duke of Buckingham, failed even before Henry's oath in Rennes.
After the failure of Buckingham's rebellion, Richard III began negotiations with his brother's widow. On 1 March 1484, the king publicly swore that the daughters of Edward IV would not be harmed or molested; in addition, Richard III promised that they would not be imprisoned in the Tower or any other prison, that they would be placed "in respectable places of good name and reputation", and later be married to "men of noble birth" and given dowry lands with an annual income of 200 marks each. On the same day, the memorandum was delivered to the Queen Dowager, along with provisions. The princesses left the shelter and moved under the care of their "gracious uncle", who allocated them chambers in his palace. Tudor historian Edward Hall wrote that Richard III "made all the daughters of his brother solemnly arrive at his palace; as if with him new – familiar and fond of entertainment – they were supposed to forget ... the trauma inflicted on them and the tyranny that preceded this".
The guardianship that Richard III established over his nieces has become the subject of controversy in modern historiography, with opposing opinions about the King. Many researchers note that the daughters of Edward IV found themselves in an extremely difficult situation, as their legal rights were usurped, and their brothers were allegedly killed. Cecily witnessed a very unpleasant event for her: the betrothal of her former fiancé, the Scottish Duke of Rothesay, with her cousin Anne de la Pole, daughter of Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk. With the death in 1484 of Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales, the only remaining legitimate son of Richard III, Anne de la Pole's brother John became the heir presumptive to the throne.
First marriage
After the daughters of Edward IV, recognised as bastards, arrived at court, various rumours began to circulate about their future fate: for example, it was alleged that Richard III was going to marry one of the elder nieces, Elizabeth or Cecily. In addition, Richard III considered marrying Cecily to someone below her in order to rule out her claim to the throne. The king's plans were carried out: when Henry Tudor landed in England with the intention of seizing the throne and marrying Cecily if Elizabeth was married to Richard III himself, he learned that Cecily was already married. Shortly before the defeat and death of Richard III, Cecily married, with her uncle's support, Ralph Scrope, the younger brother of the 6th Baron Scrope of Masham.
Reign of Henry VII
At the Tudor court
In August 1485, Richard III was killed at the Battle of Bosworth. Henry Tudor became King Henry VII by right of conquest; his mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, had previously made a pact with Queen Dowager Elizabeth whereby Cecily's older sister Elizabeth would marry the new king. Having gained the throne, Henry VII repealed the Titulus Regius act, which deprived the children of Edward IV of titles and rights to the throne; the act itself and all its copies were removed from the archives, as well as all the documents associated with them. Having received the crown and subsequently married Elizabeth, Henry VII also paid attention to her sisters: the princesses had to profitably marry the supporters of the young king, but without the opportunity to claim the throne. The fate of Cecily, the younger sister of the new Queen, had to be decided as soon as possible. The marriage of the princess to Ralph Scrope was annulled in 1486 as not being in the interests of the new Tudor dynasty.
As the queen's sister, Cecily came to play an important ceremonial role at court. She carried her first nephew, Arthur, Prince of Wales, during his christening on 24 September 1486. The nobles accompanying the princess at the ceremony were her half-brother Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset and her paternal cousin John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln; Cecily's train was carried by the wife of the Marquess of Dorset, Cecily Bonville, 7th Baroness Harington and 2nd Baroness Bonville, whose family sided with the House of York in the Wars of the Roses. At the end of the baptism ceremony, Cecily, at the head of the solemn procession, returned the prince to the nursery, where she introduced him to his parents. On 25 November 1487, Cecily, the only one of all the queen's sisters, carried her train at her coronation in Westminster Abbey. By her position, she was the second woman at the ceremony (not counting the queen) after her aunt Catherine Woodville wife of the King's uncle Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford; in addition, Cecily rode to and from the ceremony with her aunt in a carriage that immediately followed the queen's carriage. At the coronation banquet, Cecily and Catherine Woodville sat at the queen's table with the Archbishop of Canterbury, John Morton. It is known that during this period, like her other sisters, Cecily was paid a pension from the queen's funds, and she also had great privileges and great freedoms: thus, during walks, Cecily, who accompanied her sister as a Lady-in-waiting, was accompanied by her own ladies. Until her second marriage, Cecily served her sister as First Lady of the Bedchamber.
Second marriage
Among the nobility present at the Queen's coronation was John Welles, 1st Viscount Welles, heir to the ancient Welles family and younger half-brother of the King's mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort. Although John himself and his family were supporters of the House of Lancaster, he was able to win the favour of Cecily's father at the end of his life and was among the people who guarded the body of the late King Edward IV at night. During the reign of Richard III, John was in opposition to the King: he participated in the failed Buckingham uprising, fled to Brittany, where Henry Tudor was hiding, and later won the throne with his help. Thanks to his service and family connections, John found himself in favour with Henry VII, who, immediately after his accession to the throne, appointed his uncle constable of two important castles, gave him several estates, and later returned John's father's possessions to John; in addition, John was not only restored to his father's baronial title, but also granted a new one –Viscount Wells.
There is no record of the time and circumstances of the marriage of Cecily and John Welles, who was older than the princess by about 20 years, but it happened before December 1487 or on New Year's Day 1488. Alison Weir writes that the marriage took place between 25 November and 31 December 1487; at the same time, she notes that the royal couple was present at the wedding. According to Mary Ann Everett Green, in December 1487 Cecily joined the Christmas celebrations at Palace of Placentia with her husband. On New Year's Eve, the Welles were present, among other representatives of the nobility and close associates of the king, at a dinner; Viscount Welles presented the king, as a gift from himself and his wife, with twenty shillings. At the banquet, the couple were separated: John was sitting at the table on the right side of the hall, and Cecily was at the head of the table on the left. It is not known for certain who was instrumental in the union of Cecily and John. Some historians believe that it was Henry VII who arranged the marriage of his wife's sister to his uncle in order to avoid Cecily's marriage to a more prominent representative of the nobility, since the princess became the legitimate heir to the throne in the event of the death of her sister Elizabeth and her children. On the other hand, Thomas Fuller wrote that Henry VII did not intend that Cecily be married at all, but she took matters into her own hands and chose the king's uncle as her husband, who after the conclusion of the marriage did not receive any more titles. In addition, Cecily was close to the king's mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, who, in turn, was close to the Welles and could arrange this marriage. Regardless of who initiated the marriage, it was beneficial for both parties, as it strengthened the Lancastrian ties with the Yorkists: Cecily, who was the second contender for the throne from the House of York after her elder sister, found herself married to a man close to the king, who would not allow to draw her into political games against Henry VII.
After the celebrations at the beginning of 1488, traces of Cecily are lost for some time. She probably retired from the court and stayed in one of her husband's estates. Despite the large difference in age, the marriage was successful, and two daughters were born: Elizabeth, named after the queen, and Anne, named after Cecily's younger sister Anne of York. There is a version that the couple had three children, but there is no reliable data on the third child. It is known that Cecily was engaged in the upbringing and education of her children herself, so she stayed at home when her husband left for the court to fulfil his duties.
In 1491, John Welles was going to accompany his nephew on an expedition to France. A special act of Parliament delegated to her for this time the right to receive royal payments for her husband and use all his possessions. The king himself, in preparation for the campaign, signed a will in which Cecily's husband was named one of his fiefs. In 1492, John attended the funeral of Cecily's mother Queen Dowager Elizabeth Woodville, but the viscountess herself was absent, probably due to illness or pregnancy. Until 1498, little is known about Cecily's life. During this period (presumably in 1498) her eldest daughter Elizabeth Welles died, shortly before her betrothal with John Stanley, heir to George Stanley, 9th Baron Strange. It is known that in 1494 Cecily appeared in documents as a legatee under the will of her grandmother and namesake Cecily Neville, Dowager Duchess of York.
Widowhood
In 1498 (or 1499 according to other sources) Cecily, who was about thirty years old, was widowed. John fell ill with pleurisy – a disease that was not known about in England at that time and did not respond to conventional treatment. While on his deathbed, Viscount Welles signed a will, according to which he left all his property for life to his wife; he also requested in his will that he be buried where Cecily herself, the king, queen and the King's mother would deem fit. Welles died on 9 February 1498. Cecily organised a magnificent funeral for her husband and made some changes to the traditional burial ceremony: the viscount's body was delivered to Westminster by land, and not by river (bells rang along the entire route of the procession), and the coffin was accompanied by people of the highest ranks that etiquette allowed. The King's uncle's funeral was attended by the most notable lords: the Duke of Buckingham, the Earls of Northumberland, Derby, Essex and Devon. The memorial service was held at St Margaret's Church, Westminster, and was led by Thomas Savage, Bishop of London, and George Fasset, Abbot of Westminster.
Cecily's grief for her husband's death is said to have been considerable. A portion of the Viscount's will shows the relationship between the two:
Also I geve and bequethe to my dere beloved lady and wife Cecille, for terme of her lif, all my castelles, manors, landes and tenements, aswell suche as I have purchased as all odre during only her life, whome I trust above all oder, that if my goodes and catallis wilnot suffice for the performance of this my laste will, that she will thenne of the revenues of the profittes of my inheritance perform this my laste will. Also I will that a preste be founde for ever after my said wifes decease to sey masse daily for my sowle and all Cristen sowles at the said aulter of the yerely revenues of my purchased landes, and oder which my saide lady hath promised me faithfully to purchase to the same entent if my saide purchased landes suffice not therto. And I will yt suche residue as shall fortune to be of my goodes that my saide dere beloved lady and wife have theym to her owne use. And I make executors the saide Cecill, my dere beloved wife, and Sr Raynold Bray, knyght. . .
Mary Anne Everett Green writes that Cecily's youngest daughter, Anne Welles, died shortly after her father, but Rosemary Horrocks, in an entry on Cecily in the Oxford Biographical Dictionary, reports that Anne predeceased her father, and the fact that the girl is not mentioned in Viscount Welles' will supported this view; she was buried at Austin Friars, London. After the death of her husband and youngest daughter, Cecily decided to return to court to be with her older sister, with whom the princess had a very warm relationship. In addition to Elizabeth, Cecily was also patronized by the King's mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, who helped the princess to protect her rights to the property of John Welles, which once belonged to his father, but became the object of claims by Lionel Welles' daughter from his first marriage. According to John's will, Cecily received for her use four mansions with the right to distribute parishes and beneficiaries (Advowson) and rent from other properties in Lincoln, as well as three estates with a total area of 1540 acres of meadow, pasture and forest land in Essex and rent from other properties in the same district.
The princess observed mourning for three years, after which she began to actively participate in the life of the court. She attended the wedding of her eldest nephew Arthur, Prince of Wales and Catherine of Aragon on 14 November 1501; witnesses report that Cecily, who had the honour of carrying the bride's train, was dressed in expensive fabrics, sewn in the latest fashion, and looked more like a marriageable girl than a widow. After the wedding, the court departed for the episcopal palace, where the main celebrations took place. During the jousting tournament, Cecily was present at the queen's gallery along with her sister, the newlyweds, princesses and other noble ladies. At the state dinner given the following Sunday, Cecily sat next to her sister the queen at "the most representative table in the chambers". It is also known that in May 1502, Cecily lent a certain amount of money to her sister.
In 1503, Cecily's position was shaken again when Queen Elizabeth died: she lost not only her sister, but also a close friend and patroness, on whose favour she could always count. According to Mary Anne Everett Green, the princess's grief was so great and prolonged that she could not attend the funeral, and although a mourning wardrobe was sewn for her, Cecily's name did not appear on the lists of mourners. Alison Weir suggests that Cecily did not attend the royal sister's funeral because she was out of favour with the king, because of her new marriage concluded without his consent, and if the princess were allowed to see Elizabeth on her last journey, this would mean that Henry VII forgave Cecily.
Third marriage
Some time after her sister's death, Cecily entered into her third and last marriage: her chosen spouse was Sir Thomas Kyme of Friskney, a Lincolnshire squire –according to Mary Anne Everett Green, the English royal family had never known such an unequal union. The exact date of the marriage is unknown: various sources indicate 1502, the period between the spring of 1502 and the beginning of 1504 or a few months after the death of Cecily's sister, Queen Elizabeth of York in 1503, but before the meeting of Parliament in January 1504.
At a meeting of Parliament in January 1504, Cecily, along with William Willoughby, 11th Baron Willoughby de Eresby, and three other men who claimed the Welles inheritance, petitioned the king. Cecily knew well that Henry VII would be happy with any of her actions that would put the princess under suspicion, and therefore she only said that she wanted to choose a spouse, guided by the principle of "convenience, not profit". However, she feared that her marriage might be used as an excuse to dispossess her of the property that Cecily had used as Viscountess Welles, and that the king would feign displeasure with her affairs as an excuse to seize her lands. To avoid this, Cecily decided to give the king a bribe, which was a small part of her income, and a promise to return the rest of the property within ten years after her death; thus the bulk of her husband's inheritance was to remain in Cecily's possession. In her petition, referring to the restitution previously made on the Welles estates for her late husband, in fact, she asked to cancel this restitution, leaving her husband's possessions to her if she outlived the king, and for ten years to the heirs of Welles, if she died earlier. The reasons why the other Welles heirs joined the petition are not clear, but it is likely that they received some benefits from the princess herself who would have being lost if Cecily was dispossessed from her late husband's inheritance. The petition ended with a plea from all the signatories (Cecily, her third husband Thomas Kyme and the heirs of her second husband) for the mercy of the King.
The reaction of the king to the petition and subsequent events are described inconsistently by historians. Mary Ann Everett Green writes that Henry VII endorsed the petition, approving it with the words "Let it be as it pleases". However, Rosemary Horrocks, James Panton and Garland Okerlund point out that the king reacted very harshly to the petition and the fact that Cecily married without his knowledge and consent: he deprived the princess of all the property received under the will of John Welles, and removed her from the court. Horrocks and Okerlund write that, thanks to the intercession of Lady Margaret Beaufort, part of the Welles estate was returned to Cecily for life; also, the King's mother allowed the couple to settle in her own property, Collyweston Palace near Stamford. At the same time, Everett Green reports that the couple lived in one of the estates of Cecily's late husband, and they managed all the property jointly.
There are no sources regarding the family from which Cecily's third husband came, and his name appears only in one official document: the princess's petition to the king. At court, Sir Thomas was called "Kyme of Lincolnshire", without being called by name; he may have been descended from an old Kyme family, whose heirs, at the time of the marriage of Thomas and Cecily, owned Kyme Tower near Boston, Lincolnshire. However, a number of sources report that the Kyme to whom Cecily was married came from the Isle of Wight, which can be indirectly confirmed by the fact that Cecily, according to several sources, died on that island; at the same time, sources linking the origin of the third husband of the princess with the Isle of Wight call him John, not Thomas.
Cecily spent the first years of her marriage to Kyme on the Isle of Wight, where their two children, Richard and Margaret, were born, who were granted no royal titles or styles; nor did they enjoy any royal favours, lands, or positions at court, or any public recognition. Richard was married to a certain Agnes and had a daughter by her; Margaret was married to John Weatherby, by whom she also had a daughter. Cecily's descendants from her third marriage, recorded in the enhanced copy (dated 1602) of the heraldic visitation of Hampshire (1576) made by Smythe, Rouge Dragon Pursuivant at the College of Arms, can be traced for a hundred years later. Some sources wrote that Cecily died childless – perhaps because neither her third marriage, nor the children born from this union, were recognised by the king: in documents relating to the death and burial of Cecily (diem clausit extremum), by order of the king, she is designated as "the late wife of the late John, Viscount Welles".
Later life and death
Little is known about the last years of Cecily's life, or about her life in her third marriage. Mary Anne Everett Green writes that after her marriage to Thomas Kyme, the princess did not live in luxury and did not receive any help from the king: the only funds associated with Cecily were allocated by Henry VII on 11 December 1506 to John Gysell for a trip to her. At the same time, in 1506, the King's mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, reserved a room for Cecily at Croydon Mansion and later paid part of the cost of the princess's funeral.
Cecily died on 24 August 1507. The place of her death is not exactly determined. According to one version, she died on the Isle of Wight and was buried in the local Quarr Abbey; according to this version, the monument on the grave of the princess was destroyed during the reign of her nephew Henry VIII during the Dissolution of the monasteries, and no description of the monument has survived. However, Rosemary Horrox disputes this, pointing to evidence from the Beaufort account books that states Cecily died at Hatfield, Hertfordshire, after a three-week sojourn there, and was buried at a place that must have been local, known as "The Friars" (perhaps the friary at Kings Langley, associated with the House of York and where Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, was buried).
In art
A stained glass portrait of Cecily, originally from a larger "royal window" depicting Edward IV's family, is now in Glasgow's Burrell Collection. A modern copy has been placed in the much restored original group in the north transept of Canterbury Cathedral, and was also engraved in the book Acta Historica Reginarum Angliæ. These are, along with another window at Great Malvern Priory, Worcestershire, her only surviving memorials.
Ancestry
Notes
Citations
References
Complete Peerage, volume 14 (1998), p. 626 (sub Welles, for the first marriage of The Princess Cecily to Ralph Scrope).
1469 births
1507 deaths
House of York
English princesses
Welles, Cecily, Viscountess
Wives of knights
Ladies of the Garter
People from Westminster
16th-century English women
15th-century English women
15th-century English nobility
First Ladies of the Bedchamber
Children of Edward IV of England
Court of Henry VII of England
Daughters of kings
Annulment
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2025E
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U.S. Route 25E
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U.S. Route 25E (US 25E) is the eastern branch of US 25 from Newport, Tennessee, where US 25 splits into US 25E and US 25W, to North Corbin, Kentucky, where the two highways rejoin. The highway, however, continues as US 25E for roughly until it joins Interstate 75 (I-75) in the Laurel County community of North Corbin at exit 29. The highway serves the Appalachia regions of Kentucky's Cumberland Plateau and the Ridge-and-Valley section of East Tennessee, including the urbanized areas of Corbin and Middlesboro in Kentucky and Morristown in Tennessee.
US 25E follows the original pathway of early American pioneer Daniel Boone's Wilderness Road, which contributed to the increased settlement of Appalachia given its access through the rugged Cumberland Gap. By 1815, the route became the first state-funded road in Tennessee, and in 1923 as an unsigned Tennessee State Route 32 (SR 32) in the Tennessee State Route System in its statewide entirety. It would be recognized as part of the Dixie Highway, one of the earliest federal auto trails, in 1915. The route was officially established as US 25E with the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926.
By 1965, economic conditions in Appalachia remained dire, and the formation of the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC) provided new incentive for US 25E as part of the Appalachian Development Highway System (ADHS), designated as Corridor S in Tennessee and partially as Corridor F in both Tennessee and Kentucky. Corridor S follows US 25E between I-81 in Morristown to State Route 63 (SR 63, Corridor F) in Harrogate, and Corridor F follows the route from SR 63 to US 119 in Pineville. With its role in the ADHS, US 25E was planned for improvements as a regional limited-access highway between I-75 and I-81.
Initial construction work began in both states around the 1960s and 1970s, but was accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s with additional federal funding for the section of US 25E between I-75 and I-81 with its designation as a federal truck route in the Federal Highway Administration's (FHWA) National Truck Network by 1982, and as High-Priority Corridor 12 of the National Highway System by the U.S. Congress in 1991 with the passing of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ITSEA). In 1996, the highway received national recognition with its realignment under the Cumberland Gap with the large-scale Cumberland Gap Tunnel project. Considered a civil engineering achievement, the tunnel is one of two in the entire U.S. that crosses state lines.
US 25E serves as an arterial expressway for long-distance travelers and truckers connecting central Appalachia to the Great Lakes and Eastern Seaboard regions of the U.S. via access to I-75, I-81, and proximity to I-26 and I-40. Since the completion of the Cumberland Gap Tunnel in 1996, upgrades to freeway-grade standards have been planned and constructed for US 25E in both states to improve regional freight movement.
In 2009, all of US 25E in Tennessee, along with US 25 from Newport to the North Carolina state line, was designated as the East Tennessee Crossing Byway, a National Scenic Byway.
Route description
US 25E is maintained by the Tennessee Department of Transportation (TDOT) and the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (KYTC) in the sections located in their respective states. Both states also have access to federal funding through the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC), given US 25E's designation as High-Priority Corridor 12 from its terminus at I-75 in North Corbin, Kentucky to I-81 in Morristown, Tennessee, and Appalachian Highway corridors F in Kentucky and Tennessee, and S in Tennessee, respectively. In addition, the FHWA contracts the maintenance and operations of US 25E in the Cumberland Gap Tunnel to Tunnel Management, Inc. a subsidiary of Vaughn and Melton Consulting Engineers.
Tennessee
French Broad region
US 25E begins in the western portion of the city of Newport in Cocke County where it forks at the signalized northern terminus of US 25 alongside US 25W/US 70. Northbound US 25 and westbound US 70 leave Newport towards Dandridge concurrent with one another. From Newport, US 25E continues as two-lane primary highway, meets the under-construction Newport Bypass (SR 35/US 321), and enters unincorporated Cocke County through a rugged forested area near the community of Gum Spring approaching the Douglas Lake impoundment of the French Broad River. After briefly paralleling the eastern shoreline of the French Broad River at Webb Hollow, US 25E exits Cocke County as it crosses over the French Broad at the concrete bulb-tee beam J.M. Walters Bridge at the McNabb Bluff rock ledge.
US 25E then enters Jefferson County northeast of the resort city of Baneberry, through a rural rolling corridor in the unincorporated community of Leadvale before entering the town limits of White Pine at SR 341 (Roy Messer Highway/Old Airport Road). In the town of White Pine, US 25E becomes State Street, the main thoroughfare in the town providing access to the town's residential areas and central business district. Exiting White Pine at Walnut Street, US 25E passes through farmland, andconnects to the Walters State Great Smoky Mountains Expo Center approaching I-81 at exit 8 near the Jefferson-Hamblen county line.
Morristown-Bean Station region
Entering Hamblen County, US 25E widens to a four-lane divided expressway at I-81 exit 8, and is designated Appalachian Development Corridor S and the Davy Crockett Parkway. US 25E then enters the southernmost city limits of Morristown near the East Tennessee Progress Center industrial park at a signalized intersection. It passes through a highway exit-oriented commercialized corridor in the neighborhood of Witt, passing by Witt Elementary School and intersecting SR 343 (Newport Highway), a former alignment of US 25E. North of SR 343, US 25E traverses a rural commercial area and meets the western terminus of SR 113 (Spencer Hale Road). US 25E ascends the forested Bays Mountain ridge and becomes a freeway. It meets SR 160 (Governor Dewitt Clinton Senter Highway), a southern bypass route of Morristown at a partial cloverleaf interchange. US 25E then enters the central business district of Morristown, first accessing Walters State Community College (WSCC) and College Square Mall at a split-single-point urban interchange at Walters State Community College Drive and Crockett Square Drive. Northbound, US 25E meets US 11E (Morris Boulevard) at its first partial cloverleaf interchange, sharing a brief concurrency with US 11E, until meeting another partial cloverleaf interchange where US 11E splits and heads eastbound as Andrew Johnson Highway. North of this interchange, US 25E downgrades to a limited-access four-lane highway along another exurban commercial corridor as it approaches the Hamblen-Grainger county line at the Cherokee Lake impoundment of the Holston River. Before exiting Morristown, US 25E has an incomplete interchange with SR 343 (Buffalo Trail) and signalized intersection at Cherokee Park Road, a local collector road to SR 343.
US 25E then crosses the Holston River at the steel stringer beam Olen R. Marshall Memorial Bridge, becoming Appalachian Highway. After this crossing, US 25E enters the town of Bean Station in Grainger County, passing by tourist-based commercial development along a peninsula on the Cherokee Reservoir shoreline near Johnson Ridge. Exiting the tourist area on a rock-fill embankment surrounded by the Cherokee shoreline, the highway traverses Collins Ridge, passing by the Crosby Pothole Nature Refuge and is surrounded by Cherokee Reservoir on another rock fill embankment, before approaching the restricted junctions of Broadway Drive, an old alignment of US 25E, and the northern terminus of SR 375. North of SR 375, US 25E becomes a freeway on a rock cut atop the Richland Knobs' Big Ridge, bypassing Bean Station's central business district to the west. Descending from the Big Ridge rock cut, US 25E meets US 11W at a trumpet interchange, beginning a short westbound concurrency with US 11W. US 25E/US 11W continues northwest, downgrading to an limited-access highway through a minor commercial district on its north and an impounded German Creek on its south in west Bean Station. west of Bean Station at its town limits near Briar Fork Creek, US 25E splits from US 11W at an incomplete semi-directional T interchange near the southern base of Clinch Mountain, as US 11W heads westbound along the Richland Valley towards Knoxville. US 25E travels northbound through the Poor Valley ridge and ascends the southern slope of Clinch Mountain through a shale rock cut.
Clinch Mountain-Cumberland Gap region
US 25E then ascends northbound towards Bean Gap on top of Clinch Mountain, providing access to a scenic overlook of the Clinch Mountain valley, and then descends down the northern slope of Clinch Mountain, where it meets SR 131 at a restricted-offset intersection in the unincorporated community of Thorn Hill. North of Thorn Hill, US 25E traverses through the rugged forested Copper Ridge and Broken Valley area, passing by natural water springs and the former Imperial Tennessee marble quarry; approaching the pre-stressed box girder Indian Creek bridge. After crossing Indian Creek, US 25E enters the Dry Valley region adjacent to the Clinch River. US 25E briefly parallels the Clinch River on its west side and the Dry Valley rock bluff on its east before crossing the river once again at the Grainger-Claiborne county border via a multi-beam girder bridge.
Entering Claiborne County, US 25E winds through the forested and mountainous Caney Valley region and crosses the Norris Lake impoundment of Big Sycamore Creek on a stringer bridge. North of Big Sycamore Creek, US 25E has an intersection with eastbound SR 33, beginning a brief concurrency northbound towards the town of Tazewell. US 25E/SR 33 exits the Caney Valley region and enters the rural unincorporated community of Springdale, crossing over Little Sycamore Creek and passing by Springdale Elementary School and the Tazewell-Claiborne County Airport. North of Springdale, US 25E then ascends up Wallen Ridge passing by farmland and crosses over an old alignment of the road. After the overpass, the highway enters the southernmost town limits of Tazewell with access to Claiborne County High School but follows a J-shaped bypass around town's central business district. At the terminus of the bypass, US 25E splits from SR 33 in which the latter heads west towards Maynardville. US 25E heads north and immediately intersects SR 345 at its signalized eastern terminus. North of SR 345, US 25E follows a rural and commercialized corridor before exiting the northern city limits of Tazewell and enters a rugged rural corridor. It goes through a rock cut at Pine Hill, approaching the Powell River.
US 25E then immediately enters the southern city limits of Harrogate after crossing the Powell River on a girder bridge, picking up the Cumberland Gap Parkway designation. In Harrogate, US 25E passes through another rock cut near the Powell River State Natural Reserve on the northern side of the Powell River. The highway intersects Patterson Road, an old alignment of US 25E. North of Patterson Road, US 25E traverses a rural-forested corridor, passing by TDOT's Claiborne County garage. It meets eastbound SR 63 at a signalized and commercialized intersection, beginning a minor concurrency along a commercial corridor before meeting westbound SR 63 (Corridor F) at another traffic signal near the corner of Lincoln Memorial University's campus (LMU) and Harrogate City Park. North of the western SR 63 junction, US 25E remains adjacent to LMU's campus on the west, and Harrogate's central business district on the east with two signalized entrances to LMU. Exiting Harrogate, US 25E enters the town limits of Cumberland Gap and upgrades to a freeway at the base of the Cumberland Mountains. It then encounters the western terminus of US 58 at a trumpet interchange and begins its approach to the Cumberland Gap Tunnel at the base of the Cumberland Gap. Before entering the Tunnel, US 25E overpasses Tiprell Road and the Knoxville Cumberland Gap Railroad. Entering the Cumberland Gap Tunnel, US 25E crosses the Tennessee-Kentucky state line near the tunnel's midway point, and exits Tennessee as a four-lane freeway.
Kentucky
Cumberland Gap-Pine Mountain region
Exiting the Cumberland Gap Tunnel and Tennessee, US 25E has a trumpet interchange with the entrance road for Cumberland Gap National Historical Park before heading west to the city of Middlesboro in Bell County, where it downgrades to a four-lane highway, and intersects Kentucky Route 74 (KY 74). North of KY 74, US 25E continues through Middlesboro as North 12th Street, the main commercial throughfare, providing access to Middlesboro Mall, and intersecting KY 441 before exiting northern Middlesboro's city limits, picking back up the Cumberland Gap Parkway designation for the rest of its duration in Kentucky. Between Middlesboro and the city of Pineville, US 25E travels through the Kentucky Ridge State Forest/Pine Mountain State Resort Park in the Pine Mountain ridge and accesses Bell County High School. Entering the city limits of Pineville, US 25E meets US 119 (Corridor F). US 25E then becomes a horseshoe-shaped bypass of Pineville's central business district and intersects KY 66.
Barbourville-Cumberland River region
Approaching the rural community of Flat Lick, US 25E crosses the Cumberland River twice, enters Knox County, and intersects KY 92. In Flat Lick, US 25E meets KY 930 and KY 223. US 25E then makes an S-shaped curve, dipping south then turning back northwest as it approaches the city of Barbourville, designed originally as a bypass. Instead, the route serves as the city's major commercial corridor, providing access to Union College, and meeting KY 225 and KY 11. US 25E then enters a rugged forested area in the Cumberland Plateau near the unincorporated community of Baileys Switch. Between Baileys Switch and Gray, US 25E gradually turns more east–west, and witnesses a transition from rugged forested land to rolling farmland.
Corbin-North Corbin region
Departing the rural community of Gray, the route's corridor begins transitioning from a rural setting to a more exurban-developed land-use as it approaches the conurbation of Corbin-North Corbin, with more consecutive signalized intersections with increased commercial development. US 25E then enters the city limits of Corbin at the northern terminus of KY 3041 (Corbin Bypass). Extending further east into a commercialized area of Corbin, the route also meets the northern terminus of KY 312. Past KY 312, the route then enters Laurel County and the unincorporated yet intensely developed community of North Corbin. US 25E then reunites with US 25W, and the unsuffixed US 25 at a heavily congestion intersection, dubbed by Kentucky transportation personnel as "Malfunction Junction", where US 25 continues north towards London. However, the US 25E designation continues on an extension westbound to I-75, where it ends at exit 29. Overall, US 25E remains a multilane divided highway for its entire extent in Kentucky.
History
Pioneer era
The route of US 25E was recorded to be first traversed by Native Americans, predominately the Cherokee people, long before the Appalachian region was settled by European pioneers. During this period, the route was considered a part of the Cherokee Warriors' Path. Most notably, the pathway of the Corbin to Bean Station section of US 25E was utilized as famous pioneer and settler, Daniel Boone's Wilderness Road, being used for early interstate travel through the Cumberland Gap, aiding interstate travel in Appalachia. Among the early settlers using the Wilderness Road was William Bean, the recorded first European American settler of the state of Tennessee. Bean would establish the outpost of Bean Station, which served as the new southern terminus of the Wilderness Road, in 1776. By 1821, the Tennessee section of the Wilderness Road from the Cumberland Gap to Bean Station would be established as the Bean Station Turnpike, and would receive state funding while being a privately owned toll route due to its regional importance.
Early auto travel and U.S. numbering
In 1915, the initial Bean Station Turnpike, along with a southward extension to Morristown and the old Wilderness Road from Cumberland Gap to Corbin, was designated as part of the Dixie Highway, one of the first federal auto trails. These were among the earliest known national highways developed in the United States. That same year, the Tennessee Department of Highways and Public Works, the predecessor agency to the Tennessee Department of Transportation (TDOT), was formed and tasked with establishing a state highway system. On October 1, 1923, the Tennessee section of the route was designated as SR 32 with the approval of the initial routes of the Tennessee State Route System.
The first portion in Tennessee to be paved was a section between Tazewell and Harrogate, which took place between 1918 and 1922. The section between White Pine and Morristown was paved between October 1935 and April 1936. Paving of the Jefferson County portion was completed in the fall of 1936. By November 1926, concrete pavement on the portion of the route between Corbin and Barbourville in Kentucky was complete. In July 1928, all Dixie Highway signage on the route in Kentucky was removed and replaced with US 25E signage. All of US 25E was paved with asphalt, concrete or treated macadam by the beginning of 1928. The route in Kentucky would be entirely paved by December 1934.
During the Prohibition era of 1920-1933, the route from the Cumberland Gap to Tazewell, along with SR 33 from Tazewell to Knoxville, was part of the infamous "Thunder Road," which was used by bootleggers to illegally transport and trade moonshine across state lines. The story was later fictionally adapted into a 1958 crime-drama film and song of the same name.
By 1936, the Clinch River Valley portion of US 25E was relocated and reconstructed to make way for the valley's inundation as part of the Norris Dam project by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). This project included the construction of two concrete deck girder bridges at Big Sycamore Creek in Claiborne County and Indian Creek in Grainger County, respectively. This project, including the new bridges, cost TVA a total of $16,900 (equivalent to $ in ).
In 1941, the Bean Station / Holston River section of US 25E was also relocated by TVA for its Cherokee Dam hydroelectric project near Jefferson City. TVA constructed a new truss bridge over the Holston River carrying US 25E between the Grainger and Hamblen line, and relocated US 25E east of its original intersection at US 11W in the old town of Bean Station, close to the Grainger and Hawkins border. The reconstruction of US 25E would cost the TVA $871,600 (equivalent to $ in ), and an additional $602,500 (equivalent to $ in ) for the Holston River bridge between Bean Station and Morristown.
US 25E between Middlesboro and the Cumberland Gap was reconstructed to add a truck climbing lane in 1953. In November 1955, the Kentucky Department of Highways announced a $3 billion (equivalent to $ ) 20-year comprehensive plan for statewide roadway improvements, including a proposal for US 25E to become a four-lane median divided limited-access highway for its entire length in the state. In December 1958, a relocation of US 25E in Kentucky from Barbourville northbound to Garrich ( west of Gray) was awarded to Oman Construction of Nashville for a cost of $2.297 million (equivalent to $ in ). Relocation work on a section south of Barbourville to Bimble was announced in 1962.
Upgrades to support Appalachian freight movement
With the increased use of the corridor, many portions of US 25E gradually became deficient, leading to plans for its widening and relocation. In 1965, the US 25E corridor from the proposed I-75 in North Corbin to the proposed I-81 in Morristown was proposed as Corridor S of the Appalachian Development Highway System (ADHS), which was created by the Appalachian Regional Development Act that year. Kentucky officials asked for the designation in Kentucky to be removed, with Corridor S only designated on US 25E in Tennessee.
Interstate Highway System
In the same year, then Kentucky governor Ned Breathitt announced a 2-mile four-laned extension of US 25E, coined the "US 25 Connector," from its terminus from its conjunction into US 25 with US 25W in Corbin, to the under-construction I-75 at a diamond interchange to provide better access to Middlesboro and entering Tennessee. This extension was completed by 1970. US 25E was also re-constructed to a four-lane with a partial cloverleaf interchange at I-81 near the Witt area of Hamblen County south of Morristown in Tennessee. The contract to construct the related section of I-81 between the southern terminus with I-40 and US 25E near Morristown was awarded in June 1964, and completed in December 1966, along with the connecting section of I-40.
Clinch Mountain cut and geological difficulties
For the Clinch Mountain section of US 25E, TDOT engineers finalized two design alternatives, a dual-bore tunnel through the mountain which reduced environmental impacts to the landscape, or a deep cut along the mountain slope providing scenic views of the Clinch Mountain ridge. Citing the high cost of the tunnel proposal and local business opposition, TDOT decided on a deep cut. On September 13, 1976, work began on the section between the southern foot and the summit of Clinch Mountain. Work on the connecting section from the summit to south of the Clinch River began in early 1977. Both projects ran into extensive geological problems, which delayed their completion, and increased the cost of the first contract from an initial bid amount of $5.1 million to $10 million. (equivalent to $ to $ in ). The project between US 11W at Bean Station and the gap at Clinch Mountain was completed in July 1980. The project south of the Clinch River to the gap at Clinch Mountain included plans for a grade-separated interchange at SR 131 in Thorn Hill, but the interchange project was removed from final construction.
Cumberland Gap bypass
In 1969, construction work on a 13-mile four-lane bypass around the town of Cumberland Gap from the terminus of US 58 to north of the Powell River bridge in Harrogate started. By 1976, the work on this section in Claiborne County and part of Virginia was complete.
Morristown Bypass project
Construction work on the four-lane Morristown Bypass from I-81 exit 8 to south of the Holston River started by June 1973. In the Morristown Bypass, US 25E was realigned east of its original alignment through Morristown's central business district. Four interchanges were constructed, including a parclo at SR 160, two parclos at US 11E (East Morris Boulevard and Andrew Johnson Highway), and an incomplete half-Y interchange at Buffalo Trail, US 25E's then existing alignment. The Morristown Bypass was completed by 1977. By the completion of the Morristown Bypass, a new bridge over the Holston River between Bean Station and Morristown was announced for construction bids, at a preliminary cost of $8.25 million for the new four-lane bridge alone. The new bridge would be complete by 1980.
Pineville Bypass and other Kentucky construction projects
In 1977, the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (KYTC) finalized designs of a 2.2-mile long four-lane bypass for US 25E paralleling the Cumberland River in Pineville, supported by a floodwall. By this time, US 25E in Kentucky had been widened to four lanes in several sections; Corbin to west Barbourville and south to Middlesboro. US 25E in its entirety in Kentucky would be widened to a four-lane expressway by late 1993 to early 1994 to prepare for the Cumberland Gap Tunnel's completion.
Tennessee transportation personnel proposed plans in 1979 to rename US 25E to US 25, as US 25W had largely paralleled or was concurrent to the I-75 corridor. However, the plan was dismissed following dissent from Kentucky officials.
Throughout the 1970s to the 1990s, highway improvement projects conducted by a joint-effort between TDOT, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), and Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC), began to widen US 25E between the town of Cumberland Gap to I-81 south of the city of Morristown into a limited-access and partial controlled-access highway. Transportation and engineering personnel in Kentucky would widen the route from I-75 to the city of Middlesboro in preparation of the Cumberland Gap tunnel project.
Holston River and Bean Station bypass
In 1986, funding for the widening of US 25E into a four-lane limited-access highway from US 11W at Bean Station to the Holston River Bridge at Morristown would be funded through then Governor Lamar Alexander's Bicentennial Parkway Trust Fund, which was supported through increased gas taxes. Construction work on the 4.5-mile long section, in coordination with the widening of US 11W between US 25E at Bean Station and an existing four-lane section was complete by the end of 1990. Construction work started on a new alignment for US 25E from the realigned US 11W to the southern base of Clinch Mountain by 1995. It was completed in 1998 with a trumpet interchange at the eastern concurrency terminus of US 11W with an incomplete interchange at the western concurrency terminus of US 11W, with two new bridges at Briar Fork Creek for US 11W westbound towards Knoxville.
With the signing of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) in 1991, the US 25E corridor from I-75 at Corbin to I-81 at Morristown was designated as High-Priority Corridor 12, making it as part of the National Highway System. With the ISTEA, any future projects on the corridor of US 25E became eligible to federal funding up to 80%, with the states of Tennessee and Kentucky having to provide the remaining 20%.
Clinch River Valley and Tazewell Bypass
By 1992, funding for the survey and design of US 25E between Tazewell and the Springdale community in Claiborne County was allocated by Governor Ned McWherter's state budget. In 1994, TDOT would announce a multi-stage plan to widen and relocate a 18.2-mile-long section US 25E between Thorn Hill in Grainger County to south of Harrogate in Claiborne County to prepare for the completion of the Cumberland Gap Tunnel. The project would be split into four sections, from north of Indian Creek to the Clinch River in Grainger County, from the Clinch River to south of Tazewell, a bypass around Tazewell until Anders Street, and from Anders Street to an existing four-lane section south of Harrogate.
Before the completion of the Cumberland Gap Tunnel, US 25E saw increased congestion following an uptick in truck traffic bypassing I-75 through Campbell County and Knoxville. The route is considered an alternate corridor of I-75 attractive to commuters to regional metropolises such as Morristown and Corbin-North Corbin and truckers alike connecting to I-81 and I-75, bypassing the congested stretch of I-75 in Knoxville and the stretch north of Knoxville through the Cumberland Mountains, which is prone to rockslides.
Cumberland Gap Tunnel project
In the mid-to-late-20th century, US 25E between Middlesboro and Cumberland Gap had seen an uptick in fatal collisions, with the stretch of highway through the Cumberland Gap nicknamed "Massacre Mountain". In a 1985 report published by the United States Department of the Interior regarding US 25E through the gap, the KYTC reported 239 collisions with 19 fatalities between 1967 and 1978 between Middlesboro and the Virginia state line. The Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) would report 42 accidents with 1 fatality between the Tennessee and Kentucky state lines from 1953 to 1977 in the same report. In 1973, officials with the National Park Service (NPS) received initiatives to construct tunnels underneath the Cumberland Gap in order to resolve the accidents and restore the Cumberland Gap to its pioneer-era state of the 1770s, a motion set forth by the establishment of Cumberland Gap National Historical Park by the United States Congress in 1940. The plan, consisting of the construction of twin tunnels, of new a four-lane controlled-access US 25E, two interchanges, seven bridges, and the restoration of the Cumberland Gap, was presented with a cost of $265 million (equivalent to $ in ) and was led by joint effort between the NPS and the FHWA. Design work for the project started in 1979, and construction on the tunnels and the new four-lane US 25E began in 1985.
The Cumberland Gap Tunnel would open in 1996, completely bypassing Cumberland Gap and Virginia. US 58 was moved to a new alignment along a short stretch of old US 25E to meet the new four-lane US 25E in Tennessee, decommissioning US 25E entirely in Virginia. As the remainder of old US 25E through Virginia and Kentucky lay within the boundaries of the Cumberland Gap National Historical Park, its pavement was torn up and the path was restored into a hiking trail along the Wilderness Road through the Cumberland Gap.
Post-tunnel improvements
Since the 2000s, congestion from truck and commuter traffic, and the issue of access control has brought several projects in Tennessee and Kentucky on upgrading US 25E up to Interstate Highway standards. Kentucky transportation officials cited the route as a "travel corridor the Eastern Seaboard (via connection to Interstate 40 and Interstate 81 in Tennessee) for through traffic."
Construction work on a new split single-point urban interchange at College Park Drive near WSCC for US 25E started in Morristown on September 2, 2011, by general contractor Summers-Taylor, Inc of Elizabethton. The project, consisting of lowering the grade of US 25E, constructing two frontage roads and three bridges, was completed on October 24, 2015, at a cost of $17,279,302.97.
Between September 2011 and June 2014, US 25E at I-81 exit 8 was modified in a project that replaced the southbound loop onramp with a traditional diamond bridge ramp, widened the radius of the northbound loop exit ramp, replaced the US 25E overpass with a four-lane bridge, and added turn lanes at the intersections with the ramps. This project was necessitated by the hazardous conditions of the previous two-lane configuration, and the adoption of US 25E as part of an alternate route to I-75.
In 2017, design work started on an intersection relocation project of SR 131 near Thorn Hill in Grainger County at US 25E, which shifted the eastern and western junctions of SR 131 north and south of each other respectively. The project was completed in July 2021 by contractor Charles Blalock and Sons, Inc. at a bid price of $3.98 million.
In February 2018, the KYTC started work on a widening and access management project on US 25E between the US 25/US 25W terminus and the intersection at KY 3041 (Corbin Bypass). With a cost of $8.8 million, the project consisted of the removal of existing traffic lights and being replaced with restricted J-turn intersections, new frontage roads, and the widening of US 25E from four to six lanes, being completed in 2020.
As of 2013, has been completed of Corridor S along US 25E, while remains to be constructed, which consists of rest areas and design and construction of interchanges to meet Interstate Highway standards along the stretch of US 25E-labeled Corridors F and S.
Major intersections
See also
References
Further reading
Butler, A.B.. Historic Highways of America: Boone's Wilderness Road 1971.
Aycock, J.H.. "Construction problems involving shale in a geologically complex environment; State Route 32, Appalachian Corridor S, Grainger County, Tennessee" Proceedings of the Annual Highway Geology Symposium 32: 36-58 1981.
Byerly Don, W.; Aycock, J.H.. "Engineering geology in the construction of U. S. Route 25E across Clinch Mountain, Grainger County, Tennessee" Studies in Geology (Knoxville) 10: 6-8 1985.
External links
US 25 at KentuckyRoads.com
Kentucky Transportation Cabinet
Tennessee Department of Transportation
25E
25E
25E
25E
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Transportation in Bell County, Kentucky
Transportation in Knox County, Kentucky
Transportation in Laurel County, Kentucky
Transportation in Cocke County, Tennessee
Transportation in Jefferson County, Tennessee
Transportation in Hamblen County, Tennessee
Transportation in Grainger County, Tennessee
Transportation in Claiborne County, Tennessee
Expressways in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage%20law
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Marriage law
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Marriage law is the legal requirements, an aspect of family law, that determine the validity of a marriage, and which vary considerably among countries.
Summary table
Rights and obligations
A marriage, by definition, bestows rights and obligations on the married parties, and sometimes on relatives as well, being the sole mechanism for the creation of affinal ties (in-laws). Over 2.3 million weddings take place in the U.S. each year. Historically, many societies have given sets of rights and obligations to husbands that have been very different from the sets of rights and obligations given to wives. In particular, the control of marital property, inheritance rights, and the right to dictate the activities of children of the marriage have typically been given to male marital partners (for more details see coverture and marital power). However, these practices were curtailed to a great deal in many countries, especially Western countries, in the twentieth century, and more modern statutes tend to define the rights and duties of a spouse without reference to gender. In various marriage laws around the world, however, the husband continues to have authority; for instance, the Civil Code of Iran states at Article 1105: "In relations between husband and wife; the position of the head of the family is the exclusive right of the husband".
These rights and obligations vary considerably among legal systems, societies, and groups within a society, and may include:
Giving a husband/wife or his/her family control over some portion of a spouse's labor or property.
Giving a husband/wife responsibility for some portion of a spouse's debts.
Giving a husband/wife visitation rights when his/her spouse is incarcerated or hospitalized.
Giving a husband/wife control over his/her spouse's affairs when the spouse is incapacitated.
Establishing the second legal guardian of a parent's child.
Establishing a joint fund of property for the benefit of children.
Establishing a relationship between the families of the spouses.
Common law marriage
Common-law marriages were valid in England until Lord Hardwicke's Act of 1753. The act did not apply to Scotland, however, and for many years thereafter couples went north across the border to thwart the ban. On the European continent, common-law marriages were frequent in the Middle Ages, but their legality was abolished in the Roman Catholic countries by the Council of Trent (1545–1563), which required that marriages be celebrated in the presence of a priest and two witnesses.
The Catholic Church forbade clandestine marriage at the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), which required all marriages to be announced in a church by a priest. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) introduced more specific requirements, ruling that future marriages would be valid only if witnessed by the pastor of the parish or the local ordinary (the bishop of the diocese) or by the delegate of one of said witnesses, the marriage being invalid otherwise, even if witnessed by a Catholic priest.This ruling was not accepted in the newly Protestant nations of Europe, nor by Protestants who lived in Roman Catholic countries or their colonies, nor by Eastern Orthodox Christians.
It is sometimes mistakenly claimed that before the Marriage Act 1753 cohabiting couples would enjoy the protection of a "common-law marriage". In fact, neither the name nor the concept of "common-law marriage" was known at this time. Far from being treated as if they were married, couples known to be cohabiting risked prosecution by the church courts for fornication.
The Marriage Act 1753 also did not apply to Britain's overseas colonies of the time, so common-law marriages continued to be recognized in the what became the United States and Canada. Although it is claimed that common-law marriage in the US originated in English common-law, this institution in the United States appears to have originated in the primitive conditions of colonial America where the presence of relatively few clerics or civil officials necessitated a substitute for ceremonial marriage, and the need expanded as the settlers moved into the sparsely populated regions of the West. In the United States, common-law marriages are still recognized in Alabama, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Montana, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Utah and the District of Columbia, (see Common-law marriage in the United States).
All countries in Europe have now abolished "marriage by habit and repute", with Scotland being the last to do so in 2006.
Australia has recognised de facto relationships since the Family Law Act of 2009.
In the United States by the second half of the 20th century, common-law marriages were valid in about one-third of the states, absolutely or conditionally (if entered into before a certain statute-defined date).
Marriage restrictions
Marriage is an institution that is historically filled with restrictions. From age, to gender, to social status, various restrictions are placed on marriage by communities, religious institutions, legal traditions and states.
Marriage age
The minimum age at which a person is able to lawfully marry, and whether parental or other consents are required, vary from country to country. In the U.S. the minimum age for marriage without parental and/or judicial approval is 18 except for Nebraska (19) and Mississippi (21); but most states allow exceptions to the general minimum age in some circumstances (see Marriage age in the United States). In England and Wales the general age at which a person may marry is 18, but 16- or 17-year-olds may get married with their parents' or guardians' consent. If they are unable to obtain this, they can gain consent from the courts, which may be granted by the Magistrates' Courts, or the county or High Court family divisions.
Gender restrictions
Legal, social, and religious restrictions apply in all countries on the genders of the couple.
In response to changing social and political attitudes, some jurisdictions and religious denominations now recognize marriages between people of the same sex. Other jurisdictions have instead "civil unions" or "domestic partnerships", while additional others explicitly prohibit same-sex marriages.
In 1989, Denmark became the first country to legally recognize a relationship for same-sex couples, establishing registered partnerships, which gave those in same-sex relationships "most rights of married heterosexuals, but not the right to adopt or obtain joint custody of a child". In 2001, the Netherlands became the first country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage. As of 2023, marriage between same-sex couples is legally performed and recognized in 34 countries, namely the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada, South Africa, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Iceland, Argentina, Denmark, Brazil, France, Uruguay, New Zealand, Luxembourg, the United States, Ireland, Colombia, Finland, Malta, Germany, Australia, Austria, Taiwan, Ecuador, United Kingdom, Costa Rica, Chile, Switzerland, Slovenia, Cuba, Mexico and Andorra.
Civil union, civil partnership, domestic partnership and registered partnership statuses offer varying legal benefits of marriage. As of , countries that have an alternative form of legal recognition other than marriage on a national level are: Bolivia, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Montenegro and San Marino.
Further religious conflicts
These developments have created a political and religious reaction in some countries, including in England, where the Church of England, after long debate, officially banned blessings of gay couples by Church of England clergy, and in the United States, which continues to experience conflicts, based upon religious grounds.
Kinship restrictions
Kinship is two people that are related by blood or adoption, such as brother, sister, mother, father, aunt, uncle etc. No European country prohibits marriage between first cousins. The U.S. is the only western country with cousin marriage restrictions. Societies have often placed restrictions on marriage to relatives, though the degree of prohibited relationship varies widely. In most societies, marriage between brothers and sisters has been forbidden, with ancient Egyptian, Hawaiian, and Inca royalty being prominent exceptions. In many societies, marriage between first cousins is preferred, while at the other extreme, the medieval Catholic Church prohibited marriage even between distant cousins.
In the United Kingdom, the Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907 removed the previous prohibition for a man to marry the sister of his deceased wife. In Australia, marriage with an ancestor or descendant is prohibited, as is a marriage between a brother and a sister, whether of whole blood or half-blood and even if the brother or sister has been adopted.
All mainstream religions prohibit some marriages on the basis of the consanguinity (lineal descent) and affinity (kinship by marriage) of the prospective marriage partners, though the standards vary.
Social restrictions
In the Indian Hindu community, especially in the Brahmin caste, marrying a person of the same gotra was prohibited, since persons belonging to the same gotra are said to have identical patrilineal descent. In ancient India, when gurukuls existed, the shishyas (pupils) were advised against marrying any of guru's children, as shishyas were also considered the guru's children and it would be considered marriage among siblings. However, there were exceptions, including Arjuna's son Abhimanyu's marriage to Uttra, the dance student of Arjuna in Mahabharata. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 brought reforms in the area of same-gotra marriages, which were banned prior to the act's passage. Now the Indian constitution allows any consenting adult heterosexual couple (women 18 or older and men 21 or older) from any race, religion, caste, or creed to marry.
Many societies have also adopted other restrictions on whom one can marry, such as prohibitions of marrying persons with the same surname, or persons with the same sacred animal. Anthropologists refer to these sorts of restrictions as exogamy. One example is South Korea's general taboo against a man marrying a woman with the same family name. The most common surname in South Korea is Kim (almost 20%); however, there are several branches (or clans) in the Kim surname. (Korean family names are divided into one or more clans.) Only intra-clan marriages are prohibited, as they are considered one type of endogamy. Thus, many "Kim-Kim" couples can be found.
Societies have also at times required marriage from within a certain group. Anthropologists refer to these restrictions as endogamy. An example of such restrictions would be a requirement to marry someone from the same tribe. Racist laws adopted by some societies in the past—such as Nazi-era Germany, apartheid-era South Africa, and most of the United States in the nineteenth and the first half of the 20th century—and which prohibited marriage between persons of different races could also be considered examples of endogamy.
In modern Israel, the status of marriage is the same as it was historically under the Ottoman Empire and the British mandate, where civil marriage does not exist and authority for marriage is given by the state solely to the recognized religious denominations (Orthodox Judaism, Islam, Druze, and ten Christian denominations (primarily Orthodox Christianity and Catholicism, but also including the Episcopal Church). Israeli couples who wish to contract a marriage that are not allowed under the auspices of any of these religious denominations (including same-sex marriages, marriages involving Israelis of Jewish descent who are not recognized by the state as Jewish and marriages between non-Jewish Arab citizens of Israel and Israeli Jews) or simply wish to get legally married outside the auspices of one of these institutions cannot do so in Israel itself. However, Israel does recognize civil marriages between Israeli citizens that are contracted abroad, including same-sex marriage, so couples in these situations will often hold a non-binding ceremony in Israel and fly abroad (often to nearby Cyprus) to contract a legal marriage that is then recognized in Israel.
In the U.S., many laws banning interracial marriage, which were state laws, were gradually repealed between 1948 and 1967. The U.S. Supreme Court declared all such laws unconstitutional in the case of Loving v. Virginia in 1967.
Polygamy
Polygamy—being married to more than one spouse—is illegal in most countries. Where polygamous marriages are allowed, it is typically polygyny that is permitted. While accepted by some societies, it is far less common than monogamy.
Polygamy is normally not permitted in most western countries, although some recognize bona fide polygamous marriages that were performed in other countries. Polygamy is practiced illegally by some groups in the United States and Canada, primarily by certain Mormon fundamentalist sects that separated from the mainstream Latter Day Saints movement after the practice was renounced in 1890.
Many societies, even some with a cultural tradition of polygamy, recognize monogamy as the only valid form of marriage. For example, People's Republic of China shifted from allowing polygamy to supporting only monogamy in the Marriage Act of 1950 after the Communist revolution.
In Islam, polygamy is permitted by the Quran (4:3) which states "If you fear you might fail to give orphan women their ˹due˺ rights ˹if you were to marry them˺, then marry other women of your choice—two, three, or four. But if you are afraid you will fail to maintain justice (between your wives) then ˹content yourselves with˺ one or those ˹bondwomen˺(slaves) in your possession. This way you are less likely to commit injustice (to the orphan girls in your care)." [This verse is from a para which is setting out rules for adoption of orphans.]
Africa has the highest rate of polygamy in the world. In India, only Muslims are allowed to practice polygamy.
Polygamy, taking the form of polygyny, is most common in a region known as the "polygamy belt" in West Africa and Central Africa, with the countries estimated to have the highest polygamy prevalence in the world being Burkina Faso, Mali, Gambia, Niger and Nigeria. In the region of sub-Saharan Africa, polygyny is common and deeply rooted in the culture, with 11% of the population of sub-Saharan Africa living in such marriages (25% of the Muslim population and 3% of the Christian population, as of 2019). Polygyny is especially widespread in West Africa, with the countries estimated to have the highest polygyny prevalence in the world as of 2019 being Burkina Faso (36%), Mali (34%) and Gambia (30%). Outside of Africa, the highest prevalence is in Afghanistan, Yemen and Iraq.
Medical examination
Beginning in the early 20th century, a number of jurisdictions have mandated premarital medical testing or examinations for one or both parties. One of the most commonly mandated was a blood test for syphilis. Between the 1930s and 1950s, most US states passed laws requiring both parties to a marriage to undergo a Wassermann test (or equivalent) for syphilis. If one of the parties was found to have communicable syphilis, they would generally be prevented from marrying until they underwent treatment to resolve the infection. Before the availability of penicillin after World War II, the treatment of syphilis entailed a course of arsenic-based drugs for up to a year or more. These statutes were eventually repealed between the 1970s and 2000s, because they were considered to no longer be a cost-effective public health measure.
In the 1980s and 1990s, many US state legislatures considered laws requiring premarital HIV testing, though only a small number were adopted, and were only briefly active before being repealed. As of 2010, premarital HIV testing is legally mandated in Bahrain, certain provinces of China, Libya, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Uzbekistan.
State recognition
In many jurisdictions, a civil marriage may take place as part of the religious marriage ceremony, although they are theoretically distinct. In most American states, a wedding must be officiated by the justice of the peace in order for it to be recognized. However, priests, ministers, rabbis, and many other religious authorities can act as viable agents of the state. In some countries, such as France, Spain, Germany, Turkey, Argentina, Japan and Russia, it is necessary to be married by government authority separately from any religious ceremony, with the state ceremony being the legally binding one. In those cases, the marriage is usually legalized before the ceremony. Some jurisdictions allow civil marriages in circumstances which are notably not allowed by particular religions, such as same-sex marriages or civil unions.
In a few jurisdictions, a marriage relationship may also be created by the operation of the law alone, as in common-law marriage, sometimes called "marriage by habit and repute." However, the term "common-law marriage" has wider informal use, and is commonly used to refer to cohabiting couples, regardless of any rights they may have. The institution of common-law marriage, in its original legal meaning, has been abolished in almost all jurisdictions that used to have it, and only survives in a few US states. In several jurisdictions, such as parts of Canada, while the law recognizes unmarried couples for various purposes, such relations are not common-law marriages within the original meaning of this legal concept. (see common-law marriage vs. cohabitation). The informal use of the term "common-law marriage" has given rise to many public misconceptions regarding this legal institution.
The status in the eyes of one authority may not be the same as for another. For example, a marriage may be recognised civilly, but not by a church, and vice versa. Normally a marriage entered into in one country will be recognised in other countries. Sometimes, however, a religious ceremony or a marriage entered into in one country is not recognized by another, such as a same-sex marriage.
International recognition
Some countries give legal recognition to marriages performed in another country under the Hague Convention on Marriages (1978). For this to apply, both the country of marriage and the country where recognition is sought need to be members of this convention.
If the country of marriage is not a member of the Hague Convention on Marriages (1978), then the marriage documents will need to be certified following the Apostille convention. This certification is usually performed in the country of marriage by the embassy of the country whose recognition is sought.
License
A marriage license is a document issued, either by a church or state authority, authorizing a couple to marry. The procedure for obtaining a license varies between jurisdictions and has changed over time.
Notice
In many countries there is a requirement to give notice of an impending marriage to the community so that objections to the marriage can be raised. This custom was in place as a mechanism to necessitate the consent of parents as well as the wider community.
Formality
While some countries, such as Australia, permit marriages to be held in private and at any location, others, including England, require that the civil ceremony be conducted in a place specially sanctioned by law (e.g., a church or register office), and be open to the public. An exception can be made in the case of marriage by special emergency license, which is normally granted only when one of the parties is terminally ill. Rules about where and when persons can marry vary from place to place. Some regulations require that one of the parties reside in the locality of the registry office.
Ending a marriage
A marriage can end when one partner dies, by divorce or by annulment. Divorce laws vary significantly by country. The only countries that do not allow divorce are the Philippines and the Vatican City, an ecclesiastical state, which has no procedure for divorce. Countries that have relatively recently legalized divorce are Italy (1970), Portugal (1975), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Argentina (1987), Paraguay (1991), Colombia (1991) Ireland (1996), Chile (2004) and Malta (2011).
See also
Marriage Act
Mesopotamian marriage law
Prohibited degree of kinship
Notes
References
External links
Lord Hardwicke 1754 Marriage Act
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5092882
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Auxiliary%20Air%20Force
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Royal Auxiliary Air Force
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The Royal Auxiliary Air Force (RAuxAF), formerly the Auxiliary Air Force (AAF), together with the Air Force Reserve, is a component of His Majesty's Reserve Air Forces (Reserve Forces Act 1996, Part 1, Para 1,(2),(c)). It provides a primary reinforcement capability for the regular service, and consists of paid volunteers who give up some of their weekends, evenings and holidays to train at one of a number of squadrons around the United Kingdom. Its current mission is to provide trained personnel in support of the regular RAF.
Formation
The Royal Auxiliary Air Force owes its origin to Lord Trenchard's vision of an elite corps of civilians who would serve their country in flying squadrons in their spare time. Instituted by Order in Council on 9 October 1924, the first Auxiliary Air Force squadrons were formed the following year. The pilots of AAF squadrons were generally formed from the wealthier classes, as applicants were expected to already have, or be prepared to obtain, their pilot's licence at their own expense, at a cost of £96, about £ today. The Royal Air Force Reserve (RAFR) differs in that its members were trained in the RAF and left, but are obliged to return to service if required. Pilots of the AAF were expected to join for a period of no less than five years, and were required to fly a few hours every quarter and attend annual training for 15 days. Each squadron was provided with a town base for training, and facilities at an aerodrome. All serving members were required to wear the letter A on their uniforms.
Second World War
By March 1939, 21 flying squadrons had been formed, the 20 surviving units being 'embodied' (included) with the Royal Air Force at the outbreak of war. Notably, all enlisted men continued to serve under their auxiliary conditions of service until they expired when they were required to transfer to the RAFVR. The squadrons were equipped with a variety of operational aircraft which included Hurricanes and Spitfires. The squadrons scored a number of notable successes before and during the Second World War: the first flight over Mount Everest, undertaken by auxiliary pilots from 602 Squadron, the first German aircraft destroyed over British territorial waters – and over the mainland, the first U-boat to be destroyed with the aid of airborne radar, the first kill of a V-1 flying bomb; the first to be equipped with jet-powered aircraft, and the highest score of any British night fighter squadron. In the Battle of Britain, the AAF provided 14 of the 62 Squadrons in RAF Fighter Command's Order of Battle and accounted for approximately 30% of the accredited enemy kills. Indeed, in 11 Group Fighter Command, that saw the heaviest fighting over South East England in 1940, of the 15 top scoring squadrons, eight were auxiliary. The losses sustained during the Battle of Britain, as with all other squadrons, were replaced by drafting in regular and RAFVR pilots. In fact, the volunteer reserves of the RAF outnumbered the regular RAF pilots in the Battle of Britain.
The Tactical Air Force squadrons were chosen to carry out several successful ultra low-level raids on key 'pin-point' targets in occupied Europe. The Balloon Squadrons also played their part, downing and deterring many hostile aircraft, and were accredited with the destruction of 279 V-1 flying bombs.
The Auxiliary Air Force was also responsible for the anti-aircraft balloon defences of the UK. At the outbreak of war in 1939 there were about 42 Squadrons operating barrage balloons, with the number of squadrons peaking at about 102 in 1944.
Cold War
These achievements were honoured by the prefix "Royal", conferred by King George VI in 1947. Twenty of the pre-war squadrons were reformed postwar as fighter units. Events after the Second World War heralded a time of great danger for the UK: the onset of the Cold War with the Communist Bloc leading to the Berlin Air Lift and ultimately the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950. During these crises the RAuxAF fighter squadrons, the five newly formed air observation post (AOP) squadrons and other RAuxAF units, played their part in the UK's air defence and participated in many NATO air exercises. In 1951, at the height of the Korean War, all 20 RAuxAF fighter squadrons (representing one third of Fighter Command strength) were called up for three months full-time service; they were required for home defence in place of regular squadrons earmarked for deployment to Korea. In the event RAF fighter squadrons were not needed in Korea, but the RAuxAF squadrons were retained for intensive refresher training at their home bases.
On 10 March 1957 all 20 RAuxAF fighter squadrons were disbanded, along with the five post-war AOP squadrons and the Light Anti-Aircraft ground-based squadrons of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force Regiment. In the following two years or so, the Auxiliary Fighter Control Units associated with them were also disbanded. On 16 March 1960, the Air Commodore-in-Chief and His Royal Highness Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, invited the Squadron Commanders and Flight Commanders of all the disbanded Royal Auxiliary Air Force units to a reception at Buckingham Palace. All were given the following letter from the Air Commodore-in-Chief:
The renaissance of the RAuxAF began in 1959 with the formation of three Maritime Headquarters Units and one Maritime Support Unit. The MSU in Belfast was short-lived, but No 1 (County of Hertford) MHU in Northwood, No 2 (City of Edinburgh) MHU in Edinburgh and No 3 (County of Devon) MHU in Mountbatten continued in existence until No 3 was amalgamated into No 1 in 1999. Later that year No 1 was renumbered 600 (City of London) Squadron and No 2 was renumbered 603 (City of Edinburgh) Squadron. These three units formed the entirety of the RAuxAF for twenty years until expansion starting in 1979, with the formation of three Regiment Field Squadrons, continuing with a Movements Squadron in 1982, and, following lessons learned during the Falklands conflict, an Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron in 1983. A later addition, in 1987, was an auxiliary element (The Grampian Troop) formed within a regular RAF Regiment Rapier Air Defence Squadron. Another step forward was taken in 1986, with the raising of four Defence Force Flights with the role of ground defence of key points on air bases. In 1984, the RAuxAF's Diamond Jubilee was marked by the award to the Service of its own badge, which forms the basic motif of the Sovereign's Colour for the Royal Auxiliary Force presented by Her Majesty the Queen in 1989. The words of the badge motto are COMITAMUR AD ASTRA – Latin "We go with them to the stars".
Gulf War and beyond
During the Gulf War in 1991, the Aeromedical and Movements Squadrons were mobilised and performed with great distinction in theatre and at other locations in the UK and overseas.
On 5 April 1997, all of the four war-appointable flights of the then Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve were fully amalgamated into the RAuxAF, each with squadron status. In recognition of their origins, and in the absence of direct county or city territorial affiliations, they were each given the honour of retaining the letters "VR" within their squadron titles. The remaining non-active support elements of the RAFVR were and remain unaffected by this amalgamation, namely the RAFVR(T), the RAFVR(UAS), and at its point of formation, the RAFVR(DTUS) (being the branches for Training, University Air Squadron, and the Defence Technical Undergraduate Scheme, respectively).
During 2003 the RAuxAF was involved in the first large-scale mobilisation for over 50 years. More than 900 personnel, over 70% of its trained strength, were called into full-time service and were deployed to support RAF operations in Cyprus, Kuwait, Iraq, Afghanistan and the Falkland Islands, as well as those in the UK.
The Royal Auxiliary Air Force establishment (liability) is set at 2,920 – though recruitment difficulties mean the RAuxAF is currently at a strength well below that. The RAuxAF comprised 1,510 personnel as of April 2014.
On 19 July 2007, Senior Aircraftman Chris Dunsmore, aged 29, of 504 (County of Nottingham) Sqn RAuxAF was one of three men killed by a rocket attack on the RAF base at Basrah Airport, Iraq. He was the first serving RAuxAF member killed by enemy action since the Second World War.
On 13 April 2008, Senior Aircraftman Gary Thompson, aged 51, of 504 (County of Nottingham) Sqn RAuxAF was killed by a roadside bomb while on patrol in Kandahar. SAC Thompson was the oldest British serviceman killed in Afghanistan.
In November 2014 the Ministry of Defence announced the creation of six new RAuxAF units: No 502 Squadron to be based at RAF Aldergrove, No. 505 Squadron to be based at RAF St Mawgan in Cornwall, No. 605 Squadron to be based at RAF Cosford in Shropshire, No. 607 Squadron to be based at RAF Leeming, No. 611 Squadron to be based at RAF Woodvale near Formby, Merseyside and No. 614 Squadron to be based in Cardiff.
In August 2016, it was announced that RAuxAF personnel will no longer wear identifying Auxiliary insignia on Parade and Mess Dress. The wearing of such on working dress was discontinued earlier in the 2000s.
On 1 April 2019, No 616 (South Yorkshire) Squadron was re-formed at RAF Waddington.
Structure
Current RAuxAF Units
None of the squadrons listed below are flying units with their own allocated aircraft.
No. 3 Tactical Police Squadron (RAF Honington)
No.6 Cyber Reserve Squadron (RAF Digby)
No. 501 (County of Gloucester) Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Brize Norton)
No. 502 (Ulster) Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Aldergrove)
No. 504 (County of Nottingham) Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Wittering)
No. 505 (Wessex) Squadron RAuxAF (RAF St Mawgan)
No. 600 (City of London) Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Northolt)
No. 601 (County of London) Squadron (RAF Northolt)
No. 602 (City of Glasgow) Squadron RAuxAF (Glasgow)
No. 603 (City of Edinburgh) Squadron RAuxAF (Edinburgh)
No. 605 (County of Warwick) Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Cosford)
No. 606 (Chilterns) Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Benson)
No. 607 (County of Durham) Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Leeming)
No. 609 (West Riding) Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Leeming)
No. 611 (West Lancashire) Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Woodvale)
No. 612 (County of Aberdeen) Squadron RAuxAF (Leuchars Station)
No. 614 (County of Glamorgan) Squadron RAuxAF (Cardiff)
No. 616 (South Yorkshire) Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Waddington)
No. 622 Squadron RAuxAF (Reservist Aircrew) (RAF Brize Norton)
No. 4624 (County of Oxford) Movements Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Brize Norton)
No. 4626 (County of Wiltshire) Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Brize Norton)
No. 7006 (VR) Intelligence Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Waddington)
No. 7010 (VR) Photographic Interpretation Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Waddington)
No. 7630 (VR) Intelligence Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Waddington)
No. 7644 (VR) Media Ops Squadron RAuxAF (RAF Halton)
No. 2503 (City of Lincoln) Squadron RAuxAF Regiment (RAF Waddington)
No. 2620 (County of Norfolk) Squadron RAuxAF Regiment (RAF Marham)
No. 2622 (Highland) Squadron RAuxAF Regiment (RAF Lossiemouth)
No. 2623 (East Anglian) Squadron RAuXAF Regiment (RAF Honington)
No. 2624 (County of Oxfordshire) Squadron RAuxAF Regiment (RAF Brize Norton)
RAuxAF Band (RAFC Cranwell)
Former Squadrons and Units
RAuxAF Flying Squadrons formed 1925–1939 and 1947–1957
No. 500 (County of Kent) Squadron
No. 501 (County of Gloucester) Squadron
No. 502 (Ulster) Squadron
No. 503 (County of Lincoln) Squadron (disbanded 1 November 1938 – not reformed postwar)
No. 504 (County of Nottingham) Squadron
No. 600 (City of London) Squadron (Reformed from Nos 1 & 3 MHUs 1999)
No. 601 (County of London) Squadron
No. 602 (City of Glasgow) Squadron
No. 603 (City of Edinburgh) Squadron (Reformed from No 2 MHU 1999)
No. 604 (County of Middlesex) Squadron
No. 605 (County of Warwick) Squadron
No. 607 (County of Durham) Squadron
No. 608 (North Riding) Squadron (originally 'County of York')
No. 609 (West Riding) Squadron
No. 610 (County of Chester) Squadron
No. 611 (West Lancashire) Squadron
No. 612 (County of Aberdeen) Squadron
No. 613 (City of Manchester) Squadron
No. 614 (County of Glamorgan) Squadron
No. 615 (County of Surrey) Squadron
No. 616 (South Yorkshire) Squadron
No. 622 (Transport) Squadron
Air Observation Post Flying Squadrons formed in 1949
No. 661 (AOP) Squadron RAuxAF
No. 662 (AOP) Squadron RAuxAF
No. 663 (AOP) Squadron RAuxAF
No. 664 (AOP) Squadron RAuxAF
No. 666 (AOP) Squadron RAuxAF
The Fighter Control Units
With the advent of the atomic age, there was a need to relocate most of the radar stations on the east and south coast underground and introduce into service more advanced radars. However, manning difficulties in the immediate post-war regular RAF led to a number of Fighter Control and Radar Reporting units of the RAuxAF being formed, from 1948 onwards. In the early and uncertain days of the Cold War, the Fighter Control and Radar Reporting units were largely responsible for manning the entire UK Control and Reporting system. All were disbanded by 1961. They were:
3500 (County of Kent)
3501 (County of Nottingham)
3502 (County of Antrim – later Ulster)
3505 (East Riding of Yorkshire)
3506 (County of Northampton)
3507 (County of Somerset)
3508 (County of Northumberland)
3509 (County of Stafford)
3510 (County of Inverness)
3511 (City of Dundee)
3512 (County of Devon)
3513 (City of Plymouth)
3602 (City of Glasgow)
3603 (City of Edinburgh)
3604 (County of Middlesex)
3605 (County of Warwick)
3608 (North Riding of Yorkshire)
3609 (West Riding of Yorkshire)
3611 (West Lancashire)
3612 (County of Aberdeen)
3613 (City of Manchester)
3614 (County of Glamorgan)
3617 (County of Hampshire)
3618 (County of Sussex)
3619 (county of Suffolk)
3620 (County of Norfolk)
3621 (North Lancashire)
3631 (County of Essex)
Radar Reporting Units
3700 (County of London)
3701 (County of Sussex)
The Regiment Squadrons
In 1948, 20 RAuxAF Regiment Squadrons were proposed. In the event, 12 were formed in the Light Anti-Aircraft role, equipped with 40mm anti-aircraft guns and attached to the RAuxAF flying squadrons. By 1955, due to the introduction into service of more sophisticated weapons, the squadrons were converted to Regiment Field Squadrons. All 12 squadrons were disbanded, along with the flying squadrons, in 1957. However, three new field squadrons were re-formed in 1979, followed by two more in 1982 and a sixth in 1983. Since then, two have been disbanded and two have been re-roled. In addition, No 1339 Wing was formed in 1085 and consisted of 2729 and 2890 (both City of Lincoln Squadrons) equipped with Skyguard Raddar and Oerlikon guns both captured from the Argentinians during the 1982 Falklands War Both squadrons were disbanded in 1994 to become the Rapier Cadreisation Unit and then No 27 and 48 Squadrons RAF Regiment.
2501 (County of Gloucester)
2502 (Ulster)
2503 (County of Lincoln)*
2504 (County of Nottingham)
2600 (City of London)
2602 (City of Glasgow)
2603 (City of Edinburgh
2605 (County of Warwick)
2608 (North Riding of Yorkshire)
2609 (West Riding of Yorkshire)
2611 (West Lancashire)
2612 (County of Aberdeen)
2620 (County of Norfolk)*
2622 (Highland)*
2623 (East Anglian)*
2625 (County of Cornwall)
2729 (City of Lincoln)
2890 (City of Lincoln)
* denotes current active squadrons
Regiment Squadrons took the number of their parent flying squadron, prefixed with 2. Fighter Control Units were nominally attached likewise and their numbers were prefixed with 3, although they were not necessarily formally attached to any particular flying squadron, not being based at any airfield.
Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force 1949–1993
Airfield Defence Force Flights 1986–1994
RAF Brampton
RAF High Wycombe
RAF St Athan
and
RAF Lyneham – members of the Defence Force served the Royal Air Force at Lyneham for eight years between 1986 and 1994.
A localised recruiting drive began in the summer of 1986. At the time, the Cold War was still in progress and the Soviet Union was regarded as a considerable threat to UK bases. So a plan was created to develop a system of ground defence for the vital bases without extending regular forces and for a modest outlay. As the Royal Auxiliary Air Force had already been revived in 1979 to provide aeromedical evacuation services, air movements and Regiment Field squadrons, it was planned to set up the Defence Force flights and task one of them to protect RAF Lyneham, home of the UK's air transport squadrons.
Volunteers between 18 and 50 were sought within a radius of 50 miles of Lyneham and the first training flight came into being in late 1986, under the command of Flt Lt Bryan Tovey, a retired RAF Squadron Leader. Within five years, over 100 volunteers attended Lyneham on Wednesday evenings and weekends, trained in all the essential field combat skills such as weapons handling and live-firing practice, fieldcraft, perimeter defence, fighting in built up areas, reconnaissance, intelligence-gathering, fire-fighting and rescue techniques plus nuclear, biological and chemical monitoring. Battlefield skills were regularly tested at military training areas and such was the reputation built-up by the Lyneham Defence Force that their personnel were once used to assist regular special forces in training scenarios. The Defence Force field sections and Combined Incident Teams were based with the RAF Regiment contingent at Lyneham and played a full part in the station's Tactical Evaluation tests, conducted by NATO examiners. In the final TacEval before the Defence Force was stood down, Lyneham received outstanding marks and its Station Commander particularly thanked the Auxiliaries for their contribution. Such performance did not go unnoticed in the wider air force and in 1993, the Lyneham DF was awarded the Robins Trophy as the outstanding RAuxAF unit of the year. The trophy was presented by the RAuxAF Inspector General at a ceremony at Lyneham in 1994.
The Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF)
The foundations of the Women's Auxiliary Air Force were laid by the Women's Royal Air Force (WRAF) which was formed early in 1918, but, although plans were formulated for the continual employment of women with the RAF in peacetime, they had to be abandoned on account of the drastic post-war economy and by April 1920, the disbandment of the WRAF was complete.
When the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) came into being in September 1938, it contained separate RAF companies, but following the Munich crisis of 1938, it became apparent that these companies should be brought more closely under RAF control. Accordingly, the Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) was constituted by Royal Warrant on 28 June 1939.
Initially, recruiting was limited to officers and NCOs only, recruiting for the original RAF companies being undertaken by the AAF. However, with the coming of the Second World War, airwomen were to join the ranks and, by mid 1943, there were 182,000 women serving in the WAAF, in all the RAF trade groups. In common with the AAF, the women's force became less 'auxiliary' as the war went on; but on the outbreak of war, the WAAF consisted of 234 officers and 1500 airwomen, all of whom could be considered pre-war volunteers in the true auxiliary mould.
Initially, entry was confined to the few service trades then open to women, namely MT Driver, Equipment Assistant, Cook, Clerk and Mess and Kitchen Staff. A small number of fabric workers were also employed. By August 1939, additional trades were authorised: Teleprinter Operators, Telephone Operators and Plotters.
Barrage Balloon Organisation of the Auxiliary Air Force
See also
Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve
Reserve Forces and Cadets Association
RAF Balloon Command
References
Bibliography
Halley, James J. The Squadrons of the Royal Air Force. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air Britain (Historians) Ltd., 1980. .
Halley, James J. The Squadrons of the Royal Air Force & Commonwealth, 1981–1988. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air Britain (Historians) Ltd., 1988. .
Hunt, Leslie. Twenty-one Squadrons: History of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force, 1925–57. London: Garnstone Press, 1972. . (New edition in 1992 by Crécy Publishing, .)
Jefford, C.G. RAF Squadrons, a Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of all RAF Squadrons and their Antecedents since 1912. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 1998 (second edition 2001). .
Moyes, Philip J.R. Bomber Squadrons of the RAF and their Aircraft. London: Macdonald and Jane's (Publishers) Ltd., 1964 (Second edition 1976). .
Rawlings, John D.R. Fighter Squadrons of the RAF and their Aircraft. London: Macdonald and Jane's (Publishers) Ltd., 1969 (Second edition 1976). .
External links
504 Squadron
The All Party Parliamentary Reserve Forces Group
"The RAF Reserves and Auxiliaries" The Royal Air Force Historical Society 2003
Royal Auxiliary Air Force
Reserve forces of the United Kingdom
1924 establishments in the United Kingdom
Military units and formations established in 1924
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5093094
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakatobi%20Regency
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Wakatobi Regency
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Wakatobi Regency is a group of ca. 150 islands forming an administrative regency located in Southeast Sulawesi Province of Indonesia. The four largest islands are Wangi-wangi, Kaledupa, Binongko and Tomia. The capital of the regency is located on Wangi-wangi Island, and was established by virtue of Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 29 of 2003 dated 18 December 2003. The regency has an area of 473.62 square kilometres and had a population of 92,922 at the 2010 Census and 111,402 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 115,286 - comprising 57,662 males and 57,624 females.
Wakatobi is also the name of a national park established in 1996, with a total area of 1.39 million hectares that consists of marine biodiversity hotspot known as Wallacea and coral reefs, which condition and scale occupy one of the highest priorities of marine conservation in Indonesia. The Wakatobi Islands are a part of the Coral Triangle, which contains one of the richest marine biodiversity on earth.
History of Region
Before becoming an autonomous regency, the Wakatobi Regency was known as the Tukang Besi Islands. The name Wakatobi is an acronym of the names of the four main islands that form the archipelago: WAngi-wangi, KAledupa, TOmia, and BInongko.
The Pre-Independence Period
In the pre-independence period, Wakatobi was under the authority of the Sultanate of Buton.
The Post-Independence Period
After Indonesia gained independence, and Southeast Sulawesi was established as a province, the Wakatobi region then constituted of several administrative districts within the territory of the Regency of Buton.
The Reform Period
On 18 December 2003, Wakatobi was officially formed into one of three new regencies in Southeast Sulawesi that were established by virtue of the Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 29 of 2003 - the Regency of Bombana, the Regency of Wakatobi and the Regency of North Kolaka.
When first established, Wakatobi only consisted of five districts namely the districts of Wangi-Wangi, Wangi-Wangi Selatan, Kaledupa, Tomia and Binongko.
In 2005, by virtue of the Regulation of the Regency of Wakatobi Number 19 of 2005, the District of South Kaledupa was established; by virtue of the Regulation of the Regency of Wakatobi Number 20 of 2005, the District of East Tomia was established;
and in 2007, by virtue of the Regulation of the Regency of Wakatobi Number 41 of 2007, the District of Togo Binongko was established which brought the total number of districts in the Regency of Wakatobi to eight districts, which are divided into 101 villages (25 desa and 76 kelurahan).
The Government at the Early Establishment
The Government of the Regency of Wakatobi as an autonomous region was officially marked by the inauguration of Syarifudin Safaa, SH, MM, as acting Regent of Wakatobi from 19 January 2004 until 19 January 2006. It was subsequently continued by H. LM. Mahufi Madra, SH, MH, as the substitute from 19 January 2006 until 28 June 2006.
The Government resulting from the Regional Head Elections
On the basis of the results of direct regional head elections; on 28 June 2006, the elected Regent and Vice Regent of Wakatobi – Ir. Hugua and Ediarto Rusmin, BAE – were inaugurated by the Governor of Southeast Sulawesi Ali Mazi, SH on behalf of the Minister of Home Affairs and by virtue of the Ministerial Decree of the Minister of Home Affairs Number 132.74-314 dated 13 June 2006 on the Confirmation of the Appointment of Ir. Hugua as the Regent of Wakatobi and by virtue of the Ministerial Decree of the Minister of Home Affairs Number 132.74-315 dated 13 June 2006 on the Confirmation of the Appointment of Ediarto Rusmin BAE as Vice Regent of Wakatobi for the tenure of 2006-2011.
The current regional leadership of the Regency of Wakatobi is assumed by the tandem of Ir. Hugua as Regent and H. Arhawi, SE as Vice Regent, since inaugurated by the Governor of Southeast Sulawesi, H. Nur Alam, SE, on 28 June 2011 on behalf of the Minister of Home Affairs and by virtue of the Ministerial Decree of the 132.74-403, dated 30 May 2011 on the Confirmation of the Appointment of Ir. Hugua as the Regent of Wakatobi dan H. Arhawi, SE as Vice Regent of Wakatobi for the tenure of 2011-2016.
State of the Region
Location.
The Regency of Wakatobi is an archipelago located to the southeast of Sulawesi. Geographically, the Regency lies south of the Equator, stretching latitudinally from 5º12´ to 6º25´ South Latitude (over ± 160 kilometers) and transversing longitudinally from 123º20´ to 124º39´ East Longitude (over ± 120 kilometers).
Area.
The land area of the Regency extends to 473.62 square kilometres. The water area is estimated at around 17,554 square kilometres.
Boundaries.
Climate.
Wakatobi has two seasons, the rainy and dry seasons, just like other regions of Indonesia. Generally, land in Wakatobi is between 3 and 350 meters above sea level and is located below the Equator. Hence it has a tropical climate.
Regional Demographics
Total Population.
The population of the Regency of Wakatobi, based on the Population Census of 2010, totalled 92,995 inhabitants, consisting of 44,640 male and 48,355 female inhabitants. At the 2020 Census, the population grew to 111,402 inhabitants; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 115,286. The most populated area in 2022 was the District of South Wangi-Wangi, while the least populated was the District of Togo Binongko.
Population distribution.
Over half of the regency's population are on Wangi-wangi Island (in the Districts of Wangi-wangi and South Wangi-Wangi).
The average population density of the Regency of Wakatobi in 2020 was 235.2 inhabitants per square kilometre. The districts with the densest populations in 2020 were Kaledupa with 333.40 inhabitants per km2, Tomia with 240.95 inhabitants per km2, and East Tomia with 199.24 inhabitants per km2.
Age, gender, and ethnicity.
The population structure in 2011 showed that 59.05 percent or 56,010 of the population were in the group of productive age of between 15 and 64 years old.
The total population of Wakatobi in 2011, based on gender, was 45,944 male and 49,768 female inhabitants.
There are eight ethnic groups inhabiting the Regency of Wakatobi. Based on data of 2000, out of a population of 87,793, the largest ethnic groups were Wakatobi with 91.33 percent and Bajau with 7.92 percent, with other ethnicities totalling less than 1 percent.
Employment.
The working age population consists of 70,343 persons, of which 23,981 are male or 34.09 percent and 36.362 are female or 65.91 percent. There is a workforce of 40,395 persons that consists of 37,678 employed persons or 93.27 percent or 53.56 percent persons of the working age population and 6.73 percent of open unemployment. There is a non workforce of 29,408 persons or 41.81 percent of the working age that consists of 15,740 students or 53.52 percent, and 13,668 persons who take care of their households and other activities or 46.48 percent.
Viewed from the domains of work that absorb the largest workforce, agriculture comes first with 43,609 persons or 61.99 percent of the workforce, followed by trade with 15,635 persons or 17.02 percent, and then the services, industry and transportation domains.
Administrative Divisions
There are eight districts (kecamatan) with each of the four main islands being split into two districts, listed below from north to south with their areas and their populations at the 2010 Census and 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2022. The table also includes the location of the district HQs, the number of administrative villages (totaling 26 urban kelurahan and 75 rural desa) and of named islands within each district, and its postal code.
Regional Economic Potentials
Agriculture, plantation, and forestry
Out of the cultivation of five crops, cassava produces the highest yield with 40,199 tons in 2003. It is followed by corn with 1,715 tons, sweet potato with 58 tons, rice and peanut with 8 tons and 4 tons respectively.
In 2003, the highest yield-producing fruits were mango with 9,229 quintals, banana with 5,788 quintals, and orange with 4,134 quintals. The most produced vegetables were long beans with 229 quintals, eggplant with 210 quintals, kale with 205 quintals, and red onion (shallot) with 160 quintals.
In 2003, the highest community plantation production was 225 tons of coconut, 59 tons of cashew, 8 tons of hybrid coconut, 6 tons of cacao, 3 tons of coffee, and 0.35 tons of nutmeg.
The forestry type in 2003 consisted only of a protected forest with an area of 11,300 hectares.
Livestock and fishery
The large livestock population in 2003 consisted only of 308 cows. Compared to the population in 2002, the number of cows increased 60.42 percent, from 192 cows in 2002 to 308 cows in 2003.
The small livestock population in 2003 consisted only of 9,789 goats. Compared to the population in 2002, the number of goats decreased 5.43 percent, from 10,351 goats in 2002 to 9,789 goats in 2003.
The fisheries production in 2003 amounted to 17,985.60 tons that consisted of 17,453.60 tons of marine fisheries and 532 tons of marine aquaculture products in the form of seaweeds.
Industry and energy
Up to 2003, there had not been any large or medium-sized industries, there were only small-sized industries and home industries. The small-sized industries amounted to 107 units with 514 workers, and the home industries amounted to 1,290 units with 1,863 workers.
In 2003, the number of State Electricity consumers reached 9,652 clients with the installed capacity of 6,047,905 VA. Meanwhile, the electricity production amounted to 6,278,762 kWh with the sold electricity capacity amounting to 5,367,403 kWh and the sales value reaching Rp 2,791,737,755 thousand.
Trade
In 2003, the traded commodity volume totalled 233,650.13 tons with a value of Rp 28.639.873 thousand. Forestry products recorded the highest sales amounting to 231,529.68 tons with a value of Rp 13,761,355 thousand. Agricultural commodities consisting of food crops posted the second highest transactions, reaching 1,355.29 tons with a value of Rp 3,756,470 thousand. Meanwhile, the least traded commodity products were from plantation that amounted to 9.59 tons with a value of Rp 1,902,403 thousand, and followed by cattle farming that only reached 3.95 tons with a value of Rp 5,928 thousand.
Regional Tourism Potentials
In 2013, tourists who came to Wakatobi Regency were 11,650 persons.
Wakatobi National Park.
The Wakatobi National Park is one of 50 National Parks in Indonesia, which is located in the Regency of Wakatobi, Southeast Sulawesi. It officially became a National Park in 1996 and has a total area of 1,39 million hectares. It possesses a marine biodiversity with a scale and condition that ranks it as one of the highest priorities in marine conservation in Indonesia. The depth of waters in this national park varies, with the deepest part reaching 1,044 meters below sea level. The Wakatobi National Park features:
Coral Reefs;
Fishes;
Other animals;
Specificalty; and
Hoga Island.
Wakatobi Biosphere Reserve.
Wakatobi has been designated in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves by the Man and the Biosphere Programme of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on 11 July 2012. The world's major ecosystem types and landscapes represented in this Network are devoted to conserving biological diversity, promoting research and monitoring, as well as seeking to provide models of sustainable development in the service of humankind.
Historical Tours
Wangi-Wangi Island
Tindoi Fort
Tindoi Fort is one of the cultural destinations situated in the Wangi-Wangi District. It is located approximately 5 kilometers from the city's downtown and can be reached by motorcycle or car in around a 15-minute ride.
Liya Fort and Keraton Liya Mosque
Liya Fort is situated in Liya Togo Village, South Wangi-Wangi District. This fort consists of four layers of walls with 12 Lawa (doors), which serve as the exit doors for royalties of the kingdom to interact with the surrounding commoners.
Within the premises of fort stands the Keraton Liya Mosque, which is situated 8 kilometers from the regency's capital and can be reached by using motorcycle or car.
Mandati Tonga Fort
Mandati Tonga Fort is situated in Mandati Village, South Wangi-Wangi District. This fort has a rectangular shape with an area of approximately 1 hectare. The highest fort wall stands about 7 meters tall and is located in the western and southern sections.
Togo Molengo Fort
Togo Molengo Fort is perched high at the peak of Mount Kapota Island. It can be reached by a 20-minute traditional boat ride from Wangi-Wangi, and then by a 10-minute motorcycle ride.
Lighthouse
The lighthouse was built during the Dutch colonial era, in 1901. This tourism destination is located in Waha Village, Wangi-Wangi District, some 8 kilometers away from the regency's capital, and can be reached in a 15-minute motorcycle ride.
Kaledupa Island
Old Cemetery Kamali
The Old Cemetery and Kamali are situated in Pale’a Village, South Kaledupa District.
Ollo Fort and Old Mosque
The Ollo Fort and Old Mosque are two historical sites that constitute the cultural heritage of the Kaledupa Island society, which until now is still maintained and preserved by the local community.
Within the premises of the Ollo Fort stands an Old Mosque measuring 6,5 by 7 meters.
La Donda Fort
La Donda Fort is one of the historical sites that constitute a cultural heritage of the Kaledupa Island community.
Tomia Island
Patua Fort
The Patua Fort is a cultural historic site of the Tomia community.
Suo-Sou Fort
The Suo-Suo Fort is situated in Kahianga Village, East Tomia District. It is located 3 kilometers away from the district capital and can be reached by a motorcycle ride from the subdistrict capital.
Onemay Old Mosque
The Onemay Old Mosque is situated in Onemay Subdistrict, Tomia District.
Binongko Island
Palahidu Fort
Palahidu Fort is one of the historical heritages of the Binongko community that is situated in Palahidu Village, Binongko District. The Fort nestles on the northern part cliff of the Binongko Island seashore.
Wali Fort
Wali Fort is one of the historical sites that constitutes a heritage of the Togo Binongko community.
Cultural Destination
Kaledupa Island
Kaledupa Island exudes a cultural charm that is still maintained and preserved by the local community.
The following are cultural tourism destinations that exist in Kaledupa Island.
Kaledupa Traditional Dance
Lariangi Dance
Lariangi dance is a traditional dance from Kaledupa District that was first choreographed in 1634 during the rule of the first King of Buton, Wa Kaka.
Hebalia Dance
Hebalia dance is a traditional dance from Kaledupa District that was composed by the local shamans in ancient times.
Sombo Bungkale Dance
Sombo Bungkale dance is a traditional dance from South Kaledupa District, which is performed by twelve beautiful female dancers.
Customary Festivities and Traditions
Karia'a Customary Festivity
The Karia’a customary festivity is a typical tradition of the Kaledupa community to mark the coming of age of boys through circumcision. In this festivity, boys are paraded in the village on stretchers carried collectively by 15 to 20 persons.
Pencak Silat Customary Tradition
The pencak silat tradition is a customary tradition performed by the Kaledupa community.
Tomia Island
Safara Customart Festivity
The Safara customary festivity is a traditional feast of the Tomia community performed in every month of Safar (Islamic lunar month).
Bose-Bose Tradition
Bose-Bose is a tradition performed by decorating boats with colourful ornaments and loading them with traditional culinary dishes, such as Liwo, and then parading them along the coasts from Patipelong Quay towards Usuku Quay and up to One Mobaa Strait, while the people are beating drums. This traditional festivity is performed with the purpose of cleansing all of the sins of the people by taking them away with the sea water waves.
Sajo Moane Dance
Sajo Moane dance is a sacred dance performed by male dancers.
Saride Dance
Saride dance is a traditional dance symbolizing unity and togetherness in completing activities that are destined for the public interests.
Binongko Island
Balumpa Dance
Balumpa dance is one of the traditional dances originating from Binongko Island.
Local Infrastructure Facilities
Education
The number of kindergartens in 2003 totalled 22 units that are distributed in five districts with 47 teachers and 989 students. In 2003, the teacher-school ratio averaged 2; the student-school ratio averaged 45, and the student-teacher ratio averaged 21.
For elementary education, the year 2003 recorded 101 schools, 684 teachers, and 14,742 students. In 2003, the teacher-school ratio averaged 7; the student-school ratio averaged 145, and the student-teacher ratio averaged 22.
For junior high school education, the year 2003 recorded 16 schools, 235 teachers, and 4,287 students. In 2003, the teacher-school ratio averaged 15; the student-school ratio averaged 268, and the student-teacher ratio averaged 18.
For senior high school education, the year 2003 recorded 4 schools, 93 teachers and 2,212 students. In 2003, the teacher-school ratio averaged 23; the student-school ratio averaged 553, and the student-teacher ratio averaged 24.
Health
Until 2003, the Wakatobi Regency had not established any general hospital. There were, however, 7 Puskesmas (Community Health Center), 12 Puskesmas Pembantu (Community Health Sub-center), 5 doctors, 2 Public Health Graduates, 85 paramedics, and 9 paramedic assistants.
Religion
In 2003, the Wakatobi Regency had 112 Mosques and 22 Mushollah. It had, however, no Churches, Hindu temples, or Buddhist temples. This demonstrates that almost all of the Wakatobi people profess the Islamic religion.
Government
Terms of Duty 2011-2016
Wakatobi Regency is currently headed by Regent Ir. Hugua and Vice Regent H. Arhawi, S.E.
Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) per Capita of 2003
The Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) of Wakatobi regency is measured based on the prevailing prices in 2003 that amounted to Rp 179,774,04, - million, slightly higher than the GRD recorded in the previous year, amounting to Rp 160,473.67 - million. Based on the prevailing prices at the time, the per capita GRDP of Wakatobi Regency in 2002 was Rp 1,833,775.23 GRDP and increased to Rp 2,026,993.35 in 2003, or increasing by 10.54 percent.
Local House of Representatives of Wakatobi Regency in 2004
The regional elections for seats in the Local House of Representative of Wakatobi Regency in 2004 resulted in the following seat distribution based on the electoral party and electoral district: Golkar (Functional Group Party) received the most seats, 4 seats; followed by PBB (Crescent Star Party), PPP (United Development Party), PAN (National Mandate Party), PNBK (Freedom Bull National Party), PBR (Reform Star Party) and PDIP (Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle) which gained 2 seats, while Merdeka (Freedom) Party, PKB (National Awakening Party), Pancasila Patriot Party and PD (Democratic Party) had one seat each in the 20-seat parliament.
Members of Local House of Representative of Wakatobi Regency for 2009-2014
Muhamad Ali, SP, M.Si (PDIP, Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle)
H. La India, S.Sos (PAN, National Mandate Party)
H. Sairuddin La Aba (PNBKI, Indonesian People Bull National Party)
Daryono Moane, S.Sos (PDIP, Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle)
Laode Mas’udin (PDIP, Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle)
Supardi (PDIP, Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle)
H. La Ode Arifudin, S.Sos (PDIP, Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle)
Haliadi Habirun (PAN, National Mandate Party)
H. Sunaidi (PAN, National Mandate Party)
Hasnun, S.Sos (PNBKI, Indonesian People Bull National Party)
Muhammad Shawwal, S.T. (PNBKI, Indonesian People Bull National Party)
Drs. H. Syafruddin (Golkar, Functional Group Party)
Dra.H. Safia Wualo (Golkar, Functional Group Party)
Sutomo Hadi, S.Sos (PBR, Reform Star Party)
Zakaria, SH., M.H. (PBR, Reform Star Party)
La Moane Sabara, S.Sos. (PD, Democratic Party)
Subarudin Bau, S.Pd., M.Si. (PD, Democratic Party)
Musdin, S. Pd., M.M. (PPD, Regional Union Party)
Andi Hasan, S.Pd (PPD, Regional Union Party)
Hj. Ernawati Rasyid (PPDI, Indonesian Democratic Guard Party)
Haerudin Konde, S.T. (PKS, Prosperious Justice Party)
H. Munsir (PKB, National Awakening Party)
La Ke (Barnas Party)
Hairudin Buton, S.Sos. (PPNUI, United Indonesian Nahdatul Ummah Party)
H. Sukiman (Hanura, People's Conscience Party)
Flight Hub
The main flight hub of the Wakatobi archipelago is Matahora Airport on Wangi-wangi Island. Wings Air is currently the only airline flying to Matahora Airport. Flying is the fastest way to visit Wakatobi, alternatively 12 hours by several boats from Kendari to Baubau and then to Wakatobi. From Wangi-wangi Island to Kaledupa Island takes 2 hours by boat and to Tomia 4 hours by boat. Maranggo Airport is a separate private airstrip on Tomia Island which is used exclusively to transport visitors of the Wakatobi Dive Resort.
Activities
Sail Wakatobi-Belitong will be held in Wakatobi in July 2011 and in Belitung Island in August 2011. Wakatobi will make a mass wedding under the sea event. As a part of Sail Wakatobi-Belitong, the organizing committee launch also International undersea photo contest with theme: "The Beauty of Under Water World Coral Reef Triangle" and will be initialized after the Sail Wakatobi-Belitong is launched on July 16, 2011.
To support Sail Wakatobi-Belitong, Transportation ministry has given fund Rp.70 billion ($8.1 million) to improve Wangi-Wangi port, Kaledupa port and Tomea Island port which will be finished before the event runs.
The Wakatobi is also home to Operation Wallacea, a UK based for non-profit conservation group looking at sustainable development of fisheries and coral reef research.
In popular culture
A collaborative movie work of WWF-Indonesia, the Wakatobi administration and SET Film Workshop, The Mirror Never Lies, has portrayed the marine biodiversity with underwater scenery around the Wakatobi Islands and the life of the Bajo tribe, the sea nomads who rely entirely on marine resources for survival. The Mirror Never Lies got an Honorable Mention at the Global Film Initiative.
References
External links
Seagrass Research in the Wakatobi Regency
(Indonesian) Website of the Wakatobi Regency
Underwater diving sites in Indonesia
Archipelagoes of Indonesia
Regencies of Southeast Sulawesi
Islands of Sulawesi
Landforms of Southeast Sulawesi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Cheika
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Michael Cheika
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Michael Cheika (born 4 March 1967) is an Australian professional dual-code rugby coach and former player who has been coaching the Argentina national team since 2022.
Cheika was the coach of the Australia rugby union team from 2014 to 2019. In 2015, he received the World Rugby Coach of the Year award. He is the only coach to have won the major rugby club competition in each hemisphere, winning the Heineken Cup with Leinster in 2009 and Super Rugby with the New South Wales Waratahs in 2014. During his career, Cheika was also head coach at Padova, Randwick and Stade Français.
Cheika is a second-generation Lebanese Australian; his parents immigrated to Australia during the 1950s.
Rugby union career
Playing career
Cheika was a No. 8 who played for Australia at under 21 level. He played more than 300 games for Randwick, winning the Shute Shield seven times during a period when the Galloping Greens dominated Sydney rugby.
As a player, Cheika made a mid-career move to Europe in 1989 where he had two seasons in the South of France with Castres Olympique in Division 1, and a season for Paris team Club Athlétique des Sports Généraux (later merged with Stade Français) in Division 2. He then joined Italian side Rugby Livorno alongside Randwick teammate David Knox from 1992 to 1994. He represented an Italian Selection XV against the All Blacks in 1993.
Returning to Australia, he captained Randwick from 1997 and 1999, and represented New South Wales on their spring tour of the UK in 1997.
Coaching career
Padova and Randwick
Cheika had never coached before but in 1999 David Campese brought his attention to a coaching job in Italy. He applied for it and was successful. Cheika and Knox coached Petrarca Padova through a Heineken Cup campaign which did not yield any wins.
Cheika returned to Sydney in 2001 when his father fell ill. With European coaching experience under his belt he secured the Randwick coaching ticket and guided his old club to a Shute Shield victory in 2004.
Leinster
In 2005, Cheika replaced Declan Kidney as head coach at Leinster. Mick Dawson, Leinster's chief executive, described it as a calculated punt. Kidney had left in contentious circumstances having agreed to a move to rivals Munster before the season's end and Leinster were said to be in disarray. Cheika brought assistant David Knox, his former teammate, with him to Ireland.
Cheika's first season culminated in a Heineken Cup semi–final against Munster, which Munster won 30–6, on their way to lifting the trophy.
Cheika's second season in charge was a difficult one, as Leinster were knocked out of the Heineken Cup at the quarterfinal stage by London Wasps. In 07/08 Leinster won the Celtic League trophy with a bonus point 41–8 victory against the Newport Gwent Dragons. It was Cheika's first trophy as Leinster coach and Leinster's first since the 2001 Celtic League.
Leinster recruited Alan Gaffney to the management team as backs coach in the 2009 season, to join Kurt McQuilkin as defence coach and forwards coach Jono Gibbes. Leinster were unable to retain their Celtic League title, and finished third behind Munster and Edinburgh. However, Cheika led Leinster to European success, guiding the team to the 2009 Heineken Cup Final. They became champions after topping their pool by beating London Wasps, Edinburgh and Castres Olympique. Leinster was seeded sixth and faced Harlequins in the quarterfinal, winning 6–5. In an all Irish derby at Croke Park against defending champions Munster, Cheika guided the team to a historic 25–6 victory to set up a final against Leicester Tigers. At Murrayfield Stadium the team secured a 19–16 victory over the Tigers, to clinch Leinster's first ever European title.
In his final season in charge, Cheika led Leinster to top of the table in the revamped 2009–10 Celtic League, with 13 victories from 18 starts. In the semifinal, Leinster beat Munster 16–6, before losing to the Ospreys 17–12 at home at the RDS. The team was also unable to retain their European title. Leinster beat Clermont Auvergne 29–28, however lost to eventual champions Toulouse 26–16.
Cheika left his post with Leinster Rugby at the end of that season to become head coach for French Top 14 side Stade Français.
Stade Français
Cheika was Director of Rugby of the Paris-based club between 2010 and 2012. It was reported that his time at Stade Français was less successful than at previous clubs. Off-field conflict and mediocre on-field results made his life difficult, culminating in him being sacked.
During the 2010–11 Top 14 season, Stade Français finished 11th in the standings with only 10 wins from 26. However, in the 2010–11 European Challenge Cup, Stade Français clinched top seed after the Pool stage, winning all 6 of their matches. Their pool, however, did include Leeds Carnegie, București Oaks and Crociati Parma, with the latter two being semi-professional sides. Stade won the quarterfinal beating Montpellier 32–28. Cheika's team beat Clermont, who had dropped down from the Heineken Cup, by 29–25 in the semifinal, but narrowly lost to Harlequins 19–18 in the final at Cardiff.
In the 2011–12 Top 14 season, Stade Français improved on their previous standing, finishing seventh with 11 wins. The team again clinched the top seeding in the European Challenge Cup and beat Exeter Chiefs 22–17 in the quarterfinal. However, they lost in the semifinal by 32–29 to Toulon.
New South Wales
Cheika was appointed as head coach of the New South Wales Waratahs in 2012 for the 2013 Super Rugby season. In his first season, he guided the team to mid-table of 9th, with an even split of 8 wins and 8 losses. Some of their victories were notable, including the 25–20 win over the eventual (and defending) champions, the Chiefs, in round 10. The Waratahs turned over the Brumbies 28–22, before narrowly losing to the Crusaders 23–22 in Christchurch. Cheika also led the team against the British and Irish Lions, losing the match 47–17. He was responsible for signing Israel Folau from AFL side Greater Western Sydney Giants, who made a massive impact to the Wallabies in his debut season.
Cheika secured further key signings for the 2014 season including Kurtley Beale, Nick Phipps, Jacques Potgieter and another Rugby League convert Taqele Naiyaravoro. He created attacking backline combinations with Phipps and Bernard Foley as the halves, Beale and Adam Ashley-Cooper in midfield and with Folau at fullback. The Waratahs dominant forward pack, led by Dave Dennis, created a platform for the skillful backs.
In just his second season in charge, Cheika coached the Waratahs to their first ever Super Rugby title, with the team finishing seven points ahead of their nearest rivals, the Crusaders. The Waratahs defeated the Brumbies 26–8 in the semifinal which earned them a first home final against their Christchurch-based rivals, the Crusaders, whom the Waratahs had not defeated in over a decade. In the 2014 Super Rugby final the Waratahs beat the Crusaders by a single point, 33–32, in a nail-biter witnessed by a record Super Rugby crowd of over 61,007 people at ANZ Stadium in Sydney.
During the 2015 Super Rugby season, the Waratahs campaign to retain their title started with a 25–13 loss to the Western Force in Sydney, which was later followed by a second loss to the Force in Round 13, losing 18–11 in Perth. Cheika led the Waratahs to a 29–24 win over the eventual New Zealand conference winners the Hurricanes in Wellington, and a 32–22 win over the Crusaders in Sydney. Across the 16 matches of the 2015 regular season the Waratahs conceded 11 yellow cards. Two players, Will Skelton and Tolu Latu, were suspended from playing during the latter stages of the tournament leading to Cheika's tactics being questioned. The Waratahs had lost to the Highlanders 26–19 in Dunedin in Round 5 and were defeated by them again in the semifinal in Sydney by 35–17. It was a surprise for some how well the Waratahs did, considering the team had to play for 10 consecutive weeks between their second bye and the knock out stage, which included their two away matches against South Africa opposition.
Australia
2014–2015
Cheika was appointed as the head coach of the Australia national team on 22 October 2014, with a three-year contract that would see him take the Wallabies through the 2015 Rugby World Cup.
Cheika took over after Ewen McKenzie's shock resignation the previous week and had very little time with the team before Australia started their 2014 end of year tour. His first match as coach was a non-capped game against the Barbarians, with the Wallabies winning 40–36. Cheika's first test match as coach was a 33–28 victory for Australia over Wales which was a record 10th consecutive win against them.
However, Cheika lost his first match against France a week later, with Australia being defeated 29–26. This for France was seen as revenge following Australia's dominant 3–0 series win over Les Bleus in June 2014 under former coach Ewen McKenzie. Cheika's team lost their next match against Ireland 26–23. Ireland had led 17–0 after just fifteen but three quick tries in the next fifteen minutes put Australia back in the game.
Australia then faced Rugby World Cup rivals England who had only win from their last six starts. England's forwards overpowered Australia in the match, however, to win 26–17. The result meant that Australia had lost three out of four test matches on their tour, their worst record since 2005. Cheika made it clear that the scrum needed to be fixed before the World Cup, and later sacked the forwards coach Andrew Blades.
Scrum coach Mario Ledesma was recruited to the Waratahs and began working on scrummaging with the Wallabies players that were in New South Wales. Brumbies head coach Stephen Larkham was brought in as backline and attack coach for the World Cup. Nathan Grey was appointed as defence coach.
In the lead up to the 2015 World Cup, Cheika is credited for inventing Giteau's law which enabled overseas based players to play for Australia.
During the 2015 Rugby Championship, Cheika made multiple changes to his side for each match despite the Wallabies' winning form. They opened their campaign with a 24–20 win over South Africa, winning in overtime with a late try from Tevita Kuridrani. They beat Argentina 34–9 a week later to set-up a decider with New Zealand in the final round. It was during that All Blacks match that Cheika started two specialized opensides for the first time since 2010, and they were both influential in the Wallabies 27–19 win. The win sealed the Rugby Championship for the Wallabies, their first ever Rugby Championship title, although including the former Trinations format it was the Wallabies fourth title since the competition began 1996. The Wallabies also achieved a 100% win rate for the first ever time in either format. However, the Wallabies failed to win the Bledisloe Cup, losing to New Zealand 41–13 in Auckland a week later.
Despite having only been in charge of the Wallabies for a year, Cheika led Australia to the 2015 Rugby World Cup final. They topped Pool A with victories over Fiji 28–13, Uruguay 65–3, England 33–13 and Wales 15–6. They narrowly beat Scotland in the quarter-final winning 35–34 after a controversial last minute penalty. They beat Argentina 29–15 in the semi-final to reach the final against the All Blacks. The Wallabies went down 16–3 at half time, but fought back in the second half to trail by only 21–17 with 10 minutes remaining. However a drop goal, penalty and a last minute try saw New Zealand claim an historic 34–17 victory. On 1 November, Cheika was named 2015 World Rugby Coach of the Year, becoming the first Australian coach to claim the title since Rod Macqueen in 2001, and the first non-New Zealander coach to win it since Ireland's Declan Kidney in 2009.
2016–2017
In 2016, England toured Australia for a three-test series, the first of its kind. The series saw Australia lose all three tests to be "whitewashed" for the first time in a home series since South Africa won 3–0 in 1971. The first test, lost 39–28, saw England win back-to-back tests on Australian soil for the first time since 2003, while winning at Brisbane for the first ever time. The 39 points scored against Australia were the most points Australia had ever conceded by an English team. The second test saw England win 23–7, a record winning margin on Australian soil and a record third consecutive away win, to see England claim their first ever series win over Australia. The final test saw an accumulative score of 84 points, with England the victors 44–40.
He led Australia to second in the 2016 Rugby Championship despite losing the first two matches on an aggregate score of 71–17 against New Zealand. Cheika lead the Wallabies to their first win of the season against South Africa in round 3, winning 23–17, before defeating Argentina the following week 36–20. Australia narrowly missed out on their first ever victory at Loftus Versfeld Stadium, losing to South Africa in Pretoria 18–10. In the final week of the Championship, Argentina hosted Australia in London, where the teams became the first to play a Rugby Championship or Tri-Nations match outside any of the SANZAAR nations. Australia were the victors, 33–21. In the final Bledisloe Cup on 22 October, Australia were defeated 37–10, conceding 18 points in the closing 20 minutes. Australia's 2016 Spring tour saw mixed results, convincingly defeating Wales 32–8 in the opening week, before narrowly defeating Scotland with a 74th minute try by Tevita Kuridrani to win 23–22. Their third game saw Cheika completely change the team for the French clash, but still managed to claim the victory 25–23. The fourth and fifths matches on the tour saw the Wallabies lose their eight and ninth tests of the year, losing to Ireland 27–24 and England 37–21, with Ireland loss killing the Australian's chances of claiming a successful Grand Slam tour.
Australia's 2017 season started with a 37–14 victory over Fiji where Cheika gave four players their international debut. The following week, Australia lost to Scotland for the first ever time in Sydney, losing 24–19. It was the first time ever Australia had lost to Scotland twice in row at home, with the last loss, 9–6 in 2012, the last time Scotland had beaten Australia. Australia's final June test was a 40–27 victory over Italy, though for most of the game the teams weren't separated by many points with the score being 28–27 until the 75th minute. During the 2017 Rugby Championship, Cheika was heavily criticized for his constant changing off match day teams. It wasn't until the last round of the Championship that Cheika retained the previous starting XV in two consecutive matches, for the first time in his Career as Wallabies head coach. The Championship started with a 54–34 hammering to New Zealand, conceding 8 tries in 47 minutes. At the 50 minute mark, the score was 54–6, however Australia clawed back the margin scoring four tries in the last quarter of the game. The return fixture the following, Australia came within minutes of claiming an away victory to New Zealand, leading the All Blacks 29–28 at the 77th minute mark. However a Beauden Barrett try on the 78th minute, saw New Zealand claim a 35–29 victory, despite at one point being behind 17–0 down early on in the game. The third round saw Australia and South Africa draw for the first time since 2001, after the game ended 23–23. The result was repeated in the reverse fixture three weeks later, when it ended 27–27. Australia ended on a high, putting a solid performance against Argentina away, running out victors 37–20.
Ahead of the Wallabies Spring tour, Cheika led Australia to a 23–18 victory over the All Blacks in the third Bledisloe Cup. It was the first time since 2015 that the Wallabies had defeated the world champions. This win was backed up by a narrow 31–28 non-test victory over the Barbarians and a week later a 63–30 win over Japan in Yokohama, in what was both experimental sides for Australia. Australia's first major test on their Spring tour came on 11 November, where they faced and defeated Wales, 29–21. Despite the score being 13–6 heading into the final 10 minutes in the England test, Australia went on to lose their first tour match 30–6, conceding 3 tries. Australia's final test was a record defeat at the hands of Scotland, losing 53–24 in Edinburgh for the first time since 2009.
2018–2019
The Wallabies endured a shocking run in 2018; in June, Cheika led the team to a series defeat against Ireland, losing 2–1 having won the first test 18–9. However, a first loss to Ireland at home since 1979 in the second test (26–21) followed by a close encounter in the third test (16–20), meant Ireland claimed a first ever series win over Australia. Despite losing the series, the Wallabies out scored their opposition in terms of tries, scoring 6 tries to 3. It was also a first for Cheika in the second test, naming an unchanged matchday 23 for two consecutive tests, retaining the same team from the first test.
During the 2018 Rugby Championship, Cheika faced severe criticism over the team's form and a string of poor results. His job was openly questioned in the Australian media after the team won only two games during the Championship. Despite leading New Zealand 6–5 in the opening match, the Wallabies went onto lose the match 38–13, and despite being marginally behind the All Blacks in the second test, 7–14 at half time, they also went on to lose that match 40–12. Cheika's side did manage an impressive 23–18 victory over South Africa to retain the Mandela Challenge Plate. However, the following week, Australia lost to Argentina 23–19, which was the first time since 1983 that Argentina had beaten Australia on home soil. This meant the Wallabies dropped to a record low seventh place on the World Rugby Rankings and, after Round 5, their woes continued as they lost to South Africa 23–12. In the final round, Argentina led Australia 31–7 at half time in Salta. However a record come-back in the second half meant Cheika and his team won 45–34, to secure third place in the Championship. In the third Bledisloe Cup match, held in Japan, the Wallabies put on a better performance but failed to capitalise on their chances, seeing the All Blacks win 37–20.
Cheika's team endured a similarly dismal run in the 2018 autumn internationals, losing 9–6 to Wales (their first win over Australia since 2008) before salvaging a consolation 26–7 victory against Italy. The Wallabies ended 2018 with a sixth consecutive defeat to England, going down 37–18. The team's win–loss record, having won only four out of thirteen test matches, was their worst since 1958. A review of the team's performance was conducted by the administration of Rugby Australia, with the board electing to back Cheika through to the 2019 World Cup. The decision was widely derided in the Australian sporting press, with speculation rife that the administration were unable to afford to terminate Cheika's contract.
2019 saw much change in the Australian set-up, beginning with the sacking of Stephen Larkham as attack coach and the introduction of a selection panel made up of Cheika, newly selected Director of Rugby Scott Johnson and Michael O'Connor who acts as an independent away from the national team coaching team. The new process started with a 35–17 loss to South Africa in the opening round of the 2019 Rugby Championship. The following week, Australia gained just their first win of the Championship, defeating Argentina 16–10. However it was the final match against New Zealand that proved a success, after winning 47–26, a joint record defeat for the All Blacks; through this result meant a win in the second Bledisloe Cup match meant Australia would reclaim the title for the first time since 2002. However, the Wallabies lost 36–0 to see the trophy remain in New Zealand.
At the 2019 Rugby World Cup Australia won three of their four pool matches but a close loss to led to a quarter-final fixture with . A defeat by 40–16 in that match ended the Australian campaign and the following day Cheika announced that he would resign as head coach by the end of the year. His contract had been due to expire following the World Cup.
Green Rockets
In May 2021, Cheika was appointed director of rugby of the Japanese rugby union team Green Rockets. Cheika left the Green Rockets in early 2023.
Argentina
2022–2023
In March 2022 it was confirmed that Cheika would coach the Argentina national rugby union team from 2022 through to the 2023 Rugby World Cup, with assistant coach Felipe Contepomi taking over post-World Cup.
Cheika's first matches as coach came against Scotland in a three-test home series. Starting half-back Tomás Cubelli was ruled out of the series due to injury acquired in training, while starting fly-half Nicolás Sánchez was replaced in game one after twenty-one minutes of play (calf tear). Argentina won the first game (26–18) in a tight back-and-forth match in San Salvador de Jujuy. Although the first test was a close win for Argentina, the second was a dominant blowout win for Scotland (6–29), scoring four tries to zero. Scotland also kept Argentina scoreless in the second-half, levelling the series 1–1. Scotland also levelled the overall record between the two sides (10–10). In the third and final test, the decider, Argentina clawed back a fifteen-point deficit to win the match in a spectacular last-minute final play in Santiago del Estero (34–31), winning the series 2–1. It was Cheika's fourth win in total against Scotland out of seven matches.
In their first two tests of the 2022 Rugby Championship, Argentina played Australia at home, following SANZAAR's change to the Rugby Championship round-robin format, which will see some teams play two home matches, two away matches and two home-and-away matches against the three other teams of SANZAAR. In round one Argentina lost 26–41 at Estadio Malvinas Argentinas, Mendoza after leading 19–10 at half-time. In round two Argentina played Australia at Estadio San Juan del Bicentenario, San Juan. Similar to their first round encounter, Los Pumas started the match in a rapid fashion, scoring four tries in just a half-hour of play, and lead Australia by sixteen points at half-time (26–10). After Wallaby flanker Fraser McReight was yellow carded in the sixty-third minute, Argentina prop Thomas Gallo went over for his second try of the match, extending their lead out to the biggest margin of the match up to that point: twenty-one points (31–10). A snappy reply from Australia's Len Ikitau saw them reduce the lead back to fourteen-points by the seventieth minute with only fourteen players on the field. However, in the final three minutes of the match, Argentina scored two unanswered tries finishing the match with their biggest victory of Australia (48–17; thirty-one points), beating their previous best victorious margin of fifteen points in 1983. After the match, Cheika stated: “I love these guys, they’re my crew now[.]” adding, “I was up on the last try, cheering. But then I started crying because I know I probably shouldn’t be doing this. It was a bit confusing for me, personally.” [...] “But they’re my boys now. That’s my team. I will do everything I can to help them get success and enjoy rugby. They are paying me a lot of respect here and people are believing in the things that we are doing. I have to do everything I can to help them.”
Following Argentina's first two rounds at home, rounds three and round four were played away against New Zealand, the first test at Rugby League Park, Christchurch, the second at Waikato Stadium, Hamilton. Argentina scored the first points of the game via a penalty goal through Emiliano Boffelli in the seventh minute. After ten minutes of play, and conceding a try, Boffelli scored another penalty goal for Argentina in the seventeenth minute. Following Argentina's second penalty goal, New Zealand scored a converted try and two penalty goals to lead 15–6, before Boffelli kicked another two penalty goals before half-time, reducing the deficit to three points (15–12). Argentina made the strong start to the second-half, capitalising on a re-start after a penalty goal Richie Mo'unga. Flanker Juan Martín González received the ball before he ran around into space on the short side of the field, going through for a try. Boffelli slotted the conversion, and, for the third time in the match, Argentina were leading. With vast bursts of physicality and many mistakes throughout the second-half, Boffelli added another six points to the score before full-time. The match finished New Zealand 18, Argentina 25. Historically, it was the first Argentina win against New Zealand, in New Zealand. It was the first time ever that New Zealand had lost three-straight home matches (the first two were against Ireland). It is also the second, back-to-back history-making match for Argentina with Michael Cheika as coach, mentioning, “It’s a first for me, I’ve never won a Test match in New Zealand.” When asked about the matches specialty regarding beating his home country (Australia) vs. beating New Zealand, Cheika replied: “I don’t look at it like that. I look at it from our point of view and growing the team and, in particular, towards the World Cup.” Following the historic result, Argentina jumped two placings in the World Rugby Rankings (9th to 7th) to sit just 0.01 points below Australia in sixth.
In the following round (four), Argentina suffered there heaviest defeat to New Zealand since 1997, losing 53–3. In very wet conditions, it took Argentina thirty-two minutes of play to finally score any points, coming through the boot of Emiliano Boffelli, by which point they had already conceded two tries and a penalty goal (score reading 17–3). Conceding over double the amount of turnovers as New Zealand, Argentina went on scoreless while the All Blacks scored an additional five tries by the end of the match. The loss to New Zealand put Argentina last on the Rugby Championship table, having been first for the previous two rounds (13 August – 3 September 2022). Despite the heavy defeat, Argentina went up one ranking (7th to 6th), due to Australia (whom was in sixth, one placing above Argentina) losing at home to South Africa by more than fifteen points in the same round.
In the same month (September 2022), former Australia scrum-half under Michael Cheika, Will Genia, said he could see the return of Cheika coaching Australia. Genia told Fox Sports Australia, “I can see it [Cheika returning as coach of Australia] and I would love to see it because I know he still harbours aspirations for it,” adding: “He loves coaching”.
Rugby league career
Coaching career
Following his departure from Australian Rugby, Cheika took up a role within the National Rugby League (NRL) with Sydney Roosters Rugby League Team as assistant coach. In September 2020, the Argentine Rugby Union (UAR) announced that Cheika had joined the team prior to the 2020 Tri Nations Series, taking up an advisory role and re-joining former Wallabies coaching staff, Mario Ledesma.
Lebanon
In November 2020, Cheika was appointed head coach for Lebanon, the country of his parents' birth, ahead of the 2021 Rugby League World Cup. He retained this position even when appointed as Argentina's rugby union coach.
The 2021 Rugby League World Cup was postponed to October and November 2022 and coincided with Argentina's 2022 Autumn International tour of Great Britain. Although reported as notably difficult (dual-coaching), Cheika maintained both positions. Cheika's almost entirely Lebanese Australian squad included cousin Adam Doueihi.
In the group stage, Cheika's Lebanon played New Zealand, Ireland and Jamaica. Defeating the two latter teams, Lebanon finished second in the group, behind New Zealand and qualified for the Quarter-finals. Lebanon played Group B winners Australia, losing 48–4 in Huddersfield. Although maintaining their same height in the knockout stage, under Cheika Lebanon accomplished their best performance at a Rugby League World Cup (RLWC), finishing with a 2–2 record, and a point point difference of fourteen.
Statistics
International matches as head coach
Note: World Rankings Column shows the World Ranking Australia and Argentina was placed at on the following Monday after each of their matches
Record by country
Australia record
Argentina record
Honours
Australia
World Rugby Coach of the Year
Winner: 2015
Rugby World Cup / Webb Ellis Cup
Runner-up: 2015
The Rugby Championship
Winner: 2015
Runner-up: 2016, 2017, 2019
James Bevan Trophy
Winner: 2014, 2016, 2017
Mandela Challenge Plate
Winner: 2015, 2016, 2017,2018
Puma Trophy
Winner: 2015, 2016, 2017,2018, 2019
Trophée des Bicentenaires
Winner: 2016
Hopetoun Cup
Winner: 2016
Killik Cup
Winner: 2014
New South Wales
Super Rugby
Winner: 2014
Australian Conference winner: 2014, 2015
Stade Français
European Challenge Cup
Runner-up: 2011
Leinster
Heineken Cup
Winner: 2009
Celtic League
Winner: 2008
Runner-up: 2006, 2010
Randwick
Shute Shield
Winner (as coach): 2004
Winner (as player): 1987, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1996
Personal life
Cheika is the son of Lebanese migrants. He is the youngest of three children and grew up in a working-class home in Coogee, New South Wales. He previously worked for dress designer Collette Dinnigan, before starting a multimillion-dollar fashion business of his own called Live Fashion. Cheika speaks fluent Arabic, French and Italian. He was known among the Leinster rugby fraternity as Mic Check 1–2, a humorous allusion to his name, Craig McLachlan's band and his eagerness that all facets of preparation were scrutinised and reviewed prior to matchday.
Cheika married in June 2008. He and his wife Stephanie have four children. He is a fan of the South Sydney Rabbitohs Rugby league team and is first cousin once removed of Adam Doueihi.
Notes
References
External links
Lassen Record
1967 births
Living people
Australia national rugby union team coaches
Australian people of Lebanese descent
Sportspeople of Lebanese descent
Australian rugby union coaches
Australian rugby union players
New South Wales Waratahs players
Lebanon national rugby league team coaches
Leinster Rugby non-playing staff
Rugby union players from Sydney
Australian expatriate sportspeople in Lebanon
Australian expatriate sportspeople in Argentina
Australian expatriate sportspeople in Ireland
Australian rugby league coaches
Expatriate sports coaches
Australian expatriate sportspeople in France
Australian expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Australian expatriate rugby union players
Expatriate rugby union players in France
Expatriate rugby union players in Italy
Randwick DRUFC players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Caribbean%20islands
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List of Caribbean islands
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Almost all of the Caribbean islands are in the Caribbean Sea, with only a few in inland lakes. The largest island is Cuba. Other sizable islands include Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, North Andros, and Trinidad. Some of the smaller islands are referred to as a rock or reef.
Islands are listed in alphabetical order by country of ownership and/or those with full independence and autonomy. Islands with coordinates can be seen on the map linked to the right.
Antigua and Barbuda
There are 54 islands in Antigua and Barbuda. There are three main islands, the two populated islands (Antigua and Barbuda) and Redonda. There are 51 off-shore islands. The islands of the country of Antigua and Barbuda include:
Antigua, ,
Northeast Marine Management Area
Prickly Pear Island
Great Bird Island
Galley Island Major
Galley Island Minor
Jenny Island
Exchange Island
Rabbit Island
Lobster Island
Long Island
Maiden Island
Rat Island
Little Bird Island
Hell's Gate Island
Monocle Point Island
Red Head Island
Guiana Island
Crump Island
Nanny Island (Henry Island)
Laviscounts Island
Bird Island
Round Island
Hawes Island
Little Island
Green Island
Pelican Island
York Island
Codrington Island
Blake Island
Cinnamon Island
Five Islands
Hawksbill Rock
Johnson Island
Maiden Island
Moor Rock
Mouse Island
Neck of Land
Sandy Island
Smith Island
The Sisters
Vernon's Island
Wicked Will Island
Barbuda, ,
Goat Island
Kid Island
Man of War Island
Rabbit Island
Redonda (uninhabited), ,
The Bahamas
The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is located in the Lucayan Archipelago, the portion of the Caribbean region in the North Atlantic Ocean rather than in or bordering the Caribbean Sea. There are 700 islands and 2,400 cays in The Bahamas. There are 30 inhabited islands. Andros Island is the largest island in the Bahamas. Large island groups include Berry Islands and Exuma. The following islands are some of the more notable islands (cays) (see the main article for a comprehensive listing of all islands):
Abaco Island,
Abner Cay (part of Berry Islands),
Acklins,
Adderley Cay (part of Exuma),
Alder Cay,
Ambergris Cay (part of Berry Islands),
Andros Island,
Anna Cay,
Arawak Cay (Fish Fry),
Archers Cay,
Athol Island,
Atwood Cay (Samana Cay),
Barataria Island (part of Exuma),
Serranilla Bank (Beacon Cay),
Bell Island,
Berry Islands District,
Big Major Cay (Pig Beach)
Bimini Islands,
Bird Cay (part of Berry Islands),
Bitter Guana Cay (part of Exuma),
Bock Cat Cay (part of Exuma),
Bonds Cay (part of Berry islands),
Booby Cay,
Bowe Cay (part of Exuma),
Cabbage Cay (part of Berry Islands),
Castaway Cay (private island and an exclusive port for Disney Cruise Line),
Cat Island,
Cat Cays (part of Bimini),
Cay Sal Bank,
Children's Bay Cay (part of Exuma, also called Williams Cay),
Chub Cay,
Cistern Cay (part of Berry Islands),
Coakley Cay,
Cockroach Cay,
Comfort Cay (part of Berry Islands),
Compass Cay,
Conception Island,
Cormorant Cay (part of Berry Islands),
Crooked Island,
Culmer's Cay (part of Exuma),
Cupids Cay (Governor's Island),
Current Island,
Devils Cay (part of Berry Islands),
Diamond Rock (part of Berry Islands),
Discovery Island
Dolly Cay,
Dove Cay,
Egg Island,
Elbow Cay,
Elbow Cays (Cay Sal Bank),
Eleuthera Island
Elizabeth Island,
Exuma Island
Fortune Island (Long Cay),
Frazer Hog Cay,
Galliot Cay,
Goat Cay
Gorda Cay (Castaway Cay),
Grand Bahama,
Great Exuma Island,
Great Guana Cay,
Great Harbour Cay,
Great Inagua Island,
Great Isaac Cay (Rock),
Great Stirrup Cay
Green Turtle Cay
Halls Pond Cay
Harbour Island
Highbourne Cay
Hoffman Cay
Inagua Island
Iron Cay
Jewfish Cay
Joulter Cays
Lee Stocking Island
Little Abaco Island
Little Cistern Cay
Little Darby Island
Little Farmer's Cay
Little Harbour Cay
Little Inagua,
Little Petit Cay
Little San Salvador Island (Half Moon Cay)
Little Stirrup Cay
Little Wax Cay
Little Whale Cay
Long Cay
Long Island,
Lyford Cay
Madam Dau's Cay
Major's Island
Man Island
Man-O-War Cay
Mangrove Cay
Mayaguana
Middle Cay
Moore's Island
Moriah Harbour Cay
Musha Cay
New Providence,
Norman's Cay
North Andros
North Bimini
North Cat Cay
North Elbow Cay
O'Brien Cay
Ocean Cay
Over Yonder Cay
Paradise Island
Perpall's Cay
Prime Cay
Ragged Island
Rose Island
Royal Island
Rum Cay
Russell Island
Salt Cay
Samana Cay
Sampson Cay
San Salvador Island,
Sandy Cay
Schooner Cays
Scotland Cay
Seal Cay
South Bimini
South Cat Cay
South Stirrup Cay
Staniel Cay
Stocking Island
Stranger Cay
Sugar Loaf Cay
Sweeting Cay
Vigilant Cay
Waderick Wells Cay
Walker's Cay
Watling Island
Wax Cay
Windermere Island
Wood Cay
Barbados
There are currently two islands and two banks in Barbados. An additional historical island that no longer exists as an island is also included in this list.
Barbados,
Culpepper Island (uninhabited),
Pelican Island (Historical, uninhabited),
Trader Bank,
The Shadows (Bank),
Belize
There are about 180 islands in Belize. Some of the larger islands of Belize in the Caribbean Sea include:
Turneffe Atoll (Turneffe Islands), ,
Ambergris Group, ,
Douglas Cay, ,
Drowned Cays, ,
Hick's Cayes, ,
Lighthouse Reef,
Colombia
Several Departments of Colombia include islands in the Caribbean area.
Bolívar Department
Islands of the Bolívar Department of Colombia include:
Rosario Islands (Islas del Rosario),
Isla Grande,
Isla Marina,
Isla de Roberto,
Isla Rosario,
Isla del Tesoro,
Isla del Pirata,
Isla Pelicano,
Isla Rosa,
Isla Gigi,
Fuerte Island,
Tierra Bomba Island (Isla Tierra Bomba),
Isla Barú,
Isla de la Manga,
Isla Diablo,
Isla de Manzanillo,
Isla Maparadita,
Isla Cocosolo,
Isla Brujas,
Isla Abanico,
Córdoba Department
Islands in the Córdoba Department include:
Islas Tortuguilla,
Magdalena Department
Islands in the Magdalena Department include:
Isla de Salamanca,
Isla El Morro,
Isla de La Aguja, ]
Isla Bóqueron Grande,
San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina
Islands in the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina include:
Sucre Department
Islands in the Sucre Department include the following islands in the Archipelago of San Bernardo:
Bóqueron Island
Cabruna Island (Isla Cabruna),
Ceycén Island (Isla Ceycen),
Mangle Island,
Maravilla Island (Isla Maravilla),
Múcura Island (Isla Múcura ),
Palma Island (Isla Palma),
Panda Island,
Salamanquilla Island,
San Barnardo Island,
Santa Cruz del Islote,
Tintipán Island,
Costa Rica
There are about 79 islands in Costa Rica. The largest islands in the Caribbean Sea are listed below:
Isla Calero, ,
Isla Brava,
Isla Uvita, ,
Cuba
Cuba consists of over 4,000 islands and cays surrounding the country's main island, many of which make up archipelagos. Off the south coast are two main archipelagos, Jardines de la Reina and the Canarreos Archipelago. The Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago runs along the northern coast and contains roughly 2,517 cays and islands. The Colorados Archipelago is located off the north-western coast. The following islands are some of the major islands in the island country Cuba:
Dominica
The island nation of Dominica with a total area of includes two small, off-shore islands and one disputed island:
Dominica (745.96 km²),
Petit L'Ilet (0.0013 km²),
Gros L'Ilet (0.007 km²),
Bird Island (Ile de Aves) - in dispute with Venezuela (0.032 km²),
Dominican Republic
There are about 73 islands in the Dominican Republic, including the following islands:
Eastern part of the island of Hispaniola, )
Catalina Island,
Isla Beata,
Isla Alto Velo,
Cayo Levantado (Bacardi Island),
Isla Saona,
France
The following sections show the islands of French departments in the Caribbean.
Guadeloupe
Guadeloupe consists of six inhabited islands—Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, La Désirade, and the two inhabited islands in the Îles des Saintes—as well as many uninhabited islands and outcroppings.
Martinique
There are about 46 islands in Martinique, including the following:
Îlet aux Rats (Bats Island),
Caye Pinsonelle,
Diamond Rock,
Petit Îlet Duprey,
Gros Îlet (Îlet Mandoline),
Îlet Chancel,
Île Petite Grenade,
Îlet à Eaux Rats (Rocks),
Îlet à Ramiers,
Îlet à Toiroux (Îlet Poirier),
Îlet Aux Rats,
Îlet Baude,
Îlet Boisseau (Îlet des Chardons),
Îlet Cabrits,
Îlet Chancel (Ilet Ramville),
Ilet Chevalier (Ilet Lezard),
Ilet De La Rose (Îlet Madame),
Îlet Du Galion,
Îlet Duquesnay,
Îlet du Trésor,
Ilet Fregate,
Îlet Hardy,
Îlet La Perle,
Îlet Lapin,
Îlet Lavigne (Gros Îlet),
Îlet Long,
Îlet Métrente,
Îlet Oscar (Bonchard),
Îlet Pelé,
Îlet Petit Piton (Rocher de la Grotte),
Ilet Petit Vincent,
Îlet Petite Martinique,
Îlet Ragot (Îlet de la Grotte, Ilet Duchamp),
Îlet Saint Aubin,
Îlet Sainte-Marie,
Îlet Tartane,
Îlet Thierry,
Ilets Aux Chiens,
Les Trois Ilets,
Martinique,
Petit Îlet,
Petit Ilet Duprey,
Sugarloaf Rock,
Table du Diable,
Trou Terre Island,
Saint Barthélemy
There are 18 islands in Saint Barthélemy, including the following:
Île de Boulanger,
La Chaloupe,
Île Chevreau,
Île Coco,
Île Fourche (Île Fourchue),
Île Frégate,
Îles des Grenadins (Rock),
Les Gros Îlets,
Île du Pain de sucre,
Île Pelé,
La Petite Islette,
Île de la Pointe,
Roche le Boeuf,
Roche Plate,
Saint Barthélemy (also Saint Barts),
Île Toc Vers,
Îlet au Vent,
La Tortue,
Collectivity of Saint Martin
There are seven islands and two rocks in the French Collectivity of Saint Martin, including:
Northern part of the island of Saint Martin,
Caye Chateau,
Caye Verte,
Creole Rock (Crowl Rock), or
Grand Îlet,
Petite Clef,
Pinel Island,
Rocher de l'Anse Marcel (rock),
Île Tintamarre,
Grenada
There are over 600 islands and islets in Grenada and the Grenadines. The notable islands in Grenada include:
Calivigny Island,
Caille Island,
Carriacou,
Diamond Island,
Fota Island,
Frigate Island,
Glover Island (Ramier Island),
Green Island,
Grenada,
Hog Island,
Hope Island (Bacolet Island),
Jack Adam Island,
Large Island,
Levera Island (Sugar Loaf Island),
Mabouya Island,
Marquis Island (Soubisse Island),
Mushroom Island,
Pearls Rock,
Petite Dominique,
Petite Martinique,
Carriacou and Petite Martinique,
Ronde Island,
Saline Island,
Sandy Island,
White Island,
Haiti
The most densely populated island in the world is Ilet a Brouee in Haiti, at 500 persons in its area of . There are about 59 islands in Haiti, including the following:
Caye Sable,
Gonâve Island,
Grosse Caye,
Hispaniola (Eastern part),
Ilet a Brouee,
Île-à-Vache (Cow Island),
Isle Cacique,
Les Cayemites
Grand Cayemite,
Petite Cayemite,
Navassa Island (claimed by both Haiti and the United States),
Tortuga Island (Turtle Island),
Honduras
There are at least 99 islands in Honduras, including the following Caribbean islands:
Cayos Cochinos (Islas de la Bahía, also called Hog Islands),
Cayo Gorda,
Islas de la Bahía,
Cayo Sur,
Guanaja,
Roatán (Isla Roatan),
Utila,
Swan Islands
Isla Grande,
Little Swan Island (Isla Pequeña),
Misteriosa Bank
Rosario Bank
Jamaica
There are about 49 islands in the island nation of Jamaica, including the following islands:
Bajo Nuevo Bank (uninhabited),
Great Goat Island,
Jamaica,
Lime Cay,
Little Goat Island,
Morant Cays,
Navy Island,
Pedro Cays,
Port Royal Cays (uninhabited),
Sandals Royal Caribbean Resort & Offshore Island,
Kingdom of the Netherlands
The Antillean islands in the island countries (Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten) and special municipalities (Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba) of the Kingdom of the Netherlands are listed below. Collectively, these islands were formerly considered the Netherlands Antilles, and still are often referenced as the Dutch Caribbean.
Aruba
There are at least five islands in Aruba:
Aruba,
Indiaanskop,
Key Cay
Long Cay
Renaissance Island,
Curaçao
There are at least seven islands in Curaçao, including:
Curaçao,
Kadoesjie,
Klein Curaçao,
Eiland Penso,
Isla Makuaku,
Kadoesji, Curaçao,
Sapaté Eiland,
Sint Maarten
There are ten total islands of Sint Maarten, including:
Saint Martin (southern part),
Cow and Calf Island,
Guana Key of Pelikan (Guana Cay),
Hen and Chicken,
Little Key,
Mal Aborder,
Mollibeday Rots (Molly Beday Rock),
Mona Island,
Pelikan Rock, Sint Maarten (Pelican Island),
Pond Island,
Snoopy Island,
The Caribbean islands (Bonaire, Saba and Sint Eustatius special municipalities) in the country of the Netherlands of the Kingdom are listed below.
Caribbean Netherlands
Bonaire (special municipality of the Netherlands):
Bonaire,
Eiland Ranch, Bonaire,
Klein Bonaire, Bonaire,
Meeuwtje,
Willemberg,
Camia,
Isla Makuka
Sint Eustatius, Sint Eustatius Special Municipality,
Saba (special municipality of the Netherlands)
Saba,
Green Island, Saba,
Little Island, Saba,
Pilot Rots (Rocks),
Mexico
There are several islands of Mexico on the Caribbean Sea, including:
Isla Cancún,
Isla Cozumel,
Isla Contoy,
Isla Holbox,
Isla Mujeres,
Nicaragua
There are over 150 islands in Nicaragua, including the following islands in the Caribbean Sea:
Corn Island,
Little Corn Island,
Miskito Cays (reef),
Pearl Cays,
Calala Island (private island),
Pigeon Cay (Cayo de la Paloma),
Panama
There are several hundreds of islands in Panama, including the following islands in the Caribbean:
Isla Bastimentos,
Cayos Zapatilla,
Isla Carenero,
Isla Cayo Agua,
Isla Colón,
Isla Cristóbal,
Isla Popa,
Isla Solarte,
Isla Escudo de Veraguas,
Galeta Island,
Isla Cabra,
Isla Grande,
Corazón de Jesús,
Narganá,
Soledad Miria,
Saint Kitts and Nevis
There are about 20 islands in Saint Kitts and Nevis, including:
Booby Island,
Crokus Cay
Dalzel Island
Dodan Island
Dulcina Island
East Cay
Eden Island
Fahie Island
Friars Bay
Gardner Island
Garvey Island
Golden Cay
Jessop Island
Maddens
Meves Island
Nevis,
Otters Island
Saint Kitts (Saint Christopher),
Sugar Loaf
Vambelle Island
Saint Lucia
There are 15 islands in Saint Lucia, including:
Barrel o' Beef
Burgot Rocks
Dennery Island,
Des Bateaux Island,
Fous Island,
Frigate Island,
L'Islet a Ramier
Liverpool Rocks
Maria Islands,
Pigeon Island,
Praslin Island,
Rat Island,
Rouche Island,
Saint Lucia,
Scorpion Island,
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
There are about 49 islands in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, including:
All Awash Island,
Baliceaux Island,
Bequia,
Bettowia (Battowia),
Black Rock
Brooks Rocks
Bullet Cay,
Cactus Cay
Canouan Baleine
Canouan Island,
Catholic Island,
Chateaubelair Islet,
Church Cay,
Cow And Calves Islands
Dike Island,
Double Rock
Dove Cay,
Dove Island,
Ellen Rock
Fort Duvernette Island (Duvernette Islet),
Frigate Island,
L'Islot,
Litte Savan,
Mayreau,
Middle Cay (St. Elairs Cay),
Milligan Cay,
Mopion Islet
Mustique,
Palm Island (Prune Island),
Pelican Cay
Petit Canouan,
Petit Cay,
Petit Mustique,
Petit Nevis,
Petit Saint Vincent,
Petit Tabac
Pigeon Island,
Pillories
Big Pillory,
Middle Pillory,
Little Pillory,
Punaise
Isle à Quatre,
Rabbit Island,
Red Island,
Saint Elairs Cay,
Saint Vincent,
Sand Cay
Savan,
Savan Rock (Little Savan),
Semplars Cay
Tobago Cays,
Petit Rameau,
Petit Bateau,
Petit Tobac,
Jamesby,
Baradal,
Syrup Cay
Union Island,
West Cay
Wilks Island
Young Island,
Trinidad and Tobago
There are 44 islands in Trinidad and Tobago, including:
Caledonia Island,
Chacachacare,
Craig Island (Craig and Caledonia are joined by a narrow causeway),
Cronstadt Island (Kronstadt),
Carrera Island,
Faralon (Flat Rock), off San Fernando Harbour,
Gaspar Grande (Gasparee),
Gasparillo (Little Gasparee or Centipede Island),
Huevos
Lenagan Island,
Little Tobago (Bird of Paradise Island),
Monos,
Nelson Island,
Pelican Island,
St. Giles Island,
Saut d'Eau,
Goat Island,
Sisters' Rocks,
Soldado Rock,
Tobago,
Trinidad,
United Kingdom
The following is a list of islands of current island nations of the British Overseas Territories that are in the Caribbean.
Anguilla
There are about 19 islands in Anguilla, including:
Anguillita,
Dog Island,
East Cay,
Little Island,
Little Scrub Island,
Mid Cay,
North Cay
Prickly Pear Cays,
Rabbit Island
Sandy Island,
Scilly Cay,
Scrub Island,
Seal Island,
Sombrero (Hat Island),
South Weneger Island
West Cay,
British Virgin Islands
There are about 51 islands in the British Virgin Islands (16 inhabited), including:
Anegada,
Beef Island,
Bellamy Cay,
Broken Jerusalem (Rocks),
Buck Island,
Carvel Rock,
Cockroach Island,
Cooper Island,
Dead Chest,
East Seal Dog Island,
Eustatia Island,
Fallen Jerusalem Island,
Frenchman's Cay,
George Dog Island,
Ginger Island,
Great Camanoe,
Great Dog Island,
Great Thatch,
Great Tobago Island,
Green Cay,
Guana Island,
Jost Van Dyke,
Little Camanoe,
Little Jost Van Dyke,
Little Seal Dog Island
Little Thatch,
Marina Cay,
Mosquito Island,
Mosquito Rock,
Nanny Cay (land-tied),
Necker Island,
Norman Island,
Pelican Island,
Peter Island,
Prickly Pear Island,
Red Rock,
Round Rock,
Saba Rock,
Salt Island,
Sandy Cay,
Sandy Spit,
Scrub Island,
Tortola (largest island),
The Indians (rock),
Virgin Gorda,
West Seal Dog Island,
West Dog Island,
Whale Rocks,
Cayman Islands
The following are the islands of the Cayman Islands:
Montserrat
There are only a few islands in Montserrat, including:
Montserrat (Largest island),
Little Redonda and Virgin,
Statue Rock,
Turks and Caicos Islands
The British Overseas Territory of the Turks and Caicos Islands is located in the Lucayan Archipelago, the portion of the Caribbean region in the North Atlantic Ocean rather than in or bordering the Caribbean Sea. There are about 75 islands and land-tied islands in Turks and Caicos Islands, including the following notable islands:
Big Ambergris Cay,
Bird Island (Pear Cay),
East Caicos,
Grand Turk,
Little Ambergris Cay,
Mangrove Cay,
Middle Caicos,
North Caicos,
Parrot Cay,
Pear Cay,
Providenciales Island,
Salt Cay,
South Caicos,
West Caicos,
United States
The following are disputed islands of the United States in the Caribbean:
Navassa Island
Serranilla Bank
Bajo Nuevo Bank
The following sections show islands of island territories of the United States in the Caribbean.
Puerto Rico
There are about 142 island in Puerto Rico, including:
Alcarraza,
Bajo Evelyn (Evelyn Shoal),
Cabeza de Perro,
Cayo Ahogado,
Cayo Alfeñique,
Cayo Algodones,
Cayo Arenas,
Cayo Ballena,
Cayo Batata,
Cayo Bayo,
Cayo Berberia,
Cayo Botella,
Cayo Cabritas,
Cayo Caracoles,
Cayo Caribe,
Cayo Chiva,
Cayo Collado,
Cayo Corral,
Cayo Diablo, Fajardo,
Cayo Diable, Vieques,
Cayo Don Luis,
Cayo Enrique,
Cayo Fanduca,
Cayo Icacos,
Cayo Jalova,
Cayo Jalovita,
Cayo Largo (Largo Shoals),
Cayo Lobito,
Cayo Lobo,
Cayo Lobos,
Cayo Maria Langa,
Cayo Mata - Guayanilla municipality,
Cayo Mata - Salinas municipality,
Cayo Mata Seca,
Cayo Matojo,
Cayo Morrillo,
Cayo Norte,
Cayo Palomas,
Cayo Parguera,
Cayo Piñerito,
Cayo Pirata,
Cayo Puerca,
Cayo Ratón,
Cayo Ratones - Fajardo municipality,
Cayo Real,
Cayo Rio,
Cayo Santiago,
Cayo Sombrerito,
Cayo Terremoto,
Cayo Tiburón,
Cayo Tuna,
Cayo Verde,
Cayo Vieques,
Cayo Yerba,
Cayo Luis Peña,
Cayo de Tierra,
Cayo del Agua,
Cayo del Agua,
Cayos Cabezazos,
Cayos Caribes,
Cayos de Barca,
Cayos de Caña Gorda,
Cayos de Caracoles,
Cayos de Pájaros,
Cayos de Ratones,
Cayos Geniqui,
El Ancón,
El Mono,
Isla Caja de Muertos,
Gata Islets,
Isla Culebrita,
Isla de Cardona,
Isla de Culebra,
Isla del Erio
Isla Cabras,
Isla Chiva,
Isla Cueva,
Isla de Cerro Gordo,
Isla de Cabras,
Isla de las Palomas,
Isla de Ramos,
Isla Desecheo, - Mayagüez municipality
Isla Guachinanga,
Isla Guayacán,
Isla La Cancora,
Isla Magueyes,
Isla Matei,
Isla de Mona,
Isla Mata la Gata,
Isla Monito,
Isla Morrillito,
Isla Palominitos,
Isla Piedra
Isla Puerca
Isla San Juan
Isla Yallis
Isletas de Garzas
Islote de Juan Perez
Isla de Mona - Mayagüez municipality
Isla de Ratones, Ponce
Isla de Ratones (Cabo Rojo municipality)
Isla de Vieques
Isla Monito - Mayagüez municipality
Islote Numero dos
Isla Palominitos,
Isla Palominos,
Isla Piñeros,
La Blanquilla
La Cordillera
Las Cabritas
Las Cucarachas
Las Hermanas
Las Lavanderas del Este
Las Lavanderas del Oeste
Los Farallones
Los Gemelos
Los Negritos
Mata Redonda
Pela
Pelaita
Penon Brusi
Penon de Afuera
Penon de San Jorge
Piedra Stevens
Piedra del Norte
Piragua de Adentro
Piragua de Afuera,
Puerto Rico (Boriken Island),
Punta Larga,
Punta Mosquitos,
Roca Alcatraz,
Roca Cocinera,
Roca Cucaracha,
Roca Culumna,
Roca Ola,
Roca Resuello, |
Roca Speck,
Roca Velásquez,
Tres Hermanas,
Tres Hermanos,
United States Virgin Islands
There are about 84 islands in the United States Virgin Islands, including:
Barrel of Beef,
Blinders Rocks,
Booby Rock,
Bovoni Cay,
Buck Island - Saint Croix,
Buck Island - Saint Thomas,
Calf Rock,
Capella Islands,
Carval Rock or Carvel Rock,
Cas Cay,
Cinnamon Cay,
Cockroach Island,
Coculus Rock,
Cololoba Cay,
Congo Cay,
Cow Rock,
Cricket Rock,
Current Rock,
Dog Island,
Dog Rocks,
Domkirk Rock,
Dry Rock,
Durloe Cays,
Dut Cheap Cay
Fish Cay,
Flanagan Island,
Flat Cays,
Gorret Rock,
Grass Cay,
Great Saint James Island,
Green CaySaint Croix,
Green Cay - Saint Thomas,
Hans Lollik Island,
Hans Lollik Rock,
Hassel Island,
Henley Cay,
Inner Brass Island,
Kalkun Cay,
Leduck Island,
Limestone Rock,
Little Hans Lollik Island,
Harvey Island (Saint Croix),
Little Saint James Island,
Lizard Rocks,
Lovango Cay,
Mingo Cay,
Outer Brass Island,
Packet Rock,
Patricia Cay,
Pelican Cay,
Perkins Cay,
Porpoise Rocks,
Protestant Cay,
Ramgoat Cay,
Rata Cay,
Rotto Cay,
Rupert Rock,
Ruth Island,
Saba Island,
Saint Croix,
Saint John,
Saint Thomas,
Salt Cay,
Saltwater Money Rock,
Sandy Point Rock,
Savana Island,
Shark Island,
Skipper Jacob Rock,
Steven Cay,
The Stragglers,
Sula Cay,
Thatch Cay,
Triangle Islands,
Trunk Cay,
Turtleback Rock,
Turtledove Cay,
Two Brothers,
Water Island,
Waterlemon Cay,
Welk Rocks,
West Cay,
Whistling Cay,
Saint Thomas, Saint Croix, Saint John, and Water Island are the main four United States Virgin Islands. The capital, Charlotte Amalie, is on Saint Thomas.
Islands of the State of Florida
While not technically part of the Caribbean, the islands of the Florida in the United States are considered by some to be part of the greater Gulf of Mexico Region. Regions of Florida include: South Florida, Southwest Florida, and the Florida Keys.
Geiger Key,
Key West,
Key Largo,
Stock Island,
Venezuela
The following islands of Venezuela are in the Caribbean Sea:
Archipiélago Las Aves
Isla La Blanquilla,
Archipiélago Los Monjes,
Archipiélago Los Roques,
Isla de Aves,
Isla de Coche,
Isla de Cubagua,
Isla de Patos,
Isla de Toas,
.
Isla La Orchila,
Isla La Sola,
Isla La Tortuga,
Isla Margarita,
,
Islas los Frailes,
Islas Caracas,
Islas los Hermanos,
Islas los Testigos,
See also
List of Caribbean islands by area
List of Caribbean island countries by population
List of metropolitan areas in the West Indies
List of Caribbean islands by political affiliation
List of islands by population density
List of West Indian First-level Subdivisions
Low island (island of coral origin), Coral island
References
Islands
West Indies
Caribbean
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20active%20duty%20United%20States%20four-star%20officers
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List of active duty United States four-star officers
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There are currently 39 active-duty four-star officers in the uniformed services of the United States: 15 in the Army, two in the Marine Corps, seven in the Navy, 11 in the Air Force, one in the Space Force, two in the Coast Guard, and one in the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. Of the eight federal uniformed services, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is the only service that does not have an established four-star position.
List of designated four-star positions
Department of Defense
Joint Chiefs of Staff
Unified combatant commands
Other joint positions
Department of the Army
United States Army
Department of the Navy
United States Marine Corps
United States Navy
Department of the Air Force
United States Air Force
United States Space Force
Department of Homeland Security
United States Coast Guard
Department of Health and Human Services
United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps
List of pending appointments
Statutory limits
The U.S. Code explicitly limits the total number of four-star officers that may be on active duty at any given time. The total number of active-duty general or flag officers is capped at 218 for the Army, 149 for the Navy, 170 for the Air Force, 62 for the Marine Corps, and 21 for the Space Force. For the Army, Marine Corps, Navy and Air Force, no more than about 23% of each service's active-duty general or flag officers may have more than two stars, and statute sets the total number of four-star officers allowed in each service. This is set at eight four-star Army generals, six four-star Navy admirals, nine four-star Air Force generals, two four-star Marine generals, two four-star Space Force generals, and two four-star Coast Guard admirals.
Several of these slots are reserved by statute. For the Army and the Air Force, the chief of staff and the vice chief of staff for both services are all four-star generals; for the Navy, the chief and vice chief of naval operations are both four-star admirals; for the Marine Corps, the commandant and the assistant commandant are both four-star generals. For the Space Force, the chief of space operations is a four-star general. For the Coast Guard, the commandant and the vice commandant are both four-star admirals. The chief of the National Guard Bureau is a four-star general under reserve active duty in the Army or Air Force. And for the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, the assistant secretary for health is a four-star admiral if they hold an active-duty appointment to the regular corps.
Exceptions
There are several exceptions to the limits allowing more than allotted four-star officers within the statute. The secretary of defense can designate no more than 19 additional four-star officers, who do not count against any service's general- or flag-officer limit, to serve in one of several joint positions. A four-star officer serving as chairman or vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff does not count against his or her service's general- or flag-officer cap. These joint positions include the commander of a unified combatant command, the commander of U.S. Forces Korea, and the chief of the National Guard Bureau. Officers serving in certain intelligence positions are not counted against statutory limit, including the director of the Central Intelligence Agency. Finally, all statutory limits may be waived at the President's discretion during time of war or national emergency.
Appointment
Four-star grades go hand-in-hand with the positions of office they are linked to, so these ranks are temporary. Officers may only achieve four-star grade if they are appointed to positions of office that require and/or allow the officer to hold such a rank. Their rank expires with the expiration of their term of office, which is usually set by statute. Four-star officers are nominated for appointment by the president from any eligible officers holding a one-star grade or above, who also meets the other requirements for the position, under the advice and/or suggestion of their respective executive department secretary, service secretary, and if applicable the joint chiefs. The nominee must be confirmed via majority by the Senate before the appointee can take office and thus assume the rank. The Senate (normally in committee) may hold hearings to consider any nominee for appointment or reappointment to four-star grade, but usually only convene for nominations of the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, vice chairman, service chiefs, unified combatant commanders, and the commander of U.S. Forces Korea.
It is extremely unusual for a four-star nominee to draw even token opposition in a Senate vote, either in committee or on the floor, because the administration usually withdraws or declines to submit nominations that draw controversy before or during the confirmation process.
For example, upon encountering opposition in the Senate, the administration declined to submit nominations for General Joseph W. Ralston to be chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1997.
Lieutenant General Ricardo S. Sanchez was once the leading candidate to become commander of U.S. Southern Command in 2004. However, his name was never formally offered after members of the Senate Armed Services Committee took notice of his mismanagement of the Iraq War and the Abu Ghraib prison affair.
General David L. Goldfein was the leading candidate to replace General Joseph Dunford as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 2019, however due to disagreements between the secretary of defense and the president, the president disregarded the recommendation.
The President withdrew the nomination of General Alexander Haig to be the Army chief of staff in 1974, due to controversy regarding his role as the White House Chief of Staff at the peak of the Watergate scandal which caused the nomination to stall in the Senate.
General Peter Pace would have faced tough scrutiny from the Senate over the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan had he been nominated for reappointment as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 2007.
The President withdrew the nominations of Admiral Stanley R. Arthur to be commander in chief of U.S. Pacific Command in 1994, and of General Gregory S. Martin to be commander of U.S. Pacific Command in 2004 over their handling of the Tailhook and Darleen Druyun scandals respectively.
When a doomed nomination is not withdrawn, the Senate typically does not hold a vote to reject the candidate, but instead allows the nomination to expire without action at the end of the legislative session.
For example, the Senate declined to schedule a vote for the nomination of Lieutenant General James A. Abrahamson to be elevated to four-star rank as director of the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization in 1986.
The Senate also declined to vote on Lieutenant General Charles W. Bagnal's nomination for four-star rank and as commanding general of U.S. Army Pacific in 1989.
Major General John D. Lavelle was nominated to be posthumously restored to four-star rank on the retired list in 2010, but the nomination also expired in the Senate without action.
And Rear Admiral Cristina V. Beato was nominated to be assistant secretary for health in 2003 but her nomination also was not placed on the Senate schedule for a vote. Had Beato been confirmed and assumed office, she would have been the first woman in any uniformed service to achieve four-star grade; instead that honor went to General Ann E. Dunwoody.
Additionally, events that take place after confirmation may still delay or even prevent the nominee from assuming office, necessitating that another nominee be selected and considered by the Senate.
For example, Admiral William F. Moran was confirmed in May 2019 to be the chief of naval operations, but abruptly retired due to an investigation into his correspondence with a former subordinate accused of sexual harassment and usage of his personal email for military purposes. Consequently, Vice Admiral Michael M. Gilday was nominated for promotion to admiral and appointment as CNO, for which he was confirmed and assumed office in August 2019.
Command elevation and reduction
Any billet in the armed forces may be designated as a position of importance requiring the holder of the position to be of three-star or four-star rank. One-star and two-star billets may be elevated to three-star or four-star level as appropriate, either by act of Congress, or within statutory limits by the services at their discretion. Congress may propose such elevations or reductions to the President and U.S. Department of Defense. Due to the limited number of four-star slots available, significant changes occur on average every four to five years.
The existing commander of a lower-level command or office elevated to four-star rank can be appointed to grade in their present position, reassigned to another office of equal grade, or face retirement if another nominee is selected as their relief.
For example, Lieutenant General Christopher G. Cavoli, commanding general of U.S. Army Europe, was nominated for promotion to general in 2020 in concert with the consolidation of his command and U.S. Army Africa into U.S. Army Europe and Africa. He was promoted on 1 October 2020 and assumed command of the consolidated USAREUR-AF on 20 November 2020.
Lieutenant General Francis J. Wiercinski could have been nominated for promotion to general as U.S. Army Pacific transitioned to a four-star command, since as of May 2013, he had more than 200 days remaining on his customary three-year tour. Lieutenant General Vincent K. Brooks was instead nominated for promotion, and Wiercinski retired on 4 June 2013.
A lower level billet may be elevated to four-star grade, in accordance to being designated as a position of importance, to highlight importance to the defense apparatus as a whole or achieve parity with equivalent commands in the same area of responsibility or service branch.
For example, the statutory rank of the vice commandant of the Coast Guard was raised to admiral by the Coast Guard Authorization Act of 2015, to align the leadership structure of the Coast Guard to that of the other armed services and recognize the important role of the vice commandant at the national level. The incumbent vice commandant, Vice Admiral Charles D. Michel, was confirmed for promotion to admiral, and assumed the rank on 1 June 2016.
The statutory rank of the chief of the National Guard Bureau was raised to general by the National Defense Authorization Act of 2008, with significant congressional support. Lieutenant General Craig R. McKinley, then director of the Air National Guard, was confirmed for promotion to general, and assumed the rank and accompanying office on 17 November 2008.
Tour length
The standard tour length for most four-star positions is three years, bundled as a two-year term plus a one-year extension, with the following exceptions:
The chairman and vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff serve for a nominal four-year term.
Service chiefs of staff serve a nominal four-year term.
The chief of the National Guard Bureau serves a nominal four-year term.
The director of Naval Nuclear Propulsion serves for a nominal eight-year term.
All appointees serve at the pleasure of the president. Extensions of the standard tour length can be approved, within statutory limits, by their respective service secretaries, the secretary of defense, the president, and/or Congress but these are rare, as they block other officers from being promoted. Some statutory limits of tour length under the U.S. Code can be waived in times of national emergency or war. Four-star ranks may also be given by act of Congress but this is extremely rare.
Retirement
Other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement. Regular four-star officers must retire after 40 years of active commissioned service unless reappointed to grade to serve longer. Reserve four-star officers must retire after five years in grade or 40 years of commissioned service, whichever is later, unless reappointed to grade to serve longer. Otherwise all general and flag officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. However, the secretary of defense can defer a four-star officer's retirement until the officer's 66th birthday and the president can defer it until the officer's 68th birthday. Officers that served several years in the enlisted ranks prior to receiving their commission typically don't make it to the 40 years of commissioned service mark, because they are still subject to the age restrictions for retirement.
For example, Admiral Michael G. Mullen was born on 4 October 1946; placed on active duty in 1968 and promoted to admiral on 23 August 2003. Ordinarily, he would have been expected to retire at the end of his four-year term as chief of naval operations in 2008 after 40 years of service. Instead, he was reappointed as an admiral and appointed as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff on 1 October 2007. He retired from the Navy after serving two, two-year terms as chairman on 1 October 2011, at the age of 65 with 43 years of service and eight years in grade.
General James F. Amos was born on 12 November 1946; placed on active duty in 1970 and promoted to general on 3 July 2008. Ordinarily, he would have been expected to retire at the end of his two-year term as assistant commandant of the Marine Corps in 2010 after 40 years of service. Instead, he was reappointed as a general and appointed as commandant of the Marine Corps on 22 October 2010. He retired from the Marine Corps after completing his four-year term as commandant on 17 October 2014, at the age of 67 with 44 years of service and six years in grade.
General Frank J. Grass was born on 19 May 1951; enlisted in the Missouri Army National Guard in October 1969 and received his commission in 1981. He was appointed as a general in the active duty reserves and assigned as chief of the National Guard Bureau on 7 September 2012. He remained on reserve active duty until he completed his four-year term as chief and retired from the Army on 3 August 2016, at 65 years of age with 35 years in commissioned service, 47 years of total service, and four years in grade.
Senior officers typically retire well in advance of the statutory age and service limits, so as not to impede the upward career mobility of their juniors. Since there are a finite number of four-star slots available to each service, typically one officer must leave office before another can be promoted. Maintaining a four-star rank is like a game of musical chairs; once an officer vacates a position bearing that rank, he or she has no more than 60 days to be appointed or reappointed to a position of equal or greater importance before he or she is expected to retire. Historically, officers leaving four-star positions were allowed to revert to their permanent two-star ranks to mark time in lesser jobs until statutory retirement, but now such officers are expected to retire immediately to avoid obstructing the promotion flow.
For example, Vice Admiral Patrick M. Walsh was promoted to admiral and appointed as vice chief of naval operations in 2007. The incumbent vice chief, Admiral Robert F. Willard, was appointed as commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. The incumbent Pacific Fleet commander, Admiral Gary Roughead, was appointed as commander of U.S. Fleet Forces Command, whose incumbent commander, Admiral John B. Nathman, received no further appointment and retired at the age of 59, with 37 years of service and three years in grade.
Lieutenant General Gary L. North was promoted to general and appointed as commander of Pacific Air Forces in 2009. The incumbent Pacific Air Forces commander, General Carrol Chandler, was appointed as vice chief of staff of the Air Force, while the incumbent vice chief, General William M. Fraser III, was appointed as commander of Air Combat Command, whose incumbent commander, General John D. W. Corley, received no further appointment and retired at the age of 58, with 36 years of service and four years in grade.
To retire at four-star grade, an officer must accumulate at least three years of satisfactory active-duty service in that grade, as determined by the secretary of defense. The president and Congress must also receive certification by the secretary of defense that the retiree served satisfactorily in grade. The secretary of defense may reduce this requirement to two years, and the president may waive this requirement altogether, but only if the officer is not being investigated for misconduct. Four-star officers who do not meet the service-in-grade requirement will revert to the next highest grade in which they served satisfactorily for at least six months which is normally the three-star grade. Since three-star ranks are also temporary, if the retiree is also not certified by the secretary of defense or the president to retire as a three-star, the retiree will retire at the last permanent rank he or she satisfactorily held for six months. The retiree may also be subject to congressional approval by the Senate before the retiree can retire in grade. It is rare for a four-star officer not to be certified to retire in grade or for the Senate to seek final approval.
For example, when removed from office after less than the statutory time in grade, Generals Frederick F. Woerner and Stanley A. McChrystal were retired as full generals as certified by the President and were not subjected to senatorial confirmation.
Admirals Husband E. Kimmel and Richard C. Macke were not certified to retire at three-star or four-star rank, and retired as two-star rear admirals.
General Kevin P. Byrnes had over two years in grade but was being investigated for misconduct, and retired as a lieutenant general.
In 1972 General John D. Lavelle was relieved for misconduct and certified to retire as a lieutenant general, but was rejected by a Senate Armed Services Committee vote of 14 to 2 and retired as a major general; in 2010 he was nominated posthumously for advancement to general on the retired list based on newly declassified evidence, however as stated above, the Senate did not vote on the nomination and let it expire at the end of the Congressional session.
General Michael J. Dugan retired as a full general as certified by the President, but only after receiving approval from the Senate Armed Services Committee.
After achieving the statutory time in grade, Admirals Frank B. Kelso II and Henry H. Mauz Jr. were retired as full admirals, but only after going through a full senatorial confirmation vote of 54 to 43 and 92 to 6, respectively.
Four-star officers who are under investigation for misconduct typically are not allowed to retire until the investigation completes, so that the Secretary of Defense can decide whether to certify that their performance was satisfactory enough to retire in their highest grade.
For example, an investigation by the Department of Defense comptroller held Generals Roger A. Brady and Stephen R. Lorenz in their four-star commands for up to 13 months beyond their originally scheduled retirements.
General William E. Ward relinquished his four-star command as scheduled, but remained on active duty in his permanent grade of major general pending an investigation by the Department of Defense inspector general, before being allowed to retire as a lieutenant general over a year after his original scheduled retirement.
Admiral Samuel J. Locklear was held in his four-star command for months beyond his original scheduled retirement by the Navy's Consolidated Disposition Authority, while under investigation for the Fat Leonard corruption scandal before being cleared of any wrongdoing.
Furthermore, retired four-star officers may still be subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice and disciplinary action, including reduction in retirement rank, by the secretary of defense or the president if they are deemed to have served unsatisfactorily in rank, post-retirement.
General David H. Petraeus, who had retired from the Army as a four-star general on 31 August 2011, faced punitive action from the secretary of defense over four years past his retirement date for mishandling classified materials while serving as the commander of the International Security Assistance Force and U.S. Forces Afghanistan. He was allowed to retain his four-star rank in retirement with the recommendation of the secretary of the Army and strong support from ranking members of the Senate Armed Services Committee.
General Arthur Lichte, who had retired from the Air Force as a four-star general on 1 January 2010, received a letter of reprimand from the secretary of the Air Force for sexually assaulting a subordinate female officer on multiple occasions, over six years after his retirement date. The secretary of defense withdrew Lichte's certification of satisfactory service, and reduced his retirement rank to major general, which the Air Force determined was his last permanent rank he served in satisfactorily. Lichte could have faced charges under the Uniform Code of Military Justice, however since the allegations were not reported or investigated until over five years past when they occurred, the statute of limitations bars having charges being brought up for prosecution.
Four-star officers typically step down from their posts up to 60 days in advance of their official retirement dates. Officers retire on the first day of the month, so once a retirement month has been selected, the relief and retirement ceremonies are scheduled by counting backwards from that date by the number of days of accumulated leave remaining to the retiring officer. During this period, termed transition leave or terminal leave, the officer is considered to be awaiting retirement but still on active duty.
For example, General Michael Hagee was relieved as commandant of the Marine Corps on 13 November 2006, and held his retirement ceremony the same day, but remained on active duty until his official retirement date on 1 January 2007.
A statutory limit can be waived by the president with the consent of Congress if it serves national interest. However, this is extremely rare.
For example, the record for the longest tenure in any service is held by General Lewis B. Hershey who enlisted in the Indiana Army National Guard in 1911 at the age of 18. He was called up for federal active duty during World War I, receiving a commission in 1916, and subsequently transferred to the regular army at the end of the war. He served in active duty in the Army until the age of 80 before being involuntarily retired in 1973 after 62 years of continuous service.
Admiral Hyman G. Rickover is listed as serving for 63 years in the Navy from 1918 to 1982. However his service reflects a time when attending any military academy was considered active duty service due in part from World War I. In today's military rules and regulations, an officer who initially begins their career through a military academy does not begin their service until upon receiving their commission after graduation, even though they are subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice while attending the academy.
See also
List of United States military leaders by rank
List of United States Army four-star generals
List of United States Marine Corps four-star generals
List of United States Navy four-star admirals
List of United States Air Force four-star generals
List of United States Space Force four-star generals
List of United States Coast Guard four-star admirals
List of United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps four-star admirals
List of active duty United States three-star officers
List of active duty United States Army major generals
List of active duty United States Marine Corps major generals
List of active duty United States rear admirals
List of active duty United States Air Force major generals
List of active duty United States Space Force general officers
List of current United States National Guard major generals
List of active duty United States senior enlisted leaders and advisors
Staff (military)
Notes
References
Four-star
Four-star officers
United S
United States four-star officers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatham%20High%20School%20%28New%20Jersey%29
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Chatham High School (New Jersey)
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Chatham High School is an American four-year comprehensive public high school in Chatham Township, in Morris County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey, operating as part of the School District of the Chathams and serving students in ninth through twelfth grades from both Chatham Borough and Chatham Township. The school is accredited by the New Jersey Department of Education.
As of the 2021–22 school year, the school had an enrollment of 1,266 students and 105.0 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 12.1:1. There were 13 students (1.0% of enrollment) eligible for free lunch and 4 (0.3% of students) eligible for reduced-cost lunch.
History
The original Chatham Borough High School on Fairmount Avenue adjacent to the Chatham train station in Chatham Borough is a historic early twentieth century Gothic Revival building that still bears the name on its façade. Secondary level students from Chatham Township were bused to it and later to a senior high school on Main Street until 1966 under the auspices of the former Chatham Board of Education.
From 1966 through 1988, Chatham Township students attended the newly constructed Chatham Township High School on Lafayette Avenue, the building that is now used as the unified Chatham High School. Chatham Borough students attended the old Chatham High School, renamed Chatham Borough High School. The team names of Chatham Township High School was the Gladiators and the team name of Chatham Borough High School was the Eskies. The two schools were strong rivals at Homecoming games for the 22 years that they were separate high schools. Today the school mascot for the combined Chatham High School is the Cougar.
The new regional high school, serving both municipalities, was dedicated at Lafayette Avenue after the creation of the School District of the Chathams on July 1, 1988, and joined the Lafayette Elementary School on its original site. The two schools share performing arts facilities. The former Chatham Borough High School became Chatham Middle School, serving grades 6–8.
The school and several students were featured in the PBS program Frontline in 2008 for an episode related to a generation growing up with the internet.
During the 2007–08 school year, Chatham High School stopped giving midterm exams. Instead of midterm exams, students must complete alternate assessment projects, a move strongly supported by co-principal Michael LaSusa and backed by the School District of the Chathams. However, according to student poll data, a majority of students do not support the changes and would like to revert to midterms again. This policy continued into the 2008–09 school year. Currently, most classes have three more heavily weighted exams or assignments at the end of each third of the school year, although the student transcripts continue to report quarterly.
Awards, recognition and rankings
For the 2004–05 school year, the high school was recognized with the Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence by the United States Department of Education, the highest award an American school can receive for excellence in the No Child Left Behind Act.
The school was the 4th-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 305 schools statewide in New Jersey Monthly magazine's September 2018 cover story on the state's "Top Public High Schools", using a new ranking methodology. The school had been ranked 20th in the state of 328 schools in 2012, after being ranked 8th in 2010 out of 322 schools listed. The magazine ranked the school 10th in 2008 out of 316 schools. The school was ranked 12th in the magazine's September 2006 issue, which included 316 schools across the state. Schooldigger.com ranked the school tied for 47th out of 381 public high schools statewide in its 2011 rankings (a decrease of 8 positions from the 2010 ranking) which were based on the combined percentage of students classified as proficient or above proficient on the mathematics (91.6%) and language arts literacy (98.3%) components of the High School Proficiency Assessment (HSPA).
In the 2011 "Ranking America's High Schools" issue by The Washington Post, the school was ranked 15th in New Jersey and 647th nationwide.
In its 2013 report on "America's Best High Schools", The Daily Beast ranked the school 173rd in the nation among participating public high schools and 11th overall (and fifth of non-magnet schools) among schools in New Jersey. The school was ranked 183rd in the nation and 14th in New Jersey on the list of "America's Best High Schools 2012" prepared by The Daily Beast / Newsweek, with rankings based primarily on graduation rate, matriculation rate for college and number of Advanced Placement / International Baccalaureate courses taken per student, with lesser factors based on average scores on the SAT / ACT, average AP/IB scores and the number of AP/IB courses available to students.
In its listing of "America's Best High Schools 2016", the school was ranked 40th out of 500 best high schools in the country; it was ranked 12th among all high schools in New Jersey and first among the state's non-magnet schools.
Music and theater
Marching band
Chatham High has a marching band led by Brian Conti. This past season the 58 member band fell under the Group 2 open classification. The band was ranked continuously in the top five bands in Group 2 Open and held an overall #1 ranking for several weeks in 2008. As of 2012, the band is now in Group 3 Open.
Theater
Chatham High School has an active theater program that performs two productions a school year, a play in the fall and then a musical in the Spring.
In past years the Theater Department has put on The Laramie Project, The Crucible, The Adding Machine, You Can't Take It with You, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Scapino, Our Town, Metamorphoses & Look Homeward, Angel. As for musicals the High School has presented The Wizard of Oz, The Pajama Game, High School Musical, How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying, Grease, Guys and Dolls, The Drowsy Chaperone, Legally Blonde, Anything Goes, Once Upon a Mattress, Shrek and The Addams Family Fiddler on the Roof and The Hunchback of Notre Dame.
Athletics
The Chatham High School Cougars compete in the Northwest Jersey Athletic Conference, which is comprised of public and private high schools in Morris, Sussex and Warren counties, and was established following a reorganization of sports leagues in Northern New Jersey by the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA). Prior to the NJSIAA's 2010 realignment, the school had competed as part of the Iron Hills Conference, comprised of public and private high schools in Essex County and Union County. With 979 students in grades 10–12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Group III for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 761 to 1,058 students in that grade range. The football team competes in the Patriot White division of the North Jersey Super Football Conference, which includes 112 schools competing in 20 divisions, making it the nation's biggest football-only high school sports league. The school was classified by the NJSIAA as Group IV North for football for 2022–2024, which included schools with 895 to 1,296 students.
The school participates in a joint wrestling team with Summit High School as the host school / lead agency. This co-op program operates under agreements scheduled to expire at the end of the 2023–24 school year.
The boys' tennis team won the Group I & II state championship in 1967 vs. Saddle Brook High School and in 1968 and 1969 vs. Mountain Lakes High School both years. The team won the Group II title in 2010 vs. Haddonfield Memorial High School. The 1967 team finished at 16-4 after beating Rutherford High School in the quarterfinals and Mountain Lakes High School in the semis, and then defeating Saddle Brook in the finals of the Group I/II tournament to win the state championship. The 2008 boys tennis team won the North II, Group II state sectional championship with a 4–1 win in the tournament final over Mountain Lakes High School. The 2010 team won the Group II title by 3–2 over Haddonfield before falling by 3–2 to Westfield High School in the finals of the Tournament of Champions at Mercer County Park; the team, which was the top-ranked team in the state by The Star-Ledger, finished the season with a 30–2 record.
The girls tennis team won the Group I state championship in 1976 (defeating runner-up Holmdel High School in the tournament's final round), 1977 (vs. Holmdel), 1979 (vs. Audubon High School), 1980 (vs. Bernards High School), 1981 (vs Glen Rock High School) and 1984 (vs. Bernards). The 1976 team finished the season with a 17–2 record after winning the Group I state title by defeating Holmdel 3–2 in the playoff finals.
The girls' field hockey team won the North II Group I state sectional championship in 1976-1980 and from 1983 to 1987. The team won the Group I state title in 1976 (as co-champion with South Hunterdon Regional High School), 1978 (vs. Woodstown High School), 1979 (vs. Eustace Preparatory School), 1980 (vs. Glassboro High School) and 1983 (co-champion with Pitman High School).
The football team won the North II Group I state sectional championship in 1984, defeating New Providence High School by a score of 20–14 in the tournament final.
The boys soccer team won the Group II state championship in 1988 (as co-champion with Delran High School), 1990 (vs. Ridge High School), 1993 (vs. Delran), 1998 (vs. Hopewell Valley Central High School), 1999 (vs. Freehold Borough High School) Including its predecessor schools (Chatham Borough and Chatham Township High Schools), the boys soccer team has won the state title 25 times, tied (with Kearny High School) for the most of any school in the state. The 2010 team advanced to the Group III state championship, where they fell to Holmdel High School by a score of 2–1.
The boys' basketball team won the 2007 Group II NJSIAA state championship, defeating Pascack Hills High School 67–53 in the semifinals and topping Haddonfield Memorial High School 48–42 in the finals.
The boys' tennis team won the North II, Group II state sectional championship with a 3–2 win over West Essex High School.
The boys' cross country team won the 2006 North II, Group II state sectional championship for the second time in three years and won again in 2008. Additionally, the team went on to win the 2006 Morris County Championship, topping both perennial powerhouses Morris Hills and Delbarton. In November 2013, the boys cross country team won the North II Group III sectional title by one point by beating their rivals and defending champion, Morristown. In 2014, The Cougars won the Morris County championship for the first time since 2006, captured the Northwest Jersey Athletic Conference Large-Schools team title for the first time ever, finished second at the NJSIAA North II Group III championships, third at the overall Group III meet and 13th at the Meet of Champions.
The girls' soccer team won the 2004 Group II NJSIAA state championship, defeating Cinnaminson High School in the finals in double overtime by a score of 1–0.
The 2007 girls' volleyball team won the triple crown, winning the conference, county and state championships, winning the Group II state championship with a come-from-behind win in three games against Northern Valley Regional High School at Demarest (11–25, 25–19, 25–22). They lost in the semifinals of the Tournament of Champions to Hunterdon Central Regional High School by 26–24 and 29–27.
The girls lacrosse team won the Group I state title in 2008 (defeating Shore Regional High School) in the tournament final), won the Group II title in 2010 and 2011 (vs. Rumson-Fair Haven High School both years) and 2012 (vs. Red Bank Catholic High School) and won the Group III championship in 2022 (vs. Moorestown High School); The programs' five state group titles is ranked sixth in the state. The 2008 girls' lacrosse team won the triple crown by capturing the conference, county, and Group I state championships while being ranked the no. 3 team in the state. They lost 16–9 to powerhouse Moorestown High School in Chatham High School's first ever appearance in the Tournament of Champions final game.
The 2008 Chatham golf team completed a highly successful campaign by going undefeated at 21–0 for the year. The Cougars won the conference championship as well as the NJ Group II state championship. Chatham was named Golf Team of the Year by the Daily Record and was ranked fifth in the state of by The Star-Ledger by virtue of their overall finish at the Tournament of Champions event held at Beacon Hill Country Club in Atlantic Highlands.
The 2010–2011 Chatham hockey team won the Public B state championship with a 7–3 victory over Middletown High School South at the Prudential Center, the school's first state championship in the sport since the tournament system began in 1976. The 2012–13 team won the second hockey state title in three years for Chatham, scoring three goals in the third period to defeat Morristown High School by a score of 3–0 at the Prudential Center to take the Public B title.
The boys' lacrosse team won the Group II state championship in 2012 and 2013, defeating Somerville High School both years in the tournament final and in 2016 (vs. Manasquan High School), and won the Group III title in 2021 (vs. Ocean City High School).
The 2014 girls' swim team won its fourth consecutive Public B state title, finishing the season with a 15–0 record. On January 30, 2016, the girls' swim team won its 100th consecutive meet and the team's eight consecutive Morris County Championship. The team won the Public C title in 2015 and Public B in 2017; the team's six group titles is tied for sixth-most in the state.
The 2022 boys swim team defeated Princeton High School by a score of 97-73 in the finals to win the program's first-ever Public B state title and finish the season with a record of 16-0. The boys' team won the Morris County Championship the same season.
The boys' volleyball team was recognized in March 2023 by the NJSIAA as an official Varsity team.
Administration
The school's principal is Douglas M. Walker, who was appointed in April 2022. His core administration team includes two assistant principals.
Notable alumni
Ben Bailey (born 1970, class of 1988), host of Cash Cab.
Craig Benson (born 1954), Governor of New Hampshire from 2003 to 2005.
Lincoln Brower (1931–2018) was an American entomologist and ecologist, best known for his research on monarch butterflies
Charles L. Drake (1924-1997), geologist who was Professor of Geology at Dartmouth College.
Peter Fleming (born 1955), former professional tennis player who won the New Jersey high school individual championship in 1972, during his junior year.
I. Kathleen Hagen (1945-2015, class of 1963), physician who was convicted of murdering her parents by asphyxiation in their Chatham Township home.
Don Herrmann (born 1947), wide receiver who played in the NFL for the New York Giants and New Orleans Saints.
Constance Horner (born 1942, class of 1960), businesswoman who served as the third director of the United States Office of Personnel Management.
James G. Madison (born , class of 1975), bank robber.
Andrew Prendeville (born 1981, class of 2000), professional automobile racer.
John Rennie (born ), college soccer coach, who was a five-time ACC Coach of the Year and the 1982 NSCAA Coach of the Year.
Zach Ryan (born 1999, class of 2017), professional soccer player for New York Red Bulls in Major League Soccer.
Anne M. Thompson, scientist who specializes in atmospheric chemistry and climate change.
John Tolkin (born 2002), soccer player who plays as a defender for New York Red Bulls II in the USL Championship and the New York Red Bulls academy.
Billy Walsh (born 1975), U.S. Olympic and professional soccer player.
Alex Westlund (born 1975), retired professional ice hockey goaltender who has since been a coach
David Williams (born 1967, attended 1981–1983, ultimately graduated from Choate-Rosemary Hall), ice hockey player for the San Jose Sharks and the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim.
References
External links
Chatham High School website
Data for the School District of the Chathams, National Center for Education Statistics
Chatham High School Reunions Website
1988 establishments in New Jersey
Chatham Borough, New Jersey
Chatham Township, New Jersey
Educational institutions established in 1988
Public high schools in Morris County, New Jersey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20swine%20fever%20virus
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African swine fever virus
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African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a large, double-stranded DNA virus in the Asfarviridae family. It is the causative agent of African swine fever (ASF). The virus causes a hemorrhagic fever with high mortality rates in domestic pigs; some isolates can cause death of animals as quickly as a week after infection. It persistently infects its natural hosts, warthogs, bushpigs, and soft ticks of the genus Ornithodoros, which likely act as a vector, with no disease signs. It does not cause disease in humans. ASFV is endemic to sub-Saharan Africa and exists in the wild through a cycle of infection between ticks and wild pigs, bushpigs, and warthogs. The disease was first described after European settlers brought pigs into areas endemic with ASFV, and as such, is an example of an emerging infectious disease.
ASFV replicates in the cytoplasm of infected cells. It is the only virus with a double-stranded DNA genome known to be transmitted by arthropods.
Virology
ASFV is a large (175–215 nm), icosahedral, double-stranded DNA virus with a linear genome of 189 kilobases containing more than 180 genes. The number of genes differs slightly among different isolates of the virus. ASFV has similarities to the other large DNA viruses, e.g., poxvirus, iridovirus, and mimivirus. In common with other viral hemorrhagic fevers, the main target cells for replication are those of monocyte, macrophage lineage. Entry of the virus into the host cell is receptor-mediated, but the precise mechanism of endocytosis is presently unclear.
The virus encodes enzymes required for replication and transcription of its genome, including elements of a base excision repair system, structural proteins, and many proteins that are not essential for replication in cells, but instead have roles in virus survival and transmission in its hosts. Virus replication takes place in perinuclear factory areas. It is a highly orchestrated process with at least four stages of transcription—immediate-early, early, intermediate, and late. The majority of replication and assembly occurs in discrete, perinuclear regions of the cell called virus factories, and finally progeny virions are transported to the plasma membrane along microtubules where they bud out or are propelled away along actin projections to infect new cells. As the virus progresses through its lifecycle, most if not all of the host cell's organelles are modified, adapted, or in some cases destroyed.
Assembly of the icosahedral capsid occurs on modified membranes from the endoplasmic reticulum. Products from proteolytically processed polyproteins form the core shell between the internal membrane and the nucleoprotein core. An additional outer membrane is gained as particles bud from the plasma membrane. The virus encodes proteins that inhibit signalling pathways in infected macrophages and thus modulate transcriptional activation of immune response genes. In addition, the virus encodes proteins which inhibit apoptosis of infected cells to facilitate production of progeny virions. Viral membrane proteins with similarity to cellular adhesion proteins modulate interaction of virus-infected cells and extracellular virions with host components.
Genotypes
Based on sequence variation in the C-terminal region of the B646L gene encoding the major capsid protein p72, 22 ASFV genotypes (I–XXIII) have been identified. All ASFV p72 genotypes have been circulating in eastern and southern Africa. Genotype I has been circulating in Europe, South America, the Caribbean, and western Africa. Genotype VIII is confined to four East African countries.
Evolution
The virus is thought to be derived from a virus of soft tick (genus Ornithodoros) that infects wild swine, including giant forest hogs (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus), and bushpigs (Potamochoerus porcus). In these wild hosts, infection is generally asymptomatic. This virus appears to have evolved around 1700 AD.
This date is corroborated by the historical record. Pigs were initially domesticated in North Africa and Eurasia. They were introduced into southern Africa from Europe and the Far East by the Portuguese (300 years ago) and Chinese (600 years ago), respectively. At the end of the 19th century, the extensive pig industry in the native region of ASFV (Kenya) started after massive losses of cattle due to a rinderpest outbreak. Pigs were imported on a massive scale for breeding by colonizers from Seychelles in 1904 and from England in 1905. Pig farming was free-range at that time. The first outbreak of ASF was reported in 1907.
Taxonomy
ASFV has no known close relatives. It is the only species in the genus Asfivirus, family Asfarviridae, and order Asfuvirales. Each of these three taxa is at least partly named after ASFV.
Signs and symptoms
In the acute form of the disease caused by highly virulent strains, pigs may develop a high fever, but show no other noticeable symptoms for the first few days. They then gradually lose their appetites and become depressed. In white-skinned pigs, the extremities turn blueish-purple and hemorrhages become apparent on the ears and abdomen. Groups of infected pigs lie huddled together shivering, breathing abnormally, and sometimes coughing. If forced to stand, they appear unsteady on their legs; this is called congenital tremor type A-I in newborn piglets. Within a few days of infection, they enter a comatose state and then die. In pregnant sows, spontaneous abortions may occur.
In milder infections, affected pigs lose weight, become thin, and develop signs of pneumonia, skin ulcers, and swollen joints.
Diagnosis
The clinical symptoms of ASFV infection are very similar to classical swine fever, and the two diseases normally have to be distinguished by laboratory diagnosis. This diagnosis is usually performed by an ELISA, real time PCR or isolation of the virus from either the blood, lymph nodes, spleen, or serum of an infected pig.
Spread
The virus can be spread by ticks, but also by swine eating pork products that contain the virus.
Biosecurity measures are essential for prevention and control of African swine fever. Disinfection procedures are an important asset of the mitigation phase. Laboratory tests have been conducted to assess the efficacy of chemical products and commercial disinfectants against African swine fever. The National Pig Association, a UK industry body, states that the virus can also be transmitted by direct or indirect contact with infected pigs, faeces or body fluids. As the virus may survive 11 days in pig faeces, and months or years in pork products, the association advises strict biosecurity measures for pig farms including a three-day quarantine on entering the UK, and avoiding both pigs and areas where wild boar are found.
Vaccine research
Vietnam successfully produced the first vaccine against African swine fever on June 1, 2022. In the United States, an experimental vaccine has been in development (since January 22, 2020) against the 2007 Georgia isolate currently circulating, which is attenuated by deletion of the viral I177L gene. This experimental vaccine was licensed as a vaccine candidate as of January 3, 2023.
History
The first outbreak was retrospectively recognized as having occurred in 1907 after ASF was first described in 1921 in Kenya. The disease remained restricted to Africa until 1957, when it was reported in Lisbon, Portugal. A further outbreak occurred in Portugal in 1960. Subsequent to these initial introductions, the disease became established in the Iberian peninsula, and sporadic outbreaks occurred in France, Belgium, and other European countries during the 1980s. Both Spain and Portugal had managed to eradicate the disease by the mid-1990s through a slaughter policy.
ASFV crossed the Atlantic Ocean, and outbreaks were reported in some Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti). Resultantly US Customs and Border Protection is on high alert to prevent any spread to the US, which would inflict billions of dollars of damage to the pork industry in the country. Major outbreaks of ASF in Africa are regularly reported to the World Organisation for Animal Health (previously called L'office international des épizooties).
In 2018 the virus spread to Asia, affecting more than 10 percent of the total pig population in several countries, leading to severe economic losses in the pig sector.
Cuba
In 1971, an outbreak of the disease occurred in Cuba, resulting in the slaughter of 500,000 pigs to prevent a nationwide animal epidemic. The outbreak was labeled the "most alarming event" of 1971 by the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization.
Six years after the event, the newspaper Newsday, citing untraceable sources, claimed that anti-Castro saboteurs, with at least the tacit backing of U.S. Central Intelligence Agency officials, allegedly introduced African swine fever virus into Cuba six weeks before the outbreak in 1971, to destabilize the Cuban economy and encourage domestic opposition to Fidel Castro. The virus was allegedly delivered to the operatives from an army base in the Panama Canal Zone by an unnamed U.S. intelligence source.
Western Europe
ASFV first occurred in Europe in 1957, when it was introduced in Portugal. From there, it spread to Spain and France. Although concerted efforts to eradicate ASFV were undertaken, such as widespread culling and the construction of modern farming facilities, the disease was only eradicated in the 1990s.
In September 2018, an outbreak occurred in wild boars in southern Belgium. Professional observers suspect that importation of wild boars from Eastern European countries by game hunters was the origin of the virus. By 4 October, 32 wild boars had tested positive for the virus. For control of the outbreak, 4,000 domestic pigs were slaughtered preventively in the Gaume region, and the forest was declared off-limits for recreation.
In September 2020, the German agriculture minister confirmed on a press conference that the African swine fever virus reached Germany. The virus was discovered on a wild boar carcass, which the test results confirmed all as positive results. The dead boar was located in the district of Spree-Neisse, Brandenburg, just a few kilometres from the Polish border. The dead animal had been there for quite a while according to the Friedrich-Loeffler Institute, which was the agency hired for testing. Following these events the German government tried to lobby China and other Asian countries to allow West German states to keep exporting to Asia, while barring their own eastern states from doing so; the Asian countries ultimately refused these proposals.
In January 2022 an outbreak occurred in northern Italy, detected on some dead wild boars in Liguria and in Piedmont.
Eastern and Northern Europe
An outbreak occurred at the beginning of 2007 in Georgia, and subsequently spread to Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Russia, and Belarus, raising concerns that ASFV may spread further geographically and have negative economic effects on the swine industry.
African swine fever had become endemic in the Russian Federation since spreading into the North Caucasus in November 2007, most likely through movements of infected wild boar from Georgia to Chechnya, said a 2013 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization, a United Nations agency. The report showed how the disease had spread north from the Caucasus to other parts of the country where pig production was more concentrated the Central Federal District (home to 28.8% of Russia's pigs) and the Volga Federal District (with 25.4% of the national herd) and northwest towards Ukraine, Belarus, Poland and the Baltic nations. In Russia, the report added, the disease was 'on its way to becoming endemic in Tver oblast' (about 106 km north of Moscow—and about 500 km east of Russia's littoral neighbours on the Baltic. Among the vectors for the spread in Russia of African swine fever virus was the 'distribution' of 'infected pig products' outside affected (quarantined and trade restricted) areas, travelling large distances (thousands of kilometers) within the country.
"Wholesale buyers, particularly the military food supply system, hav[ing] been implicated multiple times in the illegal distribution of contaminated meat" were vectors for the virus's spread, said the Food and Agriculture Organization report—and evidence of that was "repeated outbreaks in Leningrad oblast". The report warned that "countries immediately bordering the Russian Federation, particularly Ukraine, Moldova, Kazakhstan, and Latvia, are most vulnerable to [African swine fever] introduction and endemic establishment, largely because the biosecurity of their pig sector is predominantly low. Preventing the spread of [African swine fever] into Ukraine is particularly critical for the whole pig production sector in Europe. Given the worrisome developments in the Russian Federation, European countries have to be alert. They must be ready to prevent and to react effectively to [African swine fever] introductions into their territories for many years to come...". To stop the virus's spread, "the current scenario in the Russian Federation suggests that [prevention] should be particularly stressed at the often informal backyard level and should involve not just pig keepers, but all actors along the whole value chain—butchers, middlemen, slaughterhouses, etc. … They need to be aware of how to prevent and recognize the disease, and must understand the importance of reporting outbreaks to the national authorities … It is particularly important that [African swine fever]-free areas remain free by preventing the [re]introduction of the disease and by swiftly responding to it when it occurs".
Since around 2007 to August 31, 2018, 1367 cases of ASF of domestic pigs or wild pigs were reported by veterinary department of the Rosselkhoznadzor (), a Russian federal agency that supervises over agriculture, and state media. According to official report the central and south districts were among most affected by the disease (with several occasions on the east). Many regions effectively established local quarantines some of which was ended later.
In August 2012, an outbreak of African swine fever was reported in Ukraine.
In June 2013, an outbreak was reported in Belarus.
In January 2014, authorities announced the presence of African swine fever in Lithuania and Poland, in June 2014 in Latvia, and in July 2015 in Estonia.
Estonia in July 2015 recorded its first case of African swine fever in farmed pigs in Valgamaa on the country's border with Latvia. Another case was reported same day in Viljandi county, which also borders Latvia. All the pigs were culled and their carcasses incinerated. Less than a month later, almost 15,000 farmed pigs had been culled and the country was "struggling to get rid of hundreds of tons of carcasses". The death toll was "expected to rise".
Latvia in January 2017 declared African swine fever emergency in relation to outbreaks in three regions, including a pig farm in Krimulda region, that resulted in a cull of around 5,000 sows and piglets by using gas. In February, another massive pig cull was required, after an industrial-scale farm of the same company in Salaspils region was found infected, leading to a cull of about 10,000 pigs.
In June 2017, the Czech Republic recorded its historically first case of African swine fever. The veterinary administration of Zlin prevented the spread of the ASF infection by confining the contaminated zone via odor fences. Odor fences with a total length of 44.5 km were effective in keeping wild boar inside the health zone.
In 2018, Romania experienced a nationwide African swine fever pandemic, which prompted the slaughter of most farm pigs.
In August 2018, authorities announced the first outbreak of African swine fever in Bulgaria. By July 2019 five Bulgarian pig farms had had outbreaks of African swine fever.
In July 2019, authorities announced the first outbreak of African swine fever in Slovakia.
In February 2020, authorities announced the first outbreak of African swine fever in a restricted area of Northern Greece.
In January 2021, Romania suffered again from a new breakout of the African swine fever virus that started in the Brăila County.
In January 2022, ASF cases were reported in Northern Italy, Latvia and Hungary.
In September 2023, one case was reported from Sweden.
2018–2020 African swine fever panzootic
China and East Asia
In August 2018, China reported the first African swine fever outbreak in Liaoning province, which was also the first reported case in East Asia. By September 1, 2018, the country had culled more than 38,000 hogs. Since the week of September 10, 2018, China has blocked transports of live pigs and pig products in a large part of the country to avoid spread beyond the 6 provinces where the virus was then confirmed. By the end of 2018, the outbreaks had been reported in 23 provinces and municipalities across China. On April 25, 2019, the virus was reported to have spread to every region of China, as well as parts of Southeast Asia, including Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam. The Chinese pig population was reported to have declined by almost 100 million compared with the previous year, driving European pork prices to reach a six-year high.
Ze Chen, Shan Gao, and co-workers from Nankai University detected ASFV in Dermacentor (hard ticks) from sheep and bovines using small RNA sequencing. This 235-bp segment had an identity of 99% to a 235-bp DNA segment of ASFV and contained three single nucleotide mutations (C38T, C76T and A108C). C38T, resulting in a single amino-acid mutation G66D, suggests the existence of a new ASFV strain, which is different from all reported ASFV strains in the NCBI Genbank database and the ASFV strain (GenBank: MH713612.1) reported in China in 2018. In December 2019, China banned imports of pigs and wild boars from Indonesia because of African swine fever outbreaks that reached 392 on 17 December.
On September 2019, South Korea confirmed a second case of African swine fever at a pig farm in Yeoncheon, where 4,700 pigs had been raised, a day after reporting its first-ever outbreak of the virus. As of 31 October 2019, the virus has been detected in domestic pigs in nine places in Gyeonggi-do and five places in Incheon City. It was also confirmed in 18 wild boars from Gangwon-do and Gyeonggi-do, inside or near the Civilian Control Zone.
The South Korean government set a buffer zone to separate affected areas from the rest of the country and instituted a compensation scheme for farms within of infected farms.
Between December 2018 and June 2019, ten pig carcasses infected with ASF washed up on the shore in Kinmen (Quemoy) county. In June 2019, the government temporarily halted export of pigs and pork products from Kinmen county after two infected pig carcasses were discovered on the shore. Nearby farms were inspected by veterinarians and no live pigs tested positive for ASF. On February 3, 2020, another infected pig carcass was discovered on the shore of Lieyu (Lesser Kinmen), bringing the total number of infected pig carcasses found on Kinmen county shores to eleven. In April 2020, a twelfth pig carcass confirmed to be carrying African swine fever virus washed up on the shore of Lieyu (Lesser Kinmen). After testing, no outbreak of the disease was detected in the seven active hog farms on the island. On May 29, China's Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs said on Friday it had found a new outbreak of African swine fever near the city of Lanzhou in northwestern Gansu province.
On April 9, 2019, a pig carcass with ASF was discovered on the shore of Nangan in the Matsu Islands (Lienchiang County) leading to a week-long ban on the transport of pigs from the county.
Southeast Asia
The Philippines' Department of Agriculture started a probe in August 2019 regarding incidents of hog deaths in towns in Rizal and Bulacan for suspected African swine fever cases. The department ordered the culling of pigs within a radius of affected farms.
The first case of African swine fever in the Philippines was confirmed on 9 September 2019 by the country's agriculture department. The department sent 20 blood samples to the United Kingdom for testing, with 14 samples testing positive for African swine fever virus. At the time of the confirmation, though, the department has stated that the disease has not reached epidemic levels yet and is still assessing its severity.
On 16 September 2019, the Bureau of Animal Industry's Director Ronnie Domingo confirmed that the status of the virus in the country is in an outbreak level in Rizal, Bulacan, Quezon City, and also confirmed across the provinces of Pampanga and Pangasinan in the end of September.
Vietnam confirmed its first case of African swine fever on 19 February 2019. As of 31 October 2019, all 63 provinces / municipalities have reported outbreaks and more than 5,700,000 pigs have been culled.
The Vietnamese government acted to limit movement of pigs and pig products and implemented measures to prevent, promptly detect and strictly handle cases of smuggling, illegal transportation, and trafficking of animals and animal products—especially of pigs and pig products—into the country.
ASF was reported on farms near the capital city, Dili in East Timor from 9 September 2019. On 30 September 2019, it was reported that 405 animals were killed or culled.
By the end of October 2019, a total of 100 outbreaks in smallholder pig farms had been recorded in Dili.
In Sabah, Malaysia, outbreaks of ASF had been detected in domestic pigs by February 2021. However, large numbers of dead wild pigs had been reported dead since January, and over a hundred Bornean bearded pigs had been found dead as of March 2021; the Sabah Wildlife Department later stated that it was probably due to ASF. Other Southeast Asian pig species are thought to also be vulnerable including the (Sulawesi) Celebes warty pig.
India
On 29 April 2020, India reported the first African Swine Fever disease outbreak in the state of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. It has been said that the disease is being spread via transboundary transmission from China. According to the data available with the veterinary department, over 15,000 pigs has been recorded dead from the 9 affected districts so far in Assam viz. Golaghat, Majuli, Dibrugarh, Kamrup, Dhemaji, Biswanath, North Lakhimpur, Sivasagar, Jorhat. Sale and consumption of pork meat have been banned in the affected districts of Assam. On 4 July, the test results of certain pig carcass samples came in as a confirmation for African Swine Fever in Bokakhat subdivision of Golaghat. The pig mortality reached around 800 numbers in Bokakhat. It is suspected that the infection came into the region from Kamargaon which is located near Bokakhat.
Historical theories
The appearance of ASF outside Africa at about the same time as the emergence of AIDS led to some interest in whether the two were related, and a report appeared in The Lancet supporting this in 1986. However, the realization that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes AIDS discredited any potential connection with ASF.
See also
Veterinary virology
References
External links
Canadian Food Inspection Agency
African swine fever
Biosecurity training video
Farm-level biosecurity practices
European Commission
Current Situation
Map of affected regions in the EU
World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)
Current status of African Swine Fever worldwide at OIE. WAHID Interface—OIE World Animal Health Information Database
Technical disease cards
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
Species Profile - African Swine Fever, National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library.
Swine diseases
Asfarviridae
Animal viral diseases
Biological anti-agriculture weapons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Wall%20of%20China
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Great Wall of China
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The Great Wall of China (, literally "ten thousand li long wall") is a series of fortifications that were built across the historical northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China as protection against various nomadic groups from the Eurasian Steppe. Several walls were built from as early as the 7th century BC, with selective stretches later joined by Qin Shi Huang (220–206 BC), the first emperor of China. Little of the Qin wall remains. Later on, many successive dynasties built and maintained multiple stretches of border walls. The best-known sections of the wall were built by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644).
Apart from defense, other purposes of the Great Wall have included border controls, allowing the imposition of duties on goods transported along the Silk Road, regulation or encouragement of trade and the control of immigration and emigration. Furthermore, the defensive characteristics of the Great Wall were enhanced by the construction of watchtowers, troop barracks, garrison stations, signaling capabilities through the means of smoke or fire, and the fact that the path of the Great Wall also served as a transportation corridor.
The frontier walls built by different dynasties have multiple courses. Collectively, they stretch from Liaodong in the east to Lop Lake in the west, from the present-day SinoRussian border in the north to Tao River (Taohe) in the south; along an arc that roughly delineates the edge of the Mongolian steppe; spanning in total. Today, the defensive system of the Great Wall is generally recognized as one of the most impressive architectural feats in history.
Names
The collection of fortifications known as the Great Wall of China has historically had a number of different names in both Chinese and English.
In Chinese histories, the term "Long Wall(s)" ( Chángchéng) appears in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian, where it referred both to the separate great walls built between and north of the Warring States and to the more unified construction of the First Emperor. The Chinese character , meaning city or fortress, is a phono-semantic compound of the "earth" radical and phonetic , whose Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as *deŋ. It originally referred to the rampart which surrounded traditional Chinese cities and was used by extension for these walls around their respective states; today, however, it is much more often the Chinese word for "city".
The longer Chinese name "Ten-Thousand Mile Long Wall" ( Wànlǐ Chángchéng) came from Sima Qian's description of it in the Records, though he did not name the walls as such. The AD 493 Book of Song quotes the frontier general Tan Daoji referring to "the long wall of 10,000 miles", closer to the modern name, but the name rarely features in pre-modern times otherwise. The traditional Chinese mile (, lǐ) was an often irregular distance that was intended to show the length of a standard village and varied with terrain but was usually standardized at distances around a third of an English mile (540 m). However, this use of "ten-thousand" (wàn) is figurative in a similar manner to the Greek and English myriad and simply means "innumerable" or "immeasurable".
Because of the wall's association with the First Emperor's supposed tyranny, the Chinese dynasties after Qin usually avoided referring to their own additions to the wall by the name "Long Wall". Instead, various terms were used in medieval records, including "frontier(s)" (, Sài), "rampart(s)" (, Yuán), "barrier(s)" (, Zhàng), "the outer fortresses" Wàibǎo), and "the border wall(s)" Biānqiáng). Poetic and informal names for the wall included "the Purple Frontier" Zǐsài) and "the Earth Dragon" Tǔlóng). Only during the Qing period did "Long Wall" become the catch-all term to refer to the many border walls regardless of their location or dynastic origin, equivalent to the English "Great Wall".
Sections of the wall in south Gobi Desert and Mongolian steppe are sometimes referred to as "Wall of Genghis Khan", even though Genghis Khan did not construct any walls or permanent defense lines himself.
The current English name evolved from accounts of from early modern European travelers. By the nineteenth century, "the Great Wall of China" had become standard in English and French, although other European languages such as German continue to refer to it as "the Chinese wall".
History
Early walls
The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall-building by the time of the Spring and Autumn period between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. During this time and the subsequent Warring States period, the states of Qin, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Han, Yan, and Zhongshan all constructed extensive fortifications to defend their own borders. Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords and spears, these walls were made mostly of stone or by stamping earth and gravel between board frames.
King Zheng of Qin conquered the last of his opponents and unified China as the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty ("Qin Shi Huang") in 221 BC. Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the resurgence of feudal lords, he ordered the destruction of the sections of the walls that divided his empire among the former states. To position the empire against the Xiongnu people from the north, however, he ordered the building of new walls to connect the remaining fortifications along the empire's northern frontier. "Build and move on" was a central guiding principle in constructing the wall, implying that the Chinese were not erecting a permanently fixed border.
Transporting the large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult, so builders always tried to use local resources. Stones from the mountains were used over mountain ranges, while rammed earth was used for construction in the plains. There are no surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin walls. Most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries, and very few sections remain today. The human cost of the construction is unknown, but it has been estimated by some authors that hundreds of thousands of workers died building the Qin wall. Later, the Han, the Northern dynasties and the Sui all repaired, rebuilt, or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves against northern invaders. The Tang and Song dynasties did not undertake any significant effort in the region. Dynasties founded by non-Han ethnic groups also built their border walls: the Xianbei-ruled Northern Wei, the Khitan-ruled Liao, Jurchen-led Jin and the Tangut-established Western Xia, who ruled vast territories over Northern China throughout centuries, all constructed defensive walls but those were located much to the north of the other Great Walls as we know it, within China's autonomous region of Inner Mongolia and in modern-day Mongolia itself.
Ming era
The Great Wall concept was revived again under the Ming in the 14th century, and following the Ming army's defeat by the Oirats in the Battle of Tumu. The Ming had failed to gain a clear upper hand over the Mongol tribes after successive battles, and the long-drawn conflict was taking a toll on the empire. The Ming adopted a new strategy to keep the nomadic tribes out by constructing walls along the northern border of China. Acknowledging the Mongol control established in the Ordos Desert, the wall followed the desert's southern edge instead of incorporating the bend of the Yellow River.
Unlike the earlier fortifications, the Ming construction was stronger and more elaborate due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth. Up to 25,000 watchtowers are estimated to have been constructed on the wall. As Mongol raids continued periodically over the years, the Ming devoted considerable resources to repair and reinforce the walls. Sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were especially strong. Qi Jiguang between 1567 and 1570 also repaired and reinforced the wall, faced sections of the ram-earth wall with bricks and constructed 1,200 watchtowers from Shanhaiguan Pass to Changping to warn of approaching Mongol raiders. During the 1440s–1460s, the Ming also built a so-called "Liaodong Wall". Similar in function to the Great Wall (whose extension, in a sense, it was), but more basic in construction, the Liaodong Wall enclosed the agricultural heartland of the Liaodong province, protecting it against potential incursions by Jurchen-Mongol Oriyanghan from the northwest and the Jianzhou Jurchens from the north. While stones and tiles were used in some parts of the Liaodong Wall, most of it was in fact simply an earth dike with moats on both sides.
Towards the end of the Ming, the Great Wall helped defend the empire against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600. Even after the loss of all of Liaodong, the Ming army held the heavily fortified Shanhai Pass, preventing the Manchus from conquering the Chinese heartland. The Manchus were finally able to cross the Great Wall in 1644, after Beijing had already fallen to Li Zicheng's short-lived Shun dynasty. Before this time, the Manchus had crossed the Great Wall multiple times to raid, but this time it was for conquest. The gates at Shanhai Pass were opened on May 25 by the commanding Ming general, Wu Sangui, who formed an alliance with the Manchus, hoping to use the Manchus to expel the rebels from Beijing. The Manchus quickly seized Beijing, and eventually defeated both the Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance, consolidating the rule of the Qing dynasty over all of China proper.
Under Qing rule, China's borders extended beyond the walls and Mongolia was annexed into the empire, so constructions on the Great Wall were discontinued. On the other hand, the so-called Willow Palisade, following a line similar to that of the Ming Liaodong Wall, was constructed by the Qing rulers in Manchuria. Its purpose, however, was not defense but rather to prevent Han Chinese migration into Manchuria.
Foreign accounts
None of the Europeans who visited China or Mongolia in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, William of Rubruck, Marco Polo, Odoric of Pordenone and Giovanni de' Marignolli, mentioned the Great Wall.
The North African traveler Ibn Battuta, who also visited China during the Yuan dynasty , had heard about China's Great Wall, possibly before he had arrived in China. He wrote that the wall is "sixty days' travel" from Zeitun (modern Quanzhou) in his travelogue Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling. He associated it with the legend of the wall mentioned in the Qur'an, which Dhul-Qarnayn (commonly associated with Alexander the Great) was said to have erected to protect people near the land of the rising sun from the savages of Gog and Magog. However, Ibn Battuta could find no one who had either seen it or knew of anyone who had seen it, suggesting that although there were remnants of the wall at that time, they were not significant.
Soon after Europeans reached Ming China by ship in the early 16th century, accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe, even though no European was to see it for another century. Possibly one of the earliest European descriptions of the wall and of its significance for the defense of the country against the "Tartars" (i.e. Mongols) may be the one contained in João de Barros's 1563 Asia. Other early accounts in Western sources include those of Gaspar da Cruz, Bento de Goes, Matteo Ricci, and Bishop Juan González de Mendoza, the latter in 1585 describing it as a "superbious and mightie work" of architecture, though he had not seen it. In 1559, in his work "A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions", Gaspar da Cruz offers an early discussion of the Great Wall. Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605, when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góis reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India. Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical, closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall, although later they slid into hyperbole, including the erroneous but ubiquitous claim that the Ming walls were the same ones that were built by the first emperor in the 3rd century BC.
When China opened its borders to foreign merchants and visitors after its defeat in the First and Second Opium Wars, the Great Wall became a main attraction for tourists. The travelogues of the later 19th century further enhanced the reputation and the mythology of the Great Wall.
Course
A formal definition of what constitutes a "Great Wall" has not been agreed upon, making the full course of the Great Wall difficult to describe in its entirety. The defensive lines contain multiple stretches of ramparts, trenches and ditches, as well as individual fortresses.
In 2012, based on existing research and the results of a comprehensive mapping survey, the National Cultural Heritage Administration of China concluded that the remaining Great Wall associated sites include 10,051 wall sections, 1,764 ramparts or trenches, 29,510 individual buildings, and 2,211 fortifications or passes, with the walls and trenches spanning a total length of . Incorporating advanced technologies, the study has concluded that the Ming Great Wall measures . This consists of of wall sections, of trenches and of natural defensive barriers such as hills and rivers. In addition, Qin, Han and earlier Great Wall sites are long in total; Jin dynasty (1115–1234) border fortifications are in length; the remainder date back to Northern Wei, Northern Qi, Sui, Tang, the Five Dynasties, Song, Liao and Xixia. About half of the sites are located in Inner Mongolia (31%) and Hebei (19%).
Han Great Wall
Han fortifications starts from Yumen Pass and Yang Pass, southwest of Dunhuang, in Gansu province. Ruins of the remotest Han border posts are found in Mamitu ( Mǎmítú, ) near Yumen Pass.
Ming Great Wall
The Jiayu Pass, located in Gansu province, is the western terminus of the Ming Great Wall. From Jiayu Pass the wall travels discontinuously down the Hexi Corridor and into the deserts of Ningxia, where it enters the western edge of the Yellow River loop at Yinchuan. Here the first major walls erected during the Ming dynasty cut through the Ordos Desert to the eastern edge of the Yellow River loop. There at Piantou Pass Piāntóuguān) in Xinzhou, Shanxi province, the Great Wall splits in two with the "Outer Great Wall" Wài Chǎngchéng) extending along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province, and the "Inner Great Wall" Nèi Chǎngchéng) running southeast from Piantou Pass for some , passing through important passes like the Pingxing Pass and Yanmen Pass before joining the Outer Great Wall at Sihaiye in Beijing's Yanqing County.
The sections of the Great Wall around Beijing municipality are especially famous: they were frequently renovated and are regularly visited by tourists today. The Badaling Great Wall near Zhangjiakou is the most famous stretch of the wall, for this was the first section to be opened to the public in the People's Republic of China, as well as the showpiece stretch for foreign dignitaries. The Badaling Great Wall saw nearly 10 million visitors in 2018, and in 2019, a daily limit of 65,000 visitors was instated. South of Badaling is the Juyong Pass; when it was used by the Chinese to protect their land, this section of the wall had many guards to defend the capital Beijing. Made of stone and bricks from the hills, this portion of the Great Wall is high and wide.
One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely steep slopes in Jinshanling. There it runs long, ranges from in height, and across the bottom, narrowing up to across the top. Wangjing Lou Wàngjīng Lóu) is one of Jinshanling's 67 watchtowers, above sea level. Southeast of Jinshanling is the Mutianyu Great Wall which winds along lofty, cragged mountains from the southeast to the northwest for . It is connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to the east. This section was one of the first to be renovated following the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution.
At the edge of the Bohai Gulf is Shanhai Pass, considered the traditional end of the Great Wall and the "First Pass Under Heaven". The part of the wall inside Shanhai Pass that meets the sea is named the "Old Dragon Head". north of Shanhai Pass is Jiaoshan Great Wall ( Jiāoshān Chángchéng), the site of the first mountain of the Great Wall. northeast from Shanhaiguan is Jiumenkou Jiǔménkǒu), which is the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge.
In 2009, 180 km of previously unknown sections of the Ming wall concealed by hills, trenches and rivers were discovered with the help of infrared range finders and GPS devices. In March and April 2015, nine sections with a total length of more than , believed to be part of the Great Wall, were discovered along the border of Ningxia autonomous region and Gansu province.
Characteristics
Before the use of bricks, the Great Wall was mainly built from rammed earth, stones, and wood. During the Ming, however, bricks were heavily used in many areas of the wall, as were materials such as tiles, lime, and stone. The size and weight of the bricks made them easier to work with than earth and stone, so construction quickened. Additionally, bricks could bear more weight and endure better than rammed earth. Stone can hold under its own weight better than brick, but is more difficult to use. Consequently, stones cut into rectangular shapes were used for the foundation, inner and outer brims, and gateways of the wall. Battlements line the uppermost portion of the vast majority of the wall, with defensive gaps a little over tall, and about wide. From the parapets, guards could survey the surrounding land.
Sticky rice mortar, consisting of sticky rice soup mixed with slaked lime, was extensively used to hold bricks together; no human bones or body parts were ever incorporated into the mortar or any part of the wall, contrary to what a legend states. Communication between the army units along the length of the Great Wall, including the ability to call reinforcements and warn garrisons of enemy movements, was of high importance. Signal towers were built upon hill tops or other high points along the wall for their visibility. Wooden gates could be used as a trap against those going through. Barracks, stables, and armories were built near the wall's inner surface.
Condition
While portions north of Beijing and near tourist centers have been preserved and even extensively renovated, in many other locations the wall is in disrepair. The wall sometimes provided a source of stones to build houses and roads. Sections of the wall are also prone to graffiti and vandalism, while inscribed bricks were pilfered and sold on the market for up to 50 renminbi. Parts have been destroyed to make way for construction or mining.
A 2012 report by the National Cultural Heritage Administration states that 22% of the Ming Great Wall has disappeared, while of wall have vanished. In 2007 it was estimated that more than of the wall in Gansu province may disappear in the next 20 years, due to erosion from sandstorms. In some places, the height of the wall has been reduced from more than to less than . Various square lookout towers that characterize the most famous images of the wall have disappeared. Many western sections of the wall are constructed from mud, rather than brick and stone, and thus are more susceptible to erosion. In 2014 a portion of the wall near the border of Liaoning and Hebei province was repaired with concrete. The work has been much criticized.
A section of the wall in Shanxi province was severely damaged in 2023 by construction workers, who widened an existing gap in the wall to make a shortcut for an excavator to pass through. Police described the act as causing "irreversible damage to the integrity of the Ming Great Wall and to the safety of the cultural relics".
Visibility from space
Various factoids in popular culture claim that the Great Wall can be seen (with the naked eye) from space, with questionable degrees of veracity.
From the Moon
The Great Wall of China cannot be seen by the naked human eye from the Moon. Even though the myth is thoroughly debunked, it is still ingrained in popular culture. The apparent width of the Great Wall from the Moon would be the same as that of a human hair viewed from away.
One of the earliest known references to the myth that the Great Wall can be seen from the moon appears in a letter written in 1754 by the English antiquary William Stukeley. Stukeley wrote that, "This mighty wall of four score miles [130 km] in length is only exceeded by the Chinese Wall, which makes a considerable figure upon the terrestrial globe, and may be discerned at the Moon." The claim was also mentioned by Henry Norman in 1895 where he states "besides its age it enjoys the reputation of being the only work of human hands on the globe visible from the Moon." The issue of "canals" on Mars was prominent in the late 19th century and may have led to the belief that long, thin objects were visible from space. The claim that the Great Wall is visible from the moon also appears in 1932's Ripley's Believe It or Not! strip.
From low Earth orbit
A more controversial question is whether the wall is visible from low Earth orbit (an altitude of as little as ). NASA claims that it is barely visible, and only under nearly perfect conditions; it is no more conspicuous than many other human-made objects.
Veteran US astronaut Gene Cernan has stated: "At Earth orbit of high, the Great Wall of China is, indeed, visible to the naked eye." Ed Lu, Expedition 7 Science Officer aboard the International Space Station, adds that, "It's less visible than a lot of other objects. And you have to know where to look."
In October 2003, Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei stated that he had not been able to see the Great Wall of China. In response, the European Space Agency (ESA) issued a press release reporting that from an orbit between , the Great Wall is visible to the naked eye. The image was actually a river in Beijing.
Leroy Chiao, a Chinese-American astronaut, took a photograph from the International Space Station that shows the wall. It was so indistinct that the photographer was not certain he had actually captured it. Based on the photograph, the China Daily later reported that the Great Wall can be seen from 'space' with the naked eye, under favorable viewing conditions, if one knows exactly where to look.
Gallery
See also
Cheolli Jangseong
Chinese city wall
Defense of the Great Wall
Gates of Alexander
Grand Canal (China)
Great Wall of China hoax
Great Wall Marathon
Great Wall of Gorgan
Great Wall of India
List of World Heritage Sites in China
Miaojiang Great Wall
Offa's Dyke
Roman military frontiers and fortifications
Zasechnaya cherta
Notes
References
Further reading
Arnold, H. J. P., "The Great Wall: Is It or Isn't It?" Astronomy Now, 1995.
Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009): Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton: Princeton University Press. .
Luo, Zewen, et al. and Baker, David, ed. (1981). The Great Wall. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK).
Michaud, Roland and Sabrina (photographers), & Michel Jan, The Great Wall of China. Abbeville Press, 2001.
Schafer, Edward H. (1985). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
External links
International Friends of the Great Wall – organization focused on conservation
UNESCO World Heritage Centre profile
Enthusiast/scholar website
Photoset of lesser visited areas of the Great Wall
7th-century BC establishments in China
Border barriers
Chinese architectural history
Fortification lines
Qin Shi Huang
Walls
World Heritage Sites in China
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20Australia
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Flag of Australia
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The flag of Australia, also known as the Australian Blue Ensign, is based on the British Blue Ensign—a blue field with the Union Jack in the upper hoist quarter—augmented with a large white seven-pointed star (the Commonwealth Star) and a representation of the Southern Cross constellation, made up of five white stars (one small five-pointed star and four, larger, seven-pointed stars). Australia also has a number of other official flags representing its people and core functions of government.
Its original design (with a six-pointed Commonwealth Star) was chosen in 1901 from entries in a competition held following Federation, and was first flown in Melbourne on 3 September 1901, the date proclaimed in 1996 as Australian National Flag Day. A slightly different design was approved by King Edward VII in 1903. The current seven-pointed Commonwealth Star version was introduced by a proclamation dated 8 December 1908. The dimensions were formally gazetted in 1934, and in 1954 the flag became recognised by, and legally defined in, the Flags Act 1953 as the Australian National Flag.
Design
Devices
The Australian flag uses three prominent symbols: the Southern Cross, the Union Jack and the Commonwealth Star.
In its original usage as the flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Union Flag combined three heraldic crosses which represent the constituent countries of the United Kingdom (as constituted in 1801):
The red St George's Cross of England
The white diagonal St Andrew's Cross of Scotland
The red diagonal St Patrick's Cross of Ireland
The Union Flag acknowledge the history of British settlement in Australia. Historically, it was included in the design as a demonstration of loyalty to the British Empire.
The Commonwealth Star, also known as the Federation Star, originally had six points, representing the six federating colonies. In 1908, a seventh point was added to symbolise the Territory of Papua, and any future territories. Another rationale for the change was to match the star used on the coat of arms, which was created in the same year. The Commonwealth Star does not have any official relation to Beta Centauri, despite the latter's brightness and location in the sky; however, the 1870 version of the flag of South Australia featured the "pointer" stars, Alpha and Beta Centauri.
The Southern Cross is one of the most distinctive constellations visible in the Southern Hemisphere, and has been used to represent Australia since the early days of British settlement. Ivor Evans, one of the flag's designers, intended the Southern Cross to also refer to the four moral virtues ascribed to the four main stars by Dante: justice, prudence, temperance and fortitude. The number of points on the stars of the Southern Cross on the modern Australian flag differs from the original competition-winning design, in which they ranged between five and nine points each, representing their relative brightness in the night sky. The stars are named after the first five letters of the Greek alphabet, in decreasing order of brightness in the sky. In order to simplify manufacture, the British Admiralty standardised the four larger outer stars at seven points each, leaving the smaller, more central star with five points. This change was officially gazetted on 23 February 1903.
A complete specification for the official design was published in the Commonwealth Gazette in 1934.
Colours
The colours of the flag, although not specified by the Flags Act, have been given Pantone specifications by the Parliamentary and Government Branch of the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. The Australian Government's Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers also gives CMYK and RGB specifications for depicting the flag in print and on screen respectively.
The flag may be reproduced in a single colour, with the colour being either black or one of the two colours of the flag, albeit blue is generally preferred for single-colour productions.
The red colour in the canton of the Australian flag (Pantone 185C, Hex: #FF0000) is actually a shade lighter than the British flag (Pantone 186C, Hex: #C8102E) from which it originated. The blue colour has a different hex code for RGB scheme, but when printed -the Pantone number- it is the same: Australia (Pantone 280C, Hex: 00008B) vs. United Kingdom (Pantone 280C, Hex: 012169).
Construction
Under the Flags Act, the Australian National Flag must meet the following specifications:
the Union Flag occupying the upper quarter (canton) next to the staff;
a large seven-pointed white star (six representing the six states of Australia and one representing the territories) in the centre of the lower quarter next to the staff and pointing direct to the centre of St George's Cross in the Union Flag;
five white stars (representing the Southern Cross) in the half of the flag further from the staff.
The location of the stars is as follows:
Commonwealth Star – 7-pointed star, centred in lower hoist.
Alpha Crucis – 7-pointed star, straight below centre fly up from bottom edge.
Beta Crucis – 7-pointed star, of the way left and up from the centre fly.
Gamma Crucis – 7-pointed star, straight above centre fly down from top edge.
Delta Crucis – 7-pointed star, of the way right and up from the centre fly.
Epsilon Crucis – 5-pointed star, of the way right and down from the centre fly.
The outer diameter of the Commonwealth Star is of the flag's width, while that of the stars in the Southern Cross is of the flag's width, except for Epsilon, for which the fraction is . Each star's inner diameter is of the outer diameter. The flag's width is the measurement of the hoist edge of the flag (the distance from top to bottom).
Protocol
Guidelines for flying the flag are laid out in the 1953 Flags Act and the pamphlet "Australian Flags", which is infrequently published by the Australian Government. The guidelines say that the Australian National Flag is allowed to be flown on every day of the year, and that it "should be treated with the respect and dignity it deserves as the nation's most important national symbol".
The National Flag must always be flown in a position superior to that of any other flag or ensign when flown in Australia or on Australian territory, and it should always be flown aloft and free. The flag must be flown in all government buildings and (where possible) displayed in or near polling stations when there is a national election or referendum. Government ships, fishing vessels, pleasure craft, small craft and commercial vessels under 24 metres in tonnage length, can fly either the Red Ensign or the Australian National Flag, but not both. The British Blue Ensign can be flown on an Australian owned ship instead of the Australian Flag if the owner has a warrant valid under British law.
The Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet also advises that the flag should only be flown during daylight hours, unless it is illuminated. Two flags should not be flown from the same flagpole. The flag should not be displayed upside down under any circumstances, not even to express a situation of distress. The flag is not to be placed or dropped on the ground, nor should it be used to cover an object in the lead-up to an unveiling ceremony, or to hide other material. Flags that have decayed or faded should not be displayed. Old or decayed flags should be disposed of in private "in a dignified way"; a method given as an example is to cut the flag into small pieces before being placed in the waste.
When the flag is flown at half-mast, it should be recognisably at half-mastfor example, a third of the way down from the top of the pole. The Australian Flag should never be flown half mast at night, unless directed to half-mast for an extended period. Days on which flags are flown at half-mast on government buildings include,
On the death of the sovereign – from the time of announcement of the death up to and including the funeral. On the day the accession of the new sovereign is proclaimed, it is customary to raise the flag to the top of the mast from 11 am.
On the death of a member of the royal family by special command of the Sovereign and/or by direction of the Australian Government.
On the death of the governor-general or a former governor-general.
On the death of a distinguished Australian citizen in accordance with protocol. Flags in any locality may be flown at half-mast on the death of a notable local citizen or on the day, or part of the day, of their funeral.
On the death of the head of state of another country with which Australia has diplomatic relations – the flag would be flown at half-mast on the day of the funeral.
On ANZAC Day the flag is flown at half-mast until noon.
On Remembrance Day flags are flown at peak until 10:30 am, at half-mast from 10:30 am to 11:02 am, then at peak for the remainder of the day.
The department provides an email service called the Commonwealth Flag Network, which gives information on national occasions to fly the flag at half-mast as well as national days of commemoration and celebration of the flag.
The Australian National Flag may be used for commercial or advertising purposes without formal permission as long as the flag is used in a dignified manner and reproduced completely and accurately; it should not be defaced by overprinting with words or illustrations, it should not be covered by other objects in displays, and all symbolic parts of the flag should be identifiable. It also must sit first (typically, left) where more than one flag is used. For this reason the Collingwood Football Club had to reverse its logo, which previously featured the flag until a logo refresh at the end of 2017.
There have been several attempts to make desecration of the Australian flag a crime. In 1953, during the second reading debate on the Flags Act, the leader of the Opposition, Arthur Calwell, unsuccessfully called for provisions to be added to the bill to criminalise desecration. Michael Cobb introduced private member's bills in 1989, 1990, 1991 and 1992 to ban desecration, but on each occasion the bill lapsed. In 2002, the leader of the National Party, John Anderson, proposed to introduce laws banning desecration of the Australian flag, a call that attracted support from some parliamentarians both in his own party and the senior Coalition partner, the Liberal Party. The Prime Minister, John Howard, rejected the calls, stating that "...in the end I guess it's part of the sort of free speech code that we have in this country". In 2003, the Australian Flags (Desecration of the Flag) Bill was tabled in Parliament by Trish Draper without support from Howard and subsequently lapsed. In 2006, following a flag-burning incident during the 2005 Cronulla riots and a burnt flag display by a Melbourne artist, Liberal MP Bronwyn Bishop introduced the Protection of the Australian National Flag (Desecration of the Flag) Bill 2006. This bill sought to make it "a criminal offence to wilfully destroy or otherwise mutilate the Flag in circumstances where a reasonable person would infer that the destruction or mutilation is intended publicly to express contempt or disrespect for the Flag or the Australian Nation." The bill received a second reading but subsequently lapsed and did not go to vote in the House of Representatives.
History
The Union Flag, as the flag of the British Empire, was first used on Australian soil on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay. Following the arrival of the First Fleet, Captain Arthur Phillip established a convict settlement at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788. He first raised the Union Flag on 7 February 1788 when he proclaimed the Colony of New South Wales.
The Union Flag at that stage was the one introduced in 1606, which did not include the Saint Patrick's Saltire; it was included from 1801 after the Acts of Union 1801. The second version post-1801 is depicted on the Australian Flag. Each colony also had its own flag based on the British Blue Ensign, defaced with a state badge. As an Australian national consciousness began to emerge, several flag movements were formed and unofficial new flags came into common usage. Two attempts were made throughout the nineteenth century to design a national flag. The first such attempt was the National Colonial Flag created in 1823–1824 by Captains John Nicholson and John Bingle. This flag consisted of a red cross on a white background, with an eight-point star on each of the four limbs of the cross, while incorporating a Union Flag in the canton. The most popular national flag of the period was the 1831 Federation Flag, also designed by Nicholson. This flag was the same at the National Colonial Flag, except that the cross was blue instead of resembling that of St. George. Although the flag was designed by Nicholson in 1831, it did not become widely popular until the latter part of the century, when calls for federation began to grow louder. These flags, and many others such as the Eureka Flag (which came into use at the Eureka Stockade in 1854), featured the Southern Cross. The oldest known flag to show the stars arranged as they are seen in the sky is the Anti-Transportation League Flag, which is similar in design to the present National Flag. The differences were that there was no Commonwealth Star, while the components of the Southern Cross are depicted with eight points and in gold. This flag was only briefly in usage, as two years after the formation of the Anti-Transportation League in 1851, the colonial authorities decided to stop the intake of convicts, so the ATL ceased its activities. The Eureka Flag has become an enduring symbol in Australian culture and has been used by various groups and movements. The Murray River Flag, popular since the 1850s, is still widely used by boats that traverse Australia's main waterway. It is the same as the National Colonial Flag, except that the white background in the three quadrants other the canton were replaced with four alternating blue and white stripes, representing the four major rivers that run into the Murray River.
1901 Federal Flag Design Competition
As Federation approached, thoughts turned to an official federal flag. In 1900, the Melbourne Herald conducted a design competition with a prize of 25 Australian pounds (A$4,400 in 2021 terms). The competition conducted by the Review of Reviews for Australasia—a Melbourne-based publication—later that year thought such a restriction seemed unwise, despite observing that designs without these emblems were unlikely to be successful; nonetheless, it suggested that entries incorporate the two elements in their design. After Federation on 1 January 1901, and following receipt of a request from the British government to design a new flag, the new Commonwealth Government held an official competition for a new federal flag in April. The competition attracted 32,823 entries, including those originally sent to the Review of Reviews. One of these was submitted by an unnamed governor of a colony. The two contests were merged after the Review of Reviews agreed to being integrated into the government initiative. The £75 prize money of each competition were combined and augmented by a further £50 donated by Havelock Tobacco Company. Each competitor was required to submit two coloured sketches, a red ensign for the merchant service and public use, and a blue ensign for naval and official use. The designs were judged on seven criteria: loyalty to the Empire, Federation, history, heraldry, distinctiveness, utility and cost of manufacture. The majority of designs incorporated the Union Flag and the Southern Cross, but native animals were also popular, including one that depicted a variety of indigenous animals playing cricket, a six-tailed kangaroo representing the six Australian states, and a kangaroo aiming a gun at the Southern Cross. The entries were put on display at the Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne and the judges took six days to deliberate before reaching their conclusion. Five almost identical entries were chosen as the winning design, and the designers shared the £200 (2021: $35,200) prize money, with £40 each. They were Ivor Evans, a fourteen-year-old schoolboy from Melbourne; Leslie John Hawkins, a teenager apprenticed to an optician from Sydney; Egbert John Nuttall, an architect from Melbourne; Annie Dorrington, an artist from Perth; and William Stevens, a ship's officer from Auckland, New Zealand. The differences to the current flag were the six-pointed Commonwealth Star, while the components stars in the Southern Cross had different numbers of points, with more if the real star was brighter. This led to five stars of nine, eight, seven, six and five points respectively.
The flag's initial reception was mixed. Readers of The Age newspaper were told that,
a huge Blue Ensign with the prize design of the Southern Cross and a six pointed star thereon was run up to the top of the flagstaff on the dome and breaking, streamed out on the heavy south-westerly breeze, a brave and inspiring picture."
The report carried by the Argus newspaper was also celebratory in nature, stating,
In years to come the flag which floated yesterday in the Exhibition building over Her Excellency the Countess of Hopetoun, who stood for Great Britain, and the Prime Minister (Mr Barton), who stood for Australia, will, in all human probability, become the emblem upon which the millions of the free people of the Commonwealth will gaze with a thrill of national pride."
Alternatively, the then republican magazine The Bulletin labelled it,
a staled réchauffé of the British flag, with no artistic virtue, no national significance... Minds move slowly: and Australia is still Britain's little boy. What more natural than that he should accept his father's cut-down garments, – lacking the power to protest, and only dimly realising his will. That bastard flag is a true symbol of the bastard state of Australian opinion.
As the design was basically the Victorian flag with a star added, many critics in both the Federal Government and the New South Wales government objected to the chosen flag for being "too Victorian". They wanted the Australian Federation Flag, and Prime Minister Barton, who had been promoting the Federation Flag, submitted this flag along with that chosen by the judges to the Admiralty for final approval. The Admiralty chose the Red for private vessels and Blue Ensigns for government ships. The Barton government regarded both the Blue and Red Ensigns as colonial maritime flags and "grudgingly" agreed to fly it only on naval ships. Later governments, that of Chris Watson in 1904 and Andrew Fisher in 1910, were also unhappy with the design, wanting something "more distinctive" and more "indicative of Australian unity."
On 3 September 1901, the new Australian flag flew for the first time from the dome of the Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne. The names of the joint winners of the design competition were announced by Hersey, Countess of Hopetoun (the wife of the Governor-General, the 7th Earl of Hopetoun) and she unfurled the flag for the first time. Since 1996 this date has been officially known as Australian National Flag Day.
The competition-winning designs were submitted to the British Colonial Secretary in 1902. Prime Minister Edmund Barton announced in the Commonwealth Gazette that King Edward VII had officially approved the design as the flag of Australia on 11 February 1903. The published version made all the stars in the Southern Cross seven-pointed apart from the smallest, and is the same as the current design except the six-pointed Commonwealth Star.
Blue versus red ensign
In the decades following federation the red ensign was also the pre-eminent flag in use by private citizens on land. This was largely due to the Commonwealth government, assisted by flag suppliers, discouraging the use of the blue ensign by the general public. Both the blue and red versions were used by armed forces during the First and Second World Wars. A colourised version of a photograph held by the Australian War Memorial of the Armistice Day celebrations in Sydney's Martin Place, 11 November 1918, reveals both ensigns being displayed by the assembled crowd. Illustrations and photos of the opening of Australia's provisional Parliament House in 1927 show Australian Ensigns flown alongside Union Flags. However, sources disagree on the colours of the Australian flags, leaving open the possibility that either ensign or both were used.
A 1934 issue of National Geographic covering the flags of the world and containing coloured illustrations describes the red ensign as "AustraliaMerchant" and omits the blue ensign altogether. A memo from the Prime Minister's Department dated 6 March 1939 states that "the Red Ensign is the flag to be flown by the public generally" and the federal government policy was "The flying of the Commonwealth Blue Ensign is reserved for Commonwealth Government use but there is no reservation in the case of the Commonwealth Merchant Flag, or Red Ensign".
In the 1940s, the federal government began to encourage public use of the blue ensign. Despite this, there remained confusion until the Flags Act 1953 declared the Blue Ensign to be the national flag and the Red Ensign the flag of the Australian mercantile marine. It has been claimed that this choice was made on the basis that the predominately red version carried too many communist overtones for the government of the day to be legislated for as the chief national symbol, although no cabinet documents yet released to the public including the more detailed minutes have ever been adduced in support of this theory. This theory is unlikely, as since 1904 the Australian Government had given precedence to the blue ensign, for example by giving the right to fly it in schools in 1940. Blue suited the anti-communist policy of the Menzies government (and other organisations such as the Catholic Church), however it was also suitable to the Labor party as it was the same colour as the Eureka Flag. The Red Ensign continues to be paraded on Anzac Day in recognition of its historical significance.
Technically, private non-commercial vessels were liable to a substantial fine if they did not fly the British Red Ensign. However, an Admiralty Warrant was issued on 5 December 1938, authorising these vessels to fly the Australian Red Ensign. The Shipping Registration Act 1981 reaffirmed that the Australian Red Ensign was the proper "colours" for commercial ships over in tonnage length.
As a result of the declaration of 3 September as Merchant Navy Day in 2008, the Red Ensign can be flown on land alongside the Australian national flag on this occasion as a matter of protocol.
Status of the Union Jack
The Blue Ensign replaced the Union Jack at the Olympic Games at St Louis in 1904. In the same year, due to lobbying by Richard Crouch MP, it had the same status as the Union Flag in the UK, when the Australian House of Representatives proclaimed that the Blue Ensign "should be flown upon all forts, vessels, saluting places and public buildings of the Commonwealth upon all occasions when flags are used". The government agreed to fly the Blue Ensign on special flag days, but not if it meant additional expense, which undermined the motion. The Blue Ensign could only be flown on a state government building if a state flag was not available.
On 2 June 1904 a resolution was passed by parliament to replace the Union Jack with the "Australian Flag" on forts. Initially the Department of Defence resisted using the Flag, considering it to be a marine ensign and favouring King's Regulations that specified the use of the Union Jack. After being approached by the Department of Defence, Prime Minister Chris Watson stated in parliament that he was not satisfied with the design of the Australian flag and that implementation of the 1904 resolution could wait until consideration was given to "adopt another [flag] which in our opinion is more appropriate." In 1908, Australian Army Military Order, No 58/08 ordered the "Australian Ensign" replace the Union Flag at all military establishments. From 1911 it was the saluting flag of the Australian army at all reviews and ceremonial parades,
The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) was promulgated on 5 October 1911 and was directed to fly the British White Ensign on the stern and the flag of Australia on the Jackstaff.< Despite the government wanting to use the Blue Ensign on Australian warships, officers continued to fly the Union Flag, and it was not until 1913, following public protest in Fremantle after its use for the review of HMAS Melbourne, that the government "reminded" them of the 1911 legislation. The British White Ensign was finally replaced by a distinctively Australian White Ensign on 1 March 1967 (see Flags of the Australian Defence Force).
Despite the new Australian Flags official use, from 1901 until the 1920s the Federation Flag remained the most popular Australian flag for public and even some official events. It was flown at the 1907 State Premiers conference in Melbourne and during the 1927 visit to Australia of the Duke and Duchess of York, the future King George VI and Queen Elizabeth.
In the 1920s there was debate over whether the Blue Ensign was reserved for Commonwealth buildings only, culminating in a 1924 agreement that the Union Flag should take precedence as the National Flag with state and local governments henceforth able to use the blue ensign. As the Union Flag was recognised as the National flag, it was considered disloyal to fly either ensign without the Union flag alongside, and it was the Union Flag that covered the coffins of Australia's war dead.
In 1940 the Victorian government passed legislation allowing schools to purchase Blue Ensigns, which in turn allowed its use by private citizens. Prime Minister Robert Menzies then recommended schools, government building and private citizens to use the Blue Ensign, issuing a statement the following year allowing Australians to use either ensign providing it was done so respectfully.
Prime Minister Ben Chifley issued a similar statement in 1947.
On 4 December 1950, the Prime Minister Robert Menzies affirmed the Blue ensign as the National flag and in 1951 King George VI approved the Government's recommendation.
When the Flags Bill was introduced into parliament on 20 November 1953, Menzies said,"This bill is very largely a formal measure which puts into legislative form what has become almost the established practice in Australia ... The design adopted was submitted to His Majesty King Edward VII, and he was pleased to approve of it as the Australian flag in 1902. However, no legislative action has ever been taken to determine the precise form of the flag or the circumstances of its use, and this bill has been brought down to produce that result."This status was formalised on 14 February 1954, when Queen Elizabeth II gave Royal Assent to the Flags Act 1953, which had been passed two months earlier. The monarch's Assent was timed to coincide with the Queen's visit to the country and came after she had opened the new session of Parliament. The Act confers statutory powers on the Governor-General to appoint 'flags and ensigns of Australia' and authorise warrants and make rules as to use of flags. Section 8 ensures that the 'right or privilege' of a person to fly the Union Flag is not affected by the Act.
South Australia chose to continue with the Union Flag as National flag until 1956, when schools were given the option of using either the Union or Australian flags. The Union Flag was still regarded as the National flag by many Australians well into the 1970s, which inspired Arthur Smout's campaign from 1968 to 1982 to encourage Australians to give the Australian flag precedence.
By the mid-1980s, the Commonwealth Government no longer reminded Australians they had the right to fly the Union Flag alongside the National Flag or provided illustrations of how to correctly display them together.
Flag Day
In 1996, the Governor-General, Sir William Deane, issued a proclamation recognising the annual commemoration of Australian National Flag Day, to be held on 3 September. Flag Day celebrations had been occurring in Sydney since 1985. The inaugural event was held under the auspices of the New South Wales branch of the Australian National Flag Association to commemorate the anniversary of the flag being first flown in 1901. On Flag Day, ceremonies are held in schools, major centres, and the Governor-General, Governors and some politicians attend or release statements to the media. Australian National Flag Day is not a public holiday.
Centenary flags
Centenary flag of state
On the centenary of the first flying of the flag, 3 September 2001, the Australian National Flag Association presented the Prime Minister with a flag intended to replace the missing original flag. This flag was not a replica of the original flag, on which the Commonwealth Star had only six points, but was a current Australian National Flag with a seven pointed Commonwealth Star. The flag has a special headband, including a cardinal red stripe and the inscription:
The Centenary Flag. Presented to the Hon John Howard MP, Prime Minister of Australia on behalf of the people of Australia by the Australian National Flag Association on 3 September 2001 at the Royal Exhibition Building, Melbourne to commemorate the first flying of the Australian National Flag on 3 September 1901 attended by the Rt Hon Sir Edmund Barton MHR, Prime Minister of Australia.
A warrant authorising the use of the Centenary Flag under section 6 of the Flags Act was issued by the Governor-General and the flag is now used as the official flag of state on important occasions. These included the opening of new parliamentary terms and when visiting heads of state arrive. The flag has been transported across the country for flying in every state and territory. It was later used on Remembrance Day in 2003 for the opening of the Australian War Memorial in Hyde Park in London.
Parliament house centenary flag
On 18 September 2001 during the centenary of federation the federal member for Hinkler, Paul Neville, requested to the speaker that,
before it [the flag] becomes too faded or too tattered, [it] be taken down and perhaps offered to a museum or an art gallery as the seminal flag that flew over this building 100 years from the time the first flag was flown?"
The parliament house centenary flag was subsequently entrusted to the Australian Flag Society and has been paraded at schools to mark Australian National Flag Day on a tour of the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Queensland.
Other Australian flags
Under Section 5 of the Flags Act 1953, the Governor-General may proclaim flags other than the National Flag and the Red Ensign as flags or ensigns of Australia. Five flags have been appointed in this manner. The first two were the Royal Australian Navy Ensign and the Royal Australian Air Force Ensign, the flags used by the Royal Australian Navy and the Royal Australian Air Force. The Australian Army has no ensign of its own, but they are given the ceremonial task to be the defender of the National Flag. The Air Force and the Navy flew the appropriate British ensigns (the White Ensign and the Royal Air Force Ensign) until the adoption of similar ensigns based on the Australian National Flag in 1948 and 1967 respectively. The current Navy and Air Force Ensigns were officially appointed in 1967 and 1982 respectively.
The Queen's Personal Australian Flag was approved by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on 20 September 1962, and was only flown when she visited Australia, most recently in 2011. It was used in a similar way as the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom.
In 1995, the Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag were also appointed flags of Australia. While mainly seen as a gesture of reconciliation, this recognition caused a small amount of controversy at the time, with then opposition leader John Howard describing it as divisive. Some Indigenous people, such as the flag's designer Harold Thomas, felt that the government was appropriating their flag, saying it "doesn't need any more recognition".
The Australian Defence Force Ensign was proclaimed in 2000. This flag is used to represent the Defence Force when more than one branch of the military is involved, such as at the Australian Defence Force Academy, and by the Minister for Defence.
The Legislative Instruments Act 2003 required the proclamations of these flags to be lodged in a Federal Register. Due to an administrative oversight they were not, and the proclamations were automatically repealed. The Governor-General of Australia issued new proclamations dated 25 January 2008, with effect from 1 January 2008 (or 1 October 2006 in the case of the Defence Force Ensign).
In addition to the seven flags declared under the Flags Act, there are three additional Australian Government flags, the Australian Civil Aviation Ensign, Australian Border Force Flag and the Australian Federal Police Flag, eight Vice-Regal flags and nine state and territory flags that are recognised as official flags through other means.
Flag debate
There have been mild but persistent debates over whether or not the Union Flag should be removed from the canton of the Australian flag. This debate has culminated on several occasions, such as the period preceding the Australian Bicentenary in 1988, and during the Prime Ministership of Paul Keating, who publicly supported a change in the flag, saying "I do not believe that the symbols and the expression of the full sovereignty of Australian nationhood can ever be complete while we have a flag with the flag of another country on the corner of it."
There are two lobby groups involved in the flag debate: Ausflag (established 1981), which supports changing the flag, and the Australian National Flag Association (ANFA) (established 1983), which wants to keep the existing flag. The primary arguments for keeping the flag cite historic precedence, while those for changing the flag are based around the idea that the status quo does not accurately depict Australia's status as an independent and multicultural nation, nor is its design unique enough to easily distinguish it from similar flags, such as the flags of New Zealand, Cook Islands and Tuvalu (despite the counter argument that this is not uncommon, as seen with Romania and Chad sharing near identical flags). The similarity between the flag of Australia and those of other countries is often derived from a common colonial history.
The Coalition government under John Howard in 1996 established Australian National Flag Day and in 1998 sponsored an amendment to the Flags Act to require any changes to the national flag design to be passed at a plebiscite along the same lines of the 1977 national song poll. In 2002 it also supplied ANFA's promotional video free to all primary schools and in 2004 required all schools receiving federal funds to fly the Australian flag.
Ausflag periodically campaigns for flag change in association with national events such as the 2000 Summer Olympics, and holds flag design competitions, while ANFA's activities include promotion of the existing flag through events such as National Flag Day. On Australia Day in 2018, Ausflag released an alternative design of the flag without the Union Jack, featuring a Commonwealth Star and Southern Cross. The date of the release was met with some backlash, which Harold Scruby, Ausflag's executive director called "the lowest form of censorship." Following the release, Malcolm Turnbull, then-prime minister and a former Ausflag director, told the group that the flag would never change, viewing it as an important symbol of Australian history.
A 2004 Newspoll that asked: "Are you personally in favour or against changing the Australian flag so as to remove the Union Jack emblem?" was supported by 32% of respondents and opposed by 57%, with 11% uncommitted. A 2010 Morgan Poll that asked: "Do you think Australia should have a new design for our National Flag?" was supported by 29% of respondents and opposed by 66%, with 5% uncommitted. A 2013 survey found that 95 per cent of surveyed adults stated that they took pride in the national flag, which was enjoying increasing popularity; half (50%) said they were extremely proud.
See also
Historical flags of the British Empire and the overseas territories
Flag of Fiji
Flag of New Zealand
Flag of Tuvalu
Flags depicting the Southern Cross
Notes
References
External links
Australian National Flag (Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet)
Review of Reviews for Australasia, 20 September 1901 – includes the Federal Flag Competition
Australia
Australia
National symbols of Australia
Australia
Australia
Southern Cross flags
1908 establishments in Australia
Flags that incorporate the Union Jack
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5094726
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattoo%20removal
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Tattoo removal
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Tattoo removal is the process of removing an unwanted tattoo. The process of tattooing generally creates permanent markings in the skin, but people have attempted many methods to try to hide or destroy tattoos.
The standard modern method is the non-invasive removal of tattoo pigment using Q-switched lasers. Different types of Q-switched lasers are used to target different colors of tattoo ink; depending on the specific light absorption spectra of the tattoo pigments. Typically, black and other darker-colored inks can be removed completely using Q-switched lasers, while lighter colors, such as yellows and greens, are very difficult to remove. Success depends on a wide variety of factors including skin color, ink color, and the depth at which the ink was applied.
Recent research has investigated the potential of multi-pass treatments and the use of picosecond laser technology.
Historical methods
Before tattoo removal with Q-switched lasers began in the early 1990s, continuous-wave lasers were the standard method for tattoo removal. Continuous-wave lasers used a high energy beam that ablated the target area and destroyed surrounding tissue structures as well as tattoo ink. Treatment tended to be painful and cause significant scarring.
Prior to the development of laser tattoo removal methods, common techniques included dermabrasion, TCA (Trichloroacetic acid, an acid that removes the top layers of skin, reaching as deep as the layer in which the tattoo ink resides), Sal abrasion (scrubbing the skin with salt), cryosurgery, and excision, which is sometimes still used along with skin grafts for larger tattoos. Many other methods for removing tattoos have been suggested historically, including the injection or application of tannic acid, lemon juice, garlic, and pigeon dung.
Motives
A poll conducted in January 2012 by Harris Interactive reported that 1 in 7 (14%) of the 21% of American adults who have a tattoo regret getting one. The poll did not report the reasons for these regrets, but a poll that was conducted four years prior reported that the most common reasons were "too young when I got the tattoo" (20%), "it's permanent," "I'm marked for life" (19%), and "I just don't like it" (18%). An earlier poll showed that 19% of Britons with tattoos experienced regret, as did 11% of Italians with tattoos.
Surveys of tattoo removal patients conducted in 1996 and 2006 provided more insight. Of those polled, the patients who regretted their tattoos typically obtained their tattoos in their late teens or early twenties and were evenly distributed by gender. Among those seeking removals, more than half reported that they "suffered embarrassment." A new job, problems with clothes, and a significant life event were also commonly cited as motivations.
Tattoos that were once a symbol of inclusion in a group, such as a gang, can make it difficult to gain employment.
Tattoos that indicate a significant relationship, such as a spouse, girlfriend, or boyfriend, can become problematic if the relationship ends. Celebrities that have had these kinds of tattoos removed include Angelina Jolie, Eva Longoria, Marc Anthony, and Denise Richards.
Removal by replacement
Some people decide to cover an unwanted tattoo with a new tattoo. A skillful cover-up may completely hide the old tattoo, or it may partially hide the old tattoo, depending on the size, style, colors and techniques used on the old tattoo and the skill of the tattoo artist.
Covering up a previous tattoo requires darker tones in the new tattoo to effectively hide the unwanted piece.
Many tattoos are too dark to cover up. In those cases, patients may receive laser tattoo removal to lighten the existing ink to make themselves better candidates for a cover up tattoo.
Laser removal
Tattoo removal is most commonly performed using lasers that break down the ink particles in the tattoo into smaller particles. Dermal macrophages are part of the immune system, tasked with collecting and digesting cellular debris. In the case of tattoo pigments, macrophages collect ink pigments, but have difficulty breaking them down. Instead, they store the ink pigments. If a macrophage is damaged, it releases its captive ink, which is taken up by other macrophages. This can make it particularly difficult to remove tattoos. When treatments break down ink particles into smaller pieces, macrophages can more easily remove them.
Tattoo pigments have specific light absorption spectra. A tattoo laser must be capable of emitting adequate energy within the given absorption spectrum of the pigment to provide an effective treatment. Certain tattoo pigments, such as yellows and fluorescent inks are more challenging to treat than darker blacks and blues, because they have absorption spectra that fall outside or on the edge of the emission spectra of the tattoo removal laser. Recent pastel-cultured inks contain high concentrations of titanium dioxide, which is highly reflective. Consequently, such inks are difficult to remove since they reflect a significant amount of the incident light energy out of the skin.
The gold standard of tattoo removal treatment modality is considered to be laser tattoo removal using multiple separate Q-switched lasers (depending on the specific wavelengths needed for the dyes involved) over a number of repeat visits. There are several types of Q-switched lasers, and each is effective at removing a different range of the color spectrum.
Lasers developed during or after 2006 provide multiple wavelengths and can successfully treat a much broader range of tattoo pigments than previous individual Q-switched lasers. Unfortunately the dye systems used to change the wavelength result in significant power reduction such that the use of multiple separate specific wavelength lasers remains the gold standard.
The energy density (fluence), expressed as joules/cm2, is determined prior to each treatment as well as the spot size and repetition rate (hertz). To mitigate pain the preferred method is simply to cool the area before and during treatment with a medical-grade chiller/cooler and to use a topical anesthetic. During the treatment process, the laser beam passes through the skin, targeting the ink resting in a liquid state within. While it is possible to see immediate results, in most cases the fading occurs gradually over the 7–8 week healing period between treatments.
Q-switched lasers are reported by the National Institutes of Health to result in scarring only rarely. Areas with thin skin will be more likely to scar than thicker-skinned areas.
By 2023, the laser tattoo removal market is expected to grow 12.7% annually.
Mechanism of laser action
Experimental observations of the effects of short-pulsed lasers on tattoos were first reported in the late 1960s by Leon Goldman and others.
In 1979 an argon laser was used for tattoo removal in 28 patients, with limited success. In 1978 a carbon dioxide laser was also used, but because it targeted water, a chromophore present in all cells, this type of laser generally caused scarring after treatments.
In the early 1980s, a new clinical study began in Canniesburn Hospital's Burns and Plastic Surgery Unit, in Glasgow, Scotland, into the effects of Q-switched ruby laser energy on blue/black tattoos. Further studies into other tattoo colors were then carried out with various degrees of success. Research at the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow also showed that there was no detectable mutagenicity in tissues following irradiation with the Q-switched ruby laser. This essentially shows that the treatment is safe, from a biological viewpoint, with no detectable increase in the risk of the development of cancerous cells.
It was not until the late 1980s that Q-switched lasers became commercially practical with the first marketed laser coming from Derma-lase Limited, Glasgow. One of the first American published articles describing laser tattoo removal was authored by a group at Massachusetts General Hospital in 1990.
Tattoos consist of thousands of particles of tattoo pigment suspended in the skin. While normal human growth and healing processes will remove small foreign particles from the skin, tattoo pigment particles are too big to be removed automatically. Laser treatment causes tattoo pigment particles to heat up and fragment into smaller pieces. These smaller pieces are then removed by normal body processes. Q-switched lasers produce bursts of infrared light at specific frequencies that target a particular spectrum of color in the tattoo ink. The laser passes through the upper layers of the skin to target a specific pigment in the lower layers.
Laser tattoo removal is a successful application of the theory of selective photothermolysis (SPTL). However, unlike treatments for blood vessels or hair, the mechanism required to shatter tattoo particles uses the photomechanical effect. In this situation the energy is absorbed by the ink particles in a very short time, typically nanoseconds. The surface temperature of the ink particles can rise to thousands of degrees but this energy profile rapidly collapses into a shock wave. This shock wave then propagates throughout the local tissue (the dermis) causing brittle structures to fragment. Hence tissues are largely unaffected since they simply vibrate as the shock wave passes. For laser tattoo removal the selective destruction of tattoo pigments depends on four factors:
The color of the light must penetrate sufficiently deep into the skin to reach the tattoo pigment. Pigments deeper in the skin are harder to remove than those near the surface.
The color of the laser light must be more highly absorbed by the tattoo pigment than the surrounding skin. Different tattoo pigments therefore require different laser colors. For example, red light is highly absorbed by green tattoo pigments, while yellow tends not to absorb light.
The time duration (pulse duration) of the laser energy must be very short, so that the tattoo pigment is heated to fragmentation temperature before its heat can dissipate to the surrounding skin. Otherwise, heating of the surrounding tissue can cause burns or scars. For laser tattoo removal, this duration should be on the order of nanoseconds.
Sufficient energy must be delivered during each laser pulse to heat the pigment to fragmentation. If the energy is too low, the pigment will not fragment and no removal will take place.
Q-switched lasers are the only commercially available devices that can meet these requirements.
Although they occur infrequently, mucosal tattoos can be successfully treated with Q-switched lasers as well.
A novel method for laser tattoo removal using a fractionated or Er:YAG laser, alone or in combination with Q-switched lasers, was reported by Ibrahimic and coworkers from the Wellman Center of Photomedicine at the Massachusetts General Hospital in 2011. This new approach to laser tattoo removal may afford the ability to remove colors such as yellow and white, which have proven to be resistant to traditional Q-switched laser therapy.
Laser parameters that affect results
Several colors of laser light (quantified by the laser wavelength) are used for tattoo removal, from visible light to near-infrared radiation. Different lasers are better for different tattoo colors. Consequently, multi-color tattoo removal almost always requires the use of two or more laser wavelengths. Tattoo removal lasers are usually identified by the lasing medium used to create the wavelength (measured in nanometers (nm)):
Q-switched Frequency-doubled Nd: YAG: 532 nm. This laser creates a green light which is highly absorbed by red, yellow, and orange targets. Useful primarily for red and orange tattoo pigments, this wavelength is also highly absorbed by melanin (the chemical which gives skin color or tan) which makes the laser wavelength effective for age spot or sun spot removal. Nd:YAG lasers may cause hemoglobin absorption, leading to purpura (collection of blood under tissue in large areas), pinpoint bleeding, or whitening of the skin.
Q-switched Ruby: 694 nm. This laser creates a red light which is highly absorbed by green and dark tattoo pigments. Because it is more highly absorbed by melanin this laser may produce undesirable side effects such as pigmentary changes for patients of all but white skin. This is the best wavelength for blue ink.
Q-switched Alexandrite: 755 nm. The weakest of all the q-switched devices and somewhat similar to the Ruby laser in that the Alexandrite creates a red light which is highly absorbed by green and dark tattoo pigments. However, the alexandrite laser color is slightly less absorbed by melanin, so this laser has a slightly lower incidence of unwanted pigmentary changes than a ruby laser. This laser works well on green tattoos, but because of its weaker peak power it works only moderately well on black and blue ink. It does not work at all (or very minimally) on red, orange, yellow, brown, etc. This laser wavelength is also available in a picosecond speed with anecdotal claims that it removes ink faster.
Q-switched Nd:YAG: 1064 nm. This laser creates a near-infrared light (invisible to humans) which is poorly absorbed by melanin, making this the only laser suitable for darker skin. This laser wavelength is also absorbed by all dark tattoo pigments and is the safest wavelength to use on the tissue due to the low melanin absorption and low hemoglobin absorption. This is the wavelength of choice for tattoo removal in darker skin types and for black ink.
Dye modules are available for some lasers to convert 532 nm to 650 nm or 585 nm light which allows one laser system to safely and effectively treat multi-color tattoo inks. When dye modules take 532 nm laser wavelength and change it, there is a loss of energy. Treatments with dye packs, while effective for the first few treatments, many not be able to clear these ink colors fully. The role of dye lasers in tattoo removal is discussed in detail in the literature.
Pulse width or pulse duration is a critical laser parameter. All Q-switched lasers have appropriate pulse durations for tattoo removal.
Spot size, or the width of the laser beam, affects treatment. Light is optically scattered in the skin, like automobile headlights in fog. Larger spot sizes slightly increase the effective penetration depth of the laser light, thus enabling more effective targeting of deeper tattoo pigments. Larger spot sizes also help make treatments faster.
Fluence or energy density is another important consideration. Fluence is measured in joules per square centimeter (J/cm2). It is important to be treated at high enough settings to fragment tattoo particles.
Repetition rate helps make treatments faster but is not associated with any treatment effect. Faster treatments are usually preferred because the pain ends sooner.
Number of laser tattoo removal treatment sessions needed
The number of treatments necessary to remove a tattoo via laser can be predicted by the Kirby-Desai Scale. The number of sessions depends on various parameters, including the area of the body treated, skin color, ink color present, scarring, and amount of ink present. Effectiveness of the immune system may play a role as well.
Complete laser tattoo removal requires numerous treatment sessions, typically spaced at eight weeks or more apart. Treating more frequently than eight weeks increases the risk of adverse effects and does not necessarily increase the rate of ink absorption. Anecdotal reports of treatments sessions at four weeks leads to more scarring and dyschromia and can be a source of liability for clinicians. At each session, some but not all of the tattoo pigment particles are effectively fragmented, and the body removes the smallest fragments over the course of several weeks or months. The result is that the tattoo is lightened over time. Remaining large particles of tattoo pigment are then targeted at subsequent treatment sessions, causing further lightening. Tattoos located on the extremities, such as the ankle, generally take longest. As tattoos fade clinicians may recommend that patients wait many months between treatments to facilitate ink resolution and minimize unwanted side effects.
Certain colors have proved more difficult to remove than others. In particular, this occurs when treated with the wrong wavelength of laser light is used. Some have postulated that the reason for slow resolution of green ink in particular is due to its significantly smaller molecular size relative to the other colors. Consequently, green ink tattoos may require treatment with 755 nm light but may also respond to 694 nm, 650 nm and 1064 nm. Multiple wavelengths of light may be needed to remove colored inks.
One small Greek study showed that the R20 method—four passes with the laser, twenty minutes apart—caused more breaking up of the ink than the conventional method without more scarring or adverse effects. However, this study was performed on a very small patient population (12 patients total), using the weakest of the QS lasers, the 755 nm Alexandrite laser. One of the other main problems with this study was the fact that more than half of the 18 tattoos removed were not professional and amateur tattoos are always easier to remove. Proof of concept studies are underway, but many laser experts advise against the R20 method using the more modern and powerful tattoo removal lasers available at most offices as an increase in adverse side effects including scarring and dyschromia is likely. Patients should inquire about the laser being used if the R20 treatment method is offered by a facility as it is usually only offered by clinics that are using the 755 nm Alexandrite as opposed to the more powerful and versatile devices that are more commonly used. Moreover, dermatologists offering the R20 method should inform patients that it is just one alternative to proven protocols and is not a gold standard treatment method to remove tattoos.
Multiple pass treatment methods (R20, as mentioned above, and R0) have generally shown to carry a greater risk of side effects, due to the increased amount of energy used in treatment. One caveat to this, however, is incorporating a perfluorodecalin (PFD) patch into the protocol. A PFD patch utilizes a clear silicone gel patch, with a small amount of PFD liquid applied to the treatment area immediately before each pass of laser application, and conducting the passes in rapid succession. The combination of the patch and liquid reduce the epidermal scatter, which can limit the predicted side effects typically seen in aggressive laser tattoo removal treatments (hyper and hypopigmentation, blistering, etc.). Additionally, the liquid reduces the laser frosting very quickly, allowing for faster re-treatment, limiting the time of treatment while still improving efficacy. Early studies have been performed to indicate improved clearance with the use of this patch in 3-4 passes, in a single session, utilizing more energy than typically allowable with a traditional treatment methodology. All these physical properties of the patch work to substantially reduce the total number of laser treatments required for ink clearance. While the PFD patch is currently FDA cleared for use with all picot and nanosecond domain lasers and wavelengths, it is only cleared for Fitzpatrick Skin Types I-III. Early studies have shown anecdotally that there isn't necessarily increased risks with Fitzpatrick Skin Types IV-VI, though still not FDA cleared as an indication.
Factors contributing to the success of laser tattoo removal
There are a number of factors that determine how many treatments will be needed and the level of success one might experience. Age of tattoo, ink density, color and even where the tattoo is located on the body, and whether the tattoo was professional, or not, all play an important role in how many treatments will be needed for complete removal. However, a rarely recognized factor of tattoo removal is the role of the patient's immune response. The normal process of tattoo removal is fragmentation followed by phagocytosis, which is then drained away via the lymphatics. Consequently, it is the inflammation resulting from the actual laser treatment and the natural stimulation of the hosts’ immune response that ultimately results in removal of tattoo ink. Because of this, the effectiveness of laser tattoo removal varies widely.
Pain management during treatment
Laser tattoo removal is painful; many patients say it is worse than getting the tattoo. The pain is often described to be similar to that of hot oil on the skin, or a "snap" from an elastic band. Depending on the patient's pain threshold, some patients may forgo anesthesia altogether, but most patients will require some form of local anesthesia. Pre-treatment might include the application of an anesthetic cream under occlusion for 45 to 90 minutes or cooling by ice or cold air prior to the laser treatment session. A better method is complete anesthesia which can be administered locally by injections of 1% to 2% lidocaine with epinephrine.
A technique which helps to reduce the pain sensation felt by patients has been described by MJ Murphy. He used a standard microscope glass slide pressed against the tattooed skin and fired the laser through the glass. This technique may represent a simplest and effective method to reduce the pain sensation when treating small tattoos.
Post-treatment considerations
Immediately after laser treatment, a slightly elevated, white discoloration with or without the presence of punctuate bleeding is often observed. This white color change is thought to be the result of rapid, heat-formed steam or gas, causing dermal and epidermal vacuolization. Pinpoint bleeding represents vascular injury from photoacoustic waves created by the laser's interaction with tattoo pigment. Minimal edema and erythema of adjacent normal skin usually resolve within 24 hours. Subsequently, a crust appears over the entire tattoo, which sloughs off at approximately two weeks post-treatment. As noted above, some tattoo pigment may be found within this crust. Post-operative wound care consists of simple wound care and a non-occlusive dressing. Since the application of laser light is sterile there is no need for topical antibiotics. Moreover, topical antibiotic ointments can cause allergic reactions and should be avoided. Fading of the tattoo will be noted over the next eight weeks and re-treatment energy levels can be tailored depending on the clinical response observed.
Side effects and complications
About half of the patients treated with Q-switched lasers for tattoo removal will show some transient changes in the normal skin pigmentation. These changes usually resolve in 6 to 12 months but may rarely be permanent.
Hyperpigmentation is related to the patient's skin tone, with skin types IV, V and VI more prone regardless of the wavelength used. Twice daily treatment with hydroquinones and broad-spectrum sunscreens usually resolves the hyperpigmentation within a few months, although, in some patients, resolution can be prolonged.
Hypopigmentation is more commonly observed in darker skin tones. It is more likely to occur with higher fluence and more frequent treatments. Sometimes lighter skin exhibits hypopigmentation after a series of treatments. Allowing more time between treatments reduces chances of hypopigmentation. Since it is more likely to see hypopigmentation after multiple treatments, some practitioners suggest waiting a few additional weeks, after a few sessions. Usually treatment stops until hypopigmentation resolves in a matter of months.
Transient textural changes are occasionally noted but often resolve within a few months; however, permanent textural changes and scarring very rarely occur. If a patient is prone to pigmentary or textural changes, longer treatment intervals are recommended. Additionally, if a blister or crust forms following treatment, it is imperative that the patient does not manipulate this secondary skin change. Early removal of a blister or crust increases the chances of developing a scar. Additionally, patients with a history of hypertrophic or keloidal scarring need to be warned of their increased risk of scarring.
Local allergic responses to many tattoo pigments have been reported, and allergic reactions to tattoo pigment after Q-switched laser treatment are also possible. Rarely, when yellow cadmium sulfide is used to "brighten" the red or yellow portion of a tattoo, a photoallergic reaction may occur. The reaction is also common with red ink, which may contain cinnabar (mercuric supplied). Erythema, pruritus, and even inflamed nodules, verrucose papules, or granulomas may develop. The reaction will be confined to the site of the red/yellow ink. Treatment consists of strict sunlight avoidance, sunscreen, interlesional steroid injections, or in some cases, surgical removal. Unlike the destructive modalities described, Q-switched lasers mobilize the ink and may generate a systemic allergic response. Oral antihistamines and anti-inflammatory steroids have been used to treat allergic reactions to tattoo ink.
Studies of various tattoo pigments have shown that a number of pigments (most containing iron oxide or titanium dioxide) change color when irradiated with Q-switched laser energy. Some tattoo colors including flesh tones, light red, white, peach and light brown containing pigments as well as some green and blue tattoo pigments, changed to black when irradiated with Q-switched laser pulses. The resulting gray-black color may require more treatments to remove. If tattoo darkening does occur, after 8 weeks the newly darkened tattoo can be treated as if it were black pigment.
Very rarely, non Q-switched laser treatments, like or Argon lasers, which are very rarely offered these days, can rupture blood vessels and aerosolize tissue requiring a plastic shield or a cone device to protect the laser operator from tissue and blood contact. Protective eyewear may be worn if the laser operator chooses to do so.
With the mechanical or salabrasion method of tattoo removal, the incidence of scarring, pigmentary alteration (hyper- and hypopigmentation), and ink retention are extremely high.
The use of Q-switched lasers could very rarely produce the development of large bulla. However, if patients follow post care directions to elevate, rest, and apply intermittent icing, it should minimize the chances of bulla and other adverse effects. In addition, health care practitioners should contemplate the use of a cooling device during the tattoo removal procedure. While the infrequent bulla development is a possible side effect of Q-switched laser tattoo removal, if treated appropriately and quickly by the health care practitioner, it is unlikely that long term consequences would ensue.
Risks
Although laser treatment is well known and often used to remove tattoos, unwanted side effects of laser tattoo removal include the possibility of discoloration of the skin such as hypopigmentation (white spots, more common in darker skin) and hyperpigmentation (dark spots) as well as textural changes - these changes are usually not permanent when the Nd:YAG is used but it is much more likely with the use of the 755 nm Alexandrite, the 694 nm Ruby and the R20 method. Very rarely, burns may result in scarring, but this usually only occurs when patients do not properly care for the treated area. Occasionally, "paradoxical darkening" of a tattoo may occur when a treated tattoo becomes darker instead of lighter. This often occurs with white ink, flesh tones, pink, and cosmetic makeup tattoos.
Some commercially available tattoo inks may contain organic pigments, also known as azo dyes. When these pigments are broken down via laser pyrolysis, the potential release of aromatic amine rings, a known carcinogen, into the body, could occur. This effect is theorized not to be isolated only to laser tattoo removal, but may also occur with solar radiation.
Laser removal of traumatic tattoos may be dangerous depending on the substance of the material embedded in the skin. In one reported instance, the use of a laser resulted in the ignition of embedded particles of firework debris.
References
Notes
Further reading
Kirby, W. (2013) Lasers and Energy Devices for the Skin (Second Edition) Chapter 4: "Tattoo Removal". Ed. Goldman, Fizpatrick, Ross, Kilmer. CRC Press. pp. 74–93. ASIN: 1841849332.
Kirby, W., Kartono, F., Desai, A., Kaur, R. & Desai, T. (January 2010) "Treatment of Large Bulla Formation after Tattoo Removal with a Q-Switched Laser", Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology
Kirby, W., Kartono, F. & Small, R.(September 2011). "Chapter 30: Tattoo Removal with Lasers". Dermatologic and Cosmetic Procedures in Office Practice. Elsevier. pp: 367–376.
Vartanian, Varci (July 1, 2012) "Your Permanent Record? The Scoop on Tattoo Removal - Discussion with Dr. Kirby", The Daily Muse
Wysong, P. (August 16, 2011) "Tattoo Removal Comes Of Age - An Expert Interview With Dr. William Kirby and Dr. Rady Rahban", Medscape
External links
How Tattoo Removal Works
Dermatologic procedures
Laser medicine
Tattooing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond%20valence%20method
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Bond valence method
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The bond valence method or mean method (or bond valence sum) (not to be mistaken for the valence bond theory in quantum chemistry) is a popular method in coordination chemistry to estimate the oxidation states of atoms. It is derived from the bond valence model, which is a simple yet robust model for validating chemical structures with localized bonds or used to predict some of their properties. This model is a development of Pauling's rules.
Method
The basic method is that the valence V of an atom is the sum of the individual bond valences vi surrounding the atom:
The individual bond valences in turn are calculated from the observed bond lengths.
Ri is the observed bond length, R0 is a tabulated parameter expressing the (ideal) bond length when the element i has exactly valence 1, and b is an empirical constant, typically 0.37 Å.
Another formula for has also been used:
Theory
Introduction
Although the bond valence model is mostly used for validating newly determined structures, it is capable of predicting many of the properties of those chemical structures that can be described by localized bonds
In the bond valence model, the valence of an atom, V, is defined as the number of electrons the atom uses for bonding. This is equal to the number of electrons in its valence shell if all the valence shell electrons are used for bonding. If they are not, the remainder will form non-bonding electron pairs, usually known as lone pairs.
The valence of a bond, S, is defined as the number of electron pairs forming the bond. In general this is not an integral number. Since each of the terminal atoms contributes equal numbers of electrons to the bond, the bond valence is also equal to the number of valence electrons that each atom contributes. Further, since within each atom, the negatively charged valence shell is linked to the positively charged core by an electrostatic flux that is equal to the charge on the valence shell, it follows that the bond valence is also equal to the electrostatic flux that links the core to the electrons forming the bond. The bond valence is thus equal to three different quantities: the number of electrons each atom contributes to the bond, the number of electron pairs that form the bond, and the electrostatic flux linking each core to the bonding electron pair.
The valence sum rule
It follows from these definitions, that the valence of an atom is equal to the sum of the valences of all the bonds it forms. This is known as the valence sum rule, Eq. 1, which is central to the bond valence model.
(Eq. 1)
A bond is formed when the valence shells of two atoms overlap. It is apparent that the closer two atoms approach each other, the larger the overlap region and the more electrons are associated with the bond. We therefore expect a correlation between the bond valence and the bond length and find empirically that for most bonds it can be described by Eq. 2:
(Eq. 2)
where S is the valence and R is the length of the bond, and Ro and b are parameters that are empirically determined for each bond type. For many bond types (but not all), b is found to be close to 0.37 Å. A list of bond valence parameters for different bond types (i.e. for different pairs of cation and anion in given oxidation states) can be found at the web site. It is this empirical relation that links the formal theorems of the bond valence model to the real world and allows the bond valence model to be used to predict the real structure, geometry and properties of a compound.
If the structure of a compound is known, the empirical bond valence - bond length correlation of Eq. 2 can be used to estimate the bond valences from their observed bond lengths. Eq. 1 can then be used to check that the structure is chemically valid; any deviation between the atomic valence and the bond valence sum needs to be accounted for.
The distortion theorem
Eq. 2 is used to derive the distortion theorem which states that the more the individual bond lengths in a coordination sphere deviate from their average, the more the average bond length increases provided the valence sum is kept constant. Alternatively if the average bond length is kept constant, the more the bond valence sum increases
The valence matching rule
If the structure is not known, the average bond valence, Sa can be calculated from the atomic valence, V, if the coordination number, N, of the atom is known using Eq. 3.
(Eq. 3)
If the coordination number is not known, a typical coordination number for the atom can be used instead. Some atoms, such as sulfur(VI), are only found with one coordination number with oxygen, in this case 4, but others, such as sodium, are found with a range of coordination numbers, though most lie close to the average, which for sodium is 6.2. In the absence of any better information, the average coordination number observed with oxygen is a convenient approximation, and when this number is used in Eq. 3, the resulting average bond valence is known as the bonding strength of the atom.
Since the bonding strength of an atom is the valence expected for a bond formed by that atom, it follows that the most stable bonds will be formed between atoms with the same bonding strengths. In practice some tolerance is allowed, but bonds are rarely formed if the ratio of the bonding strengths of the two atoms exceeds two, a condition expressed by the inequality shown in Eq. 4. This is known and the valence matching rule.
(Eq. 4)
Atoms with non-bonding valence electrons, i.e., with lone pairs, have more flexibility in their bonding strength than those without lone pairs depending on whether the lone pairs are stereoactive or not. If the lone pairs are not stereoactive, they are spread uniformly around the valence shell, if they are stereoactive they are concentrated in one portion of the coordination sphere preventing that portion from forming bonds. This results in the atom having a smaller coordination number, hence a higher bonding strength, when the lone pair is stereoactive. Ions with lone pairs have a greater ability to adapt their bonding strength to match that of the counter-ion. The lone pairs become stereoactive when the bonding strength of the counter-ion exceeds twice the bonding strength of the ion when its lone pairs are inactive.
Compounds that do not satisfy Eq. 4 are difficult, if not impossible, to prepare, and chemical reactions tend to favour the compounds that provide the best valence match. For example, the aqueous solubility of a compound depends on whether its ions are better matched to water than they are to each other.
Electronegativity
Several factors influence the coordination number of an atom, but the most important of these is its size; larger atoms have larger coordination numbers. The coordination number depends on the surface area of the atom, and so is proportional to r2. If VE is the charge on the atomic core (which is the same as the valence of the atom when all the electrons in the valence shell are bonding), and NE is the corresponding average coordination number, VE/NE is proportional to the electric field at the surface of the core, represented by SE in Eq. 5:
(Eq. 5)
Not surprisingly, SE gives the same ordering of the main group elements as the electronegativity, though it differs in its numerical value from traditional electronegativity scales. Because it is defined in structural terms, SE is the preferred measure of electronegativity in the bond valence model,
The ionic model
The bond valence model can be reduced to the traditional ionic model if certain conditions are satisfied. These conditions require that atoms be divided into cations and anions in such a way that (a) the electronegativity of every anion is equal to, or greater than, the electronegativity of any of the cations, (b) that the structure is electroneutral when the ions carry charges equal to their valence, and (c) that all the bonds have a cation at one end and an anion at the other. If these conditions are satisfied, as they are in many ionic and covalent compounds, the electrons forming a bond can all be formally assigned to the anion. The anion thus acquires a formal negative charge and the cation a formal positive charge, which is the picture on which the ionic model is based. The electrostatic flux that links the cation core to its bonding electrons now links the cation core to the anion. In this picture, a cation and anion are bonded to each other if they are linked by electrostatic flux, with the flux being equal to the valence of the bond. In a representative set of compounds Preiser et al. have confirmed that the electrostatic flux is the same as the bond valence determined from the bond lengths using Eq. 2.
The association of the cation bonding electrons with the anion in the ionic model is purely formal. There is no change in physical locations of any electrons, and there is no change in the bond valence. The terms "anion" and "cation" in the bond valence model are defined in terms of the bond topology, not the chemical properties of the atoms. This extends the scope of the ionic model well beyond compounds in which the bonding would normally be considered as "ionic". For example, methane, CH4, obeys the conditions for the ionic model with carbon as the cation and hydrogen as the anion (or vice versa, since carbon and hydrogen have the same electronegativity).
For compounds that contain cation-cation or anion-anion bonds it is usually possible to transform these homoionic bonds into cation-anion bonds either by treating the atoms linked by the homoionic bond as a single complex cation (e.g., Hg22+), or by treating the bonding electrons in the homoionic bond as a pseudo-anion to transform a cation-cation bond into two cation - pseudo-anion bonds, e.g., Hg2+-e2−-Hg2+.
The covalent model
Structures containing covalent bonds can be treated using the ionic model providing they satisfy the topological conditions given above, but a special situation applies to hydrocarbons which allows the bond valence model to be reduced to the traditional bond model of organic chemistry. If an atom has a valence, V, that is equal to its coordination number, N, its bonding strength according to Eq. 3 is exactly 1.0 vu (valence units), a condition that greatly simplifies the model. This condition is obeyed by carbon, hydrogen and silicon. Since these atoms all have bonding strengths of 1.0 vu the bonds between them are all predicted to have integral valences with carbon forming four single bonds and hydrogen one. Under these conditions, the bonds are all single bonds (or multiples of single bonds). Compounds can be constructed by linking carbon and hydrogen atoms with bonds that are all exactly equivalent. Under certain conditions, nitrogen can form three bonds and oxygen two, but since nitrogen and oxygen typically also form hydrogen bonds, the resulting N-H and O-H bonds have valences less than 1.0 vu, leading through the application of Eq. 1, to the C-C and C-H bonds having valences that differ from 1.0 vu. Nevertheless, the simple bonding rules of organic chemistry are still good approximations, though the rules of the bond valence model are better.
Predicting bonding geometry
A chemical structure can be represented by a bond network of the kind familiar in molecular diagrams. The infinitely connected bond networks found in crystals can be simplified into finite networks by extracting one formula unit and reconnecting any broken bonds to each other. If the bond network is not known, a plausible network can be created by connecting well matched cations and anions that satisfy Eq. 4. If the finite network contains only cation-anion bonds, every bond can be treated as an electric capacitor (two equal and opposite charges linked by electrostatic flux). The bond network is thus equivalent to a capacitive electrical circuit with the charge on each capacitor being equivalent to the bond valence. The individual bond capacitors are not initially known, but in the absence of any information to the contrary we assume that they are all equal. In this case the circuit can be solved using the Kirchhoff equations, yielding the valences of each bond. Eq. 2 can then be used to calculate bond lengths which are found to lie within a few picometres of the observed bond lengths if no additional constraints are present. Additional constraints include electronic anisotropies (lone pairs and Jahn-Teller distortions) or steric constraints, (bonds stretched or compressed in order to fit them into three-dimensional space). Hydrogen bonds are an example of a steric constraint. The repulsion resulting from the close approach of the donor and acceptor atoms causes the bonds to be stretched, and under this constraint the distortion theorem predicts that the hydrogen atom will move off-center.
The bond valence is a vector directed along the bond since it represents the electrostatic field linking the ions. If the atom is unconstrained, the sum of the bond valence vectors around an atom is expected to be zero, a condition that limits the range of possible bond angles.
Strengths and limitations of the model
The bond valence model is an extension of the electron counting rules and its strength lies in its simplicity and robustness. Unlike most models of chemical bonding, it does not require a prior knowledge of the atomic positions and so can be used to construct chemically plausible structures given only the composition. The empirical parameters of the model are tabulated and are readily transferable between bonds of the same type. The concepts used are familiar to chemists and provide ready insight into the chemical restraints acting on the structure. The bond valence model uses mostly classical physics, and with little more than a pocket calculator, it gives quantitative predictions of bond lengths and places limits on what structures can be formed.
However, like all models, the bond valence model has its limitations. It is restricted to compounds with localized bonds; it does not, in general, apply to metals or aromatic compounds where the electrons are delocalized. It cannot in principle predict electron density distributions or energies since these require the solution of the Schoedinger equation using the long-range Coulomb potential which is incompatible with the concept of a localized bond.
History
The bond valence method is a development of Pauling's rules. In 1930, Lawrence Bragg showed that Pauling's electrostatic valence rule could be represented by electrostatic lines of force emanating from cations in proportion to the cation charge and ending on anions. The lines of force are divided equally between the bonds to the corners of the coordination polyhedron.
Starting with Pauling in 1947 a correlation between cation–anion bond length and bond strength was noted. It was shown later that if bond lengths were included in the calculation of bond strength, its accuracy was improved, and this revised method of calculation was termed the bond valence. These new insights were developed by later workers culminating in the set of rules termed the bond valence model.
Actinide oxides
It is possible by bond valence calculations to estimate how great a contribution a given oxygen atom is making to the assumed valence of uranium. Zachariasen lists the parameters to allow such calculations to be done for many of the actinides. Bond valence calculations use parameters which are estimated after examining a large number of crystal structures of uranium oxides (and related uranium compounds); note that the oxidation states which this method provides are only a guide which assists in the understanding of a crystal structure.
For uranium binding to oxygen the constants R0 and B are tabulated in the table below. For each oxidation state use the parameters from the table shown below.
Doing the calculations
It is possible to do these simple calculations on paper or to use software. A program which does it can be obtained free of charge. In 2020 David Brown published a nearly comprehensive set of bond valence parameters on the IuCr web site.
References
Chemical bonding
Coordination chemistry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst%20Th%C3%A4lmann%20%28film%29
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Ernst Thälmann (film)
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Ernst Thälmann is an East German film in two parts about the life of Ernst Thälmann, leader of the Communist Party of Germany during much of the Weimar Republic, directed by Kurt Maetzig and starring Günther Simon in the title role. The first part, Ernst Thälmann - Sohn seiner Klasse (Son of his Class), was released in 1954. It was followed by the 1955 sequel. Ernst Thälmann - Führer seiner Klasse (Leader of his Class).
Plot
Ernst Thälmann - Son of his Class
After fellow soldier Johannes Harms reports that a revolution has broken out at home, Thälmann - who leads a revolutionary cell on the Western Front - and his friend Fiete Jansen rebel against their officers, Zinker and Quadde, and desert. Harms dies in a shelling. In Berlin, the American capitalist Mr. McFuller demands to crush the Spartacists. Zinker, now a member of the Freikorps, murders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg. Thälmann hears of it and promises their sacrifice will not be in vain. Jansen falls in love with Harms' daughter, Änne.
When Hamburg faces an attack by Zinker's forces, as part of the Kapp Putsch, the workers organize a general strike; after laborers are shot by the rebels, Thälmann ignores the bourgeoisie Social Democrats who reject violence, ambushes the Freikorps and captures their officers. The Social Democrat Police Senator Höhn frees them after they lightheartedly promise not to use violence.
Thälmann makes a speech in the USPD congress, calling to unite with the KPD, when the Soviet steamship Karl Liebknecht, loaded with wheat for the city's unemployed, reaches the port. Höhn sends Quadde, now a police captain, to prevent the distribution of the cargo, but after a stand-off the police retreat. Thälmann visits Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin in Moscow with other German communists.
Thälmann and his friends organize a communist uprising in Hamburg, and manage to hold out against the Reichswehr and the police. Jansen killes Zinker. Then, a delegate from the Central Committee announces that armed struggle is no longer the policy of the party, and the weapons promised to them by the leadership will not arrive. The communists are forced to flee. Jansen is sentenced to death, but eventually his life is spared. Thälmann appears in the Hamburg harbor and promises not to abandon the struggle.
Ernst Thälmann - Leader of his Class
In 1930, Fiete Jansen is released from jail and is reunited with his wife, Änne. Thälmann, now a member of the Reichstag and chief of the KPD, assists the coal miners in the Ruhr to organize a massive strike after their wages are cut. When the presidential elections take place, veteran SPD member Robert Dirhagen is reluctant to support Paul von Hindenburg, although this is the party line. Thälmann calls for class unity against the Nazis, but the SPD leaders do not want to collaborate with him.
In the elections for parliament, the KPD gains many seats and the Nazis lose two million votes. However, the Ruhr industrialists and Mr. McFuller support Adolf Hitler. Dirhagen is enraged to hear that the SPD will not oppose Franz von Papen's decision to allow Hitler into the government and tears his party card. The Nazis seize power.
The Nazis burn the Reichstag and accuse the communists, arresting many, including Thälmann and Dirhagen. Wilhelm Pieck and Jansen plan to rescue their leader with the aid of an Orpo jailer, but the SS guards - commanded by Quadde, now a SS Sturmbannführer - foil the plot. Fiete escapes abroad, joining the Thälmann Battalion in Spain, and later - after the Second World War begins - the Red Army's 143rd Guards Tank Division 'Ernst Thälmann'. Änne is arrested by the Gestapo. Hamburg is bombed, and she dies in her cell.
In August 1944, a German corps is encircled by the Red Army. Hitler orders its commanders to fight to the end. The Soviets send in Jansen with a group of German communists to convince the soldiers to defy the SS and surrender. Eventually, the Ernst Thälmann Division soldiers break through the German lines, liberate the local concentration camp - in which Dirwagen was held - and accept the German surrender after the SS were overpowered by Jansen's men. The communist Jansen and the Social Democrat Dirhagen shake hands. In Berlin, Thälmann leaves his cell to be executed, while contemplating on Pavel Korchagin's words from How the Steel Was Tempered: "...All my life, all my strength were given to the finest cause in all the world - the fight for the liberation of mankind."
Cast
Günther Simon as Ernst Thälmann
Hans-Peter Minetti as Fiete Jansen
Erich Franz as Arthur Vierbreiter
Erika Dunkelmann as Martha Vierbreiter
Wolf Kaiser as Zinker
Werner Peters as Gottlieb Quadde
Nikolai Kryuchkov as Soviet colonel
Michel Piccoli as Maurice Rouger
Siegfried Weiss as industrialist
Fritz Diez as Adolf Hitler
Fred Delmare as soldier
Hannjo Hasse as army officer
Horst Kube as concentration camp commandant
Angela Brunner as Irma Thälmann
Arthur Pieck as Wilhelm Pieck (part 1)
Hans Wehrl as Wilhelm Pieck (part 2)
Karl Brenk as Walter Ulbricht
Gerd Wehr as Wilhelm Florin
Karl Weber as Friedrich Ebert
Martin Flörchinger as Karl Liebknecht (part 1)/Saarland delegate (part 2)
Judith Harms as Rosa Luxemburg
Kurt Wetzel as army officer (part 1)/Hermann Göring (part 2)
Hans Stuhrmann as Joseph Goebbels
Eberhard Kratz as Fritz Tarnow
Erich Brauer as Carl Severing
Peter Schorn as Vladimir Lenin
Gerd Jäger as Joseph Stalin (scenes removed)
Steffie Spira as Clara Zetkin
Joe Münch-Harris as Gustav Noske
Hans Flössel as Philipp Scheidemann
Karl-Eugen Lenkerring as Gustav Stresemann
Fred Kötteritzsch as Franz von Papen
Will van Deeg as Heinrich Himmler
Georges Stanescu as Georgi Dimitrov
Theo Shall as judge (part 1)/Marcel Cachin (part 2)
Hubert Temming as Jacques Duclos
Karl Heinz Weiss as Maurice Thorez
Carla Hoffmann as Rosa Thälmann
Production
Background
Ernst Thälmann, the Communist Party of Germany's chief who was executed by the Nazi regime in 1944 after spending 11 years in prison, was revered as a national hero and a martyr in the nascent East Germany. Thälmann's character combined communist convictions with an uncompromising struggle against Fascism; in a broader sense, he served as part of what author Russell Lemmons referred to as East Germany's "foundation myth": the belief that the communists were the most authentic anti-fascists, and therefore, their successors in the Socialist Unity Party of Germany were the legitimate leaders of a new German state. Thälmann became the center of what many historians saw as a cult of personality. This veneration required all controversial aspects of his political career be repressed from mass consciousness. Journalist Erich Wollenberg wrote that in the Ernst Thälmann films, "the Thälmann cult reached its apotheosis."
Inception
The film was conceived in 1948, after the Soviet Occupation Zone's provisional authorities and the leadership of the SED commissioned it; according to director Kurt Maetzig, "it was handed down from above". Willi Bredel and Michael Tschesno-Hell, both political functionaries, were exempted from all their other duties to concentrate on writing the script. A 'Thälmann Committee' was convened to direct the production of the film; its members included representatives from the Ministry of Culture, the Ministry of Press and Agitation, the DEFA studio, and Thälmann's widow, Rosa, although she was removed in 1949. The committee held its first meeting on 8 October 1948. At the third meeting, on the 27th, the members decided that portraying Thälmann's entire life would make the film too cumbersome, agreeing it should concentrate only on the important historical events. The resolution also stated that the plot should focus on meetings between Thälmann and small groups of people, who would be seen embracing Socialism after being convinced by "the radiance of his personality". At the fourth meeting, it was suggested to begin the plot only in 1931 and stress Thälmann's part in the 1932 public transportation strike; yet member Otto Winzer pointed out that in order to appeal to the youth, the picture should deal with the protagonist's earlier years.
Development
Bredel and Tschesno-Hell completed the first draft of the script in early 1951. The plot began with the four-year-old Ernst shoving socialist pamphlets in his trousers to hide them from the police officers who raided his father's tavern, where an illegal meeting of the SPD took place. It also featured his childhood and youth with his parents, his falling in love with the young Rosa Koch and his years as a simple worker who turned to communism.
DEFA concluded that Bredel's and Tschesno-Hell's script would require splitting the film into three parts. This was deemed to long by the committee. After a year of deliberations, most of the original screenplay was rejected. In January 1951, it was decided to have a two-part picture, the first dealing with the time from the end of World War I to 1930, and the second taking off in 1932 and continuing until the founding of the German Democratic Republic. The two parts were named Ernst Thälmann - Sohn des Volkes and Ernst Thälmann - Führer des Volkes (son and leader of the people, respectively). The titles were later changed to Sohn and Führer seiner Klasse.
The political establishment had closely monitored the work. According to historian René Börrner, "no other film, in the years before or after, received such attention from the SED". On 21 August 1951, Walter Ulbricht sent the committee a letter in which he requested that a meeting between Thälmann and Joseph Stalin would be portrayed.
There were other political concerns, as well. Under the influence of events in the Soviet Union, the Ministry of Culture accused the DEFA filmmakers of taking up a Formalistic approach, and demanded they reject it and adopt a Socialist realist line. During 1952, Bredel's and Tschesno-Hell's script was again subject to revisions and had to be rewritten. In July, State Secretary of Press and Agitation Hermann Axen told the Thälmann committee that the main problem to be solved was "The authors' primitive depiction of Thälmann", which failed to present his "grand revolutionary instinct". Later, committee member Hermann Lauter demanded the inclusion of historical events that had no direct connection with Thälmann's life, such as the October Revolution.
Approval
During late 1952, the writers accepted most of the demands. Their final draft was approved by the managerial committee and the Ministry of Culture only on 13 March 1953. The work on the screenplay of Leader of his Class began in summer 1953. Russel Lemmons claimed that this time, the writers "knew what was expected of them". The script was completed on 8 September, and later accepted with only minor changes.
A demonstration of the materials to the first film was held for the State Committee of Cinema on 17 November. The chief of the Soviet commission in East Germany, Vladimir Semyonov, and director Sergei Gerasimov were present as well. Semionov personally made an adjustment to the script; he requested that a scene in which Thälmann appeared to be concerning doubt would be removed, since it was not in accordance with the principles of the proletarian struggle. In general, however, he approved of the presentation; the script also introduced elements fitting the atmosphere of the Cold War, in the form of the films' main villain, the American capitalist Mr. McFuller.
The final version was modeled after Mikheil Chiaureli's 1946 film The Vow and his 1950 The Fall of Berlin, with a color scheme dominated by red. In early 1954, two years after the original deadline, Son of his Class was ready for screening. After the release of the first part, the principal photography of the second was carried out in the summer of 1954. As many as 150 servicemen of the Barracked People's Police were daily used throughout the shooting in the roles of extras.
Reception
Contemporary response
Ernst Thälmann - Son of his Class premiered in the Friedrichstadt Palast, on 9 March 1954; over 3,000 people attended, including Wilhelm Pieck and Walter Ulbricht. In a speech he carried after the screening, Pieck called the film a "message to all peace-loving Germans, especially our youth". The picture was distributed in eighty prints. It was the first film ever to be released simultaneously in East and West Germany, after the 1954 Berlin Conference brought about a temporary rapprochement between the two states.
The first part was excessively promoted by the press; not infrequently, tickets were handed out without charge, and mandatory screenings were held in collective farms and for school children. Within 13 weeks of its release, Son of his Class was viewed by 3.6 million people. Director Kurt Maetzig, Willi Bredel, Michael Tschesno-Hell, cinematographer Karl Plintzner and actor Günther Simon were all awarded East Germany's National Prize, 1st Class, on 7 October 1954. The film also won a special Peace Prize in the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival, in the same year.
Leader of his Class, that had its premiere in Berlin's Volksbühne on 7 October 1955, was strongly endorsed by the government, as well. Within 13 weeks, it was viewed by 5.7 million people. His appearance in the film won Günther Simon the Best Actor Award in the 1956 Karlovy Vary Festival.
De-Stalinization
Nikita Khrushchev's Secret Speech in February 1956 signalled the beginning of a new course in the politics of the Eastern Bloc, including in the field of art. Joseph Stalin's character, which was celebrated during his lifetime, was now being edited out of many motion pictures; some films made before 1953 were banned altogether.
On 5 June 1956, a month before the 9th Karlovy Vary Festival, Alexander Abusch wrote the SED Politburo a letter notifying them on the removal of montage featuring Stalin from the film, so it would be fit for screening in Czechoslovakia. Abusch also requested permission to edit out a scene in which Fiete Jansen quoted Stalin's words: "Hitlers come and go, but Germany and the German people remain." After the 1961 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which espoused a strict anti-Stalinist line, a group of officials in the East German Ministry of Culture held a conference from 25 to 27 November 1961. They decided to remove all the footage involving the figure of Stalin from the film. All copies, even those abroad, were subject to the resolution. In the post-1961 version, Stalin does not make an appearance, but his name remains in the opening credits, along with the actor portraying him, and is mentioned on several occasions.
Critical reaction
In East Germany, the films were received with favourable acclaim. On 28 March 1954, Minister of Culture Johannes R. Becher called Son of his Class a "national heroic epic," and a "masterful depiction of history" at an article published in the Tägliche Rundschau newspaper. Berliner Zeitung columnist Joachim Bagemühl wrote that "Maetzig created massive crowd scenes, the likes of which were rarely seen in film hitherto." Journalist Herbert Thiel dubbed the second part "an outstanding film" in a Schweriner Volkszeitung article from 1 October 1955. The Das Volk magazine critic Kurt Steiniger claimed his "heart beat in coordination with the thousands of people around Thälmann" when he watched the picture. On 18 October, a reporter of the Mitteldeutsche Neuste Nachrichten wrote "not a single person will not ask himself... how is it, that this film touched me so deeply?" Author Henryk Keisch commented: "in the midst of those unprecedentedly monumental scenes... There is a distinct man, with distinct emotions and thoughts... it is a grand work of art." In 1966, the GDR's Cinema Lexicon called Ernst Thälmann a "thrilling and informative document about the indestructible force of the best parts of the German people, successfully recreating... the heroic struggle of the German workers led by Thälmann."
French writer Georges Sadoul praised the series for "presenting Thälmann in a thoroughly human way" in an article published in Les Lettres Françaises on 21 July 1955. In West Germany, a Der Spiegel review from 31 March 1954 dismissed the first part as communist propaganda, calling it "a machine of hate" that is "bearable to watch only due to Kurt Maetzig's mischievous sense for details." The magazine's film critic viewed the second part as "less original and even less well-made." Detlef Kannapin wrote the films were "propagating a myth", intended to "espouse propaganda elements... in a Socialist Realist style" and their main aim was to depict Thälmann as "the great, faultless leader." Seán Allan and John Sandford described it as combining "fact with the officially endorsed distortion of history." Sabine Hake wrote the film was made after Maetzig turned to directing pictures with "straightforward propagandistic intentions." Russell Lemmons concluded that eventually, instead of a story of a simple man rising to greatness, it was a history of the German working movement in the 20th century.
In a 1996 interview, Kurt Maetzig told "I believe the first part is bearable and even has artistic qualities, while the second deteriorated... Due to over-idealization. In many aspects, it is simply embarrassing."
Historical accuracy
Shortly after the script of Son of his Class was approved, DEFA director-general Joseph Schwab told the Thälmann committee members that he was concerned about the veracity of the plot. He pointed out three inaccuracies: in 1918, there were no Workers' and Soldiers' Councils on the Western Front, only inside Germany; the American general accompanying Mr. McFuller could not have been present in Berlin during the crushing of the Spartacus Uprising, since peace with the United States was not achieved yet; and finally, Wilhelm Pieck was not with Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht on 9 November 1918. Only Pieck's part was omitted from the screenplay. Bredel told Schwab the rest would be left for the decision of the Politburo. The scenes which the director-general opposed to appear in the film.
In a meeting held in East Berlin's Academy of Sciences on 17 November 1955, West German film critic Klaus Norbert Schäffer told writer Michael Tschesno-Hell the second part focused solely on the communist resistance to the Nazis, ignoring the Social-Democrats and others who opposed the regime. He also mentioned that while Thälmann was incarcerated in three different prisons, the film gives the impression he was held only in one. Another point made by Schäffer was that the arms shipment promised to the communist rebels in Hamburg was intercepted by the army, and not held back by Thälmann's enemies in the party, as seen in Son of his Class. Tschesno-Hell responded to Schäffer by telling: "there are great truths and minor truths. In art, it is completely legitimate to permit the great ones have precedence." René Börrner noted the film skipped over the years between 1924 and 1930, thus ignoring Thälmann's ascendance to the position of party chief - and the many controversies and ideological rifts which characterized the KPD in those days.
Journalist Erich Wollenberg, a former member of the KPD, wrote a review of Son of his Class in 1954, in which he claimed the film was a "cocktail of heroic lies and distortions, with few drops of truth mixed in it." He pointed out that, contrary to the film, Thälmann was not on the Western Front when the German Revolution broke out on 5 November 1918, but in Hamburg: this detail was cited in Thälmann's official biography, written by Bredel himself. Wollenberg had found one other discrepancy between the biography and Son of his Class: the real Thälmann played no major role in the struggle against Kapp's supporters.
Historian Detlef Kannapin noted that, while the film portrays Thälmann as seeking to convince the reluctant Social-Democrats to join forces against the Nazis, he never pursued this policy. As late as October 1932, he referred to the SPD as the chief rivals of the communists, and often called them "Social-Fascists". The Comintern's resolution to form an anti-Nazi bond with the Social-Democrats was only made in 1935, when Ernst Thälmann was already imprisoned. According to Kannapin, the figure of Robert Dirhagen, the minor SPD member, symbolizes the Social-Democrat wing of the SED, which united with KPD under Soviet pressure. Seán Allan and John Sandford wrote that in the film, the blame for Hitler's rise was "laid solely on the Social-Democrats", thus justifying the KPD's Stalinist line and its rivalry with the SPD before 1933.
Cultural impact
Mandatory screenings of both parts continued to be held in factories and collective farms years after their release. The films became part of the curriculum in the East German education system, and all the pupils watched them in school. Footage from the movies was used to make eight short films, with lengths ranging from 8 to 27 minutes, that were shown to young children. It held a particularly significant status in the Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organisation; in 1979, the movement's manual still listed the film as an important source of information about Thälmann's life.
See also
Karl Liebknecht
Sources
Sandra Langenhahn: Ursprünge und Ausformung des Thälmannkults. Die DEFA-Filme „Sohn seiner Klasse“ und „Führer seiner Klasse“. In: (Ed.): Leit- und Feindbilder in DDR-Medien (Schriftenreihe Medienberatung Vol. 5). Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, Bonn 1997, , p. 55–65.
Notes
References
External links
.
Sohn seiner Klasse and Führer seiner Klasse on DEFA Sternstunden.
1954 films
1955 films
1950s biographical films
German biographical films
German epic films
East German films
1950s German-language films
Films about communism
Films directed by Kurt Maetzig
Anti-fascist propaganda films
Films about anti-fascism
Films set in the 1910s
Films set in the 1920s
Films set in the 1930s
Films set in the 1940s
Cultural depictions of Adolf Hitler
Cultural depictions of Hermann Göring
Cultural depictions of Joseph Goebbels
Cultural depictions of Heinrich Himmler
Cultural depictions of Karl Liebknecht
Cultural depictions of Rosa Luxemburg
Cultural depictions of Vladimir Lenin
Cultural depictions of Joseph Stalin
Western Front (World War I) films
Eastern Front of World War II films
Films set in Hamburg
1950s German films
German propaganda films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skien%20Airport%2C%20Geiteryggen
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Skien Airport, Geiteryggen
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Skien Airport, Geiteryggen (; ) is a regional airport located at Geiteryggen, southwest of the city center of Skien, Norway. Owned by Skien Municipality, it was last served by Widerøe with daily flights to Bergen. The runway is and numbered 01–19. The airport had 33,080 passengers in 2014 and has Grenland and the southern part of Telemark as its catchment area.
The airport was built with a gravel runway in 1952. Fjellfly was the first airline based at the airport, which from 1963 to 1972 flew scheduled services to Oslo. An extension of the runway to was carried out in 1970s. Norving had a base at Geiteryggen from 1976, which was taken over by Norsk Air in 1988. A major upgrade, including expanding the runway to the current length and building the current terminal, took place in the mid-1980s. Norsk Air withdrew in 1993, resulting in several airlines flying from the airport; Coast Aero Center, Teddy Air, Coast Air, Air Stord and Sun Air of Scandinavia all operated various services during the late 1980s and 1990s. The airport closed in 2002, but was reopened in 2004 when Vildanden was established. It gradually introduced four domestic and international services before folding in 2011.
History
Establishment
The first aircraft to visit Skien was an air show held by Pierre Chanteloup at Gråtenmoen in Solum in 1914. Other aviators used Gråtenmoen for flights from 1918. The first plans for a permanent airport in Grenland was proposed by Norsk Hydro in 1928, during the planning of their industrial facility at Herøya. At a meeting in on 12 January 1934, hosted by Skien Chamber of Commerce, Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen, chief aviator in the newly established Norwegian Air Lines, recommended that an airport be built in Skien. The lecture spurred municipal and commercial interest in an airport, and within days there were carried out investigations of possible sites, notably Gråtenmoen, Vallermyrene and Geiteryggen.
The municipal lot at Gråtenmoen was selected by the appointed municipal airport committee. Engineer Grøndahl designed a proposal for the airport, which included three runways: a long main runway, and two crosswind runways. The plans were completed in January 1935 and in 1936 the airport committee held meetings with among others Minister of Labor Ole Monsen Mjelde. By 1936 the Aviation Council was brought into the discussions, and they recommended that the airport be located at Skogplassene. This was opposed by local politicians, who instead proposed Geiteryggen. Their main concerns were that Geiteryggen would be cheaper to purchase and would creating more work. However, the initial proposals were rejected by the minister because they were not accurate enough. The final selection of Geiteryggen was taken at a public meeting on 30 November 1936, which included representatives from Parliament.
World War II terminated plans for a civilian airport. The chamber of commerce resumed work on the airport plans in 1946 and initiated contact with the airlines. At the same time the municipal airport committee was re-established and continued working with the plans to build at Geiteryggen, where a lot was provided free of charge for the airport. The aviation club Grenland Flyklubb was established in May 1946 and bought a Piper J-3 Cub. It used fields at Vallermyrene as an airfield during summer, the iced Gunnekleivfjorden and Børsesjø during winter, as well as Tønsberg Airport, Jarlsberg. Proposals for a water aerodrome in Vollsfjorden were stopped because of lack of floats. Grenland's first airline was Telemark Flyselskap, which was founded by Sigvard Nicolaisen in 1947 and at first operated a single Piper Cub.
The runway and original facilities at Geiteryggen were built by the aviation club and cost 30,000 Norwegian krone (NOK). At the time it consisted of a gravel runway. The first landing at Geiteryggen took place on 7 February 1952. Initially only the aviation club and its Piper Cub used the airport. Fjellfly was established in 1954 and was based at Geiteryggen from the following year. It flew a daily newspaper services to bring Dagbladet from Oslo to Skien. The first air show took place on 15 May 1960s and drew a crowd of 8,000.
Operation of the airport was transferred to Fjellfly, but remained owned by the municipality. The airline took delivery of a Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneer in 1963 and the following year established a scheduled service to Oslo Airport, Fornebu. Fjellfly was the only Norwegian airline to operate the Twin Pioneer, which was chosen because it was the only aircraft with a capacity of sixteen passengers able to land on the short strip. At its peak in 1965, Fjellfly operated fourteen aircraft. A scheduled services from Skien via Sandefjord Airport, Torp and Oslo to Hamar Airport, Stafsberg was established from 2 May 1967. The runway was extended to and paved in 1970. This allowed Fjellfly to take deliver of a de Havilland Heron for use on their service. Mey-Air showed interest in operating out of Skien in early 1972. Fjellfly went bankrupt in 1972 and Mey-Air withdrew their interest in the routes.
Norving era
Following an initiative from the municipality, the Kirkenes-based airline Norving announced in January 1975 their intention to operate between Geiteryggen and Oslo and establish a base at Geiteryggen. In July, a contract was signed between the municipality and Norving in which Norving was responsible for operating the airport, including manning the tower and fire service for an annual NOK 125,000 compensation and would operate the service to Fornebu for a minimum of one year. In exchange, the municipality would upgrade the airport. Operation of the route itself would not receive subsidies. Several airlines based in Southern Norway made official complaints to the ministry, largely based on it being unfair for an airline based in Northern Norway to operate a route in Southern Norway. Thus followed concession applications from Partner Air Service, a joint venture between Fjordfly, Norsk Flytjeneste and Paralift Air Service.
Norving's concession was granted in January 1976 and was the first time a formal taxi route concession was granted in Norway. This limited the capacity to ten passengers, but unlike a regular concession, the airline did not have an obligation to fly the route. Operations started on 3 May 1976 with two daily round trips using an eight-passenger Britten-Norman Islander. By September, the airline was making 22 round trips and the following month the airline ordered a ten-passenger Cessna 404 Titan to increase capacity. By May 1977, the route had 1167 monthly passengers, five daily round trips Monday through Friday.
In early 1976, Norving launched plans for a taxi route between Stavanger Airport, Sola and Skien. It was protested by Haugesund-based Nordsjøfly, who had started linking Haugesund to Stavanger and Bergen, and did not want another regional airline in Rogaland. Both airlines had their applications rejected by the ministry. When the contract to operate Skien Airport was to be renewed in 1978, a local political debate broke out regarding whether the municipality should be subsidizing the airport all the time there was a train service to the capital. The contract was renewed and Norving continued to take advantage of both a free hangar and no landing fees. Following a twenty percent growth on the Oslo–Skien route in 1978, Norving applied to increase the size of the aircraft to twenty passengers. The application was rejected by the ministry on the grounds that taxi routes were limited to ten-passenger aircraft. In 1979, the route had 14,000 passengers.
In October 1979, Norving started a route taxi service between Skien and Kristiansand Airport, Kjevik. Norving made an interlining agreement to allow passengers on the Skien to Kristiansand route to transfer to Scandinavian Airlines System's Copenhagen flight, but low patronage caused the route was terminated in February 1981. Norving applied in the early 1980s for a concession on the route from Skien to Stavanger. This was granted on the condition the airline have a stopover at Farsund Airport, Lista. Norving started their route in May with two daily round trips using a Cessna 441 Conquest.
Discussions of expanding the runway had been carried out since the 1970s, but the issue had stranded as no-one was willing to finance the venture. Skien Municipal Council wanted the municipalities of Porsgrunn and Bamble, and Telemark County Municipality to assist in the financing. A route was started by Norving to Bergen in 1984. A government report on the airport structure, published in April, down-prioritized Skien Airport, although it permitted state grants for an upgrade. An agreement was also made between Skien, Porsgrunn, Bamble and the county. The upgrades allowed Norving to start operating the Dornier 228 at Geiteryggen, following improvements to the runway and instrument landing system. From 1985 they also started using the Saab 340 on Skien flights. From 1986 Norving started flights to Trondheim Airport, Værnes and Göteborg Landvetter Airport.
A major upgrade to the airport took place in 1985. The runway was extended to , a new terminal building was constructed and Norving built a new hangar with space for three Saab 340. The ownership of the airport was transferred to an inter-municipal enterprise owned by Skien Municipality (40%), Porsgrunn Municipality (30%), Bamble Municipality (10%) and Telemark County Municipality (10%). The official opening took place in June 1987, following investments of NOK 50 million. That year the airport had 60,000 passengers. Norving's Skien-based operations were bought by Norsk Air in 1988. Norsk Air was based at Sandefjord Airport and initially intended to operate out of both airports. The airline was bought by Widerøe in 1989 and Widerøe decided to continue operations at both Torp and Geiteryggen for a year to see where to establish its base.
Rapid change of airlines
Coast Aero Center received permission to fly from Stord Airport, Sørstokken via Skien to Oslo in 1987. It originally operate a ten-seat Beechcraft Super King 200, but quickly went over to the larger de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter. Permission was granted in 1988 to operate direct flights from Stord to Oslo, and the service to Skien was dropped.
Teddy Air was established in 1989 and began services from Skien to Fornebu the following year, initially using a Britten-Norman Islander. There was a lot of local opposition to the airline, and several local businesspeople claimed that it would be better if Norsk Air was awarded the contract, or Skien Airport was closed and locals instead used Sandefjord Airport. Norsk Air stated that it would not be possible for them to make money on the Skien–Oslo route; Widerøe chose to operate out of Sandefjord and from 1993 closed its operations at Geiteryggen. Teddy Air subsequently took over the Stavanger route, using an Embraer 110, while the Bergen route was granted to Air Stord, despite Teddy Air having applied for the concession. Coast Air was also awarded a concession on the route to Bergen.
The domestic aviation market was deregulated in 1994 and Teddy Air stated competing with Air Stord on the Bergen route. Air Stord flew 31 flights per week, compared to the 16 offered by Teddy Air. For a brief period in 1996, Sun Air of Scandinavia operated a service to Copenhagen Airport. Fornebu was replaced by Oslo Airport, Gardermoen in 1998, which increased driving time from Grenland to the national airport with an hour. Two airlines each established six daily round trips—Teddy Air using an Embraer 110 and Guard Air using a Dornier 228. Teddy Air withdrew from the route after one month and Air Stord went bankrupt in 1999. The same year Teddy Air was reorganized as a virtual airline and flights were taken over by Golden Air, who would operate the Saab 340. Teddy Air terminated all services in 2004 and the hangar at Geiteryggen was sold.
Vildanden era
Skien Airport had been taken over by Skien Municipality and was receiving annual subsidies of NOK 2.5 million from the municipality and NOK 3.8 million from the state. The closure of Teddy Air's services, combined with improved services from Torp, caused the airport to close in 2002. Vildanden was founded on 23 November 2004 by 18 local investors who wanted to resume commercial scheduled flights from Skien Airport. In October 2004, a contract was signed with Coast Air, who would operate a Jetstream 31 aircraft between Skien and Bergen. Following the announcement from Vildanden and Coast Air, the municipality decided to reopen the airport, and cover the estimated NOK 300,000 annual deficit, as well as upgrade the control tower for NOK 700,000. The operation of the flights were taken over by Danish Air Transport in October 2005, using an ATR 42.
At the same time, the municipal council was considering the future of the airport. The city engineer estimated it would need a subsidy of NOK 2 million in 2006, and the politicians, who wanted the airport to run without subsidies, demanded that Vildanden guarantee for the deficit. This was rejected by Vildanden—on the contrary, the company was in dire need for more capital to keep operating. During 2006, the ridership increased, and Vildanden started becoming more aggressive against Widerøe, which was flying to Bergen from Sandefjord Airport. Vildanden stated that they aimed to outperform Widerøe on price to Bergen. The operations were taken over by Avitrans in October 2006. This included a second aircraft, allowing the airline to start operations to Stavanger and Molde Airport, Årø in 2007. From 18 March, Vildanden also started three weekly departures from Skien to Stockholm-Skavsta Airport. The route was necessary to transport personnel from Avitrans' hub at Bromma to Skien.
By October 2007, Vildanden was in severe financial distress. An agreement was made with the municipal council where the latter gave a credit loan to the airline. The route to Molde had given large deficits and the company was forced to close it down. NOK 2.3 million, equal to the airlines debt to the airport, was granted to the municipal-owned airport operator, and the company allowed to make an agreement where half the debt was deleted, and the other half made interest and principal-free for two years. In exchange, the management of Vildanden had to raise new capital equal to at least half the companies accounts payable, which was NOK 8 million. The case raised local debate about whether it was the municipality's job to subsidize the airport and the airline. The Federation of Norwegian Aviation Industries announced that they would consider reporting the subsidies to the European Free Trade Association Surveillance Authority (ESA) for violation of the European Community competition law.
The municipal council voted on 19 June 2008 to not give further subsidies to the airport. Upgrades for NOK 8 million were needed to meet safety standard. The airport operator had debt of NOK 12 million, and no realizable assets. Vildanden was under certain conditions willing to pay some of the capital needed to perform the upgrades. The municipal council changed their opinion and voted—with a single decisive vote—to keep the airport running in July. The financial risk would be taken over by the municipal-owned Kontorbygg, who operate a range of offices and commercial buildings in Skien. The proposal was supported by the right-winged parties, and opposed by the socialist parties, as well as the chair of Kontorbygg. As a response, the Federation of Norwegian Aviation Industries reported the municipality to ESA, and demanded that NOK 20 million in illegal subsidies be repaid by Vildanden and the airport operator.
Vildanden terminated its agreement with Aviatrans in April 2009, with the intention of using larger aircraft. In July, an agreement was made with DAT to operate an ATR 42 on the Bergen route. From 1 August, the Stockholm route was terminated. During the winter of 2008–09, Vildanden was forced to land at Sandefjord Airport fifty times due to weather closing Geiteryggen. In March, Widerøe started a marketing campaign to attract people from Grenland to use their routes at Torp. Local Liberal Party politician Gustav Søvde stated that he was opposed to Widerøe advertising in the Telemark press for their services.
By October 2009 Vildanden owed Kontorbygg NOK 1.5 million in airport fees. Kontorbygg stated that if Vildanden did not pay, the airport would have to file for bankruptcy. Kontorbygg stated that the operation of Geiteryggen had cost the municipality NOK 50 million in the course of the five years Vildanden had been operating from it. In February 2010, the Municipality of Skien announced that it required Vildanden to pay back the NOK 3.1 million, plus NOK 200,000 in interest, that they borrowed in 2007. The loan was renewed in March, after Vildanden paid NOK 385,000. From 16 August, Helitrans took over as the operator, using an ATR 42. From 6 September the company started with flights to Trondheim. The company ceased operations after its last flight on 14 January 2011.
Widerøe era
Both Danish regional airline Danish Air Transport (DAT) and Widerøe announced by the end of January 2011 routes to Bergen. DAT started services with the ATR 42 on 14 February while Widerøe started with their Dash 8-100 on 28 March. DAT later also introduced services to Stavanger, but from March 2012 terminated their route to Bergen. A little more than a year after DAT terminated the Bergen service, in May 2013, they also ceased operation on the Stavanger route. In June 2015, Widerøe terminated their Bergen route as well, leaving Skien without scheduled services.
Facilities
Skien Airport is located at Geiteryggen in Skien. The airport is owned by Skien Municipality and is operated by Skien Lufthavn, a limited company owned by the municipality, which employs 16 people. The air traffic control, consisting of an aerodrome flight information service, receives subsidies of NOK 6 million per year from the Ministry of Transport and Communications. The airport has permission and facilities to handle international flights. The terminal has a café. There are several hangars at the airport, one used by Danish Air Transport, one by Pegasus Helicopter, one by Grenland Flyklubb and one used by various private owners of aircraft.
The airport has a catchment area covering Grenland and surrounding parts of southern Telemark and eastern parts of Aust-Agder, with a total population of 140,000. The airport is located next to National Road 36 and there is free parking and taxis are available at the terminal. Skien Airport is located and a 7-minute drive from the city center.
Airlines and destinations
Effective 29 June 2015, there are no scheduled flights.
General aviation activities at the airport includes several aviation clubs, including Grenland Flyklubb, which operates three aircraft, the parachute club Grenland Fallskjermklubb and base for Russian Warbirds of Norway, which operates heritage Russian military aircraft.
Statistics
Accidents and incidents
On 12 May 1953, a Noorduyn Harvard of the Royal Norwegian Air Force crashed during an emergency landing at Geiteryggen. The aircraft was on a mission out of Oslo Airport, Fornebu when it had run out of fuel and the pilot decided to land at Geiteryggen. During the landing the wheels cut into the gravel, causing the aircraft to flip. The pilot was not injured and the aircraft was repaired.
On 11 October 1985, a Cessna 441 Conquest crashed close to Farelva during approach to Geiteryggen. The single occupant was killed immediately in the crash.
On 2 April 1987, a Beechcraft King Air crashed minutes before landing at Geiteryggen. The pilot and nine passengers from Hannover, Germany, were all killed.
References
Sources
Airports in Vestfold og Telemark
Skien
1952 establishments in Norway
Airports established in 1952
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester%E2%80%93Boston%20Regional%20Airport
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Manchester–Boston Regional Airport
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Manchester–Boston Regional Airport , commonly referred to as Manchester Airport, is a public use airport south of the central business district of Manchester, New Hampshire, United States on the border of Hillsborough and Rockingham counties. It is owned by the City of Manchester, and is in the southern part of the city on the border with Londonderry, New Hampshire.
Opened in 1927, Manchester–Boston Regional Airport is by far the busiest airport in New Hampshire, with ten times the traffic of the next-busiest, Portsmouth. It is the only airport in the state with substantial commercial service. It is also New England's fifth-largest airport by passenger volume, behind Boston Logan in Massachusetts; Bradley International in Connecticut; T. F. Green in Rhode Island; and Portland International Jetport in Maine. It moved more than 1 million passengers in a year for the first time in 1997. After years of growth, it handled 4.33 million passengers in 2005, its peak year. Passenger tallies have declined since then, similarly with many regional airports; it handled 1.85 million passengers in 2018, and traffic fell sharply during the COVID-19 pandemic.
It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2021–2025, in which it is categorized as a small hub primary commercial service facility. The facility was known as Manchester Airport until April 18, 2006, when it added "Boston Regional" to advertise its proximity to Boston, about to the south. Certified for Cat III B Instrument Landing operations, the airport has a reputation for never surrendering to bad weather. The airport has closed only once, when the national airspace was shut down for two days following the September 11 terrorist attacks, after which all American airports were required to close. It is home to the Aviation Museum of New Hampshire, built around an Art Deco control tower, and its terminal opened in 1938.
Use
Manchester–Boston is New England's third-largest cargo airport behind Connecticut's Bradley International, which is a hub for UPS Airlines, and Logan in Boston. FedEx and UPS both serve Manchester with cargo-specific jets, including the Airbus A300, Boeing 757 and Boeing 767 by FedEx and UPS.
UPS uses Manchester to "feed" the rest of northern New England by contracting with Wiggins Airways,
which flies smaller prop-driven planes to places like Portland, Augusta, Bangor, Presque Isle, Rutland, and other communities. To handle this "regional sort," UPS built a sorting facility where packages coming in from the company's Louisville hub are redistributed to trucks or to the Wiggins feeder aircraft.
FedEx previously used Manchester as a regional sorting station as well but now supports the northern New England destinations via direct flights from Memphis, Tennessee, to Portland and Burlington. A contract with the Postal Service fills the FedEx jets (coming from hubs in Memphis and Indianapolis) with mail in addition to the typical assortment of express and overnight packages. DHL previously operated a 727-200 on a Wilmington, Ohio-Allentown, Pennsylvania-Manchester-Wilmington routing, but that service has since ceased.
In November 2022, Amazon Air operated by Atlas Air began flying into Manchester utilizing Boeing 767 aircraft from Fort Worth Alliance Airport and Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport. A nightly flight goes from Fort Worth Alliance Airport to Manchester to Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport in the early morning hours.
Facility and operations
Manchester Boston Regional Airport covers an area of , which contains two asphalt runways: Runway 17/35 measuring 9,250 x 150 ft (2,819 x 46 m) and Runway 6/24 measuring 7,651 x 150 ft (2,332 x 46 m).
For the 12-month period ending April 30, 2021, the airport had 32,845 aircraft operations, an average of 90 per day: 33% commercial, 26% air taxi, 39% general aviation and 2% military. In November 2021, there were 89 aircraft based at this airport: 50 single-engine, 21 multi-engine, 12 jet and 6 helicopter.
History
The Manchester airport was founded in June 1927, when the city's Board of Mayor and Aldermen put $15,000 towards the project. By October, a board of aviation had been founded, and ground was broken at an site near Pine Island Pond. It took only a month for two runways to be constructed. The board of aviation convinced George G. "Scotty" Wilson, a barnstormer operating out of Boston, to move to New Hampshire and start Manchester's first flying service. After the formation of Northeast Airways at the site in 1933, the first passenger terminal was built.
In 1940, as the U.S. entered World War II, the airport was chosen as an Army Air Force base. At its peak, some 6,000 troops were stationed there, including the 45th Bombardment Group – which practiced bombing runs on what is now New Boston Air Force Station – and an anti-submarine squadron that destroyed at least two Nazi subs off the U.S. Atlantic coast. It was renamed Grenier Field after Manchester native Lt. Jean B. Grenier, who died in a training mission in 1934. Civilian use returned in 1951 when Northeast Airways resumed flights.
The current Manchester airport began to take shape as a joint civil-military facility in the 1960s. A new civilian terminal and the first modern air traffic control tower in New Hampshire were constructed in 1961. Businessman Roscoe A. Ammon donated $500,000 for the construction of the new air terminal. In 1966, the Air Force removed its remaining forces and closed Grenier Air Force Base, leaving the airport open for expansion. In 1978 the airfield was renamed Manchester Airport.
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the airport was served by Northeast Airlines with the Convair CV-240, Douglas DC-9, and Fokker FH-227. Delta Air Lines absorbed Northeast in 1972 and continued to serve the airport with the DC-9 until 1978, then Boeing 727-200s until 1980 when it discontinued service at Manchester.
In the mid-1980s, airlines once again started offering jet service out of Manchester. United Airlines inaugurated service at Manchester in 1983 with two daily flights to Chicago–O'Hare. This was part of their 50 States campaign, which positioned United as the only carrier to serve all 50 states with mainline service. The Boeing 727 and Boeing 737 were initially used on the Chicago flights, which would often make intermediate stops in cities like Providence, Albany, Syracuse, and Burlington to pick up or drop off passengers. Manchester was also a "tag-on" for United flights heading from Bangor and Portland, Maine, to Chicago, but the carrier no longer serves either city with mainline aircraft.
In the early 1990s, United Airlines began flights between Manchester and Washington Dulles International Airport near Washington, D.C. But creation of a north–south hub at Dulles did not work for United, and heavy competition in this market led to a quick exit. The Boeing 737 was used for this short-lived service, which comprised about four daily circuits between the two airports. US Airways started service at Manchester in early 1986, by connecting their hubs at Pittsburgh and Philadelphia. The carrier used the DC-9, BAC 111, and 737-200 aircraft. Both carriers expanded service at Manchester over the years with larger planes and more flights. United now runs a strict non-stop schedule to and from Chicago with no intermediate stops or tag-ons. The 757 has been used by both United and US Airways at Manchester, which stands as the largest passenger-carrying plane to serve the airport in scheduled service. The Airbus A320 series of aircraft is also commonly used by United, Northwest Airlines (merged with Delta Air Lines), and occasionally by US Airways. In April 2010, Delta enhanced service to Manchester; it dropped its daily CRJ-700 service to Atlanta and replaced the aircraft with an MD-88 with seating for 149. Delta also switched all its Delta Connection service to Detroit with mainline service on DC-9's. On October 7, 2021, Spirit Airlines began serving Manchester with the Airbus A320, making it one of 3 airlines regularly serving Manchester with mainline aircraft. Southwest serves Manchester with the Boeing 737-700 and the Boeing 737-800. American flies the Airbus A319/20 from Charlotte.
Expansion
In 1992, a long-term expansion and improvement plan started to take shape. Two years later, a new terminal designed by HNTB and Lavallee Brensinger opened, providing ample room for larger jets. The airport continued to expand, opening a new parking garage and parking lots in the next years, as well as working to reconstruct the runways and taxiways. In 1998, these expansions paid off, with MetroJet, Northwest, and Southwest all beginning service. The airport prospered from the "Southwest Effect", in which competing airlines increase service and decrease fares to compete with the low-cost carrier. Throughout the 1990s, Manchester outpaced almost every other similarly sized airport in terms of passenger growth. In 2003, Runway 17/35 was extended from to , allowing non-stop service to Las Vegas.
In April 2006, the aldermen of the city of Manchester voted to change the name of the airport to "Manchester–Boston Regional Airport" in an effort to increase its visibility to travelers around the country.
Decline in passengers
In 2006 the airport started to experience a decrease in passengers flying through its facility, with service to only twelve cities. In 2017, the airport served the fewest passengers since 1998. United Airlines canceled its Chicago O'Hare service in July 2018, making Newark its only destination from Manchester, which was replaced by Washington Dulles in March 2019. In 2020 Delta consolidated its service to Boston. Southwest as of 2021 has diminished service to four cities, with Delta Air Lines serving Atlanta once daily instead of twice.
The decline in service is due to increased activity at Logan International Airport in Boston and to mergers between airlines, which led to decreased flights. When Southwest entered Logan in 2009, it also significantly reduced prices at Logan, prompting more people to fly out of Boston rather than Manchester.
Current service
In 2019, American Airlines announced service to Chicago O'Hare after United discontinued its O'Hare service. United announced service to Washington-Dulles instead of Newark in March 2019.
The airport administration hired a new airport director to help it bring back passengers to Manchester, as well as to help bring in new airlines and destinations. In November 2020, Delta Airlines announced that they would be discontinuing service to MHT. On February 9, 2021, Aeroterm announced that it would develop a new cargo facility at the airport.
On June 16, 2021, Spirit Airlines announced it would be starting service to four Florida cities in October; it later announced that seasonal service to Myrtle Beach would start April 2022.
Spirit is the first new airline to begin service at Manchester-Boston since Air Canada in 2004.
On November 9, 2021, the airport announced that United is discontinuing service to Washington Dulles January 4, 2022, once again leaving Newark as the only destination from Manchester, NH, on United.
In November 2022, Amazon Air, operated by Atlas Air, began service from Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport utilizing Boeing 767 aircraft; current operations now include a flight from
Perot Field Fort Worth Alliance Airport, which then continues to Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport.
On March 15th, 2023 Avelo Airlines announced nonstop service to Raleigh-Durham International Airport twice weekly, utilizing the Boeing 737-800.
Airlines and destinations
Passenger
Destinations map
Cargo
Statistics
Top destinations
Airline market share
Annual traffic
Ground transport
Highway access
In 2007, construction began on Raymond Wieczorek Drive (then known as Manchester Airport Access Road), an expressway connection from the F.E. Everett Turnpike. Before this project, access to the airport was limited to local roads off Interstate 293/NH Route 101. The access road opened on November 10, 2011, connecting the airport and NH Route 3A in Litchfield with the Everett Turnpike and U.S. Route 3 in Bedford.
Manchester Shuttle
From November 13, 2006, to June 30, 2008, the airport operated a shuttle bus — free to ticketed passengers — that ran every two hours, 24 hours a day, to the Anderson Regional Transportation Center in Woburn, Massachusetts (45 minutes), on to the Sullivan Square subway station in Boston (75 minutes), and back to the airport via Woburn. The free service shut down after a private company, Flight Line Inc., began operating a paid service along similar routes on July 1, 2008. Flight Line offers hourly service between the airport, several points in northern Massachusetts, and the city of Boston for $39 each way. Reservations are required.
Greyhound Lines
Greyhound buses offer three trips daily from Manchester Airport on its Boston–Montreal service. Buses serve Concord and Hanover in New Hampshire; White River Junction, Montpelier, and Burlington in Vermont; and Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu and Montreal in Quebec, Canada, when going northbound. They serve South Station and Logan International Airport in Boston on the southbound trips.
Local bus service
The Manchester Transit Authority provides hourly bus service between the passenger terminal and downtown Manchester.
Commuter Rail extension
A proposed extension of the MBTA Commuter Rail system's Lowell Line would see trains that currently terminate at Lowell running as far north as Manchester. The proposed Bedford/MHT Station would be constructed across the Merrimack River in Bedford underneath Raymond Wieczorek Drive, and would be intended to serve the airport and the town of Bedford.
The New Hampshire State Rail Plan of 2012 stated that freight could also be viable on the rail extension, perhaps opening up more freight opportunities for the airport.
Law enforcement/security
The town of Londonderry's police are responsible for law enforcement and security operations at the airport terminal. The sheriff's department of Rockingham County was responsible for law enforcement operations at the airport until 2006 when the Londonderry Police Department was awarded the new security contract.
Fire Department/ARFF Service
The Airport Fire Department is staffed 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, consisting of 4 on-duty personnel who work a 48-hour work week. All personnel are fully qualified NFPA structural firefighters and have acquired a follow on specialized course in aircraft rescue firefighting. All employees are certified National Registry Emergency Medical Technicians ranging from the basic level through paramedic.
Incidents
Pre-Jet Age
On June 3, 1928, at 3:02 p.m., Lt. George Wilson's Curtiss OX-5 nosedived and crashed at the south end of the airport while landing before thousands of onlookers. Wilson received a gash on the face, and one passenger was pinned in the wreckage and sustained shock, cuts and bruises. The cause of the crash was a motor failure, and the plane was badly crumpled with its nose buried deeply in a swamp.
On February 19, 1933, Real N. Bourke died when the Arrow Sport two-seater he had hired from Northeast Airways burst into flames a quarter mile north of Manchester Airport on the Boone Farm. He had made a number of steep banks and wing-overs, and his landing gear struck a gully prior to the crash. It was Manchester's first fatality.
On August 5, 1938, at about 6:15 p.m., student pilot Avalon Robert Lilly Jr. was injured when a WACO biplane, powered by a Wright Whirlwind motor, attempted a loop off the ground, but fell and crashed from the Manchester Airport Administration Building. The plane belonged to Donald Lewis, who was at the controls and suffered major injuries. Lilly later died on August 12, 1938.
On December 10, 1942, a fighter plane connected to Manchester Airport (Grenier Field) crashed in Mont Vernon around noon; the unidentified pilot was uninjured.
On April 24, 1944, at 9:00 a.m., a four-motored Army B-24 Liberator bomber (#42-5111) took off from Manchester Airport and crashed into a densely wooded area on Fort Mountain near Epsom, killing all ten crew on board.
On November 29, 1944, at 9:30 a.m., another Army B-24L (#44-49669) crashed nose-first in Pawtuckaway State Forest in Nottingham, northeast of Manchester, killing all nine crew. It had taken off from Manchester and was headed to Gander, Newfoundland, Canada.
On August 5, 1948, at 5:00 p.m., an AT-11 training plane and an A-26 attack bomber collided over Manchester airport, killing four.
On June 7, 1949, at 8:43 p.m., 1st Lt. William A. Primm of the 97th Fighter Squadron died during a routine training flight when he attempted an emergency landing and crashed his F-51 fighter at the end of Runway 24.
Post-Jet Age
On April 22, 1971, at 5:00 pm, an 18-year-old single-engine Beechcraft Bonanza, registered to New England Aviation Corp., crashed during takeoff, killing four people (one crew, three passengers).
On July 31, 1973, Delta Air Lines Flight 723 from Burlington, Vermont, to Boston was diverted to Manchester to pick up passengers stranded by a flight cancellation. After leaving Manchester it continued to Boston, but during landing there the McDonnell Douglas DC-9-31 hit a sea wall at the end of Runway 4, killing 83 passengers and six crew.
On October 3, 1979, a small private plane carrying Agnetha Fältskog of the Swedish pop band ABBA was traveling on one of the last legs of their 1979 North American tour (New York City to Boston). The plane flew through one of the worst severe storms in recent Connecticut history. It is speculated that the plane may have encountered a tornado during this event. It was able to make a diversion to Manchester landing on a second attempt while low on fuel. This was a key moment in starting Fältskog's fear of air travel.
On November 2, 1990, US Airways Flight 506 to Pittsburgh collided with a flock of birds after takeoff. No one was injured and the DC-9 returned safely to MHT.
On January 22, 1991, at 10:10 am, Continental Express Flight 3550 from Newark went off runway 7. No one was injured and the cause of the crash was ruled to be a hydraulic steering mechanism failure.
On September 23, 2020, Air Force 2, a modified Boeing 757 carrying then US Vice President Mike Pence on a flight from Manchester to Washington, D.C., suffered a bird strike while climbing out of the airport. The airplane returned safely and the former Vice President and his staff flew out on a cargo airplane later that day. No injuries were reported as a result of the incident.
On January 19, 2021, a Piper Malibu Meridian (Reg: N641WA) flying in from Olathe, Kansas, skidded off the runway while landing, and emergency services were dispatched to the aircraft's location. The pilot and passengers all made it out with no major injuries.
On December 10, 2021, a Castle Air Swearingen Metroliner, flying in from Essex County Airport in New Jersey, crashed into the western bank of the Merrimack River, while attempting to land on runway 6 around 11:30 pm. The pilot, who was the sole occupant, was killed upon impact.
On January 5, 2022, a FedEx Boeing 767 Bound for Memphis Slid off Taxiway H due to an ice storm and struck the airport's anemometer around 9:00am. No injuries were reported and the left wing of the plane received moderate damage. This event led to a three hour long shutdown of airport operations.
Solar panels
In 2012, south-facing solar panels were installed on the roof of the parking garage, but they caused so much glare for the nearby control tower for 45 minutes each morning that they were removed, and later replaced with 2,210 panels (460 kW AC) that were reoriented to the east to eliminate the glare. The airport expects to save $100,000 each year on electricity by having the solar panels. The efficiency of east or west facing panels is reduced by about 10%, so more panels were added so the total generation would be about the same. The array is expected to generate about 585,000 kWh each year.
Gallery
See also
List of cities with more than one commercial airport
References
External links
Airports in New Hampshire
Airports established in 1927
Transportation buildings and structures in Hillsborough County, New Hampshire
Buildings and structures in Manchester, New Hampshire
Transportation buildings and structures in Rockingham County, New Hampshire
Historic American Engineering Record in New Hampshire
Londonderry, New Hampshire
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5095439
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cole%20Hamels
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Cole Hamels
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Colbert Michael Hamels (born December 27, 1983), nicknamed "Hollywood", is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Philadelphia Phillies (2006–2015), Texas Rangers (2015–2018), Chicago Cubs (2018–2019), and Atlanta Braves (2020).
Originally from San Diego, California, Hamels excelled at Rancho Bernardo High School both academically and athletically. The Phillies drafted Hamels out of high school, in the first round (17th overall) of the 2002 MLB Draft, and he began playing in the Phillies’ minor league system. Numerous issues, including an injury sustained in a bar fight, among other injuries, occurred during Hamels’ first few minor league seasons. When he reached the Triple-A level, he was the top pitcher in the Phillies' minor league system in .
In May 2006, Hamels made his major league debut for the Phillies. After securing a long-term spot as a member of the Phillies starting rotation in his rookie season, he made large strides in the 2007 Major League Baseball season and won the Phillies' top major league pitcher award. Hamels was both the top pitcher on the team entering the season, as well as during the Phillies' postseason run, during which they ultimately won the 2008 World Series over the Tampa Bay Rays; he won the World Series Most Valuable Player Award. After the 2008 season, Hamels signed a three-year contract with the Phillies. His statistics declined over the next two seasons, as he struggled through a tumultuous campaign and somewhat bounced back in — however, still not approaching his 2008 numbers. Over the next few seasons, Hamels was joined by fellow All-Star pitchers Roy Halladay, Cliff Lee, and Roy Oswalt. Hamels flourished alongside them, putting up some of his top career seasons, before suffering from poor run support in . With the decline of his aging teammates, the team missed the postseason for the next few years, but he remained one of the Phillies' consistent stars. Hamels was traded to the Texas Rangers in , and he sparked their run to the AL West title that season. Hamels spent parts of four seasons with the Rangers, including an All-Star season in , before being traded to the Cubs in . In 2020, he was shut down for the season after pitching only innings.
Early life
Hamels attended Meadowbrook Middle School and Rancho Bernardo High School in San Diego. He was a "gifted student", and scored a 1510 (out of 1600) on the SAT. Scouts were interested in Hamels while he was in high school primarily because his fastball was clocked as high as , and his secondary offerings were considered advanced. However, some teams lost interest when Hamels broke his left humerus during his sophomore year. Nonetheless, Hamels was drafted in the first round of the 2002 Major League Baseball draft by the Philadelphia Phillies with the 17th overall selection.
Professional career
Minor league career
Hamels began his professional baseball career in 2003, pitching for the Class A Lakewood BlueClaws of the South Atlantic League. Later that season, he was promoted to the Clearwater Threshers of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League. He finished the year by receiving the Paul Owens Award, given to the best pitcher in the Phillies' minor league system.
During the next two seasons, however, Hamels suffered through several injuries, and pitched only sparingly. He missed most of the 2004 season with elbow tendinitis, making only four starts. In 2005, he broke his pitching hand in a bar fight before the season began; after rehabilitation, he was assigned to Clearwater. In July, the Phillies promoted him to the Class AA Reading Phillies of the Eastern League, where he surrendered the first home run of his professional career in his first start. Subsequently, he was shut down for the remainder of the season with back spasms.
In 2006, a healthy Hamels started again at Clearwater, and after a brief stint in Reading, he was promoted to the Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons of the Class AAA International League. In three games at Scranton, he struck out 36 batters while giving up only one walk and one run. His minor league statistics included a record of 14–4 with a 1.43 ERA and 273 strikeouts in 35 games pitched. For his performance, the Phillies promoted him to the major league club.
Philadelphia Phillies
2006 season
Hamels was called up to the Philadelphia Phillies in May 2006. In his Major League Baseball debut on May 12, he pitched five scoreless innings, allowed one hit, struck out seven batters and walked five while earning a no-decision against the Cincinnati Reds. In his second career start, Hamels was dominant until the seventh inning, during which he was pulled after he allowed several baserunners, but again received a no-decision. A shoulder injury scratched Hamels from the lineup of what would have originally been his third major league start. He was put on the 15-day disabled list and returned on June 6 to defeat the Arizona Diamondbacks 10–1 for his first Major League victory. On August 14, 2006, Hamels had his best start of his rookie season, shutting out the New York Mets over eight innings and striking out nine in the Phillies' 13–0 victory. He finished his rookie season with a 9–8 record, a 4.08 earned run average (ERA), and 145 strikeouts (third among NL rookies) in innings (sixth among NL rookies).
2007 season
Hamels entered the 2007 season having done significant work in the weight room in the offseason and at spring training. His tenacity came to fruition when, on April 21, 2007, Hamels pitched his first major league complete game, allowing one run on five hits and two walks while setting a career high with 15 strikeouts. Just three days before, the Phillies moved their opening day starter Brett Myers to the bullpen to be the closer, making Hamels the team's number one starter. On May 16, he carried a perfect game into the seventh inning, but then walked leadoff hitter Rickie Weeks and surrendered a home run to the next batter, J. J. Hardy.
For his strong performance during the first half of the season, Hamels was, for the first time in his career, selected a member of the NL All Star Team. As Hamels had been the Phillies' only consistent starter to that point, even to the point that one columnist said the Phillies are a joke "as long as we are forced to look forward to someone other than Cole Hamels on the mound", the Phillies acquired Kyle Lohse to supplement the rotation soon before the trading deadline. Several weeks later, Hamels was placed on the 15-day disabled list (DL) with a mild left elbow strain. After the Phillies activated him from the DL, on September 28, he helped the Phillies take over first place in the National League East by striking out 13 Washington Nationals over eight innings in a 6–0 win. Two days later, the team clinched a spot in the playoffs for the first time in 14 years. In the first game of the National League Division Series, he started for the Phillies, but surrendered three runs, three hits, and an "uncharacteristic" four walks, while striking out seven in innings; he was assessed the loss. Ultimately, the Phillies lost the series. Hamels finished with a regular-season record of 15–5, a 3.39 ERA, and 177 strikeouts in innings. The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America presented him the "Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher" award.
2008 season
Before the season began in March, Hamels made a complaint about the Phillies underpaying him, saying it was a "low blow" and he was "caught off-guard" with the gap between what he and his agent John Boggs felt was a fair reward for his performance in the previous season and what he was paid (the Phillies paid him , barely above the minimum salary for MLB players despite Hamels' strong performance).
Though Hamels was the "clear-cut ace", Charlie Manuel penciled in Brett Myers as the Phillies' opening day starter because Myers accepted his role as closer the preceding season, putting the team ahead of his personal wishes to start.
By the end of April, Hamels led the Phillies in most pitching categories, including wins (3), ERA (2.70), and innings pitched (). Continuing his dominance into May, Hamels recorded his first career complete game shutout against the Atlanta Braves on the 15th of that month. By June, Myers had been demoted to the minor leagues due to his ineffectiveness, leaving Hamels alone atop the rotation. Hamels was snubbed from a selection to the All-Star Game despite strong numbers. For the season, Hamels was 14–10 with a 3.09 ERA and 196 strikeouts in innings; he had the lowest on-base percentage-against (OBP) in the majors at .272. FanGraphs also rated his changeup as the most effective in the majors.
Hamels pitched in Game 1 of the National League Division Series against the Brewers, pitching "eight spectacular two-hit shutout innings" during which he struck out nine hitters, notching his first career playoff win, and the Phillies' first playoff win since 1993. He commented, "I knew the importance of the game. And it's something where, because of last year, I learned what it really takes in trying to ... kind of mellow out, not to have that sort of excitement where you can't really control everything." He was named the Most Valuable Player (MVP) of the National League Championship Series, going 2–0 in the NLCS with a 1.93 ERA and winning the series clincher on October 15 in Los Angeles.
Hamels was selected the Phillies starter for Game 1 of the World Series; the Phillies won 3–2, and Hamels earned his fourth win of the postseason. Hamels also started Game 5, which was suspended due to rain after the top of the sixth inning tied at 2–2, and receiving a no-decision; when Game 5 resumed the Phillies won 4–3 to clinch the World Series. Overall, Hamels made five postseason starts in 2008, going 4–0 with a 1.80 ERA. Hamels threw a total of 35 innings during the postseason, and held opponents scoreless in 28 of them; he never allowed more than one run in any of the seven innings in which he did not hold opponents scoreless. Hamels was named the 2008 World Series MVP.
Subsequently, Jayson Stark wrote,
The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America presented him the "Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher" award for the second consecutive year.
2009 season
Hamels started his 2009 season by signing a three-year, $20.5 million contract with the Phillies. On February 14, the first day of spring training for pitchers and catchers, when asked who the Opening Day starter would be, manager Charlie Manuel responded, "Yeah, you might as well go ahead and pencil him in. I don't think there's any sense in me playing games. Go ahead, pencil him in."
However, Hamels left spring training on March 16 after feeling tightness between innings, and flew to Philadelphia to have his left elbow examined by Dr. Michael Ciccotti. "This will obviously set me back a couple of days, and I don't think that should be a big deal", said Hamels. Ciccotti found no structural damage in his arm, yet Hamels still did not pitch on Opening Day as expected; Myers did for the third consecutive season. For the first time in his career, Hamels went winless in his first four starts, and left back-to-back starts early due to injury in late April, sustaining a left-shoulder contusion and an ankle sprain respectively. From June on, however, he returned to his previous form, recording two complete-game shutouts (tied for the NL-lead), striking out at least 10 batters in two separate games, and amassing a 21-inning scoreless streak from August 21 to September 6, while allowing just two home runs in his final eight starts. In July, the Phillies augmented their starting rotation by acquiring two former Cy Young Award winners in Cliff Lee and Pedro Martínez from a trade and a free agent signing respectively. Due to his early season injury struggles, Hamels posted a 10–11 record and a 4.32 ERA in the regular season, his first major league season in which he posted a sub-.500 record, and the worst ERA of his career to that point.
Hamels started Game 2 of the 2009 National League Division Series against the Colorado Rockies, allowing four earned runs through five innings to take the loss. Nevertheless, the Phillies won the series, three games to one. He earned the win in Game 1 of the National League Championship Series as the Phillies beat the Dodgers, 8–6. Hamels started Game 3 of the World Series against the New York Yankees, pitching innings, allowing five earned runs and taking the loss as the Yankees won that game 8–5. Afterward, he told reporters, "I can't wait for it (the season) to end. It's been mentally draining. It's one of those things where, a year in, you just can't wait for a fresh start", comments that were criticized by manager Charlie Manuel but otherwise largely regarded as speaking out of frustration. Later in the series, after the Phillies won Game 5, a confrontational Brett Myers mockingly asked Hamels: "What are you doing here? I thought you quit." Years later, in 2018, Hamels joked that Yankee fans love him due to the fact that he helped them win the series. The Phillies lost the series to the New York Yankees in six games.
Rob Neyer, a sabermetrician and columnist for ESPN.com, contradicted anyone who asserted Hamels' skills had deteriorated, instead commenting:
Phillies' pitching coach Rich Dubee and Hamels himself blamed Hamels' demeanor for some of his decline, noting, "He is such a perfectionist...his approach wasn't very good last year. His success won't come back until his demeanor changes" and "The more angry you get, it's that much tougher to execute your next pitch. I think I let [expectations] get to me" respectively.
2010 season
Entering the 2010 season, the Phillies traded away Cliff Lee, but in doing so, acquired Roy Halladay in a "mega-trade". They did not re-sign Myers, and Halladay was named the Phillies' opening day starter. Among Hamels' season highlights were a start on June 7 against the San Diego Padres during which he threw innings of no-hit baseball, winning five consecutive starts including three consecutive scoreless starts from late-August to mid-September, and striking out 13 batters, tied for his second-highest career total, on September 13 against the Florida Marlins.
The Phillies finished with the best record in MLB. Hamels started Game 3 of the National League Division Series against the Cincinnati Reds and, for the first time in his postseason career, pitched a complete-game shutout. He also became the first pitcher to win a postseason game
at Great American Ball Park. The Phillies advanced to the National League Championship Series facing the San Francisco Giants, where Hamels took the loss in Game 3, giving up three runs as the Giants' Matt Cain shut out the Phillies, en route to the Phillies' ultimate elimination in six games.
Statistically, Hamels rebounded from his previous season by posting a 12–11 record with a 3.06 ERA, the latter of which was, at the time, a career-best. He also struck out a career-high 211 batters. Throughout the season, he was plagued by a lack of run support; in of his starts, the Phillies did not score a single run while he was in the game. Moreover, he received the fifth-lowest run support in the NL. Nevertheless, he allowed three or fewer earned runs in 26 of his 33 starts. Jeff Nelson "facetiously" evaluated Hamels' season as follows:
2011 season
On December 15, 2010, Cliff Lee returned to the Phillies as he signed a free-agent contract with Philadelphia for five years and $120 million with a vesting option for a sixth year. After this signing, the Phillies' starting rotation consisted of Roy Halladay, Roy Oswalt, Cliff Lee, Cole Hamels, and Joe Blanton. This rotation was considered one of the best in pitching history by many. Halladay, Oswalt, Lee, and Hamels were dubbed the 'Phantastic Phour' by fans and the media.
Hamels entered the 2011 season with a large amount of excitement and hype from fans and the media. By the All-Star game, Hamels was 4–3. On July 3, when the rosters for the 2011 MLB All-Star Game in Phoenix, Arizona were broadcast on TBS, it was announced that Hamels was voted onto the National League team along with fellow pitchers and teammates Roy Halladay, Cliff Lee, Plácido Polanco, and Shane Victorino. He was not eligible to play, however, because he had pitched the Sunday prior to the All-Star Game. Hamels shared his dismay with this rule, saying, "It's one of those things where people who don't play the game make the rules."
The Phillies finished with the best record in MLB for the second year in a row. In the 2011 National League Division Series against the St. Louis Cardinals, Hamels started Game 3 which resulted in a 3–2 win to give the Phillies a 2–1 series lead, however the Phillies would lose Games 4 and 5 to be eliminated.
Hamels finished the 2011 season with a record of 14–9, 194 strikeouts, an ERA of 2.79, and a 0.986 WHIP. He finished fifth in the Cy Young Award voting behind Clayton Kershaw, Roy Halladay, Cliff Lee, and Ian Kennedy, respectively.
2012 season
During the 2011 off-season, Hamels underwent elbow and hernia surgeries. Hamels had missed scheduled starts in August due to a stiff shoulder, and loose bodies were removed from his elbow to fix his problems. Hamels was ready to pitch by the start of Spring training 2012.
On January 17, Hamels and the Philadelphia Phillies agreed to a one-year, $15 million contract to avoid arbitration. This was the highest salary ever paid to a pitcher eligible for arbitration before free agency.
On May 6, Hamels was suspended for five games after hitting Bryce Harper in his lower back with a pitch, after admitting that it was intentional. On July 21, 2012, Hamels hit his first career home run, off San Francisco Giants pitcher Matt Cain, who had homered off him in the top half of the same inning, the first time in MLB since 1990 that two pitchers had hit home runs off of each other in the same inning.
Hamels would stay a Phillie when he agreed to a contract extension on July 24. The six-year, $144 million contract was the second-largest contract ever signed by a pitcher. The deal included a vesting option for 2019 worth $24 million. If the option did not vest, it would have turned into a club option for $20 million that included a $6 million buyout.
Hamels finished the season with career highs in wins (17) and strikeouts (216), and finished eighth in the NL Cy Young Award voting. His 3.05 ERA ranked second-best in his career (behind only his 2.79 ERA in 2011). The Philadelphia chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America presented him the "Steve Carlton Most Valuable Pitcher" award.
2013 season
Before the 2013 season in spring training, manager Charlie Manuel named Hamels the 2013 opening day starter, which Matt Gelb of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote was a "long time coming". In his first career opening day start on April 1 against the Atlanta Braves, Hamels surrendered five earned runs in five innings and took the loss.
Particularly early in the season, Hamels was plagued by a lack of run support; as of May 27, he had the fifth-lowest in the major leagues. He lost his eighth start on May 27, declining to a record of 1–8, which one Sports Illustrated column attributed more to the Phillies poor offense than Hamels. Nevertheless, it was "easily ... Hamels' worst performance of his eight-year career". Aside from offensive struggles while Hamels was pitching, the Phillies defense struggled, though Hamels kept a positive attitude, once commenting that his luck should improve, as "I've been doing pretty well on the plane in poker." Towards the end of the season, however, Hamels "put it together". In his final 11 starts he surrendered more than three runs only once. In total, he amassed an 8–14 record with a 3.60 ERA in 220 innings and 202 strikeouts (sixth in NL). Despite struggles from his teammates, Bill Baer noted that Hamels,
Despite Hamels' poor record and ERA, 25 of his 33 starts were quality starts, and thus he gave his team a chance to win 25 times, yet only got eight wins.
2014 season
Before the 2014 season, Hamels announced that he would not be ready to pitch on Opening Day because of tendinitis in his biceps. On April 6, Hamels pitched a rehab game in a Minor League Class A-Advanced game, striking out four while allowing two earned runs on three hits in four innings. He made his first start of the season on April 23.
Despite lack of run support contributing to a poor win–loss record, Hamels was among the best pitchers in the National League, and was even mentioned as a Cy Young candidate. On September 1, Hamels pitched six innings of a Phillies combined no-hitter against the Atlanta Braves. Hamels was pulled for a pinch hitter in the top of the seventh due to having five walks, a hit-batter, and 108 pitches through six innings. Overall, Hamels was the only consistent star on the Phillies, finished sixth in Cy Young voting, and was frequently mentioned as a candidate to be traded in the offseason to bolster the Phillies' lackluster farm system, after he avoided being dealt at the July trading deadline.
2015 season
At the start of the 2015 season, there was much focus and speculation regarding trade possibilities surrounding Hamels. The Boston Red Sox, Los Angeles Dodgers, Texas Rangers, Chicago Cubs, New York Yankees, and San Francisco Giants expressed interest in trading for him during the 2015 season.
On July 25, 2015, in what would be his final start for the Phillies before being traded, Hamels no-hit the Chicago Cubs 5–0 at Wrigley Field, striking out 13 and giving up only two walks, both to Dexter Fowler, and besting the Cubs' Jake Arrieta—himself a no-hit pitcher a month later, on August 30 of that season. It was the first no-hitter against the Cubs since Sandy Koufax's perfect game in 1965, and first at Wrigley since the Cubs' Milt Pappas in 1972. Hamels also joined Vida Blue, Mike Witt, Kent Mercker and Kevin Millwood as no-hit pitchers who also pitched in a combined no-hitter.
Texas Rangers
Remainder of 2015 season
On July 31, 2015, Hamels was traded to the Texas Rangers along with Jake Diekman in exchange for Matt Harrison, Nick Williams, Jorge Alfaro, Jake Thompson, Alec Asher, and Jerad Eickhoff. Hamels became the first pitcher to be traded during a regular season after pitching a no-hitter in his final start with the team that traded him. Bert Blyleven had been the last pitcher to pitch a no-hitter in his final start with the team that traded him; after pitching a no-hitter for the Rangers in his final start of the 1977 season, he was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates that offseason.
With the Rangers, Hamels went 7–1 in 12 starts with a 3.66 ERA. The Rangers were under .500 as late as August 3, but posted a winning record for the remainder of the 2015 season and eventually overtook the Houston Astros in September for the American League West division lead. The Rangers clinched the AL West title on the final day of the season, as Hamels threw a complete-game three-hitter in a 9–2 win over the Los Angeles Angels, the team's sixth division title and seventh postseason appearance in franchise history. Hamels' positive effect on the Rangers was compared to that of the Toronto Blue Jays' David Price, another ace starting pitcher who helped spearhead a run to the postseason after blending in seamlessly with a struggling team who acquired him at the trade deadline.
The Rangers lost to the Blue Jays in five games in the Division Series after squandering a 2–0 series lead. Hamels received a no-decision in Game 2 as he left the game tied, but the Rangers won in 14 innings. Hamels started Game 5, and was pulled in the bottom of the seventh inning while the Rangers were leading 3–2, after Ranger infielders allowed the first three Jays batters to reach base on three consecutive errors; the Jays subsequently scored four runs to win 6–3, and Hamels was charged with the loss as he was responsible for the runners on base. (Only two of the runs he was charged with surrendering were earned.)
2016 season
Hamels was named the Opening Day starter for the Rangers in 2016. On Opening Day, after allowing two home runs in two innings, Hamels calmed down to pitch seven strong innings, while only allowing two runs on four hits and eight strikeouts for a 2016 Opening Day win against the Seattle Mariners. On June 12, in a start against Seattle, Hamels recorded his 2,000th career strikeout, becoming the 77th player, and seventh active player, to reach the milestone. He was named to the 2016 MLB All-Star Game. On September 28, at home against the Milwaukee Brewers, Hamels claimed his 200th strikeout of the season.
Hamels finished the 2016 season with a 15–5 record and a 3.32 ERA in 32 starts. He led major league pitchers in percent of balls pulled against him (47.1%).
2017 season
On May 3, 2017, Hamels was placed on the 15-day disabled list due to a strained right oblique muscle. He was ruled out for eight weeks. In 24 starts for the 2017 season, he compiled an 11–6 record and a 4.20 ERA.
2018 season
Hamels opened the season as the Rangers' ace. In 20 starts, Hamels was 5–9 with a 4.72 ERA in innings.
Chicago Cubs
On July 27, 2018, Hamels was traded to the Chicago Cubs in exchange for Eddie Butler, Rollie Lacy, and Alexander Ovalles. He made his first appearance as a Cub on August 1, striking out nine. He gave up one unearned run and three hits in five innings, earning the win. On August 23, Hamels threw a complete game against the Cincinnati Reds, only allowing one run. Through his first five starts with the Cubs he was 4–0 with a 0.79 ERA, and the team won all five of the games.
For the 2018 season between the two teams, he was 9–12 with a 3.78 ERA, and led the major leagues in hit batsmen, with 19. He also led the majors in giving up the highest percentage of hard-hit balls (41.9%).
Hamels pitched in relief in the Cubs’ 2018 Wild Card loss to the Colorado Rockies. He allowed two hits and a walk over two scoreless innings.
For the 2019 season, he was 7–7 with a 3.81 ERA in 147.2 innings over 27 starts.
Atlanta Braves
On December 4, 2019, Hamels signed a one-year, $18 million free agent contract with the Atlanta Braves.
During spring training, Hamels suffered a shoulder injury and was not expected to be able to pitch at the start of the 2020 season. However, the COVID-19 pandemic delayed the start of the regular season until July 24, with Hamels expected to make the Opening Day roster.
In 2020, he made only one start, pitching innings and giving up three earned runs against the Baltimore Orioles on September 16.
Los Angeles Dodgers
On August 4, 2021, Hamels was signed by the Los Angeles Dodgers for $1 million through the remainder of the 2021 season, plus $200,000 for each game he started in the major leagues. However, he experienced arm pain while throwing a simulated game in Arizona and was placed on the 60-day injured list, ending his comeback attempt.
San Diego Padres
In an attempt to make a comeback to Major League Baseball, on February 16, 2023, Hamels signed a minor league contract with the San Diego Padres organization. On August 4, Hamels announced his retirement from professional baseball.
Scouting report
Hamels is known for possessing one of the better changeups in the game. In 2012, Fangraphs ranked Hamels as having the fourth best changeup in the game trailing only Jason Vargas, Tommy Milone, and Félix Hernández. The Hardball Times called his changeup a "killer" pitch to right-handed hitters, noting that while it is also effective against left-handed hitters, when they put it in play, they generally have success. Rangers pitching coach Mike Maddux said of Hamels,
The development of Hamels' changeup is attributed by his high school pitching coach, Mark Furtak, to his having broken his arm in high school. He could no longer work on his curveball for several months, and was forced to focus on the changeup. Chipper Jones, who was a star third baseman for the rival Atlanta Braves commented that Hamels is the "best left hander in the National League ... you have to respect his fastball, and his change-up is devastating. If you're guessing fastball and you get change-up, you're way out in front of it. His change-up is a soft sinker that just falls down." Aside from the changeup, he throws a four-seam fastball in the low 90s (can reach ), a cutter , and an "inconsistent" curveball that sometimes loops and other times is sharp, and hovers in the mid-70s (around ). Prior to the conception and advent of his cutter, he briefly threw a two-seam fastball around 2008 and 2009, before debuting his cutter in 2010. Once he obtained a "feel" for how to effectively utilize his cutter, it helped him increase his groundball rate (percentage of balls in play that were ground balls), to more than 50 percent in 2011.
Personal life
Family
Hamels, who is of Dutch descent, is the oldest of three children. He grew up in San Diego, where his parents still live. He and Heidi Strobel married on December 31, 2006. They lived with their children in a Newtown Square home that they built in 2014, but later put up for sale in 2021. They owned a home in Southlake, Texas. The family built a home in Branson, Missouri, but instead chose to relocate to Texas, and they then donated the home to Camp Barnabas, a camp for children with special needs.
The Hamels Foundation
Hamels resigned from the Hamels foundation in 2021, however Heidi continues to run the organization. The foundation was created in 2009. The Hamels Foundation funds childhood programs in Philadelphia and Africa.
In 2017, Hamels and Heidi donated their Missouri mansion, valued at an estimated $10 million, to Camp Barnabas, a Christian charity that runs camps for children with special needs and chronic illnesses. Hamels said in a statement, "There are tons of amazing charities in Southwest Missouri. Out of all of these, Barnabas really pulled on our heartstrings. Seeing the faces, hearing the laughter, reading the stories of the kids they serve; there is truly nothing like it. Barnabas makes dreams come true, and we felt called to help them in a big way."
See also
List of Major League Baseball annual shutout leaders
List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders
List of Major League Baseball career Wins Above Replacement leaders
List of Major League Baseball no-hitters
List of Major League Baseball pitchers who have thrown an immaculate inning
List of people from San Diego
List of Philadelphia Phillies award winners and league leaders
List of Philadelphia Phillies no-hitters
List of World Series starting pitchers
References
External links
Cole Hamels
1983 births
Living people
Baseball players from San Diego
American people of Dutch descent
American League All-Stars
National League All-Stars
World Series Most Valuable Player Award winners
National League Championship Series MVPs
Major League Baseball pitchers
Philadelphia Phillies players
Texas Rangers players
Chicago Cubs players
Atlanta Braves players
Clearwater Phillies players
Clearwater Threshers players
Reading Phillies players
Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons players
Lakewood BlueClaws players
Rancho Bernardo High School alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superman%20and%20Lois%20Lane
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Superman and Lois Lane
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Superman and Lois Lane are a fictional couple and the first superhero comic book romance. Created by writer Jerry Siegel and artist Joe Shuster, both characters including Superman's alter ego, Clark Kent, first appeared in DC Comics' Action Comics #1 (June 1938). They have remained in a complicated relationship ever since. A supercouple, they are among the best known fictional couples and have appeared in multiple media adaptations.
The characters' relationship was based for a long time in a love triangle in which Clark was interested in Lois who was smitten with the superhero Superman. Clark, unable to reveal to Lois that his mild-mannered demeanor was a ruse, was unable to compete for Lois' affection. The irony being he was his own rival in that Clark and Superman are, in fact, the same person. This love triangle and the dual identity were originally conceived in 1934. Following John Byrne's 1986 reboot, The Man of Steel, Clark's character became not only the more dominant personality of the Clark Kent/Superman character and more outgoing, aggressive, and assertive. This allowed a more natural romance to develop between Lois and Clark.
In the 1990s, Clark proposed marriage to Lois and revealed his identity as Superman to her. They began a long engagement, which was complicated by the death of Superman, a breakup, and several other problems. The couple married in Superman: The Wedding Album (December 1996). Clark and Lois' biological child in DC Comics canon was born in Convergence: Superman #2 (July 2015), a son named Jon Kent, who becomes Superboy.
Lois is the character most prominently featured with Superman, she appears in virtually every Superman comics and media adaptations and continues to be an essential part of the Superman mythos. Across decades of comics and other media adaptations, in some stories, Lois knows or suspects that Clark is Superman, sometimes this is explored for humour or plot development.
Creation
The characters, Superman/Clark Kent and Lois Lane, were created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. Superman was conceived as being like the ideal Hollywood romantic hero of the time, portrayed in films by actors such as Douglas Fairbanks, Clark Gable, and Rudolph Valentino. Siegel and Shuster were both fans of silent film actor Douglas Fairbanks, his films The Mark of Zorro (1920), Robin Hood (1922), and The Black Pirate (1926) became a huge influence on their writing and art on the Superman character. The idea of making Superman a visitor from another planet was inspired by Edgar Rice Burroughs' John Carter of Mars stories. Clark Kent's character grew out of Siegel and Shuster's own personal lives. His name is the combined names of actors Clark Gable and Kent Taylor. Clark Kent's demeanor was based on Harold Lloyd. Lois Lane was inspired by actress Glenda Farrell's portrayal of the fictional reporter Torchy Blane in a series of films. Siegel took her name from actress Lola Lane. Shuster based Lois Lane's physical appearance on a model name Joanne Carter. Carter later married co-creator Jerry Siegel in 1948.
On the conception of Superman's dual identity, Jerry Siegel said in the 1983 Nemo magazine interview: "That occurred to me in late 1934, when I decided that I'd like to do Superman as a newspaper strip. I approached Joe about it, and he was enthusiastic about the possibility. I was up late one night, and more and more ideas kept coming to me, and I kept writing out several weeks of syndicate scripts for the proposed newspaper strip. When morning came, I had written several weeks of material, and I dashed over to Joe's place and showed it to him. [This was the story that appeared in Action Comics #1, June, 1938, the first published appearance of Superman.] You see, Clark Kent grew not only out of my private life but also out of Joe's. As a high school student, I thought that some day I might become a reporter, and I had crushes on several attractive girls who either didn't know I existed or didn't care I existed. As a matter of fact, some of them looked like they hoped I didn't exist. It occurred to me: What if I was real terrific? What if I had something special going for me, like jumping over buildings or throwing cars around or something like that? Then maybe they would notice me. That night when all the thoughts were coming to me, the concept came to me that Superman could have a dual identity and that in one of his identities he could be meek and mild, as I was, and wear glasses, the way I do. The heroine, who I figured would be a girl reporter, would think he was some sort of a worm, yet she would be crazy about this Superman character who could do all sorts of fabulous things. In fact, she was real wild about him, and a big inside joke was that the fellow she was crazy about was also the fellow whom she loathed. By coincidence, Joe was a carbon copy [of me]."
Jerry Siegel objected to any proposal that Lois discovers Clark Kent is Superman because he felt that, as implausible as Clark's disguise is, the love triangle was too important to the stories appeal. Siegel stated: "If Lois should ACTUALLY learn Clark's secret, the strip would lose about 75% of its appeal—the human interest angle. I know that a formula can possibly prove monotonous through repetition but I fear that if this element is removed from the story formula that makes up SUPERMAN, that this strip will lose a great part of its effectiveness."
Comics
1938–1986
Superman/Clark Kent and Lois Lane first appeared in Action Comics #1 (June 1938), other than the fact that Superman had been rocketed to Earth as an infant, his complex backstory had yet to develop. The first story includes a sequence in which Clark behaved in a cowardly fashion, leaving Lois to defend herself against an aggressive man, from whom Superman later saves her. From then on, Clark was established as a shy man attracted to Lois, while she was interested in his heroic alter ego, Superman. This remained the status quo in the comics for decades, though Lois did warm up to Clark for the most part; yet their relationship could not really advance with Lois left out of Clark's secret and the Clark Kent persona is a disguise.
As early as the 1940s, Lois began to suspect that Clark Kent was Superman, the first such story appears in Superman #17 (July–August 1942) in a story titled "Man or Superman" by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. Across decades of comics, Lois would suspect Clark is Superman and tries to prove it, but Superman always thwarts her. This theme became particularly pronounced in the 1950s and 1960s comics. In the Bronze Age of Comic Books, Lois became more of a heroic figure, more independent of Superman and was less interested in his secret identity.
The first DC Comics story where Superman marries Lois Lane (not dreams, hoaxes or imaginary tales, but in DC canon) was in Action Comics #484 (June 1978). In this 40th anniversary of Superman issue, a wizard wanted to rid the world of Superman but had no idea that Superman had a secret identity. Clark, with no memory of being Superman and therefore no need to pretend to be a coward. The new take charge Clark Kent, who was fearless and bold, became very attractive to Lois Lane—proving that it was more about attitude and personality than superpowers that attracted her to Superman. Lois and the new Clark began dating, fell in love and eventually, he proposed the couple got married. On their honeymoon, when Lois saw Clark caught in a crossfire that should have killed him, but left no mark on him, she began to suspect he was really Superman. Lois tried to cut a lock of his hair, the scissors broke. As much as she loved Clark with no memory of being Superman, Lois knew that the world needed Superman and found the wizard who had cast the spell and had him reverse it. Clark remembered he was Superman but also his marriage to Lois. He took Lois to the Fortress of Solitude and married her again in a Kryptonian ceremony as Superman. From that point on, Lois and Clark/Superman of the alternate universe known as Earth-Two remained married in DC Comics. This version of the character stars in The Superman Family comic book in the series Mr. and Mrs. Superman, which feature the adventures of the Earth-Two Superman and his wife, Lois Lane Kent. The couple later appeared in the 2005 Infinite Crisis limited series.
In the main DC universe, things stay the same, Lois was still not allowed to discover Superman's dual identity. She loved Superman, but he said he belonged to the world and could not commit to anyone. In 1985, the DC universe went through a revamp with the Crisis on Infinite Earths limited series. The purpose of the year-long event was to get rid of some character histories, conflicting continuity, and overlapping worlds.
In the 1986 two-part story Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow? by Alan Moore and Curt Swan, that told the final tale of Superman (which was being rebooted following the events of Crisis on Infinite Earths, before his modern introduction in the John Byrne series). The story is a frame story set ten years after Superman was last seen, where Lois Lane recounts the end of Superman's career to a reporter. The story includes numerous attacks against Superman by his enemies, the public revelation of his secret identity as Clark Kent, and a number of deaths of his friends. At the end of the story, it is revealed that Lois' husband, the car mechanic Jordan Elliot is Superman. He is without powers and living as an ordinary man with Lois and their son Jonathan. The final image is of Jordan delivering a classic Superman wink to the reader, as he and Lois continue to "live happily ever after". The story was designed to honor the long history of the Superman character and serves as a complete conclusion to his mythology.
1986–2011
Following Crisis on Infinite Earths, DC Comics released six-issue limited series The Man of Steel by John Byrne. The series told the story of Superman's modern origin. Superman was now never Superboy in his youth, and Clark Kent became the real person and Superman the disguise. There was finally a setting in which Lois could logically fall in love with Clark Kent because he was the real person this time; although it would take years for Lois to have romantic feeling for Clark after he scooped her on the exclusive Superman story.
In Superman #44 (June 1990), the couple made peace and begin dating and fall in love. In Superman #50 (December 1990), Clark proposes to Lois, she accepts. Clark did not tell Lois his secret as the superhero Superman until weeks later in Action Comics #662 (February 1991). After contemplating the revelation and its implications, Lois decides it all comes down to love. She loves Clark and wants to spend the rest of her life with him.
Due to the upcoming television series Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, a chain of events were put into motion to prevent Clark and Lois in the comics from getting married until the TV couple was ready to get married. Superman was killed off by Doomsday in Superman #75 (January 1993). After a year of mourning, searching and resurrecting in The Death and Return of Superman storyline, Superman returned to the land of the living and the arms of Lois Lane. When Clark and Lois on the television series married in October 1996, so did their comic book counterpart in the special Superman: The Wedding Album (December 1996).
In 2006, the couple adopts a boy, the biological son of Kryptonian villains General Zod and Ursa and named him Chris Kent in the story arc Last Son. Although Clark is quick to embrace parenthood, Lois is more reluctant, until she sees how vulnerable and sweet Chris is, and the three of them become a happy family. When Zod invades Earth, during the battle, Chris along with his birth parents are sucked into the Phantom Zone, leaving Clark and Lois without their son and heartbroken. Chris later returned as a teenager under the guise of Nightwing.
In the 2009 Superman: Secret Origin, a six-part miniseries by Geoff Johns and Gary Frank that detailed Superman's new origin story (replacing Mark Waid's 2003 limited series Superman: Birthright) in the post-Infinite Crisis DC Universe. In the series, Lois becomes Clark's mentor when he begins his employment at the Daily Planet. The paper has been in financial trouble since Lex Luthor controls nearly every media outlet in Metropolis and the Daily Planet is the only major newspaper that directly attacks him. In Superman's first public appearance, he saves Lois when she falls off the LexCorp building. Understanding the flying hero's benevolence, Lois writes a positive article on him, which boosts the Daily Planets sales 700%. Eventually, Luthor becomes involved with General Sam Lane, Lois' father, so that they can defeat Superman, believing him to be an alien threat. Superman defeats Metallo, a U.S. soldier converted into a cyborg, and public opinion turns in Superman's favor. In the aftermath, Clark and Lois become friendly rivals, while Superman and Lois begin to develop mutual romantic feelings.
2011–present
In 2011, DC Comics rebooted its continuity with the New 52 relaunch. In the relaunch, Lois views Clark as a friend and respects him as a journalist, but regards him as a loner who has difficulty letting people get close to him and displays no existing knowledge of his dual identity. Superman Unchained, a nine-issue series by Scott Snyder and Jim Lee explores Clark's connection with Lois in the New 52.
Released in April 2015, the miniseries Convergence features a post-Crisis version of a married Superman and Lois Lane. The couple is expecting the impending birth of their child, and Superman has to protect the city after it was taken out of time by a powerful alternate version of Brainiac. Convergence shows the birth of their son, Jon Kent, Clark and Lois' biological child in DC Comics canon.
Following Convergence, DC announced a spin-off comic book series Superman: Lois and Clark. The eight-issue series debuting in October 2015 by Dan Jurgens and Lee Weeks is set several years after the Convergence event. The series focuses on Clark and Lois' relationship and their son Jon, living in the New 52 universe. Clark and Lois operating undercover- Superman discreetly helping out in a black variant of his suit and Lois writing exposes under the name 'Author X'.
In June 2016, DC relaunched its entire line of comic book titles with DC Rebirth. DC re-established Lois and Clark's relationship and marriage in DC continuity, along with their son Jonathan, who eventually becomes the newest Superboy in DC Comics.
The story arc Superman Reborn smooths over the discrepancies between the two versions of Superman and Lois Lane. According to Mr. Mxyzptlk, the creation of the New 52 caused Superman and Lois to be separated into two people: the New 52 characters that served as the protagonists of the Superman books in 2011-2015 and the post-Crisis characters that took part in the Convergence event and sired Jon. Mxyzptlk provides a meta-reference to their relationship and says he could not keep Superman and Lois apart when DC Comics could not; referencing the negative reactions from fans when DC dissolved their relationship at the beginning of the New 52. Thanks to Jon, the New 52 and post-Crisis counterparts of Superman and Lois merge into complete versions of themselves, rearranging their shared histories and accommodating them into the restored DC Universe.
The story of the Kents continues as Jor-El, Superman's biological father, re-surfaces on Earth and offers to bring Jonathan into space so he can teach the boy how to be a proper Kryptonian. Despite Clark's protests, Jon accepts his grandfather's proposal and Lois decides to stay at Jon's side, leaving Clark alone on Earth. Weeks later, Lois and Jon return to Earth, both initially remaining distant from Superman for different reasons: Lois is writing a book about her marriage with Superman and Jon has become a teenager over the course of his journey with Jor-El.
Radio
Aired from 1940 to 1951, the long-running radio serial The Adventures of Superman starring the DC Comics character Superman; for the bulk of the series run, Bud Collyer voiced Superman/Clark Kent, and Joan Alexander voiced Lois Lane.
Animations
Fleischer Superman cartoons
The first animated appearance of Superman, released in Technicolor by Paramount Pictures in a series of animated short films. They are collectively known as "The Fleischer Superman cartoons". A total of seventeen films were produced from 1941 to 1943. Fleischer Studios made the first nine animated short and Famous Studios produced the final eight. Superman, the first animated short was nominated for an Academy Award in 1942 and was voted #33 of the 50 Greatest Cartoons of all time. Bud Collyer voiced Superman/Clark Kent and Joan Alexander voiced Lois Lane.
Superman: The Animated Series
Superman: The Animated Series aired on Kids' WB from September 1996 to February 2000. Tim Daly voiced Superman/Clark Kent and Dana Delany as Lois Lane.
When developing the series, the producers made the decision to establish Lois as a character much more grounded in her Golden Age roots, that of a sharp, aggressive, and career-minded reporter who wasn't afraid to dig deep into the Metropolis dirt to gain a story, with Clark Kent as the voice of caution and reason in his alter-ego, and as the well-meaning, boy scout in his role as Superman.
In the series, already accustomed to a world filled with madmen, Superman's heroics in Metropolis do not impress Lois initially, and her professional rivalry with his alter-ego Clark Kent isn't any better. Lois is severely territorial over her stories and constantly teases Clark by calling him "Smallville" (a line adapted in the comics and the Smallville television series.)
Following a trip to an alternate universe in "Brave New Metropolis," Lois is surprised and dismayed to find Superman has sold out to Lex Luthor after her alternate self-was killed, finally beginning to realize she meant much more to Superman. After this version of Superman saved the world from Lex Luthor's dominion, Lois kissed him before returning to her own reality, becoming much closer to Superman afterward, aware of how delicate his feelings are. Lois also became more affectionate to Clark as the series progressed, confiding in him as a friend, though their rivalry at times became more heated on a personal basis because of this. In the three-part story "World's Finest," Bruce Wayne CEO of Wayne Enterprises arrived in Metropolis and starts a relationship with Lois. Lois actually considers moving to Gotham City, much to Clark's dismay. But Lois eventually learned that Bruce Wayne was the Gotham City vigilante Batman, and ended the relationship.
In "The Late Mr. Kent," Clark is forced to fake his death in order to sniff out an assassin who has targeted his alter-ego. Unaware of his survival, Lois takes the loss of her partner hard and becomes consumed with uncovering the truth behind his murder, enlisting Superman's help. Whilst investigating Clark's apartment, Lois breaks down, admitting to Superman that she respected and really liked Clark, but never told him. Lois and Superman continued to have a friendly, yet distanced relationship, neither really taking the first step until the events of the series finale "Legacy", where Superman is briefly turned against the world by Darkseid. After overcoming the threat of Apokolips yet again, Superman admits to Lois that it will take him a long time to restore humanity's faith in him; but Lois assures him he's already got one less human to worry about and kisses him. In the animated series Justice League Unlimited (where Superman was voiced by George Newbern), the two continue to date while Lois maintains a more amiable relationship with Clark.
My Adventures with Superman
Jack Quaid and Alice Lee voice Superman/Clark Kent and Lois Lane in the animated series My Adventures with Superman, which premiered on Adult Swim on July 6, 2023. The series follows the adventures of Clark, Lois and Jimmy Olsen as an investigative reporting team at the Daily Planet. It features a young Clark Kent, new to his powers, as he builds his secret Superman identity and embraces his role as the hero of Metropolis and the world, and Lois as a star investigative journalist. Sharing adventures, taking down bad guys, all the while falling in love with each other.
Films
1940s and 1950s Superman films
The first live-action appearance of Superman on film is the 1948 Columbia Pictures film serial Superman. The fifteen part black-and-white film stars Kirk Alyn as Superman/Clark Kent and Noel Neill as Lois Lane. Both actors returned in Columbia's second live-action Superman film, Atom Man vs. Superman (1950).
In the 1951 independent film, Superman and the Mole Men, Superman/Clark Kent was played by George Reeves and Phyllis Coates as Lois Lane.
Christopher Reeve Superman films
The film Superman was released by Warner Bros. in 1978, based on the DC Comics character. Christopher Reeve portrayed Superman/Clark Kent and Margot Kidder as Lois Lane. Directed by Richard Donner with music by John Williams, the film led to three theatrical sequels, Superman II (1980), Superman III (1983) and Superman IV: The Quest For Peace (1987). In 2006, Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut was released on DVD, featuring director Richard Donner's original vision for Superman II.
One of the most important aspects in the first and second films was the romantic relationship between the two main characters; Clark was hopelessly in love with Lois and even gave up his powers to be with her.
The relationship between Superman/Clark Kent and Lois Lane develops and grows over the first two films. In Superman, Lois meets Clark when he begins working at the Daily Planet newspaper. She is introduced to his Superman persona when he rescues her from a helicopter accident. Lois quickly becomes enamoured with Superman and accepts his offer to be interviewed for the newspaper. During the interview, she learns about Superman's homeworld, his abilities, and takes a fly in the sky over Metropolis. Lois later dies in an earthquake caused by Lex Luthor in the climax of the first film. Superman is so distraught by her death that he flies around the globe at supernatural speed, travelling backward in time and preventing the earthquake from occurring, saving Lois' life.
In Superman II, Lois becomes suspicious of Clark and eventually discovers he is Superman. Clark tells Lois more about himself, flying her to the Fortress of Solitude and revealing that he loves her. Wanting to spend his life with Lois, Clark uses a Kryptonian device to alter his DNA, making him human. Soon after, Clark and Lois learn that three Kryptonian have arrived on Earth and is threatening humanity. Clark decides to restore his powers and defeats the Kryptonians. Later, Clark finds Lois upset about knowing his secret and not being able to be open about her true feelings. Clark kisses Lois, using his abilities to wipe her mind of her knowledge of the past few days.
A different love interest for Superman played by Annette O'Toole was introduced in the third film. With Kidder returning as the female lead and Superman's love in Superman IV.
Superman Returns
The 2006 film Superman Returns serves as a homage sequel to the motion pictures Superman (1978) and Superman II (1980). Brandon Routh played the role of Superman/Clark Kent and Kate Bosworth as Lois Lane.
In the film, Superman has disappeared for many years. On his return to Earth, he finds the world he left behind has changed in ways he did not expect. Lois is a mother and is engaged to Richard White (Perry White's nephew). Lois and Richard's son, Jason White, is later revealed to be Superman's son after the child begins to show superpowers.
DC Extended Universe
Man of Steel
In 2013 Warner Bros. released Man of Steel, directed by Zack Snyder and produced by Christopher Nolan, and the first film in the DC Extended Universe. Henry Cavill stars in the title role as Superman/Clark Kent and Amy Adams as Lois Lane.
In Man of Steel, unlike in previous adaptations, Lois was made aware of Clark's identity as Superman very early on in the film. The traditional love triangle between Clark Kent, Lois Lane, and Superman was removed. This was part of an effort to reinvent Superman in the modern world. Warner Bros. initially questioned the decision, but screenwriter David S. Goyer insisted that Lois should know Clark's secret as Superman; because they are trying to depict Superman in a more realistic, more relatable way. Goyer said sidestepping the alter ego problem is not an issue with Lois. Moving forward, Lois will be Clark's secret keeper, and they will be in a real relationship.
Director Zack Snyder said Lois needed to be a match for Superman, a girl who intrigues him. Snyder describes Superman is "falling in love" with the reporter and affirm the bond between Clark and Lois is a vital part of the film. Producer Deborah Snyder said while Lois and Superman immediately click, their upbringings are on opposite ends of a cultural gulf that make their romance like the pairing of a country mouse with a city mouse. "The fact that he picks Lois makes him better. Because Lois is not the obvious choice. She's difficult, she's sophisticated, she's from the city, she's all the things that he's not. They make a really interesting couple, but a complicated couple," Deborah explained. Deborah also stated that although Superman saves Lois physically, she saves him emotionally.
Amy Adams saw a lot to like about Lois' straightforward approachability, a quality that would appeal to a Kansas farm boy. "I think there was a great juxtaposition between this sort of Man of Steel and woman of Earth," Adams said. Henry Cavill says it is essential for Lois to know Clark's secret and that she saves him just as much as he saves her. "I think the interaction between Lois and Superman is that she is obviously Superwoman, in a societal sense. And then she's finally found this one guy who can literally sweep her off her feet," Cavill said. Cavill also noted: "What is between Clark and Lois is a very personal thing. He opens her eyes to a world she didn't know existed and she opens his eyes to the idea of what he sees as a more normal existence."
In the film, Lois first meets Clark Kent in the Arctic, while writing a story about a scientific discovery of an unidentified object found in the Arctic ice. There, Lois follows Clark to the buried Kryptonian scout ship and became aware of his abilities, when Clark saved and heals her after she was attacked by a Kryptonian drone. Over the next several weeks Lois begins to search for Clark's identity, by tracking down his activities in the past few years. Lois eventually arrives in his hometown Smallville and speaks with his mother Martha Kent. Clark and Lois meet again in the Smallville cemetery. And after revealing to Lois about his father's death, Lois decides to keep Clark's identity a secret.
When General Zod arrives on Earth and demands the humans to surrender Kal-El (Clark), Lois is arrested by the FBI, on the belief, she knows the identity of Kal-El. Clark agrees to hand himself into the government in exchange for Lois' freedom. Later both Clark and Lois are taken to General Zod's ship and are interrogated by Zod's forces. Clark manages to defeat Zod's forces with the help of both Lois and Jor-El. At the battle of Metropolis Clark kissed Lois before Zod arrives and attacked him. Clark ultimately ended the fight by killing Zod, when Lois arrived she consoles him. Some time afterward, Clark decides to join the Daily Planet and is introduced to Lois as a new stringer, and Lois plays along with his new secret identity.
Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice
Amy Adams and Henry Cavill reprise their roles in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016). Clark and Lois are now dating and living together. Lois' connection to Superman has prompted some to use her against the Kryptonian hero, with Lex Luthor initiating his plan against Superman by arranging for Lois to be abducted by insurgents and threatened so that Superman's intervention would create a potential international incident. However, Clark's love for her also prompts him to regain faith in himself after failing to stop a bomb plot by Luthor, and ultimately convinces him to sacrifice himself to kill Doomsday and likely save the world, as his last words are "you are my world". At the end of the film, after Superman's death, Martha gives Lois an engagement ring which Clark originally planned to give her.
Justice League
Henry Cavill and Amy Adams reprise their roles in Justice League (2017). On what role does Lois Lane fulfill for Superman, Cavill stated that: "I think Lois was, and is, a true anchor for Superman, and she always has been."
Lois is still grieving over Clark's death and is writing fluff pieces for the Daily Planet. Batman and his allies decide to use the Mother Box to resurrect Superman to help them fight off Steppenwolf and his Parademon army (but also to restore hope to mankind). Superman is successfully resurrected, however, his memories have not returned and attacks the league. Lois becomes Batman's secret contingency plan and helps calm Superman down. Clark leaves with Lois to his family home in Smallville where he tries to recover his memories. Clark and Lois reaffirm their love for each other before Superman join the battle against Steppenwolf.
In Zack Snyder's 2021 director's cut of Justice League, Lois has stopped coming into her job at the Daily Planet due to her grief and visits Superman's monument in Heroes Park regularly until convinced by Martian Manhunter (posing as Martha Kent) to go back to work. After visiting the monument one last time, she witnesses Clark's revival and runs to him as he battles the other heroes. Lois is revealed to be pregnant with Clark's child, and Superman sensing her pregnancy helped calm him during the fight with the other heroes. The "Snyder Cut" and Batman v Superman both allude to a dark future timeline in which Darkseid takes over the world and enslaves Superman with the Anti-Life Equation after killing Lois.
DC Universe
Superman: Legacy
David Corenswet and Rachel Brosnahan will play Clark Kent/Superman and Lois Lane in the upcoming film Superman: Legacy.
Television series
Adventures of Superman
Adventures of Superman is an American television series in the 1950s. The show is the first live-action television series to feature the comic book character Superman and began filming in 1951. Sponsored by the cereal company Kellogg's, the series ran from September 1952 to April 1958 and starring George Reeves as Clark Kent/Superman and Phyllis Coates as Lois Lane in the first season. Noel Neill played Lois from seasons two to season six opposite Reeves.
The series follows Superman as he battles crooks, gangsters, and other villains in the city of Metropolis while masquerading as the Daily Planet reporter Clark Kent. Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen, Clark's colleagues at the office, often find themselves in dangerous situations which can only be resolved with Superman's timely intervention.
Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman
Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman is a live-action television series in the 1990s, based on the comic book character Superman. The series takes us from the moment Clark Kent/Superman arrives in Metropolis and applies for a job at the Daily Planet, to his first meeting with Lois Lane, through to their romantic relationship and eventual marriage.
The series ran from 1993 to 1997 and stars Dean Cain as Superman/Clark Kent and Teri Hatcher as Lois Lane. The show loosely followed John Byrne's six-issue comic book series, The Man of Steel, which significantly rewrote Superman's origin, with Clark Kent as the true personality and Superman a disguise. The main characteristic of this series is that it gave special focus on the relationship between Clark and Lois.
In the series, Jonathan and Martha Kent witness the crash-landing of a small spaceship in Shuster's Field near Smallville, Kansas in 1966. When they investigate the craft, they discover the baby Kal-El and decide to raise him as their own, naming him Clark Jerome Kent. 27 years later, Clark moves to Metropolis and gets a job at the Daily Planet. There, he is partnered with Lois Lane, who at first considers him little more than a pest. Eventually, the two fall in love and marry, after a turbulent courtship: including Lois being kidnapped by Lex Luthor and replaced with a frog eating clone, Lois suffering from amnesia, and Clark being called away to serve as a leader on New Krypton. Clark and Lois finally get married in the episode "Swear to God, This Time We're Not Kidding." Their marriage on the television series was timed to coincide with the release of the comic book special Superman: The Wedding Album, which depicts the couple's wedding in DC Comics.
Smallville
The television series Smallville aired from 2001 to 2011, began with a teenage Clark Kent (Tom Welling) learning to balance the demands of his powers with his desire to lead a normal life. Lois Lane (Erica Durance) was introduced as Chloe Sullivan's cousin in the fourth season. Clark and Lois first develop a friendship, and in the later seasons, a romantic relationship with Clark gradually falls in love with Lois and eventually reveals his alien origin to her. From the moment Lois was introduced to the series, Clark and Lois' future romance was foreshadowed throughout the series, including Lois revealing that a fortune teller once told her that she was destined to fall for a guy who flies a lot and likes to wear tights, or saying she prefers geeks in glasses. And numerous other hints and comments made by Clark or Lois and other characters on the show.
Lois appears in the season 4 premiere episode "Crusade". Her character was initially only allowed to appear on the show for four episodes, with her appearances eventually expanded to twelve episodes. Smallville producer Jeph Loeb revealed that the showrunners wanted Clark and Lois to have a 1930s banter similar to Katharine Hepburn and Cary Grant.
In season 5, series producer Darren Swimmer describes the relationship between Clark and Lois in the fifth season as "a bit of a melting of the ice". The two characters continue to "butt heads", but the audience can see where there is a growing attraction and that either would be there for the other in a time of need. Erica Durance feels that in season five it is not yet clear if either character realizes the attraction, but the joking between the two characters represents a foreshadowing of a greater relationship. Durance sees season five as being too soon for the characters to be "in-love" because they are still getting to know each other.
In season 6, the relationship between Clark and Lois is still undefined for the audience. Erica Durance described the relationship between Clark and Lois in season six as something neither character wanted to put an official label on. The pair has learned to deal with each other's "quirks", but there are still moments that both feel uncomfortable with. Durance believes that Clark and Lois are satisfied with identifying with a "brother-sister friendship" label, rather than trying to discover how they both truly feel about each other. Writer Brian Peterson describes Lois' relationship with Oliver Queen in season six as a precursor to her future relationship with Clark. Peterson sees the dynamic between Lois and Oliver—with Lois willingness to accept Oliver's secret identity as Green Arrow—mirroring the relationship Lois will have with Clark. In the episode "Hydro", Clark and Lois share their first kiss. However, Lois was unaware that she was kissing Clark, as he was disguising himself as Green Arrow (Oliver, Lois' boyfriend at the time). In the episode "Crimson", Clark is infected by Red Kryptonite (which in the series removes his inhibitions) Clark's action, behavior and his conversation with his mother, shows that he was attracted to Lois at some level.
In season 7, Clark and Lois made a huge progression in their relationship. In the episode "Siren", Lois (after breaking up with Oliver Queen) in a very emotionally vulnerable state told Clark that she knows what it's like to love someone who has a destiny greater than her own. In the episode "Apocalypse" (which heavily underlines the Superman mythos) Jor-El sent Clark to an alternate reality where Clark never came to Earth, and Lois meeting Clark Kent for the first time at the Daily Planet and the two character have an instant attraction to each other. And Clark exposing his powers to save Lois' life and working with her to stop president Lex Luthor's plans for world domination.
In season 8, Clark and Lois took another crucial step towards their relationship, with Clark start to work at the Daily Planet working alongside Lois. The writers for the series stated that in season eight, Lois finds out about her true feelings towards Clark. Erica Durance describes season eight as a lesson in duality, with Clark realizing that he has to be two different people if he wants to have a life and save the day. Durance believes that the same applies to Lois. Durance explains, "[Lois has] got her confidence as a journalist and on the inside, she's going oh my god I'm truly in love with [Clark], more in love than I've ever been with anyone." In the episode "Instinct", Maxima, an alien princess who came to Earth to seek a suitable mate, chose Clark. When Lois broke Maxima's spell over Clark, Maxima confronts Lois; saying that Clark's attraction to Lois and the bond between them was the only way that Clark was able to resist her spell. In the episode "Committed", Lois was put under a lie detector test by a serial killer and admitted that she was in love with Clark. In the episode "Bride", the two shared many moments of attraction towards each other and almost sharing a kiss, but was interrupted by the return of Lana. At the end of the season, Lois was sent to the future. Clark believing Lois was killed in Doomsday's attack on the city (this and the death of Jimmy Olsen) leads him to leave behind his human identity and fully embrace only his Kryptonian side.
In season 9, Lois returns to the present in the episode "Savior" but has lost her memory of when and where she has been. Lois' reappearance breaks Clark's self-imposed exile, prompting him to return to the Daily Planet. Soon, the two were seen flirting much more. In the first nine episodes, Lois is seen having dreams and visions of the future, which includes her and Clark making love. In the episode "Crossfire", Clark finally shows his true feeling for Lois and kissed her, which Lois reciprocated in the episode "Idol". In the episode "Pandora", the truth of what Lois saw in her visions is revealed. At the end of the episode, Clark and Lois decide to become an official couple. Throughout the rest of season nine, the two took slow steps in their relationship because both want this relationship to be the one they "got right". In the season finale episode "Salvation", as the Blur, Clark kissed Lois and she discovers his secret as the superhero vigilante, the Blur. It is made clear in the season ten premiere episode "Lazarus" Clark doesn't realize that Lois knows his secret.
In season 10, several new milestones occurred in their relationship; from "I love you" exchanged, Clark revealing his secret as the Blur to Lois, to them consummating their love. In the episode "Ambush", it is implied that Clark asked Sam Lane (Lois' father) for her hand in marriage. Clark reveals the engagement ring in the episode "Abandoned" and proposed to Lois in the episode "Icarus", which Lois happily accepts. Over the course of the season, the two grow closer than ever, learning to rely on each other and help each other through challenges both normal and super. Their wedding ceremony occurred in the series finale, only to be interrupted by the coming of Darkseid and his planet Apokolips. Clark defeated the evil entity and saved the world, and finally becomes Superman. A flash forward to the future depicts Clark and Lois working as reporters seven years later at the Daily Planet and still trying to find the right time to get married.
In 2019, Durance and Welling reprised their roles as Lois and Clark in the Arrowverse crossover event "Crisis on Infinite Earths". Set ten years after the Smallville series, Lois and Clark are now married with young daughters, and Clark gave up his superpowers to be with his family.
Arrowverse
Tyler Hoechlin portrayed Superman/Clark Kent with Elizabeth Tulloch as Lois Lane in The CW Arrowverse television series. Superman was introduced in the second season of Supergirl. Lois first appeared in the 2018 crossover event "Elseworlds" in the series The Flash and Supergirl.
The executive producers stated that Clark and Lois have a strong partnership. Tyler Hoechlin says Clark and Lois "obviously have a very strong relationship that's been going like that for a while. It's deeper into the relationship, so there's that comfortability factor and they know each other so well. They really kind of have a life together."
When Superman arrives in National City in the episode "The Adventures of Supergirl", Clark and Lois were first mentioned as being a couple. In the episode "Nevertheless, She Persisted", Clark reveals to Kara that his love for Lois motivates him in every fight. Whenever he fights, no matter who it's against or where it is, his always fighting for Lois. He fights with Lois in his heart. The people we love is another secret to the superpower.
In The Flash episode "Elseworlds" part 1, Kara Danvers/Supergirl is visiting her cousin on the Kent farm in Smallville to seek advice and spend time with Clark and Lois, who recently visited Argo City to learn more about the Kryptonian culture, with Lois intent to write an article detailing their visit, despite Clark's objections. When Oliver Queen and Barry Allen with swapped abilities arrives at the Kent farm on Earth-38 to get help from Kara, she introduces them to Clark and Lois. When Cisco Ramon arrives to inform them about the Amazo rampage in Central City, Clark leaves with them to join the fight.
In the Supergirl episode "Elseworlds" part 3, Lois, wielding a lightning hammer and Superman go to Earth-1 to assists Supergirl, Green Arrow, Brainiac 5, J'onn J'onzz, and the Flash in fighting John Deegan in the form of a black suit-wearing Superman. After defeating John Deegan and returning to Earth-38, Clark and Lois reveal to Kara that Lois is pregnant and they will be returning to Argo City for an extended period, leaving Kara to defend the Earth. Later, at the Fortress of Solitude, Clark proposes to Lois with a diamond ring made from coal. She happily accepts and kisses him.
In the 2019 crossover "Crisis on Infinite Earths", Lois and Clark are married and is living on Argo City with their infant son Jonathan. The couple and their son evacuated to Earth and helped the earth's heroes defeated the Anti-Monitor. Following the crisis, the multiverse is restored but changed, with Lois and Clark now have two sons.
Superman & Lois
In 2021, Tyler Hoechlin and Elizabeth Tulloch reprise their roles as Superman/Clark Kent and Lois Lane in the television series Superman & Lois. Jordan Elsass and Alexander Garfin play Lois and Clark's teenage sons Jonathan Kent and Jordan Kent. The series follows the life and adventures of Clark and Lois as they deal with all the stress, pressures and complexities that come with being working parents in today's society.
In popular culture
In the movie Mermaids (1990) Kate Flax asked her sister Charlotte if her boyfriend ever kissed her like Superman kisses Lois Lane.
"Deeply Dippy" by the English band Right Said Fred featured on the album Up includes a line "I'm your Superman, I'll explain you're my Lois Lane."
In the Seinfeld episode "The Race," Jerry dates a woman named Lois and enjoys frequently using her first name and slyly making Superman-related references in her presence.
In the Seinfeld episode "The Face Painter," George discovers that a woman he is dating is deaf in one ear and therefore might not have heard him tell her he loves her. "Don't you see what this means?" he says. "It's like the whole thing never happened. It's like when Superman reversed the rotation of the Earth to save Lois Lane!"
In Sabrina, the Teenage Witch episode "Super Hero," Sabrina's boyfriend Harvey became the superhero "Mighty Teen." After rescuing Sabrina, Harvey tells Sabrina "you're my world." Sabrina replies "now I know why Superman ruined Lois for other men."
"Lois Lane" by British indie rock band Farrah from the album Moustache includes the line "If you'll be my Lois Lane, I'll be your Superman, if you'd only call my name, I'd be your Superman."
The song "Invincible" by Emma Bunton from the single, Take My Breath Away, includes the line "Like Superman and Lois Lane, we are just as strong, we are just the same."
"100 Ways" by former 'N Sync member JC Chasez featured on the album Schizophrenic in a line referencing sexual roleplay "I'll be your Superman, and you play Lois Lane."
"Superman" a song by the band Stereophonics on their album Language. Sex. Violence. Other? has the line "Superman on an airplane, sitting next to Lois Lane."
"Love Fight" a song by Dannii Minogue featured on the album The Hits & Beyond has the line "Heavy breathing always makes me feel like I'm Lois with the Man of Steel."
"Superman" by Robin Thicke from his album The Evolution of Robin Thicke has the line "I'm a Superman thanks to Lois Lane."
"Love the Way You Lie" by Eminem and Rihanna featured on his album Recovery includes the line "Cuz when it's going good, it's going great, I'm Superman with the wind in his back, she's Lois Lane."
The poem "I'm a Superman, thanks to Lois Lane" by Rudy Francisco (featured in Keone Madrid's dance video Lois Lane) includes the line "Superman... The Man of steel, Big Blue, the last son of Krypton, he is faster than a speeding bullet, stronger than a locomotive, he has Lasers for eyes, X-ray vision and can fly without even flapping his arms, but his most notable power... was Lois Lane, the love of an amazing woman is a phone booth, that can turn a man from a spineless news reporter into a symbol of justice, into the reason why it's safe to walk outside while the sun is sleeping."
The song "Superhero" by 5 Seconds of Summer includes the line "She met him on the staircase, like Kent and Lois Lane."
"Lois Lane" a song by pop artist Noelle Bean includes the line "I'm so happy, and now we're flying, like Superman and Lois Lane".
The poem "To Lois" by Shane Koyczan is a love letter from Superman to Lois Lane, written from Clark's perspective as he expresses his love, fear, and hope.
References
External links
Clark and Lois at Smallville Wiki
Redboots History of Lois and Clark
1938 comics debuts
Superman
Love stories
Fictional married couples
Superman characters
Lois Lane
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii%20Remote
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Wii Remote
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The Wii Remote, also known colloquially as the Wiimote, is the primary game controller for Nintendo's Wii home video game console. An essential capability of the Wii Remote is its motion sensing capability, which allows the user to interact with and manipulate items on screen via motion sensing, gesture recognition, and pointing which is used for the console, using accelerometer and optical sensor technology. It is expandable by adding attachments. The attachment bundled with the Wii console is the Nunchuk, which complements the Wii Remote by providing functions similar to those in gamepad controllers. Some other attachments include the Classic Controller, Wii Zapper, and the Wii Wheel, which has originally been used for the racing game, Mario Kart Wii.
The controller was revealed at both E3 2005 and E3 2006 and the Tokyo Game Show on September 14, 2005, with the name "Wii Remote" announced April 27, 2006. It received much attention due to its unique features, not supported by other gaming controllers.
The Wii's successor console, the Wii U, supports the Wii Remote and its peripherals in games where use of the features of the Wii U GamePad is not mandated. The Wii U's successor, the Nintendo Switch, features a follow-up named Joy-Con.
History
Development of a motion-enabled controller began when development of the Wii console started in 2001. In that year, Nintendo licensed a number of motion-sensing patents from Gyration Inc., a company that produces wireless motion-sensing computer mice. Gyration had previously pitched their idea and patents of a motion controller to Sony and Microsoft, who both declined. Nintendo then commissioned Gyration to create a one-handed controller for it, which eventually became the "Gyropod", a more traditional gamepad which allowed its right half to break away for motion-control. At this point, Gyration brought in a separate design firm, Bridge Design, to help pitch its concept to Nintendo. Under requirement to "roughly preserve the existing Game Cube button layout", it experimented with different forms "through sketches, models and interviewing various hardcore gamers". By "late 2004, early 2005", however, Nintendo had come up with the Wii Remote's less traditional "wand shape", and the design of the Nunchuk attachment. Nintendo had also decided upon using a motion sensor, infrared pointer, and the layout of the buttons, and by the end of 2005 the controller was ready for mass production.
During development of the Wii Remote, video game designer Shigeru Miyamoto brought in mobile phones and controllers for automotive navigation systems for inspiration, eventually producing a prototype that resembled a cell phone. Another design featured both an analog stick and a touchscreen, but Nintendo rejected the idea of a touchscreen on the controller, "since the portable console and living-room console would have been exactly the same". Coincidentally, this idea would later be implemented on the Wii U's GamePad controller, as well as the Nintendo Switch.
Sources also indicate that the Wii Remote was originally in development as a controller for the GameCube, rather than the Wii. Video game developer Factor 5 stated that during development of launch title Star Wars Rogue Squadron II: Rogue Leader, it had an early prototype of a motion-sensing controller. Video game journalist Matt Casamassina, from gaming website IGN, stated that he believed that Nintendo had planned to release the Wii Remote for the GameCube, noting that "Nintendo said that it hoped that GCN could enjoy a longer life cycle with the addition of top-secret peripherals that would forever enhance the gameplay experience." He suggested that Nintendo may have wanted to release the Wii Remote with a new system, instead of onto the GameCube, as "[the] Revolution addresses one of the GameCube's biggest drawbacks, which is that it was/is perceived as a toy." Images of the GameCube prototype of the Wii Remote, including the Nunchuk, were found online in October 2018 when one of the prototypes was made available through an online auction.
Counterfeit units
As the Wii gained in popularity, reports surfaced of counterfeit Wii Remotes entering circulation. Although these devices may provide the same functionality as official Wii Remotes, the build quality is typically inferior and components such as the rumble pack and speaker are noticeably different. It is also unclear whether official accessories operate correctly with counterfeit units due to the differences in internal components.
Design
The Wii Remote assumes a one-handed remote control-based design instead of the traditional gamepad controllers of previous gaming consoles. This was done to make motion sensitivity more intuitive, as a remote design is fitted perfectly for pointing, and in part to help the console appeal to a broader audience that includes non-gamers. The body of the Wii Remote is long, wide, and thick. The Wii Remote model number is RVL-003, a reference to the project code-name "Revolution". The controller communicates wirelessly with the console via short-range Bluetooth radio, with which it is possible to operate up to four controllers at a distance of up to 10 metres (30 ft) from the console. The Wii Remote communicates with the Sensor Bar by infrared, providing pointing functionality over a distance of up to five metres (16 ft) from Wii Remote to Sensor Bar. The controller can be used in either hand; it can also be turned horizontally and used like a Famicom/NES controller, or in some cases (including Excite Truck, Sonic and the Secret Rings, Mario Kart Wii, and Sonic & Sega All-Stars Racing) a steering wheel. It is also possible to play a single-player game with a Wii Remote in each hand, as in the Shooting Range game contained in Wii Play.
At E3 2006, a few minor changes were made to the controller from the design presented at the Game Developer's Conference. The controller was made slightly longer, and a speaker was added to the face beneath the center row of buttons. The button became more curved resembling a trigger. The "Start" and "Select" buttons were changed to plus and minus , and the and buttons were changed to and to differentiate them from the and buttons, while also evoking the keypad of typical television remotes. Also, the symbol on the button was changed from a blue dot to a shape resembling a home/house, the shape of was made circular rather than rectangular, and the blue LEDs indicating player number are now labeled using 1 to 4 small raised dots instead of numbers 1 to 4, resembling the dots used to mark the four controller ports of the GameCube console. The Nintendo logo at the bottom of the controller face was replaced with the Wii logo. Also, the expansion port was redesigned, with expansion plugs featuring a smaller snap-on design. The Wii Remote had the capability of turning the main console's power on or off remotely with a power button, further reinforcing the impression that it looks like a television remote.
The blue LEDs also indicate the battery's state: on pressing any button (other than the power button) while the controller is not being used to play games, four LEDs flash to indicate full battery, three for 75%, two for 50%, and one for 25% life remaining.
Similarities have been noted between the Wii Remote and an early Dreamcast controller prototype.
In the Red Steel trailer shown at E3 2006, the Wii Remote had a smaller circular shaped image sensor instead of the larger opaque IR filters shown on other versions. In the initial teaser video that revealed the controller at Tokyo Game Show 2005, the 1 and 2 buttons were labeled X and Y.
Strap
The Wii Remote has a wrist strap attached to the bottom to prevent it from flying away during game action if not held securely. The wrist strap is tied with a cow hitch knot. Every Wii game contains safety warnings concerning wrist strap use during its startup sequence and also at or near the beginning of its instruction booklet (even if the game does not use motion controls). The latter is a word-for-word reproduction of a standard wrist strap warning notice established by Nintendo. The wrist strap is also used to restrain the Nunchuk's connector by its hook, safely slowing any sudden movement of the Nunchuk's cord if the connector is forcibly disconnected. In spite of widespread wrist strap safety notices, there are certain Wii games, in whole or part, that are played by moving the Wii Remote in such a way that would be hindered by a wrist strap, such as Let's Tap, most House Party games in Wii Party and the Treasure Twirl game in Wii Play Motion. In such games or game modes, on-screen prompts, as well as instruction booklet text, will specifically state that they must be played without the wrist strap.
Video game web site IGN reported that the strap tends to break under heavy use, which would potentially send the Wii Remote flying. WarioWare: Smooth Moves also sometimes requires the Wii Remote to be dropped, which would cause problems in the event of a strap failure. In response, Nintendo has posted guidelines on proper use of the strap and the Wii Remote. On December 8, 2006, units with thicker straps began to appear in some areas of the world. On December 15, 2006, Nintendo denied reports of a Wii wrist strap recall. While Nintendo denied claims that three million straps had been recalled, it replaced broken wrist straps free of charge. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission became involved in the "replacement program". The old diameter strap is replaced by a larger, diameter version. Nintendo's online "Wrist Strap Replacement Request Form" allows owners to receive up to four free straps when a Wii serial number and shipping details are provided.
On August 3, 2007, a new wrist strap was found to be supplied, with a lock clip instead of a movable slide to prevent the strap from working loose during prolonged play; the lock clip strap became the standard form.
In 2012 with the launch of the Wii U, the wrist strap was once again updated to allow users to push the sync button through the new jackets and battery covers.
Jacket
Nintendo announced a free accessory for the Wii Remote, the Wii Remote Jacket, on October 1, 2007. The removable silicone sleeve wraps around the Wii Remote to provide a better grip, and cushioning to protect the Wii Remote if dropped. Nintendo started including the jacket with the controller on October 15, 2007. The safety jacket included with every Wii Remote is usually translucent. However, for black Wii Remotes and red Wii Remote Plus controllers, the safety jacket would be of the same color.
The original Wii MotionPlus accessory also comes with a built-in safety jacket that is unsafe to remove, according to Nintendo.
Colors
At the E3 2006 trade show, Nintendo displayed white, black, and blue controllers; press images released for the event featured white, red, silver, lime green, and black versions. The Wii console and controllers launched in only white versions, with Shigeru Miyamoto commenting that new hues would be provided when supplies became available.
On June 4, 2009, Nintendo revealed that it would release black versions of the Wii, Wii Remote, Nunchuk, and Classic Controller PRO in Japan on August 1, 2009. Each black Wii Remote includes a matching solid-black Wii Remote Jacket. In addition, Club Nintendo in Japan held a contest between June 25, 2009, and August 31, 2009, wherein members who purchased and registered a copy of Wii Sports Resort would be entered into a draw to win one of 5,000 blue controller sets. Each set included a Wii Remote, Wii MotionPlus, and Nunchuk, all in a sky blue color referred to as Mizuiro and distinct from other blue Wii Remotes.
For North America, Nintendo announced on September 1, 2009, that black versions of the Wii Remote, Wii MotionPlus, and Nunchuk would be released during the holiday season. On November 16, 2009, the black Wii Remote and Wii MotionPlus was released as a bundle, and the black Nunchuk was released as a standalone purchase.
Blue and pink Wii Remotes were released in Japan on December 3, 2009. In North America, the blue and pink Wii Remotes were released February 14, 2010, in a bundle with a standard white Wii MotionPlus.
In Australia, the black, blue and pink versions of the Wii Remotes were released on February 25, 2010. In addition, the black Nunchuk and black Wii MotionPlus were also released on that day as well.
When Nintendo released the Wii Remote Plus in late 2010, which featured built-in Wii MotionPlus technology, it would initially be available in the same four standard Wii Remote colors, plus a special red variant that was included with red Wii consoles manufactured to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Mario series. In the years that followed, Nintendo released more Wii Remote Plus color schemes based on its first-party game franchises.
Home Menu
Accessed with the Wii Remote's Home button, the Home Menu displays information about the controller(s) currently being used, and allows the user to configure certain options. At the bottom of the menu screen, the battery life of all connected controllers is displayed. Below that is a bar labeled Wii Remote Settings. Selecting it brings users to an options screen where they can control the audio output volume, rumble settings, and reconnect the controllers, for example to connect Wii Remotes through one-time synchronization. Depending on when the Home Menu is accessed, a different number of buttons are displayed.
Wii Menu: No matter when the menu is accessed, the Wii Menu button will always be present. Selecting this will exit a game or a Wii Menu channel and return the player to the Wii Menu, where users can choose another channel. When playing certain Virtual Console titles, with the exception of the Nintendo 64 and Neo Geo, this will also create a suspend point.
Reset: In applications and games (both retail and downloadable), the Reset button is available. This performs a soft reset of that particular application, for example returning a game to its title screen or the loading screen of a Wii Menu channel, the same as what would happen if the player were to press the console's physical reset button.
Operations Guide: On Wii Menu channels, including the News Channel, Forecast Channel, Internet Channel, Everybody Votes Channel, certain WiiWare titles and Virtual Console titles, the Operations Guide button appeared on the Home Menu. The guide accessed acts as an instruction manual for the game being played.
The Home Menu can be compared to the Xbox 360's in-game menu (accessed by pressing the "Xbox" button), or the PlayStation 3's mid-game XMB. It may be accessed under most circumstances during Wii operation, which pauses the on-screen action. Otherwise, a "home" symbol with a no symbol on it appears onscreen. It is also inaccessible during Nintendo GameCube play, as the Wii Remote cannot control Nintendo GameCube software.
Features
Sensing
The Wii Remote has the ability to sense acceleration along three axes through the use of Analog Devices MEMS-based three-dimensional accelerometers.
The Wii Remote also has a PixArt optical sensor that allows it to determine where it is pointing. Unlike a light gun that senses light from a television screen, the Wii Remote senses light from the console's Sensor Bar (RVL-014), which allows consistent usage not influenced by the screen used. The Sensor Bar is about long and has ten infrared LEDs, five at each end of the bar. The LEDs farthest from the center are pointed slightly outwards, the LEDs closest to the center are pointed slightly inwards, while the rest are pointed straight forward. The Sensor Bar's cable is in length. The bar may be placed above or below the television, centered horizontally, in line with the front of the television or the front of the surface the television is placed on. The Remote should be pointed approximately towards the Sensor Bar; precise pointing is not necessary so long as it is within the limited viewing angle of the Wii Remote.
Use of the Sensor Bar allows the Wii Remote to be used as an accurate pointing device up to 5 meters (approx. 16 ft) away from the bar. The Wii Remote's image sensor is used to locate the Sensor Bar's points of light in the Wii Remote's field of view. The light emitted from each end of the Sensor Bar is focused onto the image sensor which sees the light as two bright dots separated by a distance "mi" on the image sensor. The second distance "m" between the two clusters of light emitters in the Sensor Bar is a fixed distance. From these two distances m and mi, the Wii CPU calculates the distance between the Wii Remote and the Sensor Bar using triangulation. Rotation of the Wii Remote with respect to the ground can also be calculated from the relative angle of the two dots of light on the image sensor. Games can be programmed to sense whether the image sensor is covered, which is demonstrated in a microgame featured in launch title WarioWare: Smooth Moves, where if the player does not uncover the sensor the champagne bottle that the remote represents will not open.
The Sensor Bar is required when the Wii Remote is controlling up-down, left-right motion of a cursor or reticle on the TV screen to point to menu options or objects such as enemies in first-person shooters. Some Wii games that depend on infrared pointing, such as The Conduit and The House of the Dead 2 & 3 Return, allow the player to calibrate the Wii Remote's pointer in-game. Because the Sensor Bar allows the Wii Remote to calculate the distance between the Wii Remote and the Sensor Bar, the Wii Remote can also control slow forward-backward motion of an object in a 3-dimensional game. Rapid forward-backward motion, such as punching in a boxing game, is controlled by the acceleration sensors. Using these acceleration sensors (acting as tilt sensors), the Wii Remote can also control rotation of a cursor or other objects.
The use of an infrared sensor to detect position can cause some detection problems in the presence of other infrared sources, such as incandescent light bulbs or candles. This can be alleviated by using fluorescent or LED lights, which emit little to no infrared light, around the Wii. Innovative users have used other sources of IR light, such as a pair of flashlights or a pair of candles, as Sensor Bar substitutes. The Wii Remote picks up traces of heat from the sensor, then transmits it to the Wii console to control the pointer on your screen. Such substitutes for the Sensor Bar illustrate the fact that a pair of non-moving lights provide continuous calibration of the direction that the Wii Remote is pointing and its physical location relative to the light sources. There is no way to calibrate the position of the cursor relative to where the user is pointing the controller without the two stable reference sources of light provided by the Sensor Bar or substitutes. Third-party wireless sensor bars have also been released, which have been popular with users of Wii emulators since the official Sensor Bar utilizes a proprietary connector to connect to the Wii console.
The position and motion tracking of the Wii Remote allows the player to mimic actual game actions, such as swinging a sword or aiming a gun, instead of simply pressing buttons. An early marketing video showed actors miming actions such as fishing, cooking, drumming, conducting a musical ensemble, shooting a gun, sword fighting, and performing dental surgery.
The LEDs can be seen by some digital cameras, phone cameras, and other devices with a wider visible spectrum than the human eye.
Controller feedback
The Wii Remote provides basic audio and rumble (vibration) functionality, but the Nunchuk does not. At the 2006 E3 press conference, it was revealed that the Wii Remote has its own independent speaker on the face of the unit. This was demonstrated by a developer as he strung and shot a bow in The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess. The sound from both the Wii Remote and television was altered as the bow shot to give the impression of the arrow traveling away from the player. In addition to reproducing certain in-game sound effects that reflect the on-screen action, the Wii Remote speaker can also function as a voice receiver through which non-player characters can speak to the player with long-distance telecommunication, featured in games like Red Steel, Real Heroes: Firefighter and GoldenEye 007. Some party games and hotseat multiplayer games also utilize the speaker to indicate changes between player turns. The volume can be changed or muted with the "Home" button and selecting the corresponding controller icon at the bottom of the screen; if the speaker is muted, any sounds intended to be emitted from the speaker will come from the television in most cases. The rumble feature can also be switched on or off using the Home Menu.
Memory
The Wii Remote contains a 16 KiB EEPROM chip of which a section of 6 kilobytes can be read and written to by the host. Part of this memory is available to store up to ten Mii avatars, which can be transported to use with another Wii console (but it can be used to upload Miis to the Mii Parade and keep it on the console (by copying Mii to remote, moving Mii to parade from console, and then moving from remote to the console)). 4,000 bytes are available for game use before the Mii data. Pokémon Battle Revolution and Super Swing Golf also use this memory. This function is also used in Super Smash Bros. Brawl, allowing the user to save controller configuration data to the Wii Remote. Monster Hunter Tri also uses this function by allowing players to save their profiles to the Wii Remote. Pokémon Rumble uses this section to store Pokémon. Carnival Games: Mini Golf and Club Penguin: Game Day! as well as other games use this to store the player's in game avatars.
Power source
The Wii Remote uses two AA size alkaline batteries as a power source, which can power a Wii Remote for 60 hours using only the accelerometer functionality and 25 hours using both accelerometer and pointer functionality. In May 2013, Nintendo announced a rechargeable battery and dock accessory, and various third-party manufacturers market charging solutions for the controller (see Wii Remote Chargers). Nintendo's industrial designer Lance Barr said that the Wii Remote's expansion port is unsuitable for internal battery charging. The only type of (externally charged) rechargeable battery supported is nickel-metal hydride (NiMH). A 3300µF capacitor provides a temporary source of power during quick movements of the Wii Remote when connection to the batteries may be temporarily interrupted. If the Wii Remote is not used for more than 5 minutes, such as when the player is using a GameCube controller, it will shut off, and can be re-activated by pressing any button (this was also the case when using a now discontinued video-on-demand service). Games are able to determine and react to the current battery life of Wii Remotes, with certain games using unique, extra-diegetic methods of alerting the player to low battery life.
Wii Remote Plus
In September 2010, rumors were circulating of a Wii Remote with Wii MotionPlus already built in after the box art for the upcoming FlingSmash revealed it to be bundled with "Wii Remote Plus". Nintendo initially declined to comment, but later announced the device on September 29, 2010, confirming it to be a Wii Remote with MotionPlus built in, allowing players to use peripherals like the Wii Zapper and Wii Wheel and comfortably use the Wii Remote horizontally without having to remove the Wii MotionPlus attachment from the Wii Remote. Wii Remote Plus competed with Microsoft Corporation's Kinect and Sony Computer Entertainment's PlayStation Move with PlayStation Eye motion controllers, respectively. Nintendo later announced that the remote would be available in white, black, blue and pink. It was released in Australia on October 28, 2010, in Europe on November 5, 2010, in North America on November 7, 2010, and in Japan on November 11, 2010.
Other colors
In addition to being available in the four standard Wii Remote colors, specially colored Wii Remote Plus controllers themed after Nintendo's first-party video game franchises were also released in the years that followed, with one golden Legend of Zelda Wii Remote Plus and several others based on Mario characters. A red Wii Remote Plus, initially designed to celebrate the Mario series' 25th anniversary, was included in red Wii bundles released for the occasion along with a matching Nunchuk and console, Wii Sports and New Super Mario Bros. Wii. The red Wii Remote Plus would also be bundled with European copies of Wii Play: Motion, which is replaced with a black one in other regions. A red Wii Remote Plus and Nunchuk of matching color is also included with every Wii Mini.
At E3 2011, it was revealed that a gold Wii Remote Plus with the Hylian Crest superimposed over its speaker would be released alongside The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword. It was available as part of a bundle with Skyward Sword for a limited time. A matching gold Nunchuk was also available to earn for Club Nintendo members for a limited time.
In 2012, the Wii Remote Plus was reissued, and branded for the Wii U, the Wii's successor. Another sync button on the battery cover was added, allowing users to sync without removing the battery cover. A year later, Nintendo began releasing Wii Remote Plus controllers that are themed after Mario characters, starting with Mario and Luigi on November 1, 2013, to accompany the release of the Wii U Deluxe set. A few months later, Nintendo released a Princess Peach-themed Wii Remote Plus, on April 24, 2014. A year later, Nintendo also released Wii Remote Plus controllers themed after Bowser, a Toad and Yoshi in the fall of 2015 to accompany the releases of Super Mario Maker and Yoshi's Woolly World, exclusively available at GameStop.
Expansions
The Wii Remote has an expansion port at the bottom which allows various functional attachments to be added. The connector, and any accessories that attach to it, use a 400 kHz I²C protocol. This expandability is similar to that available with the port on the Nintendo 64 controller. There is a female connector on Wii remotes, to which expansions with a male connector can be connected.
The multiple kinds of controllers that can connect to the Wii Remote make it into a more versatile controller, opening up new Wii controller configurations and likewise multiple control schemes. Various racing games such as Mario Kart Wii and a few Need for Speed video games, as well as some fighting games like Super Smash Bros. Brawl, Tatsunoko vs. Capcom: Ultimate All-Stars and the Naruto: Clash of Ninja Revolution trilogy take advantage of the versatility the expansion port confers to offer multiple control schemes to suit different kinds of players.
Nunchuk
The Nunchuk (model number RVL-004) was the first attachment Nintendo revealed for the Wii Remote at the 2005 Tokyo Game Show. It connects to the Wii Remote via a cord 1 to 1.2 m (3.5 to 4 feet) long. Its appearance when attached resembles the nunchaku weapon, hence the name. It also resembles the middle handle of the Nintendo 64 controller. Like the controllers of the Wii's two predecessors, the Nunchuk has an analog stick whose movement is restricted by an octagonal area. The Nunchuk also has two trigger buttons (a last-minute modification changed the two triggers to one trigger and a button, as described below). It works in tandem with the main controller in many games. Like the Wii Remote, the Nunchuk also provides a three-axis accelerometer from STMicroelectronics for motion-sensing and tilting, but lacks any feedback features. The presence of a motion sensor in the Nunchuk allows the Wii controller to recognize gestures from both of the player's hands independently, a feature that is leveraged to implement boxing controls for Wii Sports or dual wield combat in some hack and slash games, such as Prince of Persia: Rival Swords. Despite having fewer buttons, the Nunchuk can also be used as a controller itself, a feature that is leveraged by Opoona, Bust-A-Move Bash! and SpeedZone. This allows two players to share a single Wii controller, enabling the multiplayer modes of Bash! and SpeedZone to support five to eight players across the maximum four Wii controllers that can be synced to a single console.
One Nunchuk comes bundled with the Wii console. Additional Wii Remote units are sold separately without the Nunchuk. The two shoulder buttons, formerly named Z1 and Z2 respectively, have been reshaped and renamed from the Game Developers Conference on. The circular top shoulder button, now called C, is much smaller than the lower rectangular shoulder button, now called Z.
The body of the Nunchuk is long, wide, and thick. The connection port also has a larger size.
The Nunchuk can be connected to any microcontroller capable of I²C (e.g., Arduino's Atmel AVR), where the accelerometer, joystick and buttons data may be accessed. Todbot has created the Wiichuk, an adapter to facilitate connecting the Nunchuk to an Arduino board.
In 2008, wireless Nunchuks became available from third party providers, not requiring the cord that links the Wii Remote with the Nunchuk.
The Nunchuk is generally available in white and black. Sky blue Nunchuks were available in Japan as a prize for a contest used to promote Wii Sports Resort. Red Nunchuks are bundled with the red Mario anniversary Wii console and Wii Mini. Blue Nunchuks are bundled with the European blue Wii Family Edition consoles with the inclusion of Mario & Sonic at the London 2012 Olympic Games released on November 18, 2011. A gold Nunchuk was offered to Nintendo Club members for a limited time to complement Skyward Swords gold Wii Remote Plus.
Gallery
Classic Controller
There are two versions of the Classic Controller, the original Classic Controller and the Classic Controller Pro.
At the 2006 Electronic Entertainment Expo Nintendo introduced the Classic Controller, which plugs into the Wii Remote via a cord in a similar fashion to the Nunchuk. Unlike most accessories, the Classic Controller largely usurps the Remote's functionality, with the Remote's buttons duplicated on the Controller. The Remote is used primarily as a wireless transmitter for the Controller and where applicable retains its pointing-device functionality. It can also still be used as a valid, active controller by another player in multiplayer modes of games like Bust-A-Move Bash! and SpeedZone.
The Classic Controller is reminiscent of the Super NES controller, being the same size and having the , , , and buttons and directional pad in the same location. It also contains two analog sticks and two extra shoulder buttons used to replicate additional components found on the Nintendo GameCube controller. The controller is primarily used for Virtual Console titles, with several titles requiring either the Classic or GameCube controller to play, being optimized for the Classic Controller. Dozens of Wii titles are also compatible with the controller to allow for a more traditional control scheme.
Wii MotionPlus
The Wii MotionPlus is an expansion device that allows the Wii Remote to more accurately capture complex motion. Incorporated with a custom version of the Wii Remote Jacket, the Wii MotionPlus affixes directly to the Wii Remote expansion port, extending the length of the controller body by approximately . The Wii MotionPlus uses a tuning fork gyroscope which supplements the accelerometer and Sensor Bar capabilities of the Wii Remote, enabling controller motions to be rendered identically on the screen in real time, according to Nintendo. It is sold separately, and also included in bundles with some MotionPlus compatible games such as Nintendo's Wii Sports Resort and Ubisoft's Red Steel 2. Sky blue Wii MotionPlus expansions were available in Japan as a prize for a contest used to promote Wii Sports Resort. Black Wii Remotes bundled with the MotionPlus add-on of matching color were released in Europe and North America in November 2009.
Wii Vitality Sensor
The Wii Vitality Sensor was a cancelled peripheral; a fingertip pulse oximeter sensor that connected through the Wii Remote. According to Nintendo, the device "will initially sense the user's pulse and a number of other signals being transmitted by their bodies, and will then provide information to the users about the body's inner world." The Wii Vitality Sensor was announced by President and CEO Satoru Iwata at Nintendo's E3 2009 media briefing on June 2, 2009. No specific applications were revealed for the device, but when presenting the device Iwata suggested that video games may soon be used for relaxation. According to Nintendo of America president Reggie Fils-Aime, more details concerning the Wii Vitality Sensor were to be revealed during E3 2010, although in the event the device was not mentioned. Reggie told GameTrailers, "(E3) was not the kind of environment for a game based on relaxation", and said that they were saving news on the device for another time and place. At E3 2010, Ubisoft introduced their own pulse oximeter sensor, "Innergy". At E3 2011, Nintendo announced more about the Wii Vitality Sensor. Shigeru Miyamoto said that the Wii Vitality Sensor has a difficult time performing consistently across a variety of situations but still may be released.
On July 5, 2013, Satoru Iwata disclosed that the Wii Vitality Sensor project had been cancelled due to its lack of widespread compatibility, with Nintendo finding that the device failed to work with approximately 10% of people it was tested on, noting that the device "was of narrower application than we had originally thought." Iwata also mentioned the possibility of returning to the project in the future, when the technology allows for at least a 99.9% success rate.
Accessories
Wii Zapper
The Wii Zapper is a gun-shaped shell accessory for the Wii Remote. As shown in the image, the shell holds both the Wii Remote and Nunchuk, and contains a trigger that actuates the Wii Remote's B button; all other buttons are still accessible while the remote and Nunchuk are in the shell. The name is a reference to the NES Zapper light gun for the Nintendo Entertainment System. According to an interview with Shigeru Miyamoto, the idea of a Zapper-type expansion formed when the Wii Remote was first created. He expressed that "What we found is that the reason we wanted to have a Zapper is when you hold a Wii Remote, it can be difficult for some people to keep a steady hand. And holding your arm out like that can get your arm somewhat tired." The Zapper is useful for most games primarily involving firearms, such as light gun shooters, first-person shooters, and third-person shooters.
Wii Wheel
The Wii Wheel accessory is designed for use in driving games: it is a steering wheel-shaped shell that a Wii Remote can be placed inside, enhancing driving games that allow for steering control by tilting the Wii Remote left and right. The Wii Wheel was first shipped alongside Mario Kart Wii and features prominently on the game's packaging.
Third-party accessories
Since the release of the Wii console, many aesthetic, ergonomic, and functional accessories have been developed for the Wii Remote by third parties.
Third-party development
Since the release of the Wii console, people have been exploring different new ways in which to use the Wii Remote. Many third-party applications are currently in development through Wii homebrew. One popular Windows program called GlovePIE allows the Wii Remote to be used on a personal computer to emulate a keyboard, mouse or joystick. Connecting the Wii Remote to a personal computer is done via a Bluetooth connection. The Bluetooth program BlueSoleil has been proven to successfully connect a Wii Remote to a PC. Still another program (like GlovePIE) is needed to utilize the Wii Remote's protocol and to use the data it offers.
The Wii Remote Bluetooth protocol can be implemented on other devices including cell phones, which often have poor usability with games. Two students have demonstrated this concept by creating driver software that has the capability to connect the Wii Remote to a Symbian smartphone. The idea behind this driver is that a mobile phone with a TV-out port can replace the game console.
Programmer Johnny Lee posted video demos and sample code at his website related to the use of the Wii Remote for finger tracking, low-cost multipoint interactive whiteboards, and head tracking for desktop VR displays. He demonstrated several such applications at a TED conference. The WiimoteProject forum became the discussion, support and sharing site for Lee's Wii Remote projects and other newer developments.
Studies have been conducted to use the Wii Remote as a practice method to fine-tune surgeons' hand motions. Utilizing DarwiinRemote, researchers at the University of Memphis adapted the Wii Remote for data collection in cognitive psychology experiments. Autodesk released a plugin that allows the Wii Remote to control orientation of 3D models in Autodesk Design Review.
Reception
Overall reception to the Wii Remote has changed over time. The control styles, which are provided by the controller, were met with praise at its first public exhibition at E3. Since then, comments have been noted by the press on its functionality. Matt Wales of IGN UK highlighted the aiming and precision of Red Steel and stated "Taking down swathes of enemies with nothing more than a twitch of the wrist proves immensely satisfying and, more importantly, incredibly involving." Nintendo Power listed the Wii Remote as an innovative controller, citing it as innovative for several firsts, including the first use of motion control, the first built-in speaker, and the first Infrared Pointer. This is incorrect, however; the first video game controller to make use of motion sensitivity was Le Stick for the Atari 2600 and Commodore 64, manufactured by Datasoft Inc., and released in 1981.
Other publications have noted specific complaints regarding control. GameSpot expressed that some motions in Cooking Mama: Cook Off failed to transmit or meet expectation during gameplay. Similar observations were made on other titles made available during the Wii launch period. ComputerAndVideoGames.com reported that "Most prominent is the first batch of games, many of which do a better job at exposing the obstacles of full motion control, rather than the benefits... Need For Speed [Carbon]...is near unplayable, Far Cry got it all wrong, and the motion control in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance just feels tacked on."
The overall situation was described by Joystiq thus: "Over the months since launch, the unpredictable Wii Remote has led to a maddening dichotomy. Some games are too easy, while others are too hard – for all the wrong reasons...Gamers who crave a deeper challenge have to settle for battling incomprehensible controls." Critics felt that fault was largely attributed to the developers' lack of experience with the Wii Remote. Jeremy Parish of the magazine Electronic Gaming Monthly compared the initial phase of control implementation to that of the Nintendo DS. Matt Casamassina of IGN also presumed that the first generation of Wii games were of an experimental stage and that potential for refinement had yet to be exploited.
Later-released titles saw mixed reactions in terms of control. Of Tiger Woods PGA Tour 07 from Electronic Arts, Matthew Kato of Game Informer stated that the controller "has a hard time detecting your backswing. Thus, it's harder to control. There were even times the game putted for me by accident." A GamePro review for Medal of Honor: Vanguard said that the title "is an encouraging sign that developers are finally starting to work out the kinks and quirks of the Wii Remote."
First- and second-party video games produced more favorable utilization of the Wii Remote's unique capabilities. Metroid Prime 3: Corruption, in particular, was nearly universally praised for its unique control scheme, which was seen as being unrivaled by any other console game. Corruption utilizes the Nunchuk for strafing and the infrared pointing capability of the Wii Remote for turning and special "gestures", which are used to select visors. Other Nintendo titles take a more minimalist approach, using mostly the pointer and buttons only, as with Big Brain Academy: Wii Degree, or use the controller in a sideways configuration to resemble a Nintendo Entertainment System controller while the player de-emphasizes more advanced capabilities, as used in Super Paper Mario.
The Wii Remote and Nunchuk combined sold over 8.5 million units in the United States, and took the top two spots in video game accessories sales in 2006. In the United States, the Nunchuk was the best-selling video game hardware for January 2008, with 375,000 units sold, in a month where the Wii was the best-selling console with 274,000 units sold.
According to Nintendo's Shinya Takahashi, player feedback for the Wii Remote, particularly on reducing its form-factor, led into the development of the Nintendo Switch, a console small enough and with smaller controllers to also be used as a portable unit.
Legal issues
The Wii Remote has come under a number of lawsuits from several different companies.
Interlink Electronics filed a patent-infringement lawsuit against Nintendo in December 2006 over the pointing functionality of the Wii Remote, claiming "loss of reasonable royalties, reduced sales and/or lost profits as a result of the infringing activities" of Nintendo. The lawsuit was terminated in March 2007.
On August 19, 2008, Hillcrest Laboratories Inc. filed a complaint against Nintendo with the U.S International Trade Commission, alleging that the Wii Remote infringed on three of its patents. A fourth Hillcrest patent (for graphical interfaces displayed on television screens) was also allegedly violated. Hillcrest sought a ban on Wii consoles imported to the U.S. On August 24, 2009 Nintendo and Hillcrest reached a settlement, although the terms were not publicly disclosed.
In September 2011, ThinkOptics Inc. filed a lawsuit against Nintendo in United States District Court of the Eastern District of Texas over their controller, the Wavit Remote, claiming that the Wii violated its patent for a "handheld vision based absolute pointing system", a "Handheld Device for Handheld Vision Based Absolute Pointing System", and a "Handheld Vision Based Absolute Pointing System", which make up the basis for the Wavit Remote. They also said that the Wii U infringes on their patents as well and claims that Nintendo was aware of the fact that the Wii allegedly violates ThinkOptics' patents. The lawsuit sought an injunction against violating products, royalties, attorney's fees, and damages for lost profits. The lawsuit was dismissed by ThinkOptics in August 2014.
Starting in December 2012, iLife Technologies sued several large companies over patent infringement over a set of patents they held related to "systems and methods for evaluating movement of a body relative to an environment", principally aimed at the medical field; Nintendo was sued by iLife in December 2013 for the Wii Remote's infringement on their patents, with the lawsuit seeking $144 million in damages, based on a $4 fine for the Wii units it had sold to date. A jury trial was heard in August 2017, and the jury ruled in favor of iLife Technologies and Nintendo was forced to pay in damages. While Nintendo attempted to appeal this ruling, the United States Court of Appeals upheld the jury's decision in December 2017. However, in January 2020, a federal court overturned the judgement and ruled that iLife's patent was too broad.
Wrist strap issues
The wrist strap of the Wii Remote has also been an issue.
In mid-December 2006, the law firm Green Welling LLP filed a class action lawsuit against Nintendo for its "defective wrist straps". A few days later, Nintendo issued a product recall for the wrist straps and issued a new version of the strap with an improved securing mechanism for the wrist, leading to the lawsuit to be dropped sometime thereafter.
A second class-action lawsuit was filed by a mother in Colorado in December 2008, claiming the updated wrist straps were still ineffective. This suit was dismissed by September 2010, finding for Nintendo that the wrist straps were not knowingly faulty under Colorado consumer protection laws.
Trademark issues
In 2000, the term "Weemote" was trademarked by Miami based TV remote manufacturer Fobis Technologies and was later used as the name of their remote designed for young children. While spelled differently, the term "Weemote" is phonetically identical to "Wiimote", the unofficial term for the Wii Remote. Sales of the Weemote, which totaled less than one million as of 2008 had fallen due to confusion with the Wiimote. Fobis Technologies claims this to be trademark infringement, however Nintendo does not actually use the term "Wiimote" in official promotional materials; but many retailers that sell the Wii Remote do use the term. Fobis sent out up to 100 cease and desist letters to retailers and have made offers to Nintendo for them to purchase the trademark. Nintendo declined the offer, stating that it "does not use and does not plan to use the Weemote trademark".
The trademark application for the Wii Remote was initially rejected by the United States Patent and Trademark Office after the trademark was filed in March 2008. The USPTO claimed that the word "remote" is commonly used, and therefore should not be trademarked. The USPTO said they would accept Nintendo's trademark filing if the company disclaims exclusive rights to the word "remote" in the term and if the word "Wii" would always precede the word "remote" in marketing and manuals. The USPTO accepted the "Wii Remote" trademark in July 2012.
See also
List of Nintendo controllers
List of Wii games
Wii Balance Board
Wii Speak
PlayStation Move
Razer Hydra
Notes
References
External links
Wii Controllers page
Wii Accessories page
Articles containing video clips
Gesture recognition
Pointing devices
Wii controllers
Products introduced in 2006
Products and services discontinued in 2017
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elite%20Beat%20Agents
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Elite Beat Agents
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Elite Beat Agents is a rhythm video game developed by iNiS and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS. It was released in North America, Europe and South Korea. As the second of three rhythm games developed by iNiS specifically for the DS, it is the spiritual sequel and international counterpart to Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan, a Japanese rhythm game released in 2005, sharing many common elements with it.
Similar to Ouendan, the player taps and drags on indicated locations on the touch screen of the DS in time to the rhythm of the music to score points, while the upper screen shows comic-style scenes of the fictional "Elite Beat Agents" cheering on others in tough situations through their dance moves. The improvements made in this game were implemented in the Japanese game's sequel, Moero! Nekketsu Rhythm Damashii Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan 2.
Elite Beat Agents was released under Nintendo's Touch! Generations label in North America, which markets games to audiences outside of the traditional gaming community. Though sales were not as high as expected, the game was well received by critics and merited several 2006 gaming awards.
Story
The main characters of Elite Beat Agents are well-trained spy members of a fictional government agency responsible for helping those in need. When a person facing a crisis reaches their breaking point and cries out for help, Commander Kahn dispatches the agents to help them succeed. The agents never assist the person directly, but encourage the person through their dancing, motivating the people they assist to overcome various obstacles. The person's degree of success depends on the accuracy of the Agents' dance moves, as demonstrated by multiple endings for each story.
Like Ouendan, the tone of the stories told in Agents is primarily humorous. The individual stories are not linked by an overarching narrative; though some characters take part in multiple stories, there are unique protagonists for each song. Although the first few stage scenarios are fairly mundane, such as helping a babysitter control a trio of rowdy children while trying to ask a potential boyfriend to go steady, they progressively become more fantastic, with higher stakes. For example, one of the last stages is about a washed-up professional baseball player who rescues one of his young fans from, and subsequently battles with using baseball equipment and techniques, a fire-breathing golem in a theme park. Another plot aspect taken from Ouendan includes a "sad" level more than halfway through the campaign that is based on a slower, mellow song, titled "A Christmas Gift", in which the agents assist a young girl in reuniting with the spirit of her deceased father. The mission's first phase replaces all percussion and interjections occurring from playing notes correctly with subtle chimes and removes the spoken countdown to go along with the tragic atmosphere and the mission's song, "You're the Inspiration".
The main campaign culminates in a climatic planetary crisis in which the Agents, along with all humanity and the people they helped in prior levels, facing off against an alien invasion staged by the Rhombulans (a portmanteau of rhombus and Romulan), who abhor music and use a petrification ray to enforce a ban on it. However, unlike Ouendan, this final scenario is divided into two levels, with the first level showing the Agents rallying prisoners to stage a riot against the aliens before sacrificing themselves to the ray, leading up to the second and ultimate final level where the people devastated by their sacrifice gather resolve and determination to reverse their petrification and help organize an epic musical counterattack against the aliens, triumphantly unleashing a blast of spirit energy to the sky to obliterate the Rhombulan mothership.
Several of the levels in Agents are thematically similar to those found in Ouendan; for instance, a level involving time travel to help a popular historical figure in the past (Episode 4), a level taking place inside the human body, and a tearjerker level. In addition, some of the story characters from Ouendan have cameo appearances in Agents. In the final two stages, as in Ouendan, all of the characters in the game reappear.
Episode & soundtrack
Elite Beat Agents has fifteen scenarios and three unlockable bonus scenarios, with a total of nineteen music tracks. Music heard in the game is performed by cover artists, and in most cases, adjusted for length to be three minutes long.
Notes
Gameplay
The fundamental aspects of gameplay are unchanged from Ouendan to Agents. The stages of Agents are presented in a comic book fashion. After the introduction to a character and their problem, the agents are deployed and the action begins. The play mechanics involve performing one of three actions with the stylus in various combinations.
Hit Markers - Operated by tapping numbered circles.
Phrase Markers - Operated by tapping and holding the stylus on a ball within a circle while following it along a path. Some Phrase Markers are reversible, containing a U-turn arrow at either end that reverses the ball's movement.
Spin Markers - Operated by spinning the stylus around the on-screen disc until bars on both sides light up.
To successfully perform each action one must complete it as a timed circle converges on each main circle. The timing follows the rhythm of the music. The Hit and Phrase markers must be hit in a numbered sequence. The markers are arranged in 'tracks' which range from one to about fifteen markers in length. Success is monitored by the "Elite-O-Meter", a health gauge at the top of the touch screen that is constantly draining at a rate based on the selected difficulty level, out of four total. Successful actions, such as tapping the Hit Markers in sync with the music, will keep the gauge filled, while missing a marker will partially deplete the gauge. If the meter empties completely, the stage ends prematurely in failure. The first three levels of Breezin' difficulty, the easiest one, feature an on-screen indicator to highlight the order in which the markers must be hit. The difficulty level also determines which Agents will be dispatched to missions: the leader of Breezin' difficulty is Agent Spin (BA-5), the leader of Cruisin' (medium) difficulty is Agent J (BA-2), the leader of Sweatin' (hard) difficulty is Agent Cheiftain (BA-1) and the Hard ROCK! (expert) difficulty replaces the Agents with the cheerleader-esque Elite Beat Divas. The Hard ROCK! difficulty inverts the beatmaps of Sweatin' difficulty, speeds up timer circles and shrinks Hit Markers, but unlike the two Ouendan games, does not add extra markers or beats. Only the lower two difficulties are available from the start; completing Cruisin' difficulty unlocks Sweatin', which must be completed in turn to unlock Hard ROCK!
Each stage is divided into multiple gameplay sections separated by story sequences, the specific number of which vary by stage. If the Elite-O-Meter is in the yellow when the player reaches one of these breaks, the story will depict the person in need making significant progress towards his or her goal. If it is in the red, the scene will instead depict the person encountering a setback. In between breaks, during the gameplay, the top screen shows the person attempting to accomplish what they need to do at that time. The scene depicted changes every beat, or when the markers switch color, depending on the player's progress. If the player scores an "Elite Beat" by scoring 300 points on each marker in a single beat, then the person makes a lot of progress very enthusiastically. If the player scores a "Beat" (no score lower than 100, but not all 300), the person will be shown making average progress on their goal. However, if the player does not score a special beat bonus at all by scoring a 50 on a marker or missing it entirely, the person on the top screen will encounter difficulties and setbacks. The player receives bonuses to the final grade and unlocks artwork for completing a stage with positive outcomes at all stage breaks.
Each stage has three possible endings for its story. The ending depends on the number of gameplay sections passed. If all gameplay sections are passed, the story will have the best ending, with the main character succeeding in its challenge. If at least one section is passed, but not all of them, then the story will have the average ending, where the main character succeeds with moderate success. If all sections are failed, however, the story will have the worst outcome, where the main character finishes his or her endeavor but still fails. Missions are grouped into one of seven acts; in any act before the last that contains multiple missions, players can choose which order to complete all the missions within the same act, but all missions in an act, including any bonus missions unlocked, must be cleared to advance to the next act.
High scores are acquired by achieving combos, or stringing together a series of successful actions. The longer the player is able to maintain a combo, the greater the multiplier applied to each successful action. Should the player miss a marker completely, the multiplier will stop and the player must start a new one. The game keeps track of individual stage high scores for all difficulty levels, as well as a cumulative high score that affects the player's "Agent Rank". The Agent Rank is a special title such as "Soldier of Song" or "King of the Beat" that will change as the player's cumulative high score reaches specific milestones. Elite Beat Agents features three bonus stages that are unlocked when three such ranks are achieved.
The player's performance in each stage is rated by a letter grade, with "D" being the lowest possible rank and S being the highest. To achieve an S rank, the player must hit all markers, score 300 points on at least 90% of them, and score 50 points on no more than 1% of them. However, straying from Phrase Marker tracks does not disqualify a player from an S rank as long as at least one dot is played on every phrase marker. Full combos in the game are referred to as "Perfect". Due to the nature of the game's scoring mechanic, it is possible to achieve a new high score in a stage while simultaneously earning a lower grade than the previous high score performance, although this is somewhat rare.
A few additional features have been introduced to Agents from the gameplay in Ouendan. Primarily, these include a preparatory message on startup; a separate 8-point difficulty rating system for missions; Rumble Pak support for force feedback during gameplay; the ability to reveal more statistics about a player's performance when they complete a song; the ability to save their performance as a viewable replay (with only one replay permitted per unique mission) and "ghost" data that they can later use in a "Vs. Ghost" multiplayer mode; the ability to review the last few moments of a failed performance, and the ability to skip the musical introductions to stages.
Multiplayer
Up to four players can compete against each other using the wireless capabilities of the Nintendo DS using one or more copies of the game with 2-4 Nintendo DS consoles. The same song list is used, but the stage is set using one of five predetermined, competition-based scenarios.
Only songs that the "host" player has completed are available for play. Each player attempts to perform the song in the same manner as the single-player mode. There is no Elite-O-Meter, but instead, the cumulative performance of each player is tracked during the game. At the normal break points for the song, the scene depicts which player is ahead, though it is possible for both players to be tied at this point. During the song, each player can fill a star meter by completing Elite Beats; when the star meter is full, the screens of the opposing players will shake for a few moments, and the on-screen markers will be reduced in size for a short time, making them more difficult to hit. The winner is the player with the best cumulative performance at the end of the song.
When utilizing single-card multiplayer, only five songs are available on "Cruisin'" and "Breezin'" difficulties. When all players have a copy of the game, all of the songs and difficulty levels become available, but each scenario is still assigned to a certain song.
This mode can also be played by a single player against a saved replay for any song.
There is also a cooperative mode, in which players take turns to play. Each user must have a copy of the game to do this. Each song uses the same scenarios as the single-player game, but only the stages the host has completed in single-player are available. Both players share a single Elite-O-Meter, so if one person fails, the game ends for both players. The players take turns playing certain segments of the song, as well as Spin Markers. When it is not the player's turn to play, the markers are grayed out.
Development
Due to the surprisingly high import rate of Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan, Nintendo and iNiS began discussing the possibility of officially localizing the game beyond Japan. However, as Keiichi Yano, vice president of iNiS and director of the game explained in an interview with 1UP.com, selling the game at retail in Western markets would have been unfeasible due to the game's innate reliance on Japanese popular music and cultural references. It was due to this fact that when Yano and iNiS began work on the North American version, the gakuran-wearing cheerleaders of Ouendan were removed and work began on a replacement. The first concepts were of a trio of dancers styled after the Village People called the Disco Rangers; this was changed to a trio of government agents, using distinctly Western references such as the Ghostbusters, Blues Brothers, Men in Black and Austin Powers series for inspiration. They were initially named the Super Sonic Agents, but the name was scrapped due to possible confusion with Super Sonic from the Sonic the Hedgehog video game series, although a vestige of this former name ended up in an E3 trailer for the game. In addition, the concept of the Elite Beat Divas (the Agents equivalent to the Ouendan Cheergirls for expert difficulty) and Commander Kahn directing the Agents came from Charlie's Angels, while the phrase "Agents are go!" was derived from Thunderbirds and the NASA launch sequence. Yano conceived the latter character, who has no Ouendan equivalent, while trying to determine a good motivation for the Agents' service.
When it came to choosing songs for the game's setlist, which was planned to comprise twenty songs as opposed to just fifteen in Ouendan, Yano looked for ones that he thought would be ideal to blast in a "college frat party", while making sure that the setlist drew upon multiple genres and time periods. Ultimately, the song count was pared down to 19 for the final release, with one song, "Livin' La Vida Loca", ultimately being omitted due to licensing issues later into development, after previously being hinted to be included in earlier reports from 1UP. According to E3 trailer footage and UI programmer Robert Ota Dieterich, "Livin' La Vida Loca" was originally going to be used for the game's second level, before being replaced with Sum41's "Makes No Difference". When Nintendo initially unveiled the game's setlist, the songs were listed in random order, leading some to initially mistake the final listed song, "Anthem" to be the last song of the game. The game reused Ouendans engine, resulting in a few leftover assets from that game appearing in the demo build presented at E3, such as a wall of fire that rises during long combos and calligraphic pass/fail symbols at the end of mid-level cutscenes. Despite Agents not being a strict localization of Ouendan, the product ID Nintendo assigned the game treated it like one, containing the same game-unique combination of three alphanumeric characters used for Ouendan, "AOS".
Reception
Upon release, Elite Beat Agents was critically acclaimed, receiving an average score of 87.7% on GameRankings. From the date of its release to November 28, 2006, Agents sold 120,000 copies. Then-president of Nintendo of America Reggie Fils-Aimé has stated that while sales were strong, he was disappointed that they were not better, having expected 300,000 copies sold in light of critical acclaim. Only 179,000 copies of the game have been sold in North America by January 2009.
Elite Beat Agents won several awards in 2006. It won the Nintendo DS game of the year award from both IGN and from Nintendo Power. IGN gave it several other DS-specific awards, including Best Music Game, Best Artistic Design, Best Story, Most Innovative Design, and Best Licensed Soundtrack. They also awarded its developer, iNiS, with best developer for the DS for its development of Elite Beat Agents. Nintendo Power gave it several other awards as well, including Best Nintendo DS game, Best Music Game, Best Alternative Game, and Best New Character in regard to the Agents. They later named it the best Nintendo DS game released and the seventh best game of the decade. Other notable awards include Best Music/Rhythm Game from GameSpot, an entry on the list of "52 Games We'll Still Be Playing From 2006" from Gaming Target, Best Puzzle Game from GameTrailers, and Quirkiest Game from Electronic Gaming Monthly.
Despite the game never being officially released in Japan, Agents drew the interest of import gamers in the country, just like how Ouendan was enjoyed outside of it.
Future
Possible sequel
One month after the game's first release in North America, Fils-Aime himself, disappointed with initial sales, expressed hope that Agents could get a sequel and become a franchise, but ultimately nothing came of it. Ten years later, Yano stated in an interview that he would love to bring a sequel to Elite Beat Agents to a Nintendo platform, but the exact circumstances will depend on the capabilities of those platforms and how well the game fits to it.
Other appearances
The Elite Beat Agents appear in Super Smash Bros. Brawl as a trophy, and they also are on a few stickers. Characters from Ouendan also appear as stickers and a trophy. The Agents and the Divas, as well as their Ouendan counterparts, later appeared as spirits in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate.
Character skins for the Agents and Divas were available as limited-time downloadable content for Moero! Nekketsu Rhythm Damashii Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan 2 from DS Download Stations, which has the same improvements from Agents. The skins can also be unlocked with a cheat device after they were no longer officially available to obtain.
In the summer of 2022, fifteen years after the game's release outside of North America, Nintendo purchased an animated film studio and called it Nintendo Pictures, which some have observed to be sharing the name of a fictional company that appeared in the game's second stage as the production company that film director Chris Silverscreen works for.
References
External links
Elite Beat Agents official website (redirects to the main Nintendo portal)
Elite Beat Agents at IGN
Elite Beat Agents at MobyGames
A synopsis of iNiS, Osu! Tatake! Ouendan, and Elite Beat Agents, as well as an interview with the staff at 1UP.com
A commentary on the success of Osu! Tatake! Ouendan in the overseas import market at Press Start Online
GDC Blog 2007: Elite Beat Agents/Ouendan 2 Session at 1UP.com
2006 video games
Alien invasions in video games
Cheerleader video games
Christmas video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Nintendo DS games
Nintendo DS-only games
Osu! Tatakae! Ouendan
Music video games
Touch! Generations
Video games developed in Japan
Video games set in California
Video games set in Italy
Video games set in Japan
Video games set in the Las Vegas Valley
Video games set in Los Angeles
Video games set in Nevada
Video games set in New York (state)
Video games set in New York City
Video games set in the 15th century
Video games set in the 21st century
Video games set in the United States
Video games set on fictional islands
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5097123
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Fix
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Paul Fix
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Peter Paul Fix (March 13, 1901 – October 14, 1983) was an American film and television character actor who was best known for his work in Westerns. Fix appeared in more than 100 movies and dozens of television shows over a 56-year career between 1925 and 1981. Fix portrayed Marshal Micah Torrance, opposite Chuck Connors's character in The Rifleman from 1958 to 1963. He later appeared with Connors in the 1966 Western film Ride Beyond Vengeance.
Early life and military service
Fix was the son of Wilhelm Fix and Louise Walz, and was born born March 13, 1901 in Dobbs Ferry, NY. His father was a brewer from Germany.
Following the United States' entry into World War I in April 1917, Fix joined the National Guard, initially serving at Peekskill, New York. After three months of duty there, he went AWOL and enlisted in the U.S. Army. After serving at Fort Slocum for three months, he again went AWOL and then enlisted in the U.S. Navy, and was stationed in Providence, Rhode Island. While serving in the Navy, Fix was recruited to perform on stage in a Navy Relief Organization production of the comic opera H.M.S. Pinafore. Later, he served as a hospital corpsman aboard ships transporting American troops to and from Europe, and continued that assignment until he was officially discharged from military service on September 5, 1919.
Stage and films
Following the war, Fix became a busy character actor, who got his start in local productions in New York. By the 1920s, he had moved to Hollywood, and performed in the first of almost 350 movie and television appearances. In the 1930s, he became friends with John Wayne. He was Wayne's acting coach and eventually appeared as a featured player in about 27 of Wayne's films.
Fix worked in early films such as Lucky Star (1929) with Janet Gaynor and Charles Farrell and Ladies Love Brutes (1930), and became a regular performer for the film's director, Frank Borzage, on a further eight occasions. Fix later appeared as Richard Bravo in the 1950s cult classic, The Bad Seed (1956) with Nancy Kelly, The Sea Chase (1955) with John Wayne and Lana Turner, playing Heinz the cook, and in George Stevens' Giant (1956) with James Dean, portraying Elizabeth Taylor's father.
Fix appeared as the presiding judge in To Kill a Mockingbird (1962) with Gregory Peck. He played the sheriff in The Sons of Katie Elder (1965) with John Wayne and Dean Martin. In 1966, he appeared in the film El Dorado with Wayne and Robert Mitchum. In 1972, he was cast in the film Night of the Lepus, and the following year, he portrayed the New Mexico rancher Pete Maxwell in Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid with James Coburn. In 1979, he appeared in Wanda Nevada. Fix co-wrote the screenplay for the John Wayne film Tall in the Saddle.
Television
Fix had a recurring role as Marshal Micah Torrance on ABC's Western series The Rifleman, which was broadcast from 1958 to 1963.
On Christmas Day 1958, Fix appeared in the episode "Medal for Valor" on CBS's Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre. Fix plays a businessman who hires a desperate man to substitute for his son in the draft, later to interfere with the man's homesteading rights when it threatens his son's political aspirations.
Fix guest-starred on the short-lived detective series, Meet McGraw; on Rory Calhoun's Western series The Texan on CBS; and on John Payne's Western series The Restless Gun on NBC.
Fix played the historical role of U.S. President Zachary Taylor in the 1960 episode "That Taylor Affair" of the NBC Western series, Riverboat, with Darren McGavin. Arlene Dahl was cast in this episode as Lucy Belle.
In 1961, Fix appeared as Ramsey Collins in the series finale, "Around the Dark Corner", of the NBC crime drama Dante. That same year, he played Dr. Abel in the episode "The Haven" on The DuPont Show with June Allyson. His other television credits include Adventures of Superman (1953–1954, with Anthony Caruso and Elisha Cook Jr.) and the adventure series, Northwest Passage.
Fix played Dr. Mark Piper in the second pilot episode of Star Trek, "Where No Man Has Gone Before". When the first season was filmed, his character was replaced by Leonard McCoy, played by DeForest Kelley.
Fix made five appearances as District Attorney Hale on Perry Mason (1957–1963), showing great skill as an examiner who did not ask objectionable questions unlike Hamilton Burger, who often experienced a judge's ire for asking leading questions. He guest-starred on such television series as Rawhide (1959), Wagon Train (1962), The Twilight Zone (1964), The F.B.I. (1965–1973), Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea (1966), The Time Tunnel (1966), The Wild Wild West (1966–1967), Gunsmoke (1967), Daniel Boone (1969), Owen Marshall: Counselor at Law (1971), The Rockford Files episode "The House on Willis Avenue" (as Joe Tooley), and two episodes of The Streets of San Francisco, one in 1973 and again in 1975, each a different character/storyline. He appeared on the NBC series Kentucky Jones (1964) as Judge Perkins in the episode "Spare the Rod". He played an aging suicidal novelist named Maxwell Hart on the Emergency! fourth-season episode "Kidding", where paramedic John Gage, played by Randolph Mantooth, was in charge of a small group of intellectual 10- and 11-year-old school children on a tour of Rampart General Hospital. In 1974, he made an appearance as an old friend of Steve Austin's in the TV series The Six Million Dollar Man in the episode "Population Zero". He also appeared as Kronus, a retired fleet commander on the original Battlestar Galactica.
Fix played the hardy pioneer James Briton "Brit" Bailey in the 1969 episode "Here Stands Bailey" of Death Valley Days.
Personal life and death
In 1922 Fix married Frances Harvey, and the couple had one daughter. They divorced in 1945. He married his second wife, Beverly Pratt, on August 20, 1949. She died November 13, 1979.
His daughter Marilyn married actor Harry Carey Jr., in 1944, and they had four children.
Fix died of kidney failure in Los Angeles at the age of 82. He is buried beside his second wife at Woodlawn Cemetery, Santa Monica.
Selected filmography
The Perfect Clown (1925) as Bellhop (uncredited)
Hoodoo Ranch (1926)
The First Kiss (1928) as Ezra Talbot
Lucky Star (1929) as Joe
Ladies Love Brutes (1930) as Slip
Man Trouble (1930) as The Kid - A Gunman (uncredited)
The Good Bad Girl (1931) as Roach
The Fighting Sheriff (1931) as Jack Cameron
Doctors' Wives as Interne (uncredited)
The Avenger (1931) as Juan Marietta (uncredited)
Sob Sister (1931) as Minor Role (uncredited)
Bad Girl (1931)
Young as You Feel (1931) as Desk Clerk (uncredited)
Three Girls Lost (1931) as Tony Halcomb (uncredited)
South of the Rio Grande (1932) as Juan Olivarez
The Racing Strain (1932) as King Kelly
Life Begins (1932) as Anxious Expectant Father (uncredited)
The Last Mile (1932) as Eddie Werner - Cell 8
Scarface (1932) as Hood with Gaffney (uncredited)
Dancers in the Dark (1932) as Benny
The Night of June 13 (1932) as Reporter (uncredited)
Somewhere in Sonora (1933) as Bart Leadly
The Important Witness (1933) as Tony
Fargo Express (1933) as Mort Clark
The Mad Game (1933) as Lou
Devil's Mate (1933) as Malony
The Avenger (1933) as Vickers
The Important Witness (1933) as Tony
The Sphinx (1933) as Dave Werner
Emergency Call (1933) as Dr. Mason (uncredited)
Zoo in Budapest (1933) as Heinie
The Woman Who Dared (1933) as Racketeer
Gun Law (1933) as Tony Adams
The Westerner (1934) as Rustler Who Confesses (uncredited)
The World Accuses (1934) as John Weymouth
Rocky Rhodes (1934) as Joe Hilton
The Count of Monte Cristo as Angry Citizen (uncredited)
The Crosby Case (1934) as Engineer (uncredited)
Little Man, What Now? (1934) as Lauderbock
Reckless (1935) as Man on Mechanical Horse (uncredited)
The Crimson Trail (1935) as Paul- Bellair Ranch Hand
Mutiny Ahead (1935) as Teeter Smith
His Fighting Blood (1935) as Phil Elliott
Don't Bet on Blondes (1935) as Betting Man (uncredited)
Men Without Names (1935) as The Kid
Let 'Em Have It (1935) as Sam
Millions in the Air (1935) as Hank - the Drunk
Bar 20 Rides Again (1935) as Gila
The Eagle's Brood (1935) as Henchman Steve
Valley of Wanted Men (1935) as Mike Masters
The Throwback (1935) as Spike Travis
Bulldog Courage (1935) as Bailey
The Desert Trail (1935) as Jim Whitmonlee
Mariners of the Sky aka Navy Born (1936) as Joe Vezie
The Road to Glory (1936) as Second Volunteer
The Ex-Mrs. Bradford (1936) as Lou Pender (uncredited)
The Bridge of Sighs (1936) as Harrison Courtney Jr. aka Harry West
Phantom Patrol (1936) as Henchman Jo-Jo Regan
Yellowstone (1936) a Dynomite
Straight from the Shoulder (1936) as Trigger Benson
Charlie Chan at the Race Track (1936) as Lefty (uncredited)
36 Hours to Kill (1936) as Gangster (uncredited)
The Prisoner of Shark Island (1936) as David Herold
After the Thin Man (1936) as Phil Brynes
Wanted! Jane Turner (1936) as Crowley's Henchman
The Accusing Finger (1936) as John 'Twitchy' Burke
15 Maiden Lane (1936) as Agitator (uncredited)
Two in a Crowd (1936) as Bonelli's Henchman
Winterset (1936) as Joe
The Plot Thickens (1936) as Joe
Border Cafe (1937) as 'Doley' Dolson
Armored Car (1937) as Slim
Her Husband Lies (1937) as Lefty Harker (uncredited)
Woman in Distress (1937) as Joe Emory
The Game That Kills (1937) as Dick Adams
Big City (1937) as Comet Night Watchman (uncredited)
On Such a Night (1937) as Maxie Barnes
Souls at Sea (1937) as Violinest
King of Gamblers (1937) as Charlie
It Can't Last Forever (1937) as Mikey (uncredited)
Paid to Dance (1937) as Nifty
Daughter of Shanghai (1937) as Miles (uncredited)
Mannequin (1937) as Smooch Hanrahan (uncredited)
Conquest (1937) as Dumb Soldier (uncredited)
Hot Water (1937) as Homer (uncredited)
The Saint of New York (1938) as Phil Farrell - Doorman at the Silverclub (uncredited)
Mr. Moto's Gamble (1938) as Gangster (uncredited)
Smashing the Rackets (1938) as Maxie
The Crowd Roars (1938) as Joe - Bodyguard on Plane (uncredited)
Crime Ring (1938) as Slim (uncredited)
Penitentiary (1938) as Bunch (uncredited)
King of Alcatraz (1938) as 'Nails' Miller
The Night Hawk (1938) as Spider
Mr. Moto's Gamble (1938) as Gangster (uncredited)
Crime Takes a Holiday (1938) as Louie
Secrets of a Nurse (1938) as Smiley, Largo's Gunman (uncredited)
When G-Men Step In (1938) as Clip Phillips - Fred's Henchman
Walking Down Broadway (1938) as Man in Baccarat Club Bar (uncredited)
The Buccaneer (1938) as Dying Pirate
Behind Prison Gates (1939) as Convict Petey Ryan
They All Come Out (1939) as Vonnie (uncredited)
News Is Made at Night (1939) as Joe Luddy
Heritage of the Desert (1939) as Henchman Chick Chance
Star Reporter (1939) as Clipper
Two Thoroughbreds (1939) as Stablemaster
Heroes in Blue (1939) as Henchman (uncredited)
Those High Grey Walls (1939) as Nightengale
Mutiny on the Blackhawk (1939) as Jock - the Sailor
The Girl and the Gambler (1939) as Charlie
Undercover Doctor (1939) as Monk Jackson
Code of the Streets (1939) as Tommy Shay
Almost a Gentleman (1939) as Kidnapper (uncredited)
Disbarred (1939) as Stone (uncredited)
The Ghost Breakers (1940) as Frenchy Duval
Glamour for Sale (1940) as Louis Manell
Queen of the Mob (1940) as Gang Leader in Garage (uncredited)
The Fargo Kid (1940) as Deuce Mallory
The Great Plane Robbery (1940) as Nick Harmon
Trail of the Vigilantes (1940) as Lefty
Triple Justice (1940) as Fred Cleary
Black Diamonds (1940) as Matthews
The Crooked Road (1940) as Nick Romero
Dr. Cyclops (1940) as Dr. Mendoza
Virginia City (1940) as Murrell's Henchman (uncredited)
Outside the Three-Mile Limit (1940) as Bill Swanson
Strange Cargo (1940) as Benet
Black Friday (1940) as William Kane
Down Mexico Way (1941) as Henchman Davis
A Missouri Outlaw (1941) as Mark Roberts
Public Enemies (1941) as Scat
Mob Town (1941) as Monk Bangor (uncredited)
Unfinished Business (1941) as Reporter (uncredited)
Hold That Ghost (1941) as Lefty (uncredited)
Citadel of Crime (1941) as Nick Garro
Roar of the Press (1941) as 'Sparrow' McGraun
Pittsburgh (1942) as Mine Operator
Escape from Crime (1942) as Dude Mevill
Hitler – Dead or Alive (1942) as Joe 'The Book' Conway
Youth on Parade (1942) as Nick Cramer (uncredited)
Highways by Night (1942) as Gabby
Mug Town (1942) as Marco
That Other Woman (1942) as Tough Guy
Dr. Gillespie's New Assistant (1942) as Husband (uncredited)
Kid Glove Killer (1942) as Allison Stacy (uncredited)
Alias Boston Blackie (1942) as Steve Cavereni
Sleepytime Gal (1942) as Johnny Gatto
South of Santa Fe (1942) as Joe Keenan aka Harmon
Jail House Blues (1942) as Danny
Captive Wild Woman (1943) as Gruen
Sherlock Holmes and the Secret Weapon (1943) as Mueller (uncredited)
In Old Oklahoma (1943) as Cherokee Kid
Petticoat Larceny (1943) as Louie (uncredited)
Bombardier (1943) as Big Guy - Spy (uncredited)
The Unknown Guest (1943) as Fain
The Fighting Seabees (1944) as Ding
Tall in the Saddle (1944) as Bob Clews (also co-writer)
Back to Bataan (1945) as Bindle Jackson
Grissly's Millions (1945) as Lewis Bentley
Flame of Barbary Coast (1945) as Calico Jim
Dakota (1945) as Carp
Tycoon (1947) as Joe
Angel and the Badman (1947) as Mouse Marr (uncredited)
Force of Evil (1948) as Bill Ficco
The Plunderers (1948) as Calico
Angel in Exile (1948) as Carl Spitz
Red River (1948) as Teeler Yaces
Wake of the Red Witch (1948) as Antonio "Ripper" Arrezo
The Fighting Kentuckian (1949) as Beau Merritt
She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (1949) as Gunrunner (uncredited)
Fighting Man of the Plains (1949) as Yancy
Hellfire (1949) as Dusty Stoner
California Passage (1950) as Whalen
Surrender (1950) as Deputy Williams
Bullfighter and the Lady (1951) as Joseph Jamison (uncredited)
Warpath (1951) as Pvt. Fiore
The Great Missouri Raid (1951) as Sgt. Brill
Ride the Man Down (1952) as Ray Cavanaugh
What Price Glory (1952) as Gowdy (uncredited)
Denver and Rio Grande (1952) as Engineer Moynihan
Big Jim Mclain (1952) as Voice of Chauncey (uncredited)
Fair Wind to Java (1953) as Wilson
Island in the Sky (1953) as Wally Miller
Hondo (1953) as Major Sherry
Devil's Canyon (1953) as Gatling Guard
Star of Texas (1953) as Luke Andrews
The High and the Mighty (1954) as Frank Briscoe
Johnny Guitar (1954) as Eddie
Blood Alley (1955) as Mr. Tso
The Sea Chase (1955) as Max Heinz
Top of the World (1955) as Maj. George French
Santiago (1956) as Trasker
Star in the Dust (1956) as Mike MacNamara
Stagecoach to Fury (1956) as Tim O'Connors
Giant (1956) as Dr. Horace Lynnton
Toward the Unknown (1956) as Lt. Gen. Bryan Shelby
The Bad Seed (1956) as Richard Bravo
Man in the Vault (1956) as Herbie
Man in the Shadow (1957) as Herb Parker
The Devil's Hairpin (1957) as Doc Addams
Night Passage (1957) as Mr. Feeney
Jet Pilot (1957) as Major Rexford
Night Passage (1957) as Clarence Feeney
Lafayette Escadrille (1958) as U. S. General
The Notorious Mr. Monks (1958) as Benjamin Monks
Guns Girls and Gangsters (1959) as Lon Largo
Wagon Train : The Amos Billings Story (1962, TV Series) as Amos Billings
To Kill A Mockingbird (1962) as Judge Taylor
The Outrage (1964) as Indian
Mail Order Bride (1964) as Sheriff Jess Linley
The Sons of Katie Elder (1965) as Sheriff Billy Watson
Shenandoah (1965) as Dr. Tom Witherspoon
Baby the Rain Must Fall (1965) as Judge Ewing
El Dorado (1966) as Dr. Miller
Incident at Phantom Hill (1966) as General Hood
Ride Beyond Vengeance (1966) as Hanley
An Eye for an Eye (1966) as Brien Quince
Nevada Smith (1966) as Sheriff Bonnell
Welcome to Hard Times (1967) as Major Munn C.S.A.
The Ballad of Josie (1967) as Alpheus Minisk
Day of the Evil Gun (1968) as Sheriff Kelso
Hellfighters (1968) as Dusty Stoner
The Undefeated (1969) as General Joe Masters
Young Billy Young (1969) as Charlie
Dirty Dingus Magee (1970) as Chief Crazy Blanket
Zabriskie Point (1970) as Roadhouse Owner
Shoot Out (1971) as Brakeman Frenatore
Something Big (1971) as Chief Yellow Sun
Night of the Lepus (1972) as Sheriff Cody
Pat Garrett and Billy The Kid (1973) as Maxwell
Cahill U.S. Marshal (1973) as Old Man
Grayeagle (1977) as Running Wolf
Wanda Nevada (1979) as Texas Curly
Film writer
Tall in the Saddle (Screenplay)
Ring of Fear (Original Screenplay)
Television
The Lone Ranger – episode – Million Dollar Wallpaper – Silk (1950)
Adventures of Superman (Credits Paul Fix) – Episode Season 1 Episode 22 – Czar of the Underworld (1953)
Adventures of Superman (Credits Peter Fix) – Episode Season 2 Episode 18 – Semi-Private Eye (1954)
Perry Mason – episode - The Case of the Angry Mourner - District Attorney Hale (1957)
The Restless Gun - episode - Jody - as Jake Burnett (1957)
The Rifleman – 123 episodes appeared in, and credit only for 27 episodes – Marshall Micah Torrance, and Charming Billy for 1 episode (1958–1963)
Wagon Train – episode – The Mark Hanford Story – Jake (1958)
Perry Mason – Season 2 Episode 6 - The Case of the Buried Clock - District Attorney Hale (1958)
Wagon Train – episode – The Amos Billings Story – Amos Billings (1962)
Wagon Train – episode – The Brian Conlin Story – Sean Bannon (1964)
Lassie – episode – The Sulky Race – Sam Snow (1959)
Ripcord – episode – Jump to a Blind Alley – Josh Parker (1963)
The Twilight Zone – Colbey (1964) – Episode Season 5 Episode 26 – "I Am the Night Color Me Black"
The F.B.I. – episode – How to Murder an Iron Horse – Willard Oberley (1965)
Death Valley Days – episode – A Picture of a Lady – Doc Lathrop, with Peter Whitney as Judge Roy Bean and Francine York as Lily Langtry (1965)
Star Trek: The Original Series – episode – Where No Man Has Gone Before – Dr. Mark Piper (1966)
Daniel Boone – Quonab - S3/E2 "The Allegiances" (1966)
A Man Called Shenandoah – episode – Plunder – Sam Winters (1966)
The Wild Wild West - episode - Night of the green terror - Old Chief (1966)
Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea - S3/E5 - The Terrible Toys - Burke (1966)
Bonanza – episode – The Gold Detector – Barney (1967)
Gunsmoke - episode - Fandango - Doc Lacey (1967)
Gunsmoke – episode – Vengeance Part 1 – Sheriff Sloan (1967)
The Big Valley – episode – The Stallion – Brahma (1967)
The Guns of Will Sonnett – episode #1 – Ride the Long Trail – Olenhaussen - Stableman (1967)
The Wild Wild West - S3 E7 "The Night of the Hangman" - Judge Blake (1967)
Land of the Giants – episode #9 "The Creed" Doctor Brule (1968)
Land of the Giants – episode #17 "Deadly Lodestone" Doctor Brule (1969)
The Andy Griffith Show – episode – Barney Hosts a Summit Meeting – Mr. McCabe (1968)
Daniel Boone (1964 TV series) – Chief Great Bear - S5/E16 "Three Score and Ten" (1969)
The F.B.I. – episode – The Prey – Chester Cranford (1969)
Death Valley Days season 17 episode 18 Here Stands Bailey - Brit Bailey (1969)
The F.B.I. – episode – Incident in the Desert – Matt Williams (1970)
Ironside – episode – The Laying on of Handy – Cripple (1970)
Alias Smith and Jones – episode – The Day They Hanged Kid Curry – Tom Hansen (1971)
Owen Marshall: Counselor at Law – episode – Make No Mistake – Dr. Mel Woodruff (1971)
Alias Smith and Jones – episode – Night of the Red Dog – Clarence Bowles (1971)
Bonanza – episode – For a Young Lady – Bufford Sturgis (1971)
Mannix – episode – Scapegoat – Johnny Gunnarson (1972)
Emergency! – episode – Fuzz Lady – Gus 'Pop' William (1972)
Alias Smith and Jones – episode – Three to a Bed – Bronc (1973)
The F.B.I. – episode – The Big Job – Farrell (1973)
The Six Million Dollar Man – episode – Population: Zero – Joe Taylor (1974)
Barnaby Jones – episode – Dark Legacy – Amos Barringer (1974)
Doc Elliot – episode – The Pharmacist – Gus Turners (1974)
The Waltons - episode - The Conflict - Senator Lucas Avery (1974)
Barnaby Jones – episode – Death on Deposit – Alfred Stermer (1974)
Barnaby Jones – episode – Double Vengeance – Jack Tatthal (1975)
Emergency! – episode – Kidding – Maxwell Hart (1975)
Lincoln – mini-series – episode – Prairie Law – Judge Thomas (1975)
Ellery Queen – episode – The Adventure of the Sinister Scenario – Captain Benjamin Blake (1976)
How The West Was Won – Mini series – episodes #1.2–1.4 – Portagee (1977–1978)
The Rockford Files – episode – The House On Willis Avenue – Joseph Tooley (1978)
Battlestar Galactica – episode – Take The Celestra – Commander Kronus (1979)
Quincy M.E. – episode – For Want of A Horse – Jason Randall (1981) (final appearance)
References
External links
Paul Peter Fix Collection (AFC/2001/001/00534), Veterans History Project, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress.
Paul Fix at Battlestar Wiki, an encyclopedia of the Battlestar Galactica'' sagas
1901 births
1983 deaths
20th-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American people of German descent
Deaths from kidney failure
Male actors from Los Angeles
Male actors from New York (state)
Male Western (genre) film actors
Military personnel from New York (state)
New York National Guard personnel
People from Dobbs Ferry, New York
United States Army soldiers
United States Navy corpsmen
United States Navy personnel of World War I
Western (genre) television actors
Burials at Woodlawn Memorial Cemetery, Santa Monica
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5097395
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophobia
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Homophobia
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Homophobia encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who identify or are perceived as being lesbian, gay or bisexual. It has been defined as contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred or antipathy, may be based on irrational fear and may sometimes be related to religious beliefs.
Homophobia is observable in critical and hostile behavior such as discrimination and violence on the basis of sexual orientations that are non-heterosexual. Recognized types of homophobia include institutionalized homophobia, e.g. religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia, and internalized homophobia, experienced by people who have same-sex attractions, regardless of how they identify.
Negative attitudes toward identifiable LGBT groups have similar yet specific names: lesbophobia is the intersection of homophobia and sexism directed against lesbians, gayphobia is the dislike or hatred of gay men, biphobia targets bisexuality and bisexual people, and transphobia targets transgender and transsexual people and gender variance or gender role nonconformity. According to 2010 Hate Crimes Statistics released by the FBI National Press Office, 19.3 percent of hate crimes across the United States "were motivated by a sexual orientation bias." Moreover, in a Southern Poverty Law Center 2010 Intelligence Report extrapolating data from FBI national hate crime statistics from 1995 to 2008, found that LGBT people were "far more likely than any other minority group in the United States to be victimized by violent hate crime."
Etymology
Although sexual attitudes tracing back to Ancient Greece – from the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity () – have been termed homophobia by scholars, and it is used to describe an intolerance towards homosexuality and homosexuals that grew during the Middle Ages, especially by adherents of Islam and Christianity, the term itself is relatively new.
Coined by George Weinberg, a psychologist, in the 1960s, the term homophobia is a blend of (1) the word homosexual, itself a mix of neo-classical morphemes, and (2) phobia from the Greek , phóbos, meaning "fear", "morbid fear" or "aversion". Weinberg is credited as the first person to have used the term in speech. The word homophobia first appeared in print in an article written for the May 23, 1969, edition of the American pornographic magazine Screw, in which the word was used to refer to heterosexual men's fear that others might think they are gay.
Conceptualizing anti-LGBT prejudice as a social problem worthy of scholarly attention was not new. A 1969 article in Time described examples of negative attitudes toward homosexuality as "homophobia", including "a mixture of revulsion and apprehension" which some called homosexual panic. In 1971, Kenneth Smith used homophobia as a personality profile to describe the psychological aversion to homosexuality. Weinberg also used it this way in his 1972 book Society and the Healthy Homosexual, published one year before the American Psychiatric Association voted to remove homosexuality from its list of mental disorders. Weinberg's term became an important tool for gay and lesbian activists, advocates, and their allies. He describes the concept as a medical phobia:
In 1981, homophobia was used for the first time in The Times (of London) to report that the General Synod of the Church of England voted to refuse to condemn homosexuality.
However, when taken literally, homophobia may be a problematic term. Professor David A. F. Haaga says that contemporary usage includes "a wide range of negative emotions, attitudes and behaviours toward homosexual people," which are characteristics that are not consistent with accepted definitions of phobias, that of "an intense, illogical, or abnormal fear of a specified thing."
Types
Homophobia manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others. There were also ideas to classify homophobia and other types of bigotry as intolerant personality disorder.
In 1992, the American Psychiatric Association, recognizing the power of the stigma against homosexuality, issued the following statement, reaffirmed by the Board of Trustees, July 2011:Whereas homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social or vocational capabilities, the American Psychiatric Association (APA) calls on all international health organizations, psychiatric organizations, and individual psychiatrists in other countries to urge the repeal in their own countries of legislation that penalizes homosexual acts by consenting adults in private. Further, APA calls on these organizations and individuals to do all that is possible to decrease the stigma related to homosexuality wherever and whenever it may occur.
Institutional
Religious attitudes
Some world religions contain anti-homosexual teachings, while other religions have varying degrees of ambivalence, neutrality, or incorporate teachings that regard homosexuals as third gender. Even within some religions which generally discourage homosexuality, there may also be people who view homosexuality positively, and some religious denominations bless or conduct same-sex marriages. There also exist so-called Queer religions, dedicated to serving the spiritual needs of LGBTQI persons. Queer theology seeks to provide a counterpoint to religious homophobia. In 2015, attorney and author Roberta Kaplan stated that Kim Davis "is the clearest example of someone who wants to use a religious liberty argument to discriminate [against same-sex couples]."
Christianity and the Bible
Passages commonly interpreted as condemning homosexuality or same-gender sexual relations are found in both Old and New Testaments of the Bible. Leviticus 18:22 says "Thou shalt not lie with mankind, as with womankind: it is abomination." The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah is also commonly seen as a condemnation of homosexuality. Christians and Jews who oppose homosexuality may often cite such passages; the historical context and interpretation of which is more complicated. Scholarly debate over the interpretation of these passages has tended to focus on placing them in proper historical context, for instance pointing out that Sodom's sins are historically interpreted as being other than homosexuality, and on the translation of rare or unusual words in the passages in question. In Religion Dispatches magazine, Candace Chellew-Hodge argues that the six or so verses that are often cited to condemn LGBT people are referring instead to "abusive sex". She states that the Bible has no condemnation for "loving, committed, gay and lesbian relationships" and that Jesus was silent on the subject. This view is opposed by a number of conservative evangelicals, including Robert A. J. Gagnon.
The official teaching of the Catholic Church regarding homosexuality is that same-sex behavior should not be expressed. In the United States, a February 2012 Pew Research Center poll shows that Catholics support gay marriage by a margin of 52% to 37%. That is a shift upwards from 2010, when 46% of Catholics favored gay marriage. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that, "'homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered.'...They are contrary to the natural law.... Under no circumstances can they be approved."
Islam and Sharia
In some cases, the distinction between religious homophobia and state-sponsored homophobia is not clear, a key example being territories under Islamic authority. All major Islamic sects forbid homosexuality, which is a crime under Sharia Law and treated as such in most Muslim countries. In Afghanistan, for instance, homosexuality carried the death penalty under the Taliban. After their fall, homosexuality was reduced from a capital crime to one that is punished with fines and prison sentences. The legal situation in the United Arab Emirates, however, is unclear.
In 2009, the International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA) published a report entitled State Sponsored Homophobia 2009, which is based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College, Stockholm, Sweden. This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal:
Five carry the death penalty for homosexual activity: Iran, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen. Since the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran, the Iranian government has executed more than 4,000 people charged with homosexual acts. In Saudi Arabia, the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public execution, but the government will use other punishments – e.g., fines, jail time, whipping – and even forced sex change as alternatives, unless it feels that people engaging in homosexual activity are challenging state authority by engaging in LGBT social movements.
Two do in some regions: Nigeria, Somalia
In 2001, Al-Muhajiroun, an international organization seeking the establishment of a global Islamic caliphate, issued a fatwa declaring that all members of The Al-Fatiha Foundation (which advances the cause of gay, lesbian, and transgender Muslims) were murtadd, or apostates, and condemning them to death. Because of the threat and because they come from conservative societies, many members of the foundation's site still prefer to be anonymous so as to protect their identities while they are continuing a tradition of secrecy.
In some regions, gay people have been persecuted and murdered by Islamist militias, such as Al-Nusra Front and ISIL in parts of Iraq and Syria.
State-sponsored
State-sponsored homophobia includes the criminalization and penalization of homosexuality, hate speech from government figures, and other forms of discrimination, violence, persecution of LGBT people.
Past governments
In medieval Europe, homosexuality was considered sodomy and was punishable by death. Persecutions reached their height during the Medieval Inquisitions, when the sects of Cathars and Waldensians were accused of fornication and sodomy, alongside accusations of Satanism. In 1307, accusations of sodomy and homosexuality were major charges leveled during the Trial of the Knights Templar. The theologian Thomas Aquinas was influential in linking condemnation of homosexuality with the idea of natural law, arguing that "special sins are against nature, as, for instance, those that run counter to the intercourse of male and female natural to animals, and so are peculiarly qualified as unnatural vices."
Although bisexuality was accepted as normal human behavior in Ancient China, homophobia became ingrained in the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China due to interactions with the Christian West, and homosexual behavior was outlawed in 1740. During the Cultural Revolution, homosexuality was treated by the government as a "social disgrace or a form of mental illness", and individuals who were homosexual widely faced persecution. Although there were no laws specifically against homosexuality, other laws were used to prosecute homosexual people and they were "charged with hooliganism or disturbing public order."
The Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin decriminalized homosexuality in 1922, long before many other European countries. The Soviet Communist Party effectively legalized no-fault divorce, abortion and homosexuality, when they abolished all the old Tsarist laws and the initial Soviet criminal code kept these liberal sexual policies in place. Lenin's emancipation was reversed a decade later by Joseph Stalin and homosexuality remained illegal under Article 121 until the Yeltsin era.
In Nazi Germany, gay men were persecuted and approximately five to fifteen thousand were imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps.
Current governments
Homosexuality is illegal in 74 countries. The North Korean government condemns Western gay culture as a vice caused by the decadence of a capitalist society, and it denounces it as promoting consumerism, classism, and promiscuity. In North Korea, "violating the rules of collective socialist life" can be punished with up to two years' imprisonment. However, according to the North Korean government, "As a country that has embraced science and rationalism, the DPRK recognizes that many individuals are born with homosexuality as a genetic trait and treats them with due respect. Homosexuals in the DPRK have never been subject to repression, as in many capitalist regimes around the world."
Robert Mugabe, the former president of Zimbabwe, waged a violent campaign against LGBT people, arguing that before colonisation, Zimbabweans did not engage in homosexual acts. His first major public condemnation of homosexuality was in August 1995, during the Zimbabwe International Book Fair. He told an audience: "If you see people parading themselves as lesbians and gays, arrest them and hand them over to the police!" In September 1995, Zimbabwe's parliament introduced legislation banning homosexual acts. In 1997, a court found Canaan Banana, Mugabe's predecessor and the first President of Zimbabwe, guilty of 11 counts of sodomy and indecent assault.
In Poland, local towns, cities, and Voivodeship sejmiks have declared their respective regions as LGBT ideology free zone with the encouragement of the ruling Law and Justice party.
Since 2006, under Vladimir Putin, regions in Russia have enacted varying laws restricting the distribution of materials promoting LGBT relationships to minors. In June 2013, a federal law criminalizing the distribution of materials among minors in support of non-traditional sexual relationships was enacted as an amendment to an existing child protection law. The law resulted in the numerous arrests of Russian LGBT citizens.
Internalized
Internalized homophobia refers to negative stereotypes, beliefs, stigma, and prejudice about homosexuality and LGBT people that a person with same-sex attraction turns inward on themselves, whether or not they identify as LGBT. The affect of these ideas depends on how much and which they have consciously and subconsciously internalized. These negative beliefs can be mitigated with education, life experience and therapy, especially with gay-friendly psychotherapy/analysis. Internalized homophobia also applies to conscious or unconscious behaviors which a person feels the need to promote or conform to cultural expectations of heteronormativity or heterosexism. This can include repression and denial coupled with forced outward displays of heteronormative behavior for the purpose of appearing or attempting to feel "normal" or "accepted". Other expressions of internalized homophobia can also be subtle. Some less overt behaviors may include making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles. Some researchers also apply this label to LGBT people who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find civil unions acceptable in place of same-sex marriage.
Some studies have shown that people who are homophobic are more likely to have repressed homosexual desires. In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual men (half said they were homophobic by experience, with self-reported orientation) at the University of Georgia found that men who were found to be homophobic (as measured by the Index of Homophobia) were considerably more likely to experience more erectile responses when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men. Weinstein and colleagues arrived at similar results when researchers found that students who came from controlling and homophobic homes were most likely to reveal repressed homosexual attraction. The researchers said that this explained why some religious leaders who denounce homosexuality are later revealed to have secret homosexual relations. One co-author said, "In many cases these are people who are at war with themselves and they are turning this internal conflict outward." A 2016 eye-tracking study showed that heterosexual men with high negative impulse reactions toward homosexuals gazed for longer periods at homosexual imagery than other heterosexual men. According to Cheval et al. (2016), these findings reinforce the necessity to consider that homophobia might reflect concerns about sexuality in general and not homosexuality in particular. In contrast, Jesse Marczyk argued in Psychology Today that homophobia is not repressed homosexuality.
Researcher Iain R. Williamson finds the term homophobia to be "highly problematic," but for reasons of continuity and consistency with the majority of other publications on the issue retains its use rather than using more accurate but obscure terminology. The phrase internalized sexual stigma is sometimes used in place to represent internalized homophobia. An internalized stigma arises when a person believes negative stereotypes about themselves, regardless of where the stereotypes come from. It can also refer to many stereotypes beyond sexuality and gender roles. Internalized homophobia can cause discomfort with and disapproval of one's own sexual orientation. Ego-dystonic sexual orientation or egodystonic homophobia, for instance, is a condition characterized by having a sexual orientation or an attraction that is at odds with one's idealized self-image, causing anxiety and a desire to change one's orientation or become more comfortable with one's sexual orientation. Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires. In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong sexual and emotional desires. This discordance can cause clinical depression, and a higher rate of suicide among LGBT youth (up to 30 percent of non-heterosexual youth attempt suicide) has been attributed to this phenomenon. Psychotherapy, such as gay affirmative psychotherapy, and participation in a sexual-minority affirming group can help resolve the internal conflicts, such as between religious beliefs and sexual identity. Even informal therapies that address understanding and accepting of non-heterosexual orientations can prove effective. Many diagnostic "Internalized Homophobia Scales" can be used to measure a person's discomfort with their sexuality and some can be used by people regardless of gender or sexual orientation. Critics of the scales note that they presume a discomfort with non-heterosexuality which in itself enforces heternormativity.
Social
The fear of being identified as gay can be considered as a form of social homophobia. Theorists including Calvin Thomas and Judith Butler have suggested that homophobia can be rooted in an individual's fear of being identified as gay. Homophobia in men is correlated with insecurity about masculinity. For this reason, homophobia is allegedly rampant in sports, and in the subculture of its supporters that is considered stereotypically male, such as association football and rugby.
Nancy J. Chodorow states that homophobia can be viewed as a method of protection of male masculinity. Various psychoanalytic theories explain homophobia as a threat to an individual's own same-sex impulses, whether those impulses are imminent or merely hypothetical. This threat causes repression, denial or reaction formation.
Distribution of attitude
Homophobia is not evenly distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced according to age, ethnicity, geographic location, race, sex, social class, education, partisan identification and religion. According to UK HIV/AIDS charity AVERT, religious views, lack of homosexual feelings or experiences, and lack of interaction with gay people are strongly associated with such views.
The anxiety of heterosexual individuals (particularly adolescents whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is based in part on not being seen as gay) that others may identify them as gay has also been identified by Michael Kimmel as an example of homophobia. The taunting of boys seen as eccentric (and who are not usually gay) is said to be endemic in rural and suburban American schools, and has been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence (such as a spate of school shootings) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their masculinity. Homophobic bullying is also very common in schools in the United Kingdom. At least 445 LGBT Brazilians were either murdered or committed suicide in 2017.
In some cases, the works of authors who merely have the word "Gay" in their name (Gay Talese, Peter Gay) or works about things also contain the name (Enola Gay) have been destroyed because of a perceived pro-homosexual bias.
In the United States, attitudes vary on the basis of partisan identification. Republicans are far more likely than Democrats to have negative attitudes about gays and lesbians, according to surveys conducted by the National Election Studies from 2000 through 2004. Homophobia also varies by region; statistics show that the Southern United States has more reports of anti-gay prejudice than any other region in the US.
In a 1998 address, civil rights leader Coretta Scott King stated, "Homophobia is like racism and anti-Semitism and other forms of bigotry in that it seeks to dehumanize a large group of people, to deny their humanity, their dignity and personhood." One study of white adolescent males conducted at the University of Cincinnati by Janet Baker has been used to argue that negative feelings towards gay people are also associated with other discriminatory behaviors. According to the study, hatred of gay people, antisemitism, and racism are "likely companions". Baker hypothesized "maybe it's a matter of power and looking down on all you think are at the bottom." A study performed in 2007 in the UK for the charity Stonewall reports that up to 90 percent of the population support anti-discrimination laws protecting gay and lesbian people.
Economic cost
There are at least two studies which indicate that homophobia may have a negative economic impact for the countries where it is widespread. In these countries there is a flight of their LGBT populations—with the consequent loss of talent—as well as an avoidance of LGBT tourism, that leaves the pink money in LGBT-friendlier countries. As an example, LGBT tourists contribute 6.8 billion dollars every year to the Spanish economy.
As soon as 2005, an editorial from the New York Times related the politics of don't ask, don't tell in the US Army with the lack of translators from Arabic, and with the delay in the translation of Arabic documents, calculated to be about 120,000 hours at the time. Since 1998, with the introduction of the new policy, about 20 Arabic translators had been expelled from the Army, specifically during the years the US was involved in wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
M. V. Lee Badgett, an economist at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, presented in March 2014 in a meeting of the World Bank the results of a study about the economic impact of homophobia in India. Only in health expenses, caused by depression, suicide, and HIV treatment, India would have spent additional 23,100 million dollars due to homophobia. On top, there would be costs caused by violence, workplace loss, rejection of the family, and bullying at school, that would result in a lower education level, lower productivity, lower wages, worse health, and a lower life expectancy among the LGBT population. In total, she estimated for 2014 in India a loss of up to 30,800 million dollars, or 1.7% of the Indian GDP.
The LGBT activist Adebisi Alimi, in a preliminary estimation, has calculated that the economic loss due to homophobia in Nigeria is about 1% of its GDP. Taking into account that in 2015 homosexuality is still illegal in 36 of the 54 African countries, the money loss due to homophobia in the continent could amount to hundreds of millions of dollars every year.
Another study regarding socioecological measurement of homophobia and its public health impact for 158 countries was conducted in 2018. It found that the prejudice against gay people has a worldwide economic cost of $119.1 billion. Economical loss in Asia was 88.29 billion dollars due to homophobia, and in Latin America & the Caribbean it was 8.04 billion dollars. Economical cost in East Asia and Middle Asia was 10.85 billion dollars. Economical cost in Middle East and North Africa was 16.92 billion dollars. The researcher suggested that a 1% decrease in the level of homophobia is associated with a 10% increase in the gross domestic product per capita.
A 2018 study by The Williams Institute (UCLA School of Law) concludes that there is a positive correlation between LGBT inclusion and GDP per capita. According to this study, the legal rights of LGBT people have a bigger influence than the degree of acceptance in the society, but both effects reinforce each other. A one-point increase in their LGBT Global Acceptance Index (GAI) showed an increase of $1,506 in GDP per capita, and one additional legal right was correlated with an increase of $1,694 in GDP per capita.
Countermeasures
Most international human rights organizations, such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, condemn laws that make homosexual relations between consenting adults a crime. Since 1994, the United Nations Human Rights Committee has also ruled that such laws violated the right to privacy guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In 2008, the Roman Catholic Church issued a statement which "urges States to do away with criminal penalties against [homosexual persons]." The statement, however, was addressed to reject a resolution by the UN Assembly that would have precisely called for an end of penalties against homosexuals in the world. In March 2010, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted a recommendation on measures to combat discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity, described by CoE Secretary General as the first legal instrument in the world dealing specifically with one of the most long-lasting and difficult forms of discrimination to combat.
To combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as gay pride parades and political activism (See gay pride). In August 2019, the Pride in London community took a different initiative to "show solidarity with the LGBT+ community" and colored the crossings in rainbow colors for the annual parades. The first permanent crossings have been put on roads in Lambeth. Others were painted in Royal Borough of Greenwich.
One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the International Day Against Homophobia (or IDAHO), first celebrated May 17, 2005, in related activities in more than 40 countries. The four largest countries of Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Colombia) developed mass media campaigns against homophobia since 2002.
In addition to public expression, legislation has been designed, controversially, to oppose homophobia, as in hate speech, hate crime, and laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Successful preventative strategies against homophobic prejudice and bullying in schools have included teaching pupils about historical figures who were gay, or who suffered discrimination because of their sexuality.
Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral and goes above and beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme right-wing conservatives and fundamentalist religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly. Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular stated:
Drawing upon research by Arizona State University Professor Elizabeth Segal, University of Memphis professors Robin Lennon-Dearing and Elena Delavega argued in a 2016 article published in the Journal of Homosexuality that homophobia could be reduced through exposure (learning about LGBT experiences), explanation (understanding the different challenges faced by LGBT people), and experience (putting themselves in situations experienced by LGBT people by working alongside LGBT co-workers or volunteering at an LGBT community center).
Criticism of meaning and purpose
Distinctions and proposed alternatives
Researchers have proposed alternative terms to describe prejudice and discrimination against LGBT people. Some of these alternatives show more semantic transparency while others do not include -phobia:
Homoerotophobia, being a possible precursor term to homophobia, was coined by Wainwright Churchill and documented in Homosexual Behavior Among Males in 1967.
The etymology of homophobia citing the union of homos and phobos is the basis for LGBT historian Boswell's criticism of the term and for his suggestion in 1980 of the alternative homosexophobia.
Homonegativity is based on the term homonegativism used by Hudson and Ricketts in a 1980 paper; they coined the term for their research in order to avoid homophobia, which they regarded as being unscientific in its presumption of motivation.
Heterosexism refers to a system of negative attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favour of opposite-sex sexual orientation and relationships. p. 13 It can include the presumption that everyone is heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the only norm and therefore superior.
Sexual prejudice – Researcher at the University of California, Davis Gregory M. Herek preferred sexual prejudice as being descriptive, free of presumptions about motivations, and lacking value judgments as to the irrationality or immorality of those so labeled. He compared homophobia, heterosexism, and sexual prejudice, and, in preferring the third term, noted that homophobia was "probably more widely used and more often criticized." He also observed that "Its critics note that homophobia implicitly suggests that antigay attitudes are best understood as an irrational fear and that they represent a form of individual psychopathology rather than a socially reinforced prejudice."
Non-neutral phrasing
Use of homophobia, homophobic, and homophobe has been criticized as pejorative against LGBT rights opponents. Behavioral scientists William O'Donohue and Christine Caselles stated in 1993 that "as [homophobia] is usually used, [it] makes an illegitimately pejorative evaluation of certain open and debatable value positions, much like the former disease construct of homosexuality" itself, arguing that the term may be used as an ad hominem argument against those who advocate values or positions of which the user does not approve.
Psychologists Gregory M. Herek and Beverly A. Greene also find fault with the term "homophobia:" "Technically, homophobia means fear of sameness, yet its usage implies a fear of homosexuals....the –phobia suffix implies a specific kind of fear...fear or aversion may comprise one component of beliefs about homosexuality, but other factors are unquestionably important." Several alternative terms have been offered ...These include homonegativism (Hudson & Ricketts, 1980), homosexism (Hansen, 1982), and heterosexism (Herek, 1986a). Unfortunately, none has gained widespread acceptance."
However, neutral use of the term has gained acceptance and usage over time since the 1990s. In 2017, the Associated Press Stylebook added an entry for "homophobia" and "homophobic" for the first time, after having excluded it in 2012. The entry says the terms are “acceptable in broad references or in quotations to the concept of fear or hatred of gays, lesbians and bisexuals.”
Heterophobia
The term heterophobia is sometimes used to describe reverse discrimination towards heterosexuals. The scientific use of heterophobia in sexology is restricted to a few researchers who question Alfred Kinsey's sex research. To date, the existence or extent of heterophobia is mostly unrecognized by sexologists. Beyond sexology, there is no consensus as to the meaning of the term because it is also used to mean "fear of the opposite", such as in Pierre-André Taguieff's The Force of Prejudice: On Racism and Its Doubles (2001). Referring to the debate on both meaning and use, SUNY lecturer Raymond J. Noonan stated:
The term heterophobia is confusing for some people for several reasons. On the one hand, some look at it as just another of the many me-too social constructions that have arisen in the pseudoscience of victimology in recent decades. (Many of us recall John Money's 1995 criticism of the ascendancy of victimology and its negative impact on sexual science.) Others look at the parallelism between heterophobia and homophobia, and suggest that the former trivializes the latter... For others, it is merely a curiosity or parallel-construction word game. But for others still, it is part of both the recognition and politicization of heterosexuals' cultural interests in contrast to those of gays—particularly where those interests are perceived to clash.
Stephen M. White and Louis R. Franzini introduced the related term heteronegativism to refer to the range of negative feelings that some gay individuals may hold toward heterosexuals. This term is preferred to heterophobia because it does not imply extreme or irrational fear. The Merriam-Webster dictionary of the English language defines heterophobia as "irrational fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against heterosexual people".
See also
Corrective rape
Discrimination against non-binary people
Faggot (slang)
Gay panic defense
Homosexual agenda
Heteropatriarchy
Homophobia in the African American community
Homophobia in the Asian American community
Homophobia in the Black British community
Homosexuality and Citizenship in Florida (pamphlet)
Lavender scare
Liberal homophobia
Minority stress
Riddle scale
Sexual repression
Stop Murder Music
Yogyakarta Principles
References
Further reading
Gregory M. Herek (2001). Sexual Prejudice: Understanding Homophobia and Heterosexism.
Rictor Norton; Louie Crew (ed.) (November 1974). The Homophobic Imagination.
Rabbi Shmuley Boteach (October 16, 2010). Homophobia Is Itself an Abomination, The Huffington Post.
Irina Echarry (May 19, 2009). Homophobia Is the Problem, Not Gays, Havana Times.
External links
Rockway Institute at Alliant International University (LGBT research in the public interest)
European Parliament resolution on homophobia in Europe, European Parliament, 2006
Campaigns against Homophobia in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico, Pan American Health Organization, 2008
Discriminatory laws and practices and acts of violence against individuals based on their sexual orientation and gender identity, United Nations Human Rights Council, 2011
Living Free and Equal: What States Are Doing to Tackle Violence and Discrimination against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex People, United Nations, 2016
Breaking the Silence: Criminalisation of Lesbians and Bisexual Women and its Impacts. Human Dignity Trust, May 2016.
In Some Countries, Being Gay Or Lesbian Can Land You In Prison...Or Worse. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 2020
Gender-related violence
Pejorative terms
Discrimination against LGBT people
Prejudice and discrimination by type
Anti-LGBT sentiment
Violence against men
Violence against women
Harassment and bullying
Sexuality-related prejudices
Homosexuality
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20supercoil
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DNA supercoil
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DNA supercoiling refers to the amount of twist in a particular DNA strand, which determines the amount of strain on it. A given strand may be "positively supercoiled" or "negatively supercoiled" (more or less tightly wound). The amount of a strand’s supercoiling affects a number of biological processes, such as compacting DNA and regulating access to the genetic code (which strongly affects DNA metabolism and possibly gene expression). Certain enzymes, such as topoisomerases, change the amount of DNA supercoiling to facilitate functions such as DNA replication and transcription. The amount of supercoiling in a given strand is described by a mathematical formula that compares it to a reference state known as "relaxed B-form" DNA.
Overview
In a "relaxed" double-helical segment of B-DNA, the two strands twist around the helical axis once every 10.4–10.5 base pairs of sequence. Adding or subtracting twists, as some enzymes do, imposes strain. If a DNA segment under twist strain is closed into a circle by joining its two ends, and then allowed to move freely, it takes on different shape, such as a figure-eight. This shape is referred to as a supercoil. (The noun form "supercoil" is often used when describing DNA topology.)
The DNA of most organisms is usually negatively supercoiled. It becomes temporarily positively supercoiled when it is being replicated or transcribed. These processes are inhibited (regulated) if it is not promptly relaxed. The simplest shape of a supercoil is a figure eight; a circular DNA strand assumes this shape to accommodate more or few helical twists. The two lobes of the figure eight will appear rotated either clockwise or counterclockwise with respect to one another, depending on whether the helix is over- or underwound. For each additional helical twist being accommodated, the lobes will show one more rotation about their axis.
Lobal contortions of a circular DNA, such as the rotation of the figure-eight lobes above, are referred to as writhe. The above example illustrates that twist and writhe are interconvertible. Supercoiling can be represented mathematically by the sum of twist and writhe. The twist is the number of helical turns in the DNA and the writhe is the number of times the double helix crosses over on itself (these are the supercoils). Extra helical twists are positive and lead to positive supercoiling, while subtractive twisting causes negative supercoiling. Many topoisomerase enzymes sense supercoiling and either generate or dissipate it as they change DNA topology.
In part because chromosomes may be very large, segments in the middle may act as if their ends are anchored. As a result, they may be unable to distribute excess twist to the rest of the chromosome or to absorb twist to recover from underwinding—the segments may become supercoiled, in other words. In response to supercoiling, they will assume an amount of writhe, just as if their ends were joined.
Supercoiled DNA forms two structures; a plectoneme or a toroid, or a combination of both. A negatively supercoiled DNA molecule will produce either a one-start left-handed helix, the toroid, or a two-start right-handed helix with terminal loops, the plectoneme. Plectonemes are typically more common in nature, and this is the shape most bacterial plasmids will take. For larger molecules it is common for hybrid structures to form – a loop on a toroid can extend into a plectoneme. If all the loops on a toroid extend then it becomes a branch point in the plectonemic structure. DNA supercoiling is important for DNA packaging within all cells, and seems to also play a role in gene expression.
Intercalation-induced supercoiling of DNA
Based on the properties of intercalating molecules, i.e. fluorescing upon binding to DNA and unwinding of DNA base-pairs, in 2016, a single-molecule technique has been introduced to directly visualize individual plectonemes along supercoiled DNA which would further allow to study the interactions of DNA processing proteins with supercoiled DNA. In that study, Sytox Orange (an intercalating dye) was used to induce supercoiling on surface tethered DNA molecules.
Using this assay, it was found that the DNA sequence encodes for the position of plectonemic supercoils. Furthermore, DNA supercoils were found to be enriched at the transcription start sites in prokaryotes.
Functions
Genome packaging
DNA supercoiling is important for DNA packaging within all cells. Because the length of DNA can be thousands of times that of a cell, packaging this genetic material into the cell or nucleus (in eukaryotes) is a difficult feat. Supercoiling of DNA reduces the space and allows for DNA to be packaged. In prokaryotes, plectonemic supercoils are predominant, because of the circular chromosome and relatively small amount of genetic material. In eukaryotes, DNA supercoiling exists on many levels of both plectonemic and solenoidal supercoils, with the solenoidal supercoiling proving most effective in compacting the DNA. Solenoidal supercoiling is achieved with histones to form a 10 nm fiber. This fiber is further coiled into a 30 nm fiber, and further coiled upon itself numerous times more.
DNA packaging is greatly increased during mitosis when duplicated sister DNAs are segregated into daughter cells. It has been shown that condensin, a large protein complex that plays a central role in mitotic chromosome assembly, induces positive supercoils in an ATP hydrolysis-dependent manner in vitro. Supercoiling could also play an important role during interphase in the formation and maintenance of topologically associating domains (TADs).
Supercoiling is also required for DNA/RNA synthesis. Because DNA must be unwound for DNA/RNA polymerase action, supercoils will result. The region ahead of the polymerase complex will be unwound; this stress is compensated with positive supercoils ahead of the complex. Behind the complex, DNA is rewound and there will be compensatory negative supercoils. Topoisomerases such as DNA gyrase (Type II Topoisomerase) play a role in relieving some of the stress during DNA/RNA synthesis.
Gene expression
Specialized proteins can unzip small segments of the DNA molecule when it is replicated or transcribed into RNA. But work published in 2015 illustrates how DNA opens on its own.
Simply twisting DNA can expose internal bases to the outside, without the aid of any proteins. Also, transcription itself contorts DNA in living human cells, tightening some parts of the coil and loosening it in others. That stress triggers changes in shape, most notably opening up the helix to be read. Unfortunately, these interactions are very difficult to study because biological molecules morph shapes so easily. In 2008 it was noted that transcription twists DNA, leaving a trail of undercoiled (or negatively supercoiled) DNA in its wake. Moreover, they discovered that the DNA sequence itself affects how the molecule responds to supercoiling.
For example, the researchers identified a specific sequence of DNA that regulates transcription speed; as the amount of supercoil rises and falls, it slows or speeds the pace at which molecular machinery reads DNA. It is hypothesized that these structural changes might trigger stress elsewhere along its length, which in turn might provide trigger points for replication or gene expression. This implies that it is a very dynamic process in which both DNA and proteins each influences how the other acts and reacts.
Gene Expression during cold shock
Almost half of the genes of the bacterium E. coli that are repressed during cold shock are similarly repressed when Gyrase is blocked by the antibiotic Novobiocin. Moreover, during cold shocks, the density of nucleoids increases, and the protein gyrase and the nucleoid become colocalized (which is consistent with a reduction in DNA relaxation). This is evidence that the reduction of negative supercoiling of the DNA is one of the main mechanisms responsible for the blocking of transcription of half of the genes that conduct the cold shock transcriptional response program of bacteria. Based on this, a stochastic model of this process has been proposed. This model is illustrated in the figure, where reactions 1 represent transcription and its locking due to supercoiling. Meanwhile, reactions 2 to 4 model, respectively, translation, and RNA and protein degradation.
Mathematical description
In nature, circular DNA is always isolated as a higher-order helix-upon-a-helix, known as a superhelix. In discussions of this subject, the Watson–Crick twist is referred to as a "secondary" winding, and the superhelices as a "tertiary" winding. The sketch at right indicates a "relaxed", or "open circular" Watson–Crick double-helix, and, next to it, a right-handed superhelix. The "relaxed" structure on the left is not found unless the chromosome is nicked; the superhelix is the form usually found in nature.
For purposes of mathematical computations, a right-handed superhelix is defined as having a "negative" number of superhelical turns, and a left-handed superhelix is defined as having a "positive" number of superhelical turns. In the drawing (shown at the right), both the secondary (i.e., "Watson–Crick") winding and the tertiary (i.e., "superhelical") winding are right-handed, hence the supertwists are negative (–3 in this example).
The superhelicity is presumed to be a result of underwinding, meaning that there is a deficiency in the number of secondary Watson–Crick twists. Such a chromosome will be strained, just as a macroscopic metal spring is strained when it is either overwound or unwound. In DNA which is thusly strained, supertwists will appear.
DNA supercoiling can be described numerically by changes in the linking number Lk. The linking number is the most descriptive property of supercoiled DNA. Lko, the number of turns in the relaxed (B type) DNA plasmid/molecule, is determined by dividing the total base pairs of the molecule by the relaxed bp/turn which, depending on reference is 10.4; 10.5; 10.6.
Lk is the number of crosses a single strand makes across the other, often visualized as the number of Watson–Crick twists found in a circular chromosome in a (usually imaginary) planar projection. This number is physically "locked in" at the moment of covalent closure of the chromosome, and cannot be altered without strand breakage.
The topology of the DNA is described by the equation below in which the linking number is equivalent to the sum of Tw, which is the number of twists or turns of the double helix, and Wr, which is the number of coils or "writhes." If there is a closed DNA molecule, the sum of Tw and Wr, or the linking number, does not change. However, there may be complementary changes in Tw and Wr without changing their sum:
Tw, called "twist," is the number of Watson–Crick twists in the chromosome when it is not constrained to lie in a plane. We have already seen that native DNA is usually found to be superhelical. If one goes around the superhelically twisted chromosome, counting secondary Watson–Crick twists, that number will be different from the number counted when the chromosome is constrained to lie flat. In general, the number of secondary twists in the native, supertwisted chromosome is expected to be the "normal" Watson–Crick winding number, meaning a single 10-base-pair helical twist for every 34 Å of DNA length.
Wr, called "writhe," is the number of superhelical twists. Since biological circular DNA is usually underwound, Lk will generally be less than Tw, which means that Wr will typically be negative.
If DNA is underwound, it will be under strain, exactly as a metal spring is strained when forcefully unwound, and that the appearance of supertwists will allow the chromosome to relieve its strain by taking on negative supertwists, which correct the secondary underwinding in accordance with the topology equation above.
The topology equation shows that there is a one-to-one relationship between changes in Tw and Wr. For example, if a secondary "Watson–Crick" twist is removed, then a right-handed supertwist must have been removed simultaneously (or, if the chromosome is relaxed, with no supertwists, then a left-handed supertwist must be added).
The change in the linking number, ΔLk, is the actual number of turns in the plasmid/molecule, Lk, minus the number of turns in the relaxed plasmid/molecule Lko:
If the DNA is negatively supercoiled, . The negative supercoiling implies that the DNA is underwound.
A standard expression independent of the molecule size is the "specific linking difference" or "superhelical density" denoted σ, which represents the number of turns added or removed relative to the total number of turns in the relaxed molecule/plasmid, indicating the level of supercoiling.
The Gibbs free energy associated with the coiling is given by the equation below
The difference in Gibbs free energy between the supercoiled circular DNA and uncoiled circular DNA with N > 2000 bp is approximated by:
or, 16 cal/bp.
Since the linking number L of supercoiled DNA is the number of times the two strands are intertwined (and both strands remain covalently intact), L cannot change. The reference state (or parameter) L0 of a circular DNA duplex is its relaxed state. In this state, its writhe W = 0. Since L = T + W, in a relaxed state T = L. Thus, if we have a 400 bp relaxed circular DNA duplex, L ~ 40 (assuming ~10 bp per turn in B-DNA). Then T ~ 40.
Positively supercoiling:
T = 0, W = 0, then L = 0
T = +3, W = 0, then L = +3
T = +2, W = +1, then L = +3
Negatively supercoiling:
T = 0, W = 0, then L = 0
T = -3, W = 0, then L = -3
T = -2, W = -1, then L = -3
Negative supercoils favor local unwinding of the DNA, allowing processes such as transcription, DNA replication, and recombination. Negative supercoiling is also thought to favour the transition between B-DNA and Z-DNA, and moderate the interactions of DNA binding proteins involved in gene regulation.
Stochastic models
Some stochastic models have been proposed to account for the effects of positive supercoiling buildup (PSB) in gene expression dynamics (e.g. in bacterial gene expression), differing in, e.g., the level of detail. In general, the detail increases when adding processes affected by and affecting supercoiling. As this addition occurs, the complexity of the model increases.
For example, in two models of different complexity are proposed. In the most detailed one, events were modeled at the nucleotide level, while in the other the events were modeled at the promoter region alone, and thus required much less events to be accounted for.
Examples of stochastic models that focus on the effects of PSB on a promoter’s activity can be found in: . In general, such models include a promoter, Pro, which is the region of DNA controlling transcription and, thus, whose activity/locking is affected by PSB. Also included are RNA molecules (the product of transcription), RNA polymerases (RNAP) which control transcription, and Gyrases (G) which regulate PSB. Finally, there needs to be a means to quantify PSB on the DNA (i.e. the promoter) at any given moment. This can be done by having some component in the system that is produced over time (e.g., during transcription events) to represent positive supercoils, and that is removed by the action of Gyrases. The amount of this component can then be set to affect the rate of transcription.
Effects on sedimentation coefficient
The topological properties of circular DNA are complex. In standard texts, these properties are invariably explained in terms of a helical model for DNA, but in 2008 it was noted that each topoisomer, negative or positive, adopts a unique and surprisingly wide distribution of three-dimensional conformations.
When the sedimentation coefficient, s, of circular DNA is ascertained over a large range of pH, the following curves are seen. Three curves are shown here, representing three species of DNA. From top-to-bottom they are: "Form IV" (green), "Form I" (blue) and "Form II" (red).
"Form I" (blue curve) is the traditional nomenclature used for the native form of duplex circular DNA, as recovered from viruses and intracellular plasmids. Form I is covalently closed, and any plectonemic winding which may be present is therefore locked in. If one or more nicks are introduced to Form I, free rotation of one strand with respect to the other becomes possible, and Form II (red curve) is seen.
Form IV (green curve) is the product of alkali denaturation of Form I. Its structure is unknown, except that it is persistently duplex, and extremely dense.
Between pH 7 and pH 11.5, the sedimentation coefficient s, for Form I, is constant. Then it dips, and at a pH just below 12, reaches a minimum. With further increases in pH, s then returns to its former value. It doesn’t stop there, however, but continues to increase relentlessly. By pH 13, the value of s has risen to nearly 50, two to three times its value at pH 7, indicating an extremely compact structure.
If the pH is then lowered, the s value is not restored. Instead, one sees the upper, green curve. The DNA, now in the state known as Form IV, remains extremely dense, even if the pH is restored to the original physiologic range. As stated previously, the structure of Form IV is almost entirely unknown, and there is no currently accepted explanation for its extraordinary density. About all that is known about the tertiary structure is that it is duplex, but has no hydrogen bonding between bases.
These behaviors of Forms I and IV are considered to be due to the peculiar properties of duplex DNA which has been covalently closed into a double-stranded circle. If the covalent integrity is disrupted by even a single nick in one of the strands, all such topological behavior ceases, and one sees the lower Form II curve (Δ). For Form II, alterations in pH have very little effect on s. Its physical properties are, in general, identical to those of linear DNA. At pH 13, the strands of Form II simply separate, just as the strands of linear DNA do. The separated single strands have slightly different s values, but display no significant changes in s with further increases in pH.
A complete explanation for these data is beyond the scope of this article. In brief, the alterations in s come about because of changes in the superhelicity of circular DNA. These changes in superhelicity are schematically illustrated by four little drawings which have been strategically superimposed upon the figure above.
Briefly, the alterations of s seen in the pH titration curve above are widely thought to be due to changes in the superhelical winding of DNA under conditions of increasing pH. Up to pH 11.5, the purported "underwinding" produces a right-handed ("negative") supertwist. But as the pH increases, and the secondary helical structure begins to denature and unwind, the chromosome (if we may speak anthropomorphically) no longer "wants" to have the full Watson–Crick winding, but rather "wants", increasingly, to be "underwound". Since there is less and less strain to be relieved by superhelical winding, the superhelices therefore progressively disappear as the pH increases. At a pH just below 12, all incentive for superhelicity has expired, and the chromosome will appear as a relaxed, open circle.
At higher pH still, the chromosome, which is now denaturing in earnest, tends to unwind entirely, which it cannot do so (because Lk is covalently locked in). Under these conditions, what was once treated as "underwinding" has actually now become "overwinding". Once again there is strain, and once again it is (in part at least) relieved by superhelicity, but this time in the opposite direction (i.e., left-handed or "positive"). Each left-handed tertiary supertwist removes a single, now undesirable right-handed Watson–Crick secondary twist.
The titration ends at pH 13, where Form IV appears.
See also
Mechanical properties of DNA
Ribbon theory
References
General references
DNA
Helices
Molecular biology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix%20Wright%3A%20Ace%20Attorney%20%E2%80%93%20Justice%20for%20All
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Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Justice for All
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Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Justice for All is a visual novel adventure video game developed and published by Capcom. It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002 in Japan, and has since been released on multiple platforms. The Nintendo DS version, initially released in 2006 in Japan, was released in English in the West in 2007. The game is the second entry in the Ace Attorney series, following Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney.
The story follows Phoenix Wright, a defense attorney who defends his clients in four episodes. Among other characters are his partner Maya Fey, her cousin Pearl, and the rival prosecutor Franziska von Karma. The game is divided into two types of sections: courtroom sessions, where the player cross-examines witnesses and tries to uncover contradictions in their testimonies; and investigations, where the player gathers evidence and talks to witnesses.
The game was directed and written by Shu Takumi, as the second entry in a planned Ace Attorney trilogy. It was originally intended to feature the first game's prosecutor, Miles Edgeworth, in all episodes; Franziska was created when the development team learned that Edgeworth had become popular among players, and Takumi wanted to use the character more carefully and sparingly. They only introduced one new gameplay mechanic in the game; Takumi wanted to keep the game focused on the core concept of finding lies, and to keep it simple enough for his mother to play. The game was positively received by critics, who generally liked the writing, but criticized the lack of the Nintendo DS-exclusive gameplay mechanics that appeared in the previous game.
A high-definition version of the first three Ace Attorney games, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney Trilogy HD, was released for iOS and Android in Japan on February 7, 2012, and for iOS in the West on May 30, 2013. Another collection of the first three games, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney Trilogy, was released for the Nintendo 3DS in Japan on April 17, 2014, in North America on December 9, 2014, and in Europe on December 11, 2014. It was also released for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One on February 21, 2019, in Japan, and on April 9, 2019, internationally; a Windows version was released internationally on the same date. The PC version of the collection was among the best-selling new releases of the month on Steam.
Gameplay
Justice for All is a visual novel adventure game in which the player takes the role of Phoenix Wright, a defense attorney who defends people accused of murder in four different episodes. At first, only one episode is available; as the player solves a case, a new episode is unlocked to play. The episodes are all divided into chapters, consisting of courtroom sections and investigation sections.
During the investigation sections, the player investigates the case to gather evidence needed for the trial; once enough evidence has been collected, the game moves on to the next chapter of the episode. During these sections, the player has access to a menu with four options: examine, move, present, and talk. By choosing "examine", the player can move a cursor around the screen and look at various things in the environment; by choosing "move", the player reaches a sub-menu with all locations they can choose to move to; by choosing "present", the player can choose to show a piece of evidence or a character profile to a character at the location; and by choosing "talk", the player is able to pick a topic to discuss with a character who is present at the location. As the player talks to a character, the topics they have already discussed get marked with a checkmark.
If the player chooses a topic the witnesses does not want to discuss, the player is shown locks and chains on top of the character, referred to as "psyche-locks"; additionally, a lock symbol is added to that topic in the talk menu. By presenting a magatama to the character, the player is able to start breaking the psyche-locks and unlock the topics; this is done by showing the character evidence or character profiles that proves they are hiding something. The deeper the secret is that the character is hiding, the more psyche-locks appear; by breaking all the locks, the topic gets unlocked and the player is given access to new information.
During the courtroom sections, the player attempts to get the defendant the correct verdict by questioning witnesses and presenting evidence to the judge and the prosecutor. Many witnesses lie or make errors during their testimonies; the player is able to move back and forth through the testimony to try to find any inconsistencies. There are two options available during cross-examinations: "press", which makes the player question a particular statement, which sometimes makes the witnesses change their testimony; and "present", which is used to show a piece of evidence or a character profile that the player thinks shows a contradiction in the witness's currently shown statement. In the upper right corner of the screen, the player's health bar is shown, representing the judge's patience. The bar decreases if the player makes mistakes, such as presenting the wrong piece of evidence; if it reaches zero, the defendant is declared guilty, and the player loses the game. While the player cannot lose the game while trying to break a psyche-lock, the bar will still decrease if the player presents the wrong evidence while trying to break psyche-locks. 50% of the bar is restored when the player manages to break all psyche-locks on a topic, and 100% is restored when an episode is completed.
Plot
In the game's first case, "The Lost Turnabout", attorney Phoenix Wright is attacked with a fire extinguisher from behind after an anonymous individual calls him on a phone which was supposed to be used as evidence in the trial, resulting in a severe case of amnesia. The assailant is later shown to be Richard Wellington after an attempt to steal his phone back. With the help of his client, policewoman Maggey Byrde, he learns that he is representing her in a case where she faces charges of having murdered her boyfriend, a fellow officer named Dustin Prince on his birthday. After narrowly avoiding disaster due to his lack of preparation, Phoenix exposes Richard Wellington, a con artist testifying for the prosecution, as the true murderer, as well as Phoenix's attacker, saving Maggey.
The second case, "Reunion, and Turnabout", is set shortly before the first, in which Dr. Turner Grey, a private surgeon who lost his reputation due to alleged malpractice that resulted in the death of several patients, requests his help in contacting Maya Fey, Phoenix's former assistant who had left the practice to finish training as a spirit medium in her home village. While performing a spirit channeling on Grey's behalf, Maya apparently kills him under the influence of the channeled spirit. Forced to once again defend her in court, Phoenix faces prosecutor Franziska von Karma, the daughter of his old enemy Manfred von Karma, and the foster sister of his old friend Miles Edgeworth, who is presumed to have committed suicide. Teaming up with Maya and her young cousin Pearl, Phoenix uncovers a conspiracy between Mimi Miney, a disgruntled nurse who was the true culprit of the malpractice incident at Grey's clinic who faked her identity stating her name was “Ini Miney”, Mimi's sister who was the victim of a car accident 1 year prior, and Maya's aunt and Pearl's mother Morgan Fey, who held a deep hatred of Maya's mother Misty Fey. The two plotted to kill Grey and frame Maya, ruining her chances of succeeding her mother as spiritual leader of her home village, and replace her as successor with Pearl. When Miney publicly confesses to the murder and her real identity, Morgan is sentenced to solitary confinement for her crimes, and Phoenix decides to take Pearl in as one of his assistants.
The third case, "Turnabout Big Top", focuses on circus magician Maximillion Galactica, who is accused of murdering his employer Russell Berry in a dispute. Despite Franziska's interference, Phoenix and his team prove that Acro, one of Max's fellow performers, framed him after mistakenly killing Russell, having intended to kill his daughter Regina in revenge for an incident that left his brother in a coma.
In the final case, "Farewell, My Turnabout", Maya is kidnapped by assassin Shelly de Killer, who threatens to kill her if Phoenix does not win an acquittal for his client, actor Matt Engarde, who has been arrested for killing his rival, Juan Corrida. As a "present", de Killer stages an assassination attempt on Franziska by shooting her, rendering her unable to act as prosecutor. At the last second, Edgeworth arrives and steps in to replace her. While in court, Phoenix points to evidence that suggests that Engarde's manager, Adrian Andrews, killed Corrida and planted evidence to make Engarde look guilty. However, after the trial, Phoenix is horrified to learn that Engarde is in actuality a cruel psychopath who hired de Killer to commit the murder, and that while Andrews did plant evidence, it was only after she had discovered the body, as she knew Engarde was responsible for his death and wanted to make sure he was found guilty. As a result, Phoenix becomes increasingly pressured over deciding whether or not to convict Engarde at the cost of Maya's life. With Phoenix resorting to increasingly desperate acts to prolong the trial, Edgeworth offers to help him save Maya, explaining that he has been leading a task force to apprehend de Killer. Using a tape that Engarde had recorded as blackmail, Phoenix reveals that Engarde planned to blackmail de Killer after the trial. De Killer becomes furious, cancels his contract with Engarde, and declares him his next target. Fearing for his life, Engarde suffers a breakdown, pleads guilty and is convicted of Juan's murder. As a reward for Phoenix's help, de Killer releases Maya, who subsequently reunites with Pearl and all of their friends.
Edgeworth explains that his absence was spent soul-searching for "the answer" as to what it means to be a prosecutor, and he and Phoenix reconcile, while Franziska pledges to renounce her profession in disgrace. Edgeworth confronts her at the airport, where Franziska breaks down in tears and admits that she is jealous of Edgeworth and wanted to destroy him, but now feels that she cannot with such huge losses on her record. Recognizing that she needs to find the same answers he did, she returns to her native Germany with a picture of Phoenix in her possession.
There is also an alternate ending, where Engarde is declared innocent, and his manager is convicted in a later trial. Phoenix runs away from the courtroom, and while he assumes that Maya was released, he never sees her again.
Development
After development of the original Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney was finished, the writer and director Shu Takumi's boss, Shinji Mikami, told him that they should make an Ace Attorney trilogy, with a grand finale in the third game's last case. Development of the game began immediately when Takumi returned to work from his vacation: the producer, Atsushi Inaba, called him in to a meeting, and told Takumi that he wanted him to write the script for five episodes before the game went into full production, with a deadline of three and a half months. Takumi thought that this was "completely insane", as it had taken him an average of more than a month to write each of the four episodes for the first Ace Attorney; additionally, he felt that he did not have any "tricks" left to use for mysteries or any story threads to work off of. He wanted to protest, but still ended up having to do it. As soon as he returned to his desk, he drafted a work schedule: he scheduled two and a half month to write the dialogue, with half a month per episode, leaving him with a month to create the first prototype and figure out the "tricks" to be used in the mysteries. He doubted that he would be able to do it in time, but managed to write the whole script by the deadline. However, due to issues with memory on the game's cartridge, one episode ended up having to be cut from the game; it was later used as the third episode of the third game.
After finishing writing the dialogue, Takumi was called into another meeting with Inaba, and was told to add a new gameplay mechanic to the investigations. Takumi wanted to keep the gameplay simple enough for his mother to be able to play it, and keep it focused on the core concept of finding lies; according to him, he immediately had a vision of the psyche lock system during the meeting with Inaba, but still asked for three days to come up with an idea. He found it easy to formulate the idea, but it took over a month to create the system; the biggest problem was how to visually represent the psyche locks. Takumi also drew storyboards for the episodes' openings, which consisted of series of detailed drawings that show what is happening. He also drew rough sketches of cut-in illustrations; it was only decided after all the text had been written what scenes would have illustrations made for them. While the game's opening features the judge, it was originally supposed to have featured a demon instead; this was because Takumi was playing Devil May Cry at the time, and had liked its opening. As Takumi wanted the first three Ace Attorney games to be part of one larger work, he did not want the first game to look outdated in comparison to later ones, so it was decided to keep the same graphics for main characters such as Phoenix, Maya and Edgeworth throughout all their appearances, and not make updates to them. The game's music was composed by Naoto Tanaka under the pseudonym Akemi Kimura.
As the dialogue-integrated "tutorial" in the first Ace Attorney was well received, the inclusion of one in Justice for All was considered a "major point". While the first game's tutorial involved Phoenix being helped through his first trial by his mentor Mia and the judge, this could not be used twice, which led to the idea of giving Phoenix a temporary amnesia from a blow to the head. Takumi included a circus and magic in the game's third episode; he really wanted to do this, as performing magic was a hobby of his. The episode includes two themes that he wanted to explore: the difficulties in forming a cohesive team with different people, and a person who against the odds tries to make something whole. The former was reflected in how the circus members come together at the end, while the latter was reflected in the character Moe. Several different versions of the fourth episode were created, partially because of them running out of memory on the game's cartridge, but also because of the popularity of the character of Miles Edgeworth: Takumi had originally planned to let Edgeworth be the prosecutor in all episodes, but when they were in full production the development team learned that the character had become popular, which led to Takumi feeling that he had to use the character more carefully and sparingly. Because of this, he created the character Franziska von Karma, to save Edgeworth for the game's last case, and avoid a situation where he – a supposed prodigy – loses every case. The character Pearl Fey was originally intended to be a rival character around the same age as Maya, only appearing in the game's second episode; one of the game's designers suggested that it would be more dramatic if she were much younger, so Takumi wrote her as an eight-year-old. As he ended up liking her, he included her in other episodes as well.
Release
The game was originally released for the Game Boy Advance on October 18, 2002, in Japan; a Nintendo DS version followed on October 26, 2006, in Japan, on January 16, 2007, in North America, and on March 16, 2007, in Europe. A PC port of the Game Boy Advance version, developed by a company called Daletto, was released in Japan in an episodic format, starting on April 15, 2008. A Wii version was released through WiiWare on January 26, 2010, in Japan, on February 15, 2010, in North America, and on February 19, 2010, in Europe.
Localization
Starting with Justice for All, the series localization direction has been handled by Janet Hsu; by the time she joined Capcom's localization team in 2005, the first Ace Attorney had already been localized, with the original localization team having decided to do a full localization, changing the setting from Japan to Los Angeles. While Hsu thought that this was the right choice to make, as it made the characters and dialogue more relatable and made for an emotional experience closer to what players of the Japanese version experience, it resulted in issues with each following game. According to the localization editor, Brandon Gay, Justice for All was one of their largest games to localize due to its focus on the story, and how it needs to convey the whole game world and its characters through just text; this made it a challenge to make the characters relatable for an American audience. Another thing the localization team had to keep in mind was to ensure that recurring characters were consistent with how they behave in the first Ace Attorney. According to JP Kellams, another staff member working on the localization, there was a lot of pressure on them to make a good localization, as the first game's localization had been well received; he also felt that there was room for creativity due to the game's style and subject, with room for humor that might not fit in other localizations. A lot of the humor in the original was based on Japanese wordplay; these jokes had to be redone entirely for the English release. Hsu felt that the game was more demanding than previous projects she had worked on, as the localizers "almost have to become [the characters]" in order to get the nuance and motivations right due to their complexity.
One of the first decisions Hsu had to make was how to localize Maya's hometown and the mysticism of the Fey clan. She came up with the idea that the localized versions of the Ace Attorney games take place in Los Angeles in an alternative universe where anti-Japanese laws like the California Alien Land Law of 1913 were not passed, anti-Japanese sentiments were not powerful, and where Japanese culture flourished. This dictated what should be localized and what should be kept Japanese; things relating to the Fey clan and the Kurain channeling technique were kept Japanese, as that was Maya's heritage, while Japanese foods that were not widely known in the West were changed. Despite the setting in the United States in the localized version, the Japanese justice system of the original remained intact in the localization, as changing it would have altered the entire game structure. As the localization team wanted to keep the humor in the Japanese names for the characters, it was decided to make the English names contain the same kinds of double meanings: character name puns were based on their personalities or backgrounds, or were visual gags. A lot of the names were determined with the original Japanese name in mind; for the game's third episode, several Japanese names were used without changes, since they were English puns to begin with. For some other characters, the names had to be altered heavily from the Japanese originals. Due to the dramatic feeling of the last episode, the characters in it were given names that sounded more like real names, while still making use of deeper meanings. Takumi personally approved all the English names; for one of the names, Takumi and the localization team had a discussion for days, as Takumi did not think the English name conveyed the same feeling as the Japanese one.
According to Gay, characters with "extreme personality quirks" were both fun and stressful to write: for the clown Moe, he found it challenging to get the balance right between his silly jokes and the seriousness of his dialogue. Among other challenging characters to write for were Acro, who led to "heated arguments" about how to get his personality and tone right; and Morgan Fey, whose "very old style" of speaking in the Japanese version was difficult to translate to English. One aspect they had to change due to cultural differences was a conversation with the lecherous character Director Hotti, where an animation of him grabbing in the air with his hands is played while he talks about Pearl. According to Hsu, the Japanese version is considered funny to Japanese people, as Hotti is set up as the "butt of the joke", and Phoenix reacts negatively to him, while it would have been considered sickening to an American audience. They were unable to change the animation, so the dialogue was rewritten to instead be directed at an adult nurse.
Reception
Justice for All holds a score of 76/100 at the review aggregator Metacritic based on 51 critics, indicating generally favorable reviews.
Writers for Famitsu praised the mix of seriousness and comedy, and liked the characters' quirkiness and the pacing of the conversations. John Walker at Eurogamer called the game "splendidly crazy as ever" and "the most joyfully daft fun imaginable". Tom East at Official Nintendo Magazine called the script fantastic. Joe Juba at Game Informer found the game entertaining, calling the writing hilarious and the problem-solving clever, with the two aspects complementing each other well. Aaron Thomas at GameSpot liked the game, praising the game's story and calling the characters its greatest strength. He thought that the pacing was better than the first Ace Attorneys, but still found the game to be a step back: he felt that the game often reuses the same kinds of twists from the first. Gerald Villoria at GameSpy called the episodes well structured and stronger than the ones in first game, and called the dialogue sharp. Mikel Reparaz at GamesRadar said that the script, while entertaining, contains "long stretches of meaningless dialogue" and tends to leave the player knowing what happened and how to prove it before Phoenix does. He initially liked the new rival character Franziska, but thought that she only becomes increasingly obnoxious. Craig Harris at IGN said that the episodes are well written, with enthusiasm and personality, making them hard to put down.
Walker found the court sections "maddening" due to how the game sometimes requires very specific evidence to be presented, with evidence that he found reasonable being rejected, forcing him to resort to guessing; he wished that the health meter would have been replenished through correct answers, or that it had been removed from the game entirely. Bryan Vore at Game Informer found the investigation sections tedious at times, but found them to be helped by how the psyche-locks add "courtroom drama" to the investigations. Juba thought that the game's reliance on text made the investigations move slowly, but that the game becomes an "irresistible adventure" when the text is mixed with gameplay in the trials. Thomas found the psyche-locks interesting, but underwhelming as the only new feature. East said that the psyche-locks were what made the investigations fun. Reparaz liked how the psyche-lock mechanic adds "a new dimension of weirdness" to the game. Both Harris and Thomas wished that the game had been less linear, with more possible wrong paths to take or more endings. Thomas, Reparaz and East wished that the Nintendo DS-exclusive gameplay features introduced in the first game's final episode had been used in Justice for All, with Reparaz calling it disappointing but "not a huge deal". Villoria and East said that the game does not last very long; Walker did not consider it short, but found it to not last as long as the first game.
Vore said that the game is lacking in "advanced graphics and interface", but felt that it makes up for it through its charm and intrigue. Thomas called the character designs outstanding, but thought that the reused art assets for returning characters and locations from the first game made it feel like Capcom had "cut some corners". He called the music "uniformly outstanding and used masterfully", both for conveying various moods throughout the story, and for characters' personalities. Harris found the music "moody and appropriate", but wished that there had been a full voice-over as an option. He said that the game's art was nice, but not more than that. Thomas called the localization outstanding despite finding some errors, finding it impressive how smoothly Capcom was able to localize such a text-heavy game. Harris liked the game's localization, saying that the localization team's writing was what made the game design work so well. Walker called the localization incredible, and said that while there are a few spelling errors and grammatical errors in the text, it did not bother him much as the localization was included in the Japanese Nintendo DS release.
Notes
References
External links
2002 video games
Ace Attorney video games
Adventure games
Game Boy Advance games
Nintendo DS games
Single-player video games
Video game sequels
Video games about spirit possession
Video games developed in Japan
Video games directed by Shu Takumi
Video games set in the 2010s
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Wii U
Visual novels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20meridional%20overturning%20circulation
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Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
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The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is part of a global thermohaline circulation in the oceans and is the zonally integrated component of surface and deep currents in the Atlantic Ocean. It is characterized by a northward flow of warm, salty water in the upper layers of the Atlantic, and a southward flow of colder, deep waters. These "limbs" are linked by regions of overturning in the Nordic and Labrador Seas and the Southern Ocean, although the extent of overturning in the Labrador Sea is disputed. The AMOC is an important component of the Earth's climate system, and is a result of both atmospheric and thermohaline drivers.
Climate change has the potential to weaken the AMOC through increases in ocean heat content and elevated freshwater flows from the melting ice sheets. Oceanographic reconstructions generally suggest that the AMOC is already weaker than it was before the Industrial Revolution, although there is a robust debate over the role of climate change versus the circulation's century-scale and millennial-scale variability. Climate models consistently project that the AMOC would weaken further over the 21st century, which would affect average temperature over areas like Scandinavia and Britain that are warmed by the North Atlantic drift, as well as accelerate sea level rise around North America and reduce primary production in the North Atlantic.
Severe weakening of the AMOC has the potential to cause an outright collapse of the circulation, which would not be easily reversible and thus constitute one of the tipping points in the climate system. A shutdown would have far greater impacts than a slowdown on both the marine and some terrestrial ecosystems: it would lower the average temperature and precipitation in Europe, slashing the region's agricultural output, and may have a substantial effect on extreme weather events. Earth system models used in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project indicate that shutdown is only likely after high levels of warming are sustained well after 2100, but they have been criticized by some researchers for what they saw as excessive stability, and a number of lower-complexity studies argue that a collapse can happen considerably earlier. One of those lower-complexity projections suggests that AMOC collapse could happen around 2057, but many scientists are skeptical of the claim. On the other hand, paleoceanographic research suggests that the AMOC may be even more stable than what is predicted by most models.
Overall structure
The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is part of a global thermohaline circulation in the oceans and is the zonally integrated component of surface and deep currents in the Atlantic Ocean. The general thermohaline circulation is a pattern of water flow through the world's oceans. Warm water flows along the surface until it reaches one of a few special spots near Greenland or Antarctica. There, the water sinks, and then crawls across the bottom of the ocean, miles/kilometers deep, over hundreds of years, gradually rising in the Pacific and Indian oceans. Northward surface flow transports a substantial amount of heat energy from the tropics and Southern Hemisphere toward the North Atlantic, where the heat is lost to the atmosphere due to the strong temperature gradient. Upon losing its heat, the water becomes denser and sinks. This densification links the warm, surface limb with the cold, deep return limb at regions of convection in the Nordic and Labrador Seas. The limbs are also linked in regions of upwelling, where a divergence of surface waters causes Ekman suction and an upward flux of deep water.
AMOC consists of upper and lower cells. The upper cell consists of northward surface flow as well as southward return flow of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). The lower cell represents northward flow of dense Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) – this bathes the abyssal ocean.
AMOC exerts a major control on North Atlantic sea level, particularly along the Northeast Coast of North America. Exceptional AMOC weakening during the winter of 2009–10 has been implicated in a damaging 13 cm sea level rise along the New York coastline.
There may be two stable states of the AMOC: a strong circulation (as seen over recent millennia) and a weak circulation mode, as suggested by atmosphere-ocean coupled general circulation models and Earth systems models of intermediate complexity. A number of Earth system models do not identify this bistability, however.
Effects on climate
The net northward heat transport in the Atlantic is unique among global oceans, and is responsible for the relative warmth of the Northern Hemisphere. AMOC carries up to 25% of the northward global atmosphere-ocean heat transport in the northern hemisphere. This is generally thought to ameliorate the climate of Northwest Europe, although this effect is the subject of debate.
As well as acting as a heat pump and high-latitude heat sink, AMOC is the largest carbon sink in the Northern Hemisphere, sequestering approximately C/year. This sequestration has significant implications for evolution of anthropogenic global warming – especially with respect to the recent and projected future decline in AMOC vigor.
Thermohaline circulation and fresh water
Heat is transported from the equator polewards mostly by the atmosphere but also by ocean currents, with warm water near the surface and cold water at deeper levels. The best known segment of this circulation is the Gulf Stream, a wind-driven gyre, which transports warm water from the Caribbean northwards. A northwards branch of the Gulf Stream, the North Atlantic Drift, is part of the thermohaline circulation (THC), transporting warmth further north to the North Atlantic, where its effect in warming the atmosphere contributes to warming Europe.
The evaporation of ocean water in the North Atlantic increases the salinity of the water as well as cooling it, both actions increasing the density of water at the surface. Formation of sea ice further increases the salinity and density, because salt is ejected into the ocean when sea ice forms. This dense water then sinks and the circulation stream continues in a southerly direction. However, the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is driven by ocean temperature and salinity differences. But freshwater decreases ocean water salinity, and through this process prevents colder waters sinking. This mechanism possibly caused the cold ocean surface temperature anomaly currently observed near Greenland (Cold blob (North Atlantic)).
Global warming could lead to an increase in freshwater in the northern oceans, by melting glaciers in Greenland, and by increasing precipitation, especially through Siberian rivers.
Studies of the Florida Current suggest that the Gulf Stream weakens with cooling, being weakest (by ~10%) during the Little Ice Age.
Regions of overturning
Convection and return flow in the Nordic Seas
Low air temperatures at high latitudes cause substantial sea-air heat flux, driving a density increase and convection in the water column. Open ocean convection occurs in deep plumes and is particularly strong in winter when the sea-air temperature difference is largest. Of the 6 sverdrup (Sv) of dense water that flows southward over the GSR (Greenland-Scotland Ridge), 3 Sv does so via the Denmark Strait forming Denmark Strait Overflow Water (DSOW). 0.5-1 Sv flows over the Iceland-Faroe ridge and the remaining 2–2.5 Sv returns through the Faroe-Shetland Channel; these two flows form Iceland Scotland Overflow Water (ISOW). The majority of flow over the Faroe-Shetland ridge flows through the Faroe-Bank Channel and soon joins that which flowed over the Iceland-Faroe ridge, to flow southward at depth along the Eastern flank of the Reykjanes Ridge. As ISOW overflows the GSR (Greenland-Scotland Ridge), it turbulently entrains intermediate density waters such as Sub-Polar Mode water and Labrador Sea Water. This grouping of water-masses then moves geostrophically southward along the East flank of Reykjanes Ridge, through the Charlie Gibbs Fracture Zone and then northward to join DSOW. These waters are sometimes referred to as Nordic Seas Overflow Water (NSOW). NSOW flows cyclonically following the surface route of the SPG (sub-polar gyre) around the Labrador Sea and further entrains Labrador Sea Water (LSW).
Convection is known to be suppressed at these high latitudes by sea-ice cover. Floating sea ice "caps" the surface, reducing the ability for heat to move from the sea to the air. This in turn reduces convection and deep return flow from the region. The summer Arctic sea ice cover has undergone dramatic retreat since satellite records began in 1979, amounting to a loss of almost 30% of the September ice cover in 39 years. Climate model simulations suggest that rapid and sustained September Arctic ice loss is likely in future 21st century climate projections.
Convection and entrainment in the Labrador Sea
Characteristically fresh LSW is formed at intermediate depths by deep convection in the central Labrador Sea, particularly during winter storms. This convection is not deep enough to penetrate into the NSOW layer which forms the deep waters of the Labrador Sea. LSW joins NSOW to move southward out of the Labrador Sea: while NSOW easily passes under the NAC at the North-West Corner, some LSW is retained. This diversion and retention by the SPG explains its presence and entrainment near the GSR (Greenland-Scotland Ridge) overflows. Most of the diverted LSW however splits off before the CGFZ (Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone) and remains in the western SPG. LSW production is highly dependent on sea-air heat flux and yearly production typically ranges from 3–9 Sv. ISOW is produced in proportion to the density gradient across the Iceland-Scotland Ridge and as such is sensitive to LSW production which affects the downstream density More indirectly, increased LSW production is associated with a strengthened SPG and hypothesized to be anti-correlated with ISOW This interplay confounds any simple extension of a reduction in individual overflow waters to a reduction in AMOC. LSW production is understood to have been minimal prior to the 8.2 ka event, with the SPG thought to have existed before in a weakened, non-convective state. There is debate about the extent to which convection in the Labrador Sea plays a role in AMOC circulation, particularly in the connection between Labrador sea variability and AMOC variability. Observational studies have been inconclusive about whether this connection exists. New observations with the OSNAP array show little contribution from the Labrador Sea to overturning, and hydrographic observations from ships dating back to 1990 show similar results. Nevertheless, older estimates of LSW formation using different techniques suggest larger overturning.
Atlantic upwelling
For reasons of conservation of mass, the global ocean system must upwell an equal volume of water to that downwelled. Upwelling in the Atlantic itself occurs mostly due to coastal and equatorial upwelling mechanisms.
Coastal upwelling occurs as a result of Ekman transport along the interface between land and a wind-driven current. In the Atlantic, this particularly occurs around the Canary Current and Benguela Current. Upwelling in these two regions has been modelled to be in antiphase, an effect known as "upwelling see-saw".
Equatorial upwelling generally occurs due to atmospheric forcing and divergence due to the opposing direction of the Coriolis force either side of the equator. The Atlantic features more complex mechanisms such as migration of the thermocline, particularly in the Eastern Atlantic.
Southern Ocean upwelling
North Atlantic Deep Water is primarily upwelled at the southern end of the Atlantic transect, in the Southern Ocean. This upwelling comprises the majority of upwelling normally associated with AMOC, and links it with the global circulation. On a global scale, observations suggest 80% of deepwater upwells in the Southern Ocean.
This upwelling supplies large quantities of nutrients to the surface, which supports biological activity. Surface supply of nutrients is critical to the ocean's functioning as a carbon sink on long timescales. Furthermore, upwelled water has low concentrations of dissolved carbon, as the water is typically 1000 years old and has not been sensitive to anthropogenic increases in the atmosphere. Because of its low carbon concentration, this upwelling functions as a carbon sink. Variability in the carbon sink over the observational period has been closely studied and debated. The size of the sink is understood to have decreased until 2002, and then increased until 2012.
After upwelling, the water is understood to take one of two pathways: water surfacing near to sea-ice generally forms dense bottomwater and is committed to AMOC's lower cell; water surfacing at lower latitudes moves further northward due to Ekman transport and is committed to the upper cell.
Trends
Reconstructions
Climate reconstructions generally support the hypothesis that the AMOC is already weaker now than it was in the early 20th century. For instance, a 2010 statistical analysis found an ongoing weakening of the AMOC since the late 1930s, with an abrupt shift of a North Atlantic overturning cell around 1970. Climate scientists Michael Mann of Penn State and Stefan Rahmstorf from the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research suggested that the observed cold pattern during years of temperature records is a sign that the Atlantic Ocean's Meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) may be weakening. They published their findings in 2015, and concluded that the AMOC circulation was slowing throughout the 20th century, and that the weakness it demonstrated after 1975 was unprecedented over the last millennium. They suggested that even though the AMOC had experienced partial recovery after 1975, future Greenland ice sheet melt would be likely to weaken it further still. Another 2015 study suggested that the AMOC has weakened by 15–20% in 200 years. In 2018, another reconstruction suggested a weakening of around 15% since the mid-twentieth century. However, all these findings were challenged by 2022 research which indicated that between 1900 and 2019, a climate change-induced trend did not begin to emerge until 1980, and it is still faint relative to the circulation's natural variability.
Some studies attempt to go deeper into the preindustrial past. In 2018, one such paper suggested that the last 150 years of AMOC showed exceptional weakness when compared to the previous 1500 years, and it indicated a discrepancy in the modeled timing of AMOC decline after the Little Ice Age. In February 2021, a study published in Nature Geoscience reported that the preceding millennium had seen an unprecedented weakening of the AMOC, an indication that the change was caused by human actions. Its co-author said that AMOC had already slowed by about 15%, with impacts now being seen: "In 20 to 30 years it is likely to weaken further, and that will inevitably influence our weather, so we would see an increase in storms and heatwaves in Europe, and sea level rises on the east coast of the US." In February 2022, Nature Geoscience published a "Matters Arising" commentary article co-authored by 17 scientists, which disputed those findings and argued that the long-term AMOC trend remains uncertain. The journal had also published a response from the authors of 2021 study to "Matters Arising" article, where they defended their findings.
In February 2021, a study had reconstructed the past 30 years of AMOC variability and found no evidence of decline. In August 2021, a study published in Nature Climate Change showed significant changes in eight independent AMOC indices, and suggested that they could indicate "an almost complete loss of stability". However, while it drew on over a century of ocean temperature and salinity data, it was forced to omit all data from 35 years before 1900 and after 1980 to maintain consistent records of all eight indicators. In April 2022, another study published in Nature Climate Change used nearly 120 years of data between 1900 and 2019 and found no change between 1900 and 1980, with a single-sverdrup reduction in AMOC strength not emerging until 1980 – a variation which remains within range of natural variability. A March 2022 review article concluded that while there may be a long-term weakening of the AMOC caused by global warming, it remains difficult to detect when analyzing its evolution since 1980, as that time frame presents both periods of weakening and strengthening, and the magnitude of either change is uncertain (in range between 5% and 25%). The review concluded with a call for more sensitive and longer-term research.
Observations
Direct observations of the strength of the AMOC have been available only since 2004 from the RAPID array, an in situ mooring array at 26°N in the Atlantic, leaving only indirect evidence of the previous AMOC behavior. While climate models predict a weakening of AMOC under global warming scenarios, they often struggle to match observations or reconstructions of the current. In particular, observed decline in the period 2004–2014 was of a factor 10 higher than that predicted by climate models participating in Phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5): however, some scientists attributed this to a larger-than-anticipated interdecadal variability of the circulation, rather than a climate-forced trend, suggesting that the AMOC would recover from it in only a few years. In February 2021, a study indicated that the AMOC did in fact recover from that decline, and found no evidence of an overall AMOC decline over the past 30 years. Likewise, a Science Advances study published in 2020 found no significant change in the AMOC circulation relative to 1990s, in spite of the substantial changes in the North Atlantic Ocean over the same period.
2010 and earlier
In April 2004, the hypothesis that the Gulf Stream is switching off received a boost when a retrospective analysis of U.S. satellite data seemed to show a slowing of the North Atlantic Gyre, the northern swirl of the Gulf Stream.
In May 2005, Peter Wadhams reported in The Times (London) about the results of investigations in a submarine under the Arctic ice sheet measuring the giant chimneys of cold dense water, in which the cold dense water normally sinks down to the sea bed and is replaced by warm water, forming one of the engines of the North Atlantic Drift. He and his team found the chimneys to have virtually disappeared. Normally there are seven to twelve giant columns, but Wadhams found only two giant columns, both extremely weak.
In 2005 a 30% reduction in the warm currents that carry water north from the Gulf Stream was observed from the last such measurement in 1992. The authors noted uncertainties in the measurements. Following media discussions, Detlef Quadfasel pointed out that the uncertainty of the estimates of Bryden et al. is high, but says other factors and observations do support their results, and implications based on palaeoclimate records show drops of air temperature up to 10 °C within decades, linked to abrupt switches of ocean circulation when a certain threshold is reached. He concluded that further observations and modelling are crucial for providing early warning of a possible devastating breakdown of the circulation. In response Quirin Schiermeier concluded that natural variation was the culprit for the observations but highlighted possible implications.
In 2008, Vage et al. reported "the return of deep convection to the subpolar gyre in both the Labrador and Irminger seas in the winter of 2007–2008," employing "profiling float data from the Argo program to document deep mixing," and "a variety of in situ, satellite and reanalysis data" to set the context for the phenomenon. This might have a lot to do with the observations of variations in cold water chimney behaviour.
Slowdown or possible shutdown of the thermohaline circulation
The slowdown or shutdown of the thermohaline circulation is a hypothesized effect of climate change on a major ocean circulation. The Gulf Stream is part of this circulation, and is part of the reason why northern Europe is warmer than it would normally be; Edinburgh has the same latitude as Moscow. The Thermohaline Circulation influences the climate all over the world. The impacts of the decline and potential shutdown of the AMOC could include losses in agricultural output, ecosystem changes, and the triggering of other climate tipping points. Other likely impacts of AMOC decline include reduced precipitation in mid-latitudes, changing patterns of strong precipitation in the tropics and Europe, and strengthening storms that follow the North Atlantic track. Finally, a decline would also be accompanied by strong sea level rise along the eastern North American coast.
AMOC stability
Atlantic overturning is not a static feature of global circulation, but rather a sensitive function of temperature and salinity distributions as well as atmospheric forcings. Paleoceanographic reconstructions of AMOC vigour and configuration have revealed significant variations over geologic time complementing variation observed on shorter scales.
Reconstructions of a "shutdown" or "Heinrich" mode of the North Atlantic have fuelled concerns about a future collapse of the overturning circulation due to global climate change. The physics of a shutdown would be underpinned by the Stommel Bifurcation, where increased freshwater forcing or warmer surface waters would lead to a sudden reduction in overturning from which the forcing must be substantially reduced before restart is possible. In 2022, a study suggested that the strongly increasing "memory" of the past multidecadal variations in the system's circulation could act as an early warning indicator of a tipping point.
An AMOC shutdown would be fuelled by two positive feedbacks, the accumulation of both freshwater and heat in areas of downwelling. AMOC exports freshwater from the North Atlantic, and a reduction in overturning would freshen waters and inhibit downwelling. Similar to its export of freshwater, AMOC also partitions heat in the deep-ocean in a global warming regime – it is possible that a weakened AMOC would lead to increasing global temperatures and further stratification and slowdown. However, this effect would be tempered by a concomitant reduction in warm water transport to the North Atlantic under a weakened AMOC, a negative feedback on the system. Moreover, a paleoceanographic reconstruction from 2022 found only a limited impact from massive freshwater forcing of the final Holocene deglaciation ~11,700–6,000 years ago, when the sea level rise amounted to around 50 metres. It suggested that most models overestimate the impact of freshwater forcing on AMOC.
To complicate the issue of positive and negative feedbacks on temperature and salinity, the wind-driven component of AMOC is still not fully constrained. A relatively larger role of atmospheric forcing would lead to less dependency on the thermohaline factors listed above, and would render AMOC less vulnerable to temperature and salinity changes under global warming.
Multiple equilibria versus single equilibrium
As well as paleoceanographic reconstruction, the mechanism and likelihood of collapse has been investigated using climate models. Earth Models of Intermediate Complexity (EMICs) have historically predicted a modern AMOC to have multiple equilibria, characterised as warm, cold and shutdown modes. This is in contrast to more comprehensive models, which bias towards a stable AMOC characterised by a single equilibrium. However, doubt is cast upon this stability by a modelled northward freshwater flux which is at odds with observations. An unphysical northward flux in models acts as a negative feedback on overturning and falsely biases towards stability. On the other hand, it was also suggested that the stationary freshwater forcing used in the classic EMICs is too simplistic, and a 2022 study which modified a Stommel's Bifurcation EMIC to use more realistic transient freshwater flux found that this change delayed tipping behavior in the model by over 1000 years. The study suggested that this simulation is more consistent with the reconstructions of AMOC response to Meltwater pulse 1A, when a similarly long delay was observed.
Impacts of a slowdown
Don Chambers from the University of South Florida College of Marine Science mentioned: "The major effect of a slowing AMOC is expected to be cooler winters and summers around the North Atlantic, and small regional increases in sea level on the North American coast." James Hansen and Makiko Sato stated:
A 2005 paper suggested that a severe AMOC slowdown would collapse North Atlantic plankton counts to less than half of their pre-disruption biomass due to the increased stratification and the severe drop in nutrient exchange amongst the ocean layers. In 2019, a study suggested that the observed ~10% decline in the phytoplankton productivity in the North Atlantic may provide evidence for this hypothesis.
Downturn of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation has been tied to extreme regional sea level rise.
A 2015 paper simulated global ocean changes under AMOC slowdown and collapse scenarios and found that it would greatly decrease dissolved oxygen content in the North Atlantic, even as it would slightly increase globally due to greater increases across the other oceans. In 2018, AMOC slowdown was also tied to increasing coastal deoxygenation. In 2020, it was linked to increasing salinity in the South Atlantic.
A study published in 2016 found further evidence for a considerable impact of a slowdown on sea level rise around the U.S. East Coast. The study confirms earlier research findings which identified the region as a hotspot for rising seas, with a potential to divert 3–4 times in the rate of rise, compared to the global average. The researchers attribute the possible increase to an ocean circulation mechanism called deep water formation, which is reduced due to AMOC slow down, leading to more warmer water pockets below the surface. Additionally, the study noted, "Our results suggest that higher carbon emission rates also contribute to increased [sea level rise] in this region compared to the global average." In 2021, another paper had also suggested that the slowdown had played a role in the northeastern coast of the United States ending up as one of the fastest-warming regions of North America.
In 2020, a study evaluated the effects of projected AMOC weakening in the 21st century under the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5, which portrays a future of continually increasing emissions. In this scenario, a weakened AMOC would also slow down Arctic sea ice decline and delay the emergence of an ice-free Arctic by around 6 years, as well as preventing over 50% of sea ice loss on the edges of Labrador Sea, Greenland Sea, Barents Sea, and Sea of Okhotsk in the years 2061–2080. It also found a southward displacement of Intertropical Convergence Zone, with the associated rainfall increases to the north of it over the tropical Atlantic Ocean and decreases to the south, but cautioned that those trends would be dwarved by the far larger changes in precipitation associated with RCP 8.5. Finally, it found that this slowdown would further deepen Icelandic Low and Aleutian Low due to the displacement of westerly jets.
In 2021, a conceptual network model was developed, connecting the AMOC, Greenland ice sheet, West Antarctic Ice Sheet and the Amazon rainforest (all well-known climate tipping points) through a set of simplified equations. It suggested that while changes to AMOC are unlikely to trigger tipping behaviour in those other elements of the climate system on their own, any other climate element transitioning towards tipping would also affect the others through a connection mediated by the AMOC slowdown, potentially initiating a tipping cascade across multi-century timescales. Consequently, AMOC slowdown would reduce the global warming threshold beyond which any of those four elements (including the AMOC itself) could be expected to tip, as opposed to thresholds established from studying those elements in isolation.
A 2021 assessment of the economic impact of climate tipping points found that while tipping points in general would likely increase the social cost of carbon by about 25%, with a 10% chance of tipping points more than doubling it, AMOC slowdown is likely to do the opposite and reduce the social cost of carbon by about −1.4%, since it would act to counteract the effects of warming in Europe, which is more developed and thus represents a larger fraction of the global GDP than the regions which would be impacted negatively by the slowdown. The following year, this finding, and the broader findings of the study, were severely criticized by a group of scientists including Steve Keen and Timothy Lenton, who considered those findings to be a severe underestimate. The authors have responded to this criticism by noting that their paper should be treated as the starting point in economic assessment of tipping points rather than the final word, and since most of the literature included in their meta-analysis lacks the ability to estimate nonmarket climate damages, their numbers are likely to be underestimates.
Impacts of a shutdown
The possibility that the AMOC is a bistable system (which is either "on" or "off") and could collapse suddenly has been a topic of scientific discussion for a long time. In 2004, The Guardian publicized the findings of a report commissioned by Pentagon defence adviser Andrew Marshall, which suggested that the average annual temperature in Europe would drop by 6 Fahrenheit between 2010 and 2020 as the result of an abrupt AMOC shutdown.
In general, a shutdown of the thermohaline circulation (THC) caused by global warming would trigger cooling in the North Atlantic, Europe, and North America. This would particularly affect areas such as the British Isles, France and the Nordic countries, which are warmed by the North Atlantic drift. Major consequences, apart from regional cooling, could also include an increase in major floods and storms, a collapse of plankton stocks, warming or rainfall changes in the tropics or Alaska and Antarctica, more frequent and intense El Niño events due to associated shutdowns of the Kuroshio, Leeuwin, and East Australian Currents that are connected to the same thermohaline circulation as the Gulf Stream, or an oceanic anoxic event — oxygen () below surface levels of the stagnant oceans becomes completely depleted – a probable cause of past mass extinction events.
In 2002, a study had suggested that an AMOC shutdown may be able to trigger the type of abrupt massive temperature shifts which occurred during the last glacial period: a series of Dansgaard-Oeschger events – rapid climate fluctuations – may be attributed to freshwater forcing at high latitude interrupting the THC. 2002 model runs in which the THC is forced to shut down do show cooling – locally up to 8 °C (14 °F). A 2017 review concluded that there is strong evidence for past changes in the strength and structure of the AMOC during abrupt climate events such as the Younger Dryas and many of the Heinrich events.
A 2015 study led by James Hansen found that the shutdown or substantial slowdown of the AMOC, besides possibly contributing to extreme end-Eemian events, will cause a more general increase of severe weather. Additional surface cooling from ice melt increases surface and lower tropospheric temperature gradients, and causes in model simulations a large increase of mid-latitude eddy energy throughout the midlatitude troposphere. This in turn leads to an increase of baroclinicity produced by stronger temperature gradients, which provides energy for more severe weather events. This includes winter and near-winter cyclonic storms colloquially known as "superstorms", which generate near-hurricane-force winds and often large amounts of snowfall. These results imply that strong cooling in the North Atlantic from AMOC shutdown potentially increases seasonal mean wind speed of the northeasterlies by as much as 10–20% relative to preindustrial conditions. Because wind power dissipation is proportional to the cube of wind speed, this translates into an increase of storm power dissipation by a factor ~1.4–2,. However, the simulated changes refer to seasonal mean winds averaged over large grid-boxes, not individual storms.
In 2017, a study evaluated the effects of a shutdown on El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), but found no overall impact, with divergent atmospheric processes cancelling each other out. In 2021, a study using a Community Earth System Model suggested that an AMOC slowdown could nevertheless increase the strength of El Niño–Southern Oscillation and thus amplify climate extremes, especially if another Meridional Overturning Circulation develops in the Pacific Ocean in response to AMOC slowdown. In contrast, a 2022 study showed that an AMOC collapse is likely to accelerate the Pacific trade winds and Walker circulation, while weakening Indian and South Atlantic subtropical highs. The next study from the same team showed that the result of those altered atmospheric patterns is a ~30% reduction in ENSO variability and a ~95% reduction in the frequency of extreme El Niño events. Unlike today, El Niño events become more frequent in the central rather than eastern Pacific El Niño events. At the same time, this would essentially make a La Nina state dominant across the globe, likely leading to more frequent extreme rainfall over eastern Australia and worse droughts and bushfire seasons over southwestern United States.
In 2020, a study had assessed the impact of an AMOC collapse on farming and food production in Great Britain. It estimated that AMOC collapse would reverse the impact of global warming in Great Britain and cause an average temperature drop of 3.4 °C. Moreover, it would lower rainfall during the growing season by around <123mm, which would in turn reduce the land area suitable for arable farming from the 32% to 7%. The net value of British farming would decline by around £346 million per year, or over 10%.
A 2021 study used a simplified modelling approach to evaluate the impact of a shutdown on the Amazon rainforest and its hypothesized dieback and transition to a savannah state in some climate change scenarios. It suggested that a shutdown would enhance rainfall over the southern Amazon due to the shift of an Intertropical Convergence Zone and thus would help to counter the dieback and potentially stabilize at least the southern part of the rainforest.
Projections
The research around the future strength of the AMOC is shown below in chronological order. It is primarily based on Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models projections, although large reviews like the IPCC reports are also informed by the present-day observations and historical reconstructions, which allows them to take a wider range of possibilities into account and assign likelihood to the events not explicitly covered by the models.
Around 2001, the IPCC Third Assessment Report projected high confidence that the THC would tend to weaken rather than stop, and that the warming effects would outweigh the cooling, even over Europe.
When the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report was published in 2014, a rapid transition of the AMOC was considered very unlikely, and this assessment was offered at a high confidence level. That assessment had several limitations, such a reported bias of CMIP models towards AMOC stability, and the insufficient analysis of the impacts on circulation caused by Greenland ice sheet meltwater intrusion.
In 2016, a study aimed to redress this shortcoming by adding Greenland ice sheet melt estimates to the projections from eight state-of-the-art climate models. It found that by 2090–2100, the AMOC would weaken by around 18% (with a range of potential weakening between 3% and 34%) under the "intermediate" Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, while it would weaken by 37% (with a range between 15% and 65%) under Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5, which presents a scenario of continually increasing emissions. When the two scenarios are extended past 2100, AMOC stabilized under RCP 4.5, but continues to decline under RCP 8.5, with an average decline of 74% by 2290–2300 and a 44% likelihood of an outright collapse.
In 2017, another study applied bias correction to Community Climate System Model and simulated an idealized scenario where concentrations abruptly double from 1990 levels and remain stable afterwards: according to the authors, such concentrations would result in a warming approximately between RCP 4.5 and RCP 6.0. The AMOC remained stable in a standard model, but collapsed after 300 years of simulation in a bias-corrected model.
In 2020, a study ran simulations of RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 between 2005 and 2250 in a Community Earth System Model integrated with an advanced ocean physics module which allowed for a more realistic representation of Antarctic ice sheet meltwater. Freshwater input was between 4 and 8 times higher in the modified RCP 4.5 scenario compared to the control run (an increase from 0.1 to 0.4–0.8 sverdrup), and 5 to 10 times stronger in the modified RCP 8.5 scenario (from 0.2 to an average of 1 sverdrup, with the peak values over 2 sverdrup around 2125 due to the collapse of the Ross Ice Shelf). In both RCP 4.5 simulations, AMOC declines from its current strength of 24 sverdrup to 19 sverdrup by 2100: after 2200, it begins to recover in the control simulation but stays at 19 sverdrup in the modified simulation. Under both RCP 8.5 simulations, there's a near-collapse of the current as it declines to 8 sverdrup past 2100 and stays at that level until the end of the simulation period: in the modified simulation, it takes 35 years longer to reach 8 sverdrup than in the control run.
Another study published in 2020 analyzed how the AMOC would be impacted by temperature stabilizing at 1.5 degrees, 2 degrees (the two Paris Agreement goals, both well below the warming under of RCP 4.5) or 3 degrees by 2100 (slightly above the expected warming by 2100 under RCP 4.5). In all three cases, the AMOC declines for an additional 5–10 years after the temperature rise ceases, but it does not come close to collapse, and recovers its strength after about 150 years.
In 2021, the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report again assessed that the AMOC is very likely to decline within the 21st century, and expressed high confidence that changes to it would be reversible within centuries if the warming was reversed. Unlike the Fifth Assessment Report, it had only expressed medium confidence rather than high confidence in AMOC avoiding a collapse before the end of the century. This reduction in confidence was likely influenced by several review studies drawing attention to the circulation stability bias within general circulation models, as well as simplified ocean modelling studies suggesting that the AMOC may be more vulnerable to abrupt change than what the larger-scale models suggest.
In 2022, a study performed modelling experiments with three climate models participating in Aerosol and Chemistry Model Intercomparison Project, and it found that very aggressive mitigation of air pollution like particulates and ground-level ozone could weaken AMOC circulation by 10% by the end of the century if it happened on its own, due to the reduction in climate-cooling stratospheric sulfur aerosols. The authors recommended pairing air pollution mitigation with the mitigation of methane emissions to avoid this outcome, as both methane (a strong warming agent) and sulfate aerosols (a cooling agent) are similarly short-lived in the atmosphere, and a simultaneous reduction of both would cancel out their effects.
In 2022, an extensive assessment of all potential climate tipping points identified 16 plausible climate tipping points, including a collapse of the AMOC. It suggested that a collapse would most likely be triggered by 4 degrees Celsius of global warming, but that there's enough uncertainty to suggest it could be triggered at warming levels as low as 1.4 degrees, or as high as 8 degrees. Likewise, it estimates that once AMOC collapse is triggered, it would most likely take place over 50 years, but the entire range is between 15 and 300 years. Finally, it concludes that this collapse would lower global temperatures by around 0.5 degrees Celsius, while regional temperatures in Europe would go down by between 4 and 10 degrees Celsius. That assessment also treated the collapse of the Northern Subpolar Gyre as a potential separate tipping point, which could occur at between 1.1 degrees and 3.8 degrees of warming (although this is only simulated by a fraction of climate models). The most likely figure is 1.8 degrees, and once triggered, the collapse of the gyre would most likely take 10 years from start to end, with a range between 5 and 50 years. The loss of this convection is estimated to lower the global temperature by 0.5 degrees, while the average temperature in Europe decreases by around 3 degrees. There are also substantial impacts on regional precipitation.
In July 2023, a paper from a pair of University of Copenhagen researchers suggested that AMOC collapse would most likely happen around 2057, with the 95% confidence range between 2025 - 2095. However, it relied on a lower-complexity model, and its findings have been very controversial amongst the rest of the scientific community. While some have described this research as "worrisome" and a "valuable contribution" to existing literature even while cautioning its results could apply to a slowdown as much as to a complete collapse, others questioned the accuracy and relevance of proxy data chosen as the basis for the paper, with one scientist saying that the projection had "feet of clay" as the result.
Society and culture
In popular culture
The film The Day After Tomorrow and the British TV Series Ice both explore exaggerated scenarios related to the AMOC shutdown.
An Inconvenient Truth includes reference to the potential shutdown of the AMOC and its impact on temperatures in Europe if ice sheets were to melt and cause elevated freshwater flows in the North Atlantic.
Kim Stanley Robinson's science-fiction novel Fifty Degrees Below, a volume in his Science in the Capital series, depicts a shutdown of thermohaline circulation and mankind's efforts to counteract it by adding great quantities of salt to the ocean.
In Ian Douglas' Star Corpsman novels, an AMOC shutdown triggers an early glacial maximum, covering most of Canada and northern Europe in ice sheets by the mid-22nd century.
See also
8.2-kiloyear event
Climate security
Cold blob
Loop Current of the Gulf of Mexico
Anoxic event
Pacific decadal oscillation
Paleosalinity, changes in which are thought to slow down the THC
West Greenland Current
Younger Dryas
References
External links
Project THOR University of Hamburg project to study the thermohaline circulation
"An Abrupt Climate Change Scenario and Its Implications for United States National Security" (2003 study)
What If the Conveyor Were to Shut Down? Reflections on a Possible Outcome of the Great Global Experiment (1999 study)
Why is there a thermohaline circulation in the Atlantic but not the Pacific? (2005 technical report)
Original article at the Encyclopedia of Earth
Climate change and the environment
Effects of climate change
Oceanography
Natural hazards
Future problems
Currents of the Atlantic Ocean
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama%20League%20Award
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Drama League Award
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The Drama League Awards, created in 1922, honor distinguished productions and performances both on Broadway and Off-Broadway, in addition to recognizing exemplary career achievements in theatre, musical theatre, and directing. Each May, the awards are presented by The Drama League at the Annual Awards Luncheon with performers, directors, producers, and Drama League members in attendance. The Drama League membership comprises the entire theater community, including award-winning actors, designers, directors, playwrights, producers, industry veterans, critics and theater-going audiences from across the U.S.
The Drama League Awards are the oldest awards honoring theater in North America. The awards were established in 1922, and formalized in 1935. Katharine Cornell was the recipient of the first award in 1935, for Distinguished Performance. Seven competitive awards are presented: Outstanding Production of a Play, Outstanding Production of a Musical, Outstanding Revival of a Play, Outstanding Revival of a Musical, the Distinguished Performance Award, and, as of 2022, Outstanding Direction of a Play and Outstanding Direction of a Musical. The Distinguished Performance Award is presented to one performer every year, and the recipient can only receive the award once in his or her career. The Drama League also bestow three special honors at the awards ceremony: Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theater, Unique Contribution to the Theater, and The Founders Award for Excellence in Directing. The award statues are designed by New York firm Society Awards.
Categories of awards
Outstanding Production of a Play
Outstanding Production of a Musical
Outstanding Revival of a Play
Outstanding Revival of a Musical
Outstanding Direction of a Play (added in 2022)
Outstanding Direction of a Musical (added in 2022)
Distinguished Performance
Additionally, an honorary award may be given in the following categories:
Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
Unique Contribution to the Theatre
The Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
List of winners
The Distinguished Performer Award was first presented in 1935, to Katharine Cornell for Romeo and Juliet. The first recipient of the Founders Award for Excellence in Directing was Daniel J. Sullivan in 2000. Actor Yul Brynner was the first recipient of the Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre award in 1985. The Unique Contribution to the Theatre Award was first bestowed in 1982 to the New York Production of Nicholas Nickelby: Bernard Jacobs, Gerald Schoenfeld, James M. Nederlander, Elizabeth McCann, and Nelle Nugent.
Winners 2022–2023
Source: Playbill.com
Annaleigh Ashford for Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street – Distinguished Performance Award
Some Like It Hot – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Leopoldstadt – Outstanding Production of a Play
Into the Woods – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
A Doll's House – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Lear deBessonet for Into the Woods - Outstanding Direction of a Musical
Anne Kauffman for The Sign in Sidney Brustein's Window – Outstanding Direction of a Play
André De Shields – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Drama Book Shop – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Lear deBessonet – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2021–2022
Source: Playbill.com
Sutton Foster for The Music Man – Distinguished Performance Award
A Strange Loop – Outstanding Production of a Musical
The Lehman Trilogy – Outstanding Production of a Play
Company – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
Take Me Out – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Marianne Elliott for Company – Outstanding Direction of a Musical
Kate Whoriskey for Clyde's – Outstanding Direction of a Play
Hugh Jackman – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Billy Crystal – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Lileana Blain-Cruz – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2019–2020
Source: Playbill.com
Danny Burstein for Moulin Rouge! – Distinguished Performance Award
Moulin Rouge! – Outstanding Production of a Musical
The Inheritance – Outstanding Production of a Play
Little Shop of Horrors – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
A Soldier's Play – Outstanding Revival of a Play
James Lapine – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Terrence McNally – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Marianne Elliott – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2018–2019
Source: Playbill.com
Bryan Cranston for Network – Distinguished Performance Award
Hadestown – Outstanding Production of a Musical
The Ferryman – Outstanding Production of a Play
Kiss Me, Kate – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
The Waverly Gallery – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Kelli O'Hara – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Taylor Mac – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Alex Timbers – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2017–2018
Source: Playbill.com
Glenda Jackson for Three Tall Women – Distinguished Performance Award
The Band's Visit – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child – Outstanding Production of a Play
My Fair Lady – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
Angels in America – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Idina Menzel – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
National Endowment for the Arts – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Casey Nicholaw – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2016–2017
Source: Playbill.com
Ben Platt for Dear Evan Hansen – Distinguished Performance Award
Dear Evan Hansen – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Oslo – Outstanding Production of a Play
Hello, Dolly! – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
Jitney – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Bette Midler – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Bill Berloni – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Michael Greif – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2015–2016
Source: Playbill.com
Lin-Manuel Miranda for Hamilton – Distinguished Performance Award
Hamilton – Outstanding Production of a Musical
The Humans – Outstanding Production of a Play
The Color Purple – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
A View from the Bridge – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Sheldon Harnick – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Deaf West Theatre – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Ivo van Hove – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2014–2015
Source: Playbill.com
Chita Rivera for The Visit – Distinguished Performance Award
An American in Paris – Outstanding Production of a Musical
The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time – Outstanding Production of a Play
The King and I – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
You Can't Take It with You – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Joel Grey – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theater Award
Neal Shapiro and David Horn – Unique Contribution to the Theater Award
Stephen Daldry – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2013–2014
Source: Playbill.com
Neil Patrick Harris for Hedwig and the Angry Inch – Distinguished Performance Award
A Gentleman's Guide to Love and Murder – Outstanding Production of a Musical
All the Way – Outstanding Production of a Play
Hedwig and the Angry Inch – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
The Glass Menagerie – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Barbara Cook – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Key Brand Entertainment/Broadway Across America: John Gore – Unique Contribution to the Theatre Award
John Tiffany – The Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2012–2013
Source: Playbill.com
Nathan Lane for The Nance – Distinguished Performance Award
Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike – Outstanding Production of a Play
Kinky Boots – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Pippin – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
Bernadette Peters – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award (presented by Joel Grey)
Madison Square Garden Entertainment & the Rockettes – Unique Contribution to the Theatre Award (Presented by Tommy Tune)
Jerry Mitchell – The Founders Award for Excellence in Directing (Presented by Cyndi Lauper)
Winners 2011–2012
Source: Playbill.com
Audra McDonald for Porgy and Bess – Distinguished Performance Award
Other Desert Cities – Outstanding Production of a Play
Death of a Salesman – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Once – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Follies – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
Alan Menken – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Rosie O'Donnell – Unique Contribution to the Theatre Award
Diane Paulus – The Founders Award for Excellence in Directing (formerly the Julia Hansen Award)
Winners 2010–2011
Source: Playbill.com
Mark Rylance for Jerusalem and La Bête – Distinguished Performance Award
War Horse – Outstanding Production of a Play
The Book of Mormon – Outstanding Production of a Musical
The Normal Heart – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Anything Goes – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
Whoopi Goldberg – Unique Contribution to the Theatre Award
Liza Minnelli – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Susan Stroman – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing.
Winners 2009–2010
Source: Playbill.com
Alfred Molina for Red – Distinguished Performance Award
Sondheim on Sondheim – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Red – Outstanding Production of a Play
La Cage aux Folles – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
A View from the Bridge – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Nathan Lane – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Kenny Leon – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Macy's Parade and Entertainment Group – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Winners 2008–2009
Source:Playbill.com
Geoffrey Rush for Exit the King – Distinguished Performance Award
God of Carnage, by Yasmina Reza – Outstanding Production of a Play
Billy Elliot The Musical, Music by Elton John; Book and Lyrics by Lee Hall – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Blithe Spirit, by Noël Coward – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Hair, Music by Galt MacDermot; Book, Lyrics by Gerome Ragni, James Rado – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
Elton John – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Arthur Laurents – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Angela Lansbury – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Herb Blodgett – The 75th Anniversary Leadership Award
Winners 2007–2008
Source:Variety
Patti LuPone for Gypsy – Distinguished Performance Award
August: Osage County by Tracy Letts – Outstanding Production of a Play
A Catered Affair, Book by Harvey Fierstein; Music and Lyrics by John Bucchino – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Macbeth by William Shakespeare – Outstanding Revival of a Play
South Pacific, Book by Joshua Logan and Oscar Hammerstein II, Music by Richard Rodgers; Lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
Paul Gemignani – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre Award
Bartlett Sher – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Ellen Stewart – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Winners 2006–2007
Liev Schreiber for Talk Radio and Macbeth – Distinguished Performance Award
The Coast of Utopia – Outstanding Production of a Play
Spring Awakening – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Journey's End – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Company – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
John Kander and Fred Ebb – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
Michael Mayer – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Broadway Cares/Equity Fights Aids – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Winners 2005–2006
Christine Ebersole for Grey Gardens – Distinguished Performance Award
The History Boys – Outstanding Production of a Play
Jersey Boys – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Awake and Sing! – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Sweeney Todd – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
Patti LuPone – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
Marian Seldes – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Des McAnuff- Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2004–2005
Norbert Leo Butz for Dirty Rotten Scoundrels – Distinguished Performance Award
Doubt – Outstanding Production of a Play
Dirty Rotten Scoundrels – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Twelve Angry Men – Outstanding Revival of a Play
La Cage aux Folles – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
BMI Musical Theatre Workshop – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
The Billy Rose Theatre Collection at the New York Public Library at Lincoln Center – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Mike Nichols – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2003–2004
Hugh Jackman for The Boy from Oz– Distinguished Performance Award
I Am My Own Wife – Outstanding Production of a Play
Wicked – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Henry IV – Outstanding Revival of a Play
Assassins – Outstanding Revival of a Musical
Donna Murphy – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
City Center Encores – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
George C. Wolfe – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2002–2003
Harvey Fierstein for Hairspray – Distinguished Performance Award
Take Me Out – Outstanding Production of a Play
Hairspray – Outstanding Production of a Musical
A Day in the Death of Joe Egg – Outstanding Revival
Twyla Tharp – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
Roundabout Theatre Company: Todd Haimes – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Joe Mantello – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2001–2002
Metamorphoses – Outstanding Production of a Play
Urinetown – Outstanding Production of a Musical
The Crucible – Outstanding Revival
Liam Neeson for The Crucible – Distinguished Performance Award
Elaine Stritch – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
Julia Hansen – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Sir Richard Eyre – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 2000–2001
Proof – Outstanding Production of a Play
The Producers – Outstanding Production of a Musical
One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest – Outstanding Revival
Mary-Louise Parker for Proof and Gary Sinise for One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest – Distinguished Performance Award
Susan Stroman – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
Steppenwolf Theatre Company: Terry Kinney, Jeff Perry, Gary Sinise – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Jack O'Brien – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 1999–2000
Copenhagen – Outstanding Production of a Play
Contact – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Kiss Me, Kate – Outstanding Revival
Eileen Heckart for The Waverly Gallery – Distinguished Performance Award
Audra McDonald – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
Actors Theatre of Louisville: Jon Jory – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Daniel Sullivan – Founders Award for Excellence in Directing
Winners 1998–1999
Wit – Outstanding Production of a Play
Fosse – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Death of a Salesman – Outstanding Revival
Kathleen Chalfant for Wit – Distinguished Performance Award
Ann Reinking and Gwen Verdon – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
Sir David Hare – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Winners 1997–1998
The Beauty Queen of Leenane – Outstanding Production of a Play
Ragtime – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Cabaret – Outstanding Revival
Brian Stokes Mitchell for Ragtime – Distinguished Performance Award
Julie Taymor – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
The Brooklyn Academy of Music: Harvey Lichtenstein – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Winners 1996–1997
The Last Night of Ballyhoo – Outstanding Production of a Play
The Life – Outstanding Production of a Musical
Chicago – Outstanding Revival
Charles Durning for The Gin Game and Bebe Neuwirth for Chicago – Distinguished Performance Award
Gerard Alessandrini – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
Jason Robards – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Winners 1995–1996
Seven Guitars – Outstanding Production of a Play
Rent – Outstanding Production of a Musical
A Delicate Balance – Outstanding Revival
Uta Hagen for Mrs. Klein – Distinguished Performance Award
George C. Wolfe – Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theatre
The 42nd Street Development Project, The New 42nd Street, The Walt Disney Company, Livent – Unique Contribution to the Theatre
Winners history
List of winners, 1935 through 2014.
See also
Tony Award
Drama Desk Awards
Obie Award
New York Drama Critics Award
References
External links
American theater awards
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5097961
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siete%20Partidas
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Siete Partidas
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The Siete Partidas (, "Seven-Part Code") or simply Partidas, was a Castilian statutory code first compiled during the reign of Alfonso X of Castile (1252–1284), with the intent of establishing a uniform body of normative rules for the kingdom. The codified and compiled text was originally called the Libro de las Leyes () (Book of Laws). It was not until the 14th century that it was given its present name, referring to the number of sections into which it is divided.
The Partidas had great significance in Latin America as well, where it was followed for centuries, up to the 19th century. Although the code concentrates on legislative issues, it has also been described as a "humanist encyclopedia," as it addresses philosophical, moral and theological topics as well, including the Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian views of warfare.
Background
Writing
According to one of the oldest versions of the Partidas, it was written between June 26, 1256 and August 28, 1265 by a commission of the principal Castilian jurists of the day, under the personal direction of Alfonso X. However, other time periods have been proposed: 1254 to 1261; 1256 to 1263; and 1251 to 1265. In any event, the majority of historians believe that it was not completed until 1265.
The traditional view, shared by historian Francisco Martínez Marina and philologist Antonio Solalinde, is that the Siete Partidas codices were written by a commission of jurists (or members of the chancellery), and the involvement of Alfonso X was likely limited to setting out the goals of the text and the subjects to be addressed, as well as personally reviewing and amending the work of the commission. The commission is thought to have been made up of Master Jacobo, a legal scholar; Juan Alfonso, a civil law notary from León; a certain Master Roldán; and Fernando Martinez de Zamora (one of the first Castilian jurists).
During the 18th century it was popularly believed that the Partidas was exclusively written by Alfonso X. This position was championed by Jesuit historian and writer, Andrés Marcos Burriel (Padre Burriel). Nevertheless, a significant debate has arisen concerning the authorship of works associated with Alfonso X. Other texts of the period 1254–1256, normally attributed to Alfonso X such as el Setenario, Fuero Real and the Espéculo display pronounced similarities to each other and to the Partidas. Despite scholarly efforts to determine the scope, relationships, and purpose of each of the texts, no consensus has been reached.
The attribution debate was principally sparked by Alfonso García-Gallo's 1951–52 article, El "Libro de las Leyes" de Alfonso el Sabio. Del Espéculo a las Partidas (The "Book of Laws" of Alfonso the Wise. From the Espéculo to the Partidas). The questions raised in the article were expanded in other, later works.
García-Gallo proposed that the Partidas was not the work of Alfonso X and that it was not finished during his reign, but rather was written in the 14th century, long after the learned king's death in 1284, and that it was a reworking of the Espéculo. He based his position on the fact that the first reliable references to the Partidas in other texts date from the beginning of the 14th century, and that the source materials for the Partidas were not known in the Iberian peninsula until later than the date of composition claimed for the codex.
In any case, Alfonso X continues to be nominally credited as the author of the Siete Partidas, or at least of the original version, whatever his role in its creation may have been, since the custom with great works of this type was to attribute them to the monarch or other ruler who commissioned them, even though it was known that they had no hand in the preparation (as was the case with the Code of Hammurabi, and Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis).
Purpose
Despite its lengthy treatment of philosophical issues, some have maintained that the Partidas is intended as a legislative text rather than a work of legal theory—a view explicitly supported by the prologue, which indicates that it was created only so that it could be used to render legal judgments.
Yet, García-Gallo has contended that, the prologue notwithstanding, the Siete Partidas was rarely put into practice until over a century after it was written. Resistance to the Partidas, especially among the Castilian nobility, led the Cortes (legislature) to enact the Ordinances of Zamora in 1274. These laws set qualifications for judges serving on the royal tribunal and restricted the application of the Partidas to the pleitos del rey, that is, legal cases under the exclusive jurisdiction of the king. All other matters (pleitos foreros) were governed by local laws or fueros. It was not until the “late enactment” by Alfonso XI in 1348 that the Partidas became widely applied. Furthermore, opposition to the Partidas can explain the differences among the similar texts listed above.
In any case, if the Partidas was written as a legal code, its ultimate objective has been a matter of dispute. Alfonso X, in what was called the fecho del imperio ("affair of the empire"), had aggressively pursued the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. His purpose for creating the Siete Partidas may have been to create a universally valid legal text for the entire Empire. In support of this argument, Aquilino Iglesias claimed in 1996 that the Partidas contained no references to Castilian territorial organization.
Others, among them García-Gallo, argued by way of rebuttal that even though sometimes the role of the emperor appears higher than that of the monarchy, in other places the role of the monarchy appears higher than that of the emperor, and that furthermore the text was written in Spanish, rather than in Latin. However, an edition printed in Madrid in 1843, and available in facsimile from Google Books, appears to show that the Spanish is a translation of a Latin original.
What is certain is that the Partidas, including the prologue, makes no reference whatsoever to any intention to acquire the imperial crown. Moreover, some authors, such as Juan Escudero (a disciple of García-Gallo), have found references in the text to Castile's specific territorial organization, for example, villas.
It is therefore generally believed that with the creation of the Partidas, Alfonso X was trying to unify the kingdom's legal system, not by using the 'local' approach of his father Ferdinand III (that is, by granting the same fuero to various regions), but rather through a general code that applied to the entire country.
In this regard it has been argued that Alfonso X was moved by nascent national pride and a desire to establish Castilian as the common language of his kingdom when he commissioned and supported the work of the Castilian jurists and scholars in writing the Siete Partidas.
Enactment
It is not known whether the Siete Partidas was enacted by Alfonso X. Some authors believe so, and assert that the overthrow of the learned king by his son Sancho IV would have suspended its applicability. In a similar vein, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos claimed in 1797 that the descendants of Sancho IV suppressed the document of enactment because the provisions of the Partidas raised doubts about their rights to the crown, since the Partidas established the right of representation in the succession to the throne.
Without taking away from the preceding argument, the Partidas undoubtedly acquired legal force under Alfonso XI, upon being incorporated in the orden de prelación by the first law of article 28 of the Ordenamiento de Alcalá of 1348. This fact is considered by those authors who do not believe that the Partidas was enacted by Alfonso X as a "late enactment".
Sources
The Siete Partidas can be characterised as a text of civil law or ius commune (based on Justinian Roman law, canon law, and feudal laws), alongside influences from Islamic law.
Its sources were diverse. Among the most important were the Corpus Iuris Civilis of Justinian; the works of the Roman glossators and commentators, for example Franciscus Accursius and Azzus; canon law texts like the Decrees of Gregory IX and the work of Saint Raimundo de Peñafort; the Islamic legal treatise Villiyet written in Islamic Spain; and some Castilian fueros and customs.
Other sources include philosophical works by Aristotle and Seneca; the Bible and texts by the Church Fathers; works by Isidore of Seville and Thomas Aquinas; the Libri Feudorum (compilation of Lombardic feudal law); the Roles D´Olerons (a collection of writings on commercial law); the Doctrinal de los juicios (Trial Manual) and the Flores de Derecho (Flowers of law) by Maestro Jacobo, who also worked on the Partidas; and the Margarita de los pleytos by Fernando Martínez de Zamora.
Structure and content
The Partidas brings together all the jurisprudence of the era into a single, unified vision, and for that reason has been regarded as a summa de derecho (the highest and binding authority for deciding legal issues). It deals, among other things, with constitutional law, civil law, commercial law, criminal law, and trial law (both civil and criminal).
It was written in an elegant, literary Spanish style, inspired by a theological vision of the world. It contains a Prologue, which lays out the object of the work, and seven parts, or books, called partidas, each of which starts with a letter of the name of the learned king, thus forming an acrostic of the name 'Alfonso':
A seruicio de Dios... (For the service of God...)
La ffe cathólica... (The Catholic faith...)
Fizo Nuestro Sennor Dios... (Our Lord God did...)
Onras sennaladas... (Special rites...)
Nascen entre los ommmes... (Among men there arise...)
Sesudamente dixeron... (The ancient wise men sagely said...)
Oluidança et atreuimiento... (Forgetfulness and boldness...)
Each partida is divided into articles (182 in total), and these are composed of laws (2802 in all).
Its provisions are normally accompanied by references to authors and texts, allegories and examples, and, especially, a reasoned explanation of their origins and background—etymological, religious, philosophical and historical—for they are not meant to be merely prescriptive laws.
The contradictions that exist between the various provisions were the result of the way the task of composition was organized, whereby each partida was written by a different person.
Part I, Title I, Law xi: What the Law-Maker Should Be The law-maker should love God and keep Him before his eyes when he makes the laws, in order that they may be just and perfect. He should moreover love justice and the common benefit of all. He should be learned, in order to know how to distinguish right from wrong, and he should not be ashamed to change and amend his laws, whenever he thinks or a reason given him, that he should do so; for it is especially just that he who has to set others right and correct them should know how to do this in his own case, whenever he is wrong.
Part I, Title I, Law xx: For What Reason Men Cannot Escape the Operation of the Laws by Saying That They Were Ignorant of Them No one can escape the penalties of the laws by saying that he did not know of them, for, since men have to be preserved by them by receiving as well as doing justice, it is reasonable that they should know them and read them, either by acquiring their meaning from those who have read them, or by hearing them discussed in some other way without reading; for men have excuses for many things which happen in this world; but they cannot excuse themselves from sending others in their places to assert their rights in court; and if they should have no one to send, they should communicate with some of their friends who may happen to be in the place where they are to be judged by the laws, that they too may represent them and argue their cases for them, and they must give them authority to do so. And since by themselves, or by their representatives, or by means of letters, they are able to defend themselves, they cannot avoid doing so by saying that they did not know the laws, and if they should offer such a reason as this it will not avail them.
Part II, Title I, Law X: What the Word Tyrant Means, and How a Tyrant Makes Use of this Power in a Kingdom, After He Has Obtained Possession of it. A tyrant means a lord who has obtained possession of some kingdom, or country, by force, fraud, or treason. Persons of this kind are of such a character, that after they have obtained thorough control of a country, they prefer to act for their own advantage, although it may result I injury to the country, rather than for the common benefit of all, because they always live in the expectation of losing it. And in order that they might execute their desires more freely, the ancient sages declared that they always employed their power against the people, by means of three kinds of artifice. The first is, that persons of this kind always exert themselves to keep those under their dominion ignorant and timid, because, when they are such, they will not dare to rise up against them, oppose their wishes. The second is, that they promote disaffection among the people so that they do not trust one another, for while they live in such discord, they will not dare to utter any speech against the king, fearing that neither faith nor secrecy will be kept among them. The third is, that they endeavor to make them poor, and employ them in such great labors that they can never finish them; for the reason that they may always have so much to consider in their own misfortunes, that they will never have the heart to think of committing any act against the government of the tyrant.
In addition to all this, tyrants always endeavor to despoil the powerful, and put the wise to death; always forbid brotherhoods and associations in their dominions; and constantly manage to be informed of what is said or done in the country, trusting more for counsel and protection to strangers, because they serve them voluntarily, than to natives who have to perform service through compulsion. We also decree that although a person may have obtained the sovereignty of a kingdom by any of the methods mentioned in the preceding law, if he should make a bad use of his power in any of the ways above stated in this law, people can denounce him as a tyrant, and his government which was lawful, will become wrongful; as Aristotle stated in the book which treats of the government of cities and kingdoms.
Part II, Title X, I: What the Word People Means Some persons think that by the word people is meant the common people, as, for instance, mechanics, and laborers, but this is not the case, for, in ancient times, in Babylon, Troy, and Rome, which were famous cities, all these matters were regulated in a reasonable way, and a suitable name was given to everything. There the union of all men together, those of superior, middle, and inferior rank, was called the people; for all are necessary, and none can be excepted, for the reason that they are obliged to assist one another in order to live properly and be protected and supported.
Part II, Title XXI, Law iv: Knights Should Possess Four Chief Virtues Excellent qualities which men naturally possess are called good habits, and are styled virtutes in Latin, and of these four are superior, namely, prudence, fortitude, temperance, and justice. Although every man should desire to be good, and endeavor to acquire these virtues, not only the preachers whom we have mentioned, but others as well, whose duty it is to maintain the country by means of their labors and exertions; among them, there are none, to whom this is more becoming than to the defenders, for the reason that it is their duty to protect the Church, the monarchs, and all others. Prudence will enable them to do this to advantage, and without injury; fortitude will cause them to be firm and not irresolute in what they do; moderation will induce them to perform their duties as they should, and not be guilty of excess; and justice will enable them to act according to the right. For this reason the ancients, by way of commemoration, caused arms of four kinds to be made for the knights; first, such as they clothe themselves with, and wear; second, those with which they gird themselves; third, those which they bear in front of them; fourth, those with which they strike; And although these are of many forms, nevertheless they are designed for two purposes; blows, which are called weapons. And because the defenders did not ordinarily possess these weapons, and, even though they had them, might not always be able to carry them, the ancients deemed it proper to contrive one which should be emblematic of all these, and this is the sword. For, as the arms which men put on for the purpose of defense indicate prudence, which is a virtue that protects them from all evils which can come upon them through their own fault; so the hilt of a sword which a man holds in his grasp, is also suggestive of this, for as long as he holds it, he has the power to raise or lower it, or strike with it, or abandon it; and as the arms which a man carries before him to defend himself, denote fortitude, which is a virtue that renders him steadfast in the midst of dangers which may come upon him, so all the fortitude of the sword lies in its pommel, for to it is attached the hilt, the guard, and the blade.
And, as the armor which a man girds on is intermediate between that with which he is clothed and the weapons with which he strikes, and thus resembles the virtue of moderation between things which are excessive and those which are less than they should be; with great similarity to this, the guard is placed between the handle and the blade of the sword. Moreover, as the arms which a man holds ready to strike with, whenever it is advisable, symbolize justice, which includes right and equality; so the blade of the sword which is straight and sharp, and cuts the same with both edges, represents the same thing. On account of all this the ancients ordained that noble defenders should always wear the sword, and that by means of it and with no other weapon they should receive the honor of knighthood, in order that they might always be reminded of these four virtues which they should possess: for, without them, they could not perfectly maintain the condition of defense for which they were appointed.
Part II, Title XXI, Law xiii: What Duties a Squire Should Perform Before He Receives the Order of Knighthood Cleanliness makes all things that are visible look well, just as elegance makes them appear graceful, each in its own way. Hence the ancients deemed it proper that knights should be created without any suspicion of blemish. For, as they should practice purity among themselves and it ought to be manifested in their good qualities and their habits, as we have stated; they should also display it externally in their clothing, and in the arms which they bear. For although their calling is rude and bloody, as it is concerned with wounds and death; nevertheless, their minds should not refuse to be naturally pleased with things which are beautiful and elegant, and especially when they wear them; for the reason that, on the one hand, they confer joy and comfort upon them, and, on the other, it induces them to perform intrepid deeds of arms, since that they are aware that they will be better known on this account, and that all persons will pay more attention to what they do; therefore cleanliness and elegance are not impediments to the bravery and ferocity which they ought to possess. Moreover, as we stated above, their external appearance indicates the condition of their minds, and, for this reason, the ancients directed that a squire should be of noble descent; that the day before he received the order of knighthood he should keep watch; and that on the day when he received it, in the afternoon, the squires should bathe him and wash his head along with his hands, and place him in the best bed that they could find, and then it was the duty of the knights to dress him in the best garments they had.
After they had cleansed his body in this way they were required to do as much for his soul by conduction him to the church, where he was obliged to endure hardship by watching and praying to God to pardon his sins, and guide him to act for the best in the order which he desired to receive, so that he could defend his religion, and do other things which were proper; and that he might protect and defend him from danger and adversity and whatever opposition he might encounter. He should bear in mind that God has authority over all things, and can manifest it whoever He desires to do so, and that this is especially the case with regard to deeds of arms; for in his hand are life and death, the power to give and to take, and he can cause the weak to be strong and the strong to be weak. When he has made this prayer, he must remain upon his knees as long as he can endure it, while all the others stand; for the vigils of knights were not instituted as games, or for any other purpose but that they and the others present may ask God to preserve, direct, and assist them, as men who are entering upon a career of death.
Part II, Title XXXI, Law ii: In What Place a School Should be Established, and How the Masters and Pupils Should Be Secure The town where it is desired to establish a school should have pure air and beautiful environs, in order that the masters who teach the sciences and the pupils who learn them, may live there in health, and rest and take pleasure in the evening, when their eyes have become weary with study. It should, moreover, be well provided with bread and wine, and good lodging houses, in which the pupils can live and pass their time without great expense. We declare that the citizens of the town where a school is situated, should carefully protect its masters and pupils and everything belonging to them, and that no one should arrest or hinder the messengers who come to them from their homes, on account of any debt that their parents, or any others of the countries where they are natives, may owe. We also declare that no wrong, dishonor, or violence should be shown them on account of any enmity or grudge which any man may entertain against the said pupils or their messengers, and all their property, be secure and free from molestation, while going to the schools, while there, and while returning to their homes, and we grant them this security in all the towns of our dominions.
Whoever violates this law, by taking their property by force, or by robbing them, shall pay four times the value of what is stolen, and where anyone wounds, dishonors, or kills any of them, he shall be punished without mercy, as a man who violates our truce, and the security which we have granted. And if the judges before whom a complaint of this kind is made are negligent in rendering the parties justice, as above stated, they shall pay the amount aforesaid out of their own property, and be dismissed from office as infamous persons. Where they act in a malicious manner toward the pupils, refusing to punish those who dishonored, wounded, or killed them, then the officers who acted in this manner shall themselves be punished according to the will of the king.
Part IV, Title I, Law x: Parents Cannot Betroth Their Daughters When They Are Not Present and Do Not Give Their Consent Where one man promises another to take one of his daughters as his wife, such words do not constitute a betrothal, because none of the daughters was present, and does not specifically consent to take the party as her husband, any more than he does her as his wife, for just as matrimony cannot be contracted by one person alone, neither can a betrothal be so contracted. In matrimony it is necessary for those who desire to contract it to be present and each one must accept the other, or there must be two others who do this by their direction, and if a father swears or promises a party who has sworn to him that he would take that one of his daughters which he would give him as his wife, and afterwards none of his daughters gives her consent, or is willing to accept the party to whom the father had sworn, he cannot, for this reason, compel any of them absolutely to do this, although he has a right to reprove them, in order to obtain their permission. If, however, the party to whom the father wishes to marry one of his daughters was a desirable person, and the daughter would do well to marry him, although he cannot compel her to perform what he promised, he can disinherit her, for the reason that she was not grateful to her father for the benefit he desired to confer upon her, and caused him sorrow through her disobedience. And this is understood if thereafter she should marry another against her father's will or commit carnal sin.
Part IV, Title XI, Law vii: Donations and Dowries, Made in Consideration of Marriage, Should Remain Under Control of the Husband, to Be Kept and Taken Care Of. A husband should place his wife in possession of the gift which he makes her, and the wife should do the same thing with her husband with regard to the dowry she gives; and, although each of them places the other in possession of their respective gifts, nevertheless, the husband should be the master and have control of all the property aforesaid, and be entitled to collect the income of the whole, including what the wife gives, as well as that given by him, for the purpose of supporting himself, his wife, and his family, and to preserve, defend, and protect the marriage well and faithfully. Still, the husband has no right to sell, dispose of, or waste the donation which he gave his wife, or the dowry which he receives from her, as long as the marriage lasts, except where such a gift has been appraised. This should be observed for the following reason, namely: in order that if a separation takes place, the property of each of the parties may be returned to them, free and without encumbrance, to dispose of at their pleasure, or, where the marriage is dissolved by death, that it may descend intact to their heirs.
Part IV, Title XI, Law xvii: Concerning Separate Property Belonging to the Wife, Which is Not Given as Dowry, and Which is Called in Latin, Paraphernalia. (return) All property and possessions, whether personal or real, which women keep separately for themselves, and do not enter in the account of a dowry, are called in Greek parapherna, and this derived its name from para, which means, in Greek, the same as near, and pherna which takes the place of dowry, in Greek, the same as things which are joined to, or connected with a dowry. All the articles called, in Greek, parapherna, when they are given by a wife to her husband with the intention that he shall have control of them as long as the marriage lasts, he has the right to keep, just as those which are given him by way of dowry. Where they are not specifically given to the husband, and it was not the intention of the wife that he should have control of them, she always remains their owner; and the same rule applies whenever any doubt arises whether she gave them to her husband or not.
All these things called parapherna, have the same privilege as a dowry has, for just as a husband is responsible to his wife to the full amount of his property, if he disposes of or wastes her dowry, he is also responsible for the parapherna, no matter what may happen to it. And although an obligation of this kind may not be contracted by words, it is understood to be created solely by the act itself. For as soon as the husband receives the dowry and the other property called parapherna, all his property, for this reason, becomes bound to his wife, not only what he has at the time, but also what he may acquire subsequently.
Part V, Title VIII, Law xxvi: Inn-Keepers, and Keepers of Lodging Houses, and Sailors Are Obliged to Pay the Owners for Property of Which They Have Charge When It Is Lost in Their House or Their Ships. It happens frequently that knights, merchants, or other men who travel, are compelled to lodge in the houses of inn-keepers and in taverns, and have to entrust their property to the charge of those whom they find there, confiding in them without any witnesses, and without any other security; and also those who are forced to travel by sea place their property in ships in the same way, by trusting the sailors; and for the reason that it frequently happens that among these two kinds of men, some are found who are very dishonest, and are guilty of great injury and wickedness towards those who confide in them; hence it is but proper that their criminality should be restrained by punishment. Wherefore, we decree that all property deposited by travelers by land or water in the houses of inn-keepers or tavern-keepers, or in ships which knowledge of the owners of the said inns, taverns, or ships, or parties representing them, shall be taken care of, so that it will not be lost or diminished in value; and if it should be lost through the negligence of said parties, or through any fraud committed by them, or by any fault of theirs, or if anyone accompanying said travelers should steal it, they shall then be obliged to pay the value of said loss or deterioration; for it is but just that since travelers entrust their persons and property to them that they should protect them faithfully, with all their power, so that they may not suffer either wrong or injury.
What we mention in this law is understood to apply to inn-keepers and tavern-keepers, and the owners of ships, who are accustomed to entertain men publicly, receiving from them pay or hire for their service. We decree that the aforesaid persons shall be bound to protect them in the same way if they entertain them through affection, and do not charge them anything, except in certain cases. First, where the party tells his guest before he receives him, that he will take good care of his property, but is not willing to bind himself to pay for it if it is lost. Second, where, before he receives him, he shows him a chest or a house and says to him, "If you desire to remain here, put your property in this house or in this chest, here is the key of it, and take good care of your property." Third, where the property is lost through some unavoidable accident, as, for instance, by fire or inundation; or where a house is demolished; or where it is lost through a ship being damaged; or through the violence of public enemies; for where property is lost in any of the ways aforesaid, which did not happen through the fraud or fault of the parties, they will not then be bound to pay for the same.
Editions
In addition to the diversity of manuscripts and other copies produced after the appearance of the printing press in the 15th century, there existed three main editions of the Siete Partidas:
An edition annotated by Alonso Díaz de Montalvo, published in Seville, 1491. There were eight copies by 1528.
An edition annotated by Gregorio López, published in Salamanca, 1555. There were 15 copies by 1855. This edition received legitimacy by royal decree on September 7, 1555, and was the version most used in Hispanic America.
An edition from the Real Academia de la Historia, published in 1807. Declared official by sovereign dictate on March 8, 1818.
Influence and importance
The Siete Partidas, as the centerpiece of legislative activity under Alfonso X, represents the high point of the acceptance of common law (from Roman and canonical traditions) in Spain. Moreover, it constitutes one of the most important judicial works of the Middle Ages.
The artfulness of the presentation of the material and the beauty of its language garnered considerable prestige for the work both inside and outside of Castile, and the work was known throughout the Christian West. It served as a text of study in many universities of the day, and it was translated into several languages, including Catalan, Portuguese, Galician and English.
Likewise, it was one of the most important legal texts for the governing of Castile (given that it regulated so many matters) and, later, the Spanish empire. From the beginnings of European expansion into the New World, it was introduced to Spanish America along with Castilian law, and to Brazil, with Portuguese law.
Its contents encompass almost all aspects of life, from political law to civil to criminal, continuing on to family law, succession, legal matters, and legal proceedings. All that is missing are matters considered in subsequent law, such as post-tridentine canon law, the Leyes de Toro, dealing with hereditary debt, and matters specific to Spanish America, governed by indigenous law.
The Siete Partidas was in force in Latin America until the modern codification movement (1822–1916); until the beginning of the 19th century, they were even in effect in the parts of the United States, such as Louisiana, that had previously belonged to the Spanish empire and used civil law. Furthermore, they served as the legal foundation for the formation of the governing juntas that were established in both Spain and Spanish America after the imprisonment of King Fernando VII during the Peninsular War. Finally, although the codification movement put an end to the direct application of the Partidas, the legal standards they contain have not disappeared. Most of the principles of the Partidas can be found in the laws of Latin American countries, especially in their civil codes.
English translation
A translation of the Siete Partidas into English by Samuel Parsons Scott was published in 1931 and reprinted with editorial changes in 2001. Scott's translation was well received by reviewers.
See also
Fuero Juzgo
Fuero Real
Literature of Alfonso X
Notes
References
O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (1999). The Cortes of Castile-León; Chapt 9, The Cortes and the Government of the Realm. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
Bibliography
Primary sources
Las Siete Partidas.- BOE, 1999 - (edición facisimilar de la edición de 1555, con glosas de Gregorio López).
Secondary sources
Arias Bonet, Juan Antonio: "La primera Partida y el problema de sus diferentes versiones a la luz del manuscrito del British Museum", en Alfonso X el Sabio: Primera Partida según el manuscrito Add. 20.787 del British Museum.- Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid.- 1975. p. XLVII-CIII.
Arias Bonet, Juan Antonio: "Sobre presuntas fuentes de las Partidas", en Revista de la Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad Complutense.- Número extraordinario: julio de 1985.- p. 11-23.
Bravo Lira, Bernardino: "Vigencia de las Siete Partidas en Chile", en Derecho común y derecho propio en el Nuevo Mundo.- Santiago de Chile: Jurídica de Chile.- 1989. p. 89-142.
Craddock, Jerry: "La cronología de las obras legislativas de Alfonso X el Sabio", en Anuario de Historia del Derecho español, Nº 51: 1981.- p. 365-418.
Craddock, Jerry: "El Setenario: última e inconclusa refundición alfonsina de la primera Partida", en Anuario de Historia del Derecho español, Nº 56: 1986.- p. 441-466.
García-Gallo, Alfonso: "El "Libro de las Leyes" de Alfonso el Sabio. Del espéculo a las Partidas", en Anuario de Historia del Derecho español, Nº 21-22: 1951-1952.- p. 345-528.
García-Gallo, Alfonso: "Los enigmas de las Partidas", en VII Centenario de las Partidas del Rey Sabio, Instituto de España.- 1963.
García-Gallo, Alfonso: "Nuevas observaciones sobre la obra legislativa de Alfonso X", en Anuario de Historia del Derecho español, Nº 46: 1976. p. 509-570.
García-Gallo, Alfonso: "La obra legislativa de Alfonso X. Hechos e hipótesis", en Anuario de Historia del Derecho español, Nº 54: 1984.
Iglesia Ferreiros, Aquilino: "Alfonso X el Sabio y su obra legislativa", en Anuario de Historia del Derecho español, Nº 50: 1980.- p. 531-561.
Iglesia Ferreiros, Aquilino: "Cuestiones Alfonsinas", en Anuario de Historia del Derecho español, Nº 55: 1985.- p. 95-150.
Solalinde, Antonio: "Intervención de Alfonso X en la redacción de sus obras", en Revista de Filología Española, Nº 2: 1915.- p. 283-288.
External links
Las Siete Partidas del Rey Don Alfonso X El Sabio, 1807 edition. Tomo I, II and III (PDF version).
Monograph on the Siete Partidas of Alfonso X the Wise
Legislative works of Alfonso X, the Wise
De nuevo sobre la fecha del Setenario (PDF version)
13th century in Castile
Legal history of Spain
Medieval legal codes
Old Spanish literature
Law of Spain
Alfonso X of Castile
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CT%20Transit
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CT Transit
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CT Transit (styled as CTtransit) is a public transportation bus system serving many metropolitan areas and their surrounding suburbs in state of Connecticut. CT Transit is a division of the Connecticut Department of Transportation, although it contracts a number of private companies for most of its operations. CT Transit began operations in 1976 as Connecticut Transit after the Connecticut DOT's acquisition of the Connecticut Company. Initially serving only the Hartford, New Haven, and Stamford areas, CT Transit's service now extends throughout much of Connecticut. CT Transit provides local "city bus" service in Bristol, Hartford, Meriden, New Britain, New Haven, Stamford, Wallingford and Waterbury in addition to a number of express routes connecting to outlying suburbs and other regions of the state.
In 2015, CT Transit began operation of CT Fastrak, the first bus rapid transit system in Connecticut and second in New England.
History
Background (1901-1950s)
Although private transportation has existed in Connecticut since its initial settlement, public transportation in Connecticut dates back to the 19th Century with the introduction of horse-drawn trolley lines in many towns across the state. In 1901 the Connecticut Railway and Lighting Company (CR&L) was formed to operate and extend electric powered trolley services. These operations were leased to the Consolidated Railway Company in 1906 and, a year later, merged with the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad.
In 1910, the New Haven Railroad formally sublet all of its street railway operations, including CR&L, to the Connecticut Company. By 1924, the Connecticut Company operated some 1,640-passenger cars over a network of 834 miles of track.
Although street railway services remained through much of Connecticut, as early as the 1920s underperforming street- and heavy-rail lines began to be replaced by motor coach services. The first replacement of street railways with buses in Connecticut occurred in Stamford in 1921, with the rate of replacement accelerating during the 1930s and 1940s.
In 1936, following financial setbacks during the Great Depression and being unable to maintain lease payments, the Connecticut Company was forced to divest the CR&L, representing nearly 35% of line mileage it operated prior to the divestment (152 miles of a total 438). The newly independent CR&L no longer operated any rail services, while its former lessee began eliminating street railway lines as a cost-cutting measure. Although World War II put a pause on significant service changes, it was not long after the last trolley lines were taken out of service.
Immediate predecessors (1950s-1976)
Although Connecticut's bus services were still profitable in the early-1950s, by the 1960s profitability had significantly decreased. In June 1964 the Connecticut Company was sold to transportation and insurance magnate E. Clayton Gengras for $3,225,000. It was hoped by Hartford's chamber of commerce that under Gengras the Connecticut Company could become the core of a new "mass transit district" since it was no longer affiliated with the bankrupt New Haven Railroad. Pursuant to Gengras' plan to "make some money with [the Connecticut Company]", revenues did increase significantly following his acquisition. Despite these higher revenues, even in 1964 there were concerns over the long-term viability of Hartford's bus operations in private hands. George J. Ritter, a member of the "in standby" Greater Hartford Mass Transit District (MTD/GHTD), stated that "the new Connecticut Company is no savior for mass transit in Hartford... we still have a sick company." Gengras' reduction in Connecticut Company expenses was mostly through the discontinuation of less profitable services, although there were notable layoffs, fare increases, and attempts to capitalize through a number of experimental services. Some of these experimental services included deluxe express buses with free newspapers, downtown Hartford shuttles, the Railbus, which could run both on rail and road, vacation tours, and park-and-ride commuter on-demand express bus reservations using computers ("bus by request").
These changes, notably service reductions and layoffs, created much dissatisfaction among employees, resulting in a 27-day long strike in 1965 among all Connecticut Company divisions.
Under Gengras the company first expanded in October 1967 when it acquired the Middletown area H&W Transit Company, although even this was ineffective at increasing ridership with declines in riders' perceived quality of Connecticut Company services and the reduction of its routes' frequencies. In September 1968 the Connecticut Company expanded again when it acquired the Silver Lane Bus Company of Manchester.
In August 1971 a "massive" reduction in service was planned, with all Sundays trips to be eliminated, as well as most on evenings and Saturdays. In total the cuts represented around two thirds of all evening trips from Monday to Saturday should they be implemented. The drastic nature of these cuts prompted many in state and local government to propose action. State Senator Joe Lieberman urged the consideration of the state to at least subsidize bus services, but even go so far as to assume some of their operations or operate them outright if necessary. The still "in standby" GHTD sought to gather funds from the state to acquire the Connecticut Company before any service cuts could be approved by the Connecticut Public Utilities Commission (PUC).
Although there was considerable support for GHTD to acquire the Connecticut Company, the PUC ruled that the Connecticut Company "could continue to provide service" while GHTD "could not do so". On September 4 the Connecticut Company's reduced schedules were implemented, although four Hartford routes were run with marginal daytime service on Sundays.
In September 1971, days before its reduced schedules took effect, the Connecticut Company filed a request with the PUC in an attempt to suspend all of its services in its Stamford division, as well as to increase fares in Hartford and New Haven. Neither of these requests were approved.
The first state relief for the Connecticut Company came in April 1972 when it paid for new buses, although no further subsidy was provided.
Particularly due to the 1973 strikes of the employees of the Connecticut Company and CR&L, the Connecticut Department of Transportation became more involved with bus services in Connecticut. CTDOT noted in its annual Transportation Master Plan that year that "if the present trend continues, there will be minimal local bus service by 1980" and that "the service that exists today has not been capable of attracting or persuading the automobile driver to abandon his auto ride to the bus". In the following years, CTDOT began providing more aid to Connecticut transit districts.
The CR&L surrendered its last operating transit franchises in 1973, and in June 1976 Gengras sold the three remaining divisions of the Connecticut Company (Hartford, New Haven, and Stamford) to the State of Connecticut.
Public ownership (1976-present)
When the Connecticut Department of Transportation acquired the assets of the Connecticut Company, it contracted with a private management company to operate the system. Since 1979, First Transit has operated CT Transit's three original divisions in Hartford, New Haven, and Stamford through its subsidiary HNS Management.
Although HNS Management operates the buses and operations themselves, it is CTDOT which manages matters such as procurement, routes, and planning.
Organization
CT Transit is managed by CTDOT and HNS Management is the company's largest contractor, (largely) operating the Hartford, New Haven, and Stamford divisions. However, CT Transit contracts a number of different companies and agencies with the CTDOT-led "core" providing supervision and coordination between them. In some ways CT Transit serves as a "brand" under which companies can operate their services while being part of a larger system. Because of its reliance on contractors however, CTDOT route planning can be significantly impacted by operators' decisions, and contract disputes have led to service cuts when agreements could not be reached.
Routes were first assigned letter designations in the Hartford area by the Connecticut Company in December 1964.
Divisions
CT Transit is arranged into five divisions, although some divisions serve more than one city. In addition, some divisions' services are operated by a single contractor while others are operated by multiple. Given CTDOT's supervisory role however, changes to improve consistency among the different divisions were made in the 2000s and 2010s, and today the divisions themselves have little effect beyond administration and direct operations. CT Transit's divisions are:
Hartford: Operated by Arrow, Collins, Dattco, HNS Management, Peter Pan. Inter-agency connections to Enfield, NWCTD, PVTA, RVT, WRTD.
New Britain and Bristol: Operated by HNS, New Britain Transportation, Dattco. Inter-agency connection to RVT.
New Haven: Operated by HNS Management. Inter-agency connections to GBT, Milford, Norwalk, RVT.
Stamford: Operated by HNS Management. Inter-agency connections to Bee-Line, GBT, HART, Hudson Link, Milford, Norwalk.
Waterbury, Meriden and Wallingford: Operated by Northeast Transportation Company. Interagency connections to NWCTD, RVT.
Funding
CTtransit’s annual revenue is primarily made up of fare revenue, advertising, and reimbursements for services through contracts with state agencies (primarily access to jobs). The State of Connecticut funds the operations of CTtransit in the amount of the annual operating deficit.
Services
CT Fastrak
Although originally conceived in the late-1990s, CT Fastrak opened in 2015 as the first bus rapid transit system in Connecticut and second in New England.
Express Routes
Although early attempts at deluxe commuter express buses by the Connecticut Company were a failure, the organization did begin to seriously consider regularly-operating express buses as early as 1970 with plans for an express bus from Unionville and Farmington to Hartford via I-84.
The first express routes operated by CT Transit were those inherited from the Connecticut Company which were initiated from 1972 until the company's acquisition by the Connecticut Department of Transportation (CTDOT) in 1976. The creation of the routes was prompted by the CTDOT hoping to "decrease automobile traffic into the major urban areas". The first express route operated was from Hartford to the Corbins Corner area of West Hartford, and began operation on January 17, 1972. The route was initially part of a pilot program which was extended due to promising results. 15 express routes were in operation by the time CT Transit (then Connecticut Transit) was created, with 13 operating around Hartford, and 2 operating around New Haven respectively.
CT Transit's first new express route came in 1998 with the creation of the I-Bus (now Route 971) between Stamford and White Plains, New York. Originally begun as a pilot funded by the Departments of Transportation of Connecticut and New York, the route would be added to regular service as CT Transit's only interstate express route.
Despite the introduction of the I-Bus, a number of express routes were combined or eliminated over the years following their initial introductions. Although some new routes such as the CI (Correctional Institutes) and IND (Windsor/Bloomfield Industrial) briefly existed around the turn of the millennium, the total number of express routes in 2003 was down to 12, all of which were in the Hartford area. Still intended mostly for commuters, only three routes offered any sort of mid-day service alongside that during rush hour. To meet its budget that year, schedules were constrained even further despite the reduced number of routes. Although unsuccessful, the proposed cuts also originally included eliminating express service to Unionville.
Around 2008, previously having all of its express services operated by HNS, CT Transit began contracting commuter services from other operators in Connecticut including Dattco and Peter Pan. With other operators' services, new routes extended the CT Transit system, such as to Torrington and Winsted. These new routes also provided express connections between CT Transit divisions, such as with the Hartford-New Haven Express and Waterbury Express respectively.
After the creation of CT Fastrak, some routes were altered to serve new CT Fastrak stations. Also, express service to UConn began, operated by Peter Pan, Dattco, and HNS, which was originally planned to be part of an expanded Fastrak service known as "Fastrak East"
In August 2021, due to the decreased ridership resulting from the COVID-19 Pandemic, many of CT Transit's routes were consolidated or had their service reduced, and express routes were no exception. Routes 917 (Tolland Express), 924 (Southington-Cheshire Express), 925 (Waterbury Express) were suspended, and their services were partially integrated into other routes. Beginning in August 2021, CT Transit contracted Peter Pan's services in the state of Connecticut along its Hartford-Providence route. Designated Route PPB, Peter Pan buses are used, although both Peter Pan and CT Transit fares are accepted for intrastate travel in Connecticut.
A contract dispute between the CTDOT and Dattco in late-2021 caused the Dattco-operated express routes, which were contracted by CT Transit starting in 2008, to be dropped from CT Transit. The three routes affected by the contract dispute were 921 (Middletown/Old Saybrook Express), 923 (Bristol Express), and 928 (Southington-Cheshire-Waterbury Express). Although Dattco continued operating the routes themselves in the immediate aftermath, service was significantly reduced, operating only a few times per day on each route, and in the case of the former Route 928, it was shortened from Waterbury only to Cheshire. Citing mounting costs, Dattco ended service on all three routes on February 18, 2022. After a four month gap in service, a contract agreement was reached in June. With a new contract, Route 928 resumed operation as part of CT Transit once more on June 22, and Routes 921 and 923 resumed later in August 2022.
Paratransit
CT Transit and GHTD
In 1991 the Greater Hartford Transit District (GHTD), began paratransit services through a collaboration between CT Transit and the CTDOT. The GHTD's paratransit dial-a-ride services intend to provide ADA access to areas where CT Transit's routes cannot by deviating .75 miles from existing routes and utilizing accessible vehicles. However, unlike many other paratransit services, the GHTD's operation as an accessible "alternative" to CT Transit's routes means that it mirrors where CT Transit buses already serve, at the same times the buses normally operate. GHTD's mirroring of CT Transit services has created difficulties for some riders who live in areas underserved by CT Transit bus services.
NETPS/CT Transit Paratransit
In most areas of Connecticut, CT Transit does not operate paratransit services. However, in the Meriden, Wallingford, and Waterbury areas the Northeast Transportation Company (NET), operates paratransit services under CT Transit livery. NET's service provides dial-a-ride access to residents living in specific Waterbury-area towns as well as accessible alternatives to CT Transit routes for those who within .75 miles of them. NET's paratransit is officially referred to as NETPS (Northeast Transportation Paratransit Service), synonymous with the service offered before NET became a CT Transit contractor.
Environment
In early 2012, HNS Management made a gesture to reducing their environmental impact through the installation of a PureCell stationary fuel cell system for their headquarters on Leibert Road in Hartford, Conn. The fuel cell provides 400 kilowatts (kW) of power to the 330,000 square-foot facility. Thermal energy from the fuel cell will be used to pre-heat two boilers that support the building’s primary heating system.
By generating power on-site with a fuel cell, CTtransit will prevent the release of more than 827 metric tons of carbon dioxide annually – the equivalent of planting more than 191 acres of trees. The reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions compared to a conventional power plant are equal to the environmental benefit of removing more than 102 cars from the road. In addition to the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, the PureCell system will enable CTtransit to save nearly 3.6 million gallons of water annually.
As of July 2022, CT Transit operated 12 electric buses. In July 2022, one caught fire, requiring the hospitalization of three people.
References
External links
Bus transportation in Connecticut
Organizations established in 1976
Transit agencies in Connecticut
1976 establishments in Connecticut
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell
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Hell
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In religion and folklore, hell is a location or state in the afterlife in which souls are subjected to punitive suffering, most often through torture, as eternal punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hells as eternal destinations, the biggest examples of which are Christianity and Islam, whereas religions with reincarnation usually depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations, as is the case in the Dharmic religions. Religions typically locate hell in another dimension or under Earth's surface. Other afterlife destinations include heaven, paradise, purgatory, limbo, and the underworld.
Other religions, which do not conceive of the afterlife as a place of punishment or reward, merely describe an abode of the dead, the grave, a neutral place that is located under the surface of Earth (for example, see Kur, Hades, and Sheol). Such places are sometimes equated with the English word hell, though a more correct translation would be "underworld" or "world of the dead". The ancient Mesopotamian, Greek, Roman, and Finnic religions include entrances to the underworld from the land of the living.
Overview
Etymology
The modern English word hell is derived from Old English hel, helle (first attested around 725 AD to refer to a nether world of the dead) reaching into the Anglo-Saxon pagan period. The word has cognates in all branches of the Germanic languages, including Old Norse hel (which refers to both a location and goddess-like being in Norse mythology), Old Frisian helle, Old Saxon hellia, Old High German hella, and Gothic halja. All forms ultimately derive from the reconstructed Proto-Germanic feminine noun *xaljō or *haljō ('concealed place, the underworld'). In turn, the Proto-Germanic form derives from the o-grade form of the Proto-Indo-European root *kel-, *kol-: 'to cover, conceal, save'. Indo-European cognates include Latin cēlāre ("to hide", related to the English word cellar) and early Irish ceilid ("hides"). Upon the Christianisation of the Germanic peoples, extensions of the Proto-Germanic *xaljō were reinterpreted to denote the underworld in Christian mythology (see Gehenna).
Related early Germanic terms and concepts include Proto-Germanic *xalja-rūnō(n), a feminine compound noun, and *xalja-wītjan, a neutral compound noun. This form is reconstructed from the Latinized Gothic plural noun *haliurunnae (attested by Jordanes; according to philologist Vladimir Orel, meaning 'witches'), Old English helle-rúne ('sorceress, necromancer', according to Orel), and Old High German helli-rūna 'magic'. The compound is composed of two elements: *xaljō (*haljō) and *rūnō, the Proto-Germanic precursor to Modern English rune. The second element in the Gothic haliurunnae may however instead be an agent noun from the verb rinnan ("to run, go"), which would make its literal meaning "one who travels to the netherworld".
Proto–Germanic *xalja-wītjan (or *halja-wītjan) is reconstructed from Old Norse hel-víti 'hell', Old English helle-wíte 'hell-torment, hell', Old Saxon helli-wīti 'hell', and the Middle High German feminine noun helle-wīze. The compound is a compound of *xaljō (discussed above) and *wītjan (reconstructed from forms such as Old English witt 'right mind, wits', Old Saxon gewit 'understanding', and Gothic un-witi 'foolishness, understanding').
Religion, mythology, and folklore
Hell appears in several mythologies and religions. It is commonly inhabited by demons and the souls of dead people. A fable about hell which recurs in folklore across several cultures is the allegory of the long spoons.
Punishment
Punishment in hell typically corresponds to sins committed during life. Sometimes these distinctions are specific, with damned souls suffering for each sin committed, such as in Plato's myth of Er or Dante's The Divine Comedy, but sometimes they are general, with condemned sinners relegated to one or more chamber of hell or to a level of suffering.
In many religious cultures, including Christianity and Islam, hell is often depicted as fiery, painful, and harsh, inflicting suffering on the guilty. Despite these common depictions of hell as a place of fire, some other traditions portray hell as cold. Buddhistand particularly Tibetan Buddhistdescriptions of hell feature an equal number of hot and cold hells. Among Christian descriptions Dante's Inferno portrays the innermost (9th) circle of hell as a frozen lake of blood and guilt.
But cold also played a part in earlier Christian depictions of hell or purgatory, beginning with the Apocalypse of Paul, originally from the early third century; the "Vision of Dryhthelm" by the Venerable Bede from the seventh century; "St Patrick's Purgatory", "The Vision of Tundale" or "Visio Tnugdali", and the "Vision of the Monk of Eynsham", all from the twelfth century; and the "Vision of Thurkill" from the early thirteenth century.
Polytheism
Africa
The hell of Swahili mythology is called kuzimu, and belief in it developed in the 7th and 8th century under the influence of Muslim merchants at the East African coast. It is imagined as a very cold place. Serer religion rejects the general notion of heaven and hell. In Serer religion, acceptance by the ancestors who have long departed is as close to any heaven as one can get. Rejection and becoming a wandering soul is a sort of hell for one passing over. The souls of the dead must make their way to Jaaniw (the sacred dwelling place of the soul). Only those who have lived their lives on earth in accordance with Serer doctrines will be able to make this necessary journey and thus be accepted by the ancestors. Those who cannot make the journey become lost and wandering souls, but they do not burn in "hell fire".
According to the Yoruba mythology, there is no hellfire. Wicked people (guilty of e.g. theft, witchcraft, murder, or cruelty) are confined to Orun Apaadi (heaven of potsherds), while the good people continue to live in the ancestral realm, Orun Baba Eni (heaven of our fathers).
Ancient Egypt
With the rise of the cult of Osiris during the Middle Kingdom the "democratization of religion" offered to even his humblest followers the prospect of eternal life, with moral fitness becoming the dominant factor in determining a person's suitability. At death a person faced judgment by a tribunal of forty-two divine judges. If they had led a life in conformance with the precepts of the goddess Maat, who represented truth and right living, the person was welcomed into the heavenly reed fields. If found guilty the person was thrown to Ammit, the "devourer of the dead" and would be condemned to the lake of fire. The person taken by the devourer is subject first to terrifying punishment and then annihilated. These depictions of punishment may have influenced medieval perceptions of the inferno in hell via early Christian and Coptic texts. Purification for those considered justified appears in the descriptions of "Flame Island", where humans experience the triumph over evil and rebirth. For the damned complete destruction into a state of non-being awaits but there is no suggestion of eternal torture; the weighing of the heart in Egyptian mythology can lead to annihilation. The Tale of Khaemwese describes the torment of a rich man, who lacked charity, when he dies and compares it to the blessed state of a poor man who has also died.
Divine pardon at judgment always remained a central concern for the ancient Egyptians.
Modern understanding of Egyptian notions of hell relies on six ancient texts:
The Book of Two Ways (Book of the Ways of Rosetau)
The Book of Amduat (Book of the Hidden Room, Book of That Which Is in the Underworld)
The Book of Gates
The Book of the Dead (Book of Going Forth by Day)
The Book of the Earth
The Book of Caverns
Asia
The hells of Asia include the Bagobo "Gimokodan" (which is believed to be more of an otherworld, where the Red Region is reserved who those who died in battle, while ordinary people go to the White Region) and in Dharmic religions, "Kalichi" or "Naraka".
According to a few sources, hell is below ground, and described as an uninviting wet or fiery place reserved for sinful people in the Ainu religion, as stated by missionary John Batchelor. However, belief in hell does not appear in oral tradition of the Ainu. Instead, there is belief within the Ainu religion that the soul of the deceased (ramat) would become a kamuy after death. There is also belief that the soul of someone who has been wicked during lifetime, committed suicide, got murdered or died in great agony would become a ghost (tukap) who would haunt the living, to come to fulfillment from which it was excluded during life.
In Taoism, hell is represented by Diyu.
Ancient Mesopotamia
The Sumerian afterlife was a dark, dreary cavern located deep below the ground, where inhabitants were believed to continue "a shadowy version of life on earth". This bleak domain was known as Kur, and was believed to be ruled by the goddess Ereshkigal. All souls went to the same afterlife, and a person's actions during life had no effect on how the person would be treated in the world to come.
The souls in Kur were believed to eat nothing but dry dust and family members of the deceased would ritually pour libations into the dead person's grave through a clay pipe, thereby allowing the dead to drink. Nonetheless, funerary evidence indicates that some people believed that the goddess Inanna, Ereshkigal's younger sister, had the power to award her devotees with special favors in the afterlife. During the Third Dynasty of Ur, it was believed that a person's treatment in the afterlife depended on how he or she was buried; those that had been given sumptuous burials would be treated well, but those who had been given poor burials would fare poorly.
The entrance to Kur was believed to be located in the Zagros mountains in the far east. It had seven gates, through which a soul needed to pass. The god Neti was the gatekeeper. Ereshkigal's sukkal, or messenger, was the god Namtar. Galla were a class of demons that were believed to reside in the underworld; their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur. They are frequently referenced in magical texts, and some texts describe them as being seven in number. Several extant poems describe the galla dragging the god Dumuzid into the underworld. The later Mesopotamians knew this underworld by its East Semitic name: Irkalla. During the Akkadian Period, Ereshkigal's role as the ruler of the underworld was assigned to Nergal, the god of death. The Akkadians attempted to harmonize this dual rulership of the underworld by making Nergal Ereshkigal's husband.
Europe
The hells of Europe include Breton mythology's "Anaon", Celtic mythology's "Uffern", Slavic mythology's "Peklo", Norse mythology's Náströnd, the hell of Sami mythology and Finnish "Tuonela" ("manala").
Ancient Greece and Rome
In classic Greek mythology, below heaven, Earth, and Pontus is Tartarus, or Tartaros (). It is either a deep, gloomy place, a pit or abyss used as a dungeon of torment and suffering that resides within Hades (the entire underworld) with Tartarus being the hellish component. In the Gorgias, Plato (c. 400 BC) wrote that souls of the deceased were judged after they paid for crossing the river of the dead and those who received punishment were sent to Tartarus. As a place of punishment, it can be considered a hell. The classic Hades, on the other hand, is more similar to Old Testament Sheol. The Romans later adopted these views.
Abrahamic religions
Hell is conceived of in most Abrahamic religions as a place of, or a form of, punishment.
Judaism
Judaism does not have a specific doctrine about the afterlife, but it does have a mystical/Orthodox tradition of describing Gehinnom. Gehinnom is not hell, but originally a grave and in later times a sort of Purgatory where one is judged based on one's life's deeds, or rather, where one becomes fully aware of one's own shortcomings and negative actions during one's life. The Kabbalah explains it as a "waiting room" (commonly translated as an "entry way") for all souls (not just the wicked). The overwhelming majority of rabbinic thought maintains that people are not in Gehinnom forever; the longest that one can be there is said to be 12 months, however, there has been the occasional noted exception. Some consider it a spiritual forge where the soul is purified for its eventual ascent to Olam Habah (heb. עולם הבא; lit. "The world to come", often viewed as analogous to heaven). This is also mentioned in the Kabbalah, where the soul is described as breaking, like the flame of a candle lighting another: the part of the soul that ascends being pure and the "unfinished" piece being reborn.
According to Jewish teachings, hell is not entirely physical; rather, it can be compared to a very intense feeling of shame. People are ashamed of their misdeeds and this constitutes suffering which makes up for the bad deeds. When one has so deviated from the will of God, one is said to be in Gehinnom. This is not meant to refer to some point in the future, but to the very present moment. The gates of teshuva (return) are said to be always open, and so one can align his will with that of God at any moment. Being out of alignment with God's will is itself a punishment according to the Torah.
Many scholars of Jewish mysticism, particularly of the Kabbalah, describe seven "compartments" or "habitations" of hell, just as they describe seven divisions of heaven. These divisions go by many different names, and the most frequently mentioned are as follows:
Sheol (Hebrew: שְׁאוֹל – "underworld", "Hades"; "grave")
Abaddon (Hebrew: אֲבַדּוֹן – "doom", "perdition")
Be'er Shachat (Hebrew: בְּאֵר שַׁחַת, Be'er Shachath – "pit of corruption")
Tit ha-Yaven (Hebrew: טִיט הַיָוֵן – "clinging mud")
Sha'are Mavet (Hebrew: שַׁעֲרֵי מָוֶת, Sha'arei Maveth – "gates of death")
Tzalmavet (Hebrew: צַלמָוֶת, Tsalmaveth – "shadow of death")
Gehinnom (Hebrew: גֵיהִנוֹם, Gehinnom – "valley of Hinnom"; "Tartarus", "Purgatory")
Besides those mentioned above, there also exist additional terms that have been often used to either refer to hell in general or to some region of the underworld:
Azazel (Hebrew: עֲזָאזֵל, compd. of ez עֵז: "goat" + azal אָזַל: "to go away" – "goat of departure", "scapegoat"; "entire removal", "damnation")
Dudael (Hebrew: דּוּדָאֵל – lit. "cauldron of God")
Tehom (Hebrew: תְהוֹם – "abyss"; "sea", "deep ocean")
Tophet (Hebrew: תֹּפֶת or תוֹפֶת, Topheth – "fire-place", "place of burning", "place to be spit upon"; "inferno")
Tzoah Rotachat (Hebrew: צוֹאָה רוֹתֵחַת, Tsoah Rothachath – "boiling excrement")
Mashchit (Hebrew: מַשְׁחִית, Mashchith – "destruction", "ruin")
Dumah (Hebrew: דוּמָה – "silence")
Neshiyyah (Hebrew: נְשִׁיָּה – "oblivion", "Limbo")
Bor Shaon (Hebrew: בּוֹר שָׁאוֹן – "cistern of sound")
Eretz Tachtit (Hebrew: אֶרֶץ תַּחְתִּית, Erets Tachtith – "lowest earth").
Masak Mavdil (Hebrew: מָסָך מַבְדִּ֔יל, Masak Mabdil – "dividing curtain")
Haguel (Ethiopic: ሀጉለ – "(place of) destruction", "loss", "waste")
Ikisat (Ethiopic: አክይስት – "serpents", "dragons"; "place of future punishment")
For more information, see Qliphoth.
Maimonides declares in his 13 principles of faith that the hells of the rabbinic literature were pedagogically motivated inventions to encourage respect of the Torah commandments by mankind, which had been regarded as immature. Instead of being sent to hell, the souls of the wicked would actually get annihilated.
In Judaism around the time of Jesus, almost all practitioners believed that their descent from Abraham automatically stopped them from going to hell. However, to earn this, a majority of Jews "acknowledge[d] their sinfulness and confess[ed] their sins."
Christianity
The Christian doctrine of hell derives from passages in the New Testament. The English word hell obviously does not appear in the Greek New Testament; instead one of three words is used: the Greek words Tartarus or Hades, or the Hebrew word Gehinnom.
In the Septuagint and New Testament, the authors used the Greek term Hades for the Hebrew Sheol, but often with Jewish rather than Greek concepts in mind. In the Jewish concept of Sheol, such as expressed in Ecclesiastes, Sheol or Hades is a place where there is no activity. However, since Augustine, some Christians have believed that the souls of those who die either rest peacefully, in the case of Christians, or are afflicted, in the case of the damned, after death until the resurrection.
While these three terms are translated in the KJV as "hell" they have three very different meanings.
Hades has similarities to the Old Testament term, Sheol as "the place of the dead" or "grave". Thus, it is used in reference to both the righteous and the wicked, since both wind up there eventually.
Gehenna refers to the "Valley of Hinnom", which was a garbage dump outside of Jerusalem. It was a place where people burned their garbage and thus there was always a fire burning there. Bodies of those deemed to have died in sin without hope of salvation (such as people who committed suicide) were thrown there to be destroyed. Gehenna is used in the New Testament as a metaphor for the final place of punishment for the wicked after the resurrection.
Tartaróō (the verb "throw to Tartarus", used of the fall of the Titans in a scholium on Illiad 14.296) occurs only once in the New Testament in II Peter 2:4, where it is parallel to the use of the noun form in 1 Enoch as the place of incarceration of the fallen angels. It mentions nothing about human souls being sent there in the afterlife.
According to the Roman Catholic Church, the Council of Trent taught, in the 5th canon of its 14th session, that damnation is eternal: "...the loss of eternal blessedness, and the eternal damnation which he has incurred..."
The Catholic Church defines hell as "a state of definitive self-exclusion from communion with God and the blessed". One finds oneself in hell as the result of dying in mortal sin without repenting and accepting God's merciful love, becoming eternally separated from him by one's own free choice immediately after death. In the Roman Catholic Church, many other Christian churches, such as the Methodists, Baptists and Episcopalians, and some Greek Orthodox churches, hell is taught as the final destiny of those who have not been found worthy after the general resurrection and last judgment, where they will be eternally punished for sin and permanently separated from God. The nature of this judgment is inconsistent with many Protestant churches teaching the saving comes from accepting Jesus Christ as their savior, while the Greek Orthodox and Catholic Churches teach that the judgment hinges on both faith and works. However, many Liberal Christians throughout Mainline Protestant churches believe in universal reconciliation (see below), even though it contradicts the traditional doctrines that are usually held by the evangelicals within their denominations. Regarding the belief in hell, the interpretation of Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus is also relevant.
Some modern Christian theologians subscribe to the doctrines of conditional immortality. Conditional immortality is the belief that the soul dies with the body and does not live again until the resurrection. As with other Jewish writings of the Second Temple period, the New Testament text distinguishes two words, both translated "hell" in older English Bibles: Hades, "the grave", and Gehenna where God "can destroy both body and soul". A minority of Christians read this to mean that neither Hades nor Gehenna are eternal but refer to the ultimate destruction of the wicked in the Lake of Fire in a consuming fire after resurrection. However, because of the Greek words used in translating from the Hebrew text, the Hebrew ideas have become confused with Greek myths and ideas. In the Hebrew text when people died they went to Sheol, the grave and the wicked ultimately went to Gehenna and were consumed by fire. The Hebrew words for "the grave" or "death" or "eventual destruction of the wicked", were translated using Greek words and later texts became a mix of mistranslation, pagan influence, and Greek myth.
Christian mortalism is the doctrine that all men and women, including Christians, must die, and do not continue and are not conscious after death. Therefore, annihilationism includes the doctrine that "the wicked" are also destroyed rather than tormented forever in traditional "hell" or the lake of fire. Christian mortalism and annihilationism are directly related to the doctrine of conditional immortality, the idea that a human soul is not immortal unless it is given eternal life at the second coming of Christ and resurrection of the dead.
Biblical scholars looking at the issue through the Hebrew text have denied the teaching of innate immortality. Rejection of the immortality of the soul, and advocacy of Christian mortalism, was a feature of Protestantism since the early days of the Reformation with Martin Luther himself rejecting the traditional idea, though his mortalism did not carry into orthodox Lutheranism. One of the most notable English opponents of the immortality of the soul was Thomas Hobbes who describes the idea as a Greek "contagion" in Christian doctrine. Modern proponents of conditional immortality include some in the Anglican church such as N. T. Wright and as denominations the Seventh-day Adventists, Bible Students, Jehovah's Witnesses, Christadelphians, Living Church of God, The Church of God International, and some other Protestant Christians. The Catholic Caechism states "The souls of sinners descend into hell, where they suffer 'eternal fire. However, Cardinal Vincent Nichols, the most senior Catholic in England and Wales, said "there's nowhere in Catholic teaching that actually says any one person is in hell". The 1993 Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "This state of definitive self-exclusion from communion with God and the blessed is called 'hell and "they suffer the punishments of hell, 'eternal fire. The chief punishment of hell is eternal separation from God" (CCC 1035). During an Audience in 1999, Pope John Paul II commented: "images of hell that Sacred Scripture presents to us must be correctly interpreted. They show the complete frustration and emptiness of life without God. Rather than a place, hell indicates the state of those who freely and definitively separate themselves from God, the source of all life and joy."
Other denominations
The Seventh-day Adventist Church's official beliefs support annihilationism. They deny the Catholic purgatory and teach that the dead lie in the grave until they are raised for a last judgment, both the righteous and wicked await the resurrection at the Second Coming. Seventh-day Adventists believe that death is a state of unconscious sleep until the resurrection. They base this belief on biblical texts such as which states "the dead know nothing", and which contains a description of the dead being raised from the grave at the second coming. These verses, it is argued, indicate that death is only a period or form of slumber.
Adventists teach that the resurrection of the righteous will take place shortly after the second coming of Jesus, as described in Revelation 20:4–6 that follows Revelation 19:11–16, whereas the resurrection of the wicked will occur after the millennium, as described in Revelation 20:5 and 20:12–13 that follow Revelation 20:4 and 6–7, though Revelation 20:12–13 and 15 actually describe a mixture of saved and condemned people being raised from the dead and judged. Adventists reject the traditional doctrine of hell as a state of everlasting conscious torment, believing instead that the wicked will be permanently destroyed after the millennium by the lake of fire, which is called 'the second death' in Revelation 20:14.
Those Adventist doctrines about death and hell reflect an underlying belief in: (a) conditional immortality (or conditionalism), as opposed to the immortality of the soul; and (b) the monistic nature of human beings, in which the soul is not separable from the body, as opposed to bipartite or tripartite conceptions, in which the soul is separable.
Jehovah's Witnesses hold that the soul ceases to exist when the person dies and therefore that hell (Sheol or Hades) is a state of non-existence. In their theology, Gehenna differs from Sheol or Hades in that it holds no hope of a resurrection. Tartarus is held to be the metaphorical state of debasement of the fallen angels between the time of their moral fall (Genesis chapter 6) until their post-millennial destruction along with Satan (Revelation chapter 20).
Bible Students and Christadelphians also believe in annihilationism.
Christian Universalists believe in universal reconciliation, the belief that all human souls will be eventually reconciled with God and admitted to heaven. This belief is held by some Unitarian-Universalists.
According to Emanuel Swedenborg's Second Coming Christian revelation, hell exists because evil people want it. They, not God, introduced evil to the human race. In Swedenborgianism, every soul joins the like-minded group after death in which it feels the most comfortable. Hell is therefore believed to be a place of happiness for the souls which delight in evilness.
Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) teach that hell is a state between death and resurrection, in which those spirits who did not repent while on earth must suffer for their own sins (Doctrine and Covenants 19:15–17). After that, only the Sons of perdition, who committed the Eternal sin, would be cast into Outer darkness. However, according to Mormon faith, committing the Eternal sin requires so much knowledge that most persons cannot do this. Satan and Cain are counted as examples of Sons of perdition.
Islam
In Islam, jahannam (in Arabic: جهنم) (related to the Hebrew word gehinnom) is the counterpart to heaven and likewise divided into seven layers, both co-existing with the temporal world, filled with blazing fire, boiling water, and a variety of other torments for those who have been condemned to it in the hereafter. In the Quran, God declares that the fire of Jahannam is prepared for both mankind and jinn. After the Day of Judgment, it is to be occupied by those who do not believe in God, those who have disobeyed his laws, or rejected his messengers. "Enemies of Islam" are sent to hell immediately upon their deaths. Muslim modernists downplay the vivid descriptions of hell common during Classical period, on one hand reaffirming that the afterlife must not be denied, but simultaneously asserting its exact nature remains unknown. Other modern Muslims continue the line of Sufism as an interiorized hell, combining the eschatological thoughts of Ibn Arabi and Rumi with Western philosophy. Although disputed by some scholars, most scholars consider jahannam to be eternal. There is belief that the fire which represents the own bad deeds can already be seen during the Punishment of the Grave, and that the spiritual pain caused by this can lead to purification of the soul. Not all Muslims and scholars agree whether hell is an eternal destination or whether some or all of the condemned will eventually be forgiven and allowed to enter paradise.
Over hell, a narrow bridge called As-Sirāt is spanned. On Judgment Day one must pass over it to reach paradise, but those destined for hell will find too narrow and fall into their new abode. Iblis, the temporary ruler of hell, is thought of residing in the bottom of hell, from where he commands his hosts of infernal demons. But contrary to Christian traditions, Iblis and his infernal hosts do not wage war against God, his enmity applies against humanity only. Further, his dominion in hell is also his punishment. Executioners of punishment are the 19 zabaniyya, who have been created from the fires of hell. Muhammad said that the fire of Jahannam is 70 times hotter than ordinary fire, and is much more painful than ordinary fire.
Seven stages of punishment
The seven gates of jahannam, mentioned in the Quran, inspired Muslim exegetes (tafsir) to develop a system of seven stages of hell, analogue to the seven doors of paradise. The stages of hell get their names by seven different terms used for hell throughout the Quran. Each is assigned for a different type of sinners. The concept later accepted by Sunni authorities list the levels of hell as follows, although some stages may vary:
Jahannam (جهنم Gehenna)
Laza (لظى fierce blaze)
Hutama (حطم crushing fire)
Sa'ir (سعير raging fire)
Saqar (سقر scorching fire)
Jahim (جحيم furnace)
Hawiya (هاوية infernal abyss)
The highest level (jahannam) is traditionally thought of as a type of purgatory reserved for Muslims. Polytheism (shirk) is regarded as a particularly grievous sin; therefore entering Paradise is forbidden to a polytheist (mushrik) because his place is hell; and the second lowest level (jahim) only after the bottomless pit for the hypocrites (hawiyah), who claimed aloud to believe in God and his messenger but in their hearts did not.
Gatekeepers
Sukha'il (صوخائيل) of Jahannam
Tufa'il (طوفائيل) of Laza
Tafta'il (طفطائيل) of Sa’ir
Susbabil (صوصَابيل) of Saqar
Tarfatil (طرفاطيل) of Jahim
Istafatabil (اصطافاطابيل) of Haviya
In the heavens
Although the earliest reports about Muhammad's journey through the heavens, do not locate hell in the heavens, only brief references about visiting hell during the journey appears. But extensive accounts about Muhammad's night journey, in the non-canonical but popular Miraj-Literature, tell about encountering the angels of hell. Maalik, the keeper to the gates of hell, namely appears in Ibn Abbas' Isra and Mi'raj. The doors to hell are either in the third or fifth heaven, or (although only implicitly) in a heaven close God's throne, or directly after entering heaven, whereupon Muhammad requests a glaze at hell. Ibn Hisham gives extensive details about Muhammad visiting hell and its inhabitants punished wherein, but can only endure watching the punishments of the first layer of hell. Muhammad meeting Malik, the Dajjal and hell, was used as a proof for Muhammad's Night Journey.
Beneath the earth
Medieval sources often identified hell with the seven earths mentioned in Quran 65:12, inhabited by devils, harsh angels, scorpions and serpents, who torment the sinners. They described thorny shrubs, seas filled with blood and fire and darkness only illuminated by the flames of hell. One popular concept arrange the earths as follows:
Adim or Ramaka (رمکا) - the surface, on which human, animals and jinn live on.
Basit or Khawfa (خوفا)
Thaqil or ‘Arafa (عرفه) - anthechamber
Batih or Hadna (حدنه) - a valley with stream of boiling sulphur.
Hayn or Dama (دمَا)
Sijjin, (سجىن dungeon or prison) or Masika (sometimes, Sijjin is at the bottom) - Quran 83:7
Nar as-Samum, Zamhareer or As-Saqar / Athara, or Hanina (حنينا) - venomous wind of fire and a cold wind of ice.
Baháʼí Faith
In the Baháʼí Faith, the conventional descriptions of hell and heaven are considered to be symbolic representations of spiritual conditions. The Baháʼí writings describe closeness to God to be heaven, and conversely, remoteness from God as hell. The Baháʼí writings state that the soul is immortal and after death it will continue to progress until it finally attains God's presence.
Eastern religions
Buddhism
In "Devaduta Sutta", the 130th discourse of the Majjhima Nikaya, Buddha teaches about hell in vivid detail. Buddhism teaches that there are five or six realms of rebirth, which can then be further subdivided into degrees of agony or pleasure.) Of these realms, the hell realms, or Naraka, is the lowest realm of rebirth. Of the hell realms, the worst is Avīci (Sanskrit and Pali for "without waves"). The Buddha's disciple, Devadatta, who tried to kill the Buddha on three occasions, as well as create a schism in the monastic order, is said to have been reborn in the Avici hell.
Like all realms of rebirth in Buddhism, rebirth in the hell realms is not permanent, though suffering can persist for eons before being reborn again. In the Lotus Sutra, the Buddha teaches that eventually even Devadatta will become a Pratyekabuddha himself, emphasizing the temporary nature of the hell realms. Thus, Buddhism teaches to escape the endless migration of rebirths (both positive and negative) through the attainment of Nirvana.
The Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha, according to the Ksitigarbha Sutra, made a great vow as a young girl to not reach Nirvana until all beings were liberated from the hell realms or other unwholesome rebirths. In popular literature, Ksitigarbha travels to the hell realms to teach and relieve beings of their suffering.
Hinduism
Early Vedic religion does not have a concept of hell. The Rigveda mentions three realms, bhūr (the earth), svar (the sky) and bhuvas or antarikṣa (the middle area, i.e. air or atmosphere). In later Hindu literature, especially the law books and the Puranas, more realms are mentioned, including a realm similar to hell, called Naraka. Yama as the first born human (together with his twin sister Yamī), by virtue of precedence, becomes ruler of men and a judge on their departure.
In the law-books (the Smritis and the Dharmashashtras), Naraka is a place of punishment for misdeeds. It is a lower spiritual plane (called naraka-loka) where the spirit is judged and the partial fruits of karma affect the next life. In the Mahabharata, there is a mention of the Pandavas and the Kauravas both going to heaven. At first Yudhishthira goes to heaven, where he sees Duryodhana enjoying the realm; Indra tells him that Duryodhana is in heaven as he had adequately performed his Kshatriya duties. Then he shows Yudhishthira hell, where it appears his brothers are. Later it is revealed that this was a test for Yudhishthira and that his brothers and the Kauravas are all in heaven, and live happily in the divine abode of the devas. Various hells are also described in various Puranas and other scriptures. The Garuda Purana gives a detailed account of each hell and its features; it lists the amount of punishment for most crimes, much like a modern-day penal code.
It is believed that people who commit misdeeds go to hell and have to go through punishments in accordance with the misdeeds they committed. The god Yama, who is also the god of death, presides over hell. Detailed accounts of all the misdeeds committed by an individual are kept by Chitragupta, who is the record keeper in Yama's court. Chitragupta reads out the misdeeds committed and Yama orders appropriate punishments to be given to individuals. These punishments include dipping in boiling oil, burning in fire, torture using various weapons, etc. in various hells. Individuals who finish their quota of the punishments are reborn in accordance with their balance of karma. All created beings are imperfect and thus have at least one misdeed to their record; but if one has generally led a meritorious life, one ascends to Svarga, a temporary realm of enjoyment similar to Paradise, after a brief period of expiation in hell and before the next reincarnation, according to the law of karma. With the exception of Hindu philosopher Madhva, time in hell is not regarded as eternal damnation within Hinduism.
According to Brahma Kumaris, the Iron Age (Kali Yuga) is regarded as hell.
Jainism
In Jain cosmology, Naraka (translated as hell) is the name given to realm of existence having great suffering. However, a Naraka differs from the hells of Abrahamic religions as souls are not sent to Naraka as the result of a divine judgment and punishment. Furthermore, length of a being's stay in a Naraka is not eternal, though it is usually very long and measured in billions of years. A soul is born into a Naraka as a direct result of his or her previous karma (actions of body, speech and mind), and resides there for a finite length of time until his karma has achieved its full result. After his karma is used up, he may be reborn in one of the higher worlds as the result of an earlier karma that had not yet ripened.
The hells are situated in the seven grounds at the lower part of the universe. The seven grounds are:
Ratna prabha
Sharkara prabha
Valuka prabha
Panka prabha
Dhuma prabha
Tamaha prabha
Mahatamaha prabha
The hellish beings are a type of souls which are residing in these various hells. They are born in hells by sudden manifestation. The hellish beings possess vaikriya body (protean body which can transform itself and take various forms). They have a fixed life span (ranging from ten thousand to billions of years) in the respective hells where they reside. According to Jain scripture, Tattvarthasutra, following are the causes for birth in hell:
Killing or causing pain with intense passion
Excessive attachment to things and worldly pleasure with constantly indulging in cruel and violent acts
Vowless and unrestrained life
Meivazhi
According to Meivazhi, the purpose of all religions is to guide people to heaven. However, those who do not approach God and are not blessed by Him are believed to be condemned to hell.
Sikhism
In Sikh thought, heaven and hell are not places for living hereafter, they are part of spiritual topography of man and do not exist otherwise. They refer to good and evil stages of life respectively and can be lived now and here during our earthly existence. For example, Guru Arjan explains that people who are entangled in emotional attachment and doubt are living in hell on this Earth i.e. their life is hellish.
Taoism
Ancient Taoism had no concept of hell, as morality was seen to be a man-made distinction and there was no concept of an immaterial soul. In its home country China, where Taoism adopted tenets of other religions, popular belief endows Taoist hell with many deities and spirits who punish sin in a variety of horrible ways.
Buddhist hells became "so much a part of [many Daoist sects] that during funeral services[,] the priests hang up scrolls depicting" similar scenes. Typically, Daoist hells are "said to be ten in number" and "are sometimes said to be situated under a high mountain in Sichuan". "Each is ruled by a king serving as judge, surrounded by ministers and attendants who carry out his decisions." Punishment is usually "inflicted with the use of torture instruments", although there are some non-physical and more metaphysical punishments. However, this type of Daoist hell is usually not final and a soul will make a journey of refining by going through at least several hells and their punishments until it is reincarnated into another body in the human world.
Chinese folk beliefs
Diyu is the realm of the dead in Chinese mythology. It is very loosely based upon the Buddhist concept of Naraka combined with traditional Chinese afterlife beliefs and a variety of popular expansions and re-interpretations of these two traditions. Ruled by Yanluo Wang, the King of hell, Diyu is a maze of underground levels and chambers where souls are taken to atone for their earthly sins.
Incorporating ideas from Taoism and Buddhism as well as traditional Chinese folk religion, Diyu is a kind of purgatory place which serves not only to punish but also to renew spirits ready for their next incarnation. There are many deities associated with the place, whose names and purposes are the subject of much conflicting information.
The exact number of levels in Chinese hell – and their associated deities – differs according to the Buddhist or Taoist perception. Some speak of three to four 'Courts', other as many as ten. The ten judges are also known as the 10 Kings of Yama. Each Court deals with a different aspect of atonement. For example, murder is punished in one Court, adultery in another. According to some Chinese legends, there are eighteen levels in hell. Punishment also varies according to belief, but most legends speak of highly imaginative chambers where wrong-doers are sawn in half, beheaded, thrown into pits of filth or forced to climb trees adorned with sharp blades.
However, most legends agree that once a soul (usually referred to as a 'ghost') has atoned for their deeds and repented, he or she is given the Drink of Forgetfulness by Meng Po and sent back into the world to be reborn, possibly as an animal or a poor or sick person, for further punishment.
Other religions
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism has historically suggested several possible fates for the wicked, including annihilation, purgation in molten metal, and eternal punishment, all of which have standing in Zoroaster's writings. Zoroastrian eschatology includes the belief that wicked souls will remain in Duzakh until, following the arrival of three saviors at thousand-year intervals, Ahura Mazda reconciles the world, destroying evil and resurrecting tormented souls to perfection.
The sacred Gathas mention a "House of the Lie″ for those "that are of an evil dominion, of evil deeds, evil words, evil Self, and evil thought, Liars". However, the best-known Zoroastrian text to describe hell in detail is the Book of Arda Viraf. It depicts particular punishments for particular sins—for instance, being trampled by cattle as punishment for neglecting the needs of work animals. Other descriptions can be found in the Book of Scriptures (Hadhokht Nask), Religious Judgments (Dadestan-i Denig) and the Book of the Judgments of the Spirit of Wisdom (Mainyo-I-Khard).
Mandaeism
The Mandaeans believe in purification of souls inside of Leviathan, whom they also call Ur. Within detention houses, so called Matartas, the detained souls would receive so much punishment that they would wish to die a Second death, which would, however, not (yet) befall their spirit. At the end of days, the souls of the Mandaeans which could be purified, would be liberated out of Ur's mouth. After this, Ur would get destroyed along with the souls remaining inside him, so they die the second death.
Wicca
The Gardnerian Wicca and Alexandrian Wicca sects of Wicca include "wiccan laws" that Gerald Gardner wrote, which state that wiccan souls are privileged with reincarnation, but that the souls of wiccans who break the wiccan laws, "even under torture", would be cursed by the goddess, never be reborn on earth, and "remain where they belong, in the Hell of the Christians". Other recognized wiccan sects do not include Gerald Gardner's "wiccan laws". The influential wiccan author Raymond Buckland wrote that the wiccan laws are unimportant. Solitary wiccans, not involved in organized sects, do not include the wiccan laws in their doctrine.
In literature
In his Divina commedia (Divine Comedy), set in the year 1300, Dante Alighieri employed the concept of taking Virgil as his guide through Inferno (and then, in the second canticle, up the mountain of Purgatorio). Virgil himself is not condemned to hell proper in Dante's poem but is rather, as a virtuous pagan, confined to Limbo just at the edge of hell. The geography of hell is very elaborately laid out in this work, with nine concentric rings leading deeper into Earth, and deeper into the various punishments of hell, until, at the center of the world, Dante finds Satan himself trapped in the frozen lake of Cocytus. A small tunnel leads past Satan and out to the other side of the world, at the base of the Mount of Purgatory.
John Milton's Paradise Lost (1667) opens with the fallen angels, including their leader Satan, waking up in hell after having been defeated in the war in heaven and the action returns there at several points throughout the poem. Milton portrays hell as the abode of the demons, and the passive prison from which they plot their revenge upon heaven through the corruption of the human race. 19th-century French poet Arthur Rimbaud alluded to the concept as well in the title and themes of one of his major works, A Season in Hell (1873). Rimbaud's poetry portrays his own suffering in a poetic form as well as other themes.
Many of the great epics of European literature include episodes that occur in hell. In the Roman poet Virgil's Latin epic, the Aeneid, Aeneas descends into Dis (the underworld) to visit his father's spirit. The underworld is only vaguely described, with one unexplored path leading to the punishments of Tartarus, while the other leads through Erebus and the Elysian Fields.
The idea of hell was highly influential to writers such as Jean-Paul Sartre who authored the 1944 play No Exit about the idea that "Hell is other people". Although not a religious man, Sartre was fascinated by his interpretation of a hellish state of suffering. C.S. Lewis's The Great Divorce (1945) borrows its title from William Blake's Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1793) and its inspiration from the Divine Comedy as the narrator is likewise guided through hell and heaven. Hell is portrayed here as an endless, desolate twilight city upon which night is imperceptibly sinking. The night is actually the Apocalypse, and it heralds the arrival of the demons after their judgment. Before the night comes, anyone can escape hell if they leave behind their former selves and accept Heaven's offer, and a journey to heaven reveals that hell is infinitely small; it is nothing more or less than what happens to a soul that turns away from God and into itself.
In popular culture
Piers Anthony in his series Incarnations of Immortality portrays examples of heaven and hell via Death, Fate, Underworld, Nature, War, Time, Good-God, and Evil-Devil. Robert A. Heinlein offers a yin-yang version of hell where there is still some good within; most evident in his 1984 book Job: A Comedy of Justice. Lois McMaster Bujold uses her five Gods 'Father, Mother, Son, Daughter and Bastard' in The Curse of Chalion with an example of hell as formless chaos. Michael Moorcock is one of many who offer Chaos-Evil-(Hell) and Uniformity-Good-(Heaven) as equally unacceptable extremes which must be held in balance; in particular in the Elric and Eternal Champion series. Fredric Brown wrote a number of fantasy short stories about Satan's activities in hell. Cartoonist Jimmy Hatlo created a series of cartoons about life in hell called The Hatlo Inferno, which ran from 1953 to 1958.
See also
Appeal to fear
Damnation
Divine retribution
Harrowing of Hell
Problem of Hell
The Well to Hell hoax
References
Further reading
Boston, Thomas. Hell. Diggory Press,
Bunyan, John. A Few Sighs from Hell (Or The Groans of the Damned Soul). Diggory Press,
Edwards, Jonathan. The Justice of God in the Damnation of Sinners. Diggory Press,
Gardiner, Eileen. Visions of Heaven and Hell before Dante. New York: Italica Press, 1989.
External links
A cultural history of Hell in The Fortnightly Review
Atheist Foundation of Australia – 666 words about hell.
The Jehovah's Witnesses perspective
Dying, Yamaraja and Yamadutas + terminal restlessness
example Buddhist Hells
Swedenborg, E. Heaven and its Wonders and Hell. From Things Heard and Seen (Swedenborg Foundation, 1946)
Maps of hell at the "Hell and Heaven" subject, the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library
Collection: Heaven, Hell, and Afterlives from the University of Michigan Museum of Art
Religious cosmologies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1955 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1955 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 23rd 24 Hours of Le Mans and took place on 11 and 12 June 1955 on Circuit de la Sarthe. It was also the fourth round of the F.I.A. World Sports Car Championship. During the race, Pierre Levegh crashed into a crowd of spectators, killing 84 (including himself) and injuring 120 in the deadliest accident in motor racing history.
Regulations
The Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) again lifted the replenishment window (just changed the year before) of fuel, oil and water from 30 to 32 laps (just over 430 km), but by the same token, the maximum fuel allowance for all cars was increased to 200 litres for the race.
On the track, road improvements continued with the whole back section, from Tertre Rouge around to Maison Blanche, resurfaced.
Entries
A total of 87 racing cars were registered for this event, of which 70 arrived for practice, to qualify for the 60 places on the starting grid, and included 15 factory teams.
The battle between Coventry and Maranello of the previous year was joined by Mercedes-Benz, fresh from a triumphant debut in the Mille Miglia with their new 300SLR, along with dark horses Cunningham, Aston Martin and Maserati, all with new 3-litre cars, as well as Talbot, Gordini, Cooper, and Austin-Healey. It led observers to anticipate a great contest.
Title-holders Ferrari arrived with the new 735 LM, powered by a straight-six engine derived from the previous year's Formula 1 car (and stepping away from the usual 12-cylinder Ferrari engines) producing a . The works team mixed its current F1 drivers along with new talent: Eugenio Castellotti with Paolo Marzotto, Maurice Trintignant with Harry Schell and Umberto Maglioli drove with Phil Hill. Maglioli and Hill had been Ferrari rivals in the previous Carrera Panamericana. There were also two 3-litre 750 Monzas run by French private entries.
Having conquered Formula 1, Mercedes-Benz had now turned its attention to sports car racing. Their 300SLRs were rated by many experts as the best sports cars in the world. The fuel-injected 3-litre straight-8 was the most advanced of the entire field, producing . The inboard drum brakes, however, were only questionably adequate for the heavier chassis, facing the tough braking demands of Le Mans. To compensate, a hand-operated air brake was added to the rear deck for high speed braking. Team manager Alfred Neubauer, in a remarkably diplomatic move (recalling the war had only ended 10 years earlier), assembled a multi-national team for the race, pairing his two best drivers Juan Manuel Fangio and Stirling Moss in the lead car, 1952 race-winner Karl Kling with Frenchman André Simon (both also in the current F1 team) and American John Fitch with one of the elder statesmen of French motor-racing, Pierre Levegh. (Belgian racing-journalist Paul Frère had originally been approached but signed to drive for Aston Martin, instead.)
Jaguar arrived with three works D-types. This year's model had engine power increased from , for a top speed of almost . The team consisted of 1953 winners Tony Rolt and Duncan Hamilton; up-and-coming English star Mike Hawthorn (stolen from Ferrari) paired with rookie Ivor Bueb; and Jaguar test driver Norman Dewis sharing the third car with Don Beauman. They were backed up by D-Types entered by Belgium's Ecurie Francorchamps and from American Briggs Cunningham's team.
Cunningham hedged his bets this year – along with the Jaguar he loaned 750 Monzas to French privateer Michel Pobejersky (racing as "Mike Sparken") and American Masten Gregory. He also brought (for the last time, as it happened) a new Cunningham C6-R, giving up on a big V8 Hemi to instead use an Indianapolis-style Offenhauser 3.0L straight-4. He and Sherwood Johnston would race it.
The Maserati team did make it this year – with a pair of their elegant new 3.0L 300Ss, which had already shown promise at Sebring. They were run by the team's regular F1 drivers, one shared by Roberto Mieres and Cesare Perdisa, the other by Luigi Musso and endurance racing veteran Luigi "Gino" Valenzano. Maserati also ran a smaller A6GCS in the S-2000 class.
Louis Rosier's privateer Talbot did not make the start, so the large-engined French challenge this year came from Gordini with a 3-litre T24S for F1 drivers Jean Behra and Élie Bayol. Like Maserati, they also ran a smaller T20S in the S-2000 class.
There was great interest for British fans, aside from the Jaguar team. In total there were 27 British cars starting, nearly half the field. Aston Martin pared back its effort a bit, to just three DB3S (now with disc brakes and an improved 3-litre engine). They came with a good driver line-up: Peter Collins and Paul Frère, 1951 winner Peter Walker and Roy Salvadori, and rookies Tony Brooks and John Riseley-Prichard. They also persisted with the Lagonda project – the 4.5L V12 being biggest engine in the field. This year Reg Parnell was co-driven by Dennis Poore.
After boycotting the previous year's race, Austin-Healey returned with a single 100S prototype. Cooper brought two cars – one a Jaguar-engined T38, the other, a T39, with a Climax engine. In the S-2000 class, along with a pair each of Triumph TR2s and Frazer Nash Sebrings, Bristol was back, this time with its 450C open-top variant. To save pit-time, the team also pioneered a multi-barrel spanner to remove and re-apply all the wheelnuts together when changing the wheel. MG returned after 20 years with the EX.182 prototype – a 1.5L forerunner of the upcoming MGA roadster. Colin Chapman, racing with Scotsman Ron Flockhart arrived with his new Lotus 9 sports car – like the other small English firms Kieft, Cooper and Arnott, running the 1100cc Climax engine.
After a fortuitous class victory in 1954, Porsche arrived in force with a mix of works and (nominally) private entries: four cars in the S-1500 and two in the S-1100 classes. In contrast, after the despair of their 1954 race, OSCA only had a single privateer in the S-1500 class.
The smallest, S-750, class was again dominated by French cars, from Panhard, Monopole, DB (all with Panhard engines), and VP-Renault. Panhard also fielded two bigger, 850cc-engined, cars that had to run in the S-1100 class. However several Italian teams arrived to take on the French with entries from Moretti and Stanguellini. Perhaps the most unusual entry was the tiny catamaran-style Damolnar Bisiluro from Ufficine Nardi – where the driver sat in one boom and the engine and running gear was in the other.
Practice
As expected, the Ferraris showed themselves to be extremely fast on a single lap, and Castellotti set the fastest official time, easily breaking the lap record and was a second quicker than Fangio in his Mercedes. But there were also a number of serious accidents during practice: Moss was leaving the pits just as the DB-Panhard of Claude Storez came in, the small car hit Jean Behra. While both cars were able to start the race, Behra had face and leg injuries that forced him out, to be replaced by reserve driver Robert Manzon. Coming into Maison Blanche, Behra's erstwhile teammate Élie Bayol in the new Gordini T24S came upon two spectators crossing the track. He swerved and rolled the car and was taken to hospital with a fractured skull and broken vertebrae; Peter Taylor was also severely injured when he crashed the new Arnott. Levegh came in after a close brush with a Gordini, commenting "We have to get some sort of signal system working. Our cars go too fast". Neubauer tried, unsuccessfully, to persuade the ACO to allow him to erect a small signalling tower at the top of pit-line for his team.
As a comparison, some of the lap-times recorded during practice were:
Over the flying kilometre on the Mulsanne straight, the following top speeds in practice and the race were recorded:
Race
Start
This year the honorary starter was Conte Aymo Maggi, the President and organiser of the Mille Miglia. Giovanni Moretti's two cars arrived on the start grid a few minutes after the 2pm deadline and were excluded from starting.
It was Castellotti, by dint of being near the front of the grid formation, who was first under the Dunlop Bridge and leading the first lap, followed by Hawthorn in the Jaguar. Fangio's start was delayed when his trouser leg snagged on the gear shift lever, but he worked his way up the field to join Hawthorn and Castellotti. The crowd's expectations of a showdown between the three top marques were soon fulfilled as, by lap 4, the three manufacturers’ works cars filled the top 8 places – excepting Trintignant's Ferrari in the pits with an early issue. One of the first casualties was on lap 5 as the leaders started lapping the backmarkers – the tiny Nardi was literally blown off the road into a ditch by the slipstream of the bigger cars. The pace was furious but Castellotti managed to keep Hawthorn and Fangio at bay for the first hour. Behind them was Maglioli's Ferrari, the American Jaguar, the other pair of works Mercedes-Benz's and Jaguars and in 10th Mieres in the Maserati.
Finally, after 70 minutes, it was Castellotti's mistake braking for the Mulsanne corner that let the Jaguar and Mercedes through. Those two then set about pushing harder still, dropping the Ferrari and successively beating the lap record – broken ten times in the first two hours and finally claimed by Hawthorn on lap 28 – setting it over 7 seconds faster than the Ferrari's practice lap.
At 6.20pm, at the end of lap 35 when the first pit-stops were due, the 1955 Le Mans disaster occurred. Having got the order from his Jaguar crew to pit, Hawthorn braked sharply in front of Lance Macklin's Austin-Healey. Macklin then braked hard, getting off the right-hand edge of the track and throwing up dust. Macklin's car then veered back to the centre of the track, into the path of Levegh's Mercedes-Benz, which was running 6th having just gone a lap down. Travelling at 150 mph, Levegh's right-front wheel rode up onto the left rear corner of Macklin's, launching the car into the air and rolling end over end for 80 metres over spectators.
The car slammed into a four-foot earthen embankment – the only barrier between the spectators and the track - and disintegrated. The momentum of the heaviest components of the car – the engine, radiator and front suspension - carried them into the crowd for almost 100 metres. Those who had climbed onto ladders and scaffolding to get a better view of the track found themselves in the direct path of the lethal debris. The remainder of the car, on the earth bank, exploded into flames, burning with extra heat from its magnesium-alloy body. Levegh was killed instantly in the impact.
Race officials kept the race running, reasoning that if the huge crowd tried to leave en masse it would clog the roads, severely restricting access for medical and emergency crews trying to save the injured. Hawthorn, after being initially waved through his stop because of the confusion and potential danger, stopped along with the other lead cars for their scheduled pit stops and driver changes. Then thirteen minutes later, the MG of Dick Jacobs lost control exiting Maison Blanche, rolled and landed upside-down, burning. Jacobs survived the accident, but was severely injured and never raced again.
Phil Hill, now driving Maglioli's Ferrari noted "At this point I was numbed by it all, shocked that all this could be happening at once and on my first-ever Ferrari racing lap of Le Mans. But then Stirling Moss went by me like a streak in his Mercedes 300 SLR, and that woke me up. That was a lesson I never forgot, which was that when something happens, get on the gas."
His teammates, Castellotti and Marzotto, were the first of the leaders to falter: a slipping clutch eventually led to engine failure just before 8pm. Maglioli and Hill took up their third place until they too were stopped about 11pm when a rock pierced their radiator.
Night
With the driver changes from Hawthorn to Bueb and Fangio to Moss, the Jaguar team's talent was outmatched and the Mercedes team was able to extend its lead. At midnight, the Mercedes of Fangio/Moss was leading Hawthorn/Bueb by two laps, themselves two laps ahead of the Kling/Simon Mercedes and the other two works Jaguars all scrapping between themselves. Further back were Musso's Maserati, Collins’ Aston Martin, the Belgian Jaguar and the remaining big Ferrari fighting its way up from the back of the field.
The race remained competitive, however with Hawthorn behind the wheel, as the lead was whittled down to 1½ laps by 2am. The other Mercedes still trailed the Hawthorn/Bueb car by two laps. Race spotters' reports on the Mercedes' braking points led the Jaguar team to believe that their brakes were weakening.
After the catastrophic accident, John Fitch, picking up on the early media reports, had urged the Mercedes team to withdraw from the race – he could see that win or lose, it would be a PR disaster for the company. Mercedes team manager Alfred Neubauer had already reached the same conclusion but did not have the authority to make such a decision. After an emergency meeting of the company directors in Stuttgart, Neubauer finally got the call approving the team's withdrawal just before midnight. Waiting until 1.45am, when many spectators had left, he stepped onto the track and quietly called his cars into the pits, at the time running 1st and 3rd. The public address made a brief announcement regarding their retirement. Chief engineer Rudolf Uhlenhaut went to the Jaguar pits to ask if the Jaguar team would respond in kind, out of respect for the accident's victims. Jaguar team manager Lofty England declined.
Meanwhile, Don Beauman had planted his works Jaguar in the sandtrap at Arnage. Having taken over an hour to dig it out, he had just got it free after 10 pm when Colin Chapman came off at Arnage and smacked the Jaguar. Chapman quickly reversed and got going again only to be disqualified because he had restarted without the marshal's permission
The Aston Martins had been running to a strict lap-time set by team manager John Wyer, but keeping just in the top-10. Either side of midnight two of them were sidelined by mechanical issues. They followed their sister-Lagonda that had run out of fuel from a loose-fitting filler-cap.
Soon after the Mercedes-Benz team withdrawal, the last Ferrari (that of Trintignant / Schell) retired with engine trouble, having fought back up to 10th position. With no further challenge from Mercedes-Benz or Ferrari, Jaguar were holding a comfortable 1–2, although Rolt and Hamilton were having problems with their gearbox.
In the 2-litre category, the Maserati and Gordini had been battling each other, well ahead of the British cars and just outside the top-10. The Gordini was delayed by a defective battery, but the Maserati then retired just after midnight with ignition failure. Even at this stage though, the two works 1500cc Porsches were ahead of these bigger cars. Further back, third in class, was the Belgian-entered Porsche (giving a first Le Mans drive to future endurance great Olivier Gendebien)
Morning
Dawn broke under a heavy, overcast sky and by 6am it had started to rain. Soon after, the class-leading Gordini pitted with a holed-radiator just two laps before its replenishment window. Trying to inch its way round the circuit it over-heated and had to retire. The S-2000 class fell into the lap of the Bristols. Around 8am, the second Jaguar's gearbox finally seized and they were out. With gloomy weather and little enthusiasm now for the race, the running order saw few changes. Second place remained in contention until late morning as the Valenzano/Musso Maserati, five laps down from the leader, was pushing hard and being chased by the Collins/Frère Aston Martin until the Maserati retired with a seized transmission. About the same time the Cunningham also retired: never in the running, lapping in 13th behind the smaller Porsches and Bristols, it had lost its lower gears the night before.
A special mass was held in the morning in the Le Mans Cathedral for the first funerals of the accident victims.
Finish
The race finished in drizzle. Bueb, in his first event for the Coventry marque, handed over the leading Jaguar to Hawthorn for the final 15 minutes, and they coasted to a comfortable victory, completing a record-breaking 306 laps and finishing five laps ahead of the Aston Martin (achieving their best result to date, and only finish since 1951). The podium was completed by the Belgian pair of Johnny Claes and Jacques Swaters, in their yellow Ecurie Francorchamps Jaguar D-Type. Although 11 laps (nearly 150 km) behind the winners, they were again a model of reliability.
Porsche had its best finish yet with the trio of 1.5 litre Porsche 550 Spyders finishing fourth, fifth and sixth with Helmut Polensky and Richard von Frankenberg winning the S-1500 class, the Index of Performance, as well as the Biennial Cup. The Belgian Porsche had moved up the order late in the race to split the two works cars. Additionally the privateer Porsche comprehensively won the S-1100 class finishing nearly 40 laps ahead of the unclassified Cooper. The three-car Bristol team finished seventh, eighth and ninth, in formation for a consecutive year at the top of two-litre class. Managing director Sir George White donated the team's winnings to a charity for the disaster's victims. After their debacle of the previous year's race, the only Italian car to finish this year was the 1.5L OSCA. Two of the DB-Panhards were the only French cars to finish in the normally reliable small-car classes.
For the first time none of the Cunningham team cars finished.
Despite the disaster and poor weather, there were a number of new records set: Both first and second beat the old distance record – and five new class records were set. In fact, the two leading 1.5L Porsches both went further than the overall distance covered by the 1952-winning Mercedes-Benz. The opening hours had also seen the lap record broken by a significant margin.
Post-race and aftermath
The catastrophic crash, which came to be known as the 1955 Le Mans disaster, remains the deadliest accident in the history of motorsport. The actual death toll is uncertain, put at from 80 to 84, including Levegh, with many more than that number severely injured. Spurring mentions that the official report cites "Levegh" and 80 spectators were killed and 178 were injured.
The next round of the World Sports Car Championship at the Nürburgring was cancelled, as was the Carrera Panamericana. The accident caused widespread shock and immediate bans on auto racing in many countries. A number of racing teams including Mercedes-Benz, MG and Bristol had disbanded and withdrawn from racing by the end of the season. The scale of the accident caused some drivers present, including Phil Walters (who had been offered a drive with Ferrari for the rest of the season), Sherwood Johnston, and John Fitch (after completing the season with Mercedes-Benz), to retire from racing. Fitch was coaxed out of retirement by his friend Briggs Cunningham to help the Chevrolet Corvette effort at Le Mans in 1960 and later worked to develop traffic safety devices including the sand-filled "Fitch barrels". Less than three months later, Lance Macklin decided to retire after being involved in a twin fatality accident during the 1955 RAC Tourist Trophy race at Dundrod Circuit. Juan Manuel Fangio never raced at Le Mans again.
Although Hawthorn was relieved to have gotten his first Le Mans victory, he was devastated by the tragedy. A press photo showed him smiling on the podium swigging from the victor's bottle of champagne, and the French press ran it with the sarcastic headline "Here's to You, Mr Hawthorn".
The official enquiry concluded that no one driver was to blame and that it was instead a tragic combination of circumstances that had caused the accident, including serious deficiencies in the track design and safety.
A few days after the race, a full ban on motor racing events was put into effect by the French government, pending the creation of new rules to ensure the safety of the sport. This complete ban was lifted on September 14, 1955. At this time, the Ministry of the Interior released new regulations for racing events, and codified the approval process that future racing events would need to follow. On the same day, the ACO announced their intent to hold the Le Mans race in 1956, and to make modifications to the Circuit de la Sarthe as necessary to adhere to the Ministry's new regulations. Before the 1956 event, the grandstands and pits were demolished, as well as straightening and widening the track at and approaching the pits, and realigning Dunlop Curve. They increased the separation between the road and the spectators including a wide ditch, and revised other hazardous stretches of the track. Track safety technology and practices evolved slowly until Formula 1 driver Jackie Stewart organized a concerted campaign to advocate for better safety measures 10 years later. Stewart's campaign gained momentum after the deaths of Lorenzo Bandini and Jim Clark.
Official results
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO. Class Winners are in bold text.
Note *: Not Classified because of Insufficient distance, as car failed to cover 70% of its class-winner's distance.
Did not finish
Did not start
Index of performance
Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
21st Rudge-Whitworth Biennial Cup (1954/1955)
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest lap in practice – Castelloti, #4 Ferrari 735 LM – 4m 14.0s; 191.14 kp/h (118.77 mph)
Fastest lap – Hawthorn, #6 Jaguar D-Type – 4m 06.6s; 196.96 kp/h (122.39 mph)
Fastest car in speedtrap – Fangio, #19 Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR – 292.21 kp/h (181.57 mph)
Distance – 4135.38 km (2569.73 miles)
Winner's average speed – 172.31 km/h (107.07 mph)
Attendance – about 400,000
World Championship standings after the race
Championship points were awarded for the first six places in each race in the order of 8-6-4-3-2-1. Manufacturers were only awarded points for their highest finishing car, with no points awarded for positions filled by additional cars.
Citations
References
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1949-59 Sherborne, Dorset: Evro Publishing
Anderson, Gary G. (2000) Austin-Healey 100, 100–6, 3000 Restoration Guide MotorBooks International
Cannell, Michael (2011) The Limit London: Atlantic Books
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Jaguar Years 1949-1957' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Foster, Frank (2013) F1: A History of Formula One Racing BookCaps Study Guides
Hill, Phil (2004) Ferrari, a Champion's view Deerfield: Dalton Watson
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Pomeroy, L. & Walkerley, R. - editors (1956) The Motor Year Book 1956 Bath: The Pitman Press
Whitaker, Sigur E. (2014) Tony Hulman: The Man Who Saved the Indianapolis Motor Speedway McFarland
External links
Racing Sports Cars website – Le Mans 24 Hours 1955 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
Le Mans History website – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 10 December 2016.
Formula 2 website – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
World Sportscar Championship website – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
Team Dan website – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
Le Mans 1955 from The Mike Hawthorn Tribute Site – Extensive 1955 Le Mans coverage – reports, analysis, photos/video of race & crash. Retrieved 10 December 2016
The Deadliest Crash – George Pollen's 2009 1hr documentary analysing the race and the accident, interviewing drivers and witnesses. Retrieved 10 December 2016
Video of accident and aftermath. Retrieved 10 December 2016
YouTube – ‘British Pathé’ colour film (no sound) of the race (8mins). Retrieved 10 December 2016
Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans races
1955 in French motorsport
June 1955 sports events in Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ollanta%20Humala
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Ollanta Humala
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Ollanta Moisés Humala Tasso (; born 27 June 1962) is a Peruvian politician and former military officer who served as President of Peru from 2011 to 2016. Originally a socialist and left-wing nationalist, he is considered to have shifted towards neoliberalism and the political centre during his presidency.
Born to a prominent political family affiliated with the ethnocacerist movement, Humala is the son of famed Quechua labour lawyer Isaac Humala. Humala entered the Peruvian Army in 1981, eventually achieving the rank of lieutenant colonel. During his time in the military, he fought in the internal conflict against left-wing terrorist group Shining Path as well as in the Cenepa War with neighboring Ecuador. In October 2000, Humala attempted an unsuccessful coup d'etat against President Alberto Fujimori during the dying days of his regime; eventually, the Congress of the Republic of Peru granted him amnesty and Humala was allowed to return to military duty.
In 2005, Humala entered electoral politics, founding the Peruvian Nationalist Party (PNP) in order to run in the 2006 Peruvian general election. Having received first place in the first round, he faced former centre-left president and Peruvian Aprista Party nominee Alan García in the second round, ultimately losing by a narrow margin. His campaign received widespread international attention in 2006 given the pink tide in Latin America. In the 2011 Peruvian general election, he narrowly defeated Keiko Fujimori in the runoff.
Humala's election initially concerned investors, who feared he would govern similar to leftist Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez, a former ally of his. To assuage these fears, Humala would begin his term by choosing centrists for positions in his cabinet. Humala's unpopular presidency was dominated by corruption scandals surrounding him and his politically influential wife Nadine Heredia. Environmentalists were highly critical of Humala's mining policies, and argued that he reneged on his campaign promise to rein in mining companies.
In 2017, Humala was arrested by Peruvian authorities on corruption charges. Humala attempted a political comeback in the 2021 presidential election, but only received 1.5% of the vote, finishing in 13th place.
Early life, family, and education
Humala was born in Lima, Peru on 27 June 1962. His father Isaac Humala, who is of Quechua ethnicity, is a labour lawyer, member of the Communist Party of Peru – Red Fatherland, and ideological leader of the Ethnocacerista movement. Ollanta's mother is Elena Tasso, from an old Italian family established in Peru at the end of the 19th century. He is the brother of Antauro Humala, now serving a 25-year prison sentence for kidnapping 17 Police officers for 3 days and killing 4 of them and in 2020 was responsible for the removal of former President Martín Vizcarra, and professor Ulises Humala. Humala was born in Peru and attended the French-Peruvian school Franco-Peruano, and later the "Colegio Cooperativo La Union," established by part of the Peruvian-Japanese community in Lima.
He began his military career in 1980 when he entered the Chorrillos Military School, like his brother Antauro (who had done so a year earlier). In 1983, he was a student at the School of the Americas (SOA), in the cadet combat course. He graduated as an Artillery lieutenant on 1 January 1984, forming part of the "Heroes of Pucará and Marcavalle" class.
In 1997, he earned the graduate diploma of PADE in Business Administration from ESAN Graduate School of Business. In 2001, he completed a master's degree at the Center for Higher National Studies (CAEN) in National Defense and in 2002, he successfully completed a master's degree in political science at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru.
Military career
In his military career, Humala was also involved in the two major Peruvian conflicts of the past 20 years, the battle against the insurgent organization Shining Path and the 1995 Cenepa War with Ecuador. In 1991, with the rank of captain, Humala served in Tingo María, Huanuco fighting the remnants of the Shining Path and in 1995 he served in the Cenepa War on the border with Ecuador.
2000 uprising
In October 2000, Humala led an uprising in Toquepala against Alberto Fujimori on his last days as president due to multiple corruption scandals. The main reason given for the rebellion was the capture of Vladimiro Montesinos, former intelligence chief who had fled Peru for asylum in Panama after being caught on video trying to bribe an opposition congressman. The return of Montesinos led to fears that he still had much power in Fujimori's government, so Humala and about 40 other Peruvian soldiers revolted against their senior army commander. Montesinos claims that the uprising facilitated his concurrent escape.
Many of Humala's men deserted him, leaving him only 7 soldiers. During the revolt, Humala called on Peruvian "patriots" to join him in the rebellion, and around 300 former soldiers led by his brother Antauro answered his call and were reported to have been in a convoy attempting to join up with Humala. The revolt gained some sympathy from the Peruvian populace with the influential opposition newspaper La República calling him "valiant and decisive, unlike most in Peru". The newspaper also had many letters sent in by readers with accolades to Ollanta and his men.
In the aftermath, the Army sent hundreds of soldiers to capture the rebels. Even so, Humala and his men managed to hide until President Fujimori was impeached from office a few days later and Valentín Paniagua was named interim president. Finally, on 10 December, both brothers surrendered, being transferred to Lima, where they surrendered to the Second Judicial Zone of the country. The opening of the process was ruled for rebellion, sedition and insult to the superior. The lawyer Javier Valle Riestra requested an amnesty for the Humala, alleging that they had exercised the "right to insurrection against an illegitimate and totalitarian government." On 21 December 2000, Congress granted them the requested amnesty, which was extended to military and civilian personnel who participated in the insurrection and Humala was allowed to return to military duty.
Post-Fujimori regime
He was sent as military attaché to Paris, then to Seoul until December 2004, when he was forcibly retired. His forced retirement is suspected to have partly motivated an etnocacerista rebellion of Andahuaylas led by his brother Antauro Humala in January 2005.
In 2002, Humala received a master's degree in political science from the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru.
Political career
2006 presidential campaign
In October 2005 Humala created the Partido Nacionalista Peruano (the Peruvian Nationalist Party) and ran for the presidency in 2006 with the support of Union for Peru (UPP).
Ambassador Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, the former Peruvian Secretary-General of the United Nations and founder of UPP, told the press on 5 December 2005, that he did not support the election of Humala as the party's presidential candidate. He said that after being the UPP presidential candidate in 1995, he had not had any further contact with UPP and therefore did not take part in choosing Humala as the party's presidential candidate for the 2006 elections.
There were some accusations that he incurred in torture, under the nom de guerre "Capitán Carlos" ("Captain Carlos"), while he was the commander of a military base in the jungle region of Madre Mia from 1992 to 1993. His brother Antauro Humala stated in 2006 that Humala had used such a name during their activities. Humala, in an interview with Jorge Ramos, acknowledged that he went under the pseudonym Captain Carlos but stated that other soldiers went under the same name and denied participation in any human rights abuses.
On 17 March 2006, Humala's campaign came under some controversy as his father, Issac Humala, said "If I was President, I would grant amnesty to him (Abimael Guzmán) and the other incarcerated members of the Shining Path". He made similar statements about amnesty for Víctor Polay, the leader of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement, and other leaders of the MRTA. But Ollanta Humala distanced himself from the more radical members of his family during his campaign. Humala's mother, meanwhile, made a statement on 21 March calling for homosexuals to be shot.
Ollanta Humala's brother, Ulises Humala, ran against him in the election, but was considered an extremely minor candidate and came in 14th place in the election.
On 9 April 2006, the first round of the Peruvian national election was held. Humala came in first place getting 30.62% of the valid votes, and immediately began preparing to face Alan García, who obtained 24.32%, in a runoff election on 4 June. Humala campaigned in Trujillo, an eminently Aprista city, during the last week of April. Starting in May, he visited the department of Ayacucho and then the city of Puno. On 9 May, he met again with Bolivian President Evo Morales, in the border town of Copacabana and received the support of the aforementioned president.
Different Peruvian media opposed to Ollanta Humala, indicated at a certain point that the Canarian journalist Ramón Pérez Almodóvar would be advising the presidential candidate for the second electoral round, an accusation that was denied by the journalist, although he admitted that he was participating in the campaign. .
On 20 May 2006, the day before the first presidential debate between Alan García and Ollanta Humala, a tape of the former Peruvian intelligence chief Vladimiro Montesinos was released by Montesinos' lawyer to the press with Montesinos claiming that Humala had started the 29 October 2000 military uprising against the Fujimori government to facilitate his escape from Peru amidst corruption scandals. Montesinos is quoted as saying it was a "farce, an operation of deception and manipulation".
Humala immediately responded to the charges by accusing Montesinos of being in collaboration with García's Aprista Party with an intention to undermine his candidacy. Humala is quoted as stating "I want to declare my indignation at the statements" and went on to say "Who benefits from the declarations that stain the honor of Ollanta Humala? Evidently they benefit Alan García". In another message that Montesinos released to the media through his lawyer he claimed that Humala was a "political pawn" of Cuban President Fidel Castro and Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez in an "asymmetric war" against the United States. Montesinos went on to state that Humala "is not a new ideologist or political reformer, but he is an instrument".
On 24 May 2006, Humala warned of possible voter fraud in the upcoming second round elections scheduled for 4 June. He urged UPP supporters to register as poll watchers "so votes are not stolen from us during the tabulation at the polling tables." Humala went on to cite similar claims of voting fraud in the first round made by right-wing National Unity candidate Lourdes Flores when she told reporters that she felt she had "lost at the tabulation tables, not at the ballot box". When asked if he had proof for his claims by CPN Radio Humala stated "I do not have proof. If I had the proof, I would immediately denounce those responsible to the electoral system". Alan García responded by stating that Humala was "crying fraud" because the polls show him losing the second round.
On 4 June 2006, the second round of the Peruvian elections were held. With 77% of votes counted and Humala behind García 45.5% to 55.5% respectively, Humala conceded defeat to Alan García and congratulated his opponent's campaign stating at a news conference "we recognise the results...and we salute the forces that competed against us, those of Mr Garcia".
Post-election
On 12 June 2006, Carlos Torres Caro, Humala's vice presidential running mate and elected Congressman for the Union for Peru (UPP), stated that a faction of the UPP would split off from the party after disagreements with Humala to create what Torres calls a "constructive opposition". The split came after Humala called on leftist parties to form an alliance with the UPP to become the principal opposition party in Congress. Humala had met with representatives of the Communist Party of Peru – Red Fatherland and the New Left Movement. Humala stated that the opposition would work to "make sure Garcia complies with his electoral promises" and again stated that he would not boycott García's inauguration on 28 July 2006.
On 16 August 2006, prosecutors in Peru filed charges against Humala for alleged human rights abuses including forced disappearance, torture, and murder against Shining Path guerillas during his service in San Martín. Humala responded by denying the charges and stating that he was "a victim of political persecution". He said the charges were "orchestrated by the Alan Garcia administration to neutralize any alternative to his power".
2011 election
Humala ran again in the Peruvian general election on 10 April 2011, with Marisol Espinoza his candidate for First Vice President and Omar Chehade as Second Vice President.
For these elections, he formed the electoral alliance "Gana Peru", around the already existing Peruvian Nationalist Party. Later, he signed a political agreement with several left-wing parties such as the Peruvian Communist Party, the Socialist Party, the Revolutionary Socialist Party, the Socialist Voice Political Movement, and an important sector of the Lima for All Political Movement.
Humala was in first place in the first round held on 10 April, obtaining 31.72% of the total valid votes. Because he did not manage to exceed 50% of the valid votes, he went on to a second round with the candidate Keiko Fujimori, which took place on 5 June.
On 19 May, at National University of San Marcos and with the support of many Peruvian intellectuals and artists (including Mario Vargas Llosa with reservations), Ollanta Humala signed the "Compromiso en Defensa de la Democracia". He campaigned as a center-left leader with the desire to help to create a more equitable framework for distributing the wealth from the country's key natural resources, with the goal of maintaining foreign investment and economic growth in the country while working to improve the condition of an impoverished majority.
Going into the 5 June runoff election, he was polling in a statistical tie with opponent Keiko Fujimori. He was elected the 94th president of Peru with 51.5% of the vote.
Three days after his election, Humala undertook a Latin American tour to meet with the heads of state of Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, the United States, Venezuela, Mexico and Cuba.
Presidency (2011–2016)
After the news of the election of Ollanta as president the Lima Stock Exchange experienced its largest drop ever, though it later stabilised following the announcement of Humala's cabinet appointees, who were judged to be moderate and in line with continuity. However he was also said to have inherited "a ticking time bomb of disputes stemming in large part from objections by indigenous groups to the damage to water supplies, crops and hunting grounds wrought by mining, logging and oil and gas extraction" from Alan Garcia. Though he promised the "poor and disenfranchised" Peruvians a bigger stake in the rapidly growing national economy, his "mandate for change...[was seen as] a mandate for moderate change"; his moderation was reflected in his "orthodox" cabinet appointees and his public oath on the Bible to respect investor rights, rule of law and the constitution. He was sworn in on 28 July 2011.
As part of his "social inclusion" rhetoric during the campaign, his government, led by Prime Minister Salomon Lerner Ghitis, established the Ministry of Development and Social Inclusion in order to coordinate the efficacy of his social programmes. Lerner Ghitis later resigned on 10 December 2011, and was succeeded by Óscar Valdés Dancuart.
On 23 July 2012, Juan Jiménez Mayor became president of a new ministerial cabinet, the third in less than a year.
On 24 July 2013, with the appointment of three new ministers (Mónica Rubio García in Development and Social Inclusion, Magali Silva in Foreign Trade and Tourism, and Diana Álvarez Calderón in Culture), it was achieved, for the first time in the history of Peru, gender equality in the formation of a ministerial cabinet (9 men and 9 women, apart from the prime minister).
On 31 October 2013, César Villanueva, who until then served as president of the Regional Government of San Martín, was sworn in as the fourth President of the Council of Ministers of the Humala government.
On 24 February 2014, the fifth ministerial cabinet was sworn in, chaired by René Cornejo, who until then had served as Minister of Housing, Construction and Sanitation. After two unsuccessful attempts, this cabinet finally won the vote of confidence in Congress, in the session held on 17 March.
On 22 July 2014 René Cornejo resigned, being replaced by Ana Jara Velásquez, who until then was the head of the Ministry of Labor and Employment Promotion, an office that was taken over by the ruling congressman Fredy Otárola Peñaranda. With only these changes, the sixth cabinet of the government of President Humala was sworn in.
On 30 March 2015, the full Congress censured Prime Minister Ana Jara and her entire cabinet, with 72 votes in favor, 42 against and 2 abstentions. Something similar had not happened since 1963, when the parliament censured the cabinet chaired by Julio Óscar Trelles Montes. The argument used against Jara was the monitoring of politicians, businessmen and journalists by the National Intelligence Directorate (DINI). Pedro Cateriano replaced Jara as Prime Minister on 2 April 2015.
Originally considered to be a socialist and left-wing nationalist, he is considered to have shifted towards neoliberalism and the political centre during his presidency.
Ideology
Ollanta Humala expressed sympathy for the regime of Juan Velasco Alvarado, which took power in a bloodless military coup on 3 October 1968, and nationalized various Peruvian industries whilst pursuing a favorable foreign policy with Cuba and the Soviet Union.
During his presidential candidacy in 2006 and his run for the presidency that he ultimately won in 2011, Humala was closely affiliated with other pink tide leaders in Latin America in general and South America in particular. Prior to taking office in 2011, he toured several countries in the Americas where he notably expressed the idea of re-uniting the Peru–Bolivian Confederation. He also visited Brazil, Colombia, the United States, and Venezuela.
Controversies
In February 2016, amidst the Peruvian presidential race, a report from the Brazilian Federal Police implicated Humala as recipient of bribes from Odebrecht, a Brazilian construction company, in exchange of assigned public works. President Humala rejected the implication and has avoided speaking to the media on the matter.
Post-presidency (2016-present)
Arrest
During the Peruvian presidential election in February 2016, a report by the Brazilian Federal Police implicated Humala in bribery by Odebrecht for public works contracts. President Humala denied the charge and avoided questions from the media on that matter. In July 2017, Humala and his wife were arrested and held in pre-trial detention following investigations into his involvement in the Odebrecht scandal. On 26 April 2018, by resolution of the Constitutional Court of Peru, he began his process of freedom. He is currently being investigated under restricted appearance.
In January 2019, Peruvian prosecutors stated that they had enough evidence to charge Humala and his wife with laundering money from both Odebrecht and the Government of Venezuela. In May 2019, the Prosecutor's Office requested 20 years in prison for him and 26 years for his wife, Nadine Heredia. The process also reaches several relatives close to the former presidential partner. The case is in prosecution control.
Ollanta Humala was being investigated under restricted appearance, allegedly accused of money laundering to the detriment of the State and of illicit association to commit a crime, among others.
However, Odebrecht's main projects were carried out under the presidencies of Alberto Fujimori and Alan García.
Publications
Ollanta Humala: From Locumba to Presidential Candidate in Peru (2009)
Ollanta Uniting Peru: the great transformation: Peru of all of us: government plan, 2006-2011 (2006) (Collaborator)
Awards and decorations
:
Grand Collar of the Order of Boyaca (11 February 2014)
Electoral history
See also
Presidency of Ollanta Humala
References
External links
Resume on the National Electoral Panel (JNE) site (Spanish)
Biography by CIDOB (in Spanish)
Articles
"Peru Leans Leftward", 10 April 2006 Council on Foreign Relations
"Breakdown in the Andes", September/October 2004 Foreign Affairs
"Ollanta Humala's Path to Peruvian Presidency", 5 August 2011 Sounds and Colours
"Rebellion in Peru", 1 November 2000 NPR's Talk of the Nation
"Peru Report", 30 October 2000 NPR's Morning Edition
"Peru's Election: Background on Economic Issues", April 2006 Center for Economic and Policy Research
"Peru Elections Near: A Look at the Candidates", 1 June 2011 Washington Office on Latin America
"He May Be Leader of Peru, but to Outspoken Kin, He’s Just a Disappointment" by William Neuman, The New York Times, 4 August 2012
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1962 births
Candidates for President of Peru
Chorrillos Military School alumni
Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Heads of government who were later imprisoned
Ollanta
Leaders of political parties
Living people
Peruvian Army officers
Peruvian Christian socialists
Peruvian Nationalist Party politicians
Peruvian people of Italian descent
Peruvian politicians of Quechua descent
Presidents of Peru
Presidents pro tempore of the Union of South American Nations
Peruvian rebels
Recipients of Peruvian parliamentary pardons
Union for Peru politicians
Peruvian politicians convicted of crimes
Pontifical Catholic University of Peru alumni
Indigenous leaders of the Americas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20The%20Daily%20Show%20recurring%20segments
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List of The Daily Show recurring segments
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This is a list of recurring segments featured on The Daily Show. This list is incomplete for The Daily Show with Craig Kilborn and The Daily Show with Jon Stewart.
During The Daily Shows first ten years, a significant part of its airtime was devoted to different branded recurring segments, usually hosted by the show's correspondents. After the 2005 launch of The Colbert Report, which was largely made up of different recurring segments, the time devoted to such segments on The Daily Show has declined. Normal commentary segments about ongoing news stories can also have recurring titles to help sort them and talk about continuation.
Current segments
Your Moment of Zen (July 22, 1996 – present)
Your Moment of Zen is a segment that occurs at the end of every show. The segment was introduced when the show began. In it, the host would end the show and a random selection of humorous videos would be shown, usually a clip that relates to one of the topics that was discussed in the episode. Hosts generally introduce the segment by saying, "Here it is, Your Moment of Zen". Sometimes, the Moment of Zen will be used a tribute to a celebrity or prominent figure who has recently died. Moments of Zen are replaced by musical guests who play out the episode with an additional performance. The segment continues under current host Trevor Noah with the same structure.
List of Different or Special Moments of Zen:
The December 18, 2014 episode of The Daily Show did not end with a Moment of Zen, as it immediately transitioned into the final episode of The Colbert Report, with Jon Stewart giving the Moment of Zen at the end of the Colbert episode.
At the end of Stewart's final episode on August 6, 2015, he introduced his final Moment of Zen – a live performance by Bruce Springsteen – by saying "Here it is, my Moment of Zen".
On March 22, 2016, Trevor dedicated the Moment of Zen to Brussels, Belgium and Ankara, Turkey. This was in solidarity with those cities after terrorist attacks had occurred earlier that day in Brussels and earlier that month in Ankara.
On November 8, 2016, Trevor and The Best F#@king News Team re-created a post-credit scene from the movie The Avengers. This quick parody replaced the usual Moment of Zen.
On March 2, 2017, Trevor announced that they will be taking Your Moment of Zen suggestions from the viewers with the social media hashtag #DailyShowZen. The first user submitted Moment of Zen aired on March 15, 2017.
As Trevor cued up Moment of Zen in his last sign-off as host on December 8, 2022, the camera turned to an applauding audience, who joined the show's staff in serenading Trevor with a rendition of Gerry and the Pacemakers' "You'll Never Walk Alone", a song associated with Trevor's favorite soccer club, Liverpool F.C.
Back in Black with Lewis Black (1996–present)
Back in Black with Lewis Black is a popular segment on the show in which "America's foremost commentator on everything" and comedian Lewis Black catches the stories that, according to his introduction, "fall through the cracks" and comments on them in a humorous rant. The segment, which starts with an opening riff in the style of the AC/DC song "Back in Black", originated in 1996, when Craig Kilborn was still the host of The Daily Show. As of 2019, it is the longest-running recurring segment that still airs on the show, aside from the Moment of Zen.
The Yearly Show (December 17, 2015 – present)
On the show's last episode of the year, Trevor Noah and The Best F#@king News Team review the previous year's biggest news story and trends.
Third Month Mania (March 17, 2016 – present)
A parody of March Madness, with a bracket filled with other topics instead of basketball teams. Third Month Mania is an annual segment that airs weekly segments throughout March and April. Voting happens on thirdmonthmania.com.
For the first annual Third Month Mania, viewers could vote on what made them the "maddest". Choices included "Slow WiFi" vs "No WiFi", "AntiVaxxers" vs "Hipsters", etc. Hosted by Hasan Minhaj and Roy Wood Jr., the correspondents over-hyped the results and bracket changes poking fun at March Madness commentators. The official description from thirdmonthmania.com; "Third Month Mania looks at all the important (and trivial) things that make you angry, then pits them against each other in a bracket where your vote actually matters. This single-elimination tournament takes place mostly in the month after February and is in no way connected to college athletics".
By the end of Third Month Mania 2016, after 4.4 million votes, the winner for most maddening thing were Trump Supporters.
For the second annual Third Month Mania, viewers could vote on which Donald Trump tweet is the greatest. The bracket was broken up into 4 sections: "Celebs", "Enemies", "Government Affairs" and "WTF".
Jordan Klepper Fingers the Pulse (July 21, 2016 – March 21, 2017, 2019–present)
Jordan Klepper goes out and talks to different crowds in public. Usually talking to Donald Trump supporters at Trump rallies or events, he asks them questions that highlight the hypocrisy within the group. One segment was dedicated to talking to the inhabitants of Dick Street, New Jersey.
The segment continued after the 2016 President Election, since President Trump continued to hold campaign rallies all over the United States of America.
The segment returned in late 2019 when Klepper returned to the show.
Profiles in Tremendousness (November 30, 2016 – present)
In this segment, Trevor Noah takes a look at Donald Trump's Administration Cabinet nominees. Trump is known for bragging about picking "the best people" and "draining the swamp", so The Daily Show checks if his picks live up to his promise.
Noah checks financial ties, history, scandals, accomplishments, etc. of the people Trump has appointed. He often looks at what Trump has previously said about that person and checks whether or not Trump has been consistent with his attitude towards them. He also analyses their performance at confirmation hearings. The title of the segment refers to the 1957 Pulitzer Prize-winning biographical book Profiles in Courage.
The segments have profiled at Trump's Attorney General Jeff Sessions, Secretary of the Treasury Steven Mnuchin, National Security Advisor Michael T. Flynn, Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Ben Carson, Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos, Press Secretary Sean Spicer, Supreme Court Nominee Neil Gorsuch, Senior Adviser Stephen Miller, White House Communications Director Anthony Scaramucci and Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin.
On August 28, 2017, a special "Pardon Edition" of the segment looked into the recently pardoned former sheriff Joe Arpaio.
Moscow in the Meddle (January 9, 2017 – present)
A segment dedicated to the stories that involve President Donald Trump and Russia, such as the Donald Trump-Russia dossier and the Russian interference in the 2016 elections.
Ain't Nobody Got Time for That (March 2017 – present)
In the segment, Noah summarizes news that should get significant media attention, but are overshadowed by other breaking news that constantly appear every day.
I Apologize for Talking While You Were Talking (January 2018 – present)
Roy Wood, Jr. and Michael Kosta (though, in one segment, Ronny Chieng filled in for Kosta, and in another, Jaboukie Young-White filled in for Wood) co-host this segment dedicated to sports news. The segment's title is a spoof of ESPN sports talk show Pardon the Interruption.
CP Time with Roy Wood Jr. (February 2018 – present)
Roy Wood, Jr. hosts this segment while wearing a fake grey mustache and horn-rimmed glasses. This segment is dedicated to African-American history. The motto of the segment is, "Remember, we're for the culture." The title is a reference to the slang "Colored people's time".
Everything Is Stupid (June 2018 – present)
Ronny Chieng hosts this segment, providing commentary on ridiculous trends in the news such as Fortnite, luxurious doghouses, and adventure playgrounds.
Trevor Noah: Racism Detective (January 2019 – present)
A brief segment where after a person that is the focus of the story does something very characteristic of racism, prompting the question "Is he racist?" Noah turns to "Trevor Noah: Racism Detective", which is Noah dressed as a 1930s gumshoe in a black and white office simply confirming the person's racism.
World War D (January 2019 – present)
A segment focused on the Democratic Presidential Candidates seeking to win the Democratic nomination to run against Donald Trump in 2020.
F**k These Animals (February 2019 – present)
Noah, posing as his Australian cousin "Australian Trevor", would provide commentary on stories involving animals.
Commander in Beef (May 2019 – present)
A segment focusing on Donald Trump's petty Twitter feud at the moment.
The Magical, Wonderful Road to Impeachment (September 25, 2019 – present)
A segment that covers the impeachment inquiry against Donald Trump. Originally titled The Fantastic Absolutely Tremendous Road to Impeachment.
Is This How We Die? (March 2, 2020 – present)
A segment covering the COVID-19 pandemic.
A Ray of Sunshine (April 2020 – present)
Introduced on The Daily Social Distancing Show as an introductory segment showing some good news during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Past recurring Noah-era segments
Today's Future Now (October 7, 2015 – May 16, 2017)
Today's Future Now is a segment hosted by correspondent Ronny Chieng, which takes a look at and reviews technological trends. The first segment, airing on October 7, 2015, was Chieng's debut on The Daily Show as a correspondent.
The segment has reviewed tech such as virtual reality, artificial intelligence, smart technology and flying cars.
What the Actual Fact (November 11, 2015 – January 23, 2017)
What the Actual Fact is a fact-checking segment, usually analysing speeches from political figures or events.
The segment is hosted by Desi Lydic (once with Jessica Williams) and involves her standing in-front of a screen. A clip/soundbite is shown where a politician is making a statement that is false (or is misleading in some way). Desi then deconstructs the lie and gives it a humorous rating on a joke scale.
On January 23, 2017, the segment reviewed the Trump Administrations first press briefing. Due to the Kellyanne Conway's gaffe about alternative facts, the segment was renamed What The Alternative Fact. In this segment, Lydic went through and satirically and sarcastically rated all of Trump's falsehoods as true, by justifying them with "alternative facts".
Livin' on the Street (January 20, 2016 – April 21, 2016)
Livin' on the Street is a segment hosted by Hasan Minhaj where he parodies 'Wall Street Executives' & financial commercials and talks about money, stocks & economy. Hasan plays a character who gives technically viable yet crazy-sounding advice, who also has financial & family problems.
Tales from the Trump Archive (March 10, 2016 – May 26, 2016)
Tales from the Trump Archive (also known as The Chronicles of Narcissism: Tales from the Trump Archive) was a segment that aired during the 2016 Republican primaries that took a deeper look into the history of Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump.
The segment was hosted by Trevor Noah and had 3 segments where the show would examine sound bites and videos of the statements made by Donald Trump that aren't getting too much media coverage.
The first segment, airing on March 10, took a look at a Donald Trump interview with The New York Times from 1999. In this segment, Trevor shows a bunch of clips of middle class people explaining why they want a rich businessman to be in office and even shows a clip of Trump saying that he loves poor people. They then contrast that notion with Trump saying, in 1999, that "My entire life, I've watched politicians bragging about how poor they are, how they came from nothing, how poor their parents and grandparents were. And I said to myself, if they can stay so poor for so many generations, maybe this isn't the kind of person we want to be electing to higher office. How smart can they be? They're morons."
The second segment, airing on April 5, talks about Donald Trump's 1994 interview on Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous. In the clip, he's being interviewed alongside his first second wife (Marla Maples). In the interview, Trump talks lewdly and sexually about his daughter (who was one year old at the time of the interview) Tiffany Trump. This is in contrast to Trump's claim that "nobody has more respect for women than" him.
The third segment, airing on May 26, examines a 1994 interview where Donald Trump discusses how he didn't like that his former wife (Maples) worked.
How the F**k We Got Here (March 21, 2016 – March 23, 2016)
How The F**k We Got Here was a two-part segment by Trevor Noah that looked at the causes of Donald Trump's GOP nomination. In other words, "How did Donald Trump go from being the guy who fake-fired people on TV to the orange-tinted terror?"
2016 Daily Show Summer Games (August 8, 2016 – August 18, 2016)
Usually right before the start of an episode, this segment was a parody of 2016 Summer Olympics commentators. This segment was used to satirically portray the news that was coming out of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It also joked about issues that occurred at the 2016 Rio Summer Olympics, such as the Zika virus epidemic, the swimming pools turning green and the Ryan Lochte scandal.
Sometimes it was used to make fun of the 'mental gymnastics' that politicians & pundits used in order to spin certain stories. Notably, it mocked Donald Trump supporters of constantly flip-flopping on their defence of their candidate.
Hosted by Roy Wood Jr. and Jordan Klepper (once with Roy Wood Jr. & Ronny Chieng) as commentators, sometimes with a Trevor Noah cameo as a participant.
Outrage Court (September 13, 2016 – October 12, 2016)
A pre-recorded sketch-based segment where Roy Wood Jr. is a judge who listens to two attorneys argue about a certain issue, taken place in Outrage Court. The attorneys are Jordan Klepper and Desi Lydic, who take a different position on topics such as "trigger warnings" and appropriate ways to protest.
The segment ends with Roy Wood Jr. accepting valid points from both stances and dismissing any invalid points.
Black Eye on America (October 20, 2016 – April 3, 2017)
Roy Wood Jr. talks about issues through an African-American perspective. The segments consist of short, quick interviews with African-Americans who have knowledge on the issue, as well as examples of how that certain issue affects black Americans.
The first segment of Black Eye on America talks about the struggles that black journalists have when discussing race issues on television. It talks about how and why they have to keep calm, and shows examples of non-black anchors making racist remarks towards these black journalists.
The second segment looks at the phenomenon known as "Black Twitter".
Who Is the Real President? (February 6, 2017 – April 4, 2017)
In the first months after Donald Trump became President of the United States, Trevor Noah analyses White House characters who might even be more powerful than Trump himself. In this segment, Trevor has pondered if the real President is Senior Advisor Steve Bannon, news company Fox News or Trump's son-in-law Jared Kushner.
Past recurring Stewart-era segments
Here is a list of past recurring segments from mostly the era in which Jon Stewart hosted the show, in alphabetical order:
InDecision
Prior to the debut of The Daily Show, Comedy Central produced "InDecision '92", a series of comedy specials parodying NBC News's "Decision" segment which airs during election years. Following a second series of specials in 1996 titled "InDecision '96", "InDecision" became a recurring feature on The Daily Show starting with "InDecision 2000". The segment focuses on election-year topics, from state primaries, the party conventions, the campaign trail, the debates and election night.
Variants have included:
"ReDecision 2003", covering the 2003 California gubernatorial recall election
"InDecision 2004: Prelude to a Recount", covering the 2004 United States presidential election
"InDecision 2044", a segment in which Rob Riggle interviewed kindergarteners to see who was most likely to run for president in 2044
"Indecision 1425", covering the January and December 2005 Iraqi parliamentary election dated using the Islamic calendar
"The Road to InDecision 2006" covering the months leading up to the 2006 midterms
"Indecision 5766", covering the 2006 Israeli legislative election dated using the Hebrew calendar
"InDecision/InDécision 2006", covering the 2006 Canadian federal election acknowledging Canada's two official languages
"InDecision 2008: Clusterf@#k to the White House", covering the early primary season of the 2008 presidential election
"IranDecision 2009", covering the 2009 Iranian presidential election
"InDecision 2010: Midterm TeaPartyGanza, When Grizzlies Attack", covering the 2010 United States elections, referencing the Tea Party and Sarah Palin's nickname for conservative mothers as "Mama Grizzlies"
"Indecision 1776: Ye Cobblestone Road to the White House", covering the 2012 Republican Debates mocking the rhetoric of the Tea Party
"A Spot Of InDecision: Clusterhag to 10 Downing", covering the 2010 United Kingdom general election
An uncensored version of InDecision 2004 was released on a three-disc DVD box set on June 28, 2005. It includes all episodes from the Democratic and Republican National Conventions, "The Bush-Kerry Debate: The Squabble in Coral Gables", "Election Night 2004: Prelude to a Recount", and highlights from throughout the 2004 presidential election.
After some time, the coverage went through different names, such as "Democalypse 2012/2016", in reference to the outstanding amount of Democratic nominees at the time. During Noah's tenure, the coverage was given the name "Votegasm".
10 F#@king Years
10 F#@king Years is a segment that was featured on the show throughout 2006, to celebrate the show's tenth anniversary. The segment usually features host Jon Stewart offering a nostalgic look back at the show's past segments (normally spanning Stewart's run as host), usually focusing on a specific theme. The segment debuted on July 17, 2006, around the time of the show's actual anniversary. The segment continued on until the end of 2006, when the anniversary was over.
Are You Prepared?!?
Are You Prepared?!? was a segment that debuted on the show on May 16, 2006 featuring Samantha Bee. Focusing on preparedness for a potential disaster or bad situation, the segment was styled as a parody of the scare tactics used by sensationalist news shows. In the segment, the correspondent normally travelled around in a large van with the words "Are You Prepared?!?" on its side, often knocking on doors of unsuspecting residents and "testing their preparedness" in the given scenario. Bee performed the segment two times, with her husband, correspondent Jason Jones hosting an installment on November 9, 2006.
Even Stevphen
Even Stevphen was a segment that was an in-studio debate about a current topic between correspondents Steve Carell and Stephen Colbert. They would often spend the time insulting each other instead, sometimes resulting in one of them breaking down in tears, due to painful childhood memories. It is very similar to the show's earlier segment, "Backfire".
The segment's name is a composite of the two correspondents' homophonic first names, sometimes appearing as Even Stephven or Even Stepvhen (the ph and v appear superimposed on top of each other in the segment's opening graphic). The segment's debut, on September 20, 1999, is the source of the two soundbites used in the most frequent incarnation of the segment's opening graphic: Carell's "You just made me vomit in my own mouth!" and Colbert's "What's the weather like up your own ass?"
The segment was discontinued when Steve Carell left the show, after a brief one-off take featuring Ed Helms (Carell's The Office co-star) as Colbert's debate partner, in which Helms deliberately demonstrated that he was incapable of grasping the premise of the segment. On September 19, 2006, a montage of the best of "Even Stevphen" was shown as part of The Daily Show's "10 F#@king Years".
The segment was revived on the July 7, 2010 episode of The Colbert Report, when Carell was the guest. They debated how uncomfortable the interview was for them, leading into both insulting each other for bad career decisions, and ending with both men crying and a surprise appearance by Jon Stewart who begged the two to answer how they were able to leave the show.
A Tale of Survival
A Tale of Survival was a segment that was always done by correspondent Vance DeGeneres, in which he would present a feature done in the style of a Dateline NBC report. In it, a trivial incident was reported as if it were quite dangerous and serious, such as the time the pork chop a man was preparing caught fire and distressed his pet parrot. Between pre-filmed portions, Vance would appear in the studio hiding behind various set-decorations or apparatuses, describing the events in greater frightful detail. Unlike other Daily Show pieces, this one would be divided by a commercial break to accentuate the anticlimactic aspect. The segment first appeared in or around 1999 and was discontinued when Vance DeGeneres left the show in 2001.
Ad Nauseam
Ad Nauseam was a segment in which its host played various clips of television advertisements and then made fun of them. The original host of the segment was Michael Blieden until 1999. Steve Carell was the host from 1999 to 2002, but when he left the show for his movie and television career, correspondent Ed Helms began to take his place starting in 2002. The segment was discontinued around 2003.
It bears some resemblance to the "Ad Absurdum" segment on the CBC's Royal Canadian Air Farce.
The Decider
The Decider was an animated segment done in the style of a comic book. The segment's main character was President George W. Bush as the superhero The Decider. The segment originated when Bush made a comment referring to himself as "the decider" during a press conference on April 18, 2006. The Decider was only featured on the show three times, with its first appearance on April 19, 2006 (the day after Bush's use of the term). The Decider made an additional appearance on May 18, 2006. After a hiatus of two years, the segment was featured for the third and final on the June 19, 2008 episode, with an additional twist — The Decider had now become The Procastinator.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis: was a segment that occurred twice, as "Diagnosis: Mystery" and "Diagnosis: Science." "Mystery" was hosted by Jason Jones in the guise of a medical interest piece, exploring cures for homosexuality. "Science" was hosted by Rob Riggle, exploring how cloning animals will affect food choices.
Digital Watch
Digital Watch was a segment hosted by Ed Helms and focused on new technology. The segment began sometime around February 2003 and was discontinued sometime around the Summer of 2004.
Dollars and "Cents"
Dollars and "Cents" was a segment where two hosts discuss economics and give financial advice. It ridiculed the format of financial news shows and included a stock ticker and a bug in the left corner saying "MSTDSFN", mimicking the names and logos of MSNBC and CNN FN.
The hosts and format varied somewhat. When it premiered in early 2000 it was hosted by Steve Carell and Vance DeGeneres, with Nancy Walls reporting from the stock exchange as a "Money Bunny". The "Money Bunny" was usually treated poorly by the two male hosts who would make jokes at her expense. After DeGeneres left, he was replaced by Mo Rocca. Eventually, other correspondents would appear in the rotating spots as "Host" and "Money Bunny" such as Miriam Tolan, Matt Walsh, Campbell Smith, Lauren Weedman and Ed Helms. Dollars and "Cents" was last seen in 2002 when Rob Corddry was reporting from its news desk.
Exper-teasers
Exper-teasers was hosted by resident expert John Hodgman, debuting on August 24, 2006. The segment was pre-recorded and featured Hodgman, as the show's "Resident Expert", discussing a different topic each week from a room full of books. Samantha Bee was the voice over announcer for the segment's introduction. In each segment, a question appeared on-screen and Hodgman addressed the subject, often using doctored-up photos and other humorous visual aides. Hodgman ended each segment by saying "I'm John Hodgman, and you're welcome." While the "Exper-teasers" segment only appeared twice, Hodgman continues to appear on the show as the Resident Expert.
Great Moments in Punditry As Read By Children
Great Moments in Punditry As Read By Children was a segment that featured small children reading transcripts of contentious moments from programs like Crossfire and Hannity and Colmes. The segment was featured prominently between 2004 and 2005 and usually aired just before a commercial break.
Guantanamo Baywatch
A series of segments detailing the treatment of prisoners at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp. It features an in-house correspondent named "Gitmo" (an Elmo hand puppet with an added Islamic beard operated by Stewart in front of a greenscreen) who details his torture and eventual release from Guantanamo, having convinced the authorities he is in fact a Uighur. Stewart voices Gitmo in a style similar to Elmo, but with a Middle Eastern accent.
Headlines
Headlines was the segment that always opened the show for the first four years that Jon Stewart hosted the show. In the segment, Stewart would focus on the big stories of the day. The segment was abruptly dropped around 2003, and no reason was given. This was one of the three divisions of the show under Stewart's first few years; the others being "Other News" and "This Just In". All three were dropped in 2003. The term is still used on The Daily Show website to categorize videos of a night's leading news story.
The Jobbing of America
The Jobbing of America was a segment about jobs, hosted by Stephen Colbert.
Klassic Kolbert
Klassic Kolbert was a segment consisting of a previously aired segment featuring former correspondent Stephen Colbert. The segment first appeared on February 8, 2006, several months after Colbert left The Daily Show to host its spin-off, The Colbert Report.
Mark Your Calendar
Mark Your Calendar was a segment in which its host went over highlights of the upcoming month. At one particular time, the segment was done on a monthly basis. Mo Rocca originally hosted the segment, Ed Helms hosted it from 2002 to 2003, and Samantha Bee began hosting the segment in 2003. At one point, the segment was known as Mark One's Calendar.
Mess O' Potamia/Crisis in Israfghyianonanaq
Mess O' Potamia has been a common part of the show since the early days of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Like "Indecision ####", the title is merely used to specify the topic of the jokes, which focus on the troubles in the Mesopotamia region.
In August 2006, Stewart announced that the Mess O' Potamia segment had been renamed "The Futile Crescent". Then, in December 2006, Stewart created a spin-off of the segment, this one entitled "Mess O' Potomac", to coincide with the release of the final report from the Iraq Study Group.
The final segment of Mess O'Potamia aired in March 2009, shortly after Barack Obama assumed office. Although the Iraq War persisted, the clip was entitled "Mess O'Potamia – The Iraq War Is Over". However, on June 12, 2014, Jon Stewart announced, "Looks like we're going to have to return to our old coverage" and resurrected the old Mess O'Potamia segment.
Crisis in Israfghyianonanaq is an alternative name for the "Mess O' Potamia" segment. Originally used in 2006, it focuses on problems in the Middle East. The title is a portmanteau of the names of (in order) Israel, Afghanistan, Syria, Lebanon, Iran and Iraq.
Money Talks
A segment hosted by contributor John Hodgman focused on financial and wealth issues. Hodgman portrays himself as an incredibly wealthy and successful author who looks down on those poorer than him.
Mopinion
Mopinion was a commentary segment delivered in a deadpan fashion by Mo Rocca.
Other News
Other News was the segment that always followed Jon Stewart's "Headlines" segment for the first four years of his stint as host. In the segment, Stewart would focus on the less important stories of the day, which would provide a comedic contrast to the segment "Headlines". The segment was abruptly dropped around 2003, and no reason was given. This was one of the three divisions of the show under Stewart's first few years; the others being "Headlines" and "This Just In". All three were dropped in 2003.
Out at the Movies
Out at the Movies was a segment hosted by Frank DeCaro who provided the audience with a look at new feature films in-character as a flamboyantly homosexual film critic who can find gay subtext in any film. During his stint on the show, Comedy Central ran yearly extended thirty-minute-long versions of "Out at the Movies" for the Oscars. The segment debuted in 1997 and was one of the show's longest running segments. It was discontinued when Frank DeCaro left the show in 2003.
Poll Smoking with Dave Gorman
Poll Smoking with Dave Gorman was a segment in which the segment's host, Dave Gorman, credited as the show's Statistical Analyst, presents satirical views of polls and statistics pertaining to current events. In each segment, Gorman pretends not to notice the double-meaning of his segment's title (a reference to fellatio) and makes several accidental jokes involving the title, until the October 5, 2006 segment when Gorman "found out" the meaning of the segment's title and "decided" to go along with it. This segment first appeared on April 27, 2006 and last appeared on October 5, 2006.
Gorman had originally appeared on the show as a guest in December 2001, to promote his book Are You Dave Gorman?. He was hired as a contributor four years later, making him the second contributor to be hired after appearing on the show as a guest to promote his book (after John Hodgman).
Produce Pete with Steve Carell
Produce Pete was a segment hosted by Steve Carell, in which he gave humorous advice regarding produce, interspersed with comments about his life's own failures. The segment was previously-taped and first came about around 2002 or 2003 when Carell became too busy with his movie career to do live segments on the show. This segment would typically air towards the end of the show, right before "Your Moment of Zen". The segment was discontinued when Carell left the show, though it did make a brief reappearance after Carell was "discovered" to have been lost in Iraq.
The Seat of Heat
The Seat of Heat debuted on the show on September 13, 2006. The segment was featured during the guest interview; Stewart would ask the guest one question thought to be particularly tough to answer. (For example, during an interview with Johnny Knoxville: "Which member of your show will be the first to die and what will his scrotum be stapled to then?"). During the segment, the screen behind Stewart and his guest filled with images of flames. The Seat of Heat was the first regular segment during the guest interview since "Five Questions". However, this segment was short-lived. It was discontinued in November 2006, two days after Stewart jokingly complained to guest Tina Fey that "for some reason, we're married to this bit now."
Slimming Down with Steve
Slimming Down with Steve was a segment chronicling Carell's character's misguided attempts to lose weight. Among the methods suggested were eating vegetable shortening as a healthier alternative to ice cream (which Carell did in front of Stewart and the audience, to their obvious disgust) and undergoing surgery that apparently left him with open wounds. Humor was also derived from Carell's extremely degrading comments about his own (very exaggerated, if even existent) weight problems, such as, "I've been trying to slim down through diet and exercise, but I still feel like 190 pounds of crap in a 175-pound bag!"–announced with a cheery smile. The segment ran five times in 2001 and featured a cheesy opening sequence with a song whose lyrics, sung by Carell, consisted only of "Slimmin' down with Steve, slimmin' down with Steve!" repeated over and over.
Slow News Day
Slow News Day was a segment that debuted on the June 13, 2006 episode. The segment was a compilation of news clips, usually from CNN, MSNBC or Fox News, which followed an unusually dull or trivial news event over the course of several hours. The segment was very short and was usually played before going to commercial, with no introduction.
This Just In
This Just In was the segment that always followed Jon Stewart's "Other News" segment for the first four years of his stint as host. In the segment, Stewart would focus on the breaking stories of the day. This was one of the three divisions of the show under Stewart's first few years, the others being "Headlines" and "Other News." All three were abruptly dropped in 2003, with no reason given.
This Week in God
This Week in God featured the "God Machine" and a satirical run-down of "everything God did this week", very similar to the earlier Daily Show segment "God Stuff" with John Bloom. The title "The God Machine" itself is a parody of the theatrical device Deus ex machina, which means "God from the Machine" and refers to an almost contrived event that saves the day in a theatrical production.
Stephen Colbert usually did the sketch from 2003 to 2005, though occasionally it was done by other correspondents. Due to the spin-off of The Colbert Report, the sketch was handed off to Rob Corddry in 2005. Said Colbert on the hand-off: "God has an exclusive licensing agreement with The Daily Show. We're trying to get the Devil for our show."
After the July 31, 2006 episode, This Week in God went off the air for three months due to Corddry's departure from the show. On October 19, 2006, "This Week in God" returned, with Samantha Bee taking over as the show's "Senior Religion Correspondent". Bee returned again for the segment's "Christmas Christacular" on December 18, 2006. Correspondent Ed Helms has also filled in for the host of the segment on occasion.
The God Machine normally took the form of a black post with a single large bright red button on its top, surrounded by yellow lining. It had previously appeared as the "God Lever" or the "God Rod." The host would smack the button, and it started flashing an apparently random succession of religiously themed images on a screen behind the host, while making a sound of a high-pitched voice (recorded by Colbert) saying "Beepboopboop beepboopboop boopboop. Beepboopboop beepboopboop boopboop. Beep. Boop. Boop". The images and the sound slowed down toward the end, with humorous or ironic last few images (such as Captain Morgan, Snuggle the Bear, Toad or Colbert himself) appearing before the screen settled on an image that prompted the next item in the segment.
A frequent subject chosen by the God Machine is Islam. Whenever this occurred, the host would make a side comment about the religion in an attempt to placate any angry Muslims. These statements include, "Islam! About which there is nothing funny", or "Islam! Which I respect completely."
Colbert made the "God Machine" famous as an icon for irreverent and sometimes provocative examination of religious issues. When Rob Corddry first took over God Machine duties, he indicated that he is an Episcopalian.
On the April 19, 2007 episode of The Colbert Report, during Sean Penn's and Stephen Colbert's Meta-Free-Phor-All, a modified version of the "God Machine" sound was used to generate subjects. The "God Machine" made an additional appearance during the June 5, 2007 episode of The Colbert Report.
Trendspotting
Trendspotting was a segment hosted by comedian and "Youth Correspondent" Demetri Martin. In this segment, Martin provides viewers with a comedic look at new, youth-targeted trends. Topics included wine, Xbox 360, Myspace.com, life coaching, hookahs, and credit card companies. On July 24, 2007, correspondent John Oliver filled in for a slightly altered "Political Trendspotting" segment on the YouTube Debates, wearing a Demetri Martin wig and attempting to adopt his hip vernacular. (Ironically, Oliver is 5 years younger than Martin).
We Love Showbiz
We Love Showbiz was a segment hosted by Steve Carell and Nancy Walls (who are now married). It was a parody of Access Hollywood, Entertainment Tonight and similar shows; poking fun at their sycophantic attitude towards celebrities. After Walls' departure in 2002, other female correspondents (Lauren Weedman and Rachael Harris) hosted opposite Carell. When Carell was not available, Ed Helms would host. Rob Corddry also hosted twice during the summer of 2003, once with Steve Carell and once with Samantha Bee. The segment was discontinued in 2003.
Wilmore-Oliver Investigates
Wilmore-Oliver Investigates was a segment in which correspondents Larry Wilmore and John Oliver parody investigative journalism. The segment has been featured three times. The first installment explored the use of the n word, and the second segment explored celebrities who utter offensive statements. The third looked into a Republican debate at a primarily African-American college which none of the major candidates showed up to; this segment was repeated on January 24, 2008. Most of the humor in the segment is drawn from the differences between British correspondent Oliver and African-American correspondent Wilmore. The segment debuted on March 28, 2007.
This first segment was a focus of conversation when Wilmore appeared on NPR's Fresh Air with Terry Gross in June 2007.
Whaaa?
Whaaa? was a segment that was sometimes introduced during coverage of news stories that Stewart claimed to find particularly bewildering, such as the revelation that the Army was firing Arabic-speaking linguists for being gay, or that AOL Time Warner had managed to lose $99 billion in a single year. The device was used during 2002 and 2003 and was identified by Stewart's turning to camera three and the appearance of a large blue logo reading, "Whaaa?"
Worst Responders
Worst Responders (a reference to first responders) was a segment that castigated politicians' responses to disasters. Its most famous airing occurred in 2010, when Stewart brought in first responders Kenny Specht, John Devlin, Ken George and Chris Bowman in an attempt to urge passage of the Zadroga Act. Stewart revived the bit in 2015 on Noah's show to urge reauthorization of the Act.
You're Welcome with John Hodgman
On February 12, 2009, "Resident Expert" John Hodgman began a new segment called You're Welcome, in which he uses his "expertise" to permanently solve the country's most pressing problems. For instance, in the first segment, he proposed to save the struggling economy in part by making Criss Angel the treasury secretary (promising that he would "levitate the economy, make it disappear, then pull it out of the belly button of a Hooters waitress"), and instituting an "emergency Christmas" to get people shopping.
The Toss
For a time, at the end of a show, just before the Moment of Zen, Jon Stewart "[checked] in with our good friend Stephen Colbert at The Colbert Report." Meant as a parody of major news shows bridging to one another on networks such as CNN, the sequence usually consisted of either a "sneak preview" of Colbert's show or a brief discussion about something that occurred on Stewart's. Ultimately, however, the sequence often ended with Colbert's egotistical character insulting Stewart. Usually, both Colbert and especially Stewart were prone to breaking character and laughing. Once a feature of virtually every episode, the frequency of The Toss was cut back to the point where the Toss happened only once every couple of weeks. The Toss did not appear from February 2011 to November 2014, due to scheduling conflicts between the two shows. The segment reappeared for the first time in nearly four years on November 4, 2014, when both shows aired live coverage of the 2014 midterm elections. It appeared again on Thursday, December 18, 2014, when Stephen Colbert had his final episode of his show, The Colbert Report.
From January 2015 until Stewart's departure in August 2015, the segment aired every Monday with Stewart and Larry Wilmore bantering as a bridge to The Nightly Show.
Other segment titles
As with "Indecision" and "Mess-O-Potamia," other humorous titles have been used to indicate the subject matter of various segments. Recently, these have included:
Clusterf**k to the White House, a segment on the 2008 presidential election, the title referring to the large number of candidates (which at the time was 18) running for the position.
Clusterf**k to the Poorhouse, which features news about the worsening US and world economies.
Variations on the theme include Clustershag to 10 Downing on the 2010 British general election, and Clusterf**k to the Warhouse on the Israeli and Korean crises of late May and early June 2010.
Gaywatch / We're Here, We're Queer, Get Newsed to It, a segment focusing on issues relating to the gay rights movement, such as same-sex marriage and Don't Ask, Don't Tell.
Baracknophobia, referring to news outlets and other organization that have a seemingly irrational fear of President Barack Obama.
A variant on Indecision 2008, The Long, Flat Seemingly Endless Bataan Death March to the White House, covering the drawn-out contest between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton for the Democratic nomination.
You Don't Know Dick (later, "Even Dick Don't Know Dick" and "You Don't Know Richard Cheney" when Lynne Cheney was the guest), which chronicles Vice President Dick Cheney's various levels of secrecy. On the February 5, 2009 episode, Stewart officially changed the name of the segment to "Why Are You Such A Dick?"
¿Ay, Mami, Por Que es El Mentiroso Todavía a Cargo de la Ley? (Mommy, Why is the Lying Man Still in Charge of the Law?), which features highlights from Attorney General Alberto Gonzales's testimonies before Congress relating to the U.S. attorney firings scandal.
America to the Rescue, which highlights arms deals between the United States Government and the governments of Middle Eastern countries. The segment is introduced by a melange of powerful music, a brief segment of George W. Bush speaking, and computer-generated fighter jets. A self-compounding instance that compounded U.S. weapons deals linked to Saddam Hussein and Osama bin Laden, "flashback" segment introductions from the Persian Gulf War (featuring George H. W. Bush and the early 1980s Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (featuring Ronald Reagan).
Maritime Salvage Update, which has appeared twice and chronicles current underwater archaeological news
I Give Up, when Stewart highlights a story which makes him upset and hopeless.
Past recurring Kilborn-era segments
Here is a list of past recurring segments from mostly the era in which Craig Kilborn hosted the show (1996–1998), in alphabetical order:
A Moment for Us
A Moment for Us was a segment in which host Craig Kilborn paused the show for a personal monologue with the audience. Kilborn carried the segment over when he left The Daily Show to become the host of The Late Late Show. The segment was featured during Kilborn's stint as host, from 1996 to 1998.
Backfire
Backfire was a segment that was an in-studio debate between correspondents A. Whitney Brown and Brian Unger. It is very similar to the later segment, "Even Stevphen", which were also in-studio debates between two correspondents. The segment's title is a parody of the political debate show, Crossfire. The segment began in or around 1996 and was discontinued when A. Whitney Brown and Brian Unger left the show in 1998.
Five Questions
Five Questions was a segment that was conducted during each show, when Craig Kilborn was the show's host. The segment would always come at the very end of Kilborn's informal celebrity interviews. In the segment, Kilborn would ask a sequence of five absurd questions that often had even more irrelevant answers. Actor Bill Murray gained notoriety for being the first and one of the few to answer all "correctly". Kathy Ireland had the dubious honor of only getting one, and that was with Kilborn's help.
A book released in 1998 by Comedy Central titled The Daily Show: Five Questions (), highlights many of the best interview moments from Craig Kilborn's stint as host.
When Kilborn left the show in 1998 in order to replace Tom Snyder on CBS's The Late Late Show, he was able to take the segment Five Questions with him to the new show, disallowing any future TDS host from using it in their interviews. However, in Jon Stewart's first week as host, he slowly phased out the "Five Questions", doing "Four Questions" on Monday, "Three Questions" on Tuesday, "Two Questions" on Wednesday, ending with "The One Question" on Thursday.
God Stuff
God Stuff was a segment in which the segment's host, John Bloom, presented an assortment of actual clips from various televangelists. It is very similar to the later segment, "This Week in God". The segment began around 1996 and was discontinued when John Bloom left the show in 1998.
Public Excess
Public Excess was a segment hosted by correspondent Rich Brown. The segment began in 1996 and was discontinued when he left the show in 1998. Public Excess segments from the past were still being shown in The Daily Show episodes up to mid 2000.
Trivial Compromise
Trivial Compromise was a Jeopardy!-like segment shown during the last commercial break during Craig Kilborn's tenure as host. It was hosted by Creator/Producer Lizz Winstead's mother and father Ginny and Wilbur Winstead via telephone.
Recurring jokes
There are several comedic themes and gags which have recurred through the series. This is an incomplete list.
Current running gags
"Senior __ Correspondent"
When a correspondent does a purported live shot, the caption of his or her title will say "Senior __ Correspondent," with an absurd subject in which he or she is supposedly expert and therefore qualified to cover the story at hand. Some of the more ridiculous examples have included "Senior Child Molestation Correspondent," "Senior Conceptual Art Correspondent" and Larry Wilmore's long-standing title, "Senior Black Correspondent." (When Wilmore first appeared on the show, his title appeared in the caption as simply "Black Correspondent," but he refused to begin his report until it was changed to "Senior Black Correspondent.")
Pun Captions
Most news stories covered on The Daily Show are accompanied by an image in the top left-hand corner of the screen and a caption that is a pun connecting the story's subject with a familiar saying or pop-culture item. Examples include "Ebony and Irony," which was used when it was revealed that Strom Thurmond's family once owned Al Sharpton's; "Syria's Unfortunate Events" for the end of Syria's occupation of Lebanon; and "Scum-dog Million-hairs" in reference to corrupt Illinois governor Rod Blagojevich and his oft-ridiculed haircut. If the audience laughs particularly long at a joke, Stewart will often mock them with a comment to the effect of, "Really? We kinda thought we phoned that one in;" if they groan or snicker at it, he will say something defensive like, "You think it's easy coming up with these?" or "You should've seen the ones we didn't go with." One recurring joke, often used to make fun of the audience and the viewers, is to make a pun at World of Warcraft, using its text or making the segment's name World of ___craft.
Green Screens
Stewart and the correspondents sometimes make ad-libbed references to the fact that their "live reports" are nearly always filmed from inside the studio in front of a green-screen only a short distance from Stewart's desk. This is sometimes brought up if the picture on the screen contradicts reality–for example, if it shows a nighttime view of the city where the correspondent claims to be. Other references are scripted, such as when Samantha Bee, Jason Jones and Dan Bakkedahl all claimed to be reporting from three different Middle Eastern cities; appearing on a split screen, they tossed the many-pocketed khaki vest typically worn by correspondents during Middle East segments from frame to frame (each of them being unwilling to deliver a report about the Middle East without wearing khaki). Another time, Jason Jones, having actually gone to Denmark to report a story, shoved a passerby in order to "prove" he was really there.
"Meet Me at Camera Three"
Meet Me At Camera Three is a common phrase coined by Stewart, which began in 2006, to initiate what is intended to be a direct address to the person or group with which the current topic is concerned. Typically after expressing his distaste for the subject's actions, Stewart will then request that (for example) "Walt Disney Company, meet me at camera three", at which point the shot switches to a camera situated at the right of the regular camera. Stewart turns on spot to face the camera, and sends his message to the subject, possibly beginning his speech with a relevant greeting, and then the shot is switched back to its regular camera. Trevor Noah has continued this tradition.
Africa Jokes
Trevor Noah, being from South Africa, started this running gag on the show in late 2016. Noah looks straight at Camera Three after making a joke pertaining to Africa and says things such as "Africa Jokes; where you thought I was joking but aren't so sure anymore".
Spirit Airlines
In lieu of the Arby's jokes Stewart did on the show, Noah has since made a punching bag out of Spirit Airlines. After making a joke about them, similar to Stewart, Noah would turn to either Camera 1 or Camera 3 and make up a slogan about the poor quality of Spirit.
Look at all those faces!
As a comment on the crowded 2020 Democratic nominees, Noah would show a group shot of all the nominees, plus a joke nominee, such as the original design of the movie Sonic the Hedgehog, and the title character from The Mandalorian, and say, "Look at all those faces! Look! At all! Those faces!"
Running gags under Stewart
"Arby's"
Jon Stewart would pull a fun yet insulting joke at the expense of fast food chain Arby's, usually claiming the food is inedible or unhealthy. After the joke, Stewart would sometimes claim they are a fine restaurant and has no reason to make fun of them.
Arby's CEO Paul Brown made an appearance on Jon Stewart's final episode on August 6, 2015. Arby's also made a 'Goodbye Jon Stewart' video for Stewart's last show, which was a small compilation of all the jokes that Stewart's made about them.
Mitch McConnell tortoise impersonation
A recurring joke involving Stewart imitating Senator Mitch McConnell in the voice of Cecil the Turtle, implying McConnell's tortoise-like appearance and mannerisms.
NAMBLA
A running gag is the insertion of the phrase "...or NAMBLA" (an acronym for the North American Man/Boy Love Association) instead of stating a proper abbreviation or acronym after mentioning a long or convoluted name, such as American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees, Republican National Convention or Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Similarly, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries was dubbed "NAMBL-OPEC" and the National Rifle Association was dubbed "BLAMBLA." The International Atomic Energy Agency was termed "IAEA-BLA". An advocacy group concerned about alleged sexual abuse by Catholic priests was termed "Anti-NAMBLA". In August 2005, Stewart renamed NARAL Pro-Choice America "NAR-AMBLA". In the October 2005 debut of a segment called "Man vs. Nature: The War on Terra", which detailed the devastating effects of global warming, Stewart shivered as he said "NAMBLA" in reference to the National Snow and Ice Data Center. Stewart will even refer to organizations that are already acronyms as NAMBLA ("...the AARP, or NAMBLA").
While covering the 2004 Republican National Convention, Stephen Colbert was asked who he was representing and quickly answered, "Oh, I'm with NAMBLA." Unaware of the context, she replied, "Well, have fun tonight." (Incidentally, the woman he said this to turned out to be a friend of his sister.)
On July 27, 2006, a segment of the show titled "10 F#@king Years" featured many clips referring to the NAMBLA jokes. Jon Stewart ended the recap with yet another NAMBLA joke:
"You know, it's ironic. Now that we're 10-years-old, we're exactly the right age to draw the attention of NAMBLA. However, for the record, The Daily Show has absolutely no affiliation with the North American Man Boy Love Association, or, as it's called, UNICEF."
The joke was used once again in reference to the Mark Foley scandal, with Stewart speaking of the "North American Man Boy Love Association, or Congress."
On October 30, 2006, Jon Stewart played a clip from the Ohio gubernatorial race in which Ken Blackwell accused his opponent of getting support from NAMBLA. Jon Stewart stated "I knew I'd be right at some point with that acronym."
On November 30, 2006, Jon Stewart played a clip from the joint news conference of President Bush and Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki in Amman, Jordan. Jon Stewart made a joke about George W. Bush's announcement regarding the Joint Committee on Accelerating the Transferring of Security Responsibility, dubbing it SCRAMBLA.
Stephen Colbert carried the joke over to his program, The Colbert Report; in November 2007 when he was told by the South Carolina Democratic Council that he wasn't going to be on the primary ballot, he responded by saying "I assume you'll be donating my application fee to NAMBLA?"
A reference to NAMBLA also appears in America (The Book): A Citizen's Guide to Democracy Inaction. A spread providing information about different lobbies includes a "stated agenda" and "hidden agenda" for each group; for example, the "hidden agenda" of Hollywood is, "A Baldwin in the White House by 2016." NAMBLA's entry reads, "Stated agenda: The legalization of sexual relations between men and young boys. Hidden agenda: Dude, did you read the stated agenda?"
Vilsack Duck
During 2006 the show developed a running joke based on the name and relative obscurity of Democratic Governor Tom Vilsack. In a joint parody of the Aflac Duck, mentions of the governor on the show are proceeded with a duck quacking his name as "Vil-sack!". When Vilsack appeared as a guest on the show in December 2006, the joke was again used with the duck initially respectfully stating Vilsack's full name and title before being urged by Stewart to return to the standard joke. Vilsack himself later in the same show made light of the joke by presenting Stewart with a talking plush toy of the Aflac Duck with a badge reading "#1 Vilsack Fan", and saying "I'm not going to duck the issue".
On occasion, the duck has also blurted out similar words such as "Brown-back!" (for Sam Brownback) and "Mor-mon!". As a result of Tom Vilsack's withdrawal from the presidential race, the joke was retired during the February 27, 2007 episode, including a CGI render of the duck wailing "Villlllllllsaaaack!!" in anguish.
A similar joke was used to describe then-Presidential-candidate Barack Obama, where the duck said "half-black."
Time Magazine Person of the Year 2006
A recurring joke has involved Time Magazine's much criticised/mocked choice for Person of the Year 2006; 'You', signified with a mirror surface on the cover. When clips are played showing an individual highlighting the behaviour of 'you' (the common people/American voter), Stewart has begun dropping quips about the Time Magazine choice. If the comment made was positive, the joke involves the notion that this is the next big thing for 'you' after Time Magazine. If the comment was negative, the joke is based on the idea things have gone downhill for 'you' after the Time Magazine highlight.
Jimmy Dean Pancakes & Sausage On A Stick
First referenced on October 19, 2006, this food item has become a recurring joke with much humor derived from its strange mix of ingredients. Baconnaise, another unusual food item, was first mentioned on February 25, 2009 and has likewise been brought out as a recurring joke. Jon Stewart combined the two foods, dipping a blueberry-pancake-and-sausage stick into a jar of Baconnaise Lite.
Giant Heads
When the set was changed for the second time on April 9, 2007, the stagehands, according to Jon Stewart, made "one glitch ... a classic mistake that people make when they first break in a new set" and "installed the giant head of Brian Williams". Williams appears in the giant projection screen behind Jon Stewart and occasionally insults and demeans Stewart in regards to his journalistic skills on the show, including pointing out that Stewart "needs a teleprompter to read the fake news". Also, when Stewart mocked Brian Williams' service as a moderator in a Democratic Presidential Debate, Williams appeared behind him, intimidating and correcting Jon, before threatening that he found a way to appear at Stewart's home. Jon typically responds that he's surprised that Brian Williams is such a dick to him. In later shows, the giant heads of Robert Loggia, Ted Koppel, and Bruce Willis have also made an appearance.
Jon Stewart...
These segments start with Jon Stewart in the title and are often followed by something that, while related to the topic, can easily be misinterpreted as rude or unacceptable behavior. Such captions include Jon Stewart Looks at Kids junk, a look at recent technology advances, or Jon Stewart's Big Gay Problem, which was an intended name change for the Gaywatch segment, now known as We're here, We're Queer, Get Newsed to it. When the name of the segment is introduced, it is followed by Jon turning towards back stage and telling off the crew.
References
Recurring elements
Daily Show
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagrationi%20dynasty
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Bagrationi dynasty
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The Bagrationi dynasty (; ) is a royal dynasty which reigned in Georgia from the Middle Ages until the early 19th century, being among the oldest extant Christian ruling dynasties in the world. In modern usage, the name of the dynasty is sometimes Hellenized and referred to as the Georgian Bagratids, also known in English as the Bagrations.
The origins of the dynasty are disputed. The early Georgian Bagratids gained the Principality of Iberia through dynastic marriage after succeeding the Chosroid dynasty at the end of the 8th century. In 888 Adarnase IV of Iberia restored the Georgian monarchy; various native polities then united into the Kingdom of Georgia, which prospered from the 11th to the 13th century. This period of time, particularly the reigns of David IV the Builder (1089–1125) and of his great-granddaughter Tamar the Great (1184–1213) inaugurated the Georgian Golden Age in the history of Georgia.
After fragmentation of the unified Kingdom of Georgia in the late 15th century, the branches of the Bagrationi dynasty ruled the three breakaway Georgian kingdoms, the Kingdom of Kartli, the Kingdom of Kakheti, and the Kingdom of Imereti, until Russian annexation in the early-19th century. While the 3rd article of the 1783 Treaty of Georgievsk guaranteed continued sovereignty for the Bagrationi dynasty and their continued presence on the Georgian throne, the Russian Empire later broke the terms of the treaty and fully annexed the protectorate. The dynasty persisted within the Russian Empire as an Imperial Russian noble family until the 1917 February Revolution. The establishment of Soviet rule in Georgia in 1921 forced some members of the family to accept demoted status and loss of property in Georgia. Other members relocated to Western Europe, but some Bagrations repatriated after Georgia regained independence in 1991.
Origins
The earliest Georgian forms of the dynastic name are Bagratoniani, Bagratuniani and Bagratovani, changed subsequently into Bagrationi. These names as well as the Armenian Bagratuni and the modern designation Bagratid mean "the children of Bagrat" or "the house of/established by Bagrat", Bagrat being a given name of Iranian origin. The origins of the Bagratid dynasty is still matter of debate between Georgian and Armenian scholars. Georgian scholars argue that the Bagrationis were of Georgian origin, while Armenian and Western scholars believe them to be a branch of the Armenian Bagratunis.
According to a tradition first recorded in the work of the 11th-century Georgian chronicler Sumbat Davitis-Dze and repeated much later by Prince Vakhushti Bagrationi (1696–1757), the dynasty claimed descent from the biblical king and prophet David and came from Israel around 530 AD. The tradition had it that of seven refugee brothers of the Davidic line, three of them settled in Armenia and the other four arrived in Kartli (also known as Iberia), where they intermarried with the local ruling houses and acquired some lands in hereditary possession, with one of the four brothers, Guaram (died in 532), founding a line subsequently called Bagrationi after his son Bagrat. A successor, Guaram, was installed as a presiding prince of Iberia under the Byzantine protectorate, receiving on this occasion the Byzantine court title of Kouropalates in 575. Thus, according to this version, began the dynasty of the Bagratids, who ruled until 1801.
This tradition enjoyed a general acceptance until the early 20th century. The Jewish origin, let alone the biblical descent, of the Bagratids has been discounted by modern scholarship. Cyril Toumanoff's research concluded that the Georgian Bagratids branched out of the Armenian Bagratid dynasty in the person of Adarnase, whose father Vasak (son of Ashot III the Blind, presiding prince of Armenia from 732 to 748) passed to Kartli following an abortive uprising against Arab rule in 775. Adarnase’s son, Ashot I, acquired the Principality of Iberia in 813 and thus founded the last royal house of Georgia. Accordingly, the legend of the Davidic origin of the Georgian Bagratids was a further development of the earlier claim entertained by the Armenian dynasty, as given in the work of the Armenian author Moses of Khorene. Once the Georgian branch, which had quickly acculturated in the new environment, assumed royal power, the myth of their biblical origin helped to maintain their legitimacy and became a major ideological pillar of their millennium-long rule of Georgia.
The generation-by-generation history of the Bagrationi dynasty begins only in the late 8th century. Toumanoff claimed that the first Georgian branch of the Bagratids may be traced as far back as the 2nd century AD, when they were said to rule over the princedom of Odzrkhe in what is now southern Georgia. The Odzrkhe line, known in the medieval annals as the Bivritianis, lasted until the 5th century AD. They cannot, however, be considered the direct ancestors of the later Bagratids who eventually restored Georgian royal authority. Pavle Ingorokva suggested that the Bagrations were a branch of the Pharnavazid dynasty of the Kingdom of Iberia.
History
Early dynasty
The Bagrationi family had grown in prominence by the time the Georgian monarchy (Caucasian Iberia) fell to the Sassanid Persian Empire in the 6th century, and the leading local princely families were exhausted by Arab attacks. The rise of the new dynasty was made possible by the extinction of the Guaramids and the near-extinction of the Chosroids, the two earlier dynasties of Iberia with whom the Bagratids extensively intermarried, and also by the Abbasid preoccupation with their own civil wars and conflict with the Byzantine Empire. Although Arab rule did not allow them a foothold in the ancient capital of Tbilisi and eastern Kartli, the Bagratids successfully maintained their initial domain in Klarjeti and Meskheti and, under the Byzantine protectorate, extended their possessions southward into the northwestern Armenian marches to form a large polity conventionally known in modern history as Tao-Klarjeti. In 813, the new dynasty acquired, with Ashot I, the hereditary title of presiding prince of Iberia (Kartli), to which the emperor attached the honorific of kourapalates.
Despite the revitalization of the monarchy, Georgian lands remained divided among rival authorities, with Tbilisi remaining in Arab hands. The sons and grandsons of Ashot I established three separate branches – the lines of Kartli, Tao, and Klarjeti – frequently struggling with each other and with neighboring rulers. The Kartli line prevailed; in 888, with Adarnase I, it restored the indigenous Iberian royal authority dormant since 580. His descendant Bagrat III was able to consolidate his inheritance in Tao-Klarjeti and the Abkhazian Kingdom, due largely to the diplomacy and conquests of his energetic foster-father David III of Tao.
Golden Age
This unified monarchy maintained its precarious independence from the Byzantine and Seljuk empires throughout the 11th century, flourished under David IV the Builder (1089–1125), who repelled the Seljuk attacks and essentially completed the unification of Georgia with the re-conquest of Tbilisi in 1122. With the decline of Byzantine power and the dissolution of the Great Seljuk Empire, Georgia became one of the pre-eminent nations of the Christian East, her pan-Caucasian empire stretching, at its largest extent, from the North Caucasus to northern Iran, and eastwards into Asia Minor.
In spite of repeated incidents of dynastic strife, the kingdom continued to prosper during the reigns of Demetrios I (1125–1156), George III (1156–1184), and especially, his daughter Tamar the Great (1184–1213). With the death of George III the main male line became extinct and the dynasty continued through the marriage of Queen Tamar with the Alan prince David Soslan, of reputed Bagratid descent.
Downfall
The invasions by the Khwarezmians in 1225 and the Mongols in 1236 terminated Georgia’s "golden age". The struggle against the Mongol rule created a dyarchy, with an ambitious lateral branch of the Bagrationi dynasty holding sway over western Georgia (Imereti). There was a brief period of reunion and revival under George V the Brilliant (1299–1302, 1314–1346), but the eight onslaughts of the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur between 1386 and 1403 dealt a great blow to the Georgian kingdom. About a century later, its unity was finally shattered by two rival Turkic federations; the Kara Koyunlu, and the Ak Koyunlu. By 1490/91, the once powerful monarchy fragmented into three independent kingdoms – Kartli (central to eastern Georgia), Kakheti (eastern Georgia), and Imereti (western Georgia) – each led by a rival branch of the Bagrationi dynasty, and into five semi-independent principalities – Odishi-Mingrelia, Guria, Abkhazia, Svaneti, and Samtskhe – dominated by their own feudal clans.
During the three subsequent centuries, the Georgian rulers maintained their perilous autonomy as subjects under the Turkish Ottoman and Persian Safavid, Afsharid, and Qajar domination, although sometimes serving as little more than puppets in the hands of their powerful suzerains. In this period, in order to receive investiture from their suzerains, as a necessary prequisite, many Georgian rulers converted to Islam.
The line of Imereti, incessantly embroiled in civil war, continued with many breaks in succession, and the kingdom was only relatively spared from the encroachments of its Ottoman suzerains, while Kartli and Kakheti were similarly subjected to its Persian overlords, whose efforts to annihilate the fractious vassal kingdoms were in vain, and the two eastern Georgian monarchies, survived to be reunified in 1762 under King Erekle II, who united in his person both the Kakhetian and Kartlian lines, the latter surviving in male descent in the branch of Mukhraneli since 1658.
Last monarchs
In 1744, Erekle II and his father Teimuraz II were granted the kingships of Kakheti and Kartli respectively by their overlord Nader Shah, as a reward for their loyalty. Following Nader Shah's death in 1747, Erekle II and Teimuraz II capitalized on the eruption of instability, and declared de facto independence. After Teimuraz II died in 1762, Erekle II succeeded his father as ruler of Kartli, and united the two kingdoms in a personal union as the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti, becoming the first Georgian ruler to preside over a politically unified eastern Georgia in three centuries. At about the same time, Karim Khan Zand had ascended the Iranian throne; Erekle II quickly tendered his de jure submission to the new Iranian ruler, however, de facto, he remained autonomous throughout the entire Zand period.
Erekle II (Hercules) achieved a degree of stability in Kartli-Kakheti and established political hegemony in eastern Transcaucasia. In the 1783 Treaty of Georgievsk, he placed his kingdom under the protection of Imperial Russia. The latter failed, however, to provide timely help when the Persian ruler Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar captured, sacked and ravaged Tbilisi in 1795 to compel severance of Georgian ties to Russia, as he sought to re-establish Persia's traditional suzerainty over the region.
After the death of Erekle in 1798, his son and successor, King George XII, renewed a request for protection from Emperor Paul I of Russia, and urged him to intervene in the bitter dynastic feud among the numerous sons and grandsons of the late Erekle. Paul offered to incorporate the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti into the Russian Empire, while reserving to its native dynasty a degree of internal autonomy – essentially, mediatisation, and in 1799 the Russians marched into Tbilisi. Negotiations of terms were still in process, when Paul signed a manifesto on December 18, 1800, unilaterally declaring the annexation of Kartli-Kakheti to the Russian Empire. This proclamation was kept secret until the death of King George on December 28. His eldest son, the Tsarevich Davit, had been formally acknowledged as heir apparent by Emperor Paul on 18 April 1799, but his accession as king after his father's death was not recognized.
On September 12, 1801, Emperor Alexander I of Russia formally re-affirmed Paul’s determination, deposing the Bagrationi dynasty from the Georgian throne. Although divided among themselves, some of the Bagrationi princes resisted Russian annexation, trying to instigate rebellion. Most of them were subsequently arrested and deported from Georgia.
The reign of the House of Imereti came to an end less than a decade later. On April 25, 1804, the Imeretian king Solomon II, nominally an Ottoman vassal, was persuaded to conclude the Convention of Elaznauri with Russia, on terms similar to those of the Treaty of Georgievsk. Yet the Russian forces dethroned Solomon on February 20, 1810. Defeated during a subsequent rebellion to regain power, he died in exile in Trabzon, Ottoman Turkey, in 1815. Russian rule over Georgia was eventually acknowledged in various peace treaties with Iran and the Ottomans and the remaining Georgian territories were absorbed by the Russian Empire in a piecemeal fashion in the course of the 19th century.
Bagrationi in Russia
In the Russian Empire, the Bagrationis became a prominent family of aristocrats. The most famous was Prince Pyotr Bagration, a great-grandson of King Jesse of Kartli who became a Russian general and hero of the Patriotic War of 1812. His brother Prince Roman Bagration also became a Russian general, distinguishing himself in the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828), and was the first to enter Yerevan in 1827. Roman Bagration was also known for his patronage of the arts, literature and theatre. His home theater in Tbilisi was regarded as one of the finest in the Caucasus. His son Prince Pyotr Romanovich Bagration became governor of the Tver region and later governor-general of the Baltic provinces. He was also a metallurgic engineer known for the development of gold cyanidation in Russia. Prince Dmitry Petrovich Bagration was a Russian general who fought in World War I in the Brusilov Offensive and later joined the Red Army.
Bagrationi today
The majority of the Bagrationi family left Georgia after the Red Army took over Tbilisi in 1921.
Mukhrani branch
The House of Mukhrani is the most senior patrilinear branch of the Bagrationi dynasty, descending directly from King Constantine II of Georgia. Originally a cadet branch of the former Royal House of Kartli, they became the genealogically seniormost line of the Bagrationi family in the early 20th century; and although this elder branch had lost the rule of Kartli by 1724, it retained the Principality of Mukhrani until its annexation by Russia, along with Kartli-Kakheti, in 1800.
This branch of the family is related to the House of Borbón, the House of Wittelsbach, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, and the House of Romanov. A member of this branch, Princess Leonida Georgievna Bagration-Moukhransky, married Vladimir Cyrillovich, Grand Duke of Russia, and became the mother of one of the claimants to the Romanov legacy, Maria Vladimirovna, Grand Duchess of Russia. The overwhelming majority of regnant and non-regnant Royal Houses recognize Prince Davit's claim to the Headship of the Royal House of Georgia.
In 1942 Prince Irakli (Erekle) Bagrationi-Mukhraneli, of the genealogically senior branch of the dynasty, proclaimed himself head of the Royal House of Georgia. He founded the Union of Georgian Traditionalists in exile. His second wife, Maria Antonietta Pasquini, daughter of Ugo, Count di Costafiorita, bore him a son and heir, but died in childbirth in February 1944. In August 1946 the widower married Princess María Mercedes de Baviera y Borbón, a granddaughter of King Alfonso XII, and daughter of Don Fernando de Baviera y Borbón, who had renounced his royal rights in Bavaria to become a naturalised infante in Spain.
Beginning in the 1990s, senior members of the Bagrationi-Mukhraneli descendants began re-patriating to Georgia from Spain, ending generations of exile. Irakli's elder son, Prince Georgi Bagrationi-Mukhraneli, was officially recognized by government and church leaders when he brought his father's remains from Spain to rest with those of his ancestors in Svetitskhoveli Cathedral at Mtskheta in 1995, and moved to Tbilisi in 2005, where he died. His eldest son, Prince Irakli (Erekle), born in 1972, deferred his dynastic claim to his younger brother, Prince Davit (born 1976). Thus, Prince Davit — who moved to Tbilisi and reclaimed his Georgian citizenship — became Head of the Family Council and the Mukhraneli dynastic titles.
Gruzinsky branch
The Bagration-Gruzinsky line, although junior to the Princes of Mukhrani genealogically, reigned over the kingdom of Kakheti, re-united the two realms in the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in 1762, and did not lose sovereignty until Russian annexation in 1800.
Prince Nugzar Petrovich Bagration-Gruzinski (born 1950) is the most senior known patrilineal descendant of Kartli-Kakheti's last king, George XII, and is, as such, head of the Kakhetian branch of the dynasty which, although genealogically junior to the Mukhranelis, has reigned more recently, not having lost the throne of a Georgian kingdom until 1800.
Nugzar is well known in Georgia because he has lived his entire life in Tbilisi, and experienced with other Georgians both the country's subordination to the Soviet regime and its liberation since 1991. A theatrical and cinema director, his father, Prince Petre Bagration-Gruzinski (1920–1984), was a poet, and authored lyrics to the anthem, "Song of Tiflis".
As Nugzar has no male issue, Prince Evgeny Petrovich Gruzinsky (born 1947), the great-great grandson of Bagrat's younger brother Ilia (1791–1854), who lives in the Russian Federation, is considered to be an heir presumptive within the same primogeniture principle. Despite basing his claim on male primogeniture, Nugzar argues in favor of having his eldest daughter, Anna, designated as his heir.
Imereti branch
Various sources present three different lines as the head of the House of Imereti, potential claimants to the long defunct Kingdom of Imereti, the last of the three Georgian kingdoms to lose its independence in 1810.
The male line descending from the deposed David II of Imereti became extinct in 1978 when Prince Constantine Imeretinski died. He was survived by three daughters of his older brother.
However, Prince Nugzar Petrovich Bagration-Gruzinski claims that the headship of the Imereti branch had – for one reason or another – transferred in the early 20th century to a cadet branch descending from an older son of Prince Bagrat of Imereti. This branch died out in the male line in 1937 and in the female line in 2009.
The third claim names another branch descending from Prince Bagrat's younger natural son. This line survives in the male line and is headed by Prince David Bagrationi (born 1948) (not to be confused with his younger namesake from the Mukhrani branch).
The current claimant is Irakli Davitis Dze Bagrationi (Georgian: ირაკლი დავითის ძე ბაგრატიონი), head of the Georgian scion of the royal Bagrationi dynasty of Imereti, the direct male-line descendant of the kings of Imereti, the direct descendant of Alexander V (Georgian: ალექსანდრე V) (c. 1703/4 – March 1752), of the Bagrationi Dynasty, King of Imereti (western Georgia). Irakli is a son of David Bragationi and Irina Kobakhidze, born 10 July 1982 in Terjola, Imereti, Georgia. He is the future successor and head of the House of Bagrationi-Imereti. Irakli finished school in Ghvankiti, Terjola Municipality. He served in the National Guard of Georgia and reached lieutenant's rank. He has BA and MA from Georgian Technical University in automotive engineering. Irakli has been recognized by the Patriarch of Georgia, as well as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, as well as the Unione della Nobiltà Bizantina (Ένωση της Βυζαντινής ευγένειας).
Union of Bagrationi branches
Prince Nugzar's daughter, Princess Ana, a divorced teacher and journalist with two daughters, married Prince Davit Bagrationi-Mukhraneli, on 8 February 2009 at the Tbilisi Sameba Cathedral. The marriage united the Gruzinsky and Mukhrani branches of the Georgian royal family, and drew a crowd of 3,000 spectators, officials, and foreign diplomats, as well as extensive coverage by the Georgian media.
The dynastic significance of the wedding lay in the fact that, amidst the turmoil in political partisanship that has roiled Georgia since its independence in 1991, Patriarch Ilia II of Georgia publicly called for restoration of the monarchy as a path toward national unity in October 2007. Although this led some politicians and parties to entertain the notion of a Georgian constitutional monarchy, competition arose among the old dynasty's princes and supporters, as historians and jurists debated which Bagrationi has the strongest hereditary right to a throne that has been vacant for two centuries.
Although some monarchists support the Gruzinsky branch's claim, others — including most Royal Houses — support that of the re-patriated Mukhraneli branch. Both branches descend from the medieval kings of Georgia down to Constantine II of Georgia who died in 1505, and continue as unbroken, legitimate male lines into the 21st century.
Davit is the only member of his branch who retains Georgian citizenship and residence since the death of his father, Prince George Bagration-Mukhraneli, in 2008. Aside from his unmarried elder brother Irakli, Davit is the heir male of the Bagrationi family, while the bride's father is the most senior descendant of the last Bagrationi to reign over the united kingdom of eastern Georgia. The marriage between Nugzar Gruzinsky's heiress and the Mukhrani heir may resolve their rivalry for the claim to the throne.
Prince David and Princess Anna became the parents of a boy on 27 September 2011, Prince Giorgi Bagration Bagrationi, who, in his person, potentially unites the Mukhraneli and Gruzinsky claims. If no other Bagrationi prince is born in either the Gruzinsky or Mukhraneli branch who is of senior descent by primogeniture, and he survives those now living, Prince Giorgi will become the heir male of the House of Bagrationi and the heir general of George XIII of Kartli-Kakheti.
Gallery of some Georgian monarchs of Bagrationi dynasty
See also
Georgian monarchs family tree of Bagrationi dynasty of Tao-Klarjeti
Georgian monarchs family tree of Bagrationi dynasty of united Georgia
Georgian monarchs family tree of Bagrationi dynasty of Kartli
Georgian monarchs family tree of Bagrationi dynasty of Kakheti
Georgian monarchs family tree of Bagrationi dynasty of Imereti
Monarchism in Georgia
References
Sources
Mikaberidze, A. (2015) Historical Dictionary of Georgia, Rowman & Littlefield,
Baddeley, JF, Gammer M (INT) (2003), The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus, Routledge (UK), (First published in 1908; 1999 edition, reprinted in 2003)
Lang, DM (1957), The Last Years of the Georgian Monarchy: 1658-1832, New York: Columbia University Press.
Rapp, SH (2003), Studies In Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts, Peeters Bvba .
Further reading
A. Khakhanov. "Histoire de la Georgie", Paris, 1900 (in French)
A. Manvelichvili. "Histoire de la Georgie", Paris, 1951 (in French)
A. Manvelishvili. "Russia and Georgia. 1801-1951", Vol. I, Paris, 1951 (in Georgian)
K. Salia. "History of the Georgian Nation", Paris, 1983
Kartlis Tskhovreba, vol. I-IV, Tbilisi, 1955-1973 (in Georgian)
P. Ingorokva. Giorgi Merchule (a monograph), Tbilisi, 1954 (in Georgian)
E. Takaishvili. "Georgian chronology and the beginning of the Bagratid rule in Georgia".- Georgica, London, v. I, 1935
Sumbat Davitis dze. "Chronicle of the Bagration's of Tao-Klarjeti", with the investigation of Ekvtime Takaishvili, Tbilisi, 1949 (in Georgian)
"Das Leben Kartlis", ubers. und herausgegeben von Gertrud Patch, Leipzig, 1985 (in German)
V. Guchua, N. Shoshiashvili. "Bagration's".- Encyclopedia "Sakartvelo", vol. I, Tbilisi, 1997, pp. 318–319 (in Georgian)
External links
Official Site of the Royal House of Bagrationi of Georgia, Mukhrani Branch
Official Site of the Royal House of Bagrationi of Georgia, Gruzinsky Branch
[https://baza.vgd.ru/post/1/1919/p292857.htm?#%D0%91%D0%90%D0%93%D0%A0%D0%90%D0%A2%D0%98%D0%9E%D0%9D%D0%AB%20-%20%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%8F%20%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B2%D1%8C%20%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%93%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20York
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History of York
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The history of York, England, as a city dates to the beginning of the first millennium AD but archaeological evidence for the presence of people in the region of York dates back much further to between 8000 and 7000 BC. As York was a town in Roman times, its Celtic name is recorded in Roman sources (as Eboracum and Eburacum); after 400, Angles took over the area and adapted the name by folk etymology to Old English Eoforwīc or Eoforīc, which means "wild-boar town" or "rich in wild-boar". The Vikings, who took over the area later, in turn adapted the name by folk etymology to Norse Jórvík meaning "wild-boar bay", 'jór' being a contraction of the Old Norse word for wild boar, 'jǫfurr'. The modern Welsh name is Efrog.
After the Anglian settlement of the North of England, Anglian York was first capital of Deira and later Northumbria, and by the early 7th century, York was an important royal centre for the Northumbrian kings. Following the Norman Conquest of 1066 York was substantially damaged, but in time became an important urban centre as the administrative centre of the county of Yorkshire. York prospered during much of the later medieval era; the later years of the 14th and the earlier years of the 15th centuries were characterised by particular prosperity. During the English Civil War, the city was regarded as a Royalist stronghold and was besieged and eventually captured by Parliamentary forces under Lord Fairfax in 1644. After the war, York retained its pre-eminence in the North, and, by 1660, was the third-largest city in England after London and Norwich.
Modern York has 34 Conservation Areas, 2,084 Listed buildings and 22 Scheduled Ancient Monuments in its care. Every year, thousands of tourists come to see the surviving medieval buildings, interspersed with Roman and Viking remains and Georgian architecture.
Prehistoric settlement
Archaeological evidence suggests that people were settled in the region of York between 8000 and 7000 BC, although it is not known if these were permanent or temporary settlements. Polished stone axes indicate the presence of people during the Neolithic period in the area where the city of York is now, especially on the south-west bank of the River Ouse, just outside the city centre near where Scarborough Bridge is now. Evidence for people continues into the Bronze Age with a hoard of flint tools and weapons found by Holgate Beck between the railway and the River Ouse, burials and bronzes found on both sides of the River Ouse and a beaker vessel found in Bootham. Iron Age burials have been found near the area on the south-west bank of the Ouse where the concentration of Neolithic axes was found. Few other finds from this period have been found in York itself, but evidence of a late Iron Age farmstead has been uncovered at Lingcroft Farm away at Naburn.
Roman Eboracum
The Romans called the tribes in the region around York the Brigantes and the Parisii. York may have been on the border between these two tribes. During the Roman conquest of Britain the Brigantes became a Roman client state, but, when their leadership changed becoming more hostile to Rome, Roman General Quintus Petillius Cerialis led the Ninth Legion north of the Humber.
York was founded in 71 AD when Cerialis and the Ninth Legion constructed a military fortress (castra) on flat ground above the River Ouse near its junction with the River Foss. The fortress was later rebuilt in stone, covered an area of 50 acres, and was inhabited by 6,000 soldiers. The earliest known mention of Eburacum by name is from a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda along Hadrian's Wall, dated to c. 95–104 AD, where it is called Eburaci. Much of the Roman fortress lies under the foundations of York Minster, and excavations in the Minster's undercroft have revealed some of the original walls.
At some time between 109 AD and 122 AD the garrison of the Ninth Legion was replaced by the Sixth Legion. There is no documented trace of the Ninth Legion after 117 AD, and various theories have been proposed as to what happened to it. The Sixth Legion remained in York until the end of Roman occupation about 400 AD. The Emperors Hadrian, Septimius Severus and Constantius I all held court in York during their various campaigns. During his stay, the Emperor Severus proclaimed York capital of the province of Britannia Inferior, and it is likely that it was he who granted York the privileges of a colonia or city. Constantius I died during his stay in York, and his son Constantine the Great was proclaimed Emperor by the troops based in the fortress.
Economically the military presence was important with workshops growing up to supply the needs of the 5,000 troops garrisoned there and in its early stages York operated a command economy. Production included military pottery until the mid-third century; military tile kilns have been found in the Aldwark-Peasholme Green area, glassworking at Coppergate, metalworks and leatherworks producing military equipment in Tanner Row. New trading opportunities led local people to create a permanent civilian settlement on the south-west bank of the River Ouse opposite the fortress. By 237 it had been made a colonia one of only four in Britain and the others were founded for retired soldiers. York was self-governing, with a council made up of rich locals, including merchants, and veteran soldiers.
Evidence of Roman religious beliefs in York have been found including altars to Mars, Hercules, Jupiter and Fortune, while phallic amulets are the most commonly found type of good luck charm. In terms of number of reference the most popular deities were the spiritual representation (genius) of York and the Mother Goddess; there is also evidence of local or regional deities. There was also a Christian community in York although it is not known when it was first formed and there is virtually no archaeological record of it. The first evidence of this community is a document noting the attendance of Bishop Eborius of Eboracum at the Council of Arles (314), and bishops also attended the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the Council of Serdica, and the Council of Ariminum.
By 400 AD York's fortunes had changed for the worse. The town was undergoing periodic winter floods from the rivers Ouse and Foss, its wharf-side facilities were buried under several feet of silt and the primary Roman bridge connecting the town with the fortress may have become derelict. By this time Eboracum was probably no longer a population centre, though it likely remained a centre of authority. While the colonia remained above flood levels, it was largely abandoned as well, retaining only a small ribbon of population for a time.
Early Middle Ages
Post-Roman Ebrauc
There is little written evidence about York in the centuries following the Roman withdrawal from Britain in 410, a pattern repeated throughout Sub-Roman Britain. There is archaeological evidence for continued settlement at York near the Ouse in the 5th century, and private Roman houses, especially suburban villas, remained occupied after the Roman withdrawal.
Some scholars have suggested that York remained a significant regional centre for the Britons, based largely on literary evidence. Several manuscripts of the Historia Brittonum, written c. 830, contain a list of 28 or 33 "civitates", originally used to describe British tribal centres under Roman rule but here translated as Old Welsh () and probably indicating "fortified cities". Among these settlements is . Later, the text states that Ida was the first Anglian king of Bernicia and ruler over Cair Ebrauc. These are generally taken as references to a successor to old Roman Eburacum. This mention has led to speculation about Ebrauc in post-Roman times.
Christopher Allen Snyder makes note of the evidence for Eboracum continuing to function, perhaps as a military outpost or the seat of a minor kingdom based on some old territory of the Brigantes. Snyder cites historian and archaeologist Nick Higham in saying that the settlement had declined so much by the end of the Roman period that it was unlikely to have been a significant post-Roman regional centre.
Scholar Peter Field suggests that the City of Legions (urbs legionum) mentioned by Gildas in his 6th-century De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae is a reference to York, rather than Caerleon; if this were the case it could provide some contemporary information about Ebrauc.
A Peredur son of Efrawg is the hero of a 12th- or 13th-century Welsh romance; this would have been a variant of Ebrauc along with "Efrawg" or "Efrog", suggesting the city had royal associations in later tradition.
What later became parts of the North Riding and City of York were conquered by a Bythonic to early Angle version of Deira, Based around the Derwent.
Anglo-Saxon Eoforwic
Angles settled in the area in the early 5th century. Cemeteries that are identifiably Anglian date from this period. Cremation cemeteries from the 6th century have been excavated close to York on The Mount and at Heworth; there are, however, few objects from inside the city, and whether York was settled at all at this period remains unclear. The fortress's fate after 400 AD is not clear, it is unlikely to have been a base of Romano-British power in opposition to the Anglians. Flooded area reclamation would not be initiated until the 7th century under Edwin of Northumbria. After Angle settlement of Northern England, York was the Anglo-capital of Deira and one of the capitals when the kingdom united with Bernicia, later known as Northumbria.
By the early 7th century, York was an important royal centre for the Northumbrian kings, for it was here that Paulinus of York (later St Paulinus) came to set up his wooden church, the precursor of York Minster, and it was here that King Edwin of Northumbria was baptised in 627. The first Minster is believed to have been built in 627, although the location of the early Minster is a matter of dispute.
Throughout the succeeding centuries, York remained an important royal and ecclesiastical centre, the seat of a bishop, and later, from 735, of an archbishop. Very little about Anglian York is known and few documents survive. It is known that the building and rebuilding of the Minster was carried out, along with the construction of a thirty-altar church dedicated to Alma Sophia (Holy Wisdom), which may have been on the same site.
York became a centre of learning under Northumbrian rule, with the establishment of the library and school, the ancestor of St Peter's School. Alcuin, later adviser to Charlemagne, was its most distinguished pupil and then master.
Of this great royal and ecclesiastical centre, little is yet known archaeologically. Excavations on the Roman fortress walls have shown that they may have survived more or less intact for much of their circuit, and the Anglian Tower, a small square tower built to fill a gap in the Roman way, may be a repair of the Anglian period. The survival of the walls and gates shows that the Roman street pattern survived, at least in part, inside the fortress. Certainly excavations beneath York Minster have shown that the great hall of the Roman headquarters building still stood and was used until the 9th century.
By the 8th century York was an active commercial centre with established trading links to other areas of England, northern France, the Low Countries and the Rhineland. Excavations near the junction of the River Foss and River Ouse in Fishergate found buildings dating from the 7th and 9th century. These were located away from the Roman centre of the city may form a trading settlement that served the royal and ecclesiastical century. This and other discoveries indicate an occupation pattern during the 7th to 9th century that followed the line of the rivers, creating a long linear settlement along the River Ouse and extending along some of the River Foss.
Viking Jórvík
In November 866 AD a large army of Danish Vikings, called the "Great Heathen Army", captured York, unopposed due to conflict in the Kingdom of Northumbria. The next year they held the city when the Northumbrians tried to retake it; the army left the same year putting a local puppet king in charge of York and the area around York they controlled. The army returned in 875 and its leader Halfdan took control of York. From York, Viking kings ruled an area, known to historians as "The Kingdom of Jorvik", with Danes migrating and settling in large numbers in the Kingdom and in York. In York the Old Norse placename Konungsgurtha, Kings Court, recorded in the late 14th century in relation to an area immediately outside the site of the porta principalis sinistra, the west gatehouse of the Roman encampment, perpetuated today as King's Square, perhaps indicates a Viking royal palace site based on the remains of the east gate of the Roman fortress. In 954 the last Viking king, Eric Bloodaxe, was expelled and his kingdom was incorporated in the newly consolidated Anglo-Saxon state.
A renowned scholar of this era was Wulfstan II, Archbishop of York.
Several churches were built in York during the Viking Age including St Olave's, built before 1055 on Marygate, which is dedicated to St. Olaf King of Norway and St Mary Bishophill Junior which has a 10th century tower whose height was increased in the early 11th century.
Medieval
Following the Norman Conquest of 1066, York was substantially damaged by the punitive harrying of the north (1069) launched by William the Conqueror in response to regional revolt. Two castles were erected in the city on either side of the River Ouse. In time York became an important urban centre as the administrative centre of the county of Yorkshire, as the seat of an archbishop, and at times in the later 13th and 14th centuries as an alternative seat of royal government. It was an important trading centre. Several religious houses were founded following the Conquest, including St Mary's Abbey and Holy Trinity Priory. The city as a possession of the crown also came to house a substantial Jewish community under the protection of the sheriff.
On 16 March 1190 a mob of townsfolk forced the Jews in York to flee into the castle keep (later replaced by Clifford's Tower), which was under the control of the sheriff. The castle was set on fire and the Jews were massacred. It is likely that various local magnates who were debtors of the Jews helped instigate this massacre or, at least, did nothing to prevent it. It came during a time of widespread attacks against Jews in Britain. The Jewish community in York did recover after the massacre and a Jewish presence remained in York until the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290.
As a northern city, York soon became vulnerable to attacks and raids from Scotland after England's loss in the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. Its worst fear came to be in 1319 when a hastily assembled citizen army of 3000 men, made up of an odd mixture, including monks, marched out of the city to protect the Vale of York, but were totally annihilated by the much stronger Scottish forces. York's mayor, Nicholas Flemyng who lead it was among them, the only city mayor ever killed in action. Three years later, the suburbs of the city were heavily raided during The Great Raid of 1322, and went on until a truce was agreed with Robert the Bruce at a great council held at Bishopthorpe in 1323.
York prospered during much of the later medieval era. Twenty-one medieval parish churches survive in whole or in part, though only eight of these are regularly used for worship. Many medieval era timber-framed buildings survive in the city. While Slum clearances in the 19th century removed some of the more decrepit ancient examples of medieval architecture in the city, such as the medieval Water Lanes, streets such as The Shambles still survive to this day. The Shambles mostly date from the later medieval era with many examples of timber-framed shops with overhanging upper floors. The street was originally occupied by butchers but is now a popular tourist attraction consisting of mostly souvenir shops. Some retain the outdoor shelves and the hooks on which meat was displayed. The medieval city walls, with their entrance gates, known as bars, encompassed virtually the entire city and survive to this day. The city was also designated as a county corporate, giving it effective county status.
The later years of the 14th and the earlier years of the 15th centuries were characterised by particular prosperity. It is in this period that the York Mystery Plays, a regular cycle of religious pageants (or plays) associated with the Corpus Christi cycle and performed by the various craft guilds grew up. Among the more important personages associated with this period was Nicholas Blackburn senior, Lord Mayor in 1412 and a leading merchant. He is depicted with his wife Margaret Blackburn in glass in the (now) east window of All Saints' Church in North Street. There seems to have been economic contraction and a dwindling in York's regional importance in the period from the later 15th century. The construction of the city's new Guildhall around the middle of the century can be seen as an attempt to project civic confidence in the face of growing uncertainty. Brandsby-type ware and Humber ware ceramics were popular in the city at this time.
Early modern
Few buildings of significance were put up in the century after the completion of the Minster in 1472, the exceptions being the completion of the King's Manor (which from 1537 to 1641 housed the Council of the North) and the rebuilding of the church of St. Michael le Belfrey, where Guy Fawkes was baptised in 1570.
During the dissolution of the monasteries all the monastic institutions in the City were closed including St. Leonards Hospital and in 1539 St. Mary's Abbey. In 1547, fifteen parish churches were closed, reducing their number from forty to twenty-five, a reflection of the decline in the city's population. Despite the English Reformation making the practice of Roman Catholicism illegal, a Catholic Christian community remained in York although this was mainly in secret. Its members included St. Margaret Clitherow who was executed in 1586 for harbouring a priest and Guy Fawkes who tried to blow up the Houses of Parliament in 1605.
Following his break with Parliament, King Charles I established his Court in York in 1642 for six months. Subsequently, during the English Civil War, the city was regarded as a Royalist stronghold and was besieged and eventually captured by Parliamentary forces under Lord Fairfax in 1644. After the war, York slowly regained its former pre-eminence in the North, and, by 1660, was the third-largest city in England after London and Norwich.
In 1686 the Bar Convent was founded, in secret due to anti-catholic Laws, making it the oldest surviving convent in England.
York elected two members to the Unreformed House of Commons.
The Judges Lodgings is a Grade I listed townhouse that was built between 1711 and 1726 and later used to house judges when they attended the quarterly sessions of the Assizes at York Castle.
On 22 March 1739 the highwayman Dick Turpin was convicted at the York Grand Jury House of horse-stealing, and was hanged at the Knavesmire on 7 April 1739. Turpin is buried in the churchyard of St George's Church, where his tombstone also shows his alias, John Palmer.
In 1740, the city's first hospital, York County Hospital, opened in Monkgate and it moved into larger premises in 1745. The building was funded by public subscription. The building was expanded on the same site in 1851, and finally closed in 1976 when York District Hospital was opened.
Modern
In 1796 Quaker William Tuke founded The Retreat, a hospital for the mentally ill, situated in the east of the city outside the city walls, which used moral treatment.
The Yorkshire Museum was opened in 1830, and the British Association for the Advancement of Science held its first meeting here in 1831.
Largely thanks to the efforts of "Railway King" George Hudson, York became a major centre for the railways during the 19th century, a status it maintained well into the 20th century. The Colliergate drill hall was completed in 1872 and the Tower Street drill hall was completed in 1885.
On 29 April 1942, York was bombed as part of the retaliatory Baedeker Blitz by the German Luftwaffe; 92 people were killed and hundreds injured. Buildings damaged in the raid included the Railway Station, Rowntree's Factory, St Martin-le-Grand Church, the Bar Convent and the Guildhall which was completely gutted and not restored until 1960.
During the Cold War the headquarters of the Number 20 Group, Royal Observer Corps was moved to the newly constructed York Cold War Bunker in the Holgate area of town. It was opened on 16 December 1961, was in operation until 1991, and was then turned into a museum owned by English Heritage. In 1971 York was made an army Saluting Station, firing gun salutes five times a year such as the Queen's Birthday. The date marked 1900 years of army in York. The University of York was launched on sites at Heslington and the King's Manor and took its first students in 1963. In 1975 the National Railway Museum was opened, near the centre of York.
In October and November 2000 the River Ouse rose and York experienced very severe flooding; over 300 houses were flooded though no-one was seriously hurt.
See also
Timeline of York
History of Yorkshire
Medieval churches of York
Religion in York
Walker Iron Foundry
References
Further reading
Heape, R. Grundy. Georgian York
Palliser, David Michael. Medieval York: 600–1540 (Oxford University Press, 2014).
Rodgers, John. "The Capital of the North."History Today (June 1951) 1#6pp 64–70 online
External links
York Past & Present: Extensive site dedicated to the archiving of Yorks heritage with a superb online virtual library
History of York: Extensive site dedicated to the History of York
Victoria County History of the City of York: part of British History Online.
Register of the Freemen of York, 1272–1759: key biographical source, originally published by the Surtees Society. Part of British History Online.
Parish of St. Mary Bishophill Junior
History of Yorkshire
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5099944
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway%20Enthusiasts%20Society
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Railway Enthusiasts Society
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The Railway Enthusiasts Society Incorporated (known by its acronym RES) is a New Zealand railway enthusiast society formed on 17 July 1958. RES formed the Glenbrook Vintage Railway (GVR) in 1968, with GVR now forming a separate charitable trust.
Objectives
The RES objectives are as follows:
To foster an intelligent interest in railways and in their operation and development generally.
To facilitate the exchange between railway enthusiasts of information concerning the history, development, design, construction and operation of railways in New Zealand and elsewhere.
To encourage the preservation of private and public collections of railway photographs, films, literature and equipment.
To publish, print, distribute and authorise periodicals, books, magazines and other printed matter on topics of railway interest or related to the Society's activities.
To arrange trips, tours and excursions to places of railway or general interest.
The Railway Enthusiasts Society incorporates the Glenbrook Vintage Railway.
Excursions and tours
1960s
Over the years since its formation, the Society has grown its reputation, both within the rail industry and publicly, by operating excursions to places of interest, both railway related and non-railway related.
The earliest excursions saw extra carriages attached to regular passenger train services throughout both the North Island and South Island. The Society has also operated its own private charter train services for larger trips, an activity it still does to this day.
Some excursions have achieved legendary status, particularly by the rail heritage sector. Many members remember earlier trips such as the 19th century tank locomotive "Meg Merriles" (a member of the F class) running trips to Swanson and Drury, C class locomotives double-heading services to Meremere and the mid-winter trips down the North Island Main Trunk.
Probably the most memorable excursion of this period was three 4-8-2 JA class locomotives triple-heading an 18 carriage train from Auckland to Hamilton in 1964 – a feat which, to date, has not been repeated on New Zealand's national rail network with steam traction. The Society replicated this operation with classic 1950s DA class diesel locomotives (the specific class members were 1410, 1429 and 1431), on the Auckland – Mt Maunganui "Seatrain" 2000 trip and Auckland – Whangarei "Waves & Wheels" trip in 2001.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the end of steam traction provided the opportunity to run locomotives from their bases at the time, to Auckland, for preservation as part of the Society's Glenbrook Vintage Railway project.
In 1969 small WW class locomotive 480 ran a rail tour the length of the Midland Line from Greymouth to Christchurch, then up the Main North Line from Christchurch to Picton, before crossing the Cook Strait and up the North Island Main Trunk from Wellington to Auckland. The response from the public was phenomenal, with most vantage points packed with people, either on foot or in cars, who had come out to see the train travel north. The journey was also the subject of a National Film Unit film "The Ride of 480". The 1920s locomotive was special to the Society because whilst based in the Auckland (until about 1964), the engine had been used on many Society excursions around the Auckland area and was a favourite with many of the members who also worked on NZR at the time.
The whole project was repeated the following year when sister WW class locomotive 644 ran the same journey from Greymouth to Auckland over the same timeframe.
1970s
In 1972, JA locomotive "Diana" was brought to Auckland via the Wairarapa and Taranaki regions with sister locomotive J 1236. On the last leg of the trip from Auckland to the Glenbrook Vintage Railway, the train was fully booked and all vantage points along the route were also filled with people. It would turn out that this would be the last steam train to carry passengers out of Auckland City until 1985.
In 1976, due to a shortage of available carriages, NZR announced it would no longer make carriages available to organisations for charter work. The Society responded to the situation by assisting the formation of the National Federation of Rail Societies (later renamed Federation of Rail Organisations of New Zealand), a national body to look after the interests of all rail heritage organisations in New Zealand.
The Federation successfully negotiated for private (non motive power) rolling stock to operate on the national rail network. In 1978, an excursion from Auckland to Tauranga through the recently opened Kaimai Tunnel, operated with three Society carriages and one carriage hired from Steam Incorporated.
1980s
In 1981 and 1986, the Society operated steam-hauled trains with Glenbrook Vintage Railway's Mallet locomotive and WW 480 along Quay Street in Auckland as part of tourism promotions. These lines, which served Port of Auckland wharves, were removed in the late 1980s and the trains were the last to carry passengers in Auckland's Central Business District until the opening of Britomart Transport Centre in July 2003.
In 1985, permission was granted by NZR to the National Federation to operate motive power rolling stock (including steam power) on the NZR network. In co-operating with Steam Incorporated, the Society ran a special Auckland-Wellington and return rail tour the length of the North Island Main Trunk pulled by JA 1250 "Diana" and KA 945.
In 1988, the Society was involved in the Ferrymead 125 celebrations in Christchurch that commemorated 125 years since the first steam drawn railway operated in New Zealand. The Society ran a rail tour from Auckland to Christchurch and return with its own excursion carriages, hauled by JA 1250. Once in Christchurch, the trainset was used on numerous excursions associated with the events, including a run from Christchurch to Timaru return and Christchurch to Arthur's Pass and return. These latter trips also consisted of Otago Excursion Train Trust carriages and New Zealand Railways Corporation carriages pulled by J A 1250 and J 1211 "Gloria" on its first network appearance with the then recently formed Mainline Steam Trust.
1990s
The Society continued to offer a broader range of excursions and tours throughout the 1990s despite the loss of JA 1250 from service for a major overhaul.
A major feat through the decade was the operation of the Silver Fern railcar on almost every line it could operate on in the North Island including the Taneatua Branch, Murupara Branch, Kinleith Branch, Cambridge Branch, Rotowaro Branch, Mission Bush Branch, Onehunga Branch, North Auckland Line to Otiria, Stratford–Okahukura Line, Waitara Branch, Kapuni Branch, Wanganui Branch and the Wairarapa Line.
In 1991, the Society operated a European and British Rail tour, organised by John Stitchbury.
At Labour Weekend 1993, the Society operated the last steam-powered train rides on the Onehunga Branch for some time, which were operated with WW 480 – significant as the same engine had operated one of the Society's earliest excursions to Onehunga in 1962. (In 2010, steam returned to Onehunga during an open day before commuter services commenced, this time using Mainline Steam's JA 1275.)
In 1994, Silver Stream Railway's C 847 was steamed at Glenbrook Vintage Railway for the first time since retiring from NZR service. In early October, it became certified for operations on mainline rails, operating the "Western Leader Flyer" between Avondale and Waitakere in coordination with Henderson's 150th celebrations. The following day the locomotive double-headed with WW 480 to Huntly on an excursion. During the return journey, the train was split in half and each locomotive pulled half the train side by side between Mercer and Pukekohe, the only time in New Zealand history that two steam-powered trains have operated in this manner.
In 1995, a South Island rail tour visited all the railway lines available to passenger charter as were possible. Included in the itinerary was haulage in the North Island by a small DH class heavy shunting engine between Auckland and Hamilton, EF class between Hamilton and Palmerston North, and preserved DA 1471 between Palmerston North and Wellington southbound. In the South Island preserved DE508 pulled the train down the Main North Line from Picton to Christchurch and the last DJ class locomotive owned by New Zealand Rail, DJ3096, was employed on the rest of the South Island itinerary. The operation of the train to Hokitika empty for photos, down the Bluff Branch to the Bluff Harbour Island and along the Lyttelton Line to Lyttelton Port were rare and unusual. So too was the final segment of the run from Hamilton to Pukekohe, where C No. 47 (on a return day excursion between Auckland and Hamilton) double-headed the train with DA 1471 that had returned the tour from Wellington to Auckland via the Wairarapa and Taranaki. The tour did not only cater to rail enthusiasts but featured visits to sightseeing attractions at every stop along the way (including a non-rail side trip to Stewart Island/Rakiura).
In 1998, with C 847 returning to its home base in the Hutt Valley, and JA 1250 not quite ready to re-enter service, the Society entered an agreement with Steam Incorporated to hire J 1234. This engine pulled a number of excursions around the upper North Island until JA 1250 returned to network service in 1999. J 1234 has also been used on Glenbrook Vintage Railway services, particularly on the popular Thomas Weekends where it carries the title "Wally the Wellington Engine".
Also in 1998, the Society hired two members of the DA class from Steam Incorporated, DA 1410 and DA 1431, for excursion service. These have been used on a large number of excursions to destinations including Rotorua, Taumarunui, Helensville and Kaipara Flats.
Current excursions and tours
In recent years the Society has continued to increase its membership and trips and tours profile. Two particular excursions are widely popular and book out weeks in advance every year. Waves & Wheels takes passengers from Auckland to the Bay of Islands and return completing various sectors of travel by rail, coach and Fullers Ferries catamaran. Seatrain offers a similar experience, operating between Auckland and Mount Maunganui.
Other regular trips have included the "Snowball Express" from Auckland to Ohakune and Mount Ruapehu by Silver Fern railcar, "Rally Spectators Special" from Auckland to Northland for an exclusive viewing of the Rally of New Zealand, "Fieldays by Fern" to the National Agricultural Fieldays by Silver Fern railcar, and various extended tours giving thorough coverage of both the North and South Islands.
The Whangamomona Republic Day trains are popular, with trains from Auckland, Hamilton and Palmerston North carrying thousands of passengers to the festivities. The fifteen carriage train operated for the 2005 event was featured in Marcus Lush's "Off the Rails" television series.
The Society has also operated short one-hour rides around the circuit formed by Auckland's Auckland–Newmarket Line, North Island Main Trunk Railway and North Auckland Line, usually pulled by JA 1250.
Overseas Tours are open to Society member's only and have included recent visits to Canada and the northern states of the US, recent visits to almost all the states in Australia and the most recent visit to Great Britain.
Club meeting nights and social events
A number of social events are also held for members of the Society throughout the year. On the second Tuesday of each month (except January), members meet at the Pearce Street Hall, Onehunga for an interesting and informative presentation and discussion on historic items and more contemporary topics that affect the rail industry in New Zealand and abroad. Topics also frequently cover highlights of society events, both past and present and offer members to meet with one another during the social supper at the conclusion of the program.
Occasionally events are held for members at the Glenbrook Vintage Railway. "Railfan's Days" are member-only days where trains re-creating the past are assembled and operated for those who want to ride and photograph them. Often items in the Glenbrook Vintage Railway fleet that are not seen on public operating days are brought out and operated for the benefit of Society members. These items include members of the classic diesel fleet, the steam crane and freight wagons.
An annual tradition has been the "Midnight Whistle", an evening function on 31 December of each year where members enjoy an evening meal and rare dusk and night time steam train rides. The site when everybody disembarks in a lineside field and the train reverses, prior to roaring past is memorable in itself. A lengthy blast on the whistle echoes around the local farms to signal in the New Year.
The Society is registered under the Incorporated Societies Act 1908 and its Annual General Meeting is usually held in September and covers reports on activities of the society, annual election of all officers and committee members (incumbents, by the Society's constitution, must stand down at the beginning of the meeting) and discussions on future activities.
Museum and office
The Society's registered office is located at 38 Alfred Street, Onehunga, Auckland. Open Monday to Saturday, between 9:00 am and 12:00 pm, it is completely staffed by volunteer members of the Society.
The office, not only takes excursion bookings, sells publications and answers all phone calls in relation to society and Glenbrook Vintage Railway activities, but also is the location where the Society's elected committee meets and Glenbrook Vintage Railway Charitable Trusboard and Branch meetings are held. It is thus, a very important piece of infrastructure for both entities.
The building was built in 1873 and was originally sited on the corner of Princess St and Onehunga Mall, Onehunga, beside the Onehunga Branch. The tight curve at this point on the line resulted in the station platform having an irregular triangle shape. In 1964, the building was put up for sale and the society purchased it and moved it to the block of land it presently occupies – land designated for the future Avondale–Southdown Line. It is believed to be the oldest railway station building in the country. An F class locomotive, F 233, was displayed at the Office site until 1984 when it was moved to the Glenbrook Vintage Railway for eventual restoration.
The building has also been used for a number of social events such as the Society's 30th and 40th birthday party (with accompanied rail excursion from Auckland City on both occasions), fundraising meals (in the lead up to Glenbrook Vintage Railway's opening) and smaller members meetings and overseas tour information meetings.
The Railway Enthusiasts Society operates a museum out of the old Onehunga Railway Station, which includes a selection of railway photos, memorabilia and railway artefacts. The museum also houses the collectible New Zealand Railways cups, which can fetch over $100 each.
Also included in the collection are also a huge number of magazines the Society receives on its members' behalf, operating electric tablet machines, locomotive and carriage brass number plates, three locomotive headlines (BB), JA and K. One of the more distinctive items, not actually on display but still in operating capacity is the 19th century light bulb which illuminates the now unisex (was females) lavatory room.
Glenbrook Vintage Railway
The Glenbrook Vintage Railway is a project of the Railway Enthusiasts Society, managed by a separate Charitable Trust on behalf of the Society. The Charitable Trust was formed in 1972.
The members of the Glenbrook Vintage Railway Trust board are appointed by the Railway Enthusiasts Society committee, or in the case of the Member's Trustee, elected the Annual General Meeting of the Railway Enthusiasts Society.
Whilst the two organisations are separate entities, the majority of those who assist the Glenbrook Vintage Railway are members of the Railway Enthusiasts Society and take an active role in the Society's activities on top of assisting the Glenbrook Vintage Railway.
Notes
References
External links
Railway Enthusiasts Society
Railway Enthusiasts Society – Archive.org copy of old site
Heritage railways in New Zealand
Rail transport in Auckland
Railway societies
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5099973
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenbrook%20Vintage%20Railway
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Glenbrook Vintage Railway
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The Glenbrook Vintage Railway (GVR) is a heritage steam railway in Glenbrook, New Zealand.
The GVR is run by a trust board of three trustees elected and appointed from Railway Enthusiasts Society (RES) membership. The board appoints a general manager who is responsible for day-to-day operation. The long railway carries up to 30,000 passengers during the normal operating season, which is from October to June, and is also available for charter throughout the year.
The railway is staffed and maintained by volunteers and RES membership provides automatic access to all activities as a volunteer. Special Events are often held, such as "Day Out With Thomas" weekends, Railfan Days (with display freight trains and other unique consists), Country and Western days and night steam runs.
History
The GVR is based on part of the old Waiuku branch line which opened in 1922 and closed from Glenbrook to Waiuku in 1967.
The initial concept for a steam-powered tourist railway was initiated when the New Zealand Government Railways announced the closure of the line, which was a popular route for excursions operated by the RES. Re-construction of the GVR began in 1970, slashing back overgrown gorse that had covered the line, renewing rail and building the Pukeoware Depot and the terminus at Glenbrook.
Delivery of items of rolling stock included the "delivery" rail-tours bringing the steam locomotive fleet from the South Island back to Auckland for use at Glenbrook. Carriages were sourced out of stock being retired from the Auckland commuter network at the time, and in some cases (such as carriage "Manukura"), where the item of rolling stock had sentimental value to the members of the RES.
In 1977 the railway opened between Glenbrook and Pukeoware. Early services over the railway used the line's ex-Ministry of Works Ruston diesel (later GVR No. 3), a motor trolley, and several material trolleys fitted with longitudinal seats. For the first proper services, steam locomotive No. 1 (formerly WW 480) was used with two carriages, a guard's van and an open car.
In 1985, JA 1250 (along with KA 945) hauled the first mainline steam excursion from Auckland to Wellington and return. This was the first steam excursion to run after NZR lifted their ban on steam traction.
In 1986 an extension was completed to Fernleigh, from Glenbrook. On 5 December 1986 DC 4444 and six Cityrail branded carriages made the run from Auckland to Fernleigh (including the GVR section). The next day a special excursion train ran from Auckland, carrying Prime Minister David Lange, who presided at the opening on 6 December 1986. JA 1250 and DA 529 hauled a large public excursion out to Glenbrook station from Auckland dubbed the "Sunset Coast Express". Acquisitions and improvements to track and structures occurred during the late 1980s and 1990s. In 1995 plans were laid out for the extension of the railway line from the Fernleigh Terminal into the actual town of Waiuku. Planning, lobbying public support and fundraising continued until the major physical works began in 1999. As the original Waiuku station and yards had been developed following the closure of the line in 1968, the decision was made to have the new Waiuku Station at Tamakae Reserve.
As part of the work, a new bridge would be required to reach Tamakae Reserve, and so a temporary station was opened at Victoria Avenue in Waiuku, just behind the Cosmopolitan Club. When the final extension is completed, it is intended that Victoria Ave will be retained. Member preview trains ran on Easter Saturday 2010, and at Labour Weekend 2010 the new route was opened to regular service by former Waiuku Mayor Kevan Lawrence and Mayor of Auckland Len Brown. The heritage 1922 concrete bridge known as Black Bridge has been strengthened to allow trains to operate beneath it, and laying of newly welded rail onto concrete sleepers (a first at the railway) has been completed. Work continues on planning the requirements of the final extension to Tamakae reserve.
The millionth passenger was carried on 7 January 2007.
Operations
Standard operating days
The railway operates selected Sunday's and public holiday weekend (except on Christmas Day and Boxing Day) between Labour weekend and Queen's Birthday weekend.
Steam train services depart from Glenbrook every 90 minutes between 11 am and 4 pm, with a round trip taking approximately 60 minutes. The return journey consists of a 20-minute non-stop run from Glenbrook to Victoria Avenue, a five-minute stop where the engine runs round the train, a ten-minute run back to Pukeoware Workshops, a 15-minute workshop inspection visit and a ten-minute run back to Glenbrook.
When the train is not at Glenbrook station hand jigger rides are available within the station yard and motor jigger rides are available to Morley Road level crossing, a round trip of four kilometres.
Special operating days
During the course of an operating season, special events are organised featuring a range of unique operations.
These include – Lego Weekends, Santa Days, Steam Festivals, Easter Celebrations, Day Out With Thomas Weekends, and events specific to each operating season.
Day out with Thomas
The most popular events operated by the railway, two trains up to six carriages long depart Glenbrook half-hourly between 10 am and 4 pm, usually.
A smaller "shuttle train" operates in the siding linking the railway to the KiwiRail network. Often hauled by small diesel locomotive "Basil" in earlier years, the service has also been operated by WW 480 "Terry the Tank Engine" and more recently by "Thomas the Tank Engine" – a visitor to the railway. The GVR's "Thomas" is Bagnall 2475, owned by the Mainline Steam Trust and formerly used at the Tomoana Freezing Works, Hastings.
Double-decker buses, traction engines, vintage cars and other related displays have also been presented at these events over the years.
On "Day Out With Thomas" weekends, trains only travel to Fernleigh, before returning to Pukeoware and Glenbrook.
Railfan Day
The first Railfan Day was held in February 1996, specifically a celebration to dedicate the National Network fleet van FM 1133 to the memory of past long-time treasurer Arthur Tichener and celebrate the completion of the overhaul of historic carriage C 472. A variety of passenger and mixed trains was run culminating in an impressive steam train triple-headed by Silver Stream Railway's C 847, WW 480 and GVR No. 4, the ex-Taupo Totara Timber Company (Mallet).
Since then various similar events have been held with special passenger and freight workings featuring a range of historic rolling stock and locomotives. These events usually run with resident locomotives and rolling stock, although visiting locomotives have occasionally made appearances, such as the Museum of Transport & Technology's (MOTAT) L 507, which attended the 2009 Railfan Festival.
Steam traction festivals
Steam festivals combine displays of various steam-powered vehicles on one major site. The Glenbrook Vintage Railway staged its first festival in Easter 2002, to celebrate its Silver Jubilee. A myriad of visiting railway locomotives, steam boats, miniature locomotives, static steam engines and even a steam-powered car were features. Trains operated on a half-hourly basis each of the four days of the festival and the visiting Pleasant Point Model T railcar also operated in the schedule.
Two DC locomotives pulled a special train on Saturday from Wellsford to Glenbrook and back (and associated empty runs from Otahuhu to Wellsford and back before and after the passenger service) to bring patrons to the event and the following day, Mainline Steam's J 1211 hauled a train from Auckland, whilst JB 1236 returned the train to Auckland. Numerous steam train runs also operated across the Mission Bush branch line to Pukekohe on the Sunday also.
A second steam festival was held in February 2007, incorporating a visit from 7nhp Burrell 'Scenic Special' showman's engine Quo Vadis (wrks. No. 3938) and associated carousel. The weekend also celebrated the re-launch of WW 644 into service after 37 years in storage and overhaul. This event was much lower-key, with no visiting engines attending this event.
A third steam festival took place at Waitangi weekend 2009. The opening event was a special evening on Thursday 5 February. Historic 19th century visiting tank engine L 207 (from MOTAT) operated a demonstration freight train (including a rare mainline appearance by historic 3-axle carriage C 472), followed by the recreation of an original New Zealand "trial rail-motor" from the beginning of the 20th century (which comprised one small tank engine pulling one of four purpose built 60 ft car/vans). The train comprised L 207 and the recently restored dining car van "Kurahaupo" (AF 1182), which was one of the original purpose-built trial rail-motor carriages.
Between Friday 6 February and Sunday 8 February, there were many activities including ploughing, steam boats, steam cars, stalls, heritage displays and equipment. Steam trains ran half-hourly throughout the weekend including appearances by L 207, WW 644, JA 1250 and Mainline Steam's JA1275 which had arrived under her own power from Parnell on Saturday morning. WW 480 was on standby duties outside the depot along with a number of locomotives normally in storage or awaiting overhaul such as recent arrivals A 423 and WAB 800.
A fourth festival took place on the weekend of 23 and 24 March 2013, which included the first public showing of a half scale replica Newcomen engine, built by the Auckland Steam Engine Society. This engine stands 5.5 metres tall and is based on the engines built 300 years before at the dawn of the industrial age to pump water from mines. Six locomotives took part in the passenger hauling during the weekend. There were displays of vintage machinery including traction engines under steam. A vintage Bell helicopter in mobile army surgical hospital colours as used in the Korean war was giving rides. Steam launches gave rides on the small lake while others were on display.
Other events
Other events have included "Railroad Country", "The Great Train Race", "Santa Day" and a "Military" weekend. The first two events have only happened once in the 1990s.
Volunteer crewing
The two core teams at the heart of every operational day are the Operations Branch and the Commercial Branch. Typically Commercial Branch members can be identified by their roles associated with the functions of Glenbrook Station, while the Operations Branch can be identified by their roles associated with the functions of physically operating the train and manning the signalling system at Glenbrook Station and Pukeoware Depot.
Commercial team
Based at Glenbrook Station, primary roles include the preparation of the station service scape and cleanliness prior to customers arrival, selling of tickets from the ticket office, sales of stock from the bookstall and souvenir shop, the preparation and sales of refreshments from the refreshment rooms, operation of hand-powered and motorised jiggers, assisting of parking on special operating days and customer service within the station complex.
Operations team
Based at Pukeoware Depot, roles in the operation team usually require training and qualification – usually gained after experience at entry level roles such as those in the Commercial Branch teams or as Assistant Guards aboard the train.
Key roles:
Train Controller/Signalman: Based at Glenbrook Station, in the signal box, he has overall charge of the days operation of the railway, primarily focusing on safe operations of multiple vehicles (either two or more trains on peak days, or trains and jiggers on standard operating days), signalling train services into and out of the station and maintaining the schedule through efficient turn around at Glenbrook station.
Engine Driver: Based aboard the locomotive, managing safe operations of the train, the preparation and presentation of the operating locomotive, maintaining responsibility for operation of the train and shunting manoeuvrings – before, during and after public operations, co-operating with the fireman to maintain steam pressure in the course of operations, co-operation with the train running crew to ensure efficient turn around at Victoria Ave., Fernleigh, or Glenbrook station stops, communications with controllers to ensure safety of the train and other vehicles using the railway etc.
Fireman: Based aboard the locomotive, taking direction from the engine driver to ensure safe operations of the train, the preparation and presentation of the operating locomotive, assisting in operations of the train and shunting manoeuvrings – before, during and after public operations, managing the water and fire to maintain steam pressure, co-operation with the train running crew to ensure efficient turn around at Victoria Ave., Fernleigh, or Glenbrook station stops, etc. In most cases, firemen will either be contemplating, or training to become fully qualified engine drivers.
Cleaner: Based aboard the locomotive, taking direction from engine driver to ensure safe operations of the train, assisting with piloting and shunting movements (including coupling and uncoupling operations), completing the preparation and presentation of the operating locomotive, taking direction from the fireman (in most cases cleaners will be either preparing to begin training, or be under training to become qualified firemen) during the course of operations – particularly in resupply of coal and water, assisting with the shutting down and cleaning of the locomotive at the end of the operating day etc.
Guard: Responsible for on board safety and customer service on the train. Looking after passenger safety and managing vehicle safety through the train's consist whilst in operation. Managing safe embarkation and disembarkation at passenger stops. Operating the trains brake system including brake tests and communications with the locomotive crew to ensure brakes are always applied or released when need be. Signalling the train into motion from scheduled passenger stops and any unscheduled stops (such as watering at Waitangi Stream). Managing the assistant guards to ensure safe operation of the train and the highest level of customer service. Managing the commercial information from the days operation including train consist details (i.e., engine and carriage registrations), schedule performance, passenger numbers, noting potential impacts of patronage or unusual operating events etc.
Assistant Guard: Taking direction from the guard to ensure on board safety and delivery of customer service aboard the train. Assisting the guard in managing passengers and vehicle safety through the train's consist whilst in operation. Taking direction from the guard to manage embarkation and disembarkation at passenger stops. Taking direction from the guard and locomotive crew to assist with the operation of the trains braking system where necessary. Communicating with the guard to ensure that the train is safe for a proposed departure. Assisting the guard with relevant commercial information that needs to be recorded etc.
OIC (officer in charge) Pukeoware: Based at Pukeoware Station, managing the overall operations in and about the Pukeoware depot, primarily focusing on safe operations of multiple vehicles (either multiple trains or internal depot shunting services), signalling train services in co-operation with the train controller, maintaining schedule through efficient turn-around at Pukeoware station, managing the Pukeoware Road level crossing, etc.
Buildings and facilities
Glenbrook House
Relocated from Waiuku and restored in 1995, Glenbrook House serves as the GVR's training and meeting facility. Located alongside the railway line, as was traditional of railway houses, the building is also used as a preparation and storage area prior to large events such as steam festivals and the Friends of Thomas events.
Pukeoware Workshop
The railway undertakes restoration projects at its workshop, located at Pukeoware, some four kilometres from Glenbrook. The site consists of a heavy engineering workshops in its main yard (with facilities for locomotive overhaul and mechanical engineering), a car and wagon shop in the north yard (specialising in carpentry and paint work) and three carriage storage sheds. The railway has been recognised on numerous occasions at the annual Federation of Rail Organisations NZ (formerly National Federation of Rail Societies) conference awards evening for various locomotive and carriage restorations.
Each track in a carriage shed holds between three and four standard carriages. As an example the third shed holds 12 standard carriages across three tracks, with a recently added lean-to addition adding another eight carriage lengths to the shed's capacity. A further extension to the rear of the shed is now being planned after approval of a grant by the ASB Community Trust. This ensures ongoing conservation of historic railway items.
Apart from maintaining and restoring items for use on the GVR and national excursions, the workshops have also been involved heavily in contracted restoration work of other organisations rolling stock such as Silver Stream Railways C 847 in 1994 and Mainline Steams KA 942 in 1990. The workshop also assisted in the preparation of two carriages for the Carriage's Cafe restaurant in Kumeu, and filming of episodes of the Heroes television series on the Tangiwai disaster and Who Dares Wins.
Shady Rest
A converted former guard's van has been converted into "Shady Rest" – two basic units for volunteers staying overnight. Originally built for husband and wife teams (and each unit comprising one double bed, and two bunk beds). The unit has been valuable for volunteers when preparing for major events at the railway or excursions away with the GVR's national network fleet.
Signal box
Glenbrook Station is the site for the restored former Auckland 'B' signalbox. The box used to stand in the former Auckland yards, near Gladstone Rd, on the location where the current North Island Main Trunk line now passes to go towards Britomart Transport Centre. The box has been fully restored and received a Rail Heritage Trust of New Zealand Restoration Award in recognition of the work. The box controls all signals at Glenbrook, the western end mainline points and the points to the fully restored ex Papakura turntable.
Station buildings
The railway has a number of historic station buildings in its care, all being from former New Zealand Railways stations.
Glenbrook Station's terminal building is made up of the original Waiuku Branchline Glenbrook station and Patumahoe station buildings.
Glenbrook Station's picnic area shelter (and eventual platform 2 building) is the former Kingsland suburban station shelter, moved to Glenbrook in 2003 to make way for the double-tracking of Auckland's Western Line
Morley Rd's station building is the original Pukeoware station building.
Rolling stock
Steam locomotives
JA 1250 (ex NZR) tender. Built 1949 by Hillside Workshops in Dunedin, JA 1250 was purchased by Phil Goldman in 1972. Returned to service in 1982 and operated the first excursion on the mainline by steam power in 1985, after running regularly on the mainline network all over New Zealand 1250 was withdrawn in 1992 and a major overhaul started in 1995 with the loco being outshopped in 1998. At Phil Goldman's death in 2007, the locomotive was bequeathed to the GVR. 1250 was withdrawn in 2017 and is currently under overhaul.
No. 1 – WW 480 (ex NZR) tank. Built 1910 by Hillside Workshops in Dunedin, purchased by the GVR in 1969, returned to service at the Papakura locomotive depot in 1976. 480 operated until 1997 and was overhauled until 2002, withdrawn for mechanical repairs and returned to service in March 2013. Pulled back out of service in May later that year due to the condition of the boiler. A new boiler was built for 480 and the loco attained her boiler ticket on 24 May 2018 and is now in service.
No. 2 – WW 644 (Ex NZR) tank. Built 1915 by Hillside Workshops in Dunedin, returned to service in 2007. The locomotive is now under overhaul getting a new boiler and left hand cylinder fitted.
No. 4 – Ex-Taupo Totara Timber Co. Mallet No. 7, tender locomotive. Built in 1912 by the American Locomotive Company at Schenectady, New York, GVR No. 4 is known as the railway's flagship engine. It is NZ's only Mallet Compound Steam Engine. GVR No. 4 last worked in 2001 and has been stored since, occasionally it is brought out of storage for display at various events, such as its 100th birthday in 2012 when it was displayed in the private siding at Glenbrook and was given a cosmetic do over for the railway's 40th Anniversary in 2017, where it was propelled into Glenbrook station to recreate the official opening in 1977.
F 233 (ex NZR) tank. Built in 1885 by Robert Stephenson at Newcastle upon Tyne, F 233 was either purchased from or donated by AFFCo Southdown in 1964 and went on display at the former Onehunga Railway Station in Alfred St (the RES clubrooms) until 1984. It is stored at the Pukeoware workshops, carrying the name 'Ada'. The locomotive is unique in having a non-standard saddle tank, which was fitted by AFFCo.
Locomotives stored for other groups
A 423 (ex NZR) tender. Built 1909 by A & G Price at Thames, this locomotive is owned by Kevin and Paul Jowett and was formerly displayed at the Te Awamutu Railway Museum between 1971 and 2008. It is stored at Pukeoware.
FA 250 (Ex NZR) tank. Built 1892 by Addington Workshops in Christchurch from 0-6-0ST F 250. Donated to the New Zealand Railway and Locomotive Society (Waikato Branch) by the Whakatane Board Mills in 1967, FA 250 was leased out to the Goldfields Railway and later the Waitara Railway Preservation Society. The locomotive was under overhaul when it was returned to the NZR&LS, and arrived at the GVR in September 2010. It was partway through its overhaul, and remains disassembled.
JA 1275 (ex NZR) . Was preserved by Les Hostick in 1967 and stored at the Te Awamutu Railway Museum at Te Awamutu, 1972. It sat on static display under a rudimentary shelter until 1994 when it was leased to Ian Welch and transferred to the Mainline Steam Heritage Trust's Parnell depot for restoration to main line running condition. Work began in 2001, and in 2004 JA 1275 returned to the main line rails. It has proven a reliable locomotive and sees frequent use on excursions.
J 1211 (ex NZR) . Purchased by a syndicate from NZR 1971 and moved to Steam Incorporated. Purchased outright by Ian Welch in 1978, and moved to Glenbrook Vintage Railway for restoration prior to its lease to the Bay of Islands Vintage Railway in 1985–86. Restored to mainline standard and fitted with original style streamlining and returned to service in 1988. Converted to oil firing from October 1995 to December later that year. Named Gloria in preservation.
WAB 800 (ex NZR) tank. Built 1927 by A & G Price at Thames. WAB 800 was purchased in 1967 by the NZR&LS (Waikato Branch) and displayed at Te Awamutu from 1967 to 2008. The locomotive arrived in May 2008.
Former resident locomotives
AB 832 (ex NZR) tender. Built 1925 by North British Locomotive Company at Glasgow, Scotland. Leased from MOTAT, AB 832 arrived in October 1996. It was the last steam locomotive to see scheduled service in the North Island in December 1967, and is in storage at Pukeoware. This locomotive was returned to MOTAT in August 2018.
J 1234 (ex NZR) tender. Built 1939 by North British Locomotive Company at Glasgow, Scotland. This locomotive is owned by Steam Incorporated of Paekakariki, and was leased to the RES/GVR in 1998. Arriving in September 1998, it adopted the character of 'Wally' for the 1998 "Friends of Thomas" event in place of WW 480. The locomotive was returned to Paekakariki in June 2015.
Diesel locomotives
The diesel roster used for Ways and Works, Shunting, and other purposes, comprises:
Resident locomotives
No. 3 – An ex-New Zealand Ministry of Works 30 hp Ruston & Hornsby , GVR No. 3 was the railway's first locomotive. It is maintained in operational condition.
No. 7 – formerly DS 207 (TMS DS 94). This locomotive is the sole survivor of the original four Ds locos imported by NZR in 1949 and is under overhaul.
No. 8 – formerly DE 507 (TMS DE 1372). This locomotive is operational, and is used for occasional passenger service and regular work trains. The locomotive is operating as DE 507, although it did carry its identity as GVR No. 8 in early 2010.
No. 9 – formerly DE 509. The locomotive is nonoperational and stored at Pukeoware. This locomotive did see some use in the 1980s on work trains, but was placed into storage and has not operated since.
No. 10 – formerly DSA 243 (TMS DSA 455). This locomotive is one of three surviving Bagnall-built DSA class locomotives. The DSA arrived in 1988 as a replacement for No. 5, which had been damaged while being returned from another railway. It received an overhaul in 2008 and was repainted from GVR yellow into NZR red, but retaining its present identity as GVR No. 10.
No. 11 – DBR 1254. Built as DB 1005 by General Motors in Canada, and rebuilt into DBR 1254 in 1982. The locomotive was purchased in August 2017 and arrived at the GVR on 3 November 2017. Mainline cerified.
No. 12 – DBR 1295. Built as DB 1013 by General Motors in Canada, and rebuilt into DBR 1295 in 1982. The locomotive was purchased in August 2017 and arrived at the GVR on 3 November 2017. It has been repainted in the original "fruit salad" colour scheme and is in service on the GVR.
No. 14 – DCP 4818. Built as DA 1481 by General Motors in Canada, and rebuilt into DC 4818 in 1983. The locomotive was purchased in December 2018. It arrived at the GVR on 25 April 2019. It is currently under overhaul with the intention of becoming mainline certified.
No. 15 – DC4536. Built as DA 1505 by General Motors in Canada, and rebuilt into DC 4536 in 1983. The locomotive's purchase was announced in September 2021, being funded by a long-time supporter. For eventual overhaul with the intention of becoming mainline certified.
Privately owned locomotives
DA 1429 (TMS DA 322). This locomotive is operational, and is equipped with the necessary equipment to work on the main line. Stored by agreement with Dean McQuoid, arrived on site in November 2010.
Former resident locomotives
DA 1410 (TMS DA 126). This locomotive was leased from Steam Incorporated by the RES, and arrived on site in September 1998. The locomotive was returned to Steam Incorporated's Paekakariki site in June 2015.
DA 1431 (TMS DA 345). This locomotive was leased from Steam Incorporated with DA 1410 in 1998 and later ended up in storage. It returned to Paekakariki in 2008 and has since been restored to operational condition with the necessary equipment to allow it to work on the main line.
No. 5 – formerly DSA 230. Drewry DSA 230 was often loaned out to other groups by the GVR, but this practice ended in 1988 when the locomotive was towed while in gear. The result was the transmission was damaged beyond repair, and so Bagnall DSA 455 was obtained as a replacement. The remains of DSA 230 were then stripped of all useful parts and the remains lingered at Pukeoware until they were scrapped in 1990.
Self-propelled equipment
Railcar RM 32 "Pangatoru" –.Stored, previously owned by the New Zealand Railway and Locomotive Society Waikato Branch, arrived on site December 2001.
Plasser & Theurer Ballast tamper 864 – Under Light Repairs, heavily used in civil engineering works (recent large projects include tamping 900 metres of relaid track between Glenbrook and Morley Road, Waiuku Extension works beyond Fernleigh and a 1998 project to tamp most of the lightweight rail track on the Dargaville Branch in Northland.
Cowans Sheldon crane 224 – operational. Heavily used in mechanical engineering and civil engineering works including lifting locomotive boilers, carriage bodies, track sets and other equipment. Can be included in a train, or travel (albeit slowly) under its own power.
Passenger carriages
Domestic carriages
The domestic passenger fleet comprises late 19th and early 20th century rolling stock. Most vehicles are the traditional narrow-bodied A series wooden carriages, turned out in a red livery, featuring opening windows and outdoor viewing balconies on each end. These carriages either have side-facing longitudinal seating or arrangements of paired seating on one side of the aisle and singular seating on the other. These carriages are named after the Māori migration canoes that brought the Māori people to New Zealand from Hawaiki.
The core fleet of carriages includes or has included:
AF 804 "Tainui", carriage incorporating guards' compartment and luggage area.
A 1161 "Mataatua", standard passenger carriage
A 1162 "Aotea", standard passenger carriage
A 1222 "Te Arawa", standard passenger carriage fitted with longitudinal seating
F 141 "Nga Tira", former guards' van, with the luggage and storage area converted into a covered outdoor viewing carriage. Fondly known as the "Chicken Coop"
VB 624 "Waka Whenua", former steam crane support wagon, converted into an uncovered outdoor viewing carriage.
UB 1554 "Nga Hau", an outdoor viewing carriage was retired from service in 1998 and scrapped in 2002 following condemning. Waka Whenua was built in 1993 as a replacement.
Notable unique carriages which are operated on special occasions include...
C 472, a very historic Clemenson-Patent six-wheeled carriage, built by the Oldbury Car Company, England in 1879. Originally used on Auckland's first railway, the Onehunga Branch (which utilised this style carriage), it was relocated by ship to the Donnellys Crossing Section. After being withdrawn in 1933, the carriage body was donated to the Donnellys Crossing Axemans Association. In 1989, the Railway Enthusiasts Society purchased the carriage and moved it to Pukeoware for a full restoration, which was completed in 1996. The carriage runs at special event days, such as on Glenbrook yard rides at the Day Out with Thomas event.
A 543 "Manakura", clerestory roof kitchen/diner carriage with seating for 25, coal fired range and stunning stained glass windows (in the clerestory). Withdrawn from service in 2002 for an overhaul, the carriage is stored.
A 1452, "wide-body" carriage restored as a parlour carriage featuring a bar, plush leather lounge and extended outdoor viewing area specifically for charter work. Intended to be a partner carriage to Af 1182, this carriage has been turned out in the same green livery to match the dining carriage.
AF 1182, carriage with a guards compartment and luggage area. Built with 72 seats for Auckland commuter trains, the carriage is currently being converted for use as a dining car. This includes food preparation and servery area. The car will also be fitted with a toilet. The carriage has been turned out in a green livery and operated in public service for the first time at the "Friends of Thomas Weekend" of 8 and 9 November 2008. In 2016 the carriage entered the carriage workshop for the conversion work.
National network fleet
The railway owns a fleet of carriages, known as the "mainline fleet", formerly owned by the parent body (Railway Enthusiasts Society) and leased to the railway. The fleet has undergone an overhaul and re-certification with KiwiRail. Excursions have seen them tour all around New Zealand, including to Gisborne, New Plymouth, Whakatane, Bay of Islands, Wellington, Christchurch, Arthurs Pass and Timaru.
Turned out in the original Glenbrook Vintage Railway livery of yellow bodies, white ceilings and chocolate lining, the fleet consists of the following vehicles...
Four carriages built in the early 20th century for the (then) newly opened North Island Main Trunk express services, before being relocated onto Auckland commuter train services post war through to retirement in the early 1970s:
AA 1134, wide-body wooden carriage built in Petone workshops, Wellington, in 1909.
AA 1233, wide-body wooden carriage built in Petone workshops, Wellington, in 1912.
AA 1258, wide-body wooden carriage built in Newmarket workshops, Auckland, in 1912.
AA 1494, wide-body wooden carriage built in Newmarket workshops, Auckland, in 1924. Currently on loan to Steam Incorporated.
These carriages are fully certified for operations on the KiwiRail network, and the original "drop toilets" have been upgraded with chemical retention holding tanks.
Three carriages built during World War II to replace the original North Island Main Trunk express service carriages, and later allocated to Auckland commuter trains from the 1970s to retirement in 1994.
A 1948 (TMS A56496), NZR 56-foot carriage. Built in 1939 at Addington Workshops, Christchurch. Overhauled at United Group's Hutt Workshops and returned to Pukeoware in May 2008. Carriage restoration completed in October 2009. First operation on the KiwiRail network in private ownership on 17 April 2011.
A 1926 (TMS AL56112), steel-panelled carriage built in 1939 at Otahuhu Workshops, Auckland with vestibule guards area. Overhauled at United Group's Hutt Workshops, Wellington, and returned to Pukeoware in March 2009. Carriage restoration completed in March 2011. First operation on the KiwiRail network in private ownership on 17 April 2011.
AL 1991 (TMS AL56037), steel-panelled carriage with separate guard/luggage compartment, built in 1940 at Addington Workshops, Christchurch. Previously certified
Five 'small window' former KiwiRail charter fleet carriages.
A56263 (NZR A 1918), NZR 56-foot carriage. Built in 1939 at Otahuhu Workshops, Auckland. Arrived at GVR in October 2013. Currently under overhaul for mainline use.
A56121 (NZR A 1897), NZR 56-foot carriage. Built in 1941 at Otahuhu Workshops, Auckland. Arrived at GVR in June 2013. Currently under overhaul for mainline use.
A56030 (NZR A 1860), NZR 56-foot carriage. Built in 1938 at Otahuhu Workshops, Auckland. Arrived at GVR in June 2013. Currently stored pending overhaul.
A56180 (NZR A 1908), NZR 56-foot carriage. Built in 1939 at Otahuhu Workshops, Auckland. Arrived at GVR in June 2013. Currently stored pending overhaul.
A56742 (NZR A 1985), NZR 56-foot carriage. Built in 1943 at Addington Workshops, Christchurch. Arrived at GVR in October 2013. Currently stored pending overhaul.
Three 'big window' former KiwiRail charter fleet (previously Overlander and Tranz Alpine) carriages.
ASO1, NZR 56-foot carriage with servery and large rear window. Built in 1941 at Addington Workshops, Christchurch. Arrived at GVR on 8 September 2018. Currently stored pending overhaul.
ASO110, NZR 56-foot carriage with servery. Built in 1939 at Otahuhu Workshops, Auckland. Arrived at GVR on 8 September 2018. Currently stored pending overhaul.
AO198, NZR 56-foot carriage. Built in 1939 at Addington Workshops, Christchurch. Arrived at GVR on 8 September 2018. Currently stored pending overhaul.
Guard's Van FM 1133 was built as a three-module van for freight service in 1981. Withdrawn when guards were no longer required on freight trains, the RES converted one module into a storage area, the middle module into a crew area and the third module into a fully functioning kitchen for catering on excursion trains. The van is currently out of service pending major repairs including fitting of refurbished bogies.
Generator and Luggage Van AG49 is currently on lease from KiwiRail and is intended to be used to power GVR's AO carriage fleet.
Wooden Guard's Van F 394 (TMS F285) was built in 1913 and used on the 2008 Parliamentary Special and Governor's Special, in green livery.
Mainline Guard's Van F 601 (TMS F1397) was built in 1944 at Otahuhu Workshops, Auckland. Was stored at the Goldfields Railway and was relocated to Glenbrook in 2021.
Former Auckland Transport AT MAXX SA and SD class
The Railway Enthusiasts Society purchased 9x SA and 4x SD carriages in 2021 for their future charter and tourism needs, which are in the process of being tested and certified in order to be hauled north from Taumarunui, then into storage for the time being. They were used in sets of four, five, or six with DC, DCP, DFT, or DFB locomotives until 2014/15 as they were phased out as the Auckland Suburban network was electrified:
SA class: SA5638, SA5770, SA5703, SA5818, SA5743, SA5829, SA5617, SA5695, SA5730
SD class: SD3199, SD5652, SD5762, SD5842
Along with these passenger carriages, it is expected that water support wagon UC 686, steam locomotives JA 1250, WW 480, and WW 644 will also be certified for KiwiRail network operations in the future.
Freight wagons and way and works vehicles
A large selection of freight wagons has been purchased, donated or leased. The railway has found use for many of the railway wagons that it has acquired and displays them on demonstration runs and for photographers' specials. The set includes a full rake of ballast wagons and plough van, which have been used during large-scale works such as the Waiuku Extension and major track renewal. Other items include replica workman's hut, refrigerated wagons, cement wagons and bulk oil tanks.
See also
List of New Zealand railway museums and heritage lines
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Glenbrook Vintage Railway
Heritage railways in New Zealand
Tourist attractions in the Auckland Region
Transport in the Auckland Region
3 ft 6 in gauge railways in New Zealand
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5101173
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics%20of%20Cluj-Napoca
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Politics of Cluj-Napoca
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The last general local election was held on 27 September 2020. The threshold was 5%. On the 15 February 2009, a by-election was held for the office of Mayor of Cluj-Napoca, following the nomination of the previous Mayor, Emil Boc as Prime Minister.
List of mayors
Mayor and Municipal Council election 2000
|-
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left colspan=2|Parties and alliances
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Votes
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|%
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Seats
|-
|
|Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania ()
|align="right" |31,618
|align="right" |22.50
|align="right" |8
|-
|
|Greater Romania Party ()
|align="right" |30,762
|align="right" |21.89
|align="right" |8
|-
|
|Party of Social Democracy in Romania, now Social Democratic Party ()
|align="right" valign=top|16,605
|align="right" valign=top|11.81
|align="right" valign=top|5
|-
|
|Romanian Democratic Convention ()
|align="right" valign=top|10,264
|align="right" valign=top|7.30
|align="right" valign=top|3
|-
|
|Romanian National Unity Party
|align="right" valign=top|? (no data)
|align="right" valign=top|? (no data)
|align="right" valign=top|3
|-
|
|National Liberal Party (Partidul Naţional Liberal)
|align="right" |5,432
|align="right" |3.86
|align="right" |2
|-
|
|Party of Alliance for Romania
|align="right" |4,606
|align="right" |3.26
|align="right" |2
|-
|style="background-color:#E9E9E9" colspan=2|Total (turnout 54.5%)
|width="75" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|
|width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|
|width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|31
|-
|}
Mayor and Municipal Council election 2004
|-
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left colspan=2|Parties and alliances
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Votes
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|%
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Seats
|-
|
|Justice and Truth Alliance (Alianţa Dreptate si Adevăr)
National Liberal Party (Partidul Naţional Liberal)
Democratic Party (Partidul Democrat)
|align="right" valign=top|43823
|align="right" valign=top|29.57
|align="right" valign=top|9
|-
|
|Greater Romania Party(Partidul România Mare)
|align="right" |30864
|align="right" |20.82
|align="right" |6
|-
|
|Social Democratic Party (Partidul Social Democrat)
|align="right" valign=top|30457
|align="right" valign=top|20.55
|align="right" valign=top|6
|-
|
|Hungarian Democratic Union of Romania (Uniunea Democrată Maghiară din România)
|align="right" |28172
|align="right" |19.01
|align="right" |6
|-
|
|Humanist Party of Romania, now Conservative Party (Partidul Conservator)
|align="right" |2963
|align="right" |2.0
|align="right" |-
|-
|
|Romanian National Unity Party
|align="right" |2015
|align="right" |1.36
|align="right" |-
|-
|
|Christian-Democratic National Peasants' Party
|align="right" |1393
|align="right" |0.94
|align="right" |-
|-
|style="background-color:#E9E9E9" colspan=2|Total (turnout %)
|width="75" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|
|width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|
|width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|27
|-
|}
Mayor and Municipal Council election 2008
Bolded names represent the parties that entered the Local Council.
|-
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left colspan=2|Parties and alliances
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Votes
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|%
!style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Seats
|-
|
|Democratic Liberal Party (Partidul Democrat)
|align="right" |
|align="right" |
|align="right" |16
|-
|
|Hungarian Democratic Union of Romania(Uniunea Democrată Maghiară din România)
|align="right" |
|align="right" |
|align="right" |5
|-
|
|National Liberal Party (Partidul Naţional Liberal)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|3
|-
|
|Social Democratic Party (Partidul Social Democrat)
|align="right" |
|align="right" |
|align="right" |3
|-
|
|Greater Romania Party(Partidul România Mare)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|0
|-
|
|Conservative Party (Partidul Conservator)
|align="right" |
|align="right" |
|align="right" |0
|-
|
|Christian Social Popular Union (Uniunea Populară Social Creştină)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|0
|-
|
|PP ( )
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|0
|-
|
|Green Party (Partidul Verde)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|-
|
|National Initiative Party (Partidul Iniţiativa Naţionalã)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|0
|-
|
|(PCM)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|0
|-
|
|(UPSS)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|0
|-
|
|Socialist Alliance Party (PAS)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|0
|-
|
|Ecologist Party of Romania (PER)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|0
|-
|
|(PRE)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|0
|-
|
|Christian-Democratic National Peasants' Party(Partidul Naţional Ţărănesc Creştin Democrat)
|align="right" |
|align="right" |
|align="right" |0
|-
|
|(PNG-CD)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|0
|-
|
|Valentin Guia (independent)
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|
|align="right" valign=top|0
|-
|style="background-color:#E9E9E9" colspan=2|Total (turnout %)
|width="75" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|
|width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|
|width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|27
|-
|}
Mayoral by-election, 2009
|-
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=left colspan=2|Candidates - Parties and alliances
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|Votes
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9" align=right|%
|-
|
| Sorin Apostu - Democratic Liberal Party (Partidul Democrat-Liberal)
| align="right" valign=top|49,234
| align="right" valign=top|56
|-
|
| Marius Nicoară - National Liberal Party (Partidul Naţional Liberal)
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 23
|-
|
| Teodor Pop-Puscas - PSD+PC Alliance (Alianţa PSD+PC)
| align="right" valign=top|
| align="right" valign=top|
|-
|
| Sorin Oancea - Christian-Democratic National Peasants' Party (Partidul Naţional Ţărănesc Creştin Democrat)
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
|
| Gheorghe Oros - Socialist Alliance Party (Partidul Alianţa Socialistă)
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
|
| Gheorghe Aştileanu - New Generation Party – Christian Democratic (PArtidul Noua Generaţie - Creştin Democrat)
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|-
|
| Gergely Balasz - Hungarian Civic Party (Partidul Civic Maghiar)
| align="right" valign=top|
| align="right" valign=top|
|-
|
| Laszlo Csaba - Green Party (Partidul Verde)
| align="right" valign=top|
| align="right" valign=top|
|-
| bgcolor="gray"|
| Grigore Pop - Independent
| align="right" valign=top|
| align="right" valign=top|
|-
| style="background-color:#E9E9E9" colspan=2|Total: 274,300 (turnout 30.19%)
| width="75" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|
| width="30" align="right" style="background-color:#E9E9E9"|
|-
|}
Mayor and Municipal Council election 2012
Bolded names represent the parties that gained seats in the Cluj-Napoca Local Council.
|-
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = left colspan = 2 | Parties and alliances
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = right | Votes
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = right | %
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = right | Seats
|-
|
| Social Liberal Union (Uniunea Social Liberală)
| align = right valign = top | 51,831
| align = right valign = top | 39.65
| align = right valign = top | 12
|-
|
| Democratic Liberal Party (Partidul Democrat Liberal)
| align = right | 43,495
| align = right | 33.27
| align = right | 10
|-
|
| Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (Uniunea Democrată Maghiară din România)
| align = right | 16,911
| align = right | 12.93
| align = right | 4
|-
|
| People's Party – Dan Diaconescu (Partidul Poporului - Dan Diaconescu)
| align = right | 7,413
| align = right | 5.67
| align = right | 1
|-
|
| Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party (Partidul Naţional Ţărănesc Creştin Democrat)
| align = right | 2,183
| align = right | 1.67
| align = right | 0
|-
|
| Hungarian People's Party in Transylvania (Partidul Popular Maghiar din Transilvania)
| align = right valign = top | 2,158
| align = right valign = top | 1.65
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Greater Romania Party (Partidul România Mare)
| align = right valign = top | 2,136
| align = right valign = top | 1.63
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Ecologist Party of Romania (Partidul Ecologist Român)
| align = right valign = top | 1,454
| align = right valign = top | 1.11
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| National Union for the Advancement of Romania (Uniunea Națională pentru Progresul României)
| align = right valign = top | 799
| align = right valign = top | 0.61
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Romanian Socialist Party (Partidul Socialist Român)
| align = right valign = top | 456
| align = right valign = top | 0.34
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Green Party (Partidul Verde)
| align = right valign = top | 446
| align = right valign = top | 0.34
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| People's Party (Cojocaru Law) (Partidul Poporului (Legea Cojocaru))
| align = right valign = top | 424
| align = right valign = top | 0.32
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Romanian Ecologist Union Party (Partidul Uniunea Ecologistă din România)
| align = right valign = top | 367
| align = right valign = top | 0.28
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Gipsy Democratic Civic Alliance (Alianța Civică Democratică a Rromilor)
| align = right valign = top | 304
| align = right valign = top | 0.23
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Party of the Roma (Asociația Partida Romilor "Pro-Europa")
| align = right valign = top | 208
| align = right valign = top | 0.15
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Socialist Alliance Party (Partidul Alianța Socialistă)
| align = right valign = top | 117
| align = right valign = top | 0.08
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
| style = background-color:#E9E9E9 colspan = 2 | Total (turnout %) Biroul Electoral Central - Alegerile locale 2012
| width = 75 align = right style = background-color:#E9E9E9 | 307,532
| width = 30 align = right style = background-color:#E9E9E9 | 100
| width = 30 align = right style = background-color:#E9E9E9 | 27
|-
|}
|-
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = left colspan = 2 | Parties and alliances
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = left | Candidate
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = right | Votes
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = right | %
|-
|
| Democratic Liberal Party (Partidul Democrat Liberal)
| Emil Boc
| align = right | 53,674
| align = right | 40.60
|-
|
| Social Liberal Union (Uniunea Social Liberală)
| Marius Nicoară
| align = right valign = top | 52,251
| align = right valign = top | 39.53
|-
|
| Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (Uniunea Democrată Maghiară din România)
| Péter Eckstein-Kovács
| align = right | 12,225
| align = right | 9.24
|-
|
| People's Party – Dan Diaconescu (Partidul Poporului - Dan Diaconescu)
| Iuliu Țăgorean
| align = right | 4,689
| align = right | 3.54
|-
|
| Independent
| Mircia Giurgiu
| align = right | 3,368
| align = right | 2.54
|-
|
| Hungarian People's Party in Transylvania (Partidul Popular Maghiar din Transilvania)
| Balazs Gergely
| align = right valign = top | 1,523
| align = right valign = top | 1.15
|-
|
| Independent
| Mădălina Paul
| align = right | 1,245
| align = right | 0.94
|-
|
| Greater Romania Party (Partidul România Mare)
| Ioan Avram
| align = right valign = top | 1.221
| align = right valign = top | 0.92
|-
|
| Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party (Partidul Naţional Ţărănesc Creştin Democrat)
| Emil Culda
| align = right | 1,064
| align = right | 0.80
|-
|
| People's Party (Cojocaru Law) (Partidul Poporului (Legea Cojocaru))
| Dalia Fodor
| align = right valign = top | 395
| align = right valign = top | 0.29
|-
|
| Ecologist Party of Romania (Partidul Ecologist Român)
| Elmer Antal
| align = right valign = top | 385
| align = right valign = top | 0.29
|-
|
| Romanian Socialist Party (Partidul Socialist Român)
| Liliana Iancu
| align = right valign = top | 135
| align = right valign = top | 0.10
|-
| style = background-color:#E9E9E9 colspan = 3 | Total (turnout %) Biroul Electoral Central - Alegerile locale 2012 (p. 164)
| width = 75 align = right style = background-color:#E9E9E9 | 307,532
| width = 30 align = right style = background-color:#E9E9E9 | 100
|-
|}
Mayor and Municipal Council election 2016
Bolded names represent the parties that gained seats in the Cluj-Napoca Local Council.
|-
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = left colspan = 2 | Parties and alliances
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = right | Votes
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = right | %
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = right | Seats
|-
|
| National Liberal Party (Partidul Național Liberal)
| align = right valign = top | 49,218
| align = right valign = top | 49.86
| align = right valign = top | 17
|-
|
| Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (Uniunea Democrată Maghiară din România)
| align = right | 16,490
| align = right | 16.70
| align = right | 5
|-
|
| Social Democratic Party + Alliance of Liberals and Democrats (Alianța Liberalilor și Democraților)
| align = right | 13,955
| align = right | 14.13
| align = right | 5
|-
|
| Romanian Social Party (Partidul Social Românesc)
| align = right | 3,214
| align = right | 3.25
| align = right | 0
|-
|
| Liberal Movement Party (Partidul Mișcarea Liberală)
| align = right valign = top | 2,974
| align = right valign = top |3.01
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| M10 Party (Partidul M10)
| align = right valign = top | 2,946
| align = right valign = top | 2.98
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| People's Movement Party (Partidul Mișcarea Populară)
| align = right valign = top | 2,834
| align = right valign = top | 2.87
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Democratic Christian Union Party of Romania (Partidul Uniunea Creștin Democrată din România)
| align = right valign = top | 2,729
| align = right valign = top | 2.76
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Humanist Power Party (Partidul Puterii Umaniste)
| align = right valign = top | 1,814
| align = right valign = top | 1.83
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party (Partidul Național Țărănesc Creștin Democrat)
| align = right valign = top | 1.649
| align = right valign = top | 1.67
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
|
| Hungarian People's Party of Transylvania (Partidul Popular Maghiar din Transilvania)
| align = right valign = top | 881
| align = right valign = top | 0.89
| align = right valign = top | 0
|-
| style = background-color:#E9E9E9 colspan = 2 | Total (turnout %) Autoritatea Electorală Permanentă - Alegerile locale 2016
| width = 75 align = right style = background-color:#E9E9E9 | 98,704
| width = 30 align = right style = background-color:#E9E9E9 | 100
| width = 30 align = right style = background-color:#E9E9E9 | 27
|-
|}
|-
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = left colspan = 2 | Parties and alliances
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = left | Candidate
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = right | Votes
! style = background-color:#E9E9E9 align = right | %
|-
|
| National Liberal Party (Partidul Național Liberal)
| Emil Boc
| align = right | 64,311
| align = right | 64.76
|-
|
| Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania (Uniunea Democrată Maghiară din România)
| Horváth Anna
| align = right | 12,573
| align = right | 12.66
|-
|
| Independent
| Octavian Buzoianu
| align = right valign = top | 8,721
| align = right valign = top | 8.78
|-
|
| Liberal Movement Party (Partidul Mișcarea Liberală)
| Alexa Doru Liviu Alin
| align = right | 3,496
| align = right | 3.52
|-
|
| Romanian Social Party (Partidul Social Românesc)
| Mircia Giurgiu
| align = right | 3,184
| align = right | 3.20
|-
|
| Democratic Christian Union Party of Romania (Partidul Uniunea Creștin Democrată din România)
| David Ilie
| align = right valign = top | 2,119
| align = right valign = top | 2.13
|-
|
| Humanist Power Party (Partidul Puterii Umaniste)
| Bruno Roschnafsky
| align = right | 1,776
| align = right | 1.78
|-
|
| People's Movement Party (Partidul Mișcarea Populară)
| Adrian Gurzău
| align = right valign = top | 1,289
| align = right valign = top | 1.29
|-
|
| M10 Party (Partidul M10)
| Maria Irina Pop
| align = right | 1,253
| align = right | 1.26
|-
|
| Hungarian People's Party of Transylvania (Partidul Popular Maghiar din Transilvania)
| Fancsali Ernő
| align = right valign = top | 574
| align = right valign = top | 0.57
|-
| style = background-color:#E9E9E9 colspan = 3 | Total (turnout %) Autoritatea Electorală Permanentă - Alegerile locale 2016
| width = 75 align = right style = background-color:#E9E9E9 | 99,296
| width = 30 align = right style = background-color:#E9E9E9 | 100
|-
|}
Cluj-Napoca
Local government in Romania
|
5101706
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oeko-Tex
|
Oeko-Tex
|
Oeko-Tex is a registered trade mark, representing the product labels and company certifications issued and other services provided by the International Association for Research and Testing in the Field of Textile and Leather Ecology (which also calls itself Oeko-Tex for short).
The Oeko-Tex Association issues the product-related labels Standard 100 by Oeko-Tex (formerly Oeko-Tex Standard 100), Made in Green by Oeko-Tex (formerly Oeko-Tex Standard 100plus) and Leather Standard by Oeko-Tex, the label Eco Passport by Oeko-Tex for chemicals to be used in textile production, and the STeP by Oeko-Tex label (formerly Oeko-Tex Standard 1000) and the Detox to Zero status report for production facilities.
Oeko-Tex labels and certificates confirm the human-ecological safety of textile products and leather articles from all stages of production (raw materials and fibres, yarns, fabrics, ready-to-use end products) along the textile value chain. Some also attest to socially and environmentally sound conditions in production facilities.
Organization
The International Association for Research and Testing in the Field of Textile and Leather Ecology (Oeko-Tex) with headquarters in Zürich (Switzerland) was founded in 1992. Founding members were the German Hohenstein Institute and the Austrian Textile Research Institute (OETI). Currently, the Oeko-Tex Association includes 18 neutral test and research institutes in Europe and Japan with contact offices in over 70 countries around the world.
Oeko-Tex Certificates
Standard 100 by Oeko-Tex
The Standard 100 by Oeko-Tex product label, introduced (as Oeko-Tex Standard 100) in 1992, certifies adherence to the specifications of the standard by the same name, a document of testing methods and limit values for potentially harmful chemicals. This independent testing and certification system may be applied to textile materials, intermediate products at all stages of production and ready-made textile articles. Examples of eligible items for certification are raw and dyed finished yarns, raw and dyed finished fabrics and knits, and consumer goods (all types of clothing, home and household textiles, bed linen, terry cloth items, textile toys and more).
Objective
The Standard 100 by Oeko-Tex aims at making it obvious to consumers that the labeled textile products have undergone laboratory testing for a wide range of harmful substances, and that the content of those substances remains below the limit values established by the Oeko-Tex Association.
The introduction of the standard established a globally standardized quality assurance system for manufacturers and retailers, taking into account the decreased vertical range of manufacture in the individual facilities of the textile and clothing industry, and compensating for regionally different evaluation standards for the risk potential of harmful substances. Use of the Oeko-Tex certificate documents compliance with human-ecological requirements to subsequent production levels and consumers. The requirements for obtaining the certificate are updated at least once a year based on new scientific information.
Prerequisites
Textile products can only be certified according to the Standard 100 by Oeko-Tex if all components comply with the required criteria – for an item of clothing, in addition to the outer fabric, this might include threads, linings, prints as well as non-textile accessories such as buttons, zip fasteners, rivets or any other accessory parts.
Extent and requirements of Oeko-Tex testing for harmful substances depend on the intended use of a textile product. There are four product classes:
Product class I – Items for babies and infants (up to 36 months of age)
Product class II – Items with direct prolonged or large-area skin contact
Product class III – Textiles without or with little skin contact
Product class IV – Furnishing materials for decorative purposes (curtains, table linen, carpets, etc.)
Product class I requirements are more rigorous for most potentially harmful substances, and there is an additional test for saliva resistance.
Laboratory tests
Test criteria and limit values are globally binding and are updated and expanded each year. The current version of the Standard 100 is available at the official website. Test parameters include substances banned or regulated by law as well as yet unregulated substances that are known to be problematic.
Textile products are tested for their content of several hundred individual substances from 17 groups of chemicals. The standard takes into account:
Important legal regulations (e.g. banned Azo dyes, formaldehyde, pentachlorophenol, cadmium, nickel)
Requirements of Annexes XVII and XIV of the European Chemicals Regulation REACh and of the ECHA SVHC Candidate List that are assessed to be relevant for fabrics, textiles, garments or accessories by expert groups of the Oeko-Tex Association
US Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA) requirements regarding lead
Numerous other environmentally relevant substance classes
Numerous substances known to be harmful to health or environmentally relevant but not yet subject to any regulation
Furthermore, all tested items must have a skin-friendly pH value and good color fastness. They are tested for emissions of volatile chemicals and are subjected to an olfactory test.
Once issued, the Oeko-Tex certificate is valid for one year.
Prevalence and awareness
The Standard 100 by Oeko-Tex is the product label for textiles tested for harmful substances with the largest prevalence worldwide. More than 10,000 manufacturers in almost 100 countries currently participate in Oeko-Tex certification. To date, the Oeko-Tex Association has issued over 160,000 Standard 100 certificates for textile products from all stages of production (as of 12/2015).
According to a consumer survey by GfK in 2006, the label 'Confidence in Textiles' has a brand recognition (aided recall) level of over 46% in Germany. A consumer survey by BBE Retail Experts carried out in seven European countries (Austria, Switzerland, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Netherlands) in 2008 found an average recognition level of 42% for the Oeko-Tex label. In a 2012 survey with 3349 participants from 13 countries (Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, France, Portugal, Great Britain, Denmark, Poland, Russia, Turkey, China), the Cologne Institute for Research in Retail Issues (IFH) found a mean aided recall level of 42% as well.
STeP by Oeko-Tex
STeP by Oeko-Tex (Sustainable Textile Production) is a worldwide certification system for environmentally friendly and socially responsible production facilities in the textile and clothing industry. STeP is a 2013 re-branding of the Oeko-Tex Standard 1000 that had been introduced in 1995. The current version of the STeP standard is available on the Oeko-Tex website.
Objective
A STeP label is not meant to be displayed on products, but rather to be used in business-to-business communication. Given the locally different legislative regulations, STeP acts as a tool to render the sustainability and social achievements of textile facilities comparable across country borders. Via the central MySTeP database maintained by Oeko-Tex, certified facilities may make their certification data accessible to their customers along the textile chain. The guiding principle of certification according to STeP by Oeko-Tex is not a one-off optimization of environmental measures but rather the permanent improvement of overall environmental performance within a company.
Prerequisites
Production facilities from all textile processing stages of the textile chain may apply for certification, such as fiber production, spinning, weaving and knitting facilities, textile dyeing and finishing facilities, manufacturers of accessories, foam materials or mattresses, producers of textile consumer goods or logistics centers. In the form of an online questionnaire, companies must disclose extensive information about their production conditions. The questionnaire is organized in six modules:
Chemical management
Environmental performance
Environmental management
Social responsibility
Quality management
Occupational health and safety
To simplify the assessment, a number of already acquired third party certifications can be taken into account, for example the ISO 14000 family of standards and EMAS for environmental management, certifications by the Fair Wear Foundation and others for social responsibility and ISO 9000 standard family for quality management.
Each module contains so-called basic and advanced questions. At least 70% of the basic questions have to be answered. Advanced questions are a chance to document additional efforts towards sustainability and social responsibility. Some mandatory basic questions constitute exclusion criteria: If these criteria are not met in their entirety, STeP certification is not possible. Among the exclusion criteria are noncompliance with the STeP standards for chemicals, sewage and emissions, child and forced labour and the prohibition of union organization.
Certification
Following application for certification, companies receive access information to the online assessment tool. The information provided in the questionnaire is reviewed by Oeko-Tex, verified by an independent auditor from one of the Oeko-Tex member institutes during an on-site inspection, and finally analyzed and evaluated.
The STeP certificate shows the score and an individual analysis for each module as well as the overall sustainability level that combines the equally weighted results for the six modules and is ranked as follows:
Level 1 – entry level: 70% of the basic questions (including exclusion criteria) have been satisfactorily answered
Level 2 – good performance with further optimization potential: Additional basic questions and advanced questions answered
Level 3 – exemplary performance: 67% or more of the advanced and remaining basic questions answered
Once issued, the STeP certificate is valid for three years.
Made in Green by Oeko-Tex
Made in Green by Oeko-Tex is a label for textile products that are sustainably produced and have been tested for harmful substances according to the Oeko-Tex criteria. Specifically, the textile product must have undergone successful testing for compliance with the requirements of the Standard 100 by Oeko-Tex, and the product as well as the majority of its components and predecessors are produced by companies that have been audited and STeP certified by Oeko-Tex. The Made in Green label has replaced the former Oeko-Tex Standard 100plus label in 2015.
For consumer products, the Made in Green label can be awarded if 1. the end product is tested for harmful substances according to Standard 100 by Oeko-Tex, 2. all assembly facilities are STeP certified, 3. wet and chemical production facilities supplying product components that reach or exceed 5% of the total product weight are STeP certified, and 4. at least 85% of the total weight of the total product weight is supplied by STeP certified wet/chemical production facilities. This means that minor, light-weight components like sewing thread, while required to be free from harmful substances according to Standard 100, don't necessarily have to be produced in STeP certified facilities.
A unique product ID and/or QR code on the Made in Green label enables consumers to trace the production of the labelled textile article: Scanning the code or entering the product ID on the Made in Green website reveals the countries where the item was made and which production stages and facilities (provided the manufacturers have released this information) were involved in the manufacturing.
A Made in Green label expires after one year, and manufacturers need to apply for renewal of the label.
Leather Standard by Oeko-Tex
The Leather Standard by Oeko-Tex (introduced 2017) is a system of testing methods, test criteria and limit values for harmful substances used by the Oeko-Tex member institutes to globally certify the human-ecological safety of leather products: semi-finished leather materials (“Wet blue” - chrome-tanned hides, “Wet white” - vegetable tanned hides), leather, bonded leather and ready-made leather articles. When certifying leather products that contain non-leather (e.g. textile or metallic) components, the requirements of the Leather Standard are combined with those of the Standard 100. Certification according to the Leather Standard is valid for one year.
The Leather Standard defines the same four product classes as the Standard 100. Both also employ very similar catalogues of limit values for potentially harmful chemicals. Mainly, for the Leather Standard, Oeko-Tex has adjusted the limit values for Chromium: Since industrially produced leather is predominantly chrome-tanned, higher Chromium concentrations are tolerated in leather compared to textile products.
Eco Passport by Oeko-Tex
Eco Passport by Oeko-Tex is a certification system for textile chemicals (e.g. colourants, optical brighteners, antistatic agents, adhesives, cleaning agents). It was introduced in 2016. Chemicals awarded the Eco Passport label meet the requirements for sustainable textile production.
The certification process comprises two stages:
Screening: Manufacturer's disclosures about product ingredients are screened for chemicals that are listed in the European Union REACh regulation's SVHC (substances of very high concern) list or in the Oeko-Tex lists of chemicals with restricted use in textile products (RSL, restricted substance list) – specified in the Standard 100 – and textile manufacturing processes (MRSL, manufacturing restricted substance list) – specified in the STeP standard. A compilation of threshold concentration requirements for groups of chemicals and individual substances is included in the Eco Passport Standard.
Analytical verification: Compliance with the restricted substance list's threshold concentration requirements is verified in a laboratory analysis of a product probe in an Oeko-Tex member institute.
The Eco Passport by Oeko-Tex label can be issued to producers, traders and resellers of chemicals and is valid for one year.
Certification process and control tests
To have a textile or leather product certified by Oeko-Tex, manufacturers must supply samples of all components (including accessories like buttons, zips, studs, sewing threads, labels or prints) for analysis to a laboratory at one of the Oeko-Tex member institutes. The Oeko-Tex certificate is issued after successful testing of the materials for compliance with the Oeko-Tex standards and the signing of a declaration of conformity. Part of the certification process is also a company audit at the certified item's production facility, conducted shortly prior or after the issuing of the certificate. Later on, audits take place at least every three years.
To verify continued compliance with the required limit values, the Oeko-Tex Association carries out annual checks for at least 25% of all issued Standard 100 and Leather Standard certificates. These checks involve unannounced company visits and laboratory tests of labelled product samples acquired from stores and production sites. Current information about withdrawn certificates is provided on the Oeko-Tex website.
To ensure continued compliance with the requirements in the case of STeP certificates, Oeko-Tex carries out unannounced on-site visits at the production facilities.
Other services by Oeko-Tex
Detox to Zero by Oeko-Tex
Detox to Zero is a service by Oeko-Tex that assesses the quality of a textile manufacturer's chemical management, chemicals used and waste water and sludge performance. The Detox to Zero status report is not a certificate, but a way for manufacturers to have their efforts towards reaching the goals of the Greenpeace Detox campaign verified, evaluated and documented by an independent institution.
The Detox to Zero assessment evaluates the professional and transparent management of chemicals, the reduction respectively elimination of harmful substances from the production process and the quality of waste water and sludge. The status report can be issued for production facilities that use chemicals to manufacture, dye, print, coat or otherwise treat textile materials and textile products, and for facilities that produce accessories (e.g. buttons, zips, labels) for textile products.
For Detox to Zero, Oeko-Tex has compiled a specific Manufacturing Restricted Substances List (MRSL) for waste water and sludge that states reporting limit for the content of all individual substances from the eleven substance classes that are the focus of the Greenpeace Detox campaign.
Oeko-Tex employs a web-based assessment tool for the evaluation that requires companies to provide comprehensive information and documentation about chemical management, environmental protection, employee health and safety and compliance with legal requirements regarding emissions, chemical storage and handling. Oeko-Tex demands a complete chemical inventory and chemical management documentation, information about emergency plans for chemical accidents, documents that prove employees have been trained in matters of work safety, permits/licenses for emissions, air conditioning, water and waste water facility usage, use and storage of dangerous substances, and the results of a waste water and sludge test from an accredited laboratory. Oeko-Tex will review the submitted information and verify it during an audit on the premises of the production facility.
The resulting Detox to Zero status reports the level of compliance with the Detox campaign demands and points out areas where further improvement is required. It is valid for one year; ideally, participation in the program would be continuous, with yearly performance updates.
MySTeP by Oeko-Tex
MySTeP by Oeko-Tex is the central Oeko-Tex database that stores information about suppliers from all stages of the textile chain. Suppliers may use MySTeP to manage their Oeko-Tex certifications and their own supply chain, and to present themselves to customers and potential customers, while retaining the freedom to determine the scope of data and information that is visible to all or individual database users (mainly regarding contact information, existing Oeko-Tex certificates and audit report details). Manufacturers, brands and retailers may use MySTeP to manage their supplier relationships, compare and select suppliers that meet their sustainability demands, for visual representation of existing supply chains, to track and monitor the implementation of sustainability targets along their supply chains, and to compare their sustainability achievements to best performances and global averages.
Use of the MySTeP database is mandatory for manufacturers who wish to apply for Made in Green certification of their product(s).
Institutes
The following institutes currently belong to the International Association for Research and Testing in the Field of Textile Ecology (Oeko-Tex®):
AITEX, Spanish Textile Research Centre, Spain
CENTEXBEL, Belgian Textile Research Centre, Belgium
CENTROCOT, Centro Tessile Cotoniero e Abbigliamento S.p.A., Italy
CITEVE, Centro Tecnológico das Indústrias Têxtil e do Vestuário de Portugal
DTI, Danish Technological Institute, Denmark
FILK Research Institute for Leather and Plastic Sheeting, Germany
Hohenstein Institute, Germany
IFTH, Institut Français du Textile et de l'Habillement, France
INNOVATEXT, Textile Engineering and Testing Institute, Hungary
Instytut Wlokiennictwa, Textile Research Institute, Poland
MIRTEC, Materials Industrial Research & Technology Center, Greece
Nissenken, Nissenken Quality Evaluation Center
ÖTI, Institut für Ökologie, Technik und Innovation GmbH, Austria
PFI, Testing and Research Institute Pirmasens, Germany
Shirley Technologies Limited, United Kingdom
SWEREA, Swedish Research Institute for Industrial Renewal and Sustainable Growth, Sweden
Testex AG, Swiss Textile Testing Institute, Switzerland
Vutch-Chemitex, Slovakia
References
External links
Oeko-Tex website
Standards organisations in Switzerland
Textile industry
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5102559
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabrizio%20Miccoli
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Fabrizio Miccoli
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Fabrizio Miccoli (; born on 27 June 1979) is an Italian former professional footballer who played as a striker.
He scored 103 goals in 259 matches in Serie A across nine seasons, representing Perugia, Juventus, Fiorentina and Palermo, also spending time on loan to Benfica in Portugal. He later spent two seasons with his hometown club Lecce in Lega Pro. He retired in 2015 after playing for Maltese club Birkirkara.
In a two-year international career, Miccoli scored twice in ten appearances for Italy.
Club career
Early years
After playing at youth level with Milan, Miccoli returned to his native Puglia in 1995 to join Serie C1 team Casarano, where he made his professional debut at age 17. He then agreed for a move to Serie B side Ternana in 1998, where he scored a total 32 goals in 4 seasons, 15 of which in his final year at the club. His performances at Ternana had Miccoli dubbed the "new Del Piero" by many sections of the Italian media.
Juventus, Perugia and Fiorentina
Following his impressive performances, Juventus showed interest in signing Miccoli, and ultimately acquired his transfer rights from Ternana in July 2002, then loaning him to minor Serie A side Perugia for the 2002–03 season.
Miccoli showed great qualities during his first season in the top flight, scoring great goals and showing excellent technical ability. He was dubbed "the Romário of the Salento", "the Maradona of the Salento" and "bomber tascabile" ("pocket bomber"), due to his small stature, pace and his technical ability. His efforts helped Perugia reach an UEFA Intertoto Cup spot. For his efforts, he received an Italy call-up during the season and Juventus recalled him back for the following season.
Miccoli played six UEFA Champions League matches for Juventus, scoring one goal. He also scored seven goals in Serie A for Juventus. However, after a fallout with Juve manager Fabio Capello, he did not receive much playing time, and the next season, half of Miccoli's registration rights was sold to newly promoted Fiorentina for €7 million. Once in Florence, Miccoli showed his good qualities once again, helping Fiorentina to salvation on the last day of the season, scoring a goal to send Brescia to Serie B. At the end of the season, there was a blind auction between Fiorentina and Juventus to decide his ownership, and Juventus won it by a lump sum of approximately €6.7 million for three players (Miccoli (€2.39M), Enzo Maresca (€7,000) and Giorgio Chiellini (€4.3 million)). Therefore, Miccoli had to return to Turin, but he was sent on loan to Benfica. Juventus also had to pay agent fee of €250,000 for Miccoli's new three-year contract.
Benfica
In July 2006, Miccoli's loan to Benfica was confirmed despite initial interest from Aston Villa. Miccoli scored two goals for Benfica in six Champions League appearances. He also became a fan favourite when he scored a magnificent scissor-kick goal against Liverpool during that competition, sending Benfica to the quarter-finals. At Benfica, Miccoli attracted attention from other clubs such as Roma and Inter Milan. Miccoli opted to stay one more year in Lisbon with Benfica.
At age 35, Miccoli said Benfica was the most beautiful experience of his career. He was one of the most cherished players by Benfica fans. He scored 14 goals in 39 matches for Benfica in the Primeira Liga.
Palermo
On 5 July 2007, Palermo announced on their official website to have signed Miccoli with a three-year agreement, costing Palermo €4.3 million. He completed a four-way swap: Miccoli replaced the departed Andrea Caracciolo, Caracciolo for Fabio Quagliarella and Vincenzo Iaquinta was replaced by Quagliarella. Miccoli returned to Italian football in the 2007–08 season and took part in the Rosanero'''s third UEFA Cup campaign. He scored a total eight goals in his first season with the Sicilian club, including the winning goal in the Sicilian derby against Catania, despite a number of injuries which prevented him from playing continuously in the season.
In 2008–09, Miccoli, now Palermo vice-captain (behind Fabio Liverani) following the transfers of Andrea Barzagli and Cristian Zaccardo to German club VfL Wolfsburg, enjoyed a remarkable seasonal start, especially after the appointment of Davide Ballardini as new head coach for the team, creating a prolific striking partnership with the Uruguayan Edinson Cavani, scoring 14 goals each. He renewed his contract on 30 May.
Starting in the 2009–10 season, Miccoli took the role of captain leading the team through the campaign in place of the injured Fabio Liverani, and being then confirmed after the latter rejoined the team in November 2009. During the 2009–10 season, Miccoli scored 19 goals, tying him for third in the Serie A goal-scoring race. He scored a hat-trick on 27 March 2010 against Bologna, and in a home draw against Sampdoria on 9 May 2010, Miccoli scored his 41st goal in Serie A for Palermo on a penalty which he had earned, making him the all-time Serie A leading goalscorer for Palermo. The Luciano Zauri foul that earned Miccoli the penalty against Sampdoria, though it resulted in a successfully converted penalty, also caused a moderate injury to Miccoli's knee. As a result, Miccoli underwent right knee surgery on 13 May 2010 at the Villa Stuart Clinic in Rome. The moderate damage to his cruciate ligament was deemed "successfully repaired" by knee specialist Professor Pier Paolo Mariani, and Miccoli was expected to make a full recovery over the summer months.
Miccoli's strong 2009–10 season played a big part in Palermo's campaign, which saw the club finish fifth in Serie A, tied for the best league finish in club history, and narrowly missing out on Champions League football. This also brought transfer interest from English Premier League side, Birmingham City, whom despite his injury at the time and the prospect of Miccoli missing most of the first half of the next season, still bid a reported £5 million for the 31-year-old striker.
Miccoli made a strong start to the Serie A 2011–12 season, scoring twice in a 4–3 win against Inter Milan and helping Palermo to fourth place in Serie A after five matches, recording three goals and three assists en route. In February 2011, Palermo defeated Lecce 4–2, with Miccoli, a boyhood supporter of Lecce, scoring a free-kick on the stroke of half-time. However, Miccoli refused to celebrate, being visibly upset as he left the field and was substituted during the interval. Miccoli maintained his good form despite a lacklustre season from Palermo, with three different managers serving as head coach from August to January, and on 1 February 2012, he became the top goalscorer in club history after scoring a hat-trick in a 4–4 draw against Inter Milan at the San Siro. In May 2012, he scored a hat-trick against Chievo away in a 4–4 draw. On 30 September 2012, he scored another hat-trick against Chievo in a 4–1 away win.
On 24 November, Miccoli scored his 100th Serie A goal in Palermo's 3–1 win over Catania. On 28 April 2013, in Serie A's 34th matchday, of the championship won 1–0 against Inter Milan, Miccoli reached the first place in the ranking of the players present in the shirt of Serie A with Palermo, with 161 appearances, overcoming in the next race, on 5 May, lost 1–0 to Juventus. Later in June, it was confirmed that Miccoli would not be offered a new deal, and would therefore be released by the end of his contract, set to be on 30 June 2013, ending his six-year stint in Sicily.
After being released, Miccoli was linked with a number of clubs including Australian club Melbourne Victory. Australian media reports suggested he had made a verbal agreement to join the Victory. However, he later signed with his hometown club Lecce.
Lecce
Having been released by Palermo, Miccoli reached an agreement with Lecce and a contract was formalised 17 July 2013. He was immediately made captain of the team he supported as a child. He scored 14 goals in 27 appearances for a Lecce side which just narrowly missed out on promotion back into Serie B, reaching the final of the 2013–14 Lega Pro Prima Divisione Play-off during his first season with the club, only to be defeated by Frosinone. The following season, the club missed out on promotion yet again, finishing sixth in Group C of the Lega Pro Championship.
Birkirkara
On 24 June 2015, Miccoli reached an agreement with Maltese Premier League side Birkirara on a one-year deal. He made his Stripes debut on 2 July as a 71st-minute substitute for Edmond Agius in a goalless home draw against Ulisses in the first leg of the first qualifying round for the season's Europa League. One week later, on his first start in the return leg at the Vazgen Sargsyan Republican Stadium, he opened a 3–1 victory after the opponents' defensive error. In the second qualifying round second leg, held at the Ta' Qali National Stadium, he scored the only goal to defeat West Ham United and earn an aggregate draw, but was later substituted and Birkirkara lost in a penalty shootout.
In the league campaign, Miccoli scored 6 goals in 11 matches, including Birkirkara's first of the season on 21 August in a 4–0 home win over Naxxar Lions, and two on 4 October in a win of the same score over St. Andrews. On 16 December 2015, Miccoli announced his decision to retire from professional football.
International career
Fabrizio Miccoli made ten appearances for Italy between 2003 and 2004, scoring twice. He made his debut under manager Giovanni Trapattoni against Portugal on 12 February 2003, creating the only goal for Bernardo Corradi. On 30 March 2004, Miccoli scored directly from a corner kick in another friendly match against Portugal.
Miccoli featured in UEFA Euro 2004 qualifying matches and received another call-up in a friendly against Finland in November 2004, which ended in a 1–0 win, with the only goal scored by Miccoli from a free-kick.
After leaving Juventus on numerous loan stints, Miccoli did not receive any call ups under Marcello Lippi and was not called up to the Azzurri under either Roberto Donadoni nor Cesare Prandelli. Many sections of the Italian media attribute Miccoli's exclusion from the Italy national side under Lippi due to Miccoli's role in court during the 2006 Italian football scandal ("Calciopoli") in which Miccoli testified against Juventus, a club with close relations to Lippi. Notwithstanding, Lippi still spoke positively in the media about Miccoli, referring to him in 2005: "I am constantly keeping him under observation, He's a big quality player and technically he is really good. He is a genius. Miccoli is a forward that can be really important for all teams in which he plays."
During the 2009–10 Serie A season, there were several calls and speculation within the Italian media and high football figures that Miccoli could make a return to the Azzurri for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, and expressed continued interest in playing for the national team. However, Miccoli was not selected for the World Cup and in March 2011, upon return from a serious knee injury, he effectively announced his intentions not to pursue an international career any further.
Style of play
Usually deployed as a creative second striker, Miccoli was well known throughout his career for his all-round attacking and creative abilities, specifically his technique, pace and his powerful and accurate finishing, both inside and outside the area with either foot. While being a prolific goalscorer, Miccoli was also a regular assist provider. Due to his acceleration, balance, agility, and his technical skills, Miccoli was also capable of playing in a playmaking role, as an attacking midfielder on occasion, a position which allowed him to undertake individual dribbling runs during counterattacks and create chances for teammates. Throughout his career, he was also deployed as a winger, where he demonstrated his ability to beat opposing players in one-on-one situations courtesy of his ball skills and close control, and subsequently cut in onto his right foot to curl shots on goal from the left flank. Miccoli was also an accurate set piece and penalty kick taker. He frequently used the "Panenka" gesture when taking penalties during his playing career, and also often employed a "stutter feint" when taking them, where he would slow down during his run-up and fake a shot before finally kicking the ball.
Post-playing career
After retirement, Miccoli kept working on his youth football team in his native Salento, originally founded in 2012.
On 30 December 2020, he was announced as the new assistant coach of Francesco Moriero at Albanian club Dinamo Tirana; he was also named in charge of the club's youth sector. On 2 March 2021, both Moriero and Miccoli resigned from their coaching roles at the club, after having been in charge of only two league games for the Albanian club.
In July 2021 he accepted an offer from Triestina to become the club's under-19 chief youth coach, but resigned from his post only nine days later.
Personal life
Miccoli is married to Flaviana, a woman he met first when he was 17 and she was 14. Together they have a daughter, Suami, who was born in March 2003. His second child, a son named Diego, was born in June 2008.
In early 2010, Miccoli made national news after he purchased an earring belonging to his childhood hero Diego Maradona. The earring had been confiscated by the national tax office during a visit by Maradona to Italy (the Argentine star owing several million euros in taxes to the Italian state). It was sold at a public auction for €25,000. After confirming the purchase, Miccoli revealed he would return the earring to Maradona if he were to meet him.
Miccoli is a supporter of Lecce and, before joining them in 2013, had previously expressed an interest in playing for the club in the future.
Controversy
On 22 June 2013, the Italian press agency ANSA reported that the office of public prosecution in Palermo had started investigations against Miccoli for extortion in connection with allegations he commissioned Mauro Lauricella, the son of Sicilian mafioso Antonino Lauricella, to collect money owed to him by a nightclub. Additionally, Miccoli was quoted in wiretaps of taped telephone conversations, published in the newspaper La Repubblica, as referring to the assassinated anti-mafia judge Giovanni Falcone as "fango''", or "filth" in English. Subsequently, during the 2013–14 season, the FIGC Federal Prosecutor's Office asked for a disqualification day and a fine of €50,000, but on 27 February 2014, he was acquitted by the Federcalcio Disciplinary Committee.
On 20 April 2015, Miccoli was investigated on charges of aggravated extortion because of constant contact with Lauricella to recover €12,000 from a physiotherapist friend at the disco "il Paparazzi" in Isola delle Femmine.
On 21 October 2017, Miccoli was sentenced by the Court of Palermo to three years and six months imprisonment, with abbreviated procedure, for extortion aggravated by Mafia method. His sentence was confirmed in an appeal in January 2020. On 23 November 2021, Miccoli had his appeal rejected by the Supreme Court, and the sentence upheld. On the following day, he turned himself in to the police of the prison of Rovigo. He was released on May 2022, after accepting to do community services for the remainder of his sentence.
Career statistics
Club
International
International goals
Honours
Club
Juventus
Supercoppa Italiana: 2003
Coppa Italia runner-up: 2003–04
Palermo
Coppa Italia runner-up: 2010–11
Birkirkara
Maltese Super Cup runner-up: 2015
Individual
Coppa Italia top scorer: 2002–03 (5 goals)
References
External links
Profile at Gazzetta dello Sport
Profile at AIC
Profile at FIGC
1979 births
Living people
People from Nardò
Men's association football forwards
Italian men's footballers
Italy men's international footballers
Italy men's under-21 international footballers
Italy men's youth international footballers
Italian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Portugal
Italian expatriate sportspeople in Portugal
Italian expatriate sportspeople in Malta
Expatriate men's footballers in Malta
AC Milan players
Ternana Calcio players
Juventus FC players
AC Perugia Calcio players
ACF Fiorentina players
S.L. Benfica footballers
Palermo FC players
US Lecce players
Birkirkara F.C. players
Serie A players
Serie B players
Serie C players
Serie D players
Primeira Liga players
Maltese Premier League players
Footballers from the Province of Lecce
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5102726
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%20art
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Spanish art
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Spanish art has been an important contributor to Western art and Spain has produced many famous and influential artists including Velázquez, Goya and Picasso. Spanish art was particularly influenced by France and Italy during the Baroque and Neoclassical periods, but Spanish art has often had very distinctive characteristics, partly explained by the Moorish heritage in Spain (especially in Andalusia), and through the political and cultural climate in Spain during the Counter-Reformation and the subsequent eclipse of Spanish power under the Bourbon dynasty.
The prehistoric art of Spain had many important periods-it was one of the main centres of European Upper Paleolithic art and the rock art of the Spanish Levant in the subsequent periods. In the Iron Age large parts of Spain were a centre for Celtic art, and Iberian sculpture has a distinct style, partly influenced by coastal Greek settlements. Spain was conquered by the Romans by 200 BC and Rome was rather smoothly replaced by the Germanic Visigoths in the 5th century AD, who soon Christianized. The relatively few remains of Visigothic art and architecture show an attractive and distinct version of wider European trends. With the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 8th century there was a notable Moorish presence in art specially in Southern Iberia. Over the following centuries the wealthy courts of Al-Andalus produced many works of exceptional quality, culminating in the Alhambra in Granada, right at the end of Muslim Spain.
Meanwhile, the parts of Spain remaining Christian, or that were re-conquered, were prominent in Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque art. Late Gothic Spanish art flourished under the unified monarchy in the Isabelline Gothic and Plateresque styles, and the already strong traditions in painting and sculpture began to benefit from the influence of imported Italian artists. The enormous wealth that followed the flood of American gold saw lavish spending on the arts in Spain, much of it directed at religious art in the Counter-Reformation. Spanish control of the leading centre of North European art, Flanders, from 1483 and also of the Kingdom of Naples from 1548, both ending in 1714, had a great influence on Spanish art, and the level of spending attracted artists from other areas, such as El Greco, Rubens and (from a safe distance) Titian in the Spanish Golden Age, as well as great native painters such as Diego Velázquez, José de Ribera, Francisco de Zurbarán and Bartolomé Esteban Murillo.
Spanish Baroque architecture has survived in large quantity, and has both strains marked by exuberant extravagance, as in the Churrigueresque style, and a rather severe classicism, as in the work of Juan de Herrera. It was generally the former which marked the emerging art and Spanish Colonial architecture of the Spanish Empire outside Europe, as in Latin America (New Spanish Baroque and Andean Baroque), while the Baroque Churches of the Philippines are simpler.
The decline of the Habsburg monarchy brought this period to an end, and Spanish art in the 18th and early-19th century was generally less exciting, with the huge exception of Francisco Goya. The rest of 19th-century Spanish art followed European trends, generally at a conservative pace, until the Catalan movement of Modernisme, which initially was more a form of Art Nouveau. Picasso dominates Spanish Modernism in the usual English sense, but Juan Gris, Salvador Dalí and Joan Miró are other leading figures.
Ancient Iberia
The early Iberians have left many remains; northern-western Spain shares with south-western France the region where the richest Upper Paleolithic art in Europe is found in the Cave of Altamira and other sites where there are cave paintings made between 35,000 and 11,000 BC. The Rock art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin (as UNESCO term it) is from the eastern side of Spain, probably dating from about 8000–3500 BC, and shows animal and hunting scenes often developed with a growing feeling for the whole composition of a large scene. Portugal in particular is rich in megalithic monuments, including the Almendres Cromlech, and Iberian schematic art is stone sculpture, petroglyphs and cave paintings from the early metal ages, found all over the Iberian peninsula, with both geometric patterns, but also a higher usage of simple pictogram-like human figures than is typical of comparable art from other areas. The Casco de Leiro, a late Bronze Age gold ritual helmet, may relate to other golden hats found in Germany, and the Treasure of Villena is a huge hoard of geometrically decorated vessels and jewellery, perhaps from the 10th century BC, including 10 kilos of gold.
Iberian sculpture before the Roman occupation reflects the contacts with other advanced ancient cultures who set up small coastal colonies, including the Greeks and Phoenicians; the Sa Caleta Phoenician Settlement on Ibiza has survived to be excavated, where most now lie under large towns, and the Lady of Guardamar was excavated from another Phoenician site. The Lady of Elche (probably 4th century BC) possibly represents Tanit, but also shows Hellenistic influence, as do the 6th century Sphinx of Agost and Biche of Balazote. The Bulls of Guisando are the most impressive examples of verracos, which are large Celtiberian animal sculptures in stone; the 5th century BC Bull of Osuna is a more developed single example. Some decorated falcata, the distinctive curving Iberian sword, have survived, and large numbers of bronze statuettes used as votive offerings. The Romans gradually conquered all of Iberia between 218 BC and 19 AD.
As elsewhere in the Western Empire, the Roman occupation largely overwhelmed native styles; Iberia was an important agricultural area for the Romans, and the elite acquired vast estates producing wheat, olives and wine, with some later emperors coming from the Iberian provinces; many huge villas have been excavated. The Aqueduct of Segovia, Roman Walls of Lugo, Alcántara Bridge (104–106 AD), and the Tower of Hercules lighthouse are among a number of well-preserved major monuments, impressive remains of Roman engineering if not always art. Roman temples survive fairly complete at Vic, Évora (now in Portugal), and Alcántara, as well as elements in Barcelona and Córdoba. There must have been local workshops producing the high-quality mosaics found, though most of the better free-standing sculpture was probably imported. The Missorium of Theodosius I is an important Late Antique silver dish that was found in Spain but was probably made in Constantinople.
Early Medieval
The Christianized Visigoths ruled Iberia after the collapse of the Empire, and the rich 7th century Treasure of Guarrazar, probably deposited to avoid looting in the Muslim Conquest of Spain, is now a unique survival of Christian votive crowns in gold; though Spanish in style, the form was probably then used by elites across Europe. Other Visigothic art in the form of metalwork, mostly jewellery and buckles, and stone reliefs, survives to give an idea of the culture of this originally barbarian Germanic people, who kept themselves very largely separate from their Iberian subjects, and whose rule crumbled when the Muslims arrived in 711.
The jewelled crux gemmata Victory Cross, La Cava Bible and the Agate Casket of Oviedo are survivals from the 9-10th century of the rich Pre-Romanesque culture of the Asturias region in north-western Spain, which remained under Christian rule; the Santa María del Naranco banqueting house overlooking Oviedo, completed in 848 and later surviving as a church, is a unique survival in Europe. The Codex Vigilanus, completed in 976 in the region of Rioja, shows a complex mixture of several styles.
Muslim and Mozarab Spain
The extraordinary palace-city of Medina Azahara near Córdoba was built in the 10th century for the Ummayad Caliphs of Córdoba, intended as the capital of Islamic Andaluz, and is still being excavated. A considerable amount of the highly sophisticated decoration of the main buildings has survived, showing the enormous wealth of this very centralized state. The palace at Aljafería is later, from after Islamic Spain split into a number of kingdoms. Famous examples of Islamic architecture and its decoration are the Cathedral–Mosque of Córdoba, whose Islamic elements were added in stages between 784 and 987, and the Alhambra and Generalife palaces in Granada from the final periods of Muslim Spain.
The Pisa Griffin is the largest known Islamic sculpture of an animal, and the most spectacular of a group of such figures from Al-Andalus, many made to hold up the basins of fountains (as at the Alhambra), or in smaller cases as perfume-burners and the like.
The Christian population of Muslim Spain (the Mozarabs) developed a style of Mozarabic art whose best known survivals are a series of illuminated manuscripts, several of the commentaries on the Book of Revelation by the Asturian Saint Beatus of Liébana (c. 730 – c. 800), which gave subject matter that allowed the brightly coloured primitivist style full scope to demonstrate its qualities in manuscripts of the 10th century like the Morgan Beatus, probably the earliest, the Gerona Beatus (illuminated by a female artist Ende), Escorial Beatus and the Saint-Sever Beatus, which was actually produced some distance from Muslim rule in France. Mozarabic elements, including a background of brightly coloured strips, can be seen in some later Romanesque frescos.
Hispano-Moresque ware pottery began in the south, presumably mainly for local markets, but Muslim potters were later encouraged to migrate to the Valencia region, where the Christian lords marketed their luxury lustrewares to elites all over Christian Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries, including the Popes and the English court. Spanish Islamic ivory carving and textiles were also very fine; the continuing industries producing tiles and carpets in the peninsula owe their origins largely to the Islamic kingdoms.
After the expulsion of the Islamic rulers during the Reconquista, considerable Muslim populations, and Christian craftsmen trained in Muslim styles, remained in Spain, and Mudéjar is the term for work in art and architecture produced by such people. The Mudéjar Architecture of Aragon is recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and the 14th century Patio de las Doncellas built for Peter of Castile in the Alcázar of Seville is another outstanding example. The style could harmonize well with Christian European medieval and Renaissance styles, for example in elaborate wood and stucco ceilings, and Mudéjar work often continued to be produced for some centuries after an area passed to Christian rule.
Painting
Romanesque
In Spain, the art of the Romanesque period represented a smooth transition from the preceding Pre-Romanesque and Mozarabic styles. Many of the best surviving Romanesque church frescos that were at the time found all over Europe come from Catalonia with good examples in the churches of the Vall de Boí area; many of these were only uncovered during the 20th Century. Some of the best examples have been moved to museums, especially the Museu Nacional d’Art de Catalunya in Barcelona, which has the famous Central Apse from Sant Climent in Taüll and the frescos from Sigena. The finest examples of Castillian Romanesque frescoes are considered to be those in the San Isidoro in Leon, the paintings from San Baudelio de Berlanga, now mostly in various museums including the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and those from Santa Cruz de Maderuelo in Segovia. There are also a number of altar frontals painted on wood and other early panel paintings.
Gothic
The Gothic art of Spain represented a gradual development from previous Romanesque styles, being led by external models, first from France, and then later from Italy. Another distinctive aspect was the incorporation of Mudejar elements. Eventually the Italian influence, which transmitted Byzantine stylistic techniques and iconography, entirely displaced the initial Franco-Gothic style Catalonia continued to be a prosperous area which has left many fine altarpieces; however the region went into decline after the emphasis of trade moved to the Atlantic after the American colonies opened up, which partly accounts for so many medieval survivals there, as there was not the money for Renaissance and Baroque renovations to churches.
Early Renaissance
Due to important economic and political links between Spain and Flanders from the mid-15th century onwards, the early Renaissance in Spain was heavily influenced by Netherlandish painting, leading to the identification of a Hispano-Flemish school of painters. Leading exponents included Fernando Gallego, Bartolomé Bermejo, Pedro Berruguete and Juan de Flandes.
Renaissance and Mannerism
Overall the Renaissance and subsequent Mannerist styles are hard to categorise in Spain, due to the mix of Flemish and Italian influences, and regional variations.
The main centre for Italian Renaissance influence entering Spain was Valencia due to its proximity and close links with Italy. This influence was felt via then import of artworks, including four paintings by Piombo and many prints by Raphael, the arrival of the Italian Renaissance artist Paolo de San Leocadio, and also by Spanish artists who spent time working and training there. Such artists included Fernando Yáñez de la Almedina (1475–1540) and Fernando Llanos, who displayed Leonadesque features in their works, such as delicate, melancholic expressions, and sfumato modelling of features.
Elsewhere in Spain, the influence of the Italian Renaissance was less pure, with a relatively superficial use of techniques that were combined with preceding Flemish practices and incorporated Mannerist features, due to the relatively late examples from Italy, once Italian art was already strongly Mannerist. Apart from technical aspects, the themes and spirit of the Renaissance were modified to the Spanish culture and religious environment. Consequently, very few classical subjects or female nudes were depicted, and the works frequently exhibited a sense of pious devotion and religious intensity – attributes that would remain dominant in much art of Counter Reformation Spain throughout the 17th century, and beyond.
artists included Vicente Juan Masip (1475–1550) and his son Juan de Juanes (1510–1579), the painter and architect Pedro Machuca (1490–1550), and Juan Correa de Vivar (1510–1566).
However, the most popular Spanish painter of the early 17th Century was Luis de Morales (1510?–1586), called by his contemporaries "The Divine", because of the religious intensity of his paintings. From the Renaissance he also frequently used sfumato modeling, and simple compositions, but combined them with Flemish style precision of details. His subjects included many devotional images, including the Virgin and Child.
Golden Age
The Spanish Golden Age, a period of Spanish political ascendancy and subsequent decline, saw a great development of art in Spain. The period is generally considered to have begun at some point after 1492 and ended by or with the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, though in art the start is delayed until the reign of Philip III (1598–1621), or just before, and the end also delayed until the 1660s or later. The style thus forms a part of the wider Baroque period in art, although as well as considerable influence from great Baroque masters such as Caravaggio and later Rubens, the distinctive nature of the art of the period also included influences that modified typical Baroque characteristics. These included influence from contemporary Dutch Golden Age painting and the native Spanish tradition which give much of the art of the period an interest in naturalism, and an avoidance of the grandiosity of much Baroque art. Important early contributors included Juan Bautista Maíno (1569–1649), who brought a new naturalistic style into Spain, Francisco Ribalta (1565–1628), and the influential still life painter, Sánchez Cotán (1560–1627).
El Greco (1541–1614) was one of the most individualistic of the painters of the period, developing a strongly Mannerist style based on his origins in the post Byzantine Cretan school, in contrast to the naturalist approaches then predominant in Seville, Madrid and elsewhere in Spain. Many of his works reflect the silvery-greys and strong colours of Venetian painters such as Titian, but combined with strange elongations of figures, unusual lighting, disposing of perspective space, and filling the surface with very visible and expressive brushwork.
Although mostly active in Italy, particularly in Naples, José de Ribera (1591–1652) considered himself Spanish, and his style is sometimes used as an example of the extremes of Counter-Reformation Spanish art. His work was very influential (largely through the circulation of his drawing and prints throughout Europe) and developed significantly through his career.
Being the gateway to the New World, Seville became the cultural centre of Spain in the 16th Century, and attracted artists from across Europe, drawn by lure of commissions for the growing empire, and for the numerous religious houses of the wealthy city. Starting from a strongly Flemish tradition of detailed and smooth brushwork, as revealed in the works of Francisco Pacheco (1564–1642), over time a more naturalistic approach developed, with the influence of Juan de Roelas (c. 1560–1624) and Francisco Herrera the Elder (1590–1654). This more naturalistic approach, influenced by Caravaggio, became predominant in Seville, and formed the training background of three Golden Age masters: Cano, Zurbarán and Velázquez.
Francisco de Zurbarán (1598–1664) is known for the forceful, realistic use of chiaroscuro in his religious paintings and still lifes. Although seen as limited in his development, and struggling to handle complex scenes. Zurbarán's great ability to evoke religious feelings made him very successful in receiving commissions in conservative Counter-Reformation Seville.
Sharing the same painting master – Francisco Pacheco – as Velázquez, Alonso Cano (16601–1667) was also active in sculpture and architecture. His style moved from the naturalism of his early period, to a more delicate, idealistic approach, revealing Venetian and van Dyck influences.
Velázquez
Diego Velázquez (1599–1660) was the leading artist in the court of King Philip IV. In addition to numerous renditions of scenes of historical and cultural significance, he created scores of portraits of the Spanish royal family, other notable European figures, and commoners. In many portraits, Velázquez gave a dignified quality to less fortunate members of society like beggars and dwarfs. In contrast to these portraits, the gods and goddesses of Velázquez tend to be portrayed as common people, without divine characteristics. Besides the forty portraits of Philip by Velázquez, he painted portraits of other members of the royal family, including princes, infantas (princesses), and queens.
Later Baroque
Later Baroque elements were introduced as a foreign influence, through visits to Spain by Rubens, and the circulation of artists and patrons between Spain and the Spanish possessions of Naples and the Spanish Netherlands. Significant Spanish painters taking up the new style were Juan Carreño de Miranda (1614–1685), Francisco Rizi (1614–1685) and Francisco de Herrera the Younger (1627–1685), son of Francisco de Herrera the Elder an initiator of the naturalist emphasis of the Seville School. Other notable Baroque painters were Claudio Coello (1642–1693), Antonio de Pereda (1611–1678), Mateo Cerezo (1637–1666) and Juan de Valdés Leal (1622–1690).
The pre-eminent painter of the period – and most famous Spanish painter prior to the 19th century appreciation of Velázquez, Zurbarán and El Greco – was Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (1617–1682). Working for most of his career in Seville, his early work reflected the naturalism of Caravaggio, using a subdued, brown palette, simple but not harsh lighting, and religious themes that are portrayed in a natural or domestic setting, as in his Holy Family with a Little Bird (c. 1650). Later he incorporated elements of the Flemish Baroque from Rubens and Van Dyck. In the Soult Immaculate Conception, a brighter and more radiant colour range is used, the swirling cherubs bringing all the focus upon the Virgin, whose heavenward gaze and diffuse and warmly glowing halo make it an effective devotional image, an important component of his output; the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin theme alone was represented about twenty times by Murillo.
18th century
The beginning of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain under Philip V led to great changes in art patronage, with the new French-oriented court favoring the styles and artists of Bourbon France. Few Spanish painters were employed by the court – a rare exception being Miguel Jacinto Meléndez (1679–1734) – and it took some time before Spanish painters adapted to the new Rococo and Neoclassical styles. Leading European painters, including Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and Anton Raphael Mengs, were active and influential.
Restricted from royal sponsorship, many Spanish painters continued the Baroque style in religious compositions. This was true of Francisco Bayeu y Subias (1734–1795), a skilled fresco painter, and of Mariano Salvador Maella (1739–1819) who both developed in the direction of the severe Neoclassicism of Mengs. Another important avenue for Spanish artists was portraiture, which was an active sphere for Antonio González Velázquez (1723–1794), Joaquín Inza (1736–1811) and Agustín Esteve (1753–1820). But it is in the genre of the still life that royal patronage was also successfully found, in the works by artists such as the court painter Bartolomé Montalvo (1769–1846) and Luis Egidio Meléndez (1716–1780).
Continuing in the Spanish still life tradition of Sánchez Cotán and Zurbarán, Meléndez produced a series of cabinet paintings, commissioned by the Prince of Asturias, the future King Charles IV, intended to show the full range of edible foods from Spain. Rather than being merely formal studies in Natural History, he used stark lighting, low viewpoints and severe compositions to dramatise the subjects. He showed great interest and attention to the details of reflections, textures and highlights (such the highlight on the patterned vase in Still Life with Oranges, Jars, and Boxes of Sweets) reflecting the new spirit of the age of Enlightenment.
Goya
Francisco Goya was a portraitist and court painter to the Spanish Crown, a chronicler of history, and, in his unofficial work, a revolutionary and a visionary. Goya painted the Spanish royal family, including Charles IV of Spain and Ferdinand VII. His themes range from merry festivals for tapestry, draft cartoons, to scenes of war, fighting and corpses. In his early stage, he painted draft cartoons as templates for tapestries and focused on scenes from everyday life with vivid colors. During his lifetime, Goya also made several series of grabados, etchings which depicted the decadence of society and the horrors of war. His most famous painting series are the Black Paintings, painted at the end of his life. This series features works that are obscure in both color and meaning, producing uneasiness and shock.
He is considered the most important Spanish artist of late 18th and early 19th centuries and throughout his long career was a commentator and chronicler of his era. Immensely successful in his lifetime, Goya is often referred to as both the last of the Old Masters and the first of the moderns.
19th century
Various art movements of the 19th Century influenced Spanish artists, largely through them undertaking training in foreign capitals, particularly in Paris and Rome. In this way Neo-classicism, Romanticism, Realism and Impressionism became important strands. However, they were often delayed or transformed by local conditions, including repressive governments, and by the tragedies of the Carlist Wars. Portraits and historical subjects were popular, and the art of the past - particularly the styles and techniques of Velázquez - were significant.
Early years were still dominated by the academicism of Vincente López (1772–1850) and then the Neoclassicism of the French painter, Jacques-Louis David, as in the works by José de Madrazo (1781–1859), the founder of an influential line of artists and gallery directors. His son, Federico de Madrazo (1781–1859), was a leading figure in Spanish Romanticism, together with Leonardo Alenza (1807–1845), Valeriano Bécquer and Antonio María Esquivel.
The later part of the century saw a strong period of Romanticism represented in history paintings, as in the works of Antonio Gisbert (1834–1901), Eduardo Rosales (1836–1873) and Francisco Pradilla (1848–1921). In these works the techniques of Realism were frequently used with Romantic subjects. This can clearly be seen in Joan the Mad, a famed early work by Pradilla. The composition, facial expressions, and stormy sky reflect the dramatic emotion of the scene; yet the precise clothing, the texture of the mud, and other details, show great realism in the artist's attitude and style. Mariano Fortuny(1838–1874) also developed a strong Realist style, after earlier being influenced by the French Romantic Eugène Delacroix, and became Spain's famous artist of the century
Joaquín Sorolla (1863–1923) excelled in the dexterous representation of the people and landscape under the sunlight of his native land, thus reflecting the spirit of Impressionism in many paintings, particularly his famous seaside paintings. In Children on the beach he makes the reflections, shadows and gloss of the water and skin his true subject. The composition is very daring, with the horizon omitted, one of the boys cut off, and strong diagonals leading to the contrasts and increased saturation of the upper-left of the work.
20th century
During the first half of 20th century many leading Spanish artists were working in Paris, where they contributed to – and sometimes led – developments in the Modernist art movement. As perhaps the most important example of this, Picasso, working together with the French artist Braque, created the concepts of Cubism; and the sub-movement of Synthetic Cubism has been judged to have found its purest expression in the paintings and collages of Madrid-born Juan Gris. In a similar way, Salvador Dalí became a central figure of the Surrealist movement in Paris; and Joan Miró was influential in abstract art.
Picasso's Blue Period (1901–1904), which consisted of somber, blue-tinted paintings was influenced by a trip through Spain. The Museu Picasso in Barcelona features many of Picasso's early works, created while he was living in Spain, as well as the extensive collection of Jaime Sabartés, Picasso's close friend from his Barcelona days who, for many years, was Picasso's personal secretary. There are many precise and detailed figure studies done in his youth under his father's tutelage, as well as rarely seen works from his old age that clearly demonstrate Picasso's firm grounding in classical techniques. Picasso presented the most durable homage to Velázquez in 1957 when he recreated Las Meninas in his characteristically cubist form. While Picasso was worried that if he copied Velázquez's painting, it would be seen only as a copy and not as any sort of unique representation, he proceeded to do so, and the enormous work—the largest he had produced since Guernica in 1937—earned a position of relevance in the Spanish canon of art. Málaga, Picasso's birthplace, houses two museums with significant collections, the Museo Picasso Málaga and Birthplace Museum.
Salvador Dalí was a central artist within the Surrealist movement in Paris. Although Dalí was criticized for accommodating Franco's regime, André Breton, the Surrealist leader and poet, asked him to represent Spain at the 1959 Homage to Surrealism Exhibition which celebrated the fortieth anniversary of Surrealism. In line with the Surrealist movement's objectives, Dalí stated that his artistic aim was that "the world of imagination and of concrete irrationality may be as objectively evident ... as that of the exterior world", and this goal can be seen in one of his most familiar paintings, The Persistence of Memory. Here he paints with a precise, realistic style, based on studies of Dutch and Spanish masters, but with a subject that dissolves the boundaries between organic and mechanical and is more akin to the nightmarish scenes of the Netherlandish painter Hieronymus Bosch, whose Garden of Earthly Delights provided the model for the central, sleeping figure of Dalí's work.
Joan Miró was also closely associated with the Surrealists in Paris, who particularly approved of his use of automatism in composition and execution, designed to expose the subconscious mind. Although his later and more popular paintings are refined, whimsical and apparently effortless, his influential period in the 1920s and 1930s produced works that were provocative in their sexual symbolism and imagery, and employing rough, experimental materials, including sandpaper, unsized canvases, and collage. In mature period painting, La Leçon de Ski, his characteristic language of signs, figures and black linear forms against more textured and painterly background is evident.
Ignacio Zuloaga and José Gutiérrez Solana were other significant painters of the first half of 20th century.
Post WW2
In the post-War period, the Catalan artist Antoni Tàpies became famous for his abstract works, many of which use very thick textures and the incorporation of non-standard materials and objects. Tàpies has won several international awards for his works.
Sculpture
The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until the last third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works of all great Spanish artists of the time.
Alonso Berruguete (sculptor, painter and architect) is called the "Prince of Spanish sculpture" because of the grandeur, originality, and expressiveness achieved in his works.
His main works were the upper stalls of the choir of the Cathedral of Toledo, the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the altarpiece of the Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality.
Other notable sculptors were Bartolomé Ordóñez, Diego de Siloé, Juan de Juni and Damián Forment.
Another period of Spanish Renaissance sculpture, the Baroque, encompassed the last years of the 16th century and extended into the 17th century until reaching its final flowering the 18th, developing a truly Spanish school and style, of sculpture, more realistic, intimate and independently creative than that of the previous one which was tied to European trends, especially those of the Netherlands and Italy. There were two Schools of special flair and talent: the Seville School, to which Juan Martínez Montañés belonged (called the Sevillian Fidias), whose most celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral of Seville, another in Vergara, and a Saint John; and the Granada School, to which Alonso Cano belonged, to whom an Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of Rosary, are attributed.
Another notable Andalusian Baroque sculptors were Pedro de Mena, Pedro Roldán and his daughter Luisa Roldán, Juan de Mesa and Pedro Duque Cornejo.
The Valladolid school of the 17th century (Gregorio Fernández, Francisco del Rincón) was succeeded in the 18th century, although with less brilliance, by the Madrid School, and it was soon transformed into a purely academic style by the middle of the century. In turn, the Andalusian school was replaced by that of Murcia, epitomised in the person of Francisco Salzillo, during the first half of the century. This last sculptor is distinguished by the originality, fluidity, and dynamic treatment of his works, even in those representations of great tragedy. More than 1,800 works are attributed to him, the most famous products of his hand being the Holy Week floats (pasos) in Murcia, most notable amongst which are those of the Agony in the Garden and the Kiss of Judas.
In the 20th century the most important Spanish sculptors were Julio González, Pablo Gargallo, Eduardo Chillida and Pablo Serrano.
Spanish collectors and museums of art
The Spanish royal collection was accumulated by Spanish monarchs beginning with Isabel the Catholic, Queen of Castile (1451–1504), who accumulated large and impressive collections of objets d'art, 370 tapestries, and 350 paintings, a number by important artists including Rogier van der Weyden, Hans Memling, Hieronymus Bosch, Juan de Flandes, and Sandro Botticelli. However many of these were dispersed by auction after her death in 1504. Isabel's grandson, Charles I, the first Habsburg king of Spain, was a patron and collector of art, as was his sister, Mary of Hungary. Both admired works by Titian. When the siblings died, the art passed to Philip II of Spain, Charles's son, an even keener collector. Philip IV (1605–1665) followed in the family tradition as a passionate art collector and patron. During his reign, Velázquez, Zurbarán and others produced many works of art. Philip commissioned works and purchased others, sending his representatives to acquire works for the monarch's collection. One of Philip IV's major contributions to art in Spain was to entail his collection, preventing their sale or other dispersal. Under the Spanish Bourbon monarch, Charles IV, the notion of bringing together major works from other repositories in Spain took shape, probably not for the public to view but for artists to study. The Prado Museum in Madrid became the main repository for that art.
The Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Francisco, founded in 1744, now functions also as a museum in Madrid. The Museum of the Americas in Madrid has a collection of casta paintings and other art brought back to Spain from the Americas, as well as sculpture and archeological artifacts.
Other artistic disciplines
Architecture
Cinematography
Music
References
Further reading
Alcolea Blanch, Santiago. The Prado. Translated from the Spanish by Richard-Lewis Rees and Angela Patricia Hall. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers 1991.
Berg Sobré, Judith. Behind the Altar Table: The Development of the Painted Retablo in Spain, 1350-1500. Columbia, Miss. 1989.
Brown, Jonathan, Painting in Spain, 1500-1700 (Pelican History of Art), Yale University Press, 1998,
Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (ed.) Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. New York 1992.
Gardner's: Art Through The Ages - International Edition, Brace Harcourt Jovanovich, 9th Edn. 1991
Gudiol, José, The Arts of Spain, 1964, Thames and Hudson
Jiménez Blanco, María Dolores, ed. The Prado Guide, Madrid: Museo National del Prado, English 2nd Revised Edition, 2009
Moffitt, John F. The Arts in Spain. London: Thames & Hudson 1999.
O'Neill, John P. (ed.), The Art of Medieval Spain, AD 500-1200. New York 1993.
Palol, Pedro and Max Hirmer. Early Medieval Art in Spain. New York 1966.
(full text resource that contains information on Ribera as well as a number of other Spanish artists)
Tomlinson, Janis, From El Greco to Goya: Painting in Spain 1561–1828, Abrams Art History, 1997
Williams, John. Early Spanish Manuscript Illumination. New York 1977.
Young, Eric. Bartolomé Bermejo: The Great Hispano-Flemish Master. London 1975.
External links
Art by country
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No.%20330%20Squadron%20RNoAF
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No. 330 Squadron RNoAF
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No. 330 Squadron RNoAF () is a helicopter unit of the Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNoAF) and is Norway's military search and rescue service. The squadron operates ten Westland Sea King helicopters based at six airbases along the coast. Headquartered at Sola Air Station, the squadron has detachments at Rygge, Florø, Ørland, Bodø and Banak. The unit's primary duty is search and rescue (SAR), with secondary duties consisting of air ambulance and disaster relief.
The squadron has its roots in the No. 330 Squadron RAF, which conducted maritime surveillance, Arctic convoy escort and anti-submarine warfare during the Second World War. It was established on Iceland on 25 April 1941, where it operated Northrop N-3PB and Consolidated PBY Catalina seaplanes. It relocated to RAF Oban in Scotland on 23 January 1943 and adopted Short Sunderland flying boats in the same role. It relocated to Sola in June 1945, where it operated mostly as an airline until December, when it was deactivated.
The unit was reactivated between 20 July 1953 and 5 July 1958 to operate the Republic F-84G Thunderjet fighters, first based at Gardermoen Air Station and from 1956 at Rygge. It was again reactivated from 1 March 1962 to 1 October 1968 to carry out maritime surveillance and anti-submarine operations from Sola, using the Grumman HU-16 Albatross. In its current role the squadron became operational in 1973, using ten, later twelve Sea Kings. These are due to be replaced with the AgustaWestland AW101 from 2020.
Operations
The 330 Squadron is part of the Rescue Helicopter Service of the Royal Norwegian Air Force. It is based at Sola Air Station, with detachments at Florø, Ørland, Bodø, Rygge and Banak. The unit's primary role is search and rescue. The squadron is funded through a cooperation between the Ministry of Defence, the Ministry of Justice and Public Security and the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs. Operationally the squadron is under the command of the Joint Rescue Coordination Centre of Southern Norway (JRCC SN) and the Joint Rescue Coordination Centre of Northern Norway (JRCC NN), respectively. Norway has signed agreements with Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, the United Kingdom and Russia which under given circumstances may result in the 330 Squadron operating within these countries' territories.
The squadron operates twelve Westland Sea King helicopters. Two are located on each base at any given time, Up to two helicopters are on long-term maintenance at any time. At all bases at least one of the helicopters is on stand-by at any time. The Florø base is operated by the civilian contractor CHC Helikopter Service until the new SAR Queen helicopters are ready.
The helicopters are manned by two pilots, a systems operator, a navigator, a technician/lift operator, a rescue swimmer and an anaesthesiologist. Five of these are military personnel, while the anaesthesiologists work for the local health trust and are funded through them.
The Sea Kings fly a combined 4,500 hours per year. Half of these are used for missions, the remainder for training. Because the unit operates under military rules, it has a stricter training regime than civilian operators. It can also operate under more severe weather conditions. The bases have on-call rooms and a crew on duty at all times. The squadron aims as an average scrambling time of 15 minutes; this varies between 10 and 25 minutes depending on the time of day, the layout of the base and preparations.
The 330 Squadron is part of the National Air Ambulance Service. It carries out about 800 missions per year, or about ten percent of the total helicopter ambulance missions in Norway. The unit's helicopters are used when the ordinary helicopter ambulances (Eurocopter EC135, EC145 and AgustaWestland AW139) are unable to operate due to weather; missions in which a large cabin is needed such as due to the number of patients or an incubator; and in areas where the Sea Kings are closer and areas where there is no ordinary air ambulance service. Ambulance use must be permitted by the JRCCs.
When not used for SAR missions, the Sea Kings may be used for auxiliary and transport missions within the armed forces, assisting the Norwegian Police Service, aerial firefighting and anti-pollution.
Bases
The following is a list of bases used by the 330 Sqn. It denotes the period they were in use, the medical provider, the number of missions and flight-hours in 2013.
Iceland
The Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service ordered twelve Northrop N-3PB Nomads on 12 March 1940. This was the first-ever order for Northrop Corporation. By the time the first aircraft was finished in December 1940, Germany had invaded Norway. The aircraft were therefore transferred to Little Norway in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. During late fall the Norwegian Nygaardsvold's Cabinet agreed with the Royal Air Force that the exiled Norwegian forces could use the Northrops to operate reconnaissance and escort services around Iceland.
The 330 (Norwegian) Squadron was activated on 25 April 1941 and based at RAF Reykjavik, also known as Corbett Camp, in the vicinity of Reykjavík on Iceland. The squadron originally consisted of 128 men, all Norwegian. These had various backgrounds: 80 were trained at Little Norway; most of the rest were sailors from sunken ships or men brought in from Lofoten during the Operation Claymore raid. These lacked military training, forcing the squadron to establish a recruit school. The base consisted of a dozen Nissen huts. The facilities were primitive and the soldiers forced to sleep on the muddy ground.
The squadron was under RAF Coastal Command in Reykjavík. The eighteen Northrop N-3PB aircraft arrived by ship on 22 May. After final assembly they were operational on 23 June. The squadron was originally set to carry out Arctic convoy escorts. The squadron's A-flight and headquarters were located at Corbett Camp, the B-flight was located at Valhall in Akureyri and the C-flight at Camp Norse in Búðareyri. The latter two were established on 20 June and 14 September, respectively.
It was quickly established that the aircraft were poorly suited for their role. Due to the high latitude their compasses did not work properly, often leaving them without proper navigation. Two aircraft were subject to crashes after misnavigation. They participated in anti-submarine patrols and were part of the capture of U-570. From late 1941 the missions changed focus and the squadron instead took up a role as an air ambulance in Iceland.
Both Norwegian and British authorities discussed converting the 330 Sqn to use the Lockheed Hudson, but the fighter role was instead placed on two new Norwegian squadrons, 331 and 332. No. 330 was instead issued the Consolidated PBY-5A Catalina in June 1942. However, they were unsuitable for Búðareyri and the Northrops were not needed in Reykjavík, so the squadron ended up with six each of the Catalina and the Northrop. An operating challenge was a lack of spare parts, but the Norwegians were helped both with parts and training by a nearby United States Air Force squadron.
The Catalinas retained the same roles as the Northrops: anti-submarine sweeping, patrol and convoy escort. The aircraft rotated between being based at Reykjavík and at Akureyri. They successfully hit U-592 on 30 June and U-580 on 25 August 1942. In December the Norwegian authorities decided to relocate the 330 Sqn. The Akureyri base was immediately ordered to move its aircraft to Reykjavík. Operations of the Catalina had commenced in November and of the Northrops in December. The C-flight continued to operate out of Búðareyri until 11 June 1943. During its period on Iceland the squadron flew 4379 hours, of which 3524 with the Northrops and 855 with Catalinas. Twenty-one soldiers were killed.
Scotland
The A- and B-flights departed Iceland for RAF Oban in Scotland on 23 January 1943. This involved a switch to the Short Sunderland flying boat. These were expensive aircraft which the Norwegian government-in-exile could not afford. The RAF therefore agreed to lend the aircraft to the squadron, while operating costs were still paid for by the Norwegians. The squadron was set up with six Mk II and six Mk III, the latter having somewhat longer range. There were technical challenges with the Bristol Pegasus engines, which were underpowered and often stopped mid-air. The situation was often aggravated when the feathering malfunctioned.
The squadron became operative on 20 April 1943. Three days later a detachment was sent to RAF Scatsta in Shetland. The role continued as before, with submarine sweeping, patrol and reconnaissance, as well as meteorological surveys. They regularly patrolled the areas between Shetland past the Faeroe Islands to Iceland. Also active in the area was the Norwegian 333 Squadron and other RAF squadrons. The Sunderlands would on occasion partake in aerial combat with German fighters. Following the Allied Invasion of Normandy in June 1944, German submarines increasingly moved northwards and the 330 Sqn intensified its sweeping. From August the German tactics changed and the 330 Sqn's patrols moved steadily closer to Norway.
During the period in Scotland the squadron flew 12,000 hours, carrying out 655 sweeps and patrols, 50 convoy escorts and 22 search and rescue missions. Five submarines were attacked, sinking one and badly damaging another. No ships escorted by the 330 Sqn were sunk. Six Sunderlands were lost during the war, both due to engine failure and due to enemy action. All but one resulted in loss of life.
In April 1945 the Mk II and III Sunderlands were replaced with Mk V, which had more reliable Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp. At the End of World War II in Europe in May 1945, the 330 Sqn had eleven operational Sunderlands. While the fighter squadrons were without work, the amount of work for the 330 and 333 Sqn intensified. There was a massive need for air transport, both from the United Kingdom to Norway and within Norway. Both squadrons were transferred to Norway in June, with the 330 Sqn being based at the water aerodrome at Sola Air Station. These were used on a daily coastal route from there to Bergen Airport, Sandviken and Trondheim, often onwards to Tromsø Airport, Skattøra. Both squadrons were soon operating more as airlines than as military units.
Command of the squadron was given to the newly formed Royal Norwegian Air Force on 21 November 1945, when RAF withdrew from Norway. The 330 Sqn was officially deactivated on 15 December 1945. The aircraft were still owned by the RAF, but were not returned until early 1946. Most of the personnel transferred to 333, which had just been relocated to Sola.
Aircraft operated during World War II
Thunderjet
Following Norway's entry into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and as recipients of the Marshall Plan aid, Norway took delivery of its first of 206 Republic F-84 Thunderjets on 10 September 1951, in what would become a delivery of 206 airframes. Six squadrons would in the end be set up to operate the aircraft. As the deliveries advanced, the 330 Squadron was reactivated on 20 July 1953 and stationed at Gardermoen. Half the crew were recruited from other F-84G squadrons, the rest were freshly trained. The first aircraft was acquired on 22 August and by November all had been taken into use. After completing its tactical and bombing training at Lista Air Station in March 1954, the squadron was declared operative.
The squadron had between 22 and 27 airframes while operating the Thunderjets. It was originally set to provide interception, but from 1 November 1954 it was remissioned to become an operational training unit. All F-84G check-outs were carried out in the 330 Sqn, and the instructor pilots received twice the flight hours as their colleagues in other squadrons. Between the training courses the squadron practised bombing at Sola Air Station and participated in exercises. The 330 Sqn moved to Rygge Air Station on 28 August 1956. Following the retirement of the F-84G and the introduction of the North American F-86F Sabre, the 330 Sqn was deactivated on 5 July 1958.
Albatross
The 333 Sqn had continued to operate the Catalinas through the 1950s, although they by the end of the decade were all but modern. The Norwegian authorities agreed to receive eighteen Grumman HU-16B-ASW Albatrosses through the Marshall Plan. These flying boats were intended for maritime surveillance and transport to Svalbard, as well as submarine sweeping. 330 and 333 Sqn would receive nine airframes each. Combined they would provide 8,100 flight-hours annual, up from 2,400 with the Catalinas. Training was carried out by the United States Coast Guard and Air Force.
The 300 Sqn's first Albatross landed in February 1962 and the unit was activated at Sola Air Station on 1 March. Delivery of the final aircraft took place in late 1963. The 330 Sqn was designated the operational training unit and all check-outs took place at Sola for both squadrons. From late 1962 a detachment was established at Bardufoss Air Station with one aircraft and one crew. The 330 Sqn was declared operative from 15 July 1963. The detachment was a strain on the unit's moral and its commanded asked his subordinates to withdraw it and replace it with a mobilized unit. The resources used to support the detachment made the 330 Sqn almost unable to provide sweeping operations.
The Albatrosses improved the sweeping capacity and introduced news technology such as sonar, radar and magnetic anomaly detector. Norway did not have capacity to sweep its waters and instead focused on the surveillance. This allowed both British and American forces to carry out such tasks. Despite the leap in technology, the Albatrosses were soon declared obsolete. Allied Forces Northern Europe determined that they needed full anti-submarine capabilities and opted to replace the flying boats with the Lockheed P-3 Orion. Five Orions were capable of the same job as eighteen Albatrosses, and the number of squadrons was cut to one. The 330 Sqn was therefore deactivated on 1 October 1968.
Sea King
Search and rescue was at the time only a secondary role for various air force units, such as the Albatross, Bell UH-1B and Bell 47. Norway lacked the dedicated SAR service that Denmark had. This became evident in 1966, when the Norwegian ferry Skagerrak sank off the Danish coast in September 1966. Everyone on board was saved, but it was questioned whether this would have been the case if the incident had occurred in Norwegian waters. The task was given to the Ministry of Justice, who as a temporary solution from 1968 to 1973 signed an agreement with Helikopter Service to operate two Sikorsky S-61 out of Sola and Bodø.
Both a private operation with civilian aircraft, a military operation and a joint civilian and military operation were considered. A single operator built with a fast roll-out would give the lowest investments. The Air Force was interested in operating this service to replace its own rescue service, to gain political goodwill and to add to the anti-submarine capability. The latter was rejected by the politicians. The Westland Sea King was chosen over the S-61 due to a better offset agreement. Parliament approved the purchase of ten helicopters in 1970, to be stationed at four bases, Sola, Ørland, Bodø and Banak. This would allow any location along the coast to be reached within 90 minutes. The Oslofjord and Skagerrak was covered by Bell UH-1s of the 720 Squadron at Rygge.
The 330 Sqn was assigned the SAR task and was headquartered at Bodø Main Air Station, with a wing at each location. The A-flight was at Bodø, the B-flight at Banak, the C-flight at Ørland and the D-flight at Sola. Of ten aircraft, two were stationed at each base and two were at any given time in for overhaul. The flights were re-designated as detachments from 1980. The squadron was officially reactivated on 25 April 1973. The flights at Sola and Bodø were operative 1 May and the other two on 1 August. The first major was on 7 April 1974, when the Banak flight saved 13 lives off the trawler Longvabakk in Oksfjorden.
Especially among the first officers the SAR service was not what they had imagined when joining the air force and many applied to the Air Force Academy. This caused new first officers to be ordered to the 300 Sqn, which reinforced the problems, resulting in high turnover. The Sea Kings were designed to be maritime helicopters, but were increasingly used for terrestrial SAR missions, and on occasion aerial firefighting. Throughout the 1970s the number of air ambulance missions increased dramatically, hitting 242 in 1977.
On 30 April 1977 one helicopter disappeared off the coast of Sola. A replacement helicopter was delivered in January 1978. Three helicopters participated in the most extensive operation following the sinking of Alexander L. Kielland on 27 March 1980. On 22 April 1982 another helicopter crashed, this time without fatalities, when hitting a power line in Sirdal. Another such incident occurred on 10 November 1986 near Bodø, this time with one fatality. In 1988 another helicopter crashed at Tyinvann in 1988, without fatalities and with the aircraft being repaired. During the late 1980s the helicopters were often grounded due to lack of spare parts, which on 6 July 1988 hindered the unit form participating in aiding the sinking Piper Alpha oil platform.
The National Air Ambulance Service was inaugurated in 1988 and the 330 Sqn became part of this. This involved the acquisition of eight smaller ambulance helicopters—later increased to twelve—which could relieve the Sea Kings. Meanwhile, the air ambulance role of the Sea Kings were increased with the inclusions of an anaesthesiologist on board. This would also aid in SAR missions, where the rescued could be severely injured. The task of providing the anaesthesiologist was placed with the county municipality.
The accident in 1988 reduced the fleet to eight. This spurred the Ministry of Justice to wet lease the services of the commercial companies Helikopter Service and Mørefly, respectively operating S-61 and Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma. These were placed at Ålesund Airport, Vigra from 1 November 1988 to 31 January 1989, at Sandefjord Airport, Torp from 1 February 1989 to 31 December 1990, and from 1 January to 31 July 1991 at Sola.
The Sea Kings had two accidents in 1990 and 1991, respectively, after which the helicopters needed to be renovated. A new Mk 43B was delivered in August 1992, followed by the renovated aircraft from the 1990 crash. The main difference was new avionics. The squadron then, one by one, upgraded the avionics on the entire fleet, a job completed in 1996. The role of the SAR service was evaluated in 1992 and it ended up with Parliament approving the purchase of two more helicopters, bringing the total to twelve. The two new helicopters were delivered in 1995.
With the additional helicopters, the 330 Sqn could open a new base, at Ålesund Airport, Vigra. The goal was to increase the coverage in Møre og Romsdal and Sogn og Fjordane, situated midway between Ørland and Sola. By 1998 the government instead determined that the extra helicopters should be based in Eastern Norway and moved the base to Rygge Air Station. The new base became operational on 22 March 1999. This relieved the 720 Sqn for their SAR task, for which they neither had suitable aircraft nor the necessary preparedness.
From 2002 the anaesthesiologist became the responsibility of the respective health trust. From 2004 the funding was changed and the 330 Sqn is paid for through the Ministry of Justice and the Police. From the start the service had a reaction time, from alarm to airborne, of 60 minutes. Sola was the first base to receive an on-call room, allowing the response time to be lowered to 15 minutes. This proved successful and was introduced at Banak in 2006, Bodø in 2007, and Ørland and Rygge in 2008. A sixth base was opened at Florø Airport in 2009. The 330 Squadron was featured in an eight-episode television documentary series of the same name, broadcast by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation in 2009.
AW101
The replacement of the Sea Kings was first discussed in a Norwegian Official Report in 1997. In competition with the AgustaWestland AW101, the Eurocopter AS532 Cougar and the Sikorsky S-92, Norway ordered fourteen NHIndustries NH90 helicopters in 2001 to meet the needs of the Royal Norwegian Navy. Options would be places for a future ten SAR helicopters and fifteen troop transports. By operating only one class of helicopters, the Air Force hoped to cut costs.
The Ministry of Justice canceled the options in 2007 and instead initiated a new procurement process. This resulted in a project organization being established, Norwegian All Weather Search and Rescue Helicopter (NAWSARH). The procurement was in cooperation with Icelandic authorities. The project prequalified four models, NH90, AW101, EC-725 and S-92. On 8 November 2013 the project announced that it had selected AgustaWestland as the provider. The contract is for sixteen units with an option for a further six. The first helicopter were delivered in 2017.
AW101 will replace Sea King base for base, with Sola Air base declared operative with the new helicopters September 1st 2020. At the same time it was revealed that AW101 in Norwegian service will be named SAR Queen. Ørland Air base was the next to be operative in May 2021.
The last Sea King is planned to be retired by 2023.
Fleet
The following is a list of the fleet composition of the 330 Sqd. The quantity (qty) specifies the peak number of simultaneously operated aircraft.
Personnel
Nils Arveschoug
Christian Roy Kaldager
Stefan Kutzsche
Oluf Reed Olsen
Einar Sverre Pedersen
References
Bibliography
Royal Air Force aircraft squadrons
Royal Norwegian Air Force squadrons
Air ambulance services in Norway
330
Military units and formations established in 1941
1941 establishments in the United Kingdom
1941 establishments in Norway
Organisations based in Sola, Norway
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KK%20Budu%C4%87nost
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KK Budućnost
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KK Budućnost (, ), currently known as Budućnost VOLI () for sponsorship reasons, is a professional basketball club based in Podgorica, Montenegro. The club competes in Montenegrin Basketball League, Adriatic League and Eurocup. It is a part of the Budućnost Sports Society. The club is a founding member and shareholder of the Adriatic Basketball Association.
History
1949–1979: Formation and early years
The club was founded in 1949 when Budućnost sports society decided to form the men's basketball club. Budućnost participated in its first competition during the first part of June 1949, at the third Montenegrin Championship. The Championships took place in Cetinje, and in addition to Budućnost, three other teams from Montenegro participated. The first success came two years later – in 1951, when Budućnost took the first place in the First Championships of the Cities, which was held in Herceg-Novi.
In 1957, a new outdoor basketball court was constructed in the City Park, on the Morača river left bank.
Budućnost became champion of Montenegro for the first time in 1958. The championship was played in three zones, and many more teams took part this time. All credit for this achievement goes to: Martinović, Pavlović, Vujović, Đukić, Golubović, Lekić, Belada, Đurišić, Tamindžić and Vukčević. Because of this result, Buducnost got the chance to play in the qualifications for the First League. The qualifications did not take place, because of the decision of Yugoslav Basketball Federation that the team of Zastava from Kragujevac should play in the First League, without any matches being played.
In the 1959–60 season, Budućnost became the Montenegrin basketball champion for the second time. The Qualifications for the First League were played in Podgorica, and the teams of Dinamo Pančevo and Rabotnički Skoplje took part. Dinamo Pančevo eventually qualified for the First League.
Budućnost dominated Montenegrin basketball scene in the year of 1961. Because of the financial problems, the championships were reduced to a tournament played in Podgorica, and the home team easily won all of its matches.
Budućnost had to wait until 1969 for the new success. That year the team managed to win two trophies. In the Republic League, Budućnost won the first place and again became the Montenegrin basketball champion. Budućnost played the qualifications for the Second League group East once more, but in the very strong competition from clubs from Serbia and Macedonia they failed to qualify. The team also won the Championships of the Cities, for the third time in its history.
The year 1970 was the turning point for the Montenegrin basketball. The championships were played in the united league for the first time in history, without any zones. Budućnost became the Montenegrin basketball champion. The club managed to repeat the same success in the next year and became the Montenegrin basketball champion for the second time in a row (sixth overall). In the same year, the team finally managed to qualify for the Second League. Qualifications were held in Podgorica. Unfortunately, Budućnost managed to play for only one year in the Second League (1971–72).
In the 1973 Montenegrin champion was determined in a tie-breaker between Budućnost and Jedinstvo from Bijelo Polje, because both teams had the same number of points at the end of the season. The Game was played on the neutral court, and Budućnost proved that it still was the best. Both clubs took part in the qualifications for the Second League, but neither managed to qualify. The tournament was played in Skopje. Next year Budućnost had only one loss in the Montenegrin League and became the Montenegrin basketball champion once again. In the same year, the tournament of the Republics took place. The Budućnost players who played for Montenegro national basketball team were: Blažević, Begović, Pavićević, and Popović. The team managed to qualify for the Second League group South this year.
Because there was no suitable basketball arena in Titograd, Budućnost was forced to play its games in the Second League (season 1974–75) outside its hometown. Budućnost was by far the best team in group South – it had 11 wins and only 3 losses. That year the fusion of the clubs Akademik and Budućnost took place, so the team now had the best players from Akademik. The team roster for this year was: Begović, Brajović, Blažević, Šćepanović, Latković, Đurašković, I. Popović, M. Popović, Vukićević, Leković, Šarkić, Pavićević, Kazić and Martinović, and the head coach was Petar Blažević. The team achieved its first bigger success in Yugoslav Cup, qualifying for the Last 16 stage.
In the 1975–76 season, the Second League was once again dominated by Budućnost. At the end of the regular season Budućnost was tied with the team of Budućnost Peć, with 13 wins and 5 losses. In the tie-breaker that took place in Belgrade, the team from Podgorica was much better and won. The new players this season were Garić and Begović.
Next year the team was tied for the first place with the team of Kumanovo, but this Budućnost lost in the deciding tie-breaker. In the season of 1977–78 Budućnost qualified for the quarter-finals of the Yugoslav Cup, where it was beaten by Bosna. In the same year the team won the Montenegrin Cup.
1979–1986: Yugoslav First League promotion and successes
The 1979–80 season is very significant in club's history. Budućnost took the first place in the Second League and automatically qualified for the Yugoslav First Federal League. The players were: Nikola Antić, Dragan Ivanović, Duško Ivanović, Vukićević, Sutulović, Vukosavljević, Petrović, Borislav Đurović, Bojanić, Garić, Slavenko Rakočević, Nesević and Dragović. The team was coached by Rusmir Halilović. As hosts, the team had to play its games in Danilovgrad.
Budućnost's promotion to the First League brought a resurgence of popularity for the game of basketball in Titograd in the summer of 1980. The First League had a representative from Montenegro again after 15 years. Shortly before the debut in the First League, Morača Sports Center was opened and the team played all of its official matches there.
In its First League debut season, the team achieved a significant success finishing eight with a 9–13 record. Team roster for this year was: Dragan and Duško Ivanović, Nikola Antić, Žarko Knežević, Kovačević, Slavenko Rakočević, Goran and Milorad Bojanić, Borislav Đurović, Petrović, Milatović. The coaches were Čedomir Đurašković, with assistants Vukićević, Garić.
In the 1984–85 season, the team managed to qualify for the play-off quarter-finals after beating Jugoplastika Split in three games. In the quarter-finals the team met with Crvena zvezda, who won twice in Belgrade, while Budućnost triumphed in Titograd.
Over its five top-tier seasons Budućnost fought hard to remain a First League participant, finding itself several times in relegation danger, but managing to overcome it. The big breakthrough would unexpectedly come in the 1985-86 season, its sixth in the top flight, although in the summer 1985 off-season it looked like Buducnost was in for another season of desperate struggle to stay up. Head coach Vlade Đurović left, taking an offer from KK Zadar and the player situation wasn't much better – club mainstays 26-year-old Goran Bojanić, 24-year-old Žarko Đurišić, and veteran Goran Rakočević left while even talented youth players joined the exodus as 18-year-old Zdravko Radulović transferred to KK Bosna, 21-year-old Saša Radunović took an offer from Wichita State University, and 17-year-old Luka Pavićević did the same with University of Utah.
Still despite all hardship, the incoming young head coach Milutin Petrović with a roster consisting of the Ivanović brothers, Nikola Antić, supreme young talent Žarko Paspalj, Milatović, Jadran Vujačić and Veselin Šćepanović, managed to lead the team to a 13–9 record and 3rd place in the league thus qualifying for the next season's Korać Cup, the club's first ever participation in the European competition.
1986–1998: European debut and domestic permanence
In its European debut Budućnost had three wins and five losses, overall. It began the competition in the first round, played over two legs, against Karşıyaka S.K., winning both games and qualifying for the round robin group where it got drawn with JuveCaserta, Estudiantes, and Challans. Out of six round robin games, Budućnost managed only a single win, which meant elimination from the Korać Cup.
Following a few years of historic success for the club, Budućnost got relegated at the end of the 1987–88 season finishing dead last with a 6–16 record. However, the very next year Budućnost was promoted and never lost its place in the First League again.
In the 1995–96 season, Budućnost won the Yugoslav Cup for the first time. In the final tournament, held in Nikšić, Budućnost defeated BFC Beočin and Partizan. Roster: Šćepanović, Pajović, Tomović, Đaletić, Mudreša, P. Popović, A. Ivanović, Đikanović, Darko Ivanović, Simović, Vukčević and Mugoša. Head coach was Živko Brajović.
The Yugoslav Cup was won for the second time in the 1997–98 season, also in Nikšić. In the final tournament Budućnost was better than Partizan and Beobanka. Roster: Šćepanović, Pajović, Krivokapić, Vukčević, Ostojić, A. Ivanović, M. Ivanović, Ćeranić, S. Peković, Radunović and Dragutinović. The team was coached by Goran Bojanić.
1998–2003: Prominent years
After wins in the Yugoslav Cup, Budućnost won three successive YUBA League championship titles. The first came in the 1998–99 season, in which the club had significant success in European competition. Budućnost qualified for the Saporta Cup semifinals, though lost to Benetton Treviso. Roster: Vlado Šćepanović, Gavrilo Pajović, Goran Bošković, Dejan Radonjić, Đuro Ostojić, Blagota Sekulić, Dragan Vukčević, Saša Radunović, Dragan Ćeranić, Nikola Bulatović, Balša Radunović and Željko Topalović. The team was coached by Miroslav Nikolić.
Budućnost won its second straight title without a loss (both in the regular season and in the play-offs) – a total of 27 wins. In the 1999–2000 season, Budućnost participated in the Euroleague for the first time. Due to the UN sanctions on FR Yugoslavia, Budućnost had to play its home game away from Podgorica (in Sarajevo and Budapest), but still managed to qualify for the Last 16 stage, where they lost to future champion Panathinaikos 2–1 after taking a great fight to the champion. Roster: Šćepanović, Pajović, Haris Brkić, Radonjić, Sekulić, Vukčević, Radunović, Vladimir Kuzmanović, Bulatović, Dejan Tomašević and Milenko Topić. The head coach was Miroslav Nikolić.
Budućnost won its first "double" in the 2000–01 season. The Final 8 tournament of the Yugoslav Cup was held in Vršac. In the quarterfinals Budućnost defeated Hemofarm, in the semifinals it defeated Lovćen, and in the finals, Budućnost outplayed Partizan, whom Budućnost also played and beaten in the play-off finals. In the modern Euroleague the team qualified for the Top 16 stage, losing to Real Madrid 0:2. Roster: Bojan Bakić, Brkić (went to Partizan at the half of the season), Saša Obradović, Radonjić, Igor Rakočević, Sekulić, Vukčević, Radunović, Kuzmanović, Dejan Milojević, Tomašević, Topić and Jerome James. Head coach of the team was Bogdan Tanjević (the team was coached by Nikolić for three months in the first half of the season).
Over the next two seasons, 2001–2002 and 2002–2003, Budućnost lost many of its star players. In 2001–2002, Budućnost lost its positions to Partizan, who defeated Budućnost in both the Cup finals and the Yugoslavian League finals. After the season, Rakočević, the last player of the Budućnost golden age, departed for the NBA. In 2002–2003, Budućnost was led by talented young prospects Žarko Čabarkapa, Milojević and Aleksandar Pavlović. Despite their play, Budućnost plummeted to the last place in the standings in the EuroLeague and did not reach the finals of Serbian and Montenegrin League.
2003–2006: Quieter years
A quieter period followed during which Budućnost took part in the ULEB Cup, though it missed the elimination rounds in 2004 and 2005. Budućnost reached the Serbia and Montenegro League semifinals in its last appearance in that competition.
2006–2011: Domestic dominance
Following the Montenegrin independence from Serbia and Montenegro in 2006, Budućnost naturally became the new team to beat in the reborn Montenegrin Basketball League and has won five consecutive titles since 2007 with a combined 89–1 record – which says plenty about its dominance. It still participated in the ABA League, with solid successes. Budućnost was close to making the Adriatic League Final Four in 2009–10 and missed out on the Eurocup after falling to Brose Baskets by a single point at the end of a home-and-away Qualifying Round series.
2011–present: Rise to regional prominence
In the 2010–11 season, Budućnost came up short in the Turkish Airlines Euroleague Qualifying Round and the Eurocup Regular Season, but once again won the Montenegrin League and the Montenegrin Cup titles. It also reached the Adriatic League Final Four, where it lost 62–58 against Partizan in the semifinals.
Since 2011, a Montenegrin retail company VOLI has been the general sponsor of the club, with company's CEO Dragan Bokan becoming the club's president. In domestic competitions, Budućnost continued its dominance by capturing its 11th consecutive Montenegrin Basketball League championship in 2016–17 season. Except being the runner-up to KK Sutjeska in 2013 Montenegrin Basketball Cup, it clinched all trophies from 2011 to 2017. Also, it became a standard EuroCup participant and one of top five teams of the ABA League in period from 2011 to 2017, reaching to the semifinal for five times.
In June 2017, Aleksandar Džikić was named as the head coach of Budućnost. In February 2018, Budućnost won its 5th consecutive and 11th in total Montenegrin Basketball Cup, after beating KK Mornar Bar with 87–83 in the final game. In the ABA League, it secured second place of the regular season with 17–5 score. In the semifinal series of ABA League, it eliminated the Croatian team Cedevita with 2–1 score. In April 2018, Budućnost with 3–1 score won in the final series of the ABA League against the reigning champions Crvena zvezda. Thus, they were crowned champions of the ABA League for the first time in history and also secured a spot in 2018–19 EuroLeague, that would become its first appearance in the elite European competition after 16 seasons. Budućnost actually lost the Prva A Liga finals for the first time since the establishment of the league in 2007.
In the middle of 2018–19 season, after series of bad results Budućnost sacked Džikić and named Jasmin Repeša as team's head coach. Also, it added several high-profile names to its roster, among whom were Goga Bitadze and Norris Cole. However, even with much stronger roster in second half of the season, Budućnost failed to fulfill any goals that were set at the beginning of the season. In 2018–19 EuroLeague, Budućnost finished in 15th place having the second-worst record of 6 wins and 24 losses. In the 2018–19 ABA League First Division, it failed to defend the title in repeated final series match-up of previous season, losing to Crvena zvezda with 3–2 in series. In the A Liga, Budućnost won back the championship.
Rivalry
Home arena
Budućnost plays its home games at Morača Sports Center (Montenegrin: Sportski centar Morača, Спортски центар Морача), a sport venue located in Podgorica, Montenegro. The venue is located in the new part of Podgorica, on the right bank of Morača River, after which it got its name. Construction of this sports complex began in 1978, and various sport facilities are scattered across a five-hectare area. Today, its main sports hall has a capacity of 5,500 seats
Supporters
Buducnost fans are known as Varvari (Barbarians), a group founded in 1987. The group's traditional colours are blue and white, which are also the colours of all the Budućnost sports clubs. For FK Budućnost Podgorica home games, Varvari occupy the northern stand (Sjever) of the Podgorica city stadium. They also have a reserved stand at the Morača Sports Center, as supporters of KK Buducnost basketball club.
The focal point for the group during the late 1990s was the basketball club, which started investing heavily while the football club toiled in the lower half of the table.
Since its foundation years, Varvari has gained a reputation as a violent group, and in the recent history they made a few biggest accidents on the football matches. At First League 2004-05 game Budućnost - Partizan Belgrade, flares, blocks, construction materials and similar objects were thrown from the North stand to the pitch and match was abandoned for 15 minutes. Year later, game Budućnost - Crvena Zvezda Belgrade was suspended for two hours after home supporters (Varvari) threw tear gas on the pitch and, after that, attacked visitors' ultras. On the spring 2006, there was a crowd violence on the local rivals game Budućnost - Zeta. In the Montenegrin First League, numerous matches of FK Budućnost were suspended due to crowd violence or crowd-invasion to the pitch. During the last seasons, there was an escalation of violence on Montenegrin Derby games.
They are the best organised and largest fan group in Montenegro. According to many fan magazines from the Balkan they are the only fans in Montenegro who are on the level of the largest fan groups from ex-Yugoslavia.
Season by season
The following table contains information from season 2006–07 onward:
Source: Eurobasket.com
Honours
Domestic competitions
League
Montenegrin League
* Winners (15): 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2021, 2022, 2023
Runners-up (1): 2018
Serbia and Montenegro League
* Winners (3): 1999, 2000, 2001
*Runners-up (1): 2002
Cups
Montenegrin Cup
* Winners (16): 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023
Runners-up (1): 2013
Serbia and Montenegro Cup
* Winners (3): 1996, 1998, 2001
*Runners-up (1): 2002
International success
EuroLeague:
Top 16 (2): 1999–00, 2000–01
EuroCup
1/4 Finals (4): 2011–12, 2012-13, 2017-18, 2020-21
Regional competitions
Adriatic League
Winners (1): 2018
Runners-up (2): 2019, 2021
Final Four (6): 2010, 2011, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017
Other competitions
Igalo, Montenegro Invitational Game
Winners (1): 2008
Players
Current roster
Depth chart
Head coaches
Nikola Sekulović
Rusmir Halilović
Čedomir Đurašković
Vlade Đurović
Milutin Petrović
Miodrag Baletić
Goran Bojanić
Živko Brajović
Milovan Stepandić
Goran Bojanić
Miroslav Nikolić
Bogdan Tanjević
Zoran Sretenović
Miodrag Kadija
Darko Ruso
Zvezdan Mitrović
Vlade Đurović
Miodrag Baletić
Zoran Martič
Dejan Radonjić
Igor Jovović
Luka Pavićević
Vlado Šćepanović
Ilias Zouros
Aleksandar Džikić
Jasmin Repeša
Petar Mijović
Slobodan Subotić
Petar Mijović
Dejan Milojević
Aleksandar Džikić
Vlada Jovanović
Petar Mijović
Notable players
By far the best known player to come through KK Budućnost ranks is Žarko Paspalj, Yugoslav national basketball team stalwart who had a basketball career that included successful stops all over Europe as well as a brief NBA stint in the late 1980s.
Notable players
Duško Ivanović
Goran Bošković
Nikola Bulatović
Žarko Čabarkapa
Goran Ćakić
Igor Perović
Milenko Topić
Đuro Ostojić
Gavrilo Pajović
Aleksandar Pavlović
Haris Brkić
Vladimir Kuzmanović
Saša Obradović
Bojan Subotić
Dejan Tomašević
Žarko Paspalj
Bojan Bakić
Vladimir Dašić
Vladimir Dragičević
Bojan Dubljević
Nikola Ivanović
Goran Jeretin
Ivan Koljević
Vladimir Mihailović
Nenad Mijatović
Luka Pavićević
Aleksa Popović
Marko Popović
Dejan Radonjić
Nemanja Radović
Balša Radunović
Žarko Rakočević
Boris Savović
Blagota Sekulić
Vlado Šćepanović
Sead Šehović
Mladen Šekularac
Slavko Vraneš
Nikola Vučević
Nemanja Gordić
Aleksandar Marić
Jermaine Anderson
Kyle Landry
Owen Klassen
Darko Planinić
Robert Rikić
Edwin Jackson
Gerald Lee
Gintaras Kadžiulis
Donatas Tarolis
Deji Akindele
Aleksandar Ćapin
Hasan Rizvić
Alen Omić
Tadija Dragićević
Nemanja Jaramaz
Nikola Jestratijević
Zoran Jovanović
Bojan Krstović
Vladimir Micov
Dejan Milojević
Nikola Otašević
Ivan Paunić
Miljan Pavković
Igor Rakočević
Marko Simonović
Željko Topalović
Čedomir Vitkovac
Omar Cook
Justin Doellman
Andre Brown
Acie Earl
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20art
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German art
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German art has a long and distinguished tradition in the visual arts, from the earliest known work of figurative art to its current output of contemporary art.
Germany has only been united into a single state since the 19th century, and defining its borders has been a notoriously difficult and painful process. For earlier periods German art often effectively includes that produced in German-speaking regions including Austria, Alsace and much of Switzerland, as well as largely German-speaking cities or regions to the east of the modern German borders.
Although tending to be neglected relative to Italian and French contributions from the point of view of the English-speaking world, German art has played a crucial role in the development of Western art, especially Celtic art, Carolingian art and Ottonian art. From the development of Romanesque art, France and Italy began to lead developments for the rest of the Middle Ages, but the production of an increasingly wealthy Germany remained highly important.
The German Renaissance developed in rather different directions to the Italian Renaissance, and was initially dominated by the central figure of Albrecht Dürer and the early German domination of printing. The final phase of the Renaissance, Northern Mannerism, was centred around the edges of the German lands, in Flanders and the Imperial capital of Prague, but, especially in architecture, the German Baroque and Rococo took up these imported styles with enthusiasm. The German origins of Romanticism did not lead to an equally central position in the visual arts, but German participation in the many broadly Modernist movements following the collapse of Academic art has been increasing important.
Prehistory to Late Antiquity
The area of modern Germany is rich in finds of prehistoric art, including the Venus of Hohle Fels. This appears to be the oldest undisputed example of Upper Paleolithic art and figurative sculpture of the human form in general, from over 35,000 years BP, which was only discovered in 2008; the better-known Venus of Willendorf (24–22,000 BP) comes from a little way over the Austrian border. The spectacular finds of Bronze Age golden hats are centred on Germany, as was the "central" form of Urnfield culture, and Hallstatt culture. In the Iron Age the "Celtic" La Tène culture centred on Western Germany and Eastern France, and Germany has produced many major finds of Celtic art like the elite burials at Reinheim and Hochdorf, and oppida towns like Glauberg, Manching and Heuneburg.
After lengthy wars, the Roman Empire settled its frontiers in Germania with the Limes Germanicus to include much of the south and west of modern Germany. The German provinces produced art in provincial versions of Roman styles, but centres there, as over the Rhine in France, were large-scale producers of fine Ancient Roman pottery, exported all over the Empire. Rheinzabern was one of the largest, which has been well-excavated and has a dedicated museum.
Non-Romanized areas of the later Roman period fall under Migration Period art, notable for metalwork, especially jewellery (the largest pieces apparently mainly worn by men).
Middle Ages
German medieval art really begins with the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne (d. 814), the first state to rule the great majority of the modern territory of Germany, as well as France and much of Italy. Carolingian art was restricted to a relatively small number of objects produced for a circle around the court and a number of Imperial abbeys they sponsored, but had a huge influence on later Medieval art across Europe. The most common type of object to survive is the illuminated manuscript; wall paintings were evidently common but, like the buildings that housed them, have nearly all vanished. The earlier centres of illumination were located in modern France, but later Metz in Lorraine and the Abbey of Saint Gall in modern Switzerland came to rival them. The Drogo Sacramentary and Folchard Psalter are among the manuscripts they produced.
No Carolingian monumental sculpture survives, although perhaps the most important patronage of Charlemagne was his commissioning of a life-size gold figure of Christ on a crucifix for his Palatine Chapel in Aachen; this is only known from literary references and was probably gold foil around a wooden base, probably modelled with a gesso layer, like the later and rather crumpled Golden Madonna of Essen. Early Christian art had not featured monumental sculptures of religious figures as opposed to rulers, as these were strongly associated by the Church Fathers with the cult idols of Ancient Roman religion. Byzantine art and modern Eastern Orthodox religious art have maintained the prohibition to the present day, but Western art was apparently decisively influenced by the example of Charlemagne to abandon it. Charlemagne's circle wished to revive the glories of classical style, which they mostly knew in its Late Antique form, and also to compete with Byzantine art, in which they appear to have been helped by refugee artists from the convulsions of the Byzantine iconoclasm. As Charlemagne himself does not appear to have been very interested in visual art, his political rivalry with the Byzantine Empire, supported by the Papacy, may have contributed to the strong pro-image position expressed in the Libri Carolini, which set out the position on images held with little variation by the Western Church for the rest of the Middle Ages, and beyond.
Under the next Ottonian dynasty, whose core territory approximated more closely to modern Germany, Austria, and German-speaking Switzerland, Ottonian art was mainly a product of the large monasteries, especially Reichenau which was the leading Western artistic centre in the second half of the 10th century. The Reichenau style uses simplified and patterned shapes to create strongly expressive images, far from the classical aspirations of Carolingian art, and looking forward to the Romanesque. The wooden Gero Cross of 965–970 in Cologne Cathedral is both the oldest and the finest early medieval near life-size crucifix figure; art historians had been reluctant to credit the records giving its date until they were confirmed by dendrochronology in 1976. As in the rest of Europe, metalwork was still the most prestigious form of art, in works like the jewelled Cross of Lothair, made about 1000, probably in Cologne.
Romanesque art was the first artistic movement to encompass the whole of Western Europe, though with regional varieties. Germany was a central part of the movement, though German Romanesque architecture made rather less use of sculpture than that of France. With increasing prosperity massive churches were built in cities all over Germany, no longer just those patronized by the Imperial circle. The French invented the Gothic style, and Germany was slow to adopt it, but once it had done so Germans made it their own, and continued to use it long after the rest of Europe had abandoned it. According to Henri Focillon, Gothic allowed German art "to define for the first time certain aspects of its native genius-a vigorous and emphatic conception of life and form, in which theatrical ostentation mingled with vehement emotional frankness." The Bamberg Horseman of the 1330s, in Bamberg Cathedral, is the oldest large post-antique standing stone equestrian statue; more medieval princely tomb monuments have survived from Germany than France or England. Romanesque and Early Gothic churches had wall paintings in local versions of international styles, of which few artists' names are known.
The court of the Holy Roman Emperor, then based in Prague, played an important part in forming the International Gothic style in the late 14th century. The style was spread around the wealthy cities of Northern Germany by artists such Conrad von Soest in Westphalia, Meister Bertram in Hamburg, and later Stefan Lochner in Cologne. Hamburg was one of the cities in the Hanseatic League, when the League was at height of its prosperity. Bertram was succeeded in the city by artists such as Master Francke, the Master of the Malchin Altar, Hans Bornemann, Hinrik Funhof and Wilm Dedeke who survived into the Renaissance period. Hanseatic artists painted commissions for Baltic cities in Scandinavia and the modern Baltic states to the east. In the south, the Master of the Bamberg Altar is the first significant painter based in Nuremberg, while the Master of Heiligenkreuz and then Michael Pacher worked in Austria.
Like that of Pacher, the workshop of Bernt Notke, a painter from the Hanseatic city of Lübeck, both painted altarpieces or carved them in the increasingly elaborate painted and gilded style used as frameworks or alternatives for painted panels. South German wood sculpture was important in developing new subjects that reflected the intensely emotional devotional life encouraged by movements in late medieval Catholicism such as German mysticism. These are often known in English as andachtsbilder (devotional images) and include the Pietà, Pensive Christ, Man of Sorrows, Arma Christi, Veil of Veronica, the severed head of John the Baptist, and the Virgin of Sorrows, many of which would spread across Europe and remain popular until the Baroque and, in popular religious imagery, beyond. Indeed "Late Gothic Baroque" is a term sometimes used to describe hyper-decorated and emotional 15th-century art, above all in Germany.
Martin Schongauer, who worked in Alsace in the last part of the 15th century, was the culmination of late Gothic German painting, with a sophisticated and harmonious style, but he increasingly spent his time producing engravings, for which national and international channels of distribution had developed, so that his prints were known in Italy and other countries. His predecessors were the Master of the Playing Cards and Master E. S., both also from the Upper Rhine region. German conservatism is shown in the late use of gold backgrounds, still used by many artists well into the 15th century.
Renaissance painting and prints
The concept of the Northern Renaissance or German Renaissance is somewhat confused by the continuation of the use of elaborate Gothic ornament until well into the 16th century, even in works that are undoubtedly Renaissance in their treatment of the human figure and other respects. Classical ornament had little historical resonance in much of Germany, but in other respects Germany was very quick to follow developments, especially in adopting printing with movable type, a German invention that remained almost a German monopoly for some decades, and was first brought to most of Europe, including France and Italy, by Germans.
Printmaking by woodcut and engraving (perhaps another German invention) was already more developed in Germany and the Low Countries than anywhere else, and the Germans took the lead in developing book illustrations, typically of a relatively low artistic standard, but seen all over Europe, with the woodblocks often being lent to printers of editions in other cities or languages. The greatest artist of the German Renaissance, Albrecht Dürer, began his career as an apprentice to a leading workshop in Nuremberg, that of Michael Wolgemut, who had largely abandoned his painting to exploit the new medium. Dürer worked on the most extravagantly illustrated book of the period, the Nuremberg Chronicle, published by his godfather Anton Koberger, Europe's largest printer-publisher at the time.
After completing his apprenticeship in 1490, Dürer travelled in Germany for four years, and Italy for a few months, before establishing his own workshop in Nuremberg. He rapidly became famous all over Europe for his energetic and balanced woodcuts and engravings, while also painting. Though retaining a distinctively German style, his work shows strong Italian influence, and is often taken to represent the start of the German Renaissance in visual art, which for the next forty years replaced the Netherlands and France as the area producing the greatest innovation in Northern European art. Dürer supported Martin Luther but continued to create Madonnas and other Catholic imagery, and paint portraits of leaders on both sides of the emerging split of the Protestant Reformation.
Dürer died in 1528, before it was clear that the split of the Reformation had become permanent, but his pupils of the following generation were unable to avoid taking sides. Most leading German artists became Protestants, but this deprived them of painting most religious works, previously the mainstay of artists' revenue. Martin Luther had objected to much Catholic imagery, but not to imagery itself, and Lucas Cranach the Elder, a close friend of Luther, had painted a number of "Lutheran altarpieces", mostly showing the Last Supper, some with portraits of the leading Protestant divines as the Twelve Apostles. This phase of Lutheran art was over before 1550, probably under the more fiercely aniconic influence of Calvinism, and religious works for public display virtually ceased to be produced in Protestant areas. Presumably largely because of this, the development of German art had virtually ceased by about 1550, but in the preceding decades German artists had been very fertile in developing alternative subjects to replace the gap in their order books. Cranach, apart from portraits, developed a format of thin vertical portraits of provocative nudes, given classical or Biblical titles.
Lying somewhat outside these developments is Matthias Grünewald, who left very few works, but whose masterpiece, his Isenheim Altarpiece (completed 1515), has been widely regarded as the greatest German Renaissance painting since it was restored to critical attention in the 19th century. It is an intensely emotional work that continues the German Gothic tradition of unrestrained gesture and expression, using Renaissance compositional principles, but all in that most Gothic of forms, the multi-winged triptych.
The Danube School is the name of a circle of artists of the first third of the 16th century in Bavaria and Austria, including Albrecht Altdorfer, Wolf Huber and Augustin Hirschvogel. With Altdorfer in the lead, the school produced the first examples of independent landscape art in the West (nearly 1,000 years after China), in both paintings and prints. Their religious paintings had an expressionist style somewhat similar to Grünewald's. Dürer's pupils Hans Burgkmair and Hans Baldung Grien worked largely in prints, with Baldung developing the topical subject matter of witches in a number of enigmatic prints.
Hans Holbein the Elder and his brother Sigismund Holbein painted religious works in the late Gothic style. Hans the Elder was a pioneer and leader in the transformation of German art from the Gothic to the Renaissance style. His son, Hans Holbein the Younger was an important painter of portraits and a few religious works, working mainly in England and Switzerland. Holbein's well known series of small woodcuts on the Dance of Death relate to the works of the Little Masters, a group of printmakers who specialized in very small and highly detailed engravings for bourgeois collectors, including many erotic subjects.
The outstanding achievements of the first half of the 16th century were followed by several decades with a remarkable absence of noteworthy German art, other than accomplished portraits that never rival the achievement of Holbein or Dürer. The next significant German artists worked in the rather artificial style of Northern Mannerism, which they had to learn in Italy or Flanders. Hans von Aachen and the Netherlandish Bartholomeus Spranger were the leading painters at the Imperial courts in Vienna and Prague, and the productive Netherlandish Sadeler family of engravers spread out across Germany, among other counties. This style was continued for another generation by Bartholomeus Strobel, an example of an essentially German artist born and working in Silesia, in today's Poland, until he emigrated to escape the Thirty Years War and become painter at the Polish court. Adam Elsheimer, the most influential German artist in the 17th century, spent his whole mature career in Italy, where he began by working for another émigré Hans Rottenhammer. Both produced highly finished cabinet paintings, mostly on copper, with classical themes and landscape backgrounds.
Sculpture
In Catholic parts of South Germany the Gothic tradition of wood carving continued to flourish until the end of the 18th century, adapting to changes in style through the centuries. Veit Stoss (d. 1533), Tilman Riemenschneider (d.1531) and Peter Vischer the Elder (d. 1529) were Dürer's contemporaries, and their long careers covered the transition between the Gothic and Renaissance periods, although their ornament often remained Gothic even after their compositions began to reflect Renaissance principles.
Two and a half centuries later, Johann Joseph Christian and Ignaz Günther were leading masters in the late Baroque period, both dying in the late 1770s, barely a decade before the French Revolution. A vital element in the effect of German Baroque interiors was the work of the Wessobrunner School, a later term for the stuccoists of the late 17th and 18th centuries. Another manifestation of German sculptural skill was in porcelain; the most famous modeller is Johann Joachim Kaendler of the Meissen factory in Dresden, but the best work of Franz Anton Bustelli for the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory in Munich is often considered the greatest achievement of 18th-century porcelain.
17th to 19th-century painting
Baroque, Rococo and Neoclassicism
Baroque painting was slow to arrive in Germany, with very little before about 1650, but once established seems to have suited German taste well. Baroque and Rococo periods saw German art producing mostly works derivative of developments elsewhere, though numbers of skilled artists in various genres were active. The period remains little-known outside Germany, and though it "never made any claim to be among the great schools of painting", its neglect by non-German art history remains striking. Many distinguished foreign painters spent periods working in Germany for princes, among them Bernardo Bellotto in Dresden and elsewhere, and Gianbattista Tiepolo, who spent three years painting the Würzburg Residence with his son. Many German painters worked abroad, including Johann Liss who worked mainly in Venice, Joachim von Sandrart and Ludolf Bakhuisen, the leading marine artist of the final years of Dutch Golden Age painting. In the late 18th century the portraitist Heinrich Füger and his pupil Johann Peter Krafft, whose best known works are three large murals in the Hofburg, had both moved to Vienna as students and stayed there.
Neoclassicism appears rather earlier in Germany than in France, with Anton Raphael Mengs (1728–79), the Danish painter Asmus Jacob Carstens (1754–98), and the sculptor Gottfried Schadow (1764–1850). Mengs was one of the most highly regarded artists of his day, working in Rome, Madrid and elsewhere, and finding an early Neo-Classical style that now seems rather effete, although his portraits are more effective. Carstens' shorter career was turbulent and troubled, leaving a trail of unfinished works, but through pupils and friends such as Gottlieb Schick, Joseph Anton Koch and Bonaventura Genelli, more influential. Koch was born in the mountains of the Austrian Tyrol and became the leading Continental painter of landscapes, concentrating on mountain views, despite spending much of his career in Rome.
Daniel Chodowiecki was born in Danzig, and at least partly identified as Polish, although he only spoke German and French. His paintings and hundreds of prints, book illustrations and political cartoons are an invaluable visual record of the everyday life and the increasingly complex mentality of Enlightenment Germany, and its emerging Nationalism. The Swiss-born Anton Graff was a prolific portraitist in Dresden, who painted literary figures as well as the court. The Tischbein family dynasty were solid all-rounders who covered most of the 18th century between them, as did the Zick family, initially mainly painters of grand Baroque ceilings, who were still active in the 20th century in the person of the illustrator Alexander Zick. Both the Asam brothers, and Johann Baptist Zimmermann and his brother, were able between them to provide a complete service for commissions for churches and palaces, designing the building and executing the stucco and wall-paintings. The combined effect of all the elements of these buildings in South Germany, Austria and Bohemia, especially their interiors, represent some of the most complete and extreme realizations of the Baroque aspiration to overwhelm the viewer with the "radiant fairy world of the nobleman's dwelling", or the "foretaste of the glories of Paradise" in the case of churches.
The earliest German academy was the Akademie der Künste founded in Berlin in 1696, and through the next two centuries a number of other cities established their own institutions, in parallel with developments in other European nations. In Germany the uncertain market for art in a country divided into a multitude of small states meant that significant German artists have been to the present day more likely to accept teaching posts in the academies and their successor institutions than their equivalents in England or France have been. In general German academies imposed a particular style less rigidly than was for long the case in Paris, London, Moscow or elsewhere.
Writing about art
The Enlightenment period saw German writers becoming leading theorists and critics of art, led by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, who exalted Ancient Greek art and, despite never visiting Greece or actually seeing many Ancient Greek statues, set out an analysis distinguishing between the main periods of Ancient Greek art, and relating them to wider historical movements. Winckelmann's work marked the entry of art history into the high-philosophical discourse of German culture; he was read avidly by Goethe and Friedrich Schiller, both of whom began to write on the history of art, and his account of the Laocoön Group occasioned a response by Lessing. Goethe had tried to train as an artist, and his landscape sketches show "occasional flashes of emotion in the presence of nature which are quite isolated in the period". The emergence of art as a major subject of philosophical speculation was solidified by the appearance of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Judgment in 1790, and was furthered by Hegel's Lectures on Aesthetics. In the following century, German universities were the first to teach art history as an academic subject, beginning the leading position that Germany (and Austria) was to occupy in the study of art history until the dispersal of scholars abroad in the Nazi period. Johann Gottfried Herder championed what he identified in the Gothic and Dürer as specifically Germanic styles, beginning an argument over the proper models for a German artist against the so-called "Tyranny of Greece over Germany" that would last nearly two centuries.
Romanticism and the Nazarenes
German Romanticism saw a revival of innovation and distinctiveness in German art. Outside Germany only Caspar David Friedrich is well-known, but there were a number of artists with very individual styles, notably Philipp Otto Runge, who like Friedrich had trained at the Copenhagen Academy and was forgotten after his death until a revival in the 20th century. Friedrich painted almost entirely landscapes, with a distinctive Northern feel, and always a feeling of quasi-religious stillness. Often his figures are seen from behind – they like the viewer are lost in contemplation of the landscape. Runge's portraits, mostly of his own circle, are naturalistic except for his huge-faced children, but the other works in his brief career increasingly reflected a visionary pantheism. Adrian Ludwig Richter is mainly remembered for his portraits, and Carl Wilhelm Kolbe was purely an etcher (as well as a philologist), whose later prints show figures almost swallowed up by gigantic vegetation.
The Nazarene movement, the coinage of a mocking critic, denotes a group of early 19th-century German Romantic painters who aimed to revive honesty and spirituality in Christian art. The principal motivation of the Nazarenes was a reaction against Neoclassicism and the routine art education of the academy system. They hoped to return to art which embodied spiritual values, and sought inspiration in artists of the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, rejecting what they saw as the superficial virtuosity of later art. Their programme was not dissimilar to that of the English Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in the 1850s, although the core group took it as far as wearing special pseudo-medieval clothing. In 1810 Johann Friedrich Overbeck, Franz Pforr, Ludwig Vogel and the Swiss Johann Konrad Hottinger moved to Rome, where they occupied the abandoned monastery of San Isidoro. They were joined by Philipp Veit, Peter von Cornelius, Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow and a loose grouping of other German artists. They met up with the Austrian romantic landscape artist Joseph Anton Koch, (1768–1839) who became an unofficial tutor to the group. In 1827 they were joined by Joseph von Führich, and Eberhard Wächter was later associated with the group. Unlike the strong support given to the Pre-Raphaelites by the dominant art critic of the day, John Ruskin, Goethe was dismissive of the Nazarenes: "This is the first case in the history of art when real talents have taken the fancy to form themselves backwards by retreating into their mother's womb, and thus found a new epoch in art."
Led by the Nazarene Schadow, son of the sculptor, the Düsseldorf school was a group of artists who painted mostly landscapes, and who studied at, or were influenced by the Düsseldorf Academy, founded in 1767. The academy's influence grew in the 1830s and 1840s, and it had many American students, several of whom became associated with the Hudson River School.
Naturalism and beyond
Biedermeier refers to a style in literature, music, the visual arts and interior design in the period between the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 and the revolutions of 1848. Biedermeier art appealed to the prosperous middle classes by detailed but polished realism, often celebrating domestic virtues, and came to dominate over French-leaning aristocratic tastes, as well as the yearnings of Romanticism. Carl Spitzweg was a leading German artist in the style.
In the second half of the 19th century a number of styles developed, paralleling trends in other European counties, though the lack of a dominant capital city probably contributed to even more diversity of styles than in other countries.
Adolph Menzel enjoyed enormous popularity both among the German public and officialdom; at his funeral Wilhelm II, German Emperor walked behind his coffin. He dramaticised past and contemporary Prussian military successes both in paintings and brilliant wood engravings illustrating books, yet his domestic subjects are intimate and touching. He followed the development of early Impressionism to create a style that he used for depicting grand public occasions, among other subjects like his Studio Wall. Karl von Piloty was a leading academic painter of history subjects in the latter part of the century who taught in Munich; among his more famous pupils were Hans Makart, Franz von Lenbach, Franz Defregger, Gabriel von Max and Eduard von Grützner. The term "Munich school" is used both of German and of Greek painting, after Greeks like Georgios Jakobides studied under him. Piloty's most influential pupil was Wilhelm Leibl. Being the head of the so called Leibl-Circle, an informal group of artists with a non-academic approach to art, he had a great impact on Realism in Germany.
The Berlin Secession was a group founded in 1898 by painters including Max Liebermann, who broadly shared the artistic approach of Manet and the French Impressionists, and Lovis Corinth then still painting in a naturalistic style. The group survived until the 1930s, despite splits, and its regular exhibitions helped launch the next two generations of Berlin artists, without imposing a particular style. Near the end of the century, the Benedictine Beuron Art School developed a style, mostly for religious murals, in rather muted colours, with a medievalist interest in pattern that drew from Les Nabis and in some ways looked forward to Art Nouveau or the Jugendstil ("Youth Style") as it is known in German. Franz von Stuck and Max Klinger are the leading German Symbolist painters.
20th century
Even more than in other countries, German art in the early 20th century developed through a number of loose groups and movements, many covering other artistic media as well, and often with a specific political element, as with the Arbeitsrat für Kunst and November Group, both formed in 1918. In 1922 The November Group, the Dresden Secession, Das Junge Rheinland, and several other progressive groups formed a "Cartel of advanced artistic groups in Germany" (Kartell fortschrittlicher Künstlergruppen in Deutschland) in an effort to gain exposure.
Die Brücke ("The Bridge") was one of two groups of German painters fundamental to expressionism, the other being Der Blaue Reiter group. Die Brücke was a group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905 by architecture students who wanted to be painters: Fritz Bleyl (1880–1966), Erich Heckel (1883–1970), Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff (1884–1976), with Max Pechstein and others later joining. The notoriously individualistic Emil Nolde (1867–1956) was briefly a member of Die Brücke, but was at odds with the younger members of the group. Die Brücke moved to Berlin in 1911, where it eventually dissolved in 1913. Perhaps their most important contribution had been the rediscovery of the woodcut as a valid medium for original artistic expression.
Der Blaue Reiter ("The Blue Rider") formed in Munich, Germany in 1911. Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, Alexej von Jawlensky, Marianne von Werefkin and others founded the group in response to the rejection of Kandinsky's painting Last Judgment from an exhibition by Neue Künstlervereinigung—another artists' group of which Kandinsky had been a member. The name Der Blaue Reiter derived from Marc's enthusiasm for horses, and from Kandinsky's love of the colour blue. For Kandinsky, blue is the colour of spirituality—the darker the blue, the more it awakens human desire for the eternal (see his 1911 book On the Spiritual in Art). Kandinsky had also titled a painting Der Blaue Reiter (see illustration) in 1903. The intense sculpture and printmaking of Käthe Kollwitz was strongly influenced by Expressionism, which also formed the starting point for the young artists who went on to join other tendencies within the movements of the early 20th century.
Die Brücke and Der Blaue Reiter were both examples of tendency of early 20th-century German art to be "honest, direct, and spiritually engaged" The difference in how the two groups attempted this were telling, however. The artists of Der Blaue Reiter were less oriented towards intense expression of emotion and more towards theory- a tendency which would lead Kandinsky to pure abstraction. Still, it was the spiritual and symbolic properties of abstract form that were important. There were therefore Utopian tones to Kandinsky's abstractions: "We have before us an age of conscious creation, and this new spirit in painting is going hand in hand with thoughts toward an epoch of greater spirituality." Die Brücke also had Utopian tendencies, but took the medieval craft guild as a model of cooperative work that could better society- "Everyone who with directness and authenticity conveys that which drives him to creation belongs to us". The Bauhaus also shared these Utopian leanings, seeking to combine fine and applied arts (Gesamtkunstwerk) with a view towards creating a better society.
Weimar period
A major feature of German art in the early 20th century until 1933 was a boom in the production of works of art of a grotesque style. Artists using the Satirical-Grotesque genre included George Grosz, Otto Dix and Max Beckmann, at least in their works of the 1920s. Dada in Germany, the leading practitioners of which were Kurt Schwitters and Hannah Höch, was centered in Berlin, where it tended to be more politically oriented than Dada groups elsewhere. They made important contributions to the development of collage as a medium for political commentary- Schwitters later developed his Merzbau, a forerunner of installation art. Dix and Grosz were also associated with the Berlin Dada group. Max Ernst led a Dada group in Cologne, where he also practiced collage, but with a greater interest in Gothic fantasy than in overt political content—this hastened his transition into surrealism, of which he became the leading German practitioner. The Swiss-born Paul Klee, Lyonel Feininger and others experimented with cubism.
The New Objectivity, or Neue Sachlichkeit (new matter-of-factness), was an art movement which arose in Germany during the 1920s as an outgrowth of, and in opposition to, expressionism. It is thus post-expressionist and applied to works of visual art as well as literature, music, and architecture. It describes the stripped-down, simplified building style of the Bauhaus and the Weissenhof Settlement, the urban planning and public housing projects of Bruno Taut and Ernst May, and the industrialization of the household typified by the Frankfurt kitchen. Grosz and Dix were leading figures, forming the "Verist" side of the movement with Beckmann and Christian Schad, Rudolf Schlichter, Georg Scholz (in his early work), Elfriede Lohse-Wächtler, and Karl Hubbuch. The other tendency is sometimes called Magic Realism, and included Anton Räderscheidt, Georg Schrimpf, Alexander Kanoldt, and Carl Grossberg. Unlike some of the other groupings, the Neue Sachlichkeit was never a formal group, and its artists were associated with other groups; the term was invented by a sympathetic curator, and "Magic Realism" by an art critic.
Plakatstil, "poster style" in German, was an early style of poster design that began in the early 20th century, using bold, straight fonts with very simple designs, in contrast to Art Nouveau posters. Lucian Bernhard was a leading figure.
Art in the Third Reich
The Nazi regime banned modern art, which they condemned as degenerate art (from the German: entartete Kunst). According to Nazi ideology, modern art deviated from the prescribed norm of classical beauty. While the 1920s to 1940s are considered the heyday of modern art movements, there were conflicting nationalistic movements that resented abstract art, and Germany was no exception. Avant-garde German artists were now branded both enemies of the state and a threat to the German nation. Many went into exile, with relatively few returning after World War II. Dix was one who remained, being conscripted into the Volkssturm Home Guard militia; Pechstein kept his head down in rural Pomerania. Nolde also stayed, creating his "unpainted pictures" in secret after being forbidden to paint. Beckmann, Ernst, Grosz, Feininger and others went to America, Klee to Switzerland, where he died. Kirchner committed suicide.
In July, 1937, the Nazis mounted a polemical exhibition entitled Entartete Kunst (Degenerate art), in Munich; it subsequently travelled to eleven other cities in Germany and Austria. The show was intended as an official condemnation of modern art, and included over 650 paintings, sculptures, prints, and books from the collections of thirty two German museums. Expressionism, which had its origins in Germany, had the largest proportion of paintings represented. Simultaneously, and with much pageantry, the Nazis presented the Grosse deutsche Kunstausstellung (Great German art exhibition) at the palatial Haus der deutschen Kunst (House of German Art). This exhibition displayed the work of officially approved artists such as Arno Breker and Adolf Wissel. At the end of four months Entartete Kunst had attracted over two million visitors, nearly three and a half times the number that visited the nearby Grosse deutsche Kunstausstellung.
Post-World War II art
Post-war art trends in Germany can broadly be divided into Socialist realism in the DDR (communist East Germany), and in West Germany a variety of largely international movements including Neo-expressionism and Conceptualism.
Notable socialist realism include or included Walter Womacka, Willi Sitte, Werner Tübke and Bernhard Heisig.
Especially notable neo-expressionists include or included Georg Baselitz, Anselm Kiefer, Jörg Immendorff, A. R. Penck, Markus Lüpertz, Peter Robert Keil and Rainer Fetting. Other notable artists who work with traditional media or figurative imagery include Martin Kippenberger, Gerhard Richter, Sigmar Polke, and Neo Rauch.
Leading German conceptual artists include or included Bernd and Hilla Becher, Hanne Darboven, Hans-Peter Feldmann, Hans Haacke, and Charlotte Posenenske.
The Performance artist, sculptor, and theorist Joseph Beuys was perhaps the most influential German artist of the late 20th century. His main contribution to theory was the expansion of the Gesamtkunstwerk to include the whole of society, as expressed by his famous expression "Everyone is an artist". This expanded concept of art, known as social sculpture, defines everything that contributes creatively to society as artistic in nature. The form this took in his oeuvre varied from richly metaphoric, almost shamanistic performances based on his personal mythology (How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare, I Like America and America Likes Me) to more direct and utilitarian expressions, such as 7000 Oaks and his activities in the Green party.
Famous for their happenings are HA Schult and Wolf Vostell. Wolf Vostell is also known for his early installations with television. His first installations with television the Cycle Black Room from 1958 was shown in Wuppertal at the Galerie Parnass in 1963 and his installation 6 TV Dé-coll/age was shown at the Smolin Gallery in New York also in 1963.
The art group Gruppe SPUR included: Lothar Fischer (1933–2004), Heimrad Prem (1934–1978), Hans-Peter Zimmer (1936–1992) and Helmut Sturm (1932). The SPUR-artists met first at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich and, before falling out with them, were associated with the Situationist International. Other groups include the Junge Wilde of the late 1970s to early 1980s.
documenta (sic) is a major exhibition of contemporary art held in Kassel every five years (2007, 2012...), Art Cologne is an annual art fair, again mostly for contemporary art, and Transmediale is an annual festival for art and digital culture, held in Berlin.
Other contemporary German artists include Jonathan Meese, Daniel Richter, Albert Oehlen, Markus Oehlen, Rosemarie Trockel, Andreas Gursky, Thomas Ruff, Blinky Palermo, Hans-Jürgen Schlieker, Günther Uecker, Aris Kalaizis, Katharina Fritsch, Fritz Schwegler and Thomas Schütte.
Notes
References
Bartrum, Giulia (1995); German Renaissance Prints, 1490–1550; British Museum Press, 1995,
Bartrum, Giulia (2002), Albrecht Dürer and his legacy: the graphic work of a Renaissance artist, British Museum Press, 2002,
Beckwith, John. Early Medieval Art: Carolingian, Ottonian, Romanesque, Thames & Hudson, 1964 (rev. 1969),
Clark, Sir Kenneth, Landscape into Art, 1949, page refs to Penguin edn of 1961
Dodwell, C.R.; The Pictorial arts of the West, 800–1200, 1993, Yale UP,
Focillon, Henri, The Art of the West in the Middle Ages, Volume II, Gothic Art, Phaidon/Oxford University Press, 3rd edn, 1980,
Gombrich, E.H., The Story of Art, Phaidon, 13th edn. 1982.
Gossman, Lionel, Making of a Romantic Icon: The Religious Context of Friedrich Overbeck’s ‘Italia und Germania.''' American Philosophical Society, 2007. .
Griffiths, Antony and Carey, Francis; German Printmaking in the Age of Goethe, 1994, British Museum Press,
Hamilton, George Heard, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1880–1940 (Pelican History of Art), Yale University Press, revised 3rd edn. 1983
Harbison, Craig. The Art of the Northern Renaissance, 1995, Weidenfeld & Nicolson,
Hugh Honour and John Fleming, A World History of Art,1st edn. 1982 & later editions, Macmillan, London, page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. paperback.
Hunter, Sam; John Jacobus, Daniel Wheeler (2000) Modern Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture. New York: Prentice Hall and Harry N. Abrams
Kitzinger, Ernst, Early Medieval Art at the British Museum, (1940) 2nd edn, 1955, British Museum
Michael Levey, Painting at Court, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1971
Novotny, Fritz, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780–1880 (Pelican History of Art), Yale University Press, 2nd edn. 1971
George Savage, Porcelain Through the Ages, Penguin, (2nd edn.) 1963
Schultz, Ellen (ed). Gothic and Renaissance Art in Nuremberg, 1986, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Scheyer, Ernst, Baroque Painting in Germany and Austria: A Gap in American Studies, Art Journal, Vol. 20, No. 1 (Autumn, 1960), pp. 9–18, JSTOR online text
Snyder, James; Northern Renaissance Art, 1985, Harry N. Abrams,
Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Four Habsburg Courts 1517–1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976,
Wood, Christopher, Albrecht Altdorfer and the Origins of Landscape, 1993, Reaktion Books, London,
Further reading
Nancy Marmer, "Isms on the Rhine: Westkunst," Art in America,'' Vol. 69, November 1981, pp. 112–123.
Arts in Germany
Art by country
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5103466
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/43rd%20Airlift%20Wing
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43rd Airlift Wing
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The 43rd Airlift Wing is an inactive United States Air Force unit last stationed at Pope Field, part of Fort Bragg, North Carolina, where it was inactivated in March 2011. The wing performed en route operations support at Pope Field to include mission command & control, aircrew management, aircraft maintenance, aircraft loading, aircraft fueling and supply. Since the wing's inactivation, the 43rd Airlift Group has carried out airlift, maintenance, and base support at Pope Field.
The wing provided strategic, en-route airlift support and Lockheed C-130 Hercules tactical airlift support to the Army's XVIII Airborne Corps and 82nd Airborne Division. The wing traces its roots back to the 43rd Bombardment Group (Heavy), which was constituted 20 November 1940, and activated 15 January 1941, at Langley Field, VA. It operated primarily in the Southwest Pacific Theater as a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, and later a Consolidated B-24 Liberator heavy-bomber unit assigned to Fifth Air Force. The 43rd Operations Group carries the lineage and history of its highly decorated World War II predecessor unit.
Active for over 60 years, the wing was a component wing of Strategic Air Command's deterrent force throughout the Cold War.
History
For additional history and lineage, see 43rd Operations Group
Cold War
Superfortress and Stratojet operations at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base
On 17 November 1947, the 43rd Bombardment Wing, Very Heavy was organized at Davis-Monthan Field, Arizona as part of the United States Air Force's wing base reorganization, in which combat groups and all supporting units on a base were assigned to a single wing. The 43rd Bombardment Group, flying Boeing B-29 Superfortresses became its operational component. When the wing base organization was made permanent in 1948, the wing was redesignated as the 43rd Bombardment Wing, Medium on 1 August.
On 20 February 1948, a wing crew picked up a Boeing B-50 Superfortress at the factory, and the wing became the first in SAC to fly the B-50, with regular deliveries beginning in June. However, due to maintenance and supply problems, the wing did not achieve operational capability until 1949, despite the fact that it was one of the few units in the Air Force that was authorized manning at wartime levels due to its nuclear-bombing mission. These deficiencies were demonstrated in November when the wing deployed four B-50s to Alaska. One of the planes crashed, and, the others were grounded pending the results of the aircraft investigation.
On 2 March 1949, a wing B-50A, the "Lucky Lady II", commanded by Capt. James Gallagher, completed the first nonstop, around-the-world flight. The flight departed from and ended at Carswell Air Force Base, Texas. Boeing KB-29s of the wing's 43rd Air Refueling Squadron refueled the Lucky Lady II four times on this mission. The mission received both the Mackay Trophy from the National Aeronautical Association and the Vandenberg Trophy from the Air Force Association for this mission.
The wing conducted strategic-bombardment training from 1946 to 1960, and air refueling from 1949 to 1960, to meet Strategic Air Command's (SAC) global commitments.
Replaced the propeller-driven B-29s and B-50s with new B-47E Stratojet swept-wing medium bombers in 1954, capable of flying at high subsonic speeds, primarily designed for penetrating the airspace of the Soviet Union. The 43rd set a new, jet endurance record in 1954 by keeping a B-47 airborne for 47:35 hours. Flew numerous training missions and participated in various SAC exercises and deployments with the Stratojet during the 1950s. In the late 1950s, the B-47 was considered to be reaching obsolescence, and was being phased out of SAC's strategic arsenal. The 43rd began reassigning its Stratojets to other wings as replacement aircraft beginning in 1959.
Hustler operations at Carswell Air Force Base
The 43rd Bombardment Wing moved to Carswell Air Force Base without personnel or equipment on 15 April 1960. At Carswell, it was manned and equipped from the 3958th Operational Test and Evaluation Group and the 6592nd Test Squadron of Air Research and Development Command, which were discontinued.
The wing immediately began training crews on the Convair B-58 Hustler, the world's first supersonic bomber, and, it began participating in Category III testing (operational testing) of the Hustler in August. The 43rd was the first USAF B-58 wing.
Aircraft number 59-2436, the first fully operational Hustler equipped with all tactical systems, was delivered to the 43rd on 15 March. On 23 March a test-unit B-58A (55-0671), remained airborne for 18 hours 10 minutes while averaging an airspeed of 620 mph over 11,000 miles. This was apparently the longest-lasting single flight ever by a B-58. The 43rd received deliveries of new aircraft from Convair throughout the year, the last being in December 1960.
From March 1960 to July 1961, the 43rd operated a combat-crew training school for B-58 aircrews, and, from July 1962 until late 1969 it served as one of two SAC B-58 wings with a strategic-bombardment mission. During the 1960s the wing established world-flight speed records in the B-58, beginning on 12 January 1961, when it set six international speed and payload records on a single flight, five of which were held by the Soviet Union. Three of these records lasted only two days, when they were broken by another 43rd Hustler, which flew over a 1,000 km closed course with a payload of 2,000 kg at an average speed of 1284.73 mph, simultaneously breaking the 1,000 kg and no payload records. The crew on the second flight was awarded the Thompson Trophy.
On 29 May 1961, a wing B-58 flew from New York to Paris in 3 hours, 14 minutes, and 45 seconds, establishing a new transatlantic speed record of 1,089.36 mph, earning the crew the MacKay Trophy. On 5 March 1962, a wing B-58 flew from Los Angeles to New York at an average speed of 1,214.65 mph. It flew from Los Angeles to New York and back in 4 hours, 41 minutes, and 15 seconds. This earned the crew another MacKay Trophy and the Bendix Trophy.
The wing, which had been prevented from being declared combat-ready by the B-58's teething problems, was finally declared as such in August 1962. In response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, the wing was placed on alert in October 1962.
By the mid-1960s, the B-58 had become a fairly effective weapons system. By the end of 1962, USAF crews had made over 10,500 flights and logged 53,000 hours (1150 of them supersonic, including 375 at Mach 2). Initially, all B-58 training was conducted by the 43rd's combat-crew training school. From 1960 through 1964, this unit fulfilled the requirements of both its parent 43rd Bomb Wing and the second B-58 wing, the 305th Bomb Wing. In August 1964, the 305th activated its own CCTS. The wing also controlled an air-refueling squadron from August 1964.
Hustler operations at Little Rock Air Force Base
In September 1964, the 43rd Bomb Wing relocated to Little Rock AFB, Arkansas.
The active service life of the B-58 was destined to be rather short. Phaseout of the B-58 fleet was ordered by Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara in December 1965, since it was felt that the high-altitude performance of the B-58 could no longer guarantee success against increasingly sophisticated Soviet air defenses. Although SAC had never been happy with the relatively limited range of the B-58 and felt that the Air Force, through congressional pressure, had forced the B-58 on them, the aircraft had gone through a long gestation period during which many bugs had been wrung out of the system, and it was now thought to be a valuable and effective weapons system. Consequently, SAC pressed the Defense Department for the retention of the B-58, at least until 1974. However, the decision of 1965 was to stand.
Another factor was the B-58's relatively high cost as compared to the B-52 and B-47. The unit cost of the B-58 was 33.5-million dollars as compared to nine-million for the B-52 and three-million for the B-47. In addition, the B-58 was quite costly to maintain. The cost of maintaining and operating two B-58 wings equaled the cost of maintaining six B-52 wings.
The first B-58 to go to the "boneyard" was 59-2446 which flew to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base on 5 November 1969. Once underway, the B-58 retirement program moved relatively rapidly. The retirement was completed on 16 January 1970.
Vietnam War
3960th Strategic Wing
Once their B-58s were in storage, the 43rd BW was temporarily inactivated, but was immediately reactivated with the assets of the 3960th Strategic Wing (SW) at Andersen Air Force Base on Guam. The 3960th SW had been established at Andersen as the 3960th Air Base Wing when the base transferred from Pacific Air Forces to SAC on 1 April 1955.
The 3960th supported SAC Boeing B-47 Stratojet REFLEX deployments to Andersen over the years the wing designation and its mission changed to supporting deployed Boeing B-52 Stratofortress aircraft forming the Andersen Task Force, Provisional.
On 1 April 1965 the wing once again was redesignated the 3960th Strategic Wing and its mission changed to support B-52 elements from SAC CONUS-based units engaged in combat operations over Southeast Asia on a daily basis during the Vietnam War as the 320th Bombardment Wing from Mather Air Force Base California and the 454th Bombardment Wing at Columbus AFB, Mississippi
Operations at Andersen Air Force Base
In 1970, in order to retain the lineage of the 43rd Bomb Wing, Headquarters SAC received authority from Headquarters USAF to discontinue its MAJCON 3960th SW and activate a regular AFCON wing which was inactive at the time which could carry a lineage and history of the mission at Anderson.
On 1 April 1970, the 3960th SW was discontinued and replaced by the 43rd Bomb Wing, which became the 43rd Strategic Wing. In July, it also assumed resources and mission of the Bombardment Wing, Provisional, 4133rd, which had operational control over B-52s striking targets in Southeast Asia. The 43rd employed attached aircraft and aircrews of other SAC units that were deployed from bases in the United States to participate in Operation Arc Light combat missions in Southeast Asia from 1 July to mid-August 1970, and again from February 1972 to August 1973.
Following the end of combat operations, the 43rd provided routing training and ground alert with B-52 and KC-135 aircraft, the latter provided by other SAC units on loan. During 1975 the wing provided logistical and medical support to thousands of Vietnamese refugees evacuated from their homeland and located temporarily at Guam awaiting resettlement in the United States.
The wing trained to remain proficient in long-range nuclear bombing and conventional warfare capabilities. Beginning in 1974 it controlled Temporary Duty (TDY) tankers and crews participating in the Pacific (formerly Andersen) Tanker Task Force that supported SAC operations in the western Pacific Ocean. The 60th Bombardment Squadron was the wing's primary flying unit during the 1980s. However in July 1986 the 65th Strategic Squadron was activated to control the Temporary Duty (TDY) air refueling aircraft.
Since 1990
Since 1990 the 43rd has been inactivated, redesignated and activated on several occasions. In 1989 Andersen AFB was transferred from the Strategic Air Command to Pacific Air Forces. The PACAF 633rd Air Base Wing was activated on 1 October 1989, which led to the inactivation of the 43rd Bombardment Wing on 30 September 1990.
The wing was redesignated as the 43rd Air Refueling Wing, and activated, on 1 June 1992 at Malmstrom Air Force Base, Montana where it conducted refueling operations under Air Combat Command (ACC) before being moved to MacDill Air Force Base, Florida when flight operations ended at Malmstrom.
At MacDill it was redesignated as a group (43rd Air Refueling Group) and operated until 1 October 1996 when it was inactivated and replaced by the 6th Air Refueling Wing when Air Mobility Command assumed the air-refueling mission from ACC.
It was brought back into active service in 1997 when the unit was redesignated as the 43rd Airlift Wing on 31 March and activated on 1 April 1997 at Pope Air Force Base, North Carolina under Air Mobility Command.
Crews and aircraft deployed to Europe and Southwest Asia for expeditionary rotations and contingency operations such as the enforcement of no-fly zones over Iraq. It also took part in humanitarian airlift operations and training exercises, often with U.S. Army airborne organizations stationed at nearby Fort Bragg, North Carolina. After terrorist attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001, elements deployed in support of the Global War on Terror.
The 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission mandated the distribution of the assigned 43rd Airlift Wing C-130s and the 23rd Fighter Group A-10s to meet Air Force requirements at other locations; established a Reserve/Active Duty 16 C-130H organization; established a Medical Squadron; established an Air Force Group to provide mission execution, planning, and management of efficient load-out of Fort Bragg assets; and transferred Real Property accountability to the Army at Fort Bragg. The 2005 BRAC Law directed that the mandates be completed no later than 15 September 2011.
The 440th Airlift Wing stood up at Pope Air Force Base in June 2007, and the active-duty squadrons (the 2nd Airlift Squadron and the 43rd Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron) were associated in June 2008. The transfer of the Pope-assigned 23rd Fighter Group A-10s was completed in December 2007, and, the 43rd Airlift Wing C-130s was completed in June 2008.
The wing was inactivated on 1 March 2011, and, its 43rd Operations Group redesignated as the 43rd Airlift Group.
Lineage
Designated as 43rd Bombardment Wing, Very Heavy on 3 November 1947
Organized on 17 November 1947
Redesignated 43rd Bombardment Wing, Medium on 1 August 1948
Inactivated on 31 January 1970
Redesignated 43rd Strategic Wing on 4 February 1970
Activated on 4 February 1970.
Organized on 1 April 1970
Redesignated 43rd Bombardment Wing, Heavy on 4 November 1986
Inactivated on 30 September 1990
Redesignated 43rd Air Refueling Wing and activated, on 1 June 1992
Redesignated 43rd Air Refueling Group on 1 July 1994
Inactivated on 1 October 1996
Redesignated 43rd Airlift Wing on 31 March 1997
Activated on 1 April 1997
Inactivated on 1 March 2011
Assignments
Eighth Air Force, 17 November 1947
Fifteenth Air Force, 1 April 1950
36th Air Division, 4 September 1951
Attached to: 7th Air Division, c. 10 March-5 June 1953 and 5 September-10 December 1954
Attached to: 3rd Air Division, 1 July-1 October 1957
19th Air Division, 15 March 1960
Attached to: 825th Strategic Aerospace Division, 19–31 August 1964
825th Strategic Aerospace Division, 1 September 1964
42nd Air Division, 1–31 January 1970
Eighth Air Force, 1 April 1970
Attached to: Air Division, Provisional, 57, 1 June 1972 – 14 November 1973
3rd Air Division, 1 January 1975 – 30 September 1990
Fifteenth Air Force, 1 June 1992 – 1 October 1996
Twenty-First Air Force, 1 April 1997
Eighteenth Air Force, 1 October 2003
United States Air Force Expeditionary Center, 7 January 2011 – 1 March 2011
Components
Groups
43rd Bombardment (later, 43rd Operations) Group: 17 November 1947 – 16 June 1952 (detached 16 August – 16 November 1949; not operational, 10 February 1951 – 16 June 1952); 1 June 1992 – 1 July 1994; 1 April 1997 –
453rd Operations Group: 1 June 1992 – 1 July 1994
459th Bombardment Group: attached 27 June 1949 – 16 June 1951
2nd Bombardment Group: attached 17 November 1947 – 31 December 1948 (not operational).
Squadrons
2nd Airlift Squadron: 1 April 1997 – present
2nd Air Refueling Squadron: attached c. 30 April 1949 – 16 September 1950 (not operational, 30 April – 30 June 1949; further attached to 43 Bombardment Group, 1 July 1949 – 16 September 1950);attached 1 July 1949 – 16 September 1950
9th Air Refueling Squadron: attached 1 August 1951 – 15 January 1952 and 6 October – 14 November 1952
28th Air Refueling Squadron: 1 June 1992 – 15 May 1994
41st Airlift Squadron: 1 April 1997 – 23 February 2007
43rd Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron: 1 April 1997 – present
43rd Air Refueling Squadron
Attached: 10 February 1951 – 15 June 1952
Assigned: 19 July 1948 – 15 March 1960 (detached 18 October – 28 December 1955); 19 July 1948 – 16 June 1952 (detached 10 February 1951 – 16 June 1952)
60th Bombardment Squadron: 1 July 1971 – 30 April 1990 (not operational, 1 July 1971 – c. February 1972)
63rd Bombardment Squadron: 1 October 1946 – 31 January 1970 (detached 10 February 1951 – 16 June 1952)
Bombardment Squadron Provisional, 63rd: attached 15 June 1972 – 30 June 1975 (not operational, c. November 1973 – 30 June 1975)
64th Bombardment Squadron: 1 October 1946 – 31 January 1970 (detached 10 February 1951 – 16 June 1952)
65th Bombardment Squadron (later, 65th Strategic Squadron): attached 10 February 1951 – 15 June 1952, assigned 16 June 1952 – 31 January 1970 (not operational, 15 March – August 1960); 1 July 1986 – 1 July 1990
70th Air Refueling Squadron: attached 19 August–31, 1964, assigned 1 September 1964 – 1 January 1970
91st Air Refueling Squadron: 1 July 1994 – 1 October 1996; 1 June 1992 – 1 July 1994
97th Air Refueling Squadron: 1 October 1992 – 1 April 1994
307th Air Refueling Squadron: attached 16 September 1950 – 1 August 1951 (further attached to 43rd Bombardment Group, 16 September 1950 – 9 February 1951); attached 16 September 1950 – 9 February 1951
350th Air Refueling Squadron: 1 October 1993 – 1 July 1994.
403rd Bombardment Squadron: 15 January 1941 – 29 April 1946; 1 December 1958 – 15 March 1960; 15 May 1960 – 1 January 1961 (not operational)
905th Air Refueling Squadron: 1 July – 1 October 1993
906th Air Refueling Squadron: 1 June 1992 – 30 January 1994
4182nd Bombardment Squadron: 1 April 1970 – 1 January 1971 (not operational)
Stations
Davis-Monthan Field (later Davis-Monthan Air Force Base), Arizona, 17 November 1947
Deployed at: RAF Brize Norton, England, c. 10 March – 5 June 1953
Deployed at: RAF Fairford, England, 5 September – 10 December 1954
Deployed at: Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, 1 July – 1 October 1957
Carswell Air Force Base, Texas, 15 March 1960
Little Rock Air Force Base, Arkansas, 1 September 1964 – 31 January 1970
Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, 1 April 1970 – 30 September 1990
Malmstrom Air Force Base, Montana, 1 June 1992 – 1 July 1994
MacDill Air Force Base, Florida, 1 October 1996
Pope Air Force Base (later Pope Army Airfield), North Carolina, 1 April 1997 – 1 March 2011
Aircraft
B-29 Superfortress, 1944–1950
KB-29 (tanker), 1949–1953
B-50 Superfortress, 1948–1954
KC-97 Stratofreighter, 1953–1955, 1955–1960; 1970–1972
B-47 Stratojet, 1954–1960
YRB-58, B/TB-58 Hustler, 1960–1970
TF-102 Delta Dagger, 1960–1962
KC-135 Stratotanker, 1964–1972; 1973–1980; 1992–1996
B-52 Stratofortress, 1970–1990
B-52D, 1970–1983; B-52G, 1983–1990
KC-10 Extender, 1986–1990
C-118 Liftmaster, 1973–1974
C-12 Huron, 1994
C-130 Hercules, 1997–2011
References for commands and major units assigned, components and stations:
Aircraft flying in this unit
C-130E
64-0499 (Jun'00); 64-0517 (Jun'00); 64-0525 (Jun'00); 70-1270 (Jun'00); 70-1273 (Jun'00); 70-1275 (Jun'00); 70-1276 (Jun'00)
Awards
Mackay Trophy: 1949, 1961, 1962
Air Age (Vandenberg) Trophy: 1949
Thompson Trophy: 1961
Bendix Trophy: 1962
Expeditions
Operation Joint Endeavour
Operation Southern Watch
See also
List of B-50 units of the United States Air Force
List of B-47 units of the United States Air Force
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Pope AFB Official Website
*Kensmen: 43rd BG (H), 5th AAF official website of the World War II-era 43rd Bombardment Group (403rd, 63rd, 64th, and 65th SQ)
043
Military units and formations established in 1947
0043
0043
1947 establishments in the United States
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5103561
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20of%20York
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Mary of York
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Mary of York (11 August 1467 – 23 May 1482) was the second daughter of King Edward IV of England and his queen consort Elizabeth Woodville.
The first years of Mary's life were spent in close connection with her older sister Elizabeth of York (later Queen consort of England), who was eighteen months older. The princesses were raised and religiously educated together and were accustomed from childhood to frequent moves between royal residences. From time to time, the girls were called to the court, where they were present at the festivities and during state visits. Also, a strict daily routine was provided for the princesses, and special attention was paid to their safety. It is noteworthy that in the accounts dating back to the childhood of the princesses, there are almost no expenses for toys.
In 1469, Mary's father had a conflict with his longtime supporter the Earl of Warwick, who, in alliance with Mary's uncle the Duke of Clarence and the former Queen Margaret of Anjou, had mutinied against the King. Soon Edward IV was removed from the throne, and Mary with her mother and sisters found refuge in Westminster Abbey, where they spent the next five months. Mary's younger brother Edward was also born in the asylum, whose birth spurred the princess's father to accelerate the reconquest of his kingdom. In April 1471, Edward IV returned London to his rule and immediately moved the family from the refuge to the residence of his mother, and then to the Tower of London.
After the final defeat of the Warwick party and the restoration of peace in the country, Mary and her older sister began to look for suitors. Elizabeth was supposed to be the wife of the Dauphin Charles, heir of the French throne, with Mary as a replacement for her older sister in case of her premature death or other obstacle to marriage. In 1481, the Danish prince Frederick, Duke of Holstein and Schleswig (later King Frederick I) was supposed to be Mary's fiancé, but when negotiations were underway for marriage, she fell seriously ill and died.
Birth and early years
Mary was born on 11 August 1467 at Windsor Castle as the second daughter of children of King Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville; being the second child from her parents' ten children, the princess also had two half-brothers from her mother's first marriage to John Grey of Groby: Thomas and Richard Grey. Her paternal grandparents were Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (who claimed the rights of the House of York to the English throne) and Cecily Neville, and her maternal grandparents were Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, and Jacquetta of Luxembourg, Dowager Duchess of Bedford. The girl was baptized shortly after birth; among her sponsors was the Archbishop of Canterbury and Cardinal Thomas Bourchier.
In 1467, the King granted his wife lifelong use of Sheen Palace in Surrey, where the royal nursery was organized: according to tradition, royal offspring were brought up away from London and the court for their safety and health. Here, Mary, along with her older sister Elizabeth (born 11 February 1466), was brought up under the guidance of a governess Lady Margaret Berners (wife of John Bourchier, 1st Baron Berners, great-grandson of King Edward III and a close friend of the Queen Elizabeth's family); Lady Margaret received a salary of 100£ for her services (as of 2013 – 50,000£) per year. In Sheen Palace, Mary, together with Elizabeth, spent her infancy and part of her childhood; in addition to the governess, the princesses were given an extensive staff of servants and 400£ a year for their needs (as of 2013 – about 200,000£). The princesses also used to travel a lot from childhood, as the royal couple, along with their children and a vast court, traveled between a hundred royal residences, located mostly in the Thames valley.
Religious upbringing and court life
The religious education of the royal offspring began at a very early age, and by the age of four, the children should have known the psalter. Feast days, in particular the Presentation of the Lord, Easter, Saint George's Day, Trinity, All Saints' Day and the Nativity of Christ, as well as saints' days, were marked with special services in the chapel, sermons and entertainment; Elizabeth and Mary these days made offerings during Mass. On Maundy Thursday, girls gave gifts to the poor; on Good Friday they were taught to crawl to the cross on their knees. During the Great Lent and the Advent fasts, girls were required to fast or abstain from meat. On New Year's Eve, the princesses received gifts, and on the Twelfth Night they were allowed to join in the celebrations and feast.
From time to time, little princesses were called to the court, where they were present at festivals and during state visits. At court, Elizabeth and Mary joined their mother's retinue, learning from her example and that of her ladies manners, music, singing, dancing, embroidery and everything that was considered necessary to prepare them for the role of future wives of kings, mothers and "decorations of the court". The girls dressed in miniature versions of the lavish outfits worn by noble ladies, and also learned as they got older how to handle heavy fabrics, long trains, and elaborate headdresses. Princesses were taught good manners from an early age and were brought up in the deepest respect for their parents, whom they did not see often; every night they were together.
Daily routine
The daily routine followed by Mary and Elizabeth was probably similar to that which was later set by the King for their brother Edward when he was three years old; it may also have been based on customs described in the household books of their paternal uncle George, Duke of Clarence. The children were awakened at approximately six o'clock in the morning so that they could "get up at a convenient hour according to [their] age" to attend morning prayer in their bedroom. Then the bell informed them that it was time to go to Mass, which was celebrated by the house chaplain at the local chapel. Regular observance of liturgical services was seen as a necessity for the royal children. Immediately after mass, the princesses ate breakfast; the likely ingredients for breakfast were bread, butter, ale, fish, meat, or eggs. Dinner was served to the princesses at ten or eleven o'clock in the morning; the meal itself was a "noble service" of dishes "brought by revered people" and squires in livery, and could last up to two hours. While eating, the sisters were read instructive and noble stories; in addition, King Edward IV insisted that there should be no "brawlers, hooligans, dangerous people or adulterers" in the homes of his children, and all conversation in their presence should be "virtuous, honest ... and wise". After dinner, the princesses would take a bath and perhaps get an afternoon nap. Later, drinks and bread were brought to the girls, after which the bell called everyone to Vespers. Dinner was served at four o'clock in the evening. The rest of the evening was spent by the princesses in entertainment such as games and music; the King's daughters went to bed at about eight o'clock in the evening, having previously received a snack in the form of bread, ale or wine and other products. It is noteworthy that in the accounts of the court of the princesses of this period, toys are hardly mentioned.
The safety of the princesses was given special attention. After the doors of the chambers of Mary and Elizabeth were locked at eight o'clock in the evening, no one except the personal servants of the princesses could enter them. At night, a burning candle or torch was left in the girls' bedroom; the outer gates were locked at nine o'clock in the evening in winter and at ten in summer. The guards went around the castle grounds three or four times a night, checking every room. Later, a special person was assigned to Prince Edward, who spent the night in his chambers and monitored the safety and health of the boy at night; probably the princesses also had such a person.
Crisis of 1469–1471
On 20 March 1469 the Queen gave birth to another daughter, Cecily, which caused serious concern to the King and made him think that his eldest daughter Elizabeth would rule the country after him. A year earlier, rumors had spread at court about an aggravation of enmity between the supporter of the King, the Earl of Warwick and the Queen, whose numerous relatives moved the Earl from court. In the same 1468, a final split occurred between Edward IV and Warwick due to the marriage of the King's sister Margaret: Warwick, who had once failed to marry the King to a French princess, wanted to conclude an alliance with France through the marriage of Margaret and a French prince, but Edward IV, following to advice of the Woodvilles, married off his sister to an enemy of France – Charles, Duke of Burgundy, whom Warwick hated and despised. In 1469, a feud between Warwick and the royal couple led to an alliance between the Earl and the King's younger brother, George, Duke of Clarence, whose position as heir to the throne was threatened by the idea of Edward IV to appointed his eldest daughter as his successor.
Earlier, even at a time when the King was close to Warwick, the Earl wanted to marry his daughters Isabella and Anne, who were the richest heiresses in England, with the King's brothers, but Edward IV refused him, fearing the rise of the Nevilles. In July 1469 Clarence openly disobeyed his brother by marrying Warwick's eldest daughter at Calais; then both of them landed with troops in England and announced George's claim to the English throne, declaring Edward IV was illegitimate, born of Cecily Neville's affair with the English archer Blaybourne. At this time, Mary's mother, along with at least two daughters, one of whom was Elizabeth, visited Norwich, where they were received with magnificent celebrations and theatrical performances; It is not known for certain which of the two younger princesses at that time accompanied her mother, however, it was probably Mary, since Cecily was too small. The Queen and princesses were settled in the house of the monk-preachers; here the royal family received news that Warwick had not only won the Battle of Edgcote, but also captured the King, and also executed without trial Mary's maternal grandfather and uncle, Earl Rivers and John Woodville. It is not known how the grandfather's death affected the little princesses, but most likely the Queen hid what happened from the children. At the same time, Mary's maternal grandmother, Jacquetta of Luxembourg, was arrested after being accused of witchcraft and the use of love spells of the King. Although Jacquetta was acquitted, this unpleasant episode, as well as the unmotivated execution of Earl Rivers, showed how far the enemies of Edward IV were ready to go to destroy his wife and her family. Despite all this, the Queen herself and her daughters were not harmed during Warwick's brief rise, except that Mary's mother was assigned a reduced staff of servants.
By the autumn of 1469, Edward IV managed to gain freedom and already in September he entered London in triumph, where he began to lure the nobles back to his side. In the winter of 1470, the King regained full control of the government and declared Warwick and Clarence traitors; both of them fled to France, where by July 1470 Warwick managed to conclude an alliance with the former Queen Margaret of Anjou, who wanted to put her husband or son on the throne; as a part of the alliance, the former Prince of Wales married Warwick's second daughter. In September 1470, as Edward IV prepared for an invasion by the combined forces of Warwick and Margaret of Anjou, Mary, her sisters, and her mother were moved to the Tower of London for their safety. Anticipating a future crisis, the Queen ordered the Tower to be fortified and security increased. Elizabeth Woodville was in her seventh month of pregnancy and a maternity ward was prepared for her, but she failed to use them: Warwick invaded England, and in early October news appeared in London that Mary's father, along with his younger brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, had fled the country, having only an illusory hope for a return. On 6 October Warwick and Clarence entered the City of London, and on 30 October King Henry VI was formally re-enthroned.
Having received news of her husband's fall, Queen Elizabeth, along with her mother and three daughters, including Mary, hurriedly left the Tower in the middle of the night on a barge and arrived in search of refuge at Westminster Abbey, where she was known as a very pious woman. When the royal family arrived at the hideout, the Abbey was nearly empty; the Abbot of Westminster Thomas Milling took them under his protection –a kind, hospitable man, he did not want to place the Queen and princesses with criminals and gave them his house at the western entrance to the Abbey, where there were three rooms and everything necessary for the convenience of the royal family. Also, they were assisted by ordinary Londoners: the butcher John Gould donated half a cow and two sheep a week to the family of King Edward IV, and the fishmonger provided them with provisions on Fridays and fasting days.
While in hiding, the princesses spent most of their time with nannies, as Queen Elizabeth was busy with the birth and subsequent care of Prince Edward, who was born in early November 1470. Mary and her family spent another five months in the shelter. In April 1471, the princess's father, spurred on by the news of the birth of his son, returned to England and, first of all, after attending a thanksgiving service in Westminster Abbey, took his family out of hiding. On the same night, Mary, along with other family members, was transported to Baynard's Castle, which served as the residence of her paternal grandmother, Cecily Neville. On 11 April, the Queen and her children, accompanied by the King's mother, the Queen's brother Anthony Woodville, and the Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Bourchier, set out for the Royal Apartments in the Tower of London, while Mary's father went north to reclaim the crown. On 13 April, Warwick was killed at the Battle of Barnet, and on 4 May Edward IV finally defeated the Lancastrian troops at the Battle of Tewkesbury, in which the Lancastrian heir Edward of Westminster was killed and Margaret of Anjou was captured. However, on 12 May, while Edward IV was still on his way to London, the last supporters of the House of Lancaster organized an attack on the Tower, intending to restore Henry VI to the throne; two towers were fired from the river, in one of which was Mary and her family. The attack was repulsed, but this forced Edward IV to put his predecessor to death, and on 21 May 1471 Henry VI was strangled in his dungeon.
Final years, marriage plans and death
At the end of 1474, Edward IV, who was preparing to invade France, signed a will, according to which Mary and her older sister Elizabeth were to receive a dowry of 10,000 marks, on the condition that the princesses in the matter of marriage would be submissive to their mother and brother-King. However, only two months later, Edward IV concluded a peace treaty with France, one of the conditions of which was the marriage of Mary's elder sister to the Dauphin Charles, heir of the French throne, when she reached the age of marriageable consent; in the event of the premature death of Elizabeth, Mary herself became the substitute bride of the Dauphin; however, in 1481, she, apparently, was betrothed to Frederick, Duke of Holstein and Schleswig (youngest son of King Christian I of Denmark), which meant that France's spare bride was no longer needed. According to other sources, the betrothal never took place: marriage negotiations, shortly after they began, were stopped due to the deteriorating health of the princess. Previously, the elder brother of Frederick, John, Hereditary Prince of Denmark, was called a possible suitor of Mary, but it is not known whether marriage negotiations were ever started.
In 1476 Mary, among others, attended the reburial ceremony for the remains of her paternal grandfather the Duke of York and his second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland at Fotheringay. In 1478 Mary attended the wedding of her younger brother Richard, Duke of York and Anne de Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk; in May 1480 she, along with her younger sister Cecily, were made Ladies of the Garter, their older sister Elizabeth had already been named Lady of the Garter in February of the same year. In addition, there is no information on how Mary lived in her later years; documents of this period contain only information about the political situation in the country and do not affect the private life of the younger members of the royal family.
At the end of 1481, Mary fell ill and died on 23 May 1482 in the Palace of Placentia. The body of the princess was not embalmed, but was dressed in rich clothes and put up for farewell in a church in Greenwich. On the same day a memorial mass was celebrated by the Bishop of Norwich James Goldwell; another service was held the next day in the presence of many religious figures and representatives of the nobility: the Bishop of Chichester Edward Story, the Barons Dacre, Dudley and Beauchamp and the Bishop of Salisbury Richard Beauchamp. Mary's coffin was taken in a magnificent procession to St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle and was buried in the southeastern part of the chapel, next to Prince George, the third son of Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville, who died in infancy. The mourners at Mary's funeral were the Queen's sister Lady Grey, Lady Catherine Grey, Lady Strange, Baroness Dacre and other ladies. Baroness Dacre, after the death of Mary's younger brother George, served as maid of honor and governess to the princess. The third and last mass was celebrated after the funeral for commoners.
In 1789, a worker carrying out repairs to the chapel accidentally discovered and opened the tomb of King Edward IV and his wife Elizabeth Woodville. In a room adjacent to the crypt, the coffins of two children were found – presumed at the time to be George and Mary. However, in 1810, places were being prepared in the chapel for the burial of members of the family of King George III, and the remains of two more children were found in another room; some remains, well preserved, fell under the parameters of Mary. Thus, it is not known whose remains were buried next to the grave of Edward IV and his wife.
Ancestry
Notes
Citations
References
External links
Remarks on the Privy Purse Expenses and Memoirs of the Siblings of Elizabeth of York
The Peerage.com
1467 births
1482 deaths
People from Windsor, Berkshire
House of York
Ladies of the Garter
English princesses
Women of the Tudor period
15th-century English people
15th-century English women
Children of Edward IV of England
Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
Royalty who died as children
Daughters of kings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian%20mafia
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Serbian mafia
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Serbian organized crime or Serbian mafia () are various criminal organizations based in Serbia or composed of ethnic Serbs in the former Yugoslavia and Serbian diaspora. The organizations are primarily involved in smuggling, arms trafficking, drug trafficking, human trafficking, assassinations, heists, assault, protection rackets, murder, money laundering and illegal gambling. The mafia is composed of several major organized groups, which in turn have wider networks throughout Europe and across the world.
It includes some highly successful groups, including one of the largest cocaine import enterprises in Europe "Groupa Amerika", and the "YACS" Crime Group, out of NYC. The "Pink Panthers" is responsible for some of the biggest heists ever committed. Its origin dates back to SFRY, which had very low crime rate, as criminals were allowed to live peacefully in Yugoslavia as long as they restricted their operations to abroad, and then bring the stolen goods and capital back to be spent at home. The Serbian mafia gave many Serbs a perceived way out of the economic disaster that occurred in the country following the implementation of internationally imposed sanctions against Serbia during the Yugoslav Wars. Serbian criminals have been recruited into state security forces, a notable example being Milorad "Legija" Ulemek, a commander in Arkan's Tigers, which was re-labelled as the JSO (Red Berets) after the war.
Serbian mafia is made up of several major international criminal organizations, specializes for cocaine trade, each of them has annual income of several billions. Two of them are declared as the most powerful in Europe, (Cartel "Los Balcanes" and "Group America").
It has established a direct connection with the majority of cocaine producers, purchasing drugs directly from South American producers, selling them only to wholesalers operating in Europe.
During the period when the cigarette mafia operated, Serbian mafia earned about 100 billion dollars.
Serbian mafia today, is estimated to earn €62 billion annually, their annual earnings on the cocaine market in Europe are worth €5.4 billion Euros. According to the DEA, alone cartel Tito y Dino is estimated at 23 billion euros on cocaine market. In June 2013, the world renowned magazine Forbes published a list of the richest mafia bosses in the world, Serbian drug lord Darko Šarić, was in a high fifth place, he is estimated to have assets worth of 27 billion dollars.
According to estimates by the DEA and Europol, Serbian cartel known as "Los Balcanes", send about 500 tons of cocaine annually to the Old Continent. The boss of everything was the Serb, Dejan Stanimirovic, who was wanted by more than 30 countries.
One of the most significant mafias in Scandinavia is the Serbian-Montenegrin mafia in Scandinavia, also known as “Juggemaffian” (“Yugo Mafia”). The foundations of the gang began during the mass immigration of Yugoslav guest-workers to Sweden in the 1970s. Its power base is in the cities of Stockholm and Copenhagen, and territory in Malmö and Gothenburg, among other cities in western Sweden. They received significant media attention in Sweden especially during the 1990s, thanks to flashy top-ranking members such as Dragan "Jokso" Joksović. The founder and first leader of the gang is believed to be warlord Željko Ražnatović Arkan and the current leader is alleged to be Milan Ševo
Ethnic Serb organized crime groups are organized horizontally; higher-ranked members are not necessarily coordinated by any leader.
History
Ljubomir Magaš, aka Ljuba Zemunac, was known as the "Godfather" of the Serbian mafia during the 1970s and 1980s. He and his gang operated in Germany and Italy during this time. He was assassinated in 1986 by his rival Goran "Majmun" Vuković
Vukasin Despotović & Dario Ivišić operated in the Netherlands and became one of the most powerful gangsters through his elimination of rivals while working as a hitman and took over the drug trade in the Netherlands. The drug that was smuggled was cocaine from Colombia and "Joca Amsterdam" became known as the "Cocaine King". He worked for "Duja" Bećirović as an underboss and later lived in Bulgaria where he successfully smuggled drugs until his arrest in 2002. Upon returning to Serbia, he took over companies by force, utilizing the Surčin clan, (one of three then most powerful "clans" of Belgrade). He was later accused of organizing the 2008 assassination of Ivo Pukanić, a Croatian journalist killed by a car bomb, but was acquitted by a Serbian court due to a lack of evidence for his involvement.
Željko "Arkan" Ražnatović was a successful bank robber in Western Europe in the 1970s. He had convictions and warrants in Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden, Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Italy. However, he managed to escape from several prisons and then made connections with several known criminals from Yugoslavia during his time there. In the 1980s he returned to Serbia where he became involved with illegal businesses and led the Red Star Belgrade supporters' group "Delije Sever" ("Ultras").
The real breakthrough for criminal organizations in Serbia occurred in the early 1990s, when the Yugoslav Wars erupted in first Croatia and then Bosnia. The Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks fought over territory in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. International sanctions were imposed on Serbia starting in May 1992 and Serbia became economically isolated. This prompted the breakthrough for criminal organizations. Desperate for money, many former soldiers and youngsters turned to a life of crime.
In 1992, members of the "Peca" gang were arrested in a massive police-operation. One of the gang's members was Dušan Spasojević, who later became the head of the Zemun clan. A young mobster from the Belgrade suburb of Voždovac, Aleksandar "Knele" Knežević, was murdered in October of that year, prompting a brief, but violent Gang War in Belgrade.
Arkan was the founder and leader of the Serb Volunteer Guard (Arkan's Tigers), a Serb paramilitary unit that fought during the Yugoslav Wars. The unit's members were mostly newly recruited Red Star Belgrade hooligans and gangsters from Serbia. Those who joined the unit profited on the battlefields by looting and stealing. Arkan later founded the Party of Serbian Unity in 1993. By the time he returned home, he had become the most powerful member of the Serbian Mafia. He married singer Svetlana "Ceca" Ražnatović.
Since the days of SFRY, the mafia has sometimes been protected in exchange for political favors, thus having a direct connection to their activities. Stane Dolanc, a Slovene, instrumentalized the mafia for political assassinations abroad. In the 90s, the Mafia profited by smuggling cigarettes, alcohol and oil. Businessman Stanko Subotić was the person that made the largest profit at this time, as cigarettes and oil were in such high demand because of the sanctions. Subotić's net worth is estimated to be €650 million. After Milošević's fall from power, Subotić maintained connections with Montenegrin President Milo Đukanović, who granted him political favours.
From 1994 to 2000, illegal cigarette smuggling in Italy was operated by the Serbian mafia in coordination with the Italian Mafia. Serb and Montenegrin soldiers who had returned from the front-lines of the Yugoslav wars found the only way to make a profit was by turning to a life of crime. The most common crimes were assassinations, kidnappings, drug and cigarette trafficking, robberies, money laundering, racketeering and illegal software production. In 1998, 350 kilograms of heroin were seized at the Serbian-Bulgarian border.
On 15 January 2000, Arkan was assassinated in the lobby of the Continental Hotel in Belgrade. Slobodan Milošević was dethroned in the October 2000 Bulldozer Revolution. However, a bloody feud soon emerged among the different criminal "clans" of Belgrade. The feud grew into an open war in which many of the key Mafia bosses were assassinated. In 2000, some €841,000,000 was made in illegal profits in Serbia.
25 August 2000. Ivan Stambolić, former Serbian president was abducted in Belgrade, just before the federal election in which it was mentioned that he could be included as a candidate for the President of the FRY, and since then he disappeared without a trace. The remains of Stambolić were discovered on 28 March 2003. He was killed on the same day he had been hijacked by members of the Zemun clan. The funeral was on 8 April.
By the early 2000s, the Serbian mafia reportedly had more money than the Serbian government and was better armed than the Serbian Army and Serbian police, according to Serbian Interior Minister Dušan Mihajlović, who claimed Slobodan Milošević had given life to crime-syndicates as a "state-sanctioned mafia". Prostitutes from Russia, Belarus and the Ukraine were smuggled into Serbia. After Milošević fell from power, the Mafia began seeking a new contact in the government. In September 2001, 700 kilograms of heroin was found in a bank vault rented by the BIA in central Belgrade. The illegal safekeeping was never explained, nor brought up. In exchange for information about Kosovo Albanian terrorists, the Zemun Gang was provided "special training courses" by the Serbian Special Forces.
In 2011, Dr Gilly McKenzie, an Interpol Organized Crime Unit expert, compiled a "White Book" containing 52 criminal organizations of Serbia, none of which had been terminated by the year's end. In the same year, it was concluded that the Protection rackets in port cities on the Black Sea were run by Serbian, Russian and Ukrainian criminals.
Beginning with the Yugoslav wars and ending with the assassination of Prime Minister Zoran Đinđić in March 2003, connections between the mafia and the government were obvious and corruption was rampant in most branches of the government, from border patrols to law-enforcement agencies. On 12 March 2003, Đinđić was assassinated by a former Serbian Special Operations Unit member, Zvezdan Jovanović. "Legija" was also involved in the assassination and was sentenced to 50 years in prison.
Đinđić had connections within the Surčin Gang that dated back to the earlier overthrowing of Milošević. The government set in motion an operation against organized crime - "Operation Sabre", which led to more than 10,000 arrests. Many New Belgrade malls, locations frequented by gangsters, were closed after the Operation, 123 criminal groups were shattered with 844 members awaiting trial; 3,949 people had criminal complaints issued against them. 28 kilograms of heroin, 463 grams of cocaine, 44,837 kilograms of marijuana, 4,960 kilograms of synthetic drugs and 688 stolen cars were recovered in a single day. Milan Sarajlić, the Deputy State Prosecutor of Serbia was arrested that day and later confessed to being on the payroll of the Zemun clan.
In November 2003, 140 kilograms of marijuana were seized in Belgrade and 4 people were arrested. The Red Berets were dissolved on 23 March 2003. In 2005, it was confirmed that Serbia had lost 7,500,000 RSD daily due to economic crime, with the estimated total loss to criminal activity being estimated to be approximately €200,000,000 yearly. In 2006, it was revealed that Dušan Spasojević, leader of the Zemun clan, was connected to Serbian Radical leader Vojislav Šešelj, to whom he had allegedly given information about high-profile murders carried out in Serbia, which Šešelj wrote about.
In January 2009, Serbian Interior Minister Ivica Dačić estimated that between 30 and 40 serious organized crime groups were operating in Serbia. The figures provided by Dačić did not include smaller criminal groups but more organized ones that were involved in drug and arms trafficking, human trafficking, murder and protection rackets.
In September 2009, 22 members of the Elez group were arrested by the Serbian police, dubbed the most dangerous gang in Western Balkans. The leader, Darko Elez, was captured with five other members in Serbia. 13 others were captured in Bosnia, including three police officers. Police seized 2.8 tons (2,800 kg, worth 120 million €) of cocaine shipment from Uruguay on 17 October 2009, the BIA and American DEA made the joint operation. On 31 October 2009, Serbian police arrested over 500 people in the biggest anti-drug bust ever in Serbia.
The Interior Ministry organized the Morava-operation that would focus on drug trafficking to young people in the primary and secondary schools, clubs and cafes and would encompass 2,000 police officers searching the whole country.
In November 2009, Argentine police arrested five Serbian drug couriers and seized their 492 kilograms of cocaine in Buenos Aires, One of the largest drug busts in 2009. The routes of the drugs were from Uruguay and Argentina via Central alt. South Africa to Northern Italy alt. Turkey to Montenegro. Serbian organized crime experts estimated 10,000 foot soldiers part of 5 major organized crime groups operating in Serbia. A courier package of 5 kilos cocaine was intercepted from Paraguay, 4 Serbs from Belgrade were arrested. The busts were part of the Operation Balkan Warrior; an international drug smuggling case that involves mainly the Zemun clan, led by, among others, Željko Vujanović.
In December 2009, Interior Minister Ivica Dačić said "half of the Serbian sport clubs are led by people with links to organized crime". 21 kilos of heroin ($1,5-million) were found in a Belgrade flat rented by a Montenegrin national. The drugs were brought from Turkey.
In January 2010, a lot illegally owned by the Zemun clan was seized at Šilerova Street, Zemun, Belgrade, the clan's headquarters. By 21 January, the Balkan Warrior Operation included 19 suspects, 9 of whom were already in custody. New arrestees included Darko Šarić and Goran Soković. That same day, an 8-man crime group involved in stealing of oil over a two-year period from the NIS pipelines, the crude oil was sold through a company, worth several hundred thousands of euros, among the arrested is a member of the MUP.
On 10 February 2010, Serbian top officials said serious death threats from the narco-mafia have been directed against President Boris Tadić, Deputy Prime minister and Interior minister Ivica Dačić, Special prosecutor for organized crime Miljko Radisavljević, and other top government officials. On 18 February, a group of six robbers from Belgrade were arrested, they had since 2008 stolen more than 10 million RSD from banks, post offices, gas stations, exchange offices and stores.
On 19 February 2010, Interior Minister Dačić said more than 50 suspects were arrested today in an ongoing operation aimed against financial crime and money laundering conducted in Valjevo, Novi Sad, Belgrade, Šabac, Sremska Mitrovica, Čačak and Sombor.
In March 2010, Stanko "Cane" Subotić, head of the so-called "Tobacco mafia", accused Nebojša Medojević, the Montenegrin party leader of Movement for Change of having organized a manhunt for him. Medojević had claimed that Cane and Darko Šarić had been hiding in a Montenegrin police villa in Žabljak, while Cane said in an interview that he was in Geneva, Switzerland. On 11 March, a "well-known" entrepreneur was arrested with 1.2 kilograms of heroin meant for resale in Jagodina.
On 19 March, Boris Tadić vowed all-out war on the Serbian mafia, in particular drug trafficking that is considered the biggest threat in society. He claimed to have evidence that Serbian cartels have attempted to penetrate state institutions to destabilise the government. "The latest property seizures prove that those groups have laundered narco money by investing not only into their personal houses and land but also in tourism, factories and distribution of the press", Tadić said. On 28 March 2010, two Bosnian Serbs from Novi Pazar were arrested at Zagreb Airport with at least 1.7 kilograms of cocaine for the Serbian drug market. The pure cocaine came from Lima, Peru where they had spent the month traveling from Belgrade. The drugs were worth an estimated €70,000 on the streets of Croatia.
In April 2010, it was concluded that Šarić's gang had planned an operation against Serbian officials, including the president. Encrypted messages in local newspapers were deciphered by investigators and after long surveillance of the clan it was concluded that several hitmen were to kill Serbian officials of the MUP, BIA and state officials in a synchronized and highly well-coordinated way. The Šarić clan wants to liquidate people that are in their way, after the Balkan Warrior Operation that heavily decreased crime in Serbia and Montenegro. On 14 May 2010, three Serbs who worked security for one of Bolivia's top drug lords were killed in a shootout with rival crime groups; the drug lord was kidnapped.
Dačić submitted the work report for 2009; the police had uncovered 7 OC groups and arrested 86 people. He said that by the end of 2009 there were 27 registered OC groups active, with each group having more than 200 members. There is/was an ongoing investigation against Zemun clan members involved in assassinations who claim Šešelj ordered the assassination of Tomislav Nikolić.
In 2010 it was revealed that the Šarić gang had, from 2008 to 2009, ousted the 'Ndrangheta from the drug market. With the emergence of the gang on Italian soil, the gang offered better quality cocaine for a lower price, effectively gaining the market from 2007 to 2009, trafficking cocaine from South America. Operation Balkan Warrior was successful in Italy, with over 80 people arrested. Two networks were among the arrested, one Italian, with members from Milan and other northern Italian towns, and the other, a Serbian network, with members from Serbia, Montenegro and Slovenia. The Serbian network has operatives all over Europe and South America.
The Principi Group is the mafia organization in Serbia that is most closely linked to the Serbian state. After the arrest of their leader and suspected multiple murderer Veljko Belivuk in 2019, he said in a court hearing that he had done "dirty work" for the Serbian government. In 2022, criminal proceedings against the alleged mafia boss Veljko Belivuk and 31 co-defendants began in a court in Belgrade. The leader is charged with five counts of murder, kidnapping, drug trafficking and illegal possession of weapons. He said he worked through intermediaries for President Aleksandar Vučić.
Groups
Belgrade neighbourhoods
Novi Beograd gangs, organized in different Blokovi (neighbourhoods), during the 1990s the gangsters of New Belgrade were very successful but had after the Yugoslav wars been killed by each other.
Surčin clan, at the beginning car thefts, smuggling of petrol and cigarettes, moved on to narcotics. Had connections with officials in police, judiciary and politicians mostly prior to the Operation Sablja.
Zemun clan, Drug trafficking, contract-killing, abduction. Had connections with officials in police, judiciary and politicians mostly prior to the Operation Sablja. The head was Dušan Spasojević.
Šarić gang
Voždovac clan, led by Goran Vuković
Zvezdara clan, led by Sredoje "Šljuka" Šljukić
Dorćol group, drug trafficking
Karaburma group, drug trafficking
Senjak group, known for drug trafficking, racketeering,
Janjičari group, led by Aleksandar "Sale Mutavi" Stankovic
Principi group, led by Veljko "Velja Nevolja" Belivuk
Other
Peca gang (19??-1992)
Arkan network († 2000)
Elez group (-2009)
Keka group
Belov clan
Serbian Brotherhood
Pink Panthers gang
YACS Yugoslavian Albanian Croatian Serbian crime group Manhattan NYC. (1970-1997)
Gang leaders and noted members
The reign of Slobodan Milošević represented the height of power of Serbian organized crime, when mafiosi and government officials were intertwined. The role of several Belgrade gangsters was described in the documentary film, Vidimo se u čitulji (See You in the Obituary).
Activity outside Serbia
The Pink Panthers international jewel thief network is responsible for some of the most audacious thefts in criminal history. They are responsible for what have been termed some of the most glamorous heists ever, with their crimes being thought of as "artistry" even by criminologists. They have targeted several countries and continents, and include Japan's most successful robbery ever among their thefts.
Interpol believes that the YACS Crime Group that evolved into The
PINK PANTHERS are responsible for US$130 million in bold robberies in Dubai, Switzerland, Japan, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Spain and Monaco. Pink Panthers are believed to be responsible for the robbery of the jewellery store Harry Winston in Paris, on 9 December 2008. The thieves escaped with more than €80 million worth of jewellery. The total worth of jewellery that has been stolen by the Pink Panthers was 250 million € in May, 2010.
Australia
The first Serbian mafiosi came to Australia in the late 70s, organized in a Yugoslav clan, their headquarters were some 15 kafanas in Sydney, Wollongong and Melbourne.
Milivoje Matović (aka "Miša Kobra") arrived in Sydney in 1986 and became a known gambler who organized big games. His younger brother Braca owed money to the gang of Žorž Stanković, who sent his own son Batica after Matović. Batica was deported to Serbia and Braca was killed in the meantime. Žorž was killed in 1993 and his son Batica was killed in 1996.
In 2005 interviews with Australian Serbs, it was said some 20 Zemun clan members operated in Australia at the time, double the number working prior to Operation Sablja. Serbian boxer Božidar Cvetić who in 2002 was stabbed, now working as a bouncer in Australia said that Australian police had shown him pictures of some 150 Serbian criminals active in Australia.
In May 2007, Australian police saw recruitment to organized crime motorcycle gangs from young Serbs.
Austria
The Serbian mafia was the main operators of drug trafficking and cigarette smuggling in Austria and Austria was the home to many Serbian gangs.
On 27 October 1978 Veljko Krivоkарić secretly met with Ljubomir Magaš, a member of the gang he had just left, at the Zur Hauptpost coffee house in Vienna. Magaš and another Yugoslav, Rade Ćaldović, grabbed Krivоkарić and fractured his skull with a glass bottle. Stevan Marković's body was found in garbage bags in 1968. He was the former bodyguard of Alain Delon. His godfather, Corsican gangster François Marcantoni, was under investigation for murder and spent 11 months in custody. The Pink Panthers have operated in Austria.
Belgium
In 1990, Kosovo Albanian activist Enver Hadri was assassinated in Brussels by Veselin "Vesko" Vukotić, Andrija Lakonić, and Darko Ašanin, at the time hired by the UDBA (Yugoslav intelligence).
Bosnia & Herzegovina
The Serbian mafia is the largest organized crime group in Bosnia & Herzegovina, operating out of Republic of Srpska. The Zemun clan is active in Bosnia.
Bulgaria
From 1994 to 1997, Zemun clan leader Dušan Spasojević used heroin supplies channels through Sofia. In 1997, 350 kilos of heroin was seized at the Serbian-Bulgarian border. Sreten Jocić (aka "Joca Amsterdam") escaped from custody in Netherlands in 1993; he left for Bulgaria where he would continue his drug smuggling under the pseudonym "Marko Milosavljević" (which happens to be the same name as a noted Serbian football player). He was arrested in 2002 and extradited to the Netherlands.
One Macedonian national and 2 Bulgarians were arrested during the Operation Moonlight linked with the Zemun clan; they trafficked cocaine from Bolivia.
Zemun clan member Nenad "Milenko" Milenković was arrested in 2003 at the Varna resort, following the international warrant by the Serbian police after Operation Sablja. He was suspected of orchestrating at least three murders in Bulgaria and some 20 in Serbia. The Zemun clan successfully managed the drug traffic from Bulgaria after 2003, taking over the market from Surcin-associate Sreten Jocić.
It has been alleged that Bulgarian tycoon Iliya Pavlov was murdered by the Serbian mafia in 2004 and had owed 250 million dollars to Milosević era government figures.
Croatian hitman Robert Matanić and his colleagues were hired by the Zemun clan to kill members of the competing Bulgarian mafia for the Balkan drug route. Dimitar Hristov, Kaloyan Savov and Zhivko Mitev were killed in a shootout on 4 June 2004. Matanić and his men were hired by Milcho Bonev as bodyguards. Matanić was arrested and detained in Bulgaria. Milcho Bonev was assassinated in 2004, believed to be organized by the Serbian Mafia.
In September 2007, what appeared to be an internal feud resulted in the death of Jovica Lukić and the critical wounding of two other men as well as a mother and her baby. The men were all members of the Zemun clan. Former Litex president Angel Bonchev had business with the Zemun clan. He was kidnapped in 2008. The Zemun clan is active in Bulgaria.
Czech Republic
In the 1990s, Serbian organised groups were one of the leading syndicates operating in the Czech Republic. A letter was sent to Czech newspapers containing information on a supposed future assassination of President Havel by 4 or 5 members and their whereabouts. The letter, written in broken Czech, was thought by police to have been sent by a rival gang.
Denmark
Serbian-Danish actor Slavko Labović, who played Radovan in the film Pusher, was arrested, along with his brother, for possession of illegal arms (loaded gun) in Sweden. He was the director of the RK Company in Denmark, an illegal gambling company owned by Rade Kotur (Spelkungen, The Gambling King) a known figure in Sweden who hired the murder of Ratko Đokić.
Finland
Human trafficking and illegal immigration was growing in Finland has been orchestrated by Serbian organized crime groups since 2004.
France
Known in French as Mafia Serbe. In 1962, Stevica Marković, Miša Milošević and Radovan Delić arrived in Paris, were part of the "Garderodameri" that was formed in 1966 with the arrival of Marko Nicovic.
The Pink Panthers have operated in France. In October 2008, police officials in Monaco arrested two members of the gang, a Serb and a Bosnian Serb. The gang is suspected of jewellery and gems theft at Harry Winston for an estimated value of up to 80 million Euros or 105 million US dollars.
Greece
After the Yugoslav wars, Kristijan Golubović worked in Greece. In 2002, he escaped from Malandrino, a Greek prison where he had been serving fourteen and a half years for stealing two Mercedes-Benz cars and an armed robbery. In December 2009, two Serbs were arrested suspected of involvement of a major group smuggling cocaine from Peru to Montenegro on luxury yachts. The United States DEA helped the Greek police track the smuggling for five months. Two other Serbs were also wanted in Serbia in connection with this.
Germany
Known in German as the German: Serbische Mafia, Jugoslawische Mafia. The Serbian mafia was the main operator of cigarette smuggling in Germany in 2004. Ljubomir Magaš ("Ljuba Zemunac", "Ljuba from Zemun", "The Godfather") was the head of the Serbian mafia at the time. He was killed by two shots to the heart from close range in front of a courthouse in Frankfurt, Germany in 1986 by Goran Vuković "Majmun", a member of the Vozdovac clan, who himself survived five murder attempts following the killing before he was assassinated in downtown Belgrade in broad daylight in 1994. Slobodan "Slobo" Grbović left Italy for Germany in the 1970s and became friends with Vaso Letećeg, a thief from Belgrade. In 1981, the friendship ended in a feud over money, Slobo shot and wounded Letećeg and went to prison.
In 1980, Branislav Saranović escaped Wuppertal prison with the help of the Ljuba Zemunac gang who blew up a prison wall. In February 1988, Rade Caldović is appointed the leader in Germany after good relations with the Italian mafia in Milan. He became friends with Greek businessman Mihail Sainidis, who owns casinos in southern Germany. On 30 March, Zoran Lucić, a Belgrade gangster, killed an Albanian rival in Frankfurt.
In the 1990s, the underground of former Eastern Germany was controlled by Italian, German, Russian, Vietnamese and Serbian organized groups. Leipzig was the centre of money laundering, smuggling, prostitution and protection rackets due to the weak system. The most profitable operations of the groups from former Yugoslavia was car thefts, luxury cars were stolen in Germany and sold to Eastern Europe, North Africa and Far East.
Andrija Drašković, an heir to Arkan's syndicate following the latter's assassination, was arrested by German police in Frankfurt after four years on the run from the Italian Anti-Organized Crime Unit. Drašković is believed to have organized the murder of his former boss, Arkan.
Hungary
The main organized crime groups in Hungary in 2004 were the Bulgarian and Serbian mafias.
Romania
In 2019 the Romanian police arrested two Serbian citizens after finding more than a ton of high-quality cocaine on the Black Sea coast that was clearly intended for transit across the country.
Italy
Dado "Metko" Cerović and Ibrahim "Belo" Habibović were the most powerful Yugoslav criminals in Milan before moving to Genova. In 1971 Ljubomir Magaš arrived in Italy with "Dača" and settled in Milan. His friend, Rade "Centa" Ćaldović was shot in his stomach in Verona by a rival, Bata Glavac. Ćaldović was later sent to a Rome prison. The Yugoslav mafia in Milan was formed by Magas, Arkan, Ćaldović, Veljko Krivоkарić, Slobodan "Slobo Crnogorac" Grbović, Milan Civija, Dule Milanović, Mile Ojdanić, Sava Somborac, Pera Oziljak, Marinko Magda, and Đorđe "Giška" Bozović. They carried out holdups, murders and burglaries in Trieste, Rome, and Milan.
Ibrahim "BELO" (called "Drago lo Belo" in Italian) was a Serbian gangster who found his way to Milan, he was connected with a godfather of the Italian Mafia in Calabria. He was involved with gambling, bank and jewellery robberies. An influx of gangsters from SR Montenegro strengthened the Yugoslav position in the Italian underworld. Đorđe Božović, Vlasto Petrović Crnogorac, and Darko Ašanin were connected with mafiosi operating from Montenegro; Branko and Slobodan Šaranović, Brano Mićunović and Ratko "Cobra" Đokić, Sarajevo; Miša Martinović, Zagreb; Marko Vlahović. In the same time Slobodan Grbović (aka "Slobo Crnogorac") left for Germany and teamed up with Vaso Letećeg, a thief from Belgrade.
During the 1990s the 'Ndrangheta acquired weapon arsenal (Bazookas, explosives, automatic firearms) built in Serbia, imported through firms outside Italy. From 1994 to 2000 illegal cigarette smuggling in Italy was operated by the Serbian mafia together with the Italian Mafia.
Zemun clan member Ninoslav Konstantinović fled the Netherlands to Italy after his brother was arrested in 2003. In Italy he became a leading heroin distributor and professional hitman, working for the Italian Mafia in Naples, he is recognized as highly skilled as many of his fellow Zemun clan members are known throughout Europe.
In May 2009, Vladimir Jovanović, a former Zemun clan member and Interpol wanted was arrested in Italy.
The presence of Serbian OC groups, among others, have increased rapidly the later years because of the badly controlled coastline.
Luxemburg
International burglary networks were present in 2004, mainly from Southeastern Europe (the Balkans).
Montenegro
Montenegro was in a state union with Serbia from 1991 to 2006. The Serbian mafia is the leading criminal group in Montenegro. Many of the Belgrade crime groups that were not caught during Operation Sablja hid in Montenegro. The Zemun clan is active in Montenegro.
Netherlands
There have been a number of unsolved murder cases in Rotterdam that have been linked to the activities of Serbian Organized Crime gangs. In recent years the Serbian mafia has been growing strong in the Netherlands. By 2004, ecstasy and heroin in Netherlands had originated from the Balkans.
Sreten Jocić (aka "Joca Amsterdam"), is a hitman and a drug dealer. He is considered the leader for the Serbian mafia in Amsterdam. On Christmas Eve, 1974, Slobodan Mitrić killed three alleged UDBA members in Amsterdam. In 1977, Emilio Di Giovine was wounded and two of his men killed by rival Yugoslavs.
On 24 October 1979, Arkan, Slobodan Kostovski, and an unnamed Italian accomplice were arrested while robbing a jewelry store in Amsterdam, they had days earlier robbed a jeweller in Hague and were sought in several countries. On 8 May 1981, Arkan escaped from the Bijlmerbajes prison in Amsterdam with Sergio Settimo, an Italian national, one of the most sought-after criminals in Europe.
In 1992, a member of the Chinese Triad was killed after a debt to the Serbian Mafia. The Serbian OC groups have become stronger and has superseded the Russian Mafia in Netherlands and the arms trade is shared by Serbian and Turkish groups.
Norway
Non-Norwegian gangs and organized crime groups came to dominate Norway's drug trade in the 1980s. During the 1990s Norway saw a large influx of Yugoslavs seeking refugee status due to the conflict in the Balkan region.
Slovenia
Slovenia has witnessed a growing trend of human trafficking by Balkan organized crime groups since 2004. Serbian organized crime has operated the cigarette smuggling and arms trafficking.
Spain
A growing trend of auto theft was seen by southeastern European organized crime groups since 2004. Serbian organized crime groups grew their presence in Spain.
Sweden
Known in Swedish as: Serbiska maffian or Serbiska Brödraskapet, earlier Jugoslaviska maffian or Juggemaffian during the years of Yugoslavia. And more specifically known as the Serbian Brotherhood encompassing territory from Sweden to Denmark. The Serbian mafia or Serbian Brotherhood in Sweden was said to be the top criminal organisation, but its influence has declined since the deaths of several leading figures. A war was fought over the control of the trade of narcotics and cigarettes between Serbian Organized Crime leaders which resulted in the deaths of Joksa and Ratko Đokić.
Individuals associated to Serbian Organized Crime in Sweden include:
Ratko Đokić, "The Godfather", an arms dealer and cigarette smuggler; he was assassinated on 5 May 2003 by Serbian hitmen hired by Rade Kotur, another notorious Serbian criminal.
Dragan "Jokso" Joksović, notorious gambler and assumed cigarette smuggler, was murdered on 4 February 1998 in Solvalla, Stockholm by a Finnish hitman hired by "Kova". He was a close friend of Arkan and is said to have helped Arkan on many occasions. Arkan and many other known mafia figures attended his funeral. As revenge, "Kova" was later killed in front of 60 guests on Arkan's orders.
Milan Ševo, declared to be the last Head of the Serbian mafia in Sweden. He has survived numerous murder attempts. In 2004, he escaped from prison. He married Ratko Đokić's daughter.
Sweden saw a large influx of ethnic Serbs during the 1960s/70s, when the "Arbetskraftsinvandring" took place; The labour force of immigrants who were granted citizenship (similar to Gastarbeiter programme). In the 1980s the Serbs were the main operators of drug smuggling in Sweden.
In 2003, in a storage room located in the Vårby Gård suburbs, the Swedish police found silenced firearms; Ak47s, Uzis, MP5s, grenades, plastic explosives and mines. The arsenal was used by the Serbian Mafia in Sweden, the owner of the storage was Milan Ševo, son-in-law of Ratko Đokić, former head of the Serbian mafia. This title was soon inherited by Ševo. On 5 May 2003, Đokić was assassinated outside his boxing club in Skärholmen. One of the hitmen, Nenad Mišović, was arrested in Europe years later. Mišović came to Sweden in 2002 after fleeing the police in Serbia. He was hired by Rade Kotur, a rival of Đokić In 2004, the Serbian mafia dominated the organized crime in Sweden, known uncovered operations were doping substances.
One of the chapters in the book, Svensk Maffia (Swedish Mafia) follows the history of the Serbian mafia in Sweden from the 1960s to the present. Serbian Interior Minister Ivica Dačić claims former members of the paramilitary Red Berets took part in the 2009 Västberga helicopter robbery one of the most spectacular heists in the history. One month prior to the robbery, the Swedish Embassy in Serbia was allegedly given "certain information about a criminal group which was preparing a robbery" by Serbian police.
United Kingdom
On 2 June 2009, six Serbs were convicted, together with several Israelis, in smuggling of 12.5 ton (£36m) marijuana, orchestrated by the Israeli mafia. The marijuana was seized as it travelled from Larache, Morocco to Southampton on a tugboat under an Israeli flag. The Pink Panthers have operated in London.
United States
There has been known involvement of Balkan crime groups in the United States. One of the most notorious Serbs that arrived in New York City 1956 was Vojislav Stanimirovic, aka MR Stan, criminal turned journalist. He was responsible for the Vizcaya Heist. His son, Pavle Stanimirović, continued the tradition. The best known is Boško Radonjić, leader of the Irish-American organized crime group "the Westies", and the left hand of LCN boss of bosses John Gotti from 1988 to 1992.
In popular culture
The Serbian mafia has appeared in a number of films, novels and video games. They have appeared in:
In film
Absolute 100 (2001), Serbian drama/thriller, young and talented sport shooter decides to get revenge on gangsters who destroyed the life of his brother
Assault on Precinct 13 (2005), American action thriller
(2016), German TV film about an undercover cop infiltrating the Serbian sportsbet mafia in Germany
Beck – Kartellen, Swedish crime thriller, about the case of a murdered restaurant owner
Bröderna Jaukka, Swedish short film
The Crew (2008 film), British drama/dark comedy
Do koske, Serbian crime/action/dark comedy
In China They Eat Dogs, Danish action-comedy, about a debt to Serb gangsters
In Order of Disappearance, Norwegian action/dark comedy depicting a war between Norwegian and Serbian gangsters
South Wind, Serbian action film, about young Serbian car thieves chased by Serbian crime lord, corrupt police chief and Bulgarian gangsters
Layer Cake, British action film with Daniel Craig
Leo, Swedish drama, about the revenge of his wife's murder
Klopka (2007), Serbian drama/thriller, set in post-Milošević era, it tells the story of a man who desperately needs money for his son's surgery, when a mysterious man appears offering money in exchange for the murder of a mafia boss
Mlad i zdrav kao ruža, widely considered to be a visionary movie, it was banned in communist Yugoslavia. It portrays a 1970s mobster who, supported by the Yugoslav secret service UDBA, rises to become a crime lord
Pusher trilogy, a series of Danish films illustrating and exploring the criminal underworld of Copenhagen.
Pusher, 1996 Danish crime thriller.
Pusher II, 2004 Danish crime thriller.
Pusher 3, 2005 Danish crime thriller.
Pusher, 2012 British remake of the 1996 Danish original.
Paradiset, Swedish drama/thriller
Rane, Serbian crime/drama/dark comedy, widely considered to be a cult classic
Ride Along, 2014 American action comedy
Snabba Cash, Swedish action, about criminal activities in Stockholm, one of the protagonists is a Serbian Mafia henchman
Snabba Cash II
Poslednji krug u Monci. A 1980s Belgrade criminal reaches Italy searching for a man who owes him money, but gradually becomes the leader of the Italian branch of Yugoslav/Serbian mafia
Straight Business 2, Canadian International Short Film
Straight Business 3, Canadian International Short Film
The Sweeney, 2012 British action drama
The Fourth Man, Serbian action/thriller
Vidimo se u čitulji, Serbian documentary about the organized crime in Belgrade during the 1990s
On television
Dosije: Beogradski klanovi (2014), docudrama series about Serbian mafia clans in Belgrade during the 1990s
Dosije: Zemunski klan (2015), sequel to the popular docudrama series, it shows the rise and fall of Zemun Clan, one of the most powerful crime groups in Serbia's history.
Gorki plodovi, Serbian TV series
Grupa (2019), Serbian TV series about a group of young street dealers and Belgrade police force tracking them down
Meso (2017), Serbian TV series about a former soccer player from Banja Luka who comes back to his home town and confronts his childhood friend, now a crime boss
Ubice mog oca, Serbian crime/action TV show, which shows ties between mafia, politicians, tycoons and corrupt policemen
In the American TV series Power, the Serbian mafia, led by Jason Micic are major antagonists in seasons 2–6.
South Wind, connected with a movie, South Wind is about Belgrade criminals who are work with Bulgarian narco boss, later fights against him. Also, they are rivals with Montenegrin narco boss.
In literature
The First Rule, novel by Robert Crais. Author claims to portray Serbian mafia in the US accurately, however, there are many inaccuracies (Serbian mafia does not abide to the Russian "Thief in law" gangster code, and it never did).
Millennium (novel series) mentions Serbian mafia members on several occasions.
In video games
Grand Theft Auto IV, American 2008 open world action-adventure video game. The main protagonist, Niko Bellic, is a Yugoslav man involved in organised crime.
See also
Crime in Serbia
Serbian Brotherhood
References
Further reading
Glenny, M. (2008). McMafia: A Journey Through the Global Criminal Underworld
Lopusina, Marko (2003). Srpska Mafija (Serbian Mafia)
External links
Darko Šarić profile, reportingproject.net
Joca Freed from jail
La Mafia Serba
Serbian mafia face crack down
Analysis: Gangsters' paradise lost by Tim Judah, BBC
Mafia
Serbian-Australian culture
Organized crime by ethnic or national origin
Transnational organized crime
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catocala
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Catocala
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Catocala is a generally Holarctic genus of moths in the family Erebidae. The genus was erected by Franz von Paula Schrank in 1802. The moths are commonly known as underwing moths or simply underwings. These terms are sometimes used for a few related moths, but usually – especially when used in plural, not as part of a species name – they are used to refer to Catocala only.
Of the more than 250 known species, slightly less than half are found in North America – mostly in the United States – while the rest occur in Eurasia. About one-fifth (almost 30) of these species are native to Europe. A few species occur in the northern Neotropics and Indomalaya.
Description and ecology
Most species of Catocala have medium to large adults, cryptically coloured except for the hindwings, which are marked with stripes in orange, red, white, or even blue. In some, the hindwings are mostly blackish. Unlike what the common name "underwings" seems to suggest, the colour is brightest on the upperside. However, the bright hindwings are not visible at rest, being hidden under the dull forewings – hence the name. Due to their diversity and variety of colors and patterns, underwing moths are popular with collectors of Lepidoptera.
In, The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma: Moths Volume II, the genus described as follows.
It is believed that the bright colors, arranged in usually roughly concentric markings, at a casual glance resemble the eyes of a predatory animal, such as a cat. An underwing moth, well camouflaged in its daytime resting spot on a tree trunk or branch, will suddenly flash open the hindwings when disturbed. A bird or other small predator that is not used to this display is likely to be frightened, allowing the moth to escape. However, unlike some other bright-colored moths which are bad-tasting or even poisonous to predators, underwing moths are well palatable at least to some birds (e.g. the blue jay, Cyanocitta cristata). To assist in avoiding nocturnal predators such as bats, these moths also possess (like many of their relatives) fairly well-developed hearing organs.
The caterpillars of most species feed on the leaves of woody plants, usually trees but sometimes shrubs. Typical food plants are Fagales of the families Betulaceae, Fagaceae and Juglandaceae – mainly hickory (Carya), oak (Quercus) and walnut tree (Juglans) species, as well as others such as alder (Alnus), beech (Fagus), birch (Betula) and chestnut (Castanea). The caterpillars of numerous Old World and some North American species feed on the Salicaceae Populus (poplars) and Salix (willows), which belong to the Malpighiales. Less common larval food plants of Catocala are for example elms (Ulmus) and various Rosaceae of the Rosales, Tilia (linden and basswood) of the Malvales, or some Fabaceae of the Fabales; as the preceding, these all belong to the Fabidae lineage of rosid eudicots. More unusually, underwing moth caterpillars have also been found to feed on such plants as maple (Acer) which belongs to a distant lineage of rosids, as well as on such plants as ash trees (Fraxinus) and blueberries (Vaccinium) which are asterids and quite unrelated to the other food plants by eudicot standards.
The adults are predominantly nocturnal, flying from shortly after dusk right up to daybreak. They are generally most active about two hours after nightfall. However, several if not all species of underwing moths have a second activity period exactly around noon, during which they are also regularly found on the wing for about 1–2 hours each day.
The genus name Catocala roughly means "beautiful hindwings". It is a combination of two Ancient Greek words, kato (κάτω, "the rear one" or "the lower one"), and kalos (καλός, "beautiful").
Classification
There are over 250 species in this genus. The species of Catocala are here divided into a Eurasian group, and another one which is found in North America. This does not imply actual relationships; it is mainly done to more conveniently deal with the large number of species. Still, it is not unlikely at all that the groups consist at least to some extent of closely related species.
There are several cryptic species complexes in Catocala, e.g. the group around the Delilah underwing (C. delilah); these and other hitherto unknown species are still being discovered and described in some numbers. Thus, resolving the phylogeny and taxonomy of the underwing moths is an ongoing effort, which has made () little progress. In the scientific literature, smaller subdivisions into putatively related species are sometimes applied, but there is no consistent and widely accepted taxonomic treatment for the genus as a whole.
Synonyms
Several distinct genera have formally been proposed for splitting from Catocala, but these are all treated here as junior synonyms. These synonyms and other invalid names of Catocala are:
Andreusia Hampson, 1913 (unjustified emendation)
Andrewsia Grote, 1882
Astiodes (lapsus)
Astiotes Hübner, 1823
Belpharidia (lapsus)
Bihemena Beck, 1966
Blephara Ochsenheimer, 1816 (unavailable)
Blepharidia Hübner, 1822
Blepharonia Hübner, 1823 (unavailable)
Blepharonia Hübner, 1825
Blepharum Hübner, 1806 (rejected)
Catabapta Hulst, 1884
Catacola (lapsus)
Catocalla (lapsus)
Convercala Beck, 1966
Corisce Hübner, 1823
Corisee (lapsus)
Divercala Beck, 1966
Ephesia Hübner, 1818
Eucala Beck, 1966
Eucora Hübner, 1823
Eunetis Hübner, 1823
Hemigeometra Haworth, 1809
Koraia Nye, 1975
Lamprosia Hübner, [1821]
Lamprosia Hübner, 1827 (non Hüber, [1821]: preoccupied)
Metacala Beck, 1966
Mormonia Hübner, 1823
Mormosia (lapsus)
Optocala Beck, 1966
Promonia Beck, 1966
Puercala Beck, 1966
Reticcala Beck, 1966
Simplicala Beck, 1966
Palearctic species
Catocala abacta Staudinger, 1900
Catocala abamita Bremer & Grey, 1853 (including C. scortum)
Catocala actaea Felder & Rogenhofer, 1874
Catocala adultera Ménétries, 1856
Catocala aenigma Sheljuzhko, 1943
Catocala aestimabilis Staudinger, 1892
Catocala afghana Swinhoe, 1885
Catocala agitatrix Graeser, 1889 (including C. mabella)
Catocala amabilis Bang-Haas, 1907
Catocala amnonfreidbergi Kravchenko et al., 2008
Catocala ariana Vartian, 1964
Catocala armandi (including C. davidi)
Catocala artobolevskiji Sheljuzhko, 1943
Catocala bella (including C. serenides)
Catocala bokhaica
Catocala borthi Saldaitis, Ivinskis, Floriani & Babics, 2012
Catocala brandti
Catocala butleri
Catocala catei Weisert, 1998
Catocala chenyixini Ishizuka, 2011
Catocala columbina
Catocala coniuncta – Minsmere crimson underwing
Catocala connexa
Catocala contemnenda
Catocala conversa
Catocala danilovi Bang-Haas, 1927
Catocala dariana Sviridov, Speidel, Reshöft, 1996
Catocala davidi Oberthür, 1881
Catocala deducta Eversmann, 1843
Catocala dejeani (sometimes in C. kuangtungensis)
Catocala desiderata
Catocala detrita Warren, 1913
Catocala deuteronympha
Catocala dilecta Hübner, [1808] (type of Astiotes)
Catocala disjuncta
Catocala dissimilis (including C. nigricans)
Catocala distorta Butler, 1889
Catocala diversa
Catocala doerriesi
Catocala dotatoides
Catocala dula
Catocala duplicata
Catocala editarevayae
Catocala electa – rosy underwing
Catocala ella Butler, 1877
Catocala ellamajor Ishizuka, 2010
Catocala elocata – French red underwing
Catocala eminens Staudinger, 1892
Catocala eutychea
Catocala flavescens
Catocala florianii Saldaitis & Ivinskis, 2008
Catocala formosana Okano, 1958
Catocala fraxini – blue underwing, Clifden nonpareil (type of Hemigeometra)
Catocala fredi Bytinsky-Salz & Brandt, 1937
Catocala fugitiva Warren, 1914
Catocala fulminea (type of Ephesia)
Catocala fuscinupta
Catocala gansan Ishizuka & M. Wang, 2013
Catocala giuditta Schawerda, 1934
Catocala haitzi Bang-Haas, 1936
Catocala hariti Ishizuka & Ohshima, 2002
Catocala helena
Catocala hoenei Mell, 1936
Catocala hoferi Ishizuka & Ohshima, 2003
Catocala hymenaea
Catocala hymenoides Draeseke, 1927
Catocala hyperconnexa Sugi, 1965
Catocala inconstans Butler, 1889
Catocala infasciata Mell, 1936
Catocala intacta
Catocala invasa
Catocala jansseni A. E. Prout, 1924
Catocala jonasii Butler, 1877
Catocala jouga Ishizuka, 2003
Catocala juncta
Catocala jyoka Ishizuka, 2006
Catocala kaki Ishizuka, 2003
Catocala kasenko Ishizuka, 2007
Catocala koreana Staudinger, 1892
Catocala kotschubeyi Sheljuzhko, 1927
Catocala kuangtungensis
Catocala kusnezovi Püngeler, 1914
Catocala lara Bremer, 1861
Catocala largeteaui Oberthür, 1881
Catocala laura Speidel, Ivinskis & Saldaitis, 2008
Catocala leechi
Catocala lehmanni Speidel, Ivinskis & Saldaitis, 2008
Catocala lesbia
Catocala longipalpis Mell, 1936
Catocala lupina Herrich-Schäffer, [1851]
Catocala luscinia Brandt, 1938
Catocala maculata Vincent, 1919
Catocala mariana
Catocala martyrum Oberthür, 1881
Catocala maso Ishizuka, 2011
Catocala mesopotamica
Catocala mirifica Butler, 1877
Catocala moltrechti Bang-Haas, 1927
Catocala musmi
Catocala naganoi Sugi, 1982
Catocala nagioides
Catocala naumanni Sviridov, 1996
Catocala neglecta
Catocala neonympha Esper, 1805 (type of Eucora)
Catocala nivea Butler, 1877
Catocala nubila
Catocala nupta – red underwing
Catocala nymphaea
Catocala nymphaeoides Herrich-Schäffer, 1852
Catocala nymphagoga – oak yellow underwing
Catocala oberthueri Austaut, 1879
Catocala obscena Alphéraky, 1879
Catocala ohshimai Ishizuka, 2001
Catocala olgaorlovae
Catocala optata
Catocala optima – Turanga underwing
Catocala pacta
Catocala paki Kishida, 1981
Catocala patala Felder & Rogenhofer, 1874
Catocala pataloides
Catocala persimilis
Catocala pirata
Catocala praegnax Walker, 1858
Catocala prolifica Walker, 1857
Catocala promissa – light crimson underwing
Catocala proxeneta Alphéraky, 1895
Catocala pudica Moore, 1879
Catocala pudica sabine Saldaitis, Pekarsky & Borth 2014
Catocala puella
Catocala puerpera (type of Eunetis)
Catocala puerperoides
Catocala remissa
Catocala repudiata
Catocala rhodosoma Röber, 1927
Catocala seibaldi Saldaitis, Ivinskis & Borth, 2010 (including C. pseudoformosana)
Catocala seiohbo
Catocala separans
Catocala separata
Catocala sinyaevi Sviridov, 2004
Catocala solntsevi
Catocala sponsa – dark crimson underwing
Catocala sponsalis
Catocala stamensis Kishida & Suzuki, 2002
Catocala streckeri
Catocala sultana (sometimes in C. optata)
Catocala svetlana Sviridov, 1997
Catocala szechuena
Catocala tapestrina Moore, 1882
Catocala thomsoni A. E. Prout, 1924
Catocala timur – Timur underwing
Catocala tokui
Catocala toropovi Saldaitis, Kons & Borth, 2014
Catocala triphaenoides Oberthür, 1881
Catocala uljanae Sinyaev, Saldaitis & Ivinskis, 2007
Catocala viviannae
Catocala weigerti Hacker, 1999
Catocala wushensis
Catocala xarippe Butler, 1877 (formerly in C. fulminea)
Catocala xizangensis Chen, 1991
Comparison of Eurasian species
Nearctic species
Catocala abbreviatella
Catocala agrippina – Agrippina underwing
Catocala aholibah – Aholibah underwing
Catocala alabamae – Alabama underwing, titan underwing (including C. olivia, C. titania)
Catocala allusa (sometimes in C. faustina)
Catocala amatrix – sweetheart underwing (type of Lamprosia)
Catocala amestris – three-staff underwing
Catocala amica – girlfriend underwing (type of Corisce)
Catocala andromache – Andromache underwing
Catocala andromedae – Andromeda underwing, gloomy underwing
Catocala angusi – Angus' underwing
Catocala antinympha – sweetfern underwing (type of Catabapta)
Catocala atocala – Atocala underwing, Brou's underwing
Catocala badia – bay underwing, bayberry underwing, old maid
Catocala benjamini – Benjamin's underwing (formerly in C. andromache)
Catocala blandula – charming underwing
Catocala briseis – Briseis underwing, ribbed underwing
Catocala caesia – bluish-gray underwing
Catocala californica (including C. erichi)
Catocala californiensis
Catocala cara – darling underwing
Catocala carissima – carissima underwing (formerly in C. cara)
Catocala cerogama – yellow-banded underwing
Catocala charlottae (sometimes in C. praeclara)
Catocala chelidonia
Catocala cleopatra (sometimes in C. faustina)
Catocala clintoni – Clinton's underwing
Catocala coccinata – scarlet underwing
Catocala concumbens – pink underwing, sleepy underwing
Catocala connubialis – connubial underwing
Catocala consors – consort underwing
Catocala crataegi – hawthorn underwing, chokeberry underwing
Catocala dejecta – dejected underwing
Catocala delilah – Delilah underwing
Catocala desdemona – Desdemona underwing (including C. ixion, formerly in C. delilah)
Catocala dulciola – quiet underwing, sweet underwing
Catocala electilis
Catocala epione – Epione underwing (type of Mormonia)
Catocala faustina
Catocala flebilis – mournful underwing
Catocala francisca (sometimes in C. hermia)
Catocala frederici
Catocala gracilis – graceful underwing
Catocala grisatra – grisatra underwing
Catocala grotiana – Grote's underwing
Catocala grynea – woody underwing
Catocala habilis – habilis underwing
Catocala hermia – Hermia underwing (including C. sheba)
Catocala herodias – Herodias' underwing, Gerhard's underwing
Catocala hippolyta (sometimes in C. semirelicta)
Catocala ilia – beloved underwing, Ilia underwing, wife underwing
Catocala illecta – Magdalen underwing
Catocala innubens – betrothed underwing
Catocala insolabilis – inconsolable underwing
Catocala irene – Irene's underwing
Catocala jair – Jair underwing, barrens underwing
Catocala jessica – Jessica underwing (including C. babayaga)
Catocala johnsoniana – Johnson's underwing
Catocala judith – Judith's underwing
Catocala junctura – joined underwing, Stretch's underwing (including C. elsa, C. stretchii)
Catocala lacrymosa – tearful underwing
Catocala lincolnana – Lincoln underwing
Catocala lineella – lineella underwing, little lined underwing, steely underwing (formerly in C. amica)
Catocala louiseae – Louise's underwing (including C. protonympha)
Catocala luciana – shining underwing
Catocala maestosa – sad underwing
Catocala manitoba – Manitoba underwing (sometimes in C. praeclara)
Catocala marmorata – marbled underwing
Catocala mcdunnoughi – McDunnough's underwing
Catocala meskei – Meske's underwing
Catocala messalina – Messalina underwing (type of Andrewsia)
Catocala micronympha – little nymph underwing, little bride underwing
Catocala minuta – little underwing
Catocala mira – wonderful underwing
Catocala miranda – Miranda underwing
Catocala muliercula – little wife underwing
Catocala myristica - Myristica underwing Kons & Borth, 2015
Catocala nebulosa – clouded underwing
Catocala neogama – the bride (including C. euphemia)
Catocala nuptialis – married underwing
Catocala obscura – obscure underwing
Catocala ophelia
Catocala orba – Orba underwing
Catocala palaeogama – old wife underwing (sometimes in C. neogama)
Catocala parta – mother underwing
Catocala piatrix – penitent underwing
Catocala praeclara – praeclara underwing
Catocala pretiosa – precious underwing (formerly in C. crataegi)
Catocala pretiosa texarkana – Texarkana underwing
Catocala relicta – the relict, "white underwing"
Catocala residua – residua underwing
Catocala retecta – yellow-gray underwing
Catocala (retecta) luctuosa – yellow-fringed underwing
Catocala robinsoni – Robinson's underwing
Catocala sappho – Sappho underwing
Catocala semirelicta – semirelict underwing (including C. nevadensis, C. pura)
Catocala serena – serene underwing
Catocala similis – similar underwing
Catocala sordida – sordid underwing
Catocala subnata – youthful underwing
Catocala texanae – Texan underwing
Catocala ulalume – Ulalume underwing
Catocala ultronia – dark red underwing, ultronia underwing
Catocala umbrosa
Catocala unijuga – once-married underwing
Catocala verrilliana – Verrill's underwing
Catocala vidua – widow underwing
Catocala violenta
Catocala whitneyi – Whitney's underwing
Comparison of North American species
Other "underwing moths"
As noted in the introduction, some species besides the Catocala species are also commonly known as "underwings". Typically however, the name is used with a qualifier, such as a color term, in these cases. Non-Catocala "underwing moths" are typically owlet moths, namely:
Subfamily Catocalinae
Beautiful yellow underwing (Anarta myrtilli)
Brown underwing (Minucia lunaris)
Locust underwing (Euparthenos nubilis)
(European) white underwing (Catephia alchymista) – in North America, "white underwing" typically refers to Catocala relicta
Subfamily Amphipyrinae
Copper underwing (Amphipyra pyramidea)
Svensson's copper underwing (Amphipyra berbera)
Subfamily Erebinae
False underwing moth (Allotria elonympha)
Subfamily Hadeninae
Black underwing (Mormo maura)
Blossom underwing (Orthosia miniosa)
Broad-bordered white underwing (Hadula melanopa)
Guernsey underwing (Polyphaenis sericata)
Lunar underwing (Omphaloscelis lunosa)
Small dark yellow underwing (Coranarta cordigera)
Small yellow underwing (Panemeria tenebrata)
Straw underwing (Thalpophila matura)
Subfamily Noctuinae
Pearly underwing (Peridroma saucia)
Yellow underwings proper, some 15 species in the genus Noctua
However, the "orange underwings" are two species of genus Archiearis of the geometer moth family (Geometridae):
Orange underwing (Archiearis parthenias)
Light orange underwing (Archiearis notha)
Footnotes
References
Fauna Europaea (FE) (2011): Catocala. Version 2.4, January 27, 2011. Retrieved March 29, 2012.
Nelson, John M. & Loy, Peter W. (1983): The Underwing Moths (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) of Oklahoma. Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science 63: 60–67. PDF fulltext
Pitkin, Brian & Jenkins, Paul (2004a): Butterflies and Moths of the World, Generic Names and their Type-species – Blepharonia Hübner 1823. Version of November 5, 2004. Retrieved March 29, 2012.
Pitkin, Brian & Jenkins, Paul (2004b): Butterflies and Moths of the World, Generic Names and their Type-species – Catocala. Version of November 5, 2004. Retrieved March 29, 2012.
Stevens, Martin (2005): The role of eyespots as anti-predator mechanisms, principally demonstrated in the Lepidoptera. Biological Reviews 80(4): 573–588. PDF fultlext
Woodhouse, S. C. (1910): English-Greek Dictionary – A Vocabulary of the Attic Language. George Routledge & Sons Ltd., Broadway House, Ludgate Hill, E.C. Searchable JPEG fulltext
Further reading
Ishizuka, K. (2002). "Notes on Catocala columbina Leech, 1900 (Lepidoptela, Noctuidae), with description of new taxa". Gekkan-Mushi. (379): 12–13.
Ishizuka, K. (2007). "A new species of Catocala Schrank, 1802 from Western China (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae)". Gekkan-Mushi. (439): 22–24.
Müller, Gunter; Kravchenko, Vasiliy; Witt, Thomas; Junnila, Amy; Mooser, J.; Saldaitis, Aidas; Reshöft, K.; Ivinskis, Povilas; Zahiri, Reza & Speidel, Wolfgang (2008). "New underwing taxa of the section of Catocala lesbia Christoph, 1887 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)". Acta Zoologica Lituanica. 18 (1): 30–49.
Kravchenko, V. D., Speidel, W., et al. (2008). "A new species of Catocala from Israel (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)". Acta Zoologica Lituanica. 18 (2): 127–129.
Leech, J. J. (1900). Transactions of the Entomological Society of London. 1900: 511–663.
Lewandowski, S. & Tober, K. (2008). "Catocala olgaorlovae duschara subspec. nov. aus Jordanien (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)". Atalanta. 39 (1-4): 377–378.
Saldaitis, A. & Ivinskis, P. (2008). "Catocala florianii, a new species (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) from China". Acta Zoologica Lituanica. 18 (2): 124–126.
Saldaitis, A. & Pekarsky, O. & Borth, R. (2014). "A new subspecies of Catocala pudica Moore, 1879 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae (sensu lato): Erebinae) from Mongolia". Esperiana. 19: 255–262.
Sinyaev, V., Saldaitis, A. & Ivinskis, P. (2007). Acta Zoologica Lituanica. 17 (4): 272–275.
Speidel, W., Ivinskis, P. & Saldaitis, A. (2008). "A new Catocala species (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) from China". Acta Zoologica Lituanica. 18 (2): 122–123.
Weisert, F. (1998). Zeitschrift der Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Österreichischen Entomologen. 50: 125–126.
External links
Oehlke, Bill (January 1, 2013). "Catocala: Classification and Common Names". Catocala. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
Noctuoidea genera
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyler%20Perry%27s%20House%20of%20Payne
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Tyler Perry's House of Payne
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Tyler Perry's House of Payne, also known as simply House of Payne, is an American sitcom television series created and produced by Tyler Perry that premiered in syndication on June 21, 2006.
The series revolves around a multi-generational family living under one roof in Atlanta led by patriarch Curtis Payne and his wife Ella. While primarily a comedy, with elements of slapstick, House of Payne was known for featuring dark themes and subject matter, such as substance abuse and addiction. The show is also heavily serialized, with many references to past episodes, creating a continuing story arc.
Reaching 254 episodes upon the conclusion of its sixth season, House of Payne has aired more episodes than any other television series with a predominantly African American cast, surpassing The Jeffersons with 253 episodes, Family Matters with 215 episodes, and The Cosby Show with 202 episodes. The show currently has over 300 episodes.
Production history
The sitcom ran in first-run syndication for 10 episodes during mid-2006 on the Atlanta-area broadcast of WPCH-TV, along with nine other broadcast outlets across the country, as a limited run, with additional episodes to be available for national distribution on TBS in June 2007. An order of 100 episodes was later requested by TBS.
A cable record for sitcom airings was broken with 5.2 and 5.8 million for the two premiere episodes on TBS on June 6, 2007. However, the audience declined to 4.3 million as of the week ending September 30, 2007 and 2.260 and 2.099 as of May 19, 2010.
The principal cast remained the same (with the exception of Lance Gross being added), led by LaVan Davis. The original format of the series centred around C.J. (Allen Payne) and his family moving in with his Aunt Ella (Cassi Davis) and Uncle Curtis (LaVan Davis). Robinne Lee had a recurring guest stint in Season 1–2 as Malik and Jazmine's principal Nicole Jamieson, whom C.J. began dating. Rochelle Aytes originally portrayed Nicole Jamieson in the test pilot episodes as Malik's math teacher. In the test run, Ella and Curtis were originally C.J.'s parents and his name was Curtis Jr., but in its televised format, Calvin is their son and C.J. their nephew and his name was changed to Clarence. Despite his top billing, Allen Payne is not considered the main actor of the series, especially since his long absence in the fifth season. The show was recorded in front of a live studio audience but sometimes used a laugh track.
At the beginning of the fifth season, China Anne McClain (Jazmine) and Denise Burse (Claretha) were removed from the series. The characters were written out, with Jazmine going away to a school for gifted children in North Carolina and Claretha marrying a prince and moving away. In real life, McClain had gotten her own show on Disney Channel (A.N.T. Farm) and Burse left the series for undisclosed reasons. In the beginning of Season 6, both McClain and Burse returned (albeit in a recurring role). Some of the cast members of Tyler Perry's House of Payne were on The Mo'Nique Show in October 2009. Beginning with the seventh season, China Anne McClain appeared infrequently due to her work schedule for A.N.T. Farm. Denise Burse was no longer credited as a regular cast member; she appeared in a recurring role.
Larramie "Doc" Shaw, who portrayed Malik, appeared infrequently after the sixth season. This was due to Shaw's work schedules for The Suite Life on Deck and Pair of Kings. He remained a cast member throughout the series.
Tyler Perry directed every episode of the first 5 seasons. Throughout Season 6, each episode was directed by actress Kim Fields or her mother Chip Hurd. Tyler Perry directed some of the episodes in seasons 7 and 8 while other episodes were directed by Kim Fields, Chip Hurd, and producer Roger M. Bobb.
On September 28, 2011, TBS ordered 42 episodes. Season 8 began airing October 21, 2011, and concluded the series with a total of 254 episodes. The show aired its final two episodes on August 10, 2012.
On January 30, 2017, a spin-off follow-up series titled The Paynes was ordered by Oprah Winfrey Network. It follows Ella and Curtis Payne as they enjoy retirement in Florida only to get caught in a real-estate deal that turns their lives upside down. The series was greenlighted for 38 episodes and premiered on January 16, 2018.
After a possible revival was teased on Twitter, it was officially announced on February 4, 2020, that House of Payne would return with a ninth season to premiere on BET in the fall. The ninth season premiered on September 2, 2020.
On May 3, 2021, it was announced that the tenth season would premiere on May 25, 2021. On the same day, it was renewed for an eleventh season ahead of the tenth season premiere. The eleventh season premiered on March 23, 2022. The twelfth season premiered on March 22, 2023.
Episodes
Cast
House of Payne revolves around the Payne family who resides in the suburban Atlanta. It is noted that all main cast members are credited only for the episodes in which they appear.
Main
LaVan Davis as Curtis Payne, the show's main protagonist. He is often referred to as Uncle Curtis by his nephew C.J., his nephew's wife Janine, and their children, Malik and Jazmine. Curtis is known for his hackneyed jokes and overly-loud delivery. He is overweight and fainted once from a blocked artery, but he ignored the diet his wife Ella set for him and is unable to stay away from his usual fatty foods. A noticeable running gag is when he jokingly pushes Ella to the side with one arm when he wants to go by, she usually lands on the sofa. Despite such immaturity, his maturity and responsibility are apparent in his job as the chief of the local fire department. While he gives off the impression that he does not care for his family, deep down he truly does, and he works hard to protect them. In one episode, his middle name was revealed as Booker T. In the sixth season, Curtis was forced to retire which left him depressed and humiliated for a time; he eventually embraced it and his nephew C.J. took over his old job. LaVan Davis won an NAACP Image Awards in 2008 for Outstanding Actor In A Comedy Series for this role. In the first part of the series finale, "The Call Back", CJ asks Curtis to come out of retirement to oversee three stations that CJ runs. At first, Curtis refuses and yells at CJ saying how they already forced him into retirement, and that he wasn't going back, but at the end of the episode, after talking with Ella, he decided to return. In the revival, Curtis is retired again and decides to open his own barbeque business "Sauce Bosses". During Season 10, LaVan Davis appears infrequently for undisclosed reasons, but around that time, his character is expanding his business.
Cassi Davis as Ella Payne (née Williams), Curtis's wife who's a Christian. She is a stay-at-home mother and the voice of reason. Curtis has been known to take advantage of Ella's good nature—and to be punished for it. Ella is the family's religious voice and the glue that holds it together. A good cook, she had a restaurant service in one episode. She is quick to offer emotional and moral support to everyone in the family, such as when Janine returned home. In the fifth season, she briefly worked in retail, but throughout the series, she works at the local Help Center. In Season 6, she quits going back to school. Ella graduated from college and finally got her degree in Season 7. It is revealed that her middle name is Naomi. She tries to keep the family at peace the best she can, whether it's big or small. In the Season 8 episode "RIP: Rest in Payne", she keeps complete faith for her son Calvin when she hears that he got shot in C.J. and Janine's home. She loves her family and wants her husband to keep her safe and stand by her, which he does.
Allen Payne as Clarence James (C.J.) Payne, Jr., Curtis and Ella's nephew, the son of Curtis' late brother. He moved his wife and kids into Uncle Curtis and Aunt Ella's home when their own house burned down after his wife Janine accidentally started a fire under the influence of drugs. C.J. is the father of Malik, Jazmine, Jayden, and Hayden Payne; these last two are the twin son and daughter born to Janine and C.J. after they reconciled and remarried. In the fourth season, C.J. found out he was adopted. He works at the firehouse with Curtis. At the end of the fifth season, he, Janine, and the twins moved to Chicago, but they returned in the sixth season after he was offered Curtis' job, and the family moved in next to Curtis and Ella. Despite being angry with and hostile towards Janine upon her return, C.J. never stopped loving her. In the early seasons, C.J. often has difficulty enforcing discipline with his children, but it is apparent that he is slightly more strict and hot-headed, often jumping to the wrong conclusions. In the Season 6 episode "Who's Your Daddy Now?", C.J. finally met his real father who happened to be white, making C.J. biracial. In the seventh season, he was promoted to fire chief commissioner, and also became the boss of Janine and Roland in the public-relations department. C.J. was portrayed as Curtis and Ella's son in the series' original format, but his character was changed to being their nephew.
Lance Gross as Calvin Payne, Ella and Curtis's only son, created exclusively for the TBS/BET iteration of the series. At the start of the series, he was a college student who rarely attended class. It took him several years to finish and graduate. Calvin liked to think of himself as a player until he married Miranda. Like his cousin C.J., Calvin spends much time working with Curtis at the firehouse until he becomes a partner at the barbershop, and ultimately finds his calling working in the public relations department for the local fire department. He eventually finds out that he has a son, Calvin Jr., then started working in the public relations department with C.J., Janine, and Roland in Season 8. Calvin also learns Miranda is pregnant with his child, and their son Christian is born. Calvin later gets shot by a man named Travis, who he previously fought for hitting on his wife. He is found by Janine and taken to a hospital, where he survives. He has a slow recovery that strains his relationship. However, while in court, he confronts his shooter and states he forgives Travis, stating he realized what a waste it would be to stay angry. He leaves the court without being concerned how long Travis' sentence is. In the initial series finale, "All's Well", his wife, Miranda, demands a divorce. The last scene shows Calvin throwing a vase of flowers at the wall, and the series ends with the camera zoomed in on the broken glass and rose petals. In the revival season, it is revealed that he and Miranda have been going through the divorce process for several years.
Larramie "Doc" Shaw as Malik Payne, C.J. and Janine's college-aged son. He is a young adult whose interest in young women in his class is so extreme that he'll resort to desperate measures, such as trying out for the cheerleading squad, just to associate with them. Initially, he was often bullied in school as a result of his mother's drug problems. As a result, he is reluctant to welcome her back to the household. It is hinted that he is allergic to peanuts and knows how to cut hair. Beginning with the sixth season, Malik has appeared infrequently, due to Doc Shaw's work schedule, as he also starred on The Suite Life on Deck on Disney Channel and Pair of Kings on Disney XD. His absence is incorporated into the storyline, as he goes to the ROTC during Season 6 and off to college during Season 7. While in college, he dates a girl named Summer (Makeda Declet). Malik then marries Summer just so they can have sex. Summer then wants a divorce from Malik to transfer to a college in New England, but since Malik and Summer have only been married for a few weeks, they are qualified for an annulment and that's how their marriage ended. In the revival, Malik met a new girl named Lisa and immediately gets her pregnant and later welcomed a baby girl named Malisa. He struggles to maintain a balance between family and school life.
China Anne McClain as Jazmine Payne (seasons 1–4 & 6–9, 12), C.J. and Janine's daughter. She constantly feels invisible and acts out to get her father's attention while her mother is in rehab. At one point, Jazmine had a brief crush on Malik's friend Kevin. Despite her apparent innocence and youth, throughout the series, she was known to act cruel and mean toward Malik and Kevin and schemed to make them miserable. She is also known to have sarcastic comments and sly plans to get what she wants. For undisclosed reasons, China Anne McClain was written out of the series during the fifth season, which made her the only cast member to not appear in Season 5. She was re-introduced into the series when she returned in the sixth season. It is hinted that she has a fear of mimes that wear hats. On the premiere of the seventh season, she is 12 years old, and Janine lets her wear lip gloss, and she falls in with the wrong crowd. Jazmine has made infrequent appearances since the seventh season, due to China Anne McClain's work schedule, as she also starred in A.N.T. Farm on Disney Channel. China Anne McClain appeared in the season 9 revival season, but during season 10, she does not appear. In the revival season, it is revealed that Jazmine is now attending college and has a boyfriend named Caleb. She returns in season 12.
Demetria McKinney as Janine Payne (née Shelton), C.J.'s wife and the mother of Malik, Jazmine, Jayden, and Hayden Payne. A seemingly responsible adult and mother at the very beginning of the series, she is later revealed to be a drug addict and the one who burned down her and C.J.'s house. She and C.J. divorce after she leaves her family. Initially, she was only a recurring character and was rarely seen in the series except in episodes where she associates with Ella Payne, who helps her enter a rehab program and return to the family. Later in the series, she is often criticized by C.J., Curtis, and Malik for her irresponsible actions. She is apparently impregnated by her boyfriend until an episode reveals that he's sterile. Since C.J. is the only other person she has had intercourse with (in an earlier episode, where they were intimate while C.J. was drunk), she realizes that C.J. is the father of the coming child. C.J. and Janine remarry at Calvin and Miranda's wedding; almost immediately, her water breaks and she gives birth to twins Jayden and Hayden Payne. Janine's parents are Larry and Liz Shelton. She and C.J. now live in their own home with their four children. In seasons 6–7, her role in the series has grown more central as she focuses more on her career than her home life—and becomes the target of romantic interest from her boss Roland until C.J. gets promoted to the commissioner and becomes both Janine and Roland's boss and makes them keep their relationship professional. From that point on, C.J. and Janine both have the same job together and are able to focus on both their career and home life together. Due to McKinney's work schedule on three other television programs, Janine plays a reduced role in the BET revival seasons.
Keshia Knight Pulliam as Miranda Payne (née Lucas) (seasons 3–present; guest star season 1), Calvin's girlfriend-turned-wife. She was first introduced in Season 1 as a con artist who stole all of Calvin and Curtis' money for an art gallery. The character returned eventually, but what she did to Calvin and Curtis is only very briefly mentioned. She and Calvin married in the Season 4 conclusion. Miranda has a troubled, bratty nephew; when Calvin was supposed to be in charge of him, it was actually the boy who ordered Calvin around. Miranda and Calvin began to have problems in the fifth season. At the beginning of the sixth season, a pregnant Miranda disappears; a couple of episodes later, Miranda says there is no baby, making Calvin believe she had an abortion, but she didn't. She is actually thinking about giving the baby up for adoption. Then, while all three couples (C.J and Janine, Curtis and Ella, Calvin and Miranda) go to a marriage retreat, Miranda asks Calvin for a divorce. But when she and Calvin go to a divorce mediator and get stuck in an elevator, they resolve their marriage problems with help from an "elevator lady" Edi who turns out to be Dr. Marcos, the marriage-retreat counselor. Calvin and Miranda had their baby in Season 7. In the initial series finale, "All's Well", Miranda demands a divorce after realizing they have become incompatible. The last scene shows Calvin throwing a vase of flowers at the wall, and the series ends with the camera zoomed in on the broken glass and rose petals. In the revival season, it is revealed that Miranda and Calvin have been going through the divorce process for several years. It is also shown she has come to regret her choice and tries to reconcile but is rebuffed.
Denise Burse as Claretha Jenkins (seasons 1–6; recurring seasons 7 & 8), Ella's friend and the Paynes' former next-door neighbor. Curtis constantly jokes about her annoyance at his presence. Claretha has a big mouth; she even rats out the family business to the media in a crime misconception. She is known for having a collection of wigs. She left at the beginning of Season 5 after marrying a "prince". In Season 6, she suddenly leaves the prince and now goes out with Floyd. She has an exceedingly obese daughter named Huretha and was furious and disgusted when she went out with C.J. In the early seasons after Janine left, although Huretha was never seen on the show. In the Season 7 episode "Payneful Visit", it is revealed that she has leukemia.
Palmer Williams Jr. as Floyd Jackson (main seasons 8 & 10–present; recurring seasons 3–7 & 9), Curtis' friend and the self-absorbed, proud owner of the Barber Shop. He shows little affection towards individual people, but in times of great need will come out and show affection. His first wife disappeared on him, but after he remarried, the first wife returned looking for a divorce. When he did sign the divorce papers, it turned out she'd written a book, and since he's divorced from her he gets nothing. He has a daughter named Olivia who was dating Zack, one of his barbers. In season 6, Floyd's second wife kicks him out so he moves into Curtis and Ella's back yard and started dating Claretha, until his second wife returned, having lost fifty pounds because she was depressed that they were splitting up. While Floyd had been hoping to string both along without either finding out about the other until they bumped into each other in the Payne house and both subsequently broke up with him and Claretha kicked him out. Floyd's middle name is revealed to be Stanley. He is the longest-running recurring character on House of Payne. In mid-Season 8, he joined the main cast. In the season 10 revival, Floyd becomes a stand-in for Curtis and becomes a surgotte father to the Payne family while Curtis is away expanding his barbeque business.
Ahmarie Holmes as Lisa (season 9–present), Malik's new girlfriend & fiancée and mother to their daughter Malisa.
Quin Walters as Laura (season 9–present), Calvin's new love interest, fiancée & wife.
Terayle Hill as Kaleb (season 9–present), Jazmine's new love interest.
Jackée Harry as JoAnn Payne (season 12), Curtis’s cousin
Others
Keke Palmer as Nikki Grady-Simmons (Season 1)
Eva Marcille as Tracie Evans (Seasons 1–2, 5–7, 10)
Bart Hansard as Bart Holmes (Seasons 1–4, 6, 10)
Cedric Pendleton as Keenan Jared (Seasons 1–4, 6, 8, 10)
Joyce Giraud as Angel (Seasons 1–4, 10)
Dorian Harewood as Larry Shelton (Seasons 1, 3, 5)
Anne-Marie Johnson as Liz Shelton (Seasons 1, 3, 5–6)
Robinne Lee as Nicole Jamieson (Seasons 1–2)
Rochelle Aytes as Nicole Jamieson (2006 syndicated pilot episodes and season 10)
Sierra Aylina McClain as Jasmine (Season 1)
Katie Rowlett as Beverly (Season 1)
Arvell Poe as Fishbone (Season 1)
Quincy Bonds as Pookie (Seasons 1–6, 10)
Clayton English as Peanut (Seasons 1–6, 10)
Kyre Batiste-Loftin as Kevin (Seasons 1–6)
Jamie Moore as Walter (Season 1)
Dale Neal as Kyle (Seasons 1–2)
Wilbur Fitzgerald as Bill (Season 1)
Robin Givens as Tanya (Seasons 2–4)- 10
Michael Jai White as Bryan (2006 syndicated pilot episodes and Seasons 3, 10)
Femi Emiola as Sheila (Season 3)
Jason Dirden as Delante (Seasons 3–4)
Denyce Lawton as Dana Carter (Seasons 3–5, 10)
Bobbi Baker as KiKi (Seasons 3–6)
Kim Coles as Bernice (Season 3)
Dorien Wilson as Andrew (Season 4)
Wendell Pierce as Jeffrey Lucas (Seasons 4–5)
Valarie Pettiford as Sandra Lucas (Seasons 4–7)
Marvin Winans as Pastor Richards (Seasons 4–5, and 8)
Demille Cole-Heard as Calvin Jr. (Seasons 5–8)
Marlene Forte as Rosalita Hernandez (Season 5)
Mel Rodriguez as Carlos Hernandez (Season 5)
Renée Victor as Consuela Hernandez (Season 5)
Susie Castillo as Mercedes Hernandez (Season 5)
J.R. Ramirez as Diego Hernandez (Seasons 5–6)
Veronica Sixtos as Alexandra Hernandez (Season 5)
Gary Owen as Zack (Season 5)
Roberto Roman as Andy Rodriguez (Season 5)
Boris Kodjoe as David (Season 5)
Aloma Wright as Eunice (Seasons 5 and 8)
Gladys Knight as Herself (Season 5)
Kinnik Sky as Nurse Jones (Season 5)
Ben Vereen as Clarence (Season 6)
Penny Johnson Jerald as Maxine Bannet (Season 6)
Essence Atkins as Monica (Season 6)
Rick Fox as Roland (Seasons 6–8)
Heavy D as P-Rock (Season 7)
Janet Hubert-Whitten as Evie (Evelyn) (Season 8)
Corey Holcomb as Damon (Season 8)
Sherman Hemsley as George Jefferson (Season 8)
Marla Gibbs as Florence Johnston (Season 8)
Sheryl Lee Ralph as Felicia Starr (Season 8)
Shaun T. as Mo Pex (Season 8)
Troy Winbush as Travis Harris (Season 8)
Makeda Declet as Summer (Season 8)
Special appearances
Tyler Perry as Madea (Seasons 1–3)
Keke Palmer as Nikki Grady-Simmons (Season 1)
Tamela Mann as Cora Simmons (Seasons 1 and 6)
David Mann as Mr. Leroy Brown (Seasons 1 and 6)
Lamman Rucker as Will Brown (Season 1)
Marvin Winans as Pastor Richards (Seasons 4–5, and 8)
Dorien Wilson as Andrew (Season 4)
Gladys Knight as Herself (Season 5)
Boris Kodjoe as David (Season 5)
Ben Vereen as Clarence (Season 6)
Rick Fox as Roland (Seasons 6–7)
Jacob Latimore as Dante (Season 7)
Shameik Moore as Andre (Season 7)
Heavy D as P-Rock (Season 7)
Sherman Hemsley as George Jefferson (Season 8)
Marla Gibbs as Florence Johnston (Season 8)
Sheryl Lee Ralph as Felicia Starr (Season 8)
Shaun T as Mo Pex (Season 8)
Cheryl Pepsii Riley as Gloria (Season 11)
Setting
Locations in Atlanta, Georgia, include the Payne's home, a firehouse located across the street from the Paynes' house, a barbershop, the help center, and the schools Malik and Jazmine attend. The Payne home is a one-story building, and 5 rooms are featured throughout the series: Curtis and Ella's bedroom, Malik and Jazmine's shared bedroom, the spare bedroom (which was Calvin's until he moved out), the kitchen, and the living room, and the outside patio. Calvin, C.J. and Janine's rooms were never seen. The only part of the firehouse seen on camera was its day room. The firehouse and its characters were phased out around Seasons 3 and 4. The barbershop is a setting often used from Seasons 2–5, and it is similar to that of Ice Cube's Barbershop movies. Miranda and Calvin's condo was added. The living room was the only room that was shown. C.J. and Janine's house is another setting added on to the series. The kitchen and the living were always seen on camera. None of the bedrooms were ever shown. The university Malik attended was a more recent setting and various areas were shown. And C.J.'s office where he and Janine work was another setting that was added to the series. Also, the Help Center where Ella works was shown in various forms.
Syndicated reruns
The CW began airing reruns of Tyler Perry's House of Payne on its CW Plus stations on September 22, 2008.
This series reran in broadcast syndication on the Fox, My Network TV, and The CW affiliations.
Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation, began airing reruns of Tyler Perry's House of Payne on CBC TV-8, Barbados in 2012.
House of Payne was the only situation comedy to be sold into broadcast syndication for the 2008–2009 television season.
BET began airing reruns in November 2015.
TBS's former station WPCH-TV also aired reruns of Tyler Perry's House of Payne.
Madea connections
Tyler Perry's claim to fame is with the popularity of character Madea, who has appeared in numerous Tyler Perry plays and their film adaptations. When the series debuted on TBS in June 2007, Perry made a guest appearance as Madea. Actor David Mann reprised his Mr. Brown role, and Keke Palmer returned as Nikki, a bully who stole $20 worth of Malik's lunch money over a period of time, money which Madea, Nikki's foster mother, used at a casino. Perry returned as Madea for a Christmas episode of the show on December 5, 2007. Perry again returned as Madea to act as Curtis's wife on March 5, 2008. She has appeared in one episode every season, save seasons 4 and 5. She is one of Curtis' arch-enemies.
In the series, Janine's drug problem and going to rehab are possible references to Diary of a Mad Black Woman. The events of the episodes "Sad, Sad, Leroy Brown" parts 1 and 2 came directly before the movie Meet the Browns, when Brown learns his father has died. The events of the episode "Weeping May Endure for a Night" happened somewhere in the middle, directly after the funeral and the reading of the will, where Brown found out that his father left him a broken-down house which Brown turned into a retirement home. Even though in the episode "Weeping May Endure for a Night", the Paynes claim to have attended the funeral of Brown's father, in Meet the Browns, they are nowhere to be seen. This may be because Lance Gross, who plays Calvin Payne in the series, plays a character named Michael in the film and LaVan Davis, who plays Curtis Payne, plays a bus driver. Curtis claimed Brown made them wait in the cemetery for two hours while he gave his father a tour of Atlanta (his last request), but in the movie, Brown stayed the entire time. The episodes serve as a backdoor pilot to Tyler Perry's Meet the Browns, a spin-off of the film and play as well as House of Payne.
Meet the Browns crossovers
There have been crossovers on House of Payne from Meet the Browns:
In the episode "I Can Cry If I Want To", Brown attended Curtis's 50th birthday party and stresses the Paynes out while he is there.
In the episode "Sad, Sad, Leroy Brown (Part 1)", when Brown's house burnt down and he gets kicked out of Cora's best friend's house. He stays at the Paynes' residence, much to Curtis's dismay, and soon becomes a pestering houseguest.
In the episode "Sad, Sad, Leroy Brown (Part 2)", when the Paynes tries to kick Brown out of the house, Brown claimed that Curtis broke his back, but Curtis knows the truth that Brown's back was not in pain, and he only faked it to get the Paynes to let him stay with them. However, Ella believes Brown and insisted on him staying with them until his back gets better.
In the episode "Weeping May Endure for a Night", Brown, Cora, and Will come by the Paynes' residence after Pop Brown's funeral. Brown is upset because Pop Brown left him a run-down house which makes Brown think his daddy hates him until he realizes that Pop Brown wanted him to open up a retirement home.
In the episode "Meet the Christmas Spirit" (Meet the Browns), Curtis and Ella Payne drop in for a visit at the hospital to put on a play for the children.
In the episode "Oh Christmas Payne", Brown and Cora drop in for a visit.
In the episodes "What You Know About Me" and "Payneful Divorce", Cora's former high school student, Milo Jackson, attended the same college as Malik.
Releases
Lionsgate Home Entertainment has released the first 10 volumes on DVD in Region 1. It is unknown about the release of the two remaining volumes. According to listings of the previous volumes through Amazon.com, the series DVD releases has been put out of print.
References
External links
Tyler Perry's House of Payne on Perry's website
Tyler Perry's "House of Payne" on TBS
2006 American television series debuts
2012 American television series endings
2000s American comedy-drama television series
2010s American comedy-drama television series
2020s American comedy-drama television series
2000s American black sitcoms
2010s American black sitcoms
2020s American black sitcoms
American television series revived after cancellation
BET original programming
English-language television shows
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
TBS (American TV channel) original programming
Television series by Lionsgate Television
Television series by 20th Century Fox Television
Television shows set in Atlanta
House Of Payne
Television series by CBS Studios
Television series about families
House of Payne
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Chalke
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Steve Chalke
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Stephen John Chalke (born 17 November 1955) is a British Baptist minister, the founder of the Oasis Charitable Trust, a former United Nations' Special Adviser on Human Trafficking and a social activist.
Chalke is the author of a large number of books and articles as well as a former presenter and now regular contributor and commentator on television, radio and other media.
Early life and career
Chalke was born in Croydon, South London, in 1955. As a teenager he became a Christian and decided to dedicate his life working to end poverty. He graduated from Spurgeon's College, was ordained a Baptist minister in 1981, and served as a local minister for four years. In 1985 he founded the Oasis Trust to set up housing, healthcare and educational projects.
Oasis has since developed into a group of charities working in 11 countries over four continents (Europe, Asia, Africa and North America) to deliver housing, training, youthwork, healthcare, family support and primary, secondary and higher education. It has grown into a significant voluntary sector provider, delivering services for local authorities and national governments as well as self-funded initiatives. In the UK, Oasis' family of charities now includes Oasis Community Learning, Oasis Community Housing, Oasis Community Partnerships, the Oasis Foundation and Stop the Traffik as well as a growing network of Oasis churches. In the UK alone Oasis now employs over 5,000 staff as well as working with thousands more volunteers.
Church leader
Chalke was ordained as a Baptist minister in 1981, after studying at Spurgeon's College in London. He was minister of Tonbridge Baptist Church in Kent for four years before setting up the Oasis Trust. He later formed a developing network of community churches around the UK which began with the foundation of Oasis Church Waterloo, London SE1, in 2003 and now includes churches in Salford, Enfield, Southampton, Croydon and Bristol as well as a growing number of other locations. Chalke remains senior minister of Oasis Church Waterloo, in the London Borough of Lambeth where Oasis currently also serves its local community through the delivery of a children's centre, a primary school, a secondary school, various adult education opportunities, a foodbank, a debt advice centre, a community farm, a coffee house, the local public library, a range of youth work schemes and a breadth of other community building programmes including football teams, choirs, yoga classes and circuit training, reading groups and language courses and more.
Housing
In the late 1980s Chalke set up Oasis' first housing project, developed to accommodate homeless young people living in South London and to support them on their journey to independent housing. In the late 1990s Chalke began working with a group of churches in his home town of Croydon, as well as in partnership with Croydon Council to establish what is now known as the Croydon Foyer. The foyer, which opened in 2000, and is accredited through the Foyer Federation, provides housing and training for homeless people aged 18 to 25.
The provision of housing for vulnerable people has continued to be a priority for Chalke and Oasis. As a result, in April 2014 Oasis Housing formally merged with another homelessness charity known as Aquila Way to become what is now known as Oasis Community Housing, one of the Oasis UK subsidiary charities. It now helps around 1,200 vulnerable young people into housing each year.
Educator
From its early days Oasis has been involved in the provision of education not only in the UK but also in Asia and Africa.
In the UK early in the 1990s, Oasis began to develop professional training for youth workers. By 2009, this had grown into a range of academically and professionally validated short courses, undergraduate and postgraduate programmes of study in children's work, youth work and family practice and the Oasis College for Higher Education was established in central London.
In 2004 Chalke set up Oasis Community Learning as part of the Oasis Group of charities in order to deliver secondary education through the UK Government's Academies programme. The first three Oasis academies, at Enfield Lock, Grimsby and Immingham, opened in September 2007. Oasis’ involvement with secondary education has since grown and, from 2009, it also began to develop a focus on primary education. Today Oasis is responsible for 52 primary, secondary or all-through academies across England.
Oasis Community Learning aims to serve its academy students as well as to provide a centre of lifelong learning for the entire community, including; adult learning courses, community workers, healthy living programmes, sports courts and out-of-hours children's, youth and adult activities.
Health care
In September 1993, an earthquake devastated the Latur district in Maharashtra, India. Chalke, who was working as a presenter for GMTV (Good Morning Television), suggested to Peter McHugh, the Director of Programmes, that the station should run an appeal to build a hospital as a response to the crisis.
McHugh agreed, and commissioned Chalke to travel to India to make a series of inserts to be played into a week's special programming to raise the funds to build the hospital. Over £1m was donated: in 1996, the GM Priya Hospital, built by Oasis, opened in Dapegaon, one of the villages affected by the earthquake. It was named after the TV station and a young girl, Priya, who survived the earthquake. Priya had been buried for five days underneath rubble but was protected by her iron cot.
Chalke, who was only just beginning the work of Oasis in India, suggested that the completed hospital be given to the Emmanuel Hospital Association. The Association was already running a series of hospitals in the north of the country and Chalke believed it had the capacity and infrastructure to sustain the work that Oasis and GMTV had begun. The GM Priya hospital has subsequently grown and now specialises in AIDS and Cancer Care as well as neurological diseases and chronic illnesses.
Although Oasis has not built another hospital, it is now engaged in a variety of health care initiatives both in the UK and beyond.
In 2010 Oasis Youth Support, a youth violence intervention service, embedded into St Thomas’ Emergency Department, was set up under Chalke's leadership in partnership with senior hospital staff. OYS addresses the underlying issues surrounding the presentation of young people at the ED with violence-related injuries. It is designed to address psychosocial and environmental factors associated with the young people's attendance due to violence. The service provides a unique opportunity to engage vulnerable young people at a critical moment for change, often those who would not otherwise come to the attention of statutory services. It serves two London boroughs – Lambeth and Southwark – which have high levels of deprivation. It aims to reduce the number of young people returning to the Emergency Department as a result of violence, and to increase the ED's contribution towards a public health approach to violence in these areas.
In recent years Chalke's involvement in grassroots healthcare has naturally grown out of the wider work of community development Oasis is now doing in local communities around the UK and beyond. Following the 70th anniversary of the NHS in July 2018 he was asked to deliver a speech to senior NHS staff on the way forward in the development of community health and wellbeing, where he stated his view that, "Our problem is that we have medicalised health care, focusing our thinking, energy and funding too narrowly. What we call the National Health Service would be better labelled a National Sickness Service. It’s time to think differently and invest in the other pillars on which real health and wellbeing are built. Health is 3D – it is about body, mind and spirit. The NHS cannot solve the health problems of the UK alone. It is time to think more radically." Oasis has subsequently launched Oasis Community Heath as a new element of its work in partnership with Guy's and St.Thomas’ Charitable Trust and Frimley Park NHS Trust.
Community organiser
Through the various aspects of his work Chalke has pioneered what he refers to as the "Oasis Hub" model of community development. Oasis has now created hubs in 62 local neighbourhoods around the world, 36 of them in the UK. In its hubs - hyper-local neighbourhoods - Oasis works to bring together and integrate the resources, expertise and infrastructure of the different charities Chalke originally founded, whilst seeking through local partnerships to respond to the specific assets and needs of its local setting and creating local ownership.
Broadcaster
Chalke has been a regular broadcaster for over 30 years. He hosted various shows for ITV during the 1990s as well as being part of their GMTV morning breakfast show team from 1993 to 1999. He also presented BBC1's Songs of Praise during that period, as well as hosting a regular show on BBC Radio 4 about community development, Changing Places. He currently contributes across the media as a social, religious and political commentator as well as being a regular presenter of Pause for Thought on BBC Radio 2 and 'Prayer For The Day' on BBC Radio 4.
Guinness World Record holder
In 2005 Chalke became the holder of the Guinness World Record for the largest amount of sponsorship money ever raised by an individual through a single event. He broke this record by raising £1.25 million for Oasis' work with schools in disadvantaged communities, through running the London Marathon. His record was beaten at the following year's marathon by Sir Steve Redgrave who raised over £1.785 million. In April 2007 Chalke recaptured the title as well as becoming the fastest money-generating sports person in history, by raising over £1.855 million in 3 hours 58 minutes 40 seconds. When he crossed the finishing line at the 2011 London Marathon, after 4 hours 31 minutes, Chalke broke this record for a third time by raising £2.32 million.
Views and activism
Chalke has taken on many causes in his career, from working with vulnerable children on the African continent, to community learning through his Oasis Academies, to championing LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender) and BAME (black, Asian and minority ethnic) rights to helping churches to realize their potential for helping people in their communities with such issues as poverty and homelessness, to stopping human trafficking, and a myriad of other things.
Faithworks
In 2001 Chalke founded The Faithworks Movement, along with a companion magazine, to raise awareness of the role the Church can play within local communities. Faithworks's resources support churches of all denominations across the UK. Chalke has become a spokesman for the church in the national debate about the provision of public services by faith-based groups. Over 20,000 members—including individuals, churches and other not-for-profit organizations—count themselves as part of the Faithworks movement.
Stop the Traffik
In 2005 Chalke founded Stop the Traffik, a global coalition which works to raise awareness of human trafficking in all countries and communities and to stop the buying and selling of people.
In 2008 he was appointed Special Advisor on Community Action to the United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UN.GIFT), following the coalition's delivery of 1.5 million signatures in support of a global declaration against human trafficking at a UN conference in Vienna in February of that year. He held this position until 2015.
Initially STOP THE TRAFFIK was set up as a two-year campaign to coincide with the bicentenary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act 1807. The campaign intended to:
Educate: create awareness and understanding of people trafficking.
Advocate: engage with those who have the power to minimise the trafficking of people.
Fundraise: Financing anti-trafficking work around the world working with those vulnerable to and those who have been trafficked.
March 2009 saw the publication of Stop The Traffick: People should not be Bought and Sold, co-authored by Chalke and Cherie Blair, which looks worldwide at the issue and responses to it.
More recently Stop the Traffik has developed a series of close partnerships with technology leaders and intelligence specialists. Its Centre for Intelligence-Led Prevention collects and analyses data on human trafficking patterns from across the globe. Global campaigns informed by local partnerships feed this intelligence directly into vulnerable communities, enabling resilience building and community transformation. This builds systemic disruption of human trafficking networks. This intelligence informs business and consumer communities about how and where modern slavery is present in global supply chains. This is used to empower consumer communities to change their buying habits and equipping business communities to identify and prevent vulnerability to human trafficking.
Across the UK, Stop the Traffik has also built Modern Slavery hubs through the work of dedicated volunteers. These hubs empower communities of law enforcement, government agencies, local authorities and NGOs to build resilience through coordination at a strategic and tactical level. Embedded Modern Slavery Coordinators enable resilience building by developing bridges between the hubs and vulnerable local communities. It aims to empower front line professional communities to inform this resilience through commissioned education and awareness raising sessions.
The meaning of the cross
In 2003 Chalke co-authored The Lost Message of Jesus with Alan Mann (Zondervan). This book provoked considerable controversy in evangelical Christian circles. The debate arose mostly because of Chalke's rejection of a theological understanding of the atonement known as penal substitution. Chalke's views drew much criticism as well as support, with numerous articles, blogs and books being written on both sides of the debate.
The continuing controversy led to the Evangelical Alliance organising a symposium in July 2005 to discuss the issue. A record of this symposium includes a chapter by Chalke, and his views are also contained in "the atonement debate". A group of three conservative evangelical theologians responded to Chalke with their book, Pierced for Our Transgressions (Crossway Publishing, 2007), which strongly criticised Chalke's position as inconsistent with some evangelical confessions of faith. However, the prominent Anglican Open Evangelical theologian and former Bishop of Durham, Tom Wright, endorsed Chalke as a leading evangelical and spoke out against the latter book, commenting, for instance, that 'despite the ringing endorsements of famous men, it [Pierced For Our Transgressions] is deeply, profoundly, and disturbingly sub-biblical'.
Support for social activism
Chalke is a prominent social activist and leading advocate of the role of Christian faith in public life and the delivery of public services including education, health care, youth services, etc. He has drawn strong criticism from leading atheists and secularists such as Polly Toynbee and Keith Porteous Wood, with whom he has publicly debated, as well as Terry Sanderson and others for his stance. "Most dangerous are the Christian global corporations such as Oasis headed up by Steve Chalke who have snatched growing numbers of academy contracts, also have ambitions to run hospitals too."
However, Chalke maintains that though Christian faith is personal, it is never private, and has written extensively about public theology (see Intelligent Church).
"There is a widespread, popular myth that unless faith is restricted to the private sphere, it will inevitably lead to intolerance and . But the reality could not be more different. Beneath the headlines of religious fanaticism and intolerance are the untold stories of countless individuals who, motivated by their personal faith, choose to work for the betterment of our society. For them, faith may be personal, but it is never private. Like the thousands of churches and other faith groups up and down the country that commit to improving the lives of society's most vulnerable – running homeless hostels, alcohol recovery programmes and youth mentoring schemes in response to the needs they see around them."
Chalke claims that; "Intolerance and are more to do with fundamentalism, than faith. Indeed, the memory of the 20th century is forever scarred by the fundamentalism and intolerance of communism, whose regimes not only left millions dead, but impoverished and excluded many more." He maintains that, "Without public faith, there would not have been a civil rights movement in the US or a Jubilee debt cancellation in the UK. Both these movements were inspired and led by people of faith who decided that what they believed about God and humanity should impact on the world around them."
Chalke contends that there are two elements to healthy democracy; representative and participatory. He has suggested: "Democracy used to be focused around participation as much as representation, two ideas which together created a balance." Whilst Chalke believes that the hallmark of any healthy democracy is that it gives expression to these two types of democracy, he suggests that, "In our modern society, the democratic process has become far more passive and is now dominated by the idea of representation, where elected representatives (eg MP's) are held responsible for delivering the needs of those who voted, or who did not vote, for them. Westminster is the seat of representative democracy. Our society needs to invent new forms and practices that combine representative with participative democracy. The two can and indeed must meet. And the crucial point regarding the relationship between the two – between representative and participative democracy – is that the activity of the second the quality of the first. Representative democracy needs to be held accountable by participative democracy. /about-us]."
Chalke developed the Charities Parliament, now known as the People's Parliament, in order to establish a stronger voice for third-sector organisations in public life. It is intended to enable debate and dialogue between churches, charities, faith groups and government and aims to increase participation by these groups in public life.
The People's Parliament has received support from many parliamentarians and church leaders, including the now former Bishop of Liverpool, the Right Revd James Jones, who endorsed it, saying: "This new initiative is based on the well established principles of Christ-centred vision, rigorous thinking, a depth of community engagement and a clear articulation of a biblical worldview, which are the foundations on which Oasis' work has been built."
Support for monogamous same-sex relationships
In early 2013, Chalke sent what The Independent said would be "shockwaves through Britain’s evangelical community", of which he is a leader, by stating, both on the Oasis Trust website and in an article in Christianity magazine, that he supports monogamous same-sex relationships and marriage.
Chalke had been reflecting on the matter for a long time and his January 2013 declaration represented what some regarded as a completely opposite position to the one he had earlier expressed when, in 2001, he wrote an article for Christianity (then known as Christianity and Renewal) entitled "What might Jesus say to Roy Clements about the Church and the Homosexual debate?" Clements had been a leader among Britain's evangelicals for many years when he suddenly revealed that he was gay, left his wife and began a relationship with a man.
After performing his first same-sex couple blessing ceremony in his church in September 2012, and now offering both a same-sex couple blessing liturgy as well as an order of service and vows for a same-sex marriage service on the Oasis website, Chalke explained that he was torn about the January 2013 declaration, writing that he was "[c]ompelled because, in my understanding, the principles of justice, reconciliation and inclusion sit at the heart of Jesus’s message. Afraid because I recognise the Bible is understood by many to teach that the practice of homosexuality, in any circumstance, is a sin or ‘less than God’s best’."
Because evangelical communities tend to place enormous importance on Biblical literalism, inerrancy and infallibility, the approximately 5,000-word extended version of Chalke's declaration provided theological and scriptural justifications for his new acceptance of committed homosexual relationships. Acknowledging that many of his fellow evangelicals would be upset by it, Chalke wrote that some would think that he strayed from scripture and was no longer an evangelical. "I have formed my view, however, not out of any disregard for the Bible's authority, but by way of grappling with it and, through prayerful reflection, seeking to take it seriously." Chalke insisted that it is only by scriptural misinterpretation that those who claim the Bible condemns all forms of homosexuality have arrived at such a position; and that this position will eventually become the minority view in the same way that those who cited Biblical justifications for slavery and a secondary role for women have also become minority views.
Chalke criticised traditional Christianity's rejection of "faithful gay relationships", saying that it has left far too many people feeling "vulnerable and isolated". He also wrote that it has done physical harm. "People’s lives are at stake", he wrote. "Numerous studies show that suicide rates among gay people, especially young people, are comparatively high. Church leaders sometimes use this data to argue that homosexuality is unhealthy when tragically it's anti-gay stigma, propped up by Church attitudes, which, all too often, drives these statistics."
"When we refuse to make room for gay people to live in loving, stable relationships", he wrote, "we consign them to lives of loneness, secrecy and fear. It's one thing to be critical of a promiscuous lifestyle, but shouldn't the Church consider nurturing positive models for permanent and monogamous homosexual relationships?"
Chalke is a member of Accepting Evangelicals which describes itself as an "open network of Evangelical Christians who believe the time has come to move towards the acceptance of faithful, loving same-sex partnerships at every level of church life, and the development of a positive Christian ethic for gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people."
In a 2017 interview with HuffPost Chalke explained that he believes the writings of the Apostle Paul in the New Testament are warning the early Christian Church against engaging in human relationships that are based on exploitation, abuse, and corruption. On the other hand, he claims, the New Testament has nothing to say about genuine, compassionate love between people of the same gender, as it is understood in today's world.
"Every Christian believes God to be a God of love. It is no wonder that these abusive practices are condemned by inspired scripture. But it is a disingenuous misreading of the text to conclude that what Paul describes in Romans 1 can be used to prevent people forming loving, faithful, and nurturing relationships with people of the same-sex."
He continued; "Our poor understanding of the New Testament has brought misery, persecution, oppression and rejection to countless hundreds of thousands and millions of LGBT people. It’s time to apologize for the mistakes we’ve made and move on."
Support for transgender people
Chalke has officiated at a number of services celebrating and welcoming transgender people into Oasis Church Waterloo. He and others have developed a liturgy which affirms trans people.
In March 2018 Chalke published 'The Gender Agenda', a short study exploring the theology of gender identity, reassignment and confirmation.
Rejection of biblical inerrancy/infallibility
In February 2014 Chalke published a paper on the Oasis UK website entitled "Restoring Confidence in the Bible: Can we use the Bible as a reliable moral and spiritual guide in our twenty-first century globalised world?" in which he states his rejection of the evangelical teaching that the bible is inerrant or infallible.
In his paper Chalke argues, 'Throughout my life, the Bible has been a constant reference point and source of personal inspiration. Because of this, I feel deep sorrow that, on one hand, vast numbers of people around the world consider our sacred text to be, at best, confusing and, at worst, intolerant and violent. On the other, I am frustrated that our responses, as the Church, to their questions are so often ill thought through, poorly articulated and laden with in-house, inhospitable and inaccessible language...Developing a consistent and honest methodology for interpreting the Bible is a pivotal issue for the Church around the world. Only as we adopt an open, humble, discursive and transparent approach to this task will we be in a strong position to respond with integrity to the moral, social and political issues which face us as individuals, as local and national communities and as a global society as a whole.'
Personal life
Chalke enjoys going to the gym and running. He married Cornelia Reeves in 1980 and they have four adult children; Emily, Daniel, Abigail and Joshua and six young grandsons.
Honours
In the 2004 New Year Honours, Chalke was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) "for services to social exclusion through the charities Oasis Trust and Parentalk".
In 2005 he was made an honorary fellow of Sarum College, Salisbury.
In 2012 Chalke was chosen as one of the Olympic torchbearers for London 2012.
In 2015 he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Staffordshire University.
In 2017 Chalke was installed as an ecumenical canon of Southwark Cathedral.
In 2018 Chalke was given the 'Spirit of London' award by the London Marathon.
Writings
Chalke is the author of more than 40 books. He has also written monthly columns for Prima Baby on fatherhood and for Christianity magazine on church leadership. His writings include:
The Complete Youth Manual, Kingsway, 1987
Christmas Cracker, Kingsway, 1990,
Understanding Teenagers, Kingsway, 1991,
The Christian Youth Manual, Kingsway, 1992,
More Than Meets the Eye – A Plain Guide To Christianity, Hodder & Stoughton, 1995,
Christmas Unwrapped, Kingsway, 1995,
Making a Team Work, Kingsway, 1995,
The Truth About Suffering, Kingsway, 1996,
I Believe in Taking Action, Hodder & Stoughton, 1996,
Sex Matters, Hodder & Stoughton, 1996,
How to Succeed as a Parent Hodder & Stoughton, 1997,
How to Succeed as a Parent: 10 Survival Tips for Busy Mums and Dads, Hodder Headline Australia, 1997,
Managing Your Time, Kingsway, 1998,
(ed) Oh, God...120 Celebrities' Prayers, Lion Hudson, 1998,
Managing Your Team, Kingsway, 1998,
Get Up and Give: 101 Little Ways to Make a Big Difference, HarperCollins, 1998,
The Parentalk Guide to the Toddler Years, Hodder & Stoughton, 1999,
The Parentalk Guide to the Childhood Years, Hodder & Stoughton, 1999,
The Parentalk Guide to the Teenage Years, Hodder & Stoughton, 1999,
New Era, New Church? The New Millennium Challenge To The Churches, Marshall Pickering, 1999,
He Never Said... Discover the Real Message of Jesus, Hodder & Stoughton, 2000,
(ed) Parent Talk: 80 Celebrities Take a Sideways Glance at Parenting, Hodder & Stoughton, 2000,
The Parentalk Guide to Your Child and Sex, Hodder & Stoughton, 2000,
The Parentalk Guide to Great Days Out, Hodder & Stoughton, 2001,
Faithworks: Stories of Hope, Kingsway, 2001,
Faithworks Unpacked, Kingsway, 2002,
How to Succeed as a Working Parent, Hodder & Stoughton, 2003,
Connect! Your Place In A Globalised World, Authentic Lifestyle, 2003,
100 Proven Ways to Transform Your Community, Kingsway, 2003,
Faithworks: Intimacy and Involvement, Kingsway, 2003,
More Than Meets the Eye: A Fast-moving Look at Christianity, Hodder & Stoughton, 2003,
The Lost Message of Jesus, Zondervan, 2003,
Trust: A Radical Manifesto, Authentic Media, 2004,
Intelligent Church: A Journey Towards Christ-centred Community, Zondervan, 2006,
Change Agents: 25 Hard-Learned Lessons in the Art of Getting Things Done, Zondervan, 2007,
Stop The Traffick: People Shouldn't Be Bought & Sold, Lion 2009,
Apprentice: Walking the way of Christ, Zondervan 2009,
Apprentice: Walking the way of Christ – The Participant's Guide, Zondervan 2009,
Different Eyes: The Art of Living Beautifully, Zondervan 2010,
Being Human: How to Become the Person you were Meant to Be, Hodder & Stoughton, 2015,
Radical: Exploring the Rise of Extremism and the Pathway to Peace, Oasis, 2016,
The Lost Message of Paul:Has the Church Misunderstand the Apostle Paul?, SPCK 2019,
References
External links
The Law Gazette
Debrett's People of Today
Chalke's "The Bible and Homosexuality" on Christianity Today UK website
The Oasis Trust website's Inclusion Resource Center
Chalke's Oasis Church, Waterloo website
The Oasis Global website
The Stop the Traffik website
1955 births
Living people
20th-century English Baptist ministers
Baptist writers
English social justice activists
21st-century English Baptist ministers
Members of the Order of the British Empire
GMTV presenters and reporters
People from Croydon
Founders of charities
Alumni of Spurgeon's College
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20of%20York%20%28daughter%20of%20Edward%20IV%29
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Anne of York (daughter of Edward IV)
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Anne of York (2 November 1475 – 23 November 1511), was the fifth daughter of King Edward IV of England and his queen consort Elizabeth Woodville.
Soon after the death of her father and the usurpation of the throne by her uncle Richard III, Anne, who was about eight years old, was declared illegitimate among the other children of Edward IV by Elizabeth Woodville. The princess's mother, fearing for the children's lives, moved them to Westminster Abbey, where the late king's family received asylum and spent about a year. After the king promised not to harm his brother's family, Anne and her older sisters went to the court.
When Richard III was killed, and Henry Tudor took the throne under the name of Henry VII, the act recognising the children of Edward IV as bastards was cancelled. Henry VII married the eldest of Edward IV's daughters, Elizabeth, and Anne became a valuable diplomatic asset. Her marriage to a Scottish prince was planned, but in 1488 the prince's father, King James III, was killed, and marriage negotiations were interrupted and never resumed. In 1495, Anne was married to Thomas Howard, who had claimed marriage to her since the time of Richard III. The union with Howard was not happy and overshadowed by the death of all their children. Anne herself, who had poor health, died at the age of about 36 years.
Birth and early years
Anne was born on 2 November 1475 at the Palace of Westminster as the fifth daughter and seventh of ten children of King Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville. Anne had six sisters, of whom only four reached adulthood—two eldests (Elizabeth and Cecily) and two younger (Catherine and Bridget); Mary, who was eight years older than Anne, died at the age of 14 from some illness, and Margaret, who was about three years older than Anne, died in infancy. Anne also had five brothers: three full-blooded (the future Edward V, Richard and George) and two half-brothers from her mother's first marriage to John Grey of Groby: Thomas and Richard Grey. Neither of Anne's three full-brothers survive adulthood: George died at about two years of age, while the other two brothers, Edward V and Richard, disappeared from the Tower in 1483 during the reign of their uncle King Richard III.
Anne's paternal grandparents were Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (who claimed the rights of the House of York to the English throne) and Cecily Neville, and her maternal grandparents were Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, and Jacquetta of Luxembourg, Dowager Duchess of Bedford. She was baptised at Westminster Abbey shortly after birth, being named both after her paternal aunt Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter and her paternal great-grandmother Anne de Mortimer; the very name "Anne" was relatively new to the English royal family, and Anne became the first daughter of a king with that name. In addition, the choice of the king was probably influenced by the superstitious reverence with which Edward IV was rumored to have held Saint Anne; the king turned to the patronage of the saint at critical moments in his life in the early stages of coming to power, and therefore felt indebted to her.
In 1479, when Anne was not yet four years old, Edward IV began negotiations on the marriage of his daughter with Philip, son of the archduke Maximilian of Austria. The Austrian Prince at that time was second in line to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire. The initiative of the union came from the Archduke and was enthusiastically received in England, since the marriage was supposed to bring political benefits. Philip's mother, Mary of Burgundy, was the heiress of vast lands and had influence on European affairs; besides, her stepmother was Edward IV's sister Margaret of York. The following year, the agreement took on a more formal form: as a financial security for the princess, she was allocated an amount of 100,000 crowns; Archduke Maximilian agreed to pay Anne 6,000 crowns per year from the moment she reaches the age of 12 years—the age of marriage consent, and from the moment she arrived at the court of the future father-in-law and the engagement was ratified, Anne was to receive land in Artois worth 8,000 livres for her use. In the event that Anne refused the marriage, Edward IV or his successor had to pay 60,000 livres. In return, the archduke undertook to provide the English king with military and political support against France. On 5 August 1480, negotiations were completed.
The court records of 1479 report that at the time when negotiations were underway for the marriage of Anne and Philip of Austria, the princess's nurse, "Agnes, wife of Thomas Butler", was dismissed with the appointment of a pension. The records show that Anne, who had not even reached the age of four, was considered old enough to be separated from her nurse. Earlier, at the same time as Anne, Agnes Butler was engaged in raising the princess's younger brother George, who died in March 1479 at the age of about two years.
Under Richard III
The project of Anne's marriage to Philip of Austria remained in force until the death of the princess's father in 1483. The death of Edward IV was followed by a political crisis that dramatically changed the position of the former queen and her children. Anne's older brother, Edward V, who succeeded to the throne, was captured by his uncle Lord Protector Richard, Duke of Gloucester on his way from Wales to the capital; at the same time, Anthony Woodville and Richard Grey, Anne's maternal uncle and half-brother, who accompanied the young king, were arrested. Edward V was moved to the Tower of London to await his coronation, where he was later joined by his only brother, Richard; along with the rest of the children, including Anne, the dowager queen took refuge in Westminster Abbey.
On 22 June 1483 the marriage of Edward IV with Elizabeth Woodville was declared illegal; all the children of the late king were declared illegitimate by the Act of Titulus Regius and were deprived of their rights to the throne and all titles. A few days later, Anthony Woodville and Richard Grey were beheaded. On 6 July, Richard of Gloucester was proclaimed king under the name of Richard III; shortly thereafter Anne's brothers, who remained locked up in the Tower, disappeared. After Richard III took the throne and following his orders, his squire John Nesfield sent guards to Westminster, who, day and night, inspected everyone who entered and left the dowager queen's sanctuary, since there were fears that one of Anne's older sisters would be able to escape abroad and find an ally there for overthrow of Richard III. On Christmas Day 1483, Henry Tudor, whose mother was in a plot with Elizabeth Woodville against Richard III, swore in Rennes Cathedral that he would marry Anne's older sister Elizabeth or the next one Cecily (if the marriage to Elizabeth for any reason will be impossible) after taking the English throne. But the uprising of the Tudor party, led by the Duke of Buckingham, failed even before Henry's oath in Rennes.
After the failure of Buckingham's rebellion, Richard III began negotiations with his brother's widow. On 1 March 1484, the king publicly swore that the daughters of Edward IV would not be harmed or molested; in addition, Richard III promised that they would not be imprisoned in the Tower or any other prison, that they would be placed "in respectable places of good name and reputation", and later be married to "men of noble birth" and given dowry lands with an annual income of 200 marks each. On the same day, the memorandum was delivered to the dowager queen, along with provisions. The princesses with great joy agreed to leave their gloomy abode and go under the care of their "gracious uncle", who allocated them chambers in his palace. Tudor historian Edward Hall wrote that Richard III "made all the daughters of his brother solemnly arrive at his palace; as if with new familiar and loving entertainment they were supposed to forget...the trauma inflicted on them and the tyranny that preceded this".
Soon after the daughters of Edward IV arrived at court, the king began to look for suitable suitors for his nieces. For Anne, he chose Thomas Howard, the son and heir of the 1st Earl of Surrey and second-in-line to the Dukedom of Norfolk, to show his favor to the Howard family. The betrothal was signed in 1484, but the king didn't have time to formalise the marriage.
Under Henry VII and Henry VIII
In August 1485, Richard III died at the Battle of Bosworth, and Henry Tudor became the new king by right of conquest under the name of Henry VII, who had previously sworn to marry Anne's older sister. Upon ascending the throne, Henry VII repealed the Titulus Regius act, which deprived the children of Edward IV of titles and rights to the throne; the act itself and all its copies were removed from the archives, as well as all the documents associated with them.
When Elizabeth of York married the new king, Anne was only twelve years old, and she, along with her other sisters, were at court under the tutelage of the queen, their eldest sister and only patroness. The princess began to participate in court ceremonies. She attended the christening of her first nephew, Arthur, Prince of Wales on 24 September 1486; Anne carried the baptismal veil, which, after the ceremony, covered the head of the prince, and she herself was accompanied on the right hand by the knight-constable Richard Guildford and on the left the by knight-marshal John Turbeville. Anne performed the same role at the christening of her eldest niece Margaret in 1489. The princess took part in the Easter celebrations, Pentecost and Christmas, as well as other events at the court of Henry VII.
Shortly after his accession to the throne, Henry VII began to make matrimonial plans for his wife's relatives and seek an alliance with Scotland. The king planned to marry his mother-in-law Elizabeth Woodville to the widowed King James III, and his heir James, Duke of Rothesay was to marry one of the daughters of the late king. Since Cecily, the former bride of James, was already engaged to the king's uncle John Welles, and Catherine was to become the wife of the prince's younger brother, it was necessary to choose between Anne and the youngest of her sisters, Bridget. Bridget planned to enter a monastery, and thus Anne remained the only candidate, but with the death of James III in 1488, all negotiations were terminated and never resumed.
In 1488, on St George's Day, Anne, among twenty other ladies, was present in the retinue of her sister the queen; she was dressed in a robe of scarlet velvet and sat on a snow-white palfrey, whose saddle was draped in a golden cloth embroidered with white roses, the symbol of the House of York. The next time the princess is mentioned in the sources in connection with the death of her mother in June 1492: Anne sat at the bedside of the dying woman in Bermondsey Abbey, where the dowager queen spent the last five years of her life. Anne led the mourners at her mother's funeral instead of Queen Elizabeth, who was expecting the birth of her fourth child and therefore delegated her powers and responsibilities to her younger sister. Anne and her younger sisters, Catherine and Bridget, departed with the Queen's body by river to Windsor Castle, where on 13 June Elizabeth Woodville was buried next to her second husband Edward IV in St George's Chapel. According to the herald's notes, "the standard-bearers walked ahead of milady Anne, who was present at the memorial mass instead of the queen; she prayed on her knees on the carpet and pillow. She was accompanied by Viscount Welles...and Dame Catherine Grey carried the train of Lady Anne...".
Marriage
When Anne reached the marriageable age, Queen Elizabeth began to look for her a suitable groom. The queen turned her attention to representatives of the English nobility and, first of all, to Thomas Howard, the son and heir of the 1st Earl of Surrey, to whom Richard III had already planned to marry Anne. The princess was personally acquainted with her future husband since childhood, since his father served at court in the private chambers of Edward IV. In the Wars of the Roses, the Howard family sided with the House of York, which is why under Henry VII, heir to the Lancasters, in 1485 the Earl of Surrey was imprisoned in the Tower for three and a half years, deprived of his rights, titles and possessions. Later, he received freedom, restoration of rights and most of the lands and was called to the court, where he received a position close to the king. At the same time, not all titles were returned: Thomas' father received back the title of Earl of Surrey but the title and honours of Duke of Norfolk, which he was supposed to inherit after the death of his father at Bosworth, were granted to him only in 1514. Thomas was older than Anne by about two years.
The queen took into account the opinion of her sister and considered that the Howard family were noble enough to qualify for a high marriage, and therefore on 4 February 1495 (according to other sources in 1494) the wedding of Anne and Thomas Howard was celebrated. The wedding took place in Westminster Abbey, and the marriage celebrations took place in the Palace of Placentia. The royal couple attended the wedding, and the king also attended a festive mass, but the dowry of 10,000 marks, assigned to Anne by her father, wasn't receive by the newlyweds. By order of the queen, the couple were assigned annuity payments in the amount of £120 per year, which were to be carried out throughout Anne's life or until the death of her mother-in-law: this amount included the maintenance of Anne herself, as well as her servants and seven horses. This pension was appointed, among other things, because the queen did not want to leave Anne dependent on her husband, who, due to circumstances, could not provide the princess with a comfortable existence. Since the groom's father received only part of the family estate and in this part there was no residence suitable for a woman of royal blood, the newlyweds received the right to use the estates located in the possessions of the Duke of York and the Marquess of Dorset, Anne's nephew and half-brother, respectively. In return, the queen demanded that in the event of the death of the Earl of Surrey or his wife, a wealthy heiress, Anne's interests should be taken into account on an equal basis with the interests of her husband. The king allocated for Anne another 26£ per year from the crown lands.
After the wedding, Anne left the court and visited her sister very rarely. One of the reasons for this could be her poor health—both physical and mental. Little is known about the life of the princess during this period. Queen Elizabeth's court documents report that in 1502–1503 she paid for seven yards of green silk from Bruges for Anne's dress, costing 2 shillings 8 pences a yard. In addition, in 1502, the queen added 10 marks (6 pounds 13 shillings 4 pences) to her sister's annual pocket expenses, as well as £120 to Thomas Howard, which he had to spend on his wife's food. In 1503, the queen died and the attitude towards Anne at the court changed. She attended the funeral of Queen Elizabeth, but not as a mourner, but as a simple spectator; Anne's grief at the loss of her sister was so great that she could not attend the entire funeral ceremony.
Anne's marriage to Thomas Howard was not a happy one. Thomas had a relationship with Anne's lady-in-waiting Bess Holland, and all of their children predeceased them. The exact number and names of children born to Anne are unknown. Mary Anne Everett Green writes that the records of the Howard house indicate four children, of which only one child, a son named Thomas, lived long enough to be christened. Alison Weir dates Thomas's birth to about 1496 and death to 1508; Everett Green writes that the exact date of death is indicated on the boy's grave: 4 August 1508. James Panton reports that in addition to Thomas, Anne had two sons who died in infancy and a stillborn child, but Weir among the four children of Anne, in addition to Thomas, mentioned a son and two daughters—all three died before it became possible to christen them. Anne's son was buried at Lambeth in the Howard family crypt, where his grandfather's remains were later transferred.
Later life and legacy
Only two records of the last years of Anne's life have survived. On 23 March 1510, her nephew King Henry VIII granted his aunt and her spouse a property with a garden in Stephenheath; on 22 November the king (in compensation for the lands claimed in right of her great-grandmother Anne de Mortimer, wife of Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge) gave Anne and her possible heirs extensive possessions, including the Castle and Manor of Wingfield and many other properties in Norfolk, Suffolk, York, Lincoln and Oxford.
The exact date of Anne's death is unknown. Alison Weir writes that the princess died after 22 or 23 November 1511, but before 1513; James Panton gives 23 November 1511 as an approximate date. Mary Ann Everett Green writes that Anne is no longer mentioned in the act of transferring some property to the Howard family, considered in Parliament in February 1512; in addition, the possibility of Thomas Howard's marriage to Lady Elizabeth Stafford was discussed at the same time. All this indicates that by February 1512, Anne was undoubtedly dead.
The princess's was originally buried at Thetford Priory. After the Reformation, Anne's widower petitioned the king to keep the Priory and turn it into a parish church, since not only Anne, the king's aunt, but also Henry VIII's illegitimate son Henry FitzRoy was buried here. The petition had no effect. The same request was made to the king by other nobles, and he refused them all; at the same time, Henry VIII allowed the dissolution of the monasteries to be suspended, so that everyone who wished had time to rebury the remains of relatives. Thomas Howard moved Anne's remains to the Church of St Michael the Archangel, Framlingham and ordered a rich tombstone, with the expectation that after death he would rest there, which happened in 1554. Since Anne was of royal lineage, Thomas Howard was buried to her left instead of to her right as was customary.
Ancestry
Notes
Citations
References
1475 births
1511 deaths
People from Westminster
House of York
English princesses
15th-century English nobility
15th-century English women
16th-century English women
First Ladies of the Bedchamber
Children of Edward IV of England
Court of Henry VII of England
Daughters of kings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20court%20%28China%29
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Military court (China)
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The Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (referred to as the Military Court of the PLA) is the highest level military court (High Military Court, a special people's court executing the authority of the High People's Court) established by the People's Republic of China within the Chinese People's Liberation Army with jurisdiction over the nation's armed forces (including the People's Liberation Army and the People's Armed Police), organized as a unit directly under the Political and Legal Committee of the Central Military Commission, and operationally under The Supreme People's Court and the Political and Legal Committee of the Central Military Commission are under the dual leadership of the Supreme People's Court and the Political and Legal Committee of the Central Military Commission.
History
Before 1954
On September 1, 1931, the Soviet Government of the EYUAN District promulgated the Provisional Regulations of the Revolutionary Military Tribunal, which stated that "the Revolutionary Military Tribunal is the military law enforcement organ of the Revolutionary Armed Forces, and shall deal with any breach of discipline and military administration of the Chinese Red Army (all revolutionary armed forces)." On February 1, 1932, the Central Executive Committee of the Chinese Soviet Republic unified and promulgated the Provisional Regulations on the Organization of the Military Courts of the Chinese Soviet Republic, which provided that "the troops of the Red Army at all levels and the local armed commands shall organize military courts to try criminal cases in the Red Army."
After the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War and the reorganization of the Chinese Workers and Peasants Red Army into the Eighth Route Army in August 1937, the Military Inquisition was changed to the Military Justice Division, which was set up within the Political Department of the Eighth Route Army. In 1939, the Political Department of the Eighth Route Army issued the Draft Regulations on the Work of the Military Justice Division, which stipulated that the Military Justice Division was to be established within the political departments of divisions, brigades, military districts, military subdivisions, and rear garrisons.
During the Second Communist Civil War, military law offices continued to be established in the army, generally in the command or political department of troops above the brigade (sub-district), with the chief of staff, the director of the political department, or the chief of the defense department (division), or in some cases, the military and political chief of the army. At the beginning of the founding of the People's Republic of China, troops continued to have a Military Law Division, and when the troops were integrated in 1952, the Military Law Division was placed in a separate sequence, under the leadership of both the CPC Committee and the military and political chiefs at the same level, and under the leadership of the Military Law Division at a higher level.
1954-1969
In January 1954, the People's Revolutionary Military Commission of the Central People's Government decided to establish the Military Tribunal of the Chinese People's Liberation Army to unify the management of military trials throughout the army. Chen Qihan was appointed by the Central Military Commission as the President of the Military Tribunal of the Chinese People's Liberation Army. in September 1954, the First Session of the First National People's Congress adopted the 1954 Constitution of the People's Republic of China and the Organic Law of the People's Courts of the People's Republic of China, which provided for the establishment of specialized people's courts. In accordance with the above-mentioned laws, on November 1, 1954, the Military Commission of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) promulgated the establishment table of military courts, renaming the Military Tribunal of the Chinese People's Liberation Army as the Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army. on August 31, 1955, in accordance with the Constitution of the People's Republic of China and the Organic Law of the People's Courts of the People's Republic of China, the Ministry of National Defense of the People's Republic of China issued the Notice on the Change of the Name of the Military Law Offices at All Levels of the Army The Notice on the Change of Military Law Offices at All Levels of the Army to Military Courts", which renamed the Military Law Offices at all levels of the Chinese People's Liberation Army as Military Courts, thus incorporating them into the national judiciary system and stipulating that the Military Courts were organizationally part of the military establishment and under the leadership of the Party Committee of the Army; and were under the supervision of the Supreme People's Court in terms of judging work. Military courts are set up at four levels: (1) military courts of the Chinese People's Liberation Army; (2) military courts of major military regions, naval forces, air forces, public security forces, railway troops, and PLA General Headquarters; (3) military courts of armies, provincial military districts, police districts, military air forces, and naval fleets; and (4) military courts of divisions and the equivalent of divisions of various military branches, services, military subdivisions, and bases.
At the 92nd meeting of the CCP Central Military Commission on December 6, 1956, on the recommendation of the Supreme People's Court, it was decided that the Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army would be renamed the Military Trial Chamber of the Supreme People's Court. on April 3, 1957, the 55th meeting of the Standing Committee of the 1st National People's Congress appointed Chen Qihan as Vice President of the Supreme People's Court and Zhong Hanhua as Military Trial Chamber, and Yuan Guang as vice president.
In June 1957, the General Political Department of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, in accordance with the decision of the enlarged meeting of the Military Commission of the CPC Central Committee and with the consent of the Supreme People's Court, stipulated that military courts at all levels, in addition to being supervised by higher courts in accordance with the law, were under the leadership of the political departments of the same level within the army. In 1958, under the slogan of Anti-Rightist Movement, Encourage Energy, and Promote Great Leap Forward in Military Justice Work," the military justice system continued to crack down on a wide range of cases, and the conviction rate increased sharply. After 1958, according to the "Regulations on Strengthening Collaboration among the Three Departments of Defense, Military Prosecution and Military Justice" formulated and issued by the Defense Department of the General Political Department of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, the Military Trial Chamber of the Supreme People's Court, and the Military Prosecutor's Office of the Supreme People's Procuratorate, during the "Great Leap Forward" campaign, the military trial work During the "Great Leap Forward" movement, the system of division of responsibilities among the defense, military prosecution, and military justice departments, mutual cooperation, and mutual restraint was replaced by "one chief in place of three chiefs" (any one of the three chiefs of the defense, prosecution, and military justice departments could act for the other two chiefs), "one member in place of three members" (any one of the scouts, prosecutors, and judges could act for the other two chiefs), and "one member in place of three members" (the scouts, prosecutors, and judges). This is the same trend as the local trial work of the Public Security Bureau, the Procuratorate, and the courts, which were responsible for the division of labor, cooperation, and mutual restraint, was replaced by "one chief for three chiefs" and "one member for three members". In some military trials, court trials were combined with mass criticism, and defendants were completely deprived of their right to defense. These practices have led to great problems in military trials.
On January 16, 1961, the General Political Department of the Chinese People's Liberation Army issued the Notice on the Co-location of the Three Departments of Defense, Military Prosecution, and Military Justice, in which the three departments of defense, military prosecution, and military justice at all levels of the army were reduced to one office each, following the model of the co-location of the Ministry of Public Security, the Supreme People's Court, and the Supreme People's Procuratorate of the People's Republic of China, and were placed under the control of the defense department, while still retaining the names of the three departments externally. On May 24, 1962, the Ministry of National Defense of the People's Republic of China issued the "Table of the Basic Organizational System of the Major Military Regions", which separated the military courts from the defense department and restored them to a separate organization. On September 3, 1962, the three departments of defense, military prosecution, and military justice were officially separated. Later, Tan Furen was appointed by the Central Military Commission as the head of the Military Trial Court of the Supreme People's Court. By the end of 1964, the military judiciary was basically restored, and on May 29, 1965, the Military Court of the Supreme People's Court was renamed the "Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army". There were four levels of military courts: (1) military courts of the Chinese People's Liberation Army; (2) military courts of major military regions, navy, air force, and public security forces; (3) military courts of military air forces and naval fleets; (4) military courts of provincial military districts, field armies and military-level (corps-level) bases, fortress districts, police (garrison) districts and air force and naval bases, and military subdivisions of border defense.
1969-1978
During the Cultural Revolution, the system and principles of the military court system were again criticized. in November 1968, the military courts of the Chinese People's Liberation Army were placed under military control. at the end of 1969, the military courts of the Chinese People's Liberation Army and military courts at all levels throughout the army were abolished one after another. The authority of the military courts was exercised by the defense departments in the name of the military courts. The security departments of units above the military level all held an official seal of the military court with the same number as the unit. In cases where penalties were to be imposed, the defense department would report the verdict in the name of the military court and publish it after verification and approval by the party committee.
1978-2016
In January 1978, the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China (CPC) issued the "Adjustment Plan for the Military System" and decided to rebuild the Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) and the military courts of major units. In November 1979, with the approval of the CPC Central Military Commission, the General Staff Department and the General Political Department of the Chinese People's Liberation Army jointly issued a circular deciding to re-establish military courts and military procuratorates at the corps and military levels, with their establishment in the political department. In September 1982, the Central Military Commission issued a notice on the streamlining and integration program of the military system reform, in order to make the system of military courts and military prosecutors the same as that of local courts and prosecutors. same, it was stipulated that military courts and military procuratorates were reorganized into three levels: (1) military courts of the Chinese People's Liberation Army and military procuratorates of the Chinese People's Liberation Army; (2) military courts and military procuratorates of major military districts, naval forces, and air forces; and (3) military courts and military procuratorates of provincial military districts, naval fleets, and air forces in military districts. In 1985, in the midst of the Million Disarmament, the military courts and military procuratorates of military-level units of the army were abolished and replaced by the setting up of grassroots military courts and military procuratorates of the army by piece, according to the notice of the General Staff Department of the Chinese People's Liberation Army.
The 1982 Constitution of the People's Republic of China and the 1983 Organic Law of the People's Courts of the People's Republic of China provide that the state establishes military courts within the Chinese People's Liberation Army. There are three levels of military courts: military courts of the People's Liberation Army, military courts of military district-level units, and military courts of corps and military-level units. The military courts of the Chinese People's Liberation Army are responsible to the Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China and the General Political Department of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, and the military courts of other levels are responsible to the political organs at their own levels. The trial work of military courts at all levels is supervised by the Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China, and the trial work of military courts at lower levels is supervised by military courts at higher levels. The President of the Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army shall be appointed and removed by the President of the Supreme People's Court upon request of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.
In January 1983, the Military Affairs Department of the General Staff Department and the Organization Department of the General Political Department of the Chinese People's Liberation Army issued the Circular on the Establishment of Primary Courts, which provided that the military courts of provincial military districts had jurisdiction over criminal cases occurring within all troops stationed in the province. on June 10, 1983, the Central Military Commission issued the Regulations on the Authority to Grant Arrests and Trials, which provided that the military courts of provincial military districts had jurisdiction over persons below the rank of battalion to be In 1983, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China issued the Decision on Strictly Combating Criminal Activities, and the Second Session of the Standing Committee of the Sixth National People's Congress adopted the Decision on Strictly Punishing Criminals Who Seriously Endanger Social Security and the Decision on Procedures for Speedy Trial of Criminals Who Seriously Endanger Social Security In addition, the military courts at all levels, together with the defense and procuratorial organs, carried out the "strict crackdown" policy proposed by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, which was "to deal with the seriousness and speed of the crime and to eliminate it in one go".
In 2012, the Supreme People's Court issued and implemented the Regulations on Certain Issues of Civilian Cases under the Jurisdiction of Military Courts. In 2013, the Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) issued the Opinions on Several Issues of Jurisdiction of Military Courts over Civil Cases, which stipulates that civil cases of first instance shall in principle be heard by the basic military courts, but the subject amount of 30 million RMB or more, or the subject amount of 20 million RMB or more, shall be considered by the military courts. or above, or cases with a subject matter of RMB 20 million or more and in which the parties belong to different large units, shall be heard by the military court of the large unit.
On May 25, 1996, in accordance with the spirit of the instructions of the Central Military Commission, the People's Armed Police established two levels of military courts and military procuratorates. on July 23, 1996, the Hong Kong Garrison established military courts and military procuratorates. on October 24, 1997, the Central Military Commission approved the establishment of the Second Military Court of the General Command of the Chinese People's Liberation Army and the Second Military Procuratorate of the General Command. in October 1998, the According to the provisions of the Central Military Commission documents, the establishment system and posts of military courts and military procuratorates at all levels of the army were adjusted, and there were three levels of military courts and military procuratorates in the army: (1) military courts and military procuratorates of the Chinese People's Liberation Army; (2) military courts and military procuratorates of military regions, naval forces, air forces, and general direct subordinate units; and (3) basic-level military courts and military procuratorates. in July 2004, the army The establishment system and posts of military courts and military procuratorates at all levels were further adjusted, and some of the basic-level military courts and military procuratorates were abolished. In March 2014, the Second Artillery Military Court was established, exercising the authority of large-unit military courts and accepting the leadership of the Political Department of the Second Artillery and the Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army. Prior to January 14, 2015, Liu Jixing, president of the Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, was promoted from the previous rank of full military to the rank of deputy major military region.
Before the reform in January 2016, there were 13 military courts of the People's Liberation Army corresponding to large units: the Navy, Air Force, Second Artillery, Shenyang Military Region, Beijing Military Region, Lanzhou Military Region, Jinan Military Region, Nanjing Military Region, Guangzhou Military Region, Chengdu Military Region, People's Armed Police, General Direct Subsidiaries, and the Second Military Court of General Direct Subsidiaries. Among them, the Military Court of the General Headquarters has jurisdiction over the General Office of the Military Commission, the General Political Department, the General Logistics Department, the General Equipment Department, the Second Artillery (after March 2014, the Second Artillery is no longer under the jurisdiction of the Military Court of the General Headquarters), the colleges and universities directly under the Military Commission, and other large units and their subordinate units, and the Second Military Court of the General Headquarters has jurisdiction over the General Staff Department and its subordinate units.
Authority
Trial of first instance cases of crimes committed by persons of full divisional rank or above.
Trial of foreign-related criminal cases.
Trying cases authorized or designated by the Supreme People's Court and other criminal cases of first instance that it considers should be tried by itself.
To undertake trials of the second trial and retrial.
Organization
Prior to the 2016 reform, the military court included three full divisional-level bodies.
The First Trial Division: hears appeal cases and death penalty review cases against the verdicts of military courts of major units of the military. Deadly criminal cases are also reported to the Supreme People's Court for approval after being reviewed by the Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army.
Second Trial Division: Hearing appeals against the legal effect of the judgments of the military courts of major units of the army, letters and visits, and trial supervision.
Civilian Trial Division: hearing cases of appeal against the judgment of the military court of major units of the army, as well as appeal cases of civil judgments that have taken legal effect; undertaking the execution of the judgment of civil cases of the army.
Past Directors
President of the Military Tribunal of the Chinese People's Liberation Army
Chen Qihan (February 1954 - November 1954)
President of the Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army
General Chen Qihan (November 1954-April 1957, part-time)
President of the Military Trial Chamber of the Supreme People's Court
Zhong Hanhua Lieutenant General (April 1957-January 1961)
Gan Weihan Lieutenant General (January 1961-May 1964, part-time; from January 1961-September 1962, head of military justice in the combined office of defense, military prosecution and military justice at the General Political Department)
Lieutenant General Tan Furen (December 1964-May 1965)
President of the Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army
Major General Jin Rubai (June 1965-February 1968, part-time)
Hao Su (September 1978-July 1981)
Tian Jia (September 10, 1981 - August 23, 1982)[12]
Liu Jiguang (August 23, 1982 - June 18, 1985)[13]
Major General Meng Zhongren (June 18, 1985 – June 28, 1990)
Major General Hou Gu (June 28, 1990 - September 2, 1993)
Major General Quan Zengde (September 2, 1993 - July 3, 1997)
Major General Jiang Jichu (July 3, 1997 - April 28, 2001)
Major General Qu Dacheng (April 28, 2001 - April 29, 2006)
Major General Su Yong (April 29, 2006 - August 26, 2011)
Liu Jixing Lieutenant General (August 26, 2011 - June 22, 2018)
Liu Ligeng Major General (June 22, 2018-)
Corresponding Intermediate Military Court
Military Court of the Eastern Theater Command of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (court pronunciation: Army 01)
Military Court of the Southern Theater Command of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (Army 02)
First Military Court of the Western Theater Command of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (Army 03)
Second Military Court of the Western Theater of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (Army 04)
Military Court of the Northern Theater Command of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (Army 05)
Military Court of the Central Theater Command of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (Army 06)
General Military Court of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (Army 07)
Notable cases
1989-1990: Major General Xu Qinxian, former commander of the 38th Group Army of the Chinese People's Liberation Army, was sentenced to 5 years in prison for refusing to carry out the June 4 clearance order and served his sentence in Qincheng Prison and Public Security Hospital.
1999: Major General Liu Liankun, former head of the Armament Department of the General Logistics Department (retired deputy military rank), for providing intelligence to Taiwan (death by lethal injection)
1999: Senior Colonel Shao Zhengzong, former head of a division of the Armament Department of the General Logistics Department, provided intelligence spies to Taiwan (death penalty)
2004: Major General Liu Guangzhi, former Director of the Air Force Command College (serving at full military rank) Providing intelligence to Taiwan (death by lethal injection)
2006: Former Vice Commander of the Navy Wang Shouye, Lieutenant General of the Navy (deputy military region position) bribery case (suspended death sentence)
2015: Former Vice Minister of the PLA General Logistics Department Gu Junshan Lieutenant General (Vice Military Region position) embezzlement, bribery, misappropriation of public funds, and abuse of power (death sentence suspended)
2019: Former Chief of Staff of the Joint Staff Department of the former Central Military Commission, General Fang Fenghui (full military region position) case of bribery, bribery, and large amount of property of unknown origin (life imprisonment)
References
See also
Judicial system of China
Courts in China
China
Military of the People's Republic of China
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Gothic%20Revival%20architecture
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List of Gothic Revival architecture
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The following is a list of notable buildings in the Gothic Revival style.
Argentina
Cathedral of Bariloche
Cathedral of La Plata
Cathedral of Luján
Cathedral of Mar del Plata
Australia
Scots' Church, Melbourne
Vaucluse House Sydney Regency Gothic.
Sydney Conservatorium of Music, the old Government stable block.
Government House, Sydney
St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney
St. Mary's Cathedral, Sydney
Sydney University, the main building, commenced 1850s, extended 20th century
St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne
St. Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne
Melbourne University – Main Building, Newman College and Ormond College
The Collins Street group in Melbourne – Rialto buildings, Former Stock Exchange, Gothic Bank, Goode House and Olderfleet buildings and Safe Deposit Building
St David's Cathedral, Hobart
Government House, Hobart
Perth Town Hall
Newington College, founders block
Church of the Apostles, Launceston
Austria
Votivkirche, Vienna, 1856–79
Rathaus, Vienna, 1872–83
New Cathedral (Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception), Linz, 1862–1924
Vier-Evangelisten-Kirche, Arriach,
Johanneskirche, Klagenfurt
Evang. Kirche, Techendorf
Evangelische Kirche im Stadtpark, Villach
Nikolai-Kirche, Villach
Filialkirche hl. Stefan, Föderlach (Wernberg)
Marienkirche, Berndorf, Lower Austria
Bründlkapelle, Dietmanns
Sisi Chapel located in the Sievering area of the Viennese district of Döbling near the Vienna Woods
Saint John the Evangelist church Aigen, Upper Austria
Pfarrkirche, Bruckmühl, Upper Austria
Evang. Pfarrkirche A.B., Steyr, Upper Austria
Pfarrkirche Mariä Himmelfahrt, Mauerkirchen, Upper Austria
Filialkirche Heiliges Kreuz Friedhof, Münzbach, Upper Austria
Barbados
Parliament of Barbados, west-wing completed 1872, east-wing in 1873.
Belgium
Maredsous Abbey, 1872–1892
Loppem Castle, 1856–1869
Church of Hunnegem, paintings 1856–1869
Basilica of Our Lady, Dadizele, 1857–1867
Sint-Petrus-en-Pauluskerk, Ostend, 1899–1908
Church of Our Lady of Laeken, Brussels, 1854–1909
Mesen castle, Lede.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Cathedral of Jesus' Heart, Sarajevo
Brazil
Church of Our Lady of Purification, Bom Princípio, 1871
Sanctuary of Our Lady Mother of Humanity (Caraça), Minas Gerais, 1876
Basilica of the Immaculate Conception, Rio de Janeiro, 1886
Cathedral of Our Lady of Exile, Jundiaí, 1890
Cathedral of Santa Teresa, Caxias do Sul, 1899
St. Peter of Alcantara Cathedral, Petrópolis, 1884–1969
Church os Saint Peter, Porto Alegre, 1919
Catedral of Our Lady of Boa Viagem, Belo Horizonte, 1923
Church of Santa Rita, Santa Rita do Passa Quatro
Church of The Holy Sacrament and Santa Teresa, Porto Alegre, 1924
São Paulo Sé Cathedral (Catedral da Sé de São Paulo), São Paulo, 1912–1967
Premonstratensian Seminary Chapel, Pirapora do Bom Jesus, 1926
Sanctuary of Santa Teresinha, Taubaté, 1929
São João Batista Cathedral (Catedral São João Batista), Santa Cruz do Sul, 1928–1932
Church of Our Lady of the Glory, Sinimbu, 1927
Basilica of Santo Antonio, Santos, 1929
Basilica of Our Lady of the Rosary, Caieiras, 2006
Basilica of Our Lady of the Rosary of Fatima, Embu das Artes, São Paulo, 2004
Canada
Parliament Hill, Ottawa, Ontario, 1878
Notre-Dame Basilica, Montreal, Quebec, 1829
St. James' Cathedral, Toronto, Ontario, 1853
Cathedral of St. John the Baptist St. John's, Newfoundland, 1847–85
Church of Our Lady Immaculate, Guelph, Ontario, 1888
Currie Hall, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Ontario, 1922
College Building, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan (1913)
Little Trinity Anglican Church, 1843, Toronto, Ontario – Tudor Gothic revival
Church of the Holy Trinity (Toronto), 1847, Toronto, Ontario
St. Dunstan's Basilica 1916, Charlottetown, PEI
Hart House at the University of Toronto, 1911–1919, Toronto, Ontario
1 Spadina Crescent, at the University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, 1875
Burwash Hall at Victoria University in the University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario
Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, St. John's
St. Patrick's Church, St. John's
St. Peter's Cathedral (London), London, Ontario, 1885
St. Patrick's Basilica, Montreal, Montreal, 1847
Ottawa Normal School, Ottawa, Ontario, 1874
St. Patrick's Basilica (Ottawa), Ottawa, Ontario, 1875
First Baptist Church (Ottawa), Ottawa, Ontario, 1878
Confederation Building (Ottawa), Ottawa, Ontario, 1931
Christ Church Cathedral, Montreal
St. Michael's Basilica, Chatham, New Brunswick
St. Mary's Basilica (Halifax), Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia, 1899
St. Michael's Cathedral, Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, 1845
Church of the Redeemer (Toronto), Toronto, Ontario, 1879
St. James Anglican Church, Vancouver, British Columbia
Bathurst Street Theatre, Toronto, Ontario, 1888
Bloor Street United Church, Toronto, Ontario, 1890
Casa Loma, Toronto, Ontario, 1914
Chile
Federico Santa María Technical University, Valparaíso 1931
Church of the Sacred Heart, Valparaíso
Church of the Twelve Apostles, Valparaíso, 1869
Vergara Hall (Venetian Gothic), Viña del Mar, 1910
China
Church of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, Beijing
Church of the Saviour, Beijing
Teng Shih K'ou Congregational Church, Beijing
Sacred Heart Cathedral, Canton, 1863–1888
St. Theresa's Cathedral, Changchun
St. John's Church, Chengdu
St. Joseph's Cathedral, Chongqing
Holy Cross Church, Wanzhou District, Chongqing
Saint Dominic's Cathedral, Fuzhou
St. John's Cathedral, Hong Kong
Gospel Church, Jiangyou
Sacred Heart Cathedral, Jinan
St. John's Cathedral, Langzhong
Gospel Church, Mianyang
Our Lady of Lourdes Church, Mianyang
Gospel Church, Mianzhu
Holy Trinity Church, Shanghai
National Shrine and Minor Basilica of Our Lady of Sheshan, Shanghai
St. Ignatius Cathedral, Shanghai
Sacred Heart Cathedral, Shengyang
All Saints' Church, Tianjin
Croatia
Castle Trakošćan, 1886
Hermann Bollé, Monumental cemetery Mirogoj, Zagreb, 1879–1929
Hermann Bollé, Zagreb cathedral, 1880-
Costa Rica
Iglesia de Coronado, San Jose
Czech Republic
Basilica of St Peter and St Paul, Prague
Completion of St. Vitus Cathedral, Prague, 1870–1929
Completion of Saint Wenceslas cathedral, Olomouc, 1883–92
Hluboká Castle
Denmark
St. Ansgar's Cathedral, Copenhagen (1840–42)
University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 1835
Copenhagen University Library, Copenhagen, 1857–61
St. John's Church, Copenhagen, Nørrebro, Copenhagen, 1861
St. James's Church, Østerbro, Copenhagen, 1876–78
Church of Our Lady, Aarhus, 1879–80
St. Alban's Church, Copenhagen, 1885–87
Equatorial Guinea
St. Elizabeth's Cathedral, Malabo, 1897–1916
Finland
St. Henry's Cathedral, Helsinki, 1858–1860
Ritarihuone, Helsinki, 1862
Heinävesi Church, Heinävesi, 1890–1891
St. John's Church, Helsinki, 1888–1893
Mikkeli Cathedral, Mikkeli, 1896–1897
Joensuu church, Joensuu, 1903
France
Temple Saint-Étienne, Mulhouse
Basilica of St. Clotilde, Paris
Église Saint-Ambroise, Paris
Église Saint-Georges, Lyon
Jesuit Church, Molsheim
St. Paul's Church, Strasbourg
Basilica of the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes
Germany
Nauener Tor, Potsdam, 1755
Gothic House, Dessau-Wörlitz Garden Realm, 1774
Friedrichswerdersche Kirche, Berlin, 1824–30
Castle in Kamenz (now Kamieniec Ząbkowicki in Poland), 1838–65
Burg Hohenzollern, 1850–67
Completion of Cologne Cathedral, 1842–80
New Town Hall, Munich, 1867–1909
St. Agnes, Cologne, 1896–1901
Hungary
Sacred Heart Church, Kőszeg
Hungarian Parliament Building, Budapest
Matthias Church, Budapest
India
San Thome Basilica, Chennai, India
St Paul Cathedral, Kolkata, India
Kolkata High Court, Kolkata, India
Mutiny Memorial, New Delhi, India
St. Stephen's Church, New Delhi, India
Our Lady of Ransom Church, Kanyakumari, India
Cathedral of the Holy Name, Mumbai, India
Marthandam CSI Church, Martandam, India
Mount Mary Church, Bandra, Mumbai, India
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, Mumbai, India
University of Mumbai, Mumbai, India
Bombay High Court, Mumbai, India
Wilson College, Mumbai, India
David Sassoon Library, Mumbai, India
St. Philomena's Church, Mysore, India
Medak Cathedral. Medak. (Telangana). (India)
Indonesia
Church of our lady Assumption, Jakarta, Indonesia (Locally known as Gereja Katedral Jakarta)
Ursula Chapel, Jakarta, Indonesia
Church of the birth of our Lady Mary, Surabaya, Indonesia
St. Peter's Church, Bandung, Indonesia
St. Joseph's Church, Semarang, Indonesia
St. Fransiskus Chapel, Semarang, Indonesia (located at Ordo St. Fransiskus (OSF) Cloister)
St. Mary the Virgin Church, Bogor, Indonesia
Regina Pacis Chapel, Bogor, Indonesia
Sacred Heart of Jesus Church, Malang, Indonesia (Locally known as Gereja Kayutangan)
Sayidan Church, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Ireland
St John's Cathedral, County Limerick, 1861
St. Eunan's Cathedral, Letterkenny, County Donegal,
Saint Finbarre's Cathedral, Cork, 1870
Saints Peter and Paul's Church, Cork, 1866
St Mary's Cathedral, Killarney, County Kerry, 1842–55
St. Aidan's Cathedral, Enniscorthy, County Wexford, 1843
St Mary's Cathedral, Tuam, County Galway, 1878
St. Mary's Cathedral, Kilkenny, County, Kilkenny, 1857
Italy
Liguria
Castello d'Albertis, Genoa.
Chiesa di San Teodoro, Genoa, 1870
chiesa protestante di Genova, Genoa.
chiesa anglicana All Saints Church, Bordighera, in the Province of Imperia.
chiesa di Santo Spirito e Concezione, Zinola/Savona, 1873
Piedmont
Castello di Pollenzo, Brà (near Cuneo), Piedmont.
Chiesa di Santa Rita, Turin, early 20th century.
Borgo Medioevale, Turin.
Tempio Valdese, Turin, 1851–53
Veneto
Caffè Pedrocchi (or Pedrocchino), Padua, mixed parts of gothic and classical styles.
Molino Stucky, Venice.
chiesa di San Giovanni Battista, San Fior, in the Province of Treviso, 1906–1930
Palazzetto Stern, Venice.
Villa Herriot, Venice.
Casa dei Tre Oci, Venice.
Trieste
Chiesa Evangelico Luterana, Trieste, 1871–74
Notre Dame de Sion, Trieste, 1900
Tuscany
Florence Cathedral, the facade only.
Chiesa del Sacro Cuore (Livorno), Livorno (Leghorn), 1915
Palazzo Aldobrandeschi, Grosseto, 1903
chiesa Valdese, Florence.
chiesa Episcopale Americana di Saint James, Florence, early 20th century.
Tempio della Congregazione Olandese Alemanna, Livorno, 1862–1864
Lazio
Chiesa di Santa Maria del Rosario in Prati, Rome, 1912–16
Church of Sacro Cuore del Suffragio, Rome, 1917
chiesa del Sacro Cuore, Grottaferrata, in the Province of Rome, 1918–1928
Chiesa Anglicana Episcopale di San Paolo entro le Mura, Rome
Chiesa di Ognissanti (chiesa anglicana di Roma), Rome, 1882
Molise
Santuario dell'Addolorata, Castelpetroso, 1890–1975
Campania
Chiesa di Santa Maria stella del mare, Naples, early 20th century.
Castello Aselmeyer, Naples.
Anglican Church of Naples, Naples, 1861–1865
Chiesa Luterana, Naples, 1864
Sardinia
City Hall (Cagliari), Cagliari, 1899
Sicily
Chiesa di Santa Maria della Guardia, Catania, 1880
Chiesa Anglicana di Palermo, Palermo, 1875
Japan
Ōura Church, Nagasaki
Korea
Cathedral Church of the Virgin Mary of the Immaculate Conception, Myeongdong
Chunghyeon Church, Seoul
Lithuania
Beržėnai Manor
Belltower of the Church of St. Anne in Vilnius
Chapel in Rasos Cemetery
Church of the Ascension of Christ in Kupiškis
Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in Palanga
Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Salantai
Church of the Birth of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Nemunaitis
Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary of the Scapular in Druskininkai
Church of St. Anne in Akmenė
Church of St. Anthony of Padua in Birštonas
Church of St. Casimir in Kamajai
Church of St. James the Apostle in Švėkšna
Church of St. John the Baptist in Ramygala
Church of St. Joseph in Karvis
Church of St. George in Vilkija
Church of the Name of Blessed Virgin Mary in Sasnava
Church of the Holy Trinity in Gruzdžiai
Church of the Holy Trinity in Jurbarkas
Church of the Holy Trinity in Pabiržė
Church of the Holy Trinity in Tverečius
Church of St. Matthias in Rokiškis
Church of St. Matthew the Apostle in Anykščiai
Church of St. Stanislaus the Bishop in Kazitiškis
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Juodkrantė
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Nida
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Šilutė
Lentvaris Manor
Paliesiai Manor
Raduškevičius Palace
Raudone Castle
Tyszkiewicz family Mausoleum and Chapel in Kretinga
Malaysia
St Michael's Institution, Ipoh, Malaysia
St. Xavier Church, Malacca, Malaysia
Holy Rosary Church, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Mexico
Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City
Cathedral of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Zamora, Michoacán
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral
Palacio de Correos de Mexico
La Parroquia Church of St. Michael the Archangel, San Miguel de Allende
Templo Expiatorio del Santísimo Sacramento, Jalisco
Templo Expiatorio del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús, León, Guanajuato
Parroquia de San Jose Obrero, Arandas Jalisco
Myanmar
St. Mary Cathedral, Yangon, Myanmar
Holy Trinity Cathedral, Yangon, Myanmar
St. Joseph Church, Mandalay, Myanmar
Netherlands
City Hall of Tilburg, Tilburg
Heuvelse kerk, Tilburg
Valkenburg railway station, Valkenburg
Saint Boniface church, Leeuwarden, Leeuwarden
St. Joseph Cathedral, Groningen, Groningen
De Krijtberg, Amsterdam
St. Willibrord's Church, Utrecht, Utrecht
Saint Paul's Church, Vaals, Vaals
De Haar Castle, Utrecht
New Zealand
Canterbury Museum, Christchurch. (Benjamin Mountfort architect)
Christchurch Arts Centre, Christchurch (Mountfort)
Christchurch Cathedral, Christchurch (George Gilbert Scott and Mountfort)
Canterbury Provincial Council Buildings, Christchurch (Mountfort)
Christ's College, Christchurch, Christchurch
Victoria Clock Tower, Christchurch (Mountfort)
Dunedin Town Hall, Dunedin, 1878–1880. (Robert Lawson)
First Church, Dunedin 1867–1873. (Lawson)
Knox Church, Dunedin 1874-1876.(Lawson)
Larnach Castle, Dunedin, 1867–1887. (Lawson)
Old St. Paul's, Wellington (Frederick Thatcher)
St. Joseph's Cathedral, Dunedin, 1879-1886.(Francis Petre)
Otago Boys' High School, Dunedin 1883–1885. (Lawson)
Seacliff Lunatic Asylum, Dunedin, 1884–1887. (Lawson)
University of Otago Clocktower complex, Dunedin, 1878–1922. (Maxwell Bury)
University of Otago Registry Building, Dunedin, 1879–1922. (Bury)
Lyttelton Timeball Station, Lyttelton. (Thomas Cane)
Norway
Oscarshall, Oslo, 1847–1852
Sagene Church, Oslo, 1891
Tromsø Cathedral, in wood, Tromsø, Norway, 1861
Pakistan
Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan
Cathedral Church of the Resurrection, Lahore, Pakistan
St. Patrick Cathedral, Karachi, Pakistan
St Andrew's Church, Karachi, Pakistan
Philippines
San Sebastian Church, Manila, 1891
St. Anne's Parish Church / Molo Church, Iloilo, 1795
Montserrat Abbey San Beda University, Manila, 1926
Archdiocesan Shrine of Espiritu Santo, Santa Cruz, Manila, 1932
Ellinwood Malate Church, Malate, Manila, 1936
Manila Central United Methodist Church, Ermita, Manila, 1937
Iglesia ni Cristo Lokal ng Washington, Sampaloc, Manila, 1948
Knox United Methodist Church, Santa Cruz, Manila, 1953
Poland
Gothic House in Puławy, 1800–1809
Potocki mausoleum located at the Wilanów Palace, 1823–1826
Lublin Castle, 1824–1826
Krasiński Palace in Opinogóra Górna, 1828–1843
Kórnik Castle, 1843–1861
Blessed Bronisława Chapel in Kraków, 1856–1861
Collegium Novum of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, 1873–1887
Karl Scheibler's Chapel in Łódź, 1885–1888
Cathedral in Siedlce, 1906–1912
Temple of Mercy and Charity in Płock, 1911–1914
Russia
Gothic Chapel, Peterhof
Chesme Church (1780), St Petersburg
Tsaritsyno Palace, Moscow
Nikolskaya tower of Moscow Kremlin, Moscow
St. Mary Cathedral, Moscow
St. Andrew's Anglican Church (1884)
TsUM, Moscow
Singapore
St Andrew's Cathedral on North Bridge Road, Singapore
Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary on Serangoon, Singapore
Spain
Astorga Episcopal Palace, Astorga
Facade and spire of Cathedral of Santa Eulalia, Barcelona
Temple Expiatori del Sagrat Cor, on Tibidabo hill, Barcelona
Gothic Quarter, Barcelona
Butrón Castle
Sobrellano Palace, Comillas
Casa de los Botines, León
Cathedral of San Cristóbal de La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna
Anglican Cathedral of the Redeemer, Madrid
All Saints' Church, Puerto de la Cruz
San Sebastián Cathedral
Cathedral of María Inmaculada of Vitoria
Sweden
Neo gothic buildings erected during 19th or 20th century
St. John's Church, Stockholm
St. Peter and St. Sigfrids Anglican church, Stockholm
Gustavus Adolphus church, Stockholm
Oscar church, Stockholm
St. George's Greek orthodox cathedral, Stockholm
Nacka church, Nacka, Stockholm
Gustavsberg church, Gustavsberg, Stockholm
Taxinge church, Taxinge
Matthew's church, Norrköping
Oscar Fredrik's church, Gothenburg
Örgryte new church , Gothenburg
St. John church, Gothenburg
St. Andrew's Anglican church, Gothenburg
Gustavus Adolphus's church, Borås
Trollhättan church, Trollhättan
Smögen church, Smögen
Lysekil church, Lysekil
Rudbeck school, Örebro
Olaus Petri church, Örebro
Åtvid new church, Åtvidaberg
Kristinehamn church, Kristinehamn
Luleå cathedral, Luleå
Umeå city church, Umeå
Gustavus Adolphus's church, Sundsvall
Oviken new church, Oviken
Church of all saints, Lund
the University Library, Lund
Cathedral School, Lund
Norra Nöbbelöv church, Lund
Eslöv church, Eslöv
Svedala church, Svedala
Billinge church, Billinge
Källstorp church, Källstorp
Asmundtorp church, Asmundtorp
Nosaby church, Nosaby
Österlöv Church, Österlöv
Östra Klagstorp church, Östra Klagstorp
Sofia church, Jönköping
Arlöv church, Arlöv, Malmö
Bunkeflo church, Bunkeflo, Malmö
Limhamn church, Limhamn, Malmö
Gustavus Adolphus's church, Helsingborg
Helsingborg court house, Helsingborg
Gossläroverket (Grammar School for boys), Helsingborg
Medieval and other buildings influenced by neo gothic renovation
St. Nicolai church, Trelleborg
Floda church, Flodafors
Uppsala cathedral, Uppsala
Skara Cathedral, Skara
Linköping Cathedral, Linköping
St. Nicolai church, Örebro
Klara church, Stockholm
Riddarholmen church, Stockholm
Malmö court house, Malmö
Tanzania
St. Joseph's Cathedral, Dar es Salaam
Ukraine
St. Nicholas Roman Catholic Church, Kyiv
Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Kharkiv
Church of Sts. Olha and Elizabeth, Lviv
United Kingdom
England
Albert Memorial, London, 1872
All Saints' Church, Daresbury, Cheshire, 1870s, the tower is medieval
All Saints Church, Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, 1843
All Saints Church, Margaret Street, London
Bristol Cathedral, Bristol, the nave and west front
Broadway Theatre, Catford, London, 1928–32
Charterhouse School, Godalming, Surrey
Church of St Mary the Virgin, Reculver, Kent, 1876–78
Downside Abbey, Somerset, c.1882–1925
33-35 Eastcheap, City of London, 1868
Fonthill Abbey, Wiltshire, 1795–1813 (no longer survives)
Guildford Cathedral, Guildford
John Rylands Library, Manchester, 1890–1900
Keble College, Oxford, 1870
Liverpool Cathedral, Liverpool
Manchester Town Hall, Manchester, 1877
The Maughan Library, City of London, 1851–1858
Northampton Guildhall
Palace of Westminster (Houses of Parliament), London, begun in 1840
Royal Chapel of All Saints, Windsor Great Park, Berkshire, remodelled in 1866
Royal Courts of Justice, London
St. Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham
St James the Less, Pimlico, London
St Oswald's Church, Backford, Cheshire, the nave 1870s, the tower and chancel are medieval
St Walburge's Church, Preston
St Pancras railway station, London, 1868
South London Theatre, London
Tower Bridge, London
Truro Cathedral, Cornwall
Tyntesfield, Somerset, 1863
Southwark Cathedral, Southwark, London, the nave
Strawberry Hill, London, begun in 1749
Oxford University Museum of Natural History, Oxford
Woodchester Mansion, Gloucestershire, c.1858–1873
Wills Memorial Building at the University of Bristol, Bristol, 1915–1925
St John's Church, Warminster
Northern Ireland
Scotland
Barclay Church, Edinburgh, Scotland, 1862–1864
St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh (Episcopal), from 1874
Scott Monument, Edinburgh, Scotland, begun in 1841
Gilbert Scott Building, University of Glasgow campus, Glasgow, Scotland, (the second largest example of Gothic Revival architecture in the British Isles), 1870
Kelvinside Hillhead Parish Church, Observatory Road/Huntly Gardens, West End, Glasgow. Opened 1876. Based on the famous Sainte Chapelle, Paris
Wallace Monument
Wales
Hawarden Castle (18th century), Hawarden
Gwrych Castle, Abergele, 1819
Penrhyn Castle, Gwynedd, 1820–45
Cyfarthfa Castle, Merthyr Tydfil, 1824
Margam Castle, Margam, Port Talbot, 1830–5
Treberfydd, near Brecon, 1847−50
Bodelwyddan Castle, Bodelwyddan, Denbighshire, 1850s, with further alterations in the 1880s
Hafodunos, near Llangernyw, 1861–6
Cardiff Castle, Glamorgan, 1866–9
Castell Coch, Glamorgan, 1871
United States
Alabama
Lanier High School Lanier High School (Montgomery, Alabama), Montgomery, Alabama
California
Hearst Castle, San Simeon, California
Cathedral Building, Oakland, California, 1914
Grace Cathedral, San Francisco, 1928–1964.
St. Dominic's Roman Catholic Church, San Francisco, 1928
All Saints Episcopal Church (Pasadena, California), church 1926, rectory 1931.
First Congregational Church of Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, 1931
Connecticut
Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
Harkness Tower, 1917–21
Hall of Graduate Studies, Yale Law School
Payne Whitney Gymnasium
Residential colleges
Sterling Memorial Library
Florida
Several buildings on the University of Florida campus, Gainesville, Florida
Georgia
Congregation Mickve Israel, Savannah, Georgia, 1876–78. A rare example of a Gothic revival synagogue.
Illinois
Tribune Tower, Chicago, Illinois, completed in 1925
University of Chicago
Rockefeller Chapel
other campus buildings
Indiana
Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Notre Dame, Indiana, 1882
Louisiana
Christ Church Cathedral, New Orleans, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1886.
Old Louisiana State Capitol, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 1849.
St. Patrick's Church (New Orleans, Louisiana), New Orleans, Louisiana, 1837.
Maryland
The Baltimore City College (public high school), Baltimore, Maryland, founded 1839, erected 1926–1928, third oldest public high school in America, nicknamed "The Castle on the Hill", at 33rd Street and The Alameda.
Massachusetts
Boston College, Boston, Massachusetts
Bapst Library, 1908
Gasson Tower
Michigan
Woodward Avenue Presbyterian Church, Detroit, Michigan, 1911
Mississippi
St. Mary's Episcopal Chapel in Adams County, Mississippi, 1837
Missouri
Brookings Hall and several buildings on the Washington University in St. Louis campus
St. Francis de Sales Church (St. Louis, Missouri), the second largest church in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of St. Louis
New Jersey
Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart (Newark, New Jersey) 1954
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
Princeton University Chapel, 1925–1928
Princeton University Graduate College
Whitman College House
Several buildings on the Seton Hall University campus, South Orange, New Jersey
The Willows at Fosterfields, the Morristown mansion built for Joseph Warren Revere, 1854
New York
Fonthill Castle and the Administration Building of the College of Mount St. Vincent, the Bronx, 1852 and 1859
American Museum of Natural History, Manhattan, 1877
Saint Ignatius of Antioch Episcopal Church, Manhattan, 1902
St. Patrick's Cathedral, Manhattan, 1858–78
Woolworth Building, Manhattan, 1910–13
Trinity and United States Realty Buildings, Manhattan, 1907
New York Life Insurance Building, Manhattan, 1928
Liberty Tower, Manhattan, 1909
Public School 166 in Manhattan, New York City, 1898
McGraw Tower, Uris Library, Willard Straight Hall, and other buildings on the Cornell University campus in Ithaca, New York.
Several buildings of the Fordham University campus, the Bronx, including structures as recently constructed as 2000.
The Thompson Memorial Library at Vassar College in Poughkeepsie, NY, 1905.
Several buildings on the City College of New York campus, Manhattan
Most of the buildings on the West Point campus, most famously the West Point Cadet Chapel
North Carolina
Duke Chapel and the main quadrangle of the West Campus of Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, 1930–35
High Point Central High School, (High Point, North Carolina)
Ohio
Several buildings on the University of Toledo campus, Toledo, Ohio
St. John's Episcopal Church (Cleveland, Ohio) 1836, the oldest consecrated building in Cuyahoga County, Ohio
Trinity Cathedral, Cleveland
Forest Lawn Memorial Park Youngstown, Ohio
Jones Hall at Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio
Saint John's Episcopal Church, Youngstown, Ohio
Pennsylvania
Alumni Memorial Building, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, 1925
Bryn Athyn Cathedral, Bryn Athyn, 1913–19
Several buildings on the Bryn Mawr College campus, Bryn Mawr
Church of the Advocate, Philadelphia, 1892–97
East Liberty Presbyterian Church, Pittsburgh, 1932–35
Several buildings on the Grove City College campus, Grove City, Pennsylvania
PPG Place, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1984
Saint Peter's Episcopal Church, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Built 1851, moved and re-constructed 1901, destroyed (date needed)
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
College Hall, 1872
Houston Hall, 1894–96, 1936
Irvine Auditorium, 1926–29
Quadrangle Dormitories, 1895–1912, 1920s, 1950s
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh
Cathedral of Learning, 1926–37
Heinz Chapel, 1933–38
Stephen Foster Memorial, 1935–37
Clapp Hall, 1956
Tennessee
Several buildings on the Rhodes College campus, Memphis, Tennessee
St. Mary's Episcopal Cathedral in Memphis, Tennessee, 1898–1926
Texas
St. Patrick Cathedral, Fort Worth, Texas, 1888
Utah
Salt Lake Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1896
Virginia
St. Paul's Episcopal Church (Alexandria, Virginia), 1818, designed by Benjamin Latrobe
Several buildings on the University of Richmond campus, Richmond, Virginia, 1937
Washington
Suzzallo Library and several buildings on the University of Washington campus, Seattle, Washington
Washington, D.C.
Oak Hill Cemetery Chapel, Washington, D.C., designed by James Renwick, Jr. in 1850
Washington National Cathedral, Washington, D.C., 1907–90
Wyoming
Natrona County High School, Casper, Wyoming, 1924
Vietnam
Saigon Notre-Dame Basilica, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
St. Joseph Cathedral, Hanoi, Vietnam
Nha Trang Cathedral, Nha Trang, Vietnam
References
Gothic Revival
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxnard%20Plain
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Oxnard Plain
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The Oxnard Plain is a large coastal plain in southwest Ventura County, California, United States surrounded by the mountains of the Transverse ranges. The cities of Oxnard, Camarillo, Port Hueneme and much of Ventura as well as the unincorporated communities of Hollywood Beach, El Rio, Saticoy, Silver Strand Beach, and Somis lie within the over . The population within the plain comprises a majority of the western half of the Oxnard-Thousand Oaks-Ventura Metro Area and includes the largest city along the Central Coast of California. The is among the longest stretches of continuous, linear beaches in the state.
The high quality soils, adequate water supply, favorable climate, long growing season, and level topography are characteristic of the Oxnard Plain where the top cash crops are strawberries, raspberries, nursery stock and celery. Ventura County is one of the principal agricultural counties in the state and it is a significant component of the economy with a total annual crop value in the county of over $1.8 billion in 2014. There is strong public sentiment for retaining agricultural production, as reflected in the SOAR (Save Open Space and Agricultural Resources) initiatives that have been approved by voters.
This plain has been formed chiefly by the deposition of sediments from the Santa Clara River and Calleguas Creek. This plain contained a series of marshes, salt flats, sloughs, and lagoons prior to the expansion of agriculture. The Santa Clara River is one of the largest river systems along the coast of Southern California and only one of two remaining river systems in the region that remain in their natural states. The Oxnard Plain faces the Santa Barbara Channel portion of the Southern California Bight, extending from the abrupt transition of the steep rocky shore at Point Mugu in the Santa Monica Mountains on the south to the Ventura River on the north. Prominent on the southeastern horizon are Conejo Mountain and Boney Peak.
The Oxnard Plain contains a considerable petroleum reserve with several active oil fields – the Oxnard Oil Field, east of Oxnard, the West Montalvo Oil Field, along the coast south of the outlet of the Santa Clara River, and the Santa Clara Avenue Oil Field north of U.S. Highway 101 near El Rio. There are also several smaller abandoned oil fields. Oil facilities are interspersed with agricultural land uses both east and west of Oxnard.
History
Prehistory and indigenous peoples
Human settlement at over 5000 B.C.E. has been documented in nearby coastal sites. These prehistoric sites may contain middens, milling stone sites, large villages, cemeteries, and tool making sites. The diversity of natural resources along with the temperate climate with a long growing season produced a lengthy archaeological record of human activity along the coast. Calleguas Creek and the Santa Clara River were populated with many Native American villages as evidenced by archaeological sites such as the Calleguas Creek Site that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976. Several sites have also been documented at Mugu Lagoon. The numerous archaeological sites in the adjacent Santa Monica Mountains also demonstrate the long history of human habitation. Many of the sites are located adjacent to permanent water sources as the presence or absence of water is a crucial predictor of site location in Southern California. Many of the archaeological sites on the plain have been disturbed by erosion, farming, gophers, bulldozers, and other cultural and natural sources of disturbance.
Spanish period (1782 to 1822)
Spanish explorers made sailing expeditions along the coast of southern California between the mid-1500s and mid-1700s. In the 18th century, Spain began the colonization and inland exploration of Alta California. They established a tripartite system consisting of missions, presidios, and pueblos. Mission San Buenaventura was founded in 1782 next to the Ventura River, upcoast from the Santa Clara River. The Oxnard plain was used for grazing herds of livestock which required thousands of acres. The traditional way of life of the Chumash people became increasingly unstable and unsustainable on the Oxnard Plain with the introduction of these animals. They also experienced further disruptive contacts through the increasing number of Europeans and Americans that visited the California coast looking for pelts from fur-bearing animals such as sea otters, and trade in hides and tallow beginning in the 1790s. The destruction wrought by the livestock and shortages of wild plants that they used for food may have made the missions appear to be the only viable alternative to a disintegrating way of life. At its peak in 1816, the mission had over 41,000 animals including 23,400 cattle, 12,144 sheep. The 4,493 horses constituted one of the largest stables of horses of the California mission sites. The Chumash culture, including political and social relationships between communities, trade, and inter-village marriage patterns, could not be sustained as more and more Indians abandoned their traditional way of life and entered the mission. The severe decrease in the Chumash population was in response to a complex set of social, economic, and demographic factors.
Mexican period (1822-1848)
Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821. With the secularization of the missions by the Mexican government in June 1836, their lands were granted as rewards for loyal service or in response to petitions by individuals. Most of the arable land was divided up into large ranchos by 1846. This opened up the Oxnard Plain to further settlement by Europeans. Control of the area was transferred to the United States under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 and California became the 31st state in the Union in 1850. Many Mexican residents and residents who had immigrated from European countries became U.S. citizens.
Initial European migration
Many of the Spanish and Mexican rancho families benefited when the cattle market peaked between 1848 and 1855 due to the California Gold Rush. Cattle ranching declined drastically when a drought hit the area in 1863.
James Saviers bought property in Rancho Colonia in 1862. He was a blacksmith and farmer who grew and sold eucalyptus trees used to protect crops from the seasonal Santa Ana winds that originated inland and brought strong, hot, extremely dry winds to the treeless plain. Settlers Gottfried Maulhardt and Christian Borchard along with Christian's son, John Edward, and nephew, Caspar began farming with of wheat and barley in 1867. New markets for the grain opened up when a shipping wharf was first constructed in 1871 at Hueneme. Irish immigrant Dominick McGrath arrived in 1874 with his wife and children to begin farming on the plain. Johnnas Diedrich, with his bride, Matilda, began a new life of farming in 1882 having come from Hanover, Germany. New Jerusalem was founded in 1875 along the south bank of the Santa Clara River. The community, eventually renamed El Rio, was along the route between Ventura and Hueneme. Lima beans became the dominant crop as they could be grown with very little maintenance. Farmers were actively growing trial fields of sugar beets in 1897.
City development and growth
In 1887, as the railroad was constructed from Los Angeles to the town of San Buenaventura, the Montalvo station was established on the plain on the north side of the river. In 1898 the Montalvo Cutoff brought the railroad across the Santa Clara River at El Rio and then due south to where the town of Oxnard was being established. The Oxnard Brothers built the American Beet Sugar Company factory on land in the middle portion of the plain that they bought from James Saviers. He became a judge and an honorary justice of the peace: Saviers Road was named after him in the new city of Oxnard that arose around the factory. The railroad continued with tracks heading east out of Oxnard and eventually being extended to Santa Susana in Simi Valley. Traffic on the coast railroad line was rerouted through Oxnard in 1904 with the completion of the Santa Susana Tunnel as this became the most direct route between Los Angeles and San Francisco.
Agriculture as an industry, as differentiated from family farming, began with the access to the railroad network. In 1903, this transition in agriculture labor practices found Japanese and Mexican sugar beet workers and labor contractors united in protest as the growers, backed by financiers, slashed the wage rate by 50 percent and sought to eliminate independent labor agents. The workers formed the Japanese Mexican Labor Association to press their concerns. While one ethnic group can often be pitted against another to undermine labor solidarity, the Oxnard Strike of 1903 unified them, as their efforts brought the industry to a standstill until their demands were met.
In 1911, J. Smeaton Chase noted the "prosperous fields of beans and beets" as he descended from the Santa Monica Mountains onto the Oxnard Plain during his horseback journey from Mexico to Oregon. In his book about the journey, he describes the "sleepy little coast village of Hueneme" as a "ghost of a once flourishing town" due to the establishment of a beet sugar factory. The once busy port had drastically declined as passenger and freight traffic shifted to the railroad.
Postwar and modern development
Although agriculture has long been important to the economy on the Oxnard Plain, the booming growth in the 1960s of the cities located on the plain expanding by building housing, highways, and associated infrastructure over the rich agricultural land. Several methods were tried to encourage the building in compact, connected ways and reduce urban sprawl into the agricultural lands. "Guidelines for orderly development" were adopted in 1969 by the County of Ventura to encourage urban development to be located within incorporated cities whenever or wherever practical. Eventually greenbelt agreements were established between cities to further define the areas of growth. A growth control ordinance was adopted by the city of Ventura in 1995. "Save Open-space and Agricultural Resources" (SOAR) was the name given to these plans that would limit housing and commercial development on farmland surrounding the cities. Jean Harris and other activists pressured the Oxnard city council to present a measure to the voters. Oxnard, Camarillo and Ventura County SOAR initiatives were overwhelmingly approved by voters in 1998. Under SOAR, the farmland and open space outside each city's urban growth boundary could not be rezoned without voter approval through 2020. The City of Ventura SOAR regulations expire at the end of 2030.
Ballot initiatives in 2016 proposed to extend the growth control ordinance for another 30 years. As measures to renew SOAR were placed on the ballot county-wide in 2016, an alternative proposal was put forth by the agricultural interests.
, farmland values in California were at historic highs and the agricultural industry was optimistic and even confident about the future. Pesticide use is an issue in the interface between agriculture and residential areas along with public uses such as schools.
While the vast fields of fertile soil were appreciated for the agricultural bounty that could be produced, the sand dunes and wetlands along the coast line were considered useless except as places to dispose of solid and liquid waste. This at least dates back to 1898 when the beet sugar factory sent the wastewater discharge through a pipe to Ormond Beach. Various other areas near the coast were used for dumping trash and oil-waste, much of the time with local government encouragement and supervision. The Halaco Engineering Co., a metal recycling facility at the Ormond Beach wetlands, deposited process wastes and wastewater from the smelter from 1965 until 2004 on what was allegedly a former open dump operated by the City of Oxnard until 1962. The waste pile contains an estimated and the facility has been designated a Superfund site. Other large, polluting industries were cited at Ormond Beach wetlands before environmental concerns highlighted the importance of restoring the area to serve as a dynamic habitat for a wide array of native plants and animals.
Over the years, many communities have attempted to control the Santa Clara River by establishing dumps along the banks to create levees that would keep the river from flooding adjacent lands during occasional years with heavy winter rains. Three dump sites about upstream from the mouth of the river came under the control of the Ventura Regional Sanitation District by 1988. They continued to use the sites until they were closed in 1996.
Municipal wastewater treatment facilities, industrial dischargers, and power generating stations are point source dischargers along the coast of the Oxnard plain. Water quality at the numerous beaches has been very good with a few exceptions. Two power generating stations were built in the 1960s to take advantage of the ocean for cooling. Reliant Energy purchased the Mandalay Generating Station from Southern California Edison in 1998. The Oxnard City council tried to prevent a third plant from being built in 2012. After years of legal tussles, the McGrath Peaker Plant was built by Edison next to the power plant at Mandalay.
Geography
This plain is bounded by the Santa Monica Mountains, the Santa Susana Mountains, the Topatopa Mountains to the north, the Santa Clara River Valley to the northeast and the Santa Barbara Channel to the south and west. The topography of the plain is relatively level. It has been formed chiefly by the deposition of sediments from Santa Clara River Valley and the watershed of Calleguas Creek before they flow into the Pacific Ocean. The alluvial deposits from these rivers are generally a few hundred feet () thick and lie over Pleistocene and Pliocene sedimentary rocks. The Santa Clara River is one of the largest river systems along the coast of Southern California and only one of two remaining river systems in the region that remain in their natural states and not channelized by concrete.
Prior to the agricultural expansion, installation of drainage systems, and other disturbances, this broad, flat, coastal area contained a series of marshes, salt flats, sloughs, and lagoons. Historically, Calleguas Creek flood flows spread across the floodplain and the deposited sediment created the rich agricultural lands of the Oxnard Plain. With year-round agriculture in the floodplain, concrete channels and dirt levees have been built to contain the flow. This has delivered increased sediment to Mugu Lagoon and flooding during extreme rain events. The is among the longest stretches of continuous, linear beaches in the state. With the Port of Hueneme, Channel Islands Harbor, and Ventura Harbor along with a number of breakwaters, jetties and groins, this is one of the most engineered coastlines in the state with complicated coastal geography.
Groundwater
Saltwater intrusion from the ocean has occurred in the southern Oxnard Plain due to the overdraft of groundwater. The Santa Clara Irrigating Company was formed in 1870 and drew water from the Santa Clara River, using a ditch system to irrigate the grain crops. Early settlers began pumping soon afterwards to support farming activities with what at first was a more reliable source. In the modern era, much of the groundwater has been rendered useless for agricultural or potable uses by salt-water intrusion. Unlike coastal Los Angeles and Orange County, Ventura County has no barrier in place to prevent the ocean water from intruding into the inland aquifers.
The Sustainable Groundwater Management Act signed into California law in 2014 created a framework for sustainable, local groundwater management for the first time in California history. In response, the Ventura County Board of Supervisors passed an emergency ordinance that halted well-drilling in the Oxnard Plain. Groundwater levels experienced a decrease during the 2012–2013 drought.
Calleguas Municipal Water District
Calleguas Municipal Water District, a water wholesaler, serves about 75 percent of Ventura County's population. Calleguas ships state water from the Delta to Oxnard, Port Hueneme, and Camarillo on the Oxnard Plain and Moorpark, Thousand Oaks, Simi Valley and unincorporated areas in the east county. These areas also use groundwater and surface water supplies but these sources have increased in salinity. The source of the salts is a combination of agricultural, industrial, and residential activities in conjunction with salts in the imported water. The United Water Conservation District funded a detailed feasibility study in 2014 and found that the impaired groundwater in the south Oxnard Plain is suitable for treatment by reverse osmosis at an acceptable recovery range of 72 to 80 percent. Many local agencies, particularly those in the Calleguas Creek Watershed, have built or are putting in desalters to treat salty groundwater. The treated water can be used for drinking supplies which will make the region less dependent on imported state water. The remaining salt concentrate will be sent out to sea through the Calleguas Regional Salinity Management Project. This $220 million pipeline project started in 2003 and stretches from the marine outfall into Simi Valley. That pipeline services desalters in Simi Valley, Moorpark and the Camrosa Water District in the Santa Rosa Valley.
Camarillo and Santa Rosa Valley
The city of Camarillo water system serves about two-thirds of its residents. It imports about 60 percent of its water from the state water project through the Calleguas Municipal Water District and 40 percent is pumped from three wells. The North Pleasant Valley Desalter Project is a $66.3 million project to treat brackish well water. The project began construction in September, 2019. The city held a ribbon cutting ceremony in November 2021 as the plant began to operate. After extensive testing and adjustments, the plant started producing water for the city in January 2023.
The Camrosa Water District serves nearly 30,000 people in Camarillo and the Santa Rosa Valley along with agricultural customers. The district, which covers is headquartered in Camarillo. Camrosa completed the Round Mountain Water Treatment Plant, a desalting facility, in 2015. It cleans up brackish groundwater and produces of drinking water a year. The facility was the first paying customer for the Calleguas Regional Salinity Management Project.
Oxnard
In 2008, the city started up a desalination plant near the Oxnard Transit Center that treats the brackish groundwater from nearby wells. The water supply in the Oxnard Plain has been expanded by a $71 million Advanced Water Purification Facility (AWPF) built by the city of Oxnard. The plant scrubs treated sewage water to super-clean levels that can be used on crops, by industrial customers, and for water landscaping. The water can also be injected into the ground from where it can be pumped out months later for use in the drinking supply. When the final permits were in place, the AWPF began providing water to a lake at the River Ridge Golf Course in 2015. Water from the lake is used to irrigate the golf course. Gradually, pipelines begin serving city parks, street medians, and all the landscaping in new developments including two along the Santa Clara River: RiverPark, a community of 1,800 homes and Wagon Wheel with 1,500 apartments and condos. The water is also provided to industrial customers and farmers near the plant. Initially pipelines needed to reach additional farmers served by the Pleasant Valley County Water District with were not finished until 2016 but the district was able to temporarily use the brine line to get the water to the farmers during the drought.
United Water Conservation District
Formed in 1950, the United Water Conservation District battles groundwater overdraft through a combination of aquifer recharge and providing alternative surface water supplies. The District encompasses about and owns Lake Piru and key facilities along the Santa Clara River that are used to manage groundwater supplies. The United Water Conservation District provides wholesale water delivery through three pipelines to various portions of the Oxnard Plain. One is the Oxnard/Hueneme system which serves the City of Oxnard, the Port Hueneme Water Agency (City of Port Hueneme, Channel Islands Beach CSD) and the Naval Base Ventura County (Point Mugu and the Construction Battalion Center). A second pipeline serves agricultural uses in the Oxnard Plain. The third system supplies water to the Pleasant Valley area located between Oxnard and Camarillo. United rates for non-agricultural uses are at least three times more than agricultural users are charged as required by the state water code.
The Vern Freeman Diversion Dam, built by United Water in 1991 on the Santa Clara river, channels water to shallow basins designed to replenish the aquifer. For decades before the structure was built, earthen dams were constructed in the river to divert water to farmers and replenished the aquifer. The berms would have to be rebuilt whenever winter rains created a flow that breached the berms. Southern California Steelhead were declared endangered in 1997 and the fish ladder on the structure was deemed insufficient. The National Marine Fisheries Service determined that fixing this was a high priority since it is the first structure the steelhead encounter when attempting to migrate from the ocean.
United released water from Lake Piru to specifically recharge the Fox Canyon in the Oxnard Plain for the first time in 2019.
Ormond Beach
Ormond Beach is a broad, flat, coastal area on the south side of the Oxnard Plain that historically contained marshes, salt flats, sloughs, and lagoons. The expansion of agriculture and industry have drained, filled and degraded much of the wetlands over the past century but the area does have a dune-transition zone–marsh system along much of that extends from Port Hueneme to the northwestern boundary of Point Mugu Naval Air Station.
Hazards
The coastline is subject to inundation by a tsunami up to 23 feet in height.
See also
Ballona Wetlands
California coastal prairie
Coastal Strand
Environment of California: Human impact on the environment
Los Angeles Basin
References
Further reading
Dunes of California
Landforms of Ventura County, California
Plains of the United States
Regions of California
Santa Clara River (California)
Landforms of California
Beaches of Ventura County, California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20FA%20Cup%20final
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2006 FA Cup final
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The 2006 FA Cup final was a football match played between Liverpool and West Ham United on 13 May 2006 at the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff. It was the final match of the 2005–06 FA Cup, the 125th season of the world's oldest football knockout competition, the FA Cup. Liverpool were participating in their 13th final; they had previously won six and lost six. West Ham were appearing in their fifth final, they had previously won three and lost once. This was the last final to be held at the Millennium Stadium while Wembley Stadium was rebuilt. Liverpool had won the first final to be held at the Millennium Stadium in 2001, when they beat Arsenal 2–1. The match has been called The Gerrard Final due to Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard's volleys and is widely regarded as one of the greatest cup finals in the history of the competition.
As both teams were in the highest tier of English football, the Premier League, they entered the competition in the third round. Matches up to the semi-final were contested on a one-off basis, with a replay taking place if the match ended in a draw. Liverpool's matches varied from close affairs to comfortable victories. They beat Manchester United 1–0 in the fifth round, while they won 7–0 against Birmingham City in the sixth round. The majority of West Ham's matches were close, with their only match to be decided by more than one goal being their 4–2 victory against Blackburn Rovers in the fourth round.
Watched by a crowd of 71,140, West Ham took the lead in the first half when Liverpool defender Jamie Carragher scored an own goal, and striker Dean Ashton scored a few minutes later to make it 2–0 to West Ham. Liverpool scored, courtesy of Djibril Cissé, to make the score 2–1 at half time. They equalised not long after the restart via a Steven Gerrard goal. However, ten minutes later West Ham defender Paul Konchesky gave his team a 3–2 lead. With the match in injury time, Gerrard equalised from distance to make the score 3–3 and force the game into extra time. No further goals were scored in extra time meaning the match was to be decided by a penalty shoot-out. West Ham missed three of their four penalties while Liverpool converted three of four to win the shoot-out 3–1.
The victory meant Liverpool won the FA Cup for the seventh time. They later played against league champions Chelsea in the 2006 FA Community Shield. Given Liverpool had already qualified for Europe in the UEFA Champions League via their league position, their UEFA Cup spot was awarded to runners-up West Ham.
Route to the final
Liverpool
Liverpool entered the competition in the third round, as one of the twenty teams from the Premier League. They were drawn against Football League Championship side Luton Town, at Luton's home ground Kenilworth Road. Despite trailing 3–1 at the interval, four goals in the second half, including one from behind the halfway line by Xabi Alonso, meant Liverpool recovered to win the match 5–3 and progress to the fourth round. There, they were drawn against fellow top division club Portsmouth. The match held at Portsmouth's ground, Fratton Park, saw Liverpool take the lead in the first half when captain Steven Gerrard scored a penalty following a handball by Portsmouth defender Dejan Stefanović, and John Arne Riise scored again before half time to make it 2–0. Portsmouth got a goal back through midfielder Sean Davis in the second half, but no more goals were scored and Liverpool won 2–1 to go through to the fifth round.
Fellow Premier League team Manchester United were the opposition in the fifth round. With the match held at Liverpool's home ground Anfield, they won 1–0, courtesy of a Peter Crouch goal in the 19th minute. This was the first time in 85 years that Liverpool had defeated United in the FA Cup. Liverpool were then drawn against another Premier League team, Birmingham City in the sixth round. Liverpool took the lead in the match held at Birmingham's home ground St Andrew's in the first minute when defender Sami Hyypiä headed in, and two more goals in the first half from Crouch saw Liverpool finish the first half with a 3–0 lead. Four more goals in the second half from Fernando Morientes, Riise, Djibril Cissé and an own goal from Birmingham defender Olivier Tébily meant Liverpool won 7–0 to progress to the semi-final.
Chelsea, also of the Premier League, were the opposition in the semi-final. The match was held at Old Trafford, the home stadium of Manchester United as a neutral ground. Liverpool took the lead in the first half. Chelsea defender and captain John Terry committed a foul on Luis García, which resulted in a Liverpool free kick, from which Riise scored. They extended their lead soon after the start of the second half, when a goal by García from , after he received the ball from a William Gallas header, gave them a 2–0 lead. Chelsea scored late in the half through striker Didier Drogba, but they were unable to achieve an equaliser and Liverpool won the match 2–1 to progress to the final.
West Ham United
West Ham entered the competition in the third round, where they were drawn against Championship team Norwich City. Before the game Norwich's top scorer, Dean Ashton, was withdrawn from their squad amid speculation that he was about to be sold. Although the sale was denied by manager Nigel Worthington, Ashton joined West Ham soon after for £7.2 million. The match played at Norwich's home ground, Carrow Road, saw West Ham take the lead in the sixth minute through midfielder Hayden Mullins, and double it in the second half from striker Bobby Zamora. Norwich found a consolation with a Paul McVeigh penalty, but they lost 2–1 and West Ham progressed to the fourth round. Fellow Premier League team Blackburn Rovers were the opposition in the fourth round. West Ham went a goal down in the first minute when David Bentley scored, but they subsequently scored four goals from Teddy Sheringham, Matthew Etherington, Bobby Zamora and an own goal from Zurab Khizanishvili to win the match 4–2 and go through to the fifth round.
West Ham were again drawn against Premier League opposition in the fifth round, facing Bolton Wanderers away at the Reebok Stadium. It ended in a 0–0 draw, necessitating a replay. A Jussi Jääskeläinen own goal in the 10th minute gave West Ham the lead in the replay at their home ground Upton Park. Bolton equalised through striker Kevin Davies and with the score 1–1 at full time the match went to extra time. A goal from striker Marlon Harewood in the 96th minute gave West Ham a 2–1 victory and meant they progressed to the sixth round. Premier League team Manchester City were the opposition in the sixth round, and West Ham went ahead in the 41st minute when striker Dean Ashton scored. They extended their lead, in the match held at City's ground, the City of Manchester Stadium, in the 69th minute with Ashton's second of the match. A goal from Kiki Musampa in the 85th minute for City was not enough to prevent West Ham and they won 2–1 to go through to the semi-final.
Middlesbrough, also from the Premier League, were the opposition in the semi-final at the neutral venue of Villa Park in Birmingham. Before the game both players and supporters paused to remember the life of West Ham's recently deceased former manager, John Lyall. The first half saw Middlesbrough dominate, but they were unable to convert any of their chances into goals. They also lost goalkeeper Mark Schwarzer to injury. A long pass by defender Anton Ferdinand was headed down by Ashton to Harewood, whose goal ensured a 1–0 victory for West Ham and a place in the final.
Background
The match was Liverpool's 13th appearance in the final. They had won on six occasions (1965, 1974, 1986, 1989, 1992, 2001) and lost six times (1914, 1950, 1971, 1977, 1988, 1996). West Ham were appearing in their fifth final, they had previously won three (1964, 1975, 1980) and lost once in the 1923 FA Cup Final. Liverpool had won both the meetings between the teams in the Premier League during the season. A 2–0 home victory at the end of October, was followed by a 2–1 win at the end of April. The latter match saw Liverpool midfielder Luis García and West Ham defender Hayden Mullins sent off, which meant they would both be suspended for the final.
A week before the final, Liverpool played Portsmouth in the 2005–06 Premier League – it was their last match before the final, and they won 3–1. The win was Liverpool's ninth straight in the competition and meant they finished the season in third place. One area of concern was the fitness of midfielder Xabi Alonso, who injured his ankle in the match and was a doubt for the final. They were also without striker Robbie Fowler, who was cup-tied after playing for Manchester City earlier in the competition. Captain Steven Gerrard was determined not to let complacency affect Liverpool; "We have beaten fantastic sides like Manchester United and Chelsea to get to the final, but it is always on your mind that after going on such a successful run you might not get over that last hurdle."
West Ham's final game before the final was against Tottenham Hotspur in the Premier League, and a 2–1 win meant they finished the season in ninth place. West Ham also had injury concerns ahead of the final, with midfielder Matthew Etherington and striker Dean Ashton both doubts to be fit for the match. However, manager Alan Pardew was optimistic they would be available for selection stating: "You expect everyone to put their life on the line for the final." Pardew was also optimistic about his team's chances in the final, despite them being considered as the underdogs: We're up against a technical team who are better than us, Liverpool have got more experience and more international players, too. But everyone also knows that we attack teams and that we've got a big punch."
The match was originally scheduled to be played on 20 May. However, England manager Sven-Göran Eriksson wanted a four-week break before the start of the 2006 FIFA World Cup, so that if any England players were involved (Liverpool's Steven Gerrard, Jamie Carragher and Peter Crouch all later made his squad) would get a decent rest before the tournament. The final was scheduled to be held at Wembley Stadium, however the stadium had fallen behind in its rebuild and would not be completed in time for the final. The final would instead be played at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, where it had been held since 2001. Mike Dean was originally appointed to referee the final, but questions about his impartiality were raised as he resided close to Liverpool. He was replaced by Alan Wiley.
In the week before the Final, a block of 1,600 tickets in the Liverpool supporters' seating area was stolen in the postal system. The stadium authorities refused to reissue the tickets on crowd safety grounds, and threatened to eject anyone found sitting in the block from the stadium and possibly prosecute them for receiving stolen goods. Liverpool F.C. arranged for most of the affected fans to receive tickets from an allocation that had been held back for a lottery among their supporters. The day after the final, South Wales Police seized 100 stolen tickets. Three people were arrested after 15 forged tickets were found ahead of the match.
Match
Pre-match
Michael Ball sang the national anthem, "God Save the Queen", on the pitch before the game, with Lesley Garrett singing the traditional cup final hymn, "Abide with Me". Before the match, both teams received a boost as Ashton and Etherington for West Ham and Alonso for Liverpool were deemed fit enough to start the final.
First half
West Ham kicked the match off, as both teams lined up in a 4–4–2 formation. West Ham committed the first foul of the match in the first minute as Paul Konchesky brought down Steven Gerrard, but Liverpool were unable to capitalise on the resulting free kick. A few minutes later, West Ham midfielder Yossi Benayoun advanced down the right hand side of the pitch and passed the ball into the penalty area, but Liverpool defender Sami Hyypiä was able to intercept the ball before Ashton or Harewood received it. Harewood had the first shot on goal for West Ham in the 12th minute, but it was deflected out for a corner.
Liverpool's first opportunity came a minute later, after West Ham midfielder Carl Fletcher conceded a free kick for a foul on Gerrard. However, the resulting free kick was hit into the wall of players in front of the West Ham penalty area. A few minutes later, West Ham scored the first goal of the match; Liverpool midfielder Xabi Alonso gave the ball away to Benayoun, who played it inside to Ashton. Ashton then played a through-ball to Lionel Scaloni on the right flank, before the Argentine's low cross was put into his own goal by Liverpool defender Jamie Carragher to give West Ham a 1–0 lead. Seven minutes later, West Ham extended their lead, when Liverpool goalkeeper Pepe Reina fumbled a shot from Etherington into the path of Ashton, who squeezed the rebound under Reina into the far corner to make it 2–0. Liverpool looked to have reduced the defect in the 30th minute, but Peter Crouch's shot from a Gerrard free kick was disallowed as Crouch was offside.
However, Liverpool did score from their next attack. Gerrard played a ball into the West Ham penalty area, which went over the head of defender Scaloni and was met by striker Djibril Cissé, who scored to make it 2–1. Ashton came close to extending West Ham's lead in the 37th minute, but his effort went wide of the post after beating goalkeeper Reina. The last chance of the half came in the 44th minute when Liverpool defender Steve Finnan sliced a clearance straight to striker Harewood, however his shot went out for a throw-in.
Second half
Liverpool got the second half under way, but it was West Ham who had the first attack of the half. Etherington advanced down the right hand side of the pitch and passed to Harewood, whose shot was saved by Reina, who also saved a subsequent shot from Benayoun. Liverpool had a chance immediately afterwards as Cissé passed to Alonso, but his shot was blocked and went out for a corner. A minute later, Liverpool made the first substitution of the match, as the injured Harry Kewell was replaced by Fernando Morientes. Liverpool equalised in the 54th minute, when Gerrard volleyed home a knock-down header from Crouch. The first yellow card of the match went to Ashton after he fouled Finnan in the 60th minute. Three minutes later, Carragher also received a yellow card for a foul on Ashton.
A minute later, West Ham went ahead again; defender Paul Konchesky received the ball on the left flank, and played a ball into the Liverpool penalty area, only to see it sail over goalkeeper Reina and into the goal. Three minutes later, Liverpool made another substitution, as Alonso went off with an injury to be replaced by defender Jan Kromkamp. Minutes later, West Ham captain Nigel Reo-Coker had an attempt to score, but his shot went over the Liverpool goal. West Ham subsequently made their first substitution of the match, as Ashton was replaced by fellow striker Bobby Zamora. Liverpool also replaced Crouch with midfielder Dietmar Hamann.
West Ham made their second substitution of the match in the 77th minute, as they replaced Fletcher with Christian Dailly. They also changed formation to a 4–5–1 in an attempt to hang onto their lead. Morientes headed a Cissé pass wide in the last 10 minutes as Liverpool looked to score an equaliser. West Ham made their final substitution of the match in the 85th minute, as striker Teddy Sheringham replaced Etherington. Sheringham's first involvement in the match was to concede a free kick for handball, which was subsequently put wide by Gerrard. With the match entering injury time, Liverpool's Riise played the ball into the West Ham penalty area, where it was cleared but only as far as Gerrard, from goal; the Liverpool captain hit the ball on the volley and it flew along a low trajectory past goalkeeper Shaka Hislop into the bottom corner of the West Ham goal. West Ham had another chance before full-time, but Konchesky's shot was saved by Reina. With the scores level at 3–3, the match went into extra time after the referee brought an end to the 90 minutes of play.
Extra time
Liverpool got the first half of extra time under way, but the start was slow as players suffered with cramp, Carragher in particular. In the 97th minute, Liverpool won a corner, which West Ham cleared to Liverpool defender John Arne Riise on the edge of the penalty area, but his shot went over the crossbar. Liverpool won another corner in the 99th minute, which was cleared by West Ham; the ball came back into the penalty area and Morientes headed down for Cissé, but he was unable to control the ball. Before the end of the half, Hyypiä had a chance to score after running past Scaloni and Harewood, but his shot went wide of the West Ham goal.
Just after the start of the second half of extra time, Liverpool had the first chance. Kromkamp advanced down the right wing, but his shot went wide of the West Ham goal. West Ham won a corner in the 109th minute, but it came to nothing as Zamora was penalised for a foul on Reina. Players continued to struggle with cramp as Gerrard, Mohamed Sissoko, Finnan and Harewood all went down in quick succession. West Ham won a free kick in the 114th minute, after Zamora was tripped by Hyypiä, but Benayoun's effort was cleared and almost resulted in a chance for Liverpool, before Morientes was tackled by Anton Ferdinand from the West Ham goal. Two minutes from the end, Hamann was booked for a foul on Zamora; the subsequent free kick was met by Reo-Coker, whose shot was turned onto the post by Reina. The ball rebounded to Harewood, but his shot went wide of the goal. Neither team scored before the end of extra time, and the referee brought the match to an end with the scores level, resulting in a penalty shoot-out.
Penalty shoot-out
The shoot-out took place at the end where the West Ham fans were seated, with Liverpool taking the first penalty. Hamann stepped up first and scored high to the right of Hislop. Zamora took the first penalty for West Ham, but his shot was saved by Reina. Hyypiä took the next penalty for Liverpool, but he also missed, as Hislop saved his shot. Substitute Sheringham took West Ham's next penalty and scored, his shot beating Reina high to his left to level the shoot-out at 1–1. Liverpool captain Gerrard took their next penalty and scored to make it 2–1, while Konchesky's shot was saved by Reina. Riise took the next penalty for Liverpool and scored to extend their lead to 3–1. Ferdinand was next and needed to score to keep West Ham in the shoot-out, but his penalty was saved by Reina, which meant Liverpool won the shoot-out 3–1 to win the FA Cup for the seventh time.
Details
Statistics
Post-match
Liverpool's victory meant they won the FA Cup for the seventh time, the club's manager Rafael Benítez stated that neither side deserved to lose the match: "It was difficult to say we deserved to win or the other team. It was a magnificent final. We knew that they could score goals but that we could also. We needed to keep going but after 63 games it was really difficult." Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard also praised West Ham, stating: "West Ham were brilliant, they gave us a really good game but we had a never-say-die attitude and we stuck in there, our best chance was on penalties as we did not have any energy left." Due to the nature of the comeback, the match has come to be regarded as The Gerrard Final, teammate Peter Crouch summed up the effect Gerrard had on the match: "When the injury-time board went up we thought our chance had gone, but it is always good to have a player like Steven Gerrard in your team." A BBC Sport poll in May 2015 deemed Gerrard's goal to be the best in an FA Cup Final from the past 50 years.
West Ham manager Alan Pardew described the defeat as hard to take: "It felt like a defeat when the third goal went in. We rallied and had a great chance in extra time. We had to dig in. This was a top team we were playing, but I felt we were going to win. Only a 35-yard Gerrard smasher was going to change that. The players have been magnificent – we are proud of the way we played." Captain Nigel Reo-Coker found defeat hard to take as he felt they had done enough to win the final: "I can't describe it how I feel at the moment – gutted because I think we deserved to win this game. The players put in a fantastic effort, but it just wasn't to be for us. It was a marvellous FA Cup final and we gave all we could. I hope everyone was proud – it just wasn't our day."
Liverpool's victory set up a Community Shield match against Chelsea, winners of the 2005–06 Premier League. As FA Cup winners, Liverpool would have been awarded qualification into the UEFA Cup, but because they had qualified for the UEFA Champions League via their league position, the UEFA Cup place was passed to runners-up, West Ham.
References
External links
Final
2005–06 in Welsh football
2006
Liverpool F.C. matches
West Ham United F.C. matches
Association football penalty shoot-outs
2000s in Cardiff
May 2006 sports events in the United Kingdom
Sports competitions in Cardiff
Nicknamed sporting events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol%20and%20Exeter%20Railway
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Bristol and Exeter Railway
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The Bristol and Exeter Railway (B&ER) was an English railway company formed to connect Bristol and Exeter. It was built on the broad gauge and its engineer was Isambard Kingdom Brunel. It opened in stages between 1841 and 1844. It was allied with the Great Western Railway (GWR), which built its main line between London and Bristol, and in time formed part of a through route between London and Cornwall.
It became involved in the gauge wars, a protracted and expensive attempt to secure territory against rival companies supported by the London and South Western Railway (LSWR) which used the narrow gauge, later referred to as standard gauge.
At first it contracted with the GWR for that company to work the line, avoiding the expense of acquiring locomotives, but after that arrangement expired in 1849, the B&ER operated its own line. It opened a number of branches within the general area it served: to Clevedon, Cheddar, Wells, Weston-super-Mare, Chard, Yeovil and Tiverton.
The B&ER was financially successful but amalgamated with the GWR in 1876, the combined company being called the Great Western Railway.
History
Formation and construction
The Great Western Railway (GWR) obtained its authorising Act of Parliament in 1835, to build its line between London and Bristol. The merchants of Bristol were anxious to secure a railway route to Exeter, an important commercial centre and a port on the English Channel, giving easier shipping connections to continental Europe. They promoted the Bristol and Exeter Railway and when they issued a prospectus on 1 October 1835, they had little difficulty in securing subscriptions for the £1,500,000 scheme.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel was appointed engineer—he was also engineer to the GWR—and his assistant William Gravatt surveyed the route, leading to presentation of a parliamentary Bill for the 1836 session. The Bill had an easy passage and was enacted on 19 May 1836. The Act did not specify the gauge of the track; branches at Bridgwater and to Tiverton were authorised. Notwithstanding the apparent family connection to the neighbouring GWR, none of the B&ER directors was also a GWR director at this time. The GWR was still under construction.
The early euphoria turned to great difficulty in raising finance for construction. 4,000 of the 15,000 subscribed shares were forfeited for non-payment of calls before the line was built. A contract was let for the first part of the line, from a temporary terminus at Pylle Hill, west of the New Cut (an arm of the River Avon). The position improved somewhat in 1838, and indeed the Company obtained Parliamentary powers for four short branches: of these only one, to Weston-super-Mare, was actually built.
It was not until 5 March 1839 that the Company adopted the broad gauge, having observed the practical results of its use on the GWR.
In the autumn of 1839, the Directors informed the half-yearly meeting of shareholders that it was now planned to make a priority of forming the line from Temple Meads (connecting with the GWR there) to Bridgwater, Somerset, in order to generate some income. Five locomotives were ordered from Sharp, Roberts & Co for the purpose.
The Directors had decided by the end of 1839 to avoid the capital outlay by arranging with the GWR—by now in operation—to operate the line for them. By this time three Directors were also directors of the GWR, and the alliance was beginning to strengthen. The proposal to lease the line to the GWR was ratified by shareholders at a special meeting in September 1841. The lease was to commence on the opening of a double line from Bristol to Bridgwater and Weston-super-Mare, at a rent of £30,000 annually and a toll of a farthing per passenger-mile and per ton-mile of goods and coal (but no toll for mails, parcels, horses, carriages or cattle). The rent was to increase proportionally with the completion of the system, and the lease was to remain in force for five years after completion of the line to Exeter.
Opening the main line
The first section of the line was opened between Bristol and Bridgwater on 14 June 1841, just before the GWR completed its line from London to Bristol. It was in length and double track, with a single-line branch to Weston-super-Mare. There was no B&ER station at Bristol; a temporary wooden platform at the GWR station was used, and as that station faced London, a backing movement was necessary to reach the point of convergence of the GWR line and the B&ER connecting line.
The stations on opening were Nailsea, Clevedon Road, Banwell, Weston Junction, Highbridge and Bridgwater on the main line; Weston-super-Mare was the only station on its branch, which was operated by horse traction. (The subsequent renaming of stations is listed below.)
Money was slightly easier to come by in 1841 and contracts were let for the completion of the line, which was opened onward from Bridgwater in stages:
Bridgwater to Taunton on 1 July 1842
Taunton to Beam Bridge (on the Exeter Turnpike) on 1 May 1843; Beam Bridge was a temporary terminus, closed when the onward section to Exeter opened
Beam Bridge to Exeter on 1 May 1844. The Exeter station was at the site now known as Exeter St Davids station.
The opening to Exeter completed the B&ER main line, and with the GWR formed a combined broad gauge line from London to Exeter with a mileage of 194 miles, far longer than any other line at the time. The Directors were able to report that the whole construction had been carried out for the £2 million originally authorised, "a most unusual experience in those days".
The South Devon Railway Company obtained its authorising Act of Parliament on 4 July 1844. This would make the broad gauge continuous from London to Plymouth.
Gauge war: a duplicate route to Exeter
The rival London and South Western Railway (LSWR) had its main line from London to Southampton, and was planning to extend to Exeter. The GWR wished to prevent this by promoting its own lines in the region. At this period Parliament considered that only one line was appropriate to serve any particular area, and naturally each company wished their own allies' lines to be authorised. The LSWR was a narrow gauge railway (later referred to as standard gauge) and the GWR and B&ER were broad gauge lines; the intense rivalry to secure territory was referred to as the gauge wars.
A Wilts, Somerset and Weymouth Railway (WS&WR) was promoted by the GWR in 1845. The GWR now saw it as the beginning of a line to Exeter to exclude the LSWR proposal, and as this would harm the position of the B&ER the GWR offered to purchase the B&ER company, which it was leasing. This was put to a B&ER shareholders' meeting and rejected by a considerable majority.
Believing that it had acted in good faith, the GWR now promoted a modified version of the Wilts, Somerset & Weymouth scheme known as the Exeter Great Western, from Yeovil to Exeter via Crewkerne and Axminster.
The B&ER felt alienated from the GWR. Brunel saw that his position as Engineer to both companies was compromised, and resigned from the B&ER at the end of September 1846, being succeeded by Charles Hutton Gregory.
The B&ER naturally opposed these schemes, joining with the LSWR in doing so, and in the 1846 Parliamentary session they were rejected. The Exeter Great Western proposal was presented again in the 1847 session, and the B&ER again opposed the scheme, itself promoting a branch from Durston (east of Taunton) to Castle Cary (on the WS&WR). The Exeter Great Western scheme was again rejected, but the B&ER Castle Cary line was approved. However, by now the financial collapse following the "railway mania" had occurred, and the B&ER never proceeded with that scheme.
The LSWR too had experienced difficulty in making its proposed line to Exeter, and, in continuation of the struggle to exclude the narrow gauge company, the GWR and B&ER jointly promoted a line in 1852 from Maiden Newton on the WS&WR line (which was not yet completed) via Axminster to join the B&ER at Stoke Canon. This line was to be called the Devon and Dorset Railway; the journey from London to Exeter would have been ten miles longer over it than by the existing line via Bristol.
This was presented in Parliament in the 1853 session, and became part of a bitter fight for the so-called coast line: LSWR trains now reached Dorchester and that company proposed its own line. In Committee, witnesses for and against the respective lines appeared, but the B&ER were absent. The proposed broad gauge line was rejected on 30 June.
Gauge war: Crediton and the LSWR
An Act of Parliament in 1845 authorised the Exeter and Crediton Railway (E&CR), a six-mile (10 km) line from Cowley Bridge, a short distance north of Exeter. A railway had already been authorised in North Devon: the Taw Vale Railway and Dock, a short line at Barnstaple. Little had been done there until 1845, when the proprietors obtained authorisation to revive their powers and build the line; they hoped to sell their enterprise, now called the Taw Vale Extension Railway, to another company, the North Devon Railway which was intending to seek its Act for a Barnstaple to Crediton line in 1846.
Meanwhile, competing proposals were submitted to the 1846 session of Parliament for railways to connect Barnstaple to the network. The B&ER wished to make a line from their (proposed) Tiverton station, but that was rejected in favour of the Taw Vale Railway Extension and Dock Company, from Barnstaple to join the Exeter and Crediton line at Crediton. This scheme was supported by the London and South Western Railway (LSWR), which aspired to expand into Devon.
The Exeter and Crediton line and the North Devon line had been expected to be built on the broad gauge and naturally to fall into the B&ER camp; lease terms had been provisionally agreed. However, the London and South Western Railway (LSWR) had designs on entering North Devon, and encouraged friendly relations with the companies. At an E&CR shareholders' meeting on 11 January 1847 the provisional lease was rejected, and this was quickly followed by rejection of the TVER lease; more favourable leases to the LSWR were negotiated and ratified by shareholders in January and February 1847. The B&ER had lost control of the Crediton and Barnstaple lines.
J W Buller of the B&ER was chairman of the E&CR board, and despite the very large shareholder opinion, he attempted to keep the E&CR within the B&ER family, and personally signed a two-year contract with George Hennett to work the line on 7 April 1847. However at an Extraordinary General Meeting on 12 April 1847, Buller and three other B&ER directors were removed from office amid angry scenes.
The E&CR had been built on the broad gauge, and when tempers had cooled, a lease was agreed in February 1851 that the B&ER would work the line, and install the junction with their own line at Cowley Bridge; these works would be at the expense of the E&CR. The E&CR opened on 12 May 1851, for the time being effectively a branch of the B&ER.
The London and South Western Railway reached Exeter on 19 July 1860. It had its own station, Queen Street, in a more central location than the B&ER station, and much higher than it. They already had interests in railways to the west of the B&ER line, and earlier thoughts had turned to an independent line crossing the B&ER line to reach the Crediton line, but wiser counsel prevailed, and an accommodation with the B&ER was reached. By arrangement, Parliamentary authority was obtained for a connecting line descending from the LSWR station to St Davids, and the addition of narrow gauge rails to the line from there to Crediton. The LSWR service started on 1 February 1862.
The Exeter (St Davids) station had been built in a one-sided arrangement with separate up and down sections. The increase of traffic and the arrival of LSWR trains made this very difficult to operate; in 1862 work was started on a new conventionally arranged station, and this was opened in July 1864. Taunton station received a corresponding treatment in August 1868. At Weston-super-Mare, the terminus was modernised and expanded, and the branch line doubled, in 1866. At Bristol, the project was much more difficult; work started in March 1871 but was not completed until 1 January 1878, after amalgamation of the B&ER and the GWR; the new station was joint with the Midland Railway.
Independent operation
The Bristol and Exeter Railway was a considerable financial success, and between 1844 and 1874 paid an average annual dividend of 4.5%.
The B&ER took over the working of its line in 1849, and the two companies, B&ER and GWR, were completely distinct. Through passenger trains operated with shared rolling stock, and once again there was no common director.
J. B. Badham was appointed as Secretary and General Superintendent, and after a false start, James Cresswell Wall was appointed Traffic Superintendent, transferring to Chief Goods Agent on 1 January 1855; Henry Dykes succeeded him as Traffic Superintendent. C. H. Gregory remained Chief Engineer until the post was abolished in June 1851. In June 1850 James Pearson took over the locomotive department; at first his workshops were in Exeter, but they were removed to Bristol towards the end of 1851. Extensive goods facilities were also provided there at this time, as well as a roof for the Bristol "express platform", earning it the local nickname, the cowshed.
With money now coming in, and in anticipation of independent operation, the Company had built a carriage works and coke ovens at Bridgwater. George Hennet had arranged to cast pipes there for the atmospheric system on the South Devon Railway, and the Bristol and Exeter Railway simply extended his works. The Hennet name continued to be linked to Bridgwater for many years, and was responsible for producing many wagons for various companies.
The Company installed the electric telegraph throughout its main line in 1852. It was the first substantial British railway to operate the block system. That same year, the company started construction of a headquarters building at Temple Meads; it was designed by Samuel Fripp and opened in 1854.
Branches and subsidiary routes
In the early part of 1844, with the main line nearly complete, the B&ER promoted a branch from near Taunton to Yeovil and Weymouth. At the same time the GWR decided to promote several branches from its main line, and during the course of 1844 the GWR endeavoured to build a line from near Chippenham to Yeovil and Weymouth: this became the Wilts, Somerset and Weymouth Railway. The B&ER shortened its intended branch to run to Yeovil only.
In the 1845 Parliamentary session, the B&ER obtained authorisation for the Yeovil branch, branches to Clevedon and Tiverton, and a direct junction line at Bristol connecting its line with the GWR. Early the same year the Company had at last constructed its own Bristol terminus (authorised in the original Act); this was at right angles to the GWR station. The connecting line formed an arc by-passing both Bristol stations, and an "express platform" was built on it to allow through passenger trains to make a station call; both directions of trains used the single platform. The Tiverton branch proved especially contentious due to the determined opposition of the Grand Western Canal, which foresaw the end of any income; when the parliamentary opposition was overcome, the Canal Company offered every obstruction in the construction of the railway crossing.
The Clevedon branch line ( from Clevedon Road, renamed Yatton, was opened to traffic on 28 July 1847, and the Tiverton branch from Tiverton Road, renamed Tiverton Junction, opened on 12 June 1848. The Tiverton branch passed under the Grand Western Canal, and Brunel constructed Halberton aqueduct to carry the canal over the new line.
Work was also started on the Yeovil branch from Durston, but due to the new commitment to expenditure on rolling stock, the work was not pressed to completion and opening was delayed by several years. The work was resumed in 1852 and pressed ahead; the whole line to a Yeovil station at Hendford was opened to passengers on 1 October 1853, and to goods on 26 October 1853. With the approach of the Wilts, Somerset and Weymouth line of the GWR, the B&ER branch was extended from Hendford across Yeovil to the GWR station at Pen Mill; this extension opened on 2 February 1857, the same day as the GWR line from Frome to Yeovil.
The West Somerset Railway was authorised in 1857 to make a line from the B&ER west of Taunton to Watchet, where there was a small harbour. There were serious difficulties in raising the necessary capital (£140,000) and the line finally opened on 31 March 1862 for passengers; goods traffic was handled from August 1862. The line was leased to the B&ER in perpetuity. The West Somerset Railway was extended to Minehead by the Minehead Railway, opening as a broad gauge single line on 16 July 1874.It was worked by the B&ER.
The Somerset Central Railway was authorised on 17 June 1852. It was friendly to the B&ER which had subscribed a considerable amount of its capital. It was to build from Highbridge Wharf, crossing the B&ER main line there, and running to Glastonbury, mostly along the route of the Glastonbury Canal. It was a broad gauge single line long; when it opened on 28 August 1854 it was leased to the B&ER for a seven-year term. While the lease was in force, it was extended to Burnham-on-Sea at the north-west end (on 3 May 1858) and to Wells at the south-east end (on 15 March 1859), making in total.
Power had been obtained to extend to Bruton on the GWR in 1856. The Dorset Central Railway, a narrow gauge line, also obtained powers to join the Somerset Central near Bruton. On 3 February 1862 the lines were completed and the Somerset Central began operating the entire line, on the narrow gauge. In August 1862, the two lines joined together to form the Somerset and Dorset Railway. The junction with the GWR was never built, and the entire line had abandoned any allegiance to the B&ER.
The Chard and Taunton Railway obtained authorisation in 1861, but was unable to raise the capital needed; the B&ER took over the powers and opened the single line branch to passengers on 11 September 1866, and to goods in March 1867. The Chard station was joint with the LSWR, who had a branch from their main line at Chard Junction.
The Portishead branch was built by the Bristol and Portishead Pier and Railway Company, and opened on 18 April 1867. The B&ER worked it but it was maintained by the building company. It was a broad gauge single line.
The Somerset and Dorset Railway proposed a line from Yatton to Wells in opposing a B&ER scheme for a Wells branch; by negotiation the B&ER took over the Yatton to Wells scheme, and the broad gauge line was opened on 3 August 1869 as far as Cheddar, and extended to a station at Tucker Street in Wells on 5 April 1870. The new line made a physical connection with the Somerset and Dorset Railway there, but safety concerns led to a prohibition on through passenger working to the GWR line to the south. The development of this issue is discussed in the article Cheddar Valley Line.
The Devon and Somerset Railway obtained authorisation to build from Watchet Junction (later Norton Fitzwarren) to Barnstaple, in 1864. The company found great difficulty in raising the necessary finance, but opened to Wiveliscombe on 8 June 1871, and throughout on 1 November 1873. The line was broad gauge and single, with heavy gradients. It was worked by the B&ER for half the gross receipts.
A short line called the Bristol Harbour Railway was opened from the junction of the B&ER and GWR at Temple Meads to the Floating Harbour in Bristol on 11 March 1872. It was long, and included a tunnel, a long viaduct and an opening bridge. It was constructed by the GWR and B&ER jointly, with much work being undertaken at the harbour by the Corporation of Bristol. It was a single line, and mixed gauge, although neither the GWR nor the B&ER had narrow gauge trackage in the area. It was soon decided to extend to Wapping Wharf, where more space was available, and this was authorised in 1873, but the opening took place after the B&ER amalgamated.
Narrowing the gauge
Apart from the short LSWR running sections at Exeter and Yeovil, the B&ER had been exclusively broad gauge. Then in 1866, the Somerset and Dorset Railway (S&DR) proposed building a Bridgwater branch from their line. To head this encroachment off, the B&ER undertook to lay narrow gauge rails on their own line from Highbridge, where the S&DR joined it, to Bridgwater quay, and from there to Yeovil via Durston (where trains reversed). Narrow gauge passenger and goods rolling stock was acquired, and with the track works the scheme cost £125,000. A daily B&ER narrow gauge goods train ran from November 1867, and after resolution of authorisation difficulties with the LSWR, some narrow gauge passenger trains ran from Yeovil Pen Mill to Durston, with some extensions to Highbridge. However, the volume of traffic was very disappointing, and five of the eight locomotives purchased for the workings were converted to broad gauge by 1871.
The B&ER took over from Bridgwater Corporation a short horse tramway between the railway station and the wharf in 1859. Having acquired the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal, the B&ER owned the canal dock, and the B&ER then converted the tramway for locomotive operation, and extended it to the dock. It was opened as mixed gauge in November 1867. An opening bridge across the River Parrett was commissioned in March 1871.
A coal wharf had long existed at Dunball where coal was imported from South Wales and despatched to destinations in Devon . The B&ER extended the primitive wharf there and made a mixed gauge branch to it which opened in November 1869.
If the broad gauge had originally been an asset, by the 1870s was it was clear that the narrow gauge of had become the standard gauge, and beyond the Great Western Railway the vast majority of lines adopted it. As trade increased, this led to difficulties at the point of junction between lines—the break of gauge—where goods had to be physically transshipped between wagons for onward transit. In July 1874, the Somerset and Dorset Railway completed its Bath extension, and narrow gauge wagons could reach Exeter and beyond from the Midlands over that route and the LSWR.
Responding to the situation, the B&ER started to lay narrow gauge rails—that is, it installed mixed gauge—on its main line. In February 1875, the shareholders were informed that the Company was undertaking the installation throughout the main line; this would involve a considerable investment in rolling stock. That year, an Act was obtained authorising this work and the raising of capital to pay for it; and to substitute a loop line at Weston-super-Mare for the branch line.
Mixed gauge was installed from Bristol to Taunton by 1 June 1875, enabling the heavy goods and livestock traffic to be accommodated in narrow gauge trains, and the Weston-super-Mare branch had already been dealt with. The line on to Exeter was completed in November 1875. The Cheddar Valley line from Yatton to Wells was converted (as opposed to "mixed") by 18 November 1875. Plans were in hand to deal with the rest of the system.
Amalgamation and after
During this expensive upheaval, the Directors quickly determined that amalgamation with another Company with greater financial resources, was needed. The Midland Railway was considered, but meaningful negotiation started with the neighbouring Great Western Railway. The talks were quickly finalised, and a lease to the GWR from 1 January 1876 was ratified by special shareholders' meetings. The GWR was to pay 6% on ordinary share capital. Actual amalgamation took place on 1 August 1876. The South Devon Railway amalgamated with the GWR on 1 February 1876, and the GWR now owned the line throughout from London to Plymouth.
Under GWR ownership, the train service pattern continued with some variations. However, towards the end of the nineteenth century it became increasingly clear that the route form London to Exeter via Bristol was inconvenient, and steps were taken to provide a shorter route. This was built in stages, but on 20 May 1906 the new route was opened, running via Newbury and Castle Cary, joining the old B&ER line at Cogload Junction, east of Taunton. The original route section between Bristol and Cogload Junction was diminished in importance as most through trains were diverted to the new route, which was shorter.
The 1906 junction at Cogload was conventional, but increasing traffic led to delays. Under the Development (Loan Guarantees and Grants) Act 1929, the GWR received Government financial assistance to carry out improvement works, and the opportunity was taken to provide a grade-separated junction at Cogload; the Down Bristol line was carried over the Castle Cary lines on a truss bridge. Other improvements to stations and layout enhancements were carried out between Taunton and Exeter, including quadrupling of the line between Taunton and Norton Fitzwarren and considerable enlargement of both stations, and provision of goods bypass lines and an enlarged engine shed at Taunton. These improvements were commissioned progressively between 1931 and 1933.
Train services
The ordinary trains of the Bristol and Exeter line were not especially noteworthy; attention is given to the through trains between London and Exeter, over the GWR and the B&E, and of course via Bristol. Despite the claimed superiority of the broad gauge, train speeds were not much better than on the standard gauge. Lord Dalhousie was charged by Parliament to form a committee to comment on the gauge question, and the committee's report in January 1845 stated, "The actual speed of trains on the Great Western Railway, [implying broad gauge lines in general] as shown by the published time-tables and by official returns, is not so high as upon some narrow gauge Railways ..."
This spurred the GWR and B&ER immediately to accelerate the best train to Exeter, which would complete the in five hours. This was soon further accelerated to four and a half hours, but the B&ER added two stops—at Weston Junction and Tiverton Junction—in May 1849, slowing the down train by 15 minutes. The B&ER section was run from Bristol Express Platform to Exeter ( in an hour and 45 minutes in 1846 and two hours in 1849.
The relatively slow speed of the best trains was not considered a problem until the LSWR put on a train on their line that was 25 minutes faster to Exeter, and from 1 March 1862 a -hour train was put on; at Bristol the down train backed into the B&ER terminus for the station call. These trains were "far and away the fastest in the world". However, in the succeeding years the timings were slowed once again. In 1871, the service was again accelerated to 94 minutes Bristol to Exeter. "Thus the Bristol and Exeter Company shared with the Great Western the distinction of running the fastest trains in the world. Ordinary trains took three or four hours.
Cheap excursions in the summer were popular: for 1s 6d excursionists could go from Bristol to Weston and back, and for 1s from Bristol to Cheddar or from Taunton to Watchet. Excursion platforms were set up at Bedminster, Weston and Clevedon, apparently to segregate the excursionists from ordinary passengers.
Ticket platforms, of course involving an additional stop, existed from the earliest days outside Bristol and Exeter, and from 1870 on either side of Taunton.
The 1850 Bradshaw shows six down and seven up passenger trains; all called at all stations except two trains each way, which were probably through trains from and to London. Although the best journey time Bristol to Exeter ( was two hours, most trains required up to hours; it may be that these trains were mixed and time was spent at stations shunting goods wagons.
After amalgamation
The Somerset and Dorset Railway had opened its Bath extension on 20 July 1874. It had good relations with the Midland Railway (MR) and the LSWR, and a rival route from the industrial Midlands and North of England to Exeter was created. The LSWR reached Plymouth on 17 May 1876 by using running powers over the South Devon Railway (SDR). Now the rival route could carry goods to Plymouth.
A new express passenger train was put on between London and Plymouth in 1877 named the Zulu, joining the existing Flying Dutchman. A further broad gauge express, the Jubilee was put on from July 1887, but the number of broad gauge passenger trains was declining. However, another broad gauge express, named The Cornishman, was started from June 1890. The gauge conversion west of Exeter enabled through carriages from Manchester, Liverpool and Leeds to be conveyed from Bristol by a new narrow gauge express between London and Torquay, from 1892.
A Newquay portion of the Cornishman ran non stop from London to Exeter, via the Bristol Relief Line from 20 July 1896 in summers only until 1899 when it ran all the year round. From July 1904 non-stop expresses ran from London to Plymouth and back; at first lightly loaded they were referred to as The Limited, although they were later branded The Cornish Riviera Express.
The opening in 1906 of the Castle Cary cut-off enabled the journey time for these expresses to be reduced, and gradually many (but not all) of the London to Plymouth trains transferred to the new route. The Bristol to Taunton section of the original B&ER thus lost much of its importance, although trains on the North-and-West Route were significant.
The development of seaside holidays advanced considerably in the twentieth century, and through trains to Devon and Cornwall were especially busy in the summer, particularly on Saturdays. Although London was the dominant originating point, trains ran from Wolverhampton, and also from Manchester and Bradford, in many cases over the North-and West Route. The popularity of Minehead and Ilfracombe put especial pressure on Taunton and Norton Fitzwarren, and layout enhancements at those places took place in the 1920s.
The two world wars forced a suspension of development, but holiday towns gained further in significance in peacetime. The majority of trains made calls at Weston-super-Mare (rather than avoiding the town by running on the original main line) and by 1960 many Paddington to Bristol expresses continued to Weston-super-Mare. The town had long been popular as an excursion destination, and a new station there, primarily for terminating holiday and excursion trains, was opened on 8 April 1914; adjacent to the main station it was simply a development of the excursion platform at the original terminal (branch) station: it did not receive a distinct name, Weston-super-Mare Locking Road, until 1930. It closed on 6 September 1964. The main station was named Weston-super-Mare General until 20 September 1953, then reverting to simply Weston-super-Mare, regaining the suffix from 6 May 1958 until 6 September 1964.
Following 1945 holiday traffic to Devon and Cornwall developed considerably, and working over the B&ER line was congested, with increasing volumes of traffic from the Midlands and North; but by the mid-1960s rail travel to holidays in Britain declined rapidly, and the former heavy workings all but vanished, especially over the Bristol to Taunton section. However, since 1994 that route has revived with a frequent service operated (2014) by Arriva UK Trains under the subsidiary CrossCountry trains. West of Cogload junction the London services continue.
The Weston-super-Mare loop continues in operation for local passenger traffic, although that volume has declined considerably. Fuller details are given in the article Bristol to Exeter line.
The Exeter and Crediton line, lost to the B&ER early on, also remains open as part of a rural branch line; passenger services are operated under the brand name Tarka Line.
The line formed by the West Somerset Railway and the Minehead Railway closed, but reopened as a heritage railway, also using the name the West Somerset Railway.
Engineering features
William Gravatt was resident engineer for the construction between Bristol and White Ball (near Wellington, Somerset; usually spelt Whiteball in railway publications). William Froude supervised the section from there to Exeter.
South of Weston-super-Mare the line crosses the western end of the Mendip Hills, at Uphill, through a deep cutting spanned by a masonry arch bridge, known locally as Devil's Bridge, which is built into the rock sides. It crosses Bleadon Hill cutting and was "the best and tallest example of this kind of structure". It is a Listed Building grade II. The line then runs south across the Somerset Levels.
At Bridgwater, a retractable or Telescopic Bridge was built in 1871 to the design of Sir Francis Fox. It carried a short industrial branch line over the River Parrett to the docks, but the bridge had to be movable, to allow boats to proceed upriver. An section of railway track to the east of the bridge could be moved sideways, so that the main girders could be retracted, creating a navigable channel which was wide. It was manually operated for the first eight months, and then powered by a steam engine, reverting to manual operation in 1913, when the steam engine failed. The bridge was last opened in 1953, and the traverser section was demolished in 1974, but public outcry at the action resulted in the bridge being listed as a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and the rest of the bridge was kept. It was later used as a road crossing, until the construction of the Chandos road bridge alongside it, and is now only used by pedestrians. Parts of the steam engine were moved to Westonzoyland Pumping Station Museum in 1977. The bridge is now a Grade II* listed building.
The main line crossed the River Parrett just south of Bridgwater by the Somerset Bridge, with a span but a rise of , half that of the Maidenhead bridge. Work started in 1838 and was completed in 1841. Brunel left the centring in place as the foundations were still settling, but in 1843 complaints that navigation was being interfered with had to be responded to. He said that "although the Arch itself is still perfect, the movement of the foundations has continued ... and the centres have, in consequence, been kept in place. [As instructed] by the Directors, measures are being adopted to enable us to remove these centres immediately, at the sacrifice of the present arch."
Brunel demolished the brick arch and replaced it with a timber arch, which was in turn replaced in 1904 by a steel girder bridge.
At Taunton the River Tone was straightened to avoid the need for two bridges close together. West of Taunton gradients of 1 in 80 were needed to cross the Blackdown Hills and at the summit on the Somerset-Devon border the Whiteball Tunnel was constructed.
William Froude, resident engineer for the western section of the main line, developed an empirical method of setting out track transition curves and introduced an alternative design to the helicoidal skew arch bridge at Rewe and Cowley Bridge Junction, near Exeter.
Topography
After leaving Bristol, the main line was laid on easy curves and gradients as far as Taunton; there is a slight summit at Flax Bourton cutting the line is generally level, in part traversing the Somerset Levels, running north-west of the Mendip Hills and south-east of the Quantock Hills. From Taunton the gradients are more difficult, with some sharper curvature. The line crosses the flank of the Blackdown Hills. There is a summit at Whiteball, approached by a ten-mile (16 km) climb from Taunton, stiffening to typically 1 in 80 in the final . In the up direction, the climb is practically continuous from Exeter to Whiteball, on moderate gradients as far as Cullompton, then stiffening to 1 in 155 with a final at 1 in 115.
Line and station openings
Note: openings after the end of independent existence of the B&ER in 1876 are shown in italic
Main line (Opened to Bridgwater 1971; to Taunton 1842; to Beam Bridge 1843; and to Exeter 1844)
Bristol; superseded by Temple Meads station jointly with the GWR on 6 July 1874
Bedminster; opened 1871
Parson Street Halt; opened 29 August 1927; renamed Parson Street November 1933
Ashton; closed January 1856; reopened as Long Ashton 12 July 1926; closed 6 October 1941
Bourton; opened 1860; renamed Flax Bourton 1 September 1888; relocated west on 2 March 1893; closed on 2 December 1963
Nailsea; renamed Nailsea and Backwell 1 May 1905; renamed Nailsea 6 May 1974
Clevedon Road; renamed Yatton 1847
Banwell; renamed Worle 3 August 1869; renamed Puxton 1 March 1884; renamed Puxton and Worle 1 March 1922; closed 6 April 1964; reopened a short distance west in 1990
Weston Junction; closed 1 March 1884
Bleadon and Uphill; opened 1871; renamed Bleadon and Uphill 1872; closed 5 October 1964
Brent Knoll; opened 1875; closed 4 January 1971
Highbridge
Dunball; opened 1873; renamed Dunball Halt 6 November 1961; closed 5 October 1964
Bridgwater
Durston; opened 1 October 1853; closed 5 October 1964
Taunton
Norton Fitzwarren; opened 1 June 1873; closed 30 October 1961
Wellington; closed 5 October 1964
Beambridge; temporary terminus; closed 1844
Burlescombe; opened 1867; closed 5 October 1964
Sampford Peverell; opened 9 July 1928; closed 5 October 1964; reopened as Tiverton Parkway on 12 May 1986
Tiverton Road; renamed Tiverton Junction 12 June 1848; closed 11 May 1986
Cullompton; closed 5 October 1964
Hele; renamed Hele and Bradninch 1867; closed 5 October 1964
Silverton; opened 1 November 1867; closed 5 October 1964
Stoke Canon; opened 1860; relocated south 2 July 1894; closed 13 June 1960
Exeter.
Portishead branch (From Portishead Junction; opened 18 April 1867. Worked by the B&ER.)
Station detail given at Portishead Railway
Clevedon branch(From Yatton; opened 28 July 1847; closed 3 October 1966.)
Clevedon
Cheddar Valley line (From Yatton; also known as the Strawberry Line.)
Station list given at Cheddar Valley Line
Weston-super-Mare branch (From Weston Junction; opened 14 June 1841; closed 1 March 1884; superseded by Weston-super-Mare loop)
Weston-super-Mare
Weston-super-Mare loop (Opened by GWR on 1 March 1884. (Included here because of its intimate connection with the B&ER main line.)
Worle; opened 1 March 1884; closed 2 January 1922
Weston Milton Halt; opened 3 July 1933
Weston-super-Mare
Yeovil branch (From Durston.)
Station list given at Yeovil to Taunton Line.
Chard branch (From Creech St Michael. Opened to passengers 11 September 1866, and to goods in March 1867. Closed to passengers in 1962, and to goods traffic in 1966.)
Station list given at Chard Branch Line.
Tiverton branch (From Tiverton Junction. Opened on 12 June 1848. Closed on 5 October 1964.)
Halberton Halt; opened 5 December 1927
Tiverton
Minehead branch (From Watchet Junction, later Norton Fitzwarren; opened to Watchet 31 March 1862 and extended to Minehead on 16 July 1874. Worked by B&ER. Closed in 1971 and reopened in 1976 as a heritage line.)
Station list given at West Somerset Railway.
Barnstaple branch (From Watchet Junction; opened to Wiveliscombe 8 June 1871, and on to Barnstaple 1 November 1873. Worked by B&ER. Closed in 1966.)
Station list given at Devon and Somerset Railway.
Locomotives
Locomotives for the railway were provided by the Great Western Railway until its working arrangement finished on 1 May 1849, after which the Bristol and Exeter provided its own locomotives. Engine sheds were provided at major stations and on some branches, and workshops were established at Bristol in September 1854.
Charles Hutton Gregory was responsible for the locomotives until May 1850, when James Pearson was appointed as Locomotive Engineer. He designed several classes of tank engines, including his distinctive large 4-2-4T locomotives, the first of which were introduced in 1854.
Notes
See also
The Great Western Mail Robbery 1849
References
Further reading
(for note on Exeter St Davids above).
Great Western Railway constituents
7 ft gauge railways
Pre-grouping British railway companies
Rail transport in Somerset
Rail transport in Devon
Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange
Railway companies established in 1836
Railway lines opened in 1844
Railway companies disestablished in 1876
History of Somerset
History of Devon
1836 establishments in England
Works of Isambard Kingdom Brunel
British companies disestablished in 1876
British companies established in 1836
1876 mergers and acquisitions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearwater%20River%20%28British%20Columbia%29
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Clearwater River (British Columbia)
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The Clearwater River is the largest tributary of the North Thompson River, joining it at the community of Clearwater, British Columbia. The Clearwater rises from glaciers in the Cariboo Mountains and flows in a mostly southerly direction for to the North Thompson. Its entire course, except the last , is within Wells Gray Provincial Park. Its confluence with the North Thompson is protected by North Thompson River Provincial Park.
There are two large lakes on the Clearwater River. Hobson Lake is long and averages wide. Clearwater Lake is long and averages wide. The Clearwater's largest tributaries are (from source to mouth) Hobson Creek, Goat Creek, Lickskillet Creek, Azure River, Falls Creek, Murtle River, Mahood River, Hemp Creek, Grouse Creek, and Spahats Creek.
The river is popular for fly fishing, whitewater kayaking, whitewater rafting, hiking, and wildlife viewing.
History and naming
Overlanders
The Overlanders expedition to the Cariboo goldfields rafted down the North Thompson River in 1862. When they arrived at the mouth of the Clearwater River, they noted its distinct clarity compared to the muddy North Thompson and named it Clear Water. In 1863, the first tourists, Lord Milton and Dr. Cheadle, traveled through the North Thompson Valley and solidified the Clearwater River name by publishing it in their journal, The Northwest Passage by Land (London, 1865).
The Clearwater River starts as a typical silt-laden glacial stream, then flows into Hobson Lake which acts as a huge settling basin for the glacial material. Clearwater Lake downstream continues the silt removing process. Three major tributaries all have large lakes on them as well: Azure River with Azure Lake, Murtle River with Murtle Lake, and Mahood River with Canim Lake and Mahood Lake. The North Thompson River, by contrast, has no lakes on it so silt from the Thompson Glacier at its origin as well as its glacial tributaries is carried the whole length of the river. The Overlanders bestowed only two place names during their perilous journey on the North Thompson River: Clear Water River and Raft Peak above the town of Clearwater.
Prospecting and mining
On August 20, 1866, the B.C. Tribune, published in Yale, reported: "...a party of prospectors which went up the Clear Water River about fifty miles, early this season, discovered a quartz ledge on a tributary of it which appears to be very rich in silver." The Cariboo Sentinel of Barkerville commented on October 13, 1869: "About forty Chinamen are working the bench by shooting the gravel down to the Clearwater River, and are making from $4 to $9 a day. With proper water works this bench would yield a large amount of gold, and its extent offers employment to hundreds of miners." Neither of these reports suggests the specific location of the activities on the Clearwater River and, as mileage calculated in those days was generally inaccurate, the figure given by the B.C. Tribune is practically meaningless. Later reports about hydraulic mining, however, indicate that the Chinese miners were probably working upstream from Hobson Lake.
The spark that ignited a flurry of prospecting and mining activity along the Clearwater River was probably provided by H.R. Bellamy of Nelson in 1899: "I believe that all the streams from the west, flowing into the North Thompson River have brought down more or less gold, especially the Clearwater...This river has no doubt brought down vast quantities of gold and deposited it along the bed of the Thompson..."
By the 1920s, much of Hobson Creek and the Clearwater River above Hobson Lake had been staked and active mining or hydraulicking was underway. The Blue Ice Mine on Fred Wells Creek, a branch of Hobson Creek, was a unique endeavour. The name aptly described the site, located at an altitude of , just away from an active glacier. Although showings of gold and silver were of an economical quantity during a 1938 survey, the site was never fully developed, because of the unpredictable movements of the nearby glacier.
Canadian Pacific Railway
Between 1872 and 1881, about 20 survey parties fanned out across British Columbia trying to find the best route for the new railway between Yellowhead Pass in the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Coast. Three survey parties visited what is now Wells Gray Park. In 1873, Marcus Smith, searching for the ideal route to Bute Inlet, visited Hobson Lake and wrote in his diary: "The Clearwater River rises in a range of mountains to the northeast of Quesnelle Lake, and nearly due east of the latter it expands into a lake, which can be reached by a pass...said to be easy and not very high. There is the short space between Clearwater lake and the north fork of the North Thompson River, about which I can get no information....This is undoubtedly part of the Selkirk Range, and I have no expectation that a railway line could be got through it without a tunnel of considerable length, but this route would shorten the line so much that it is well worth consideration."
In 1874, the railway dispatched a survey party to explore the headwaters of the Clearwater River, under the leadership of E.W. Jarvis. The altitude of the pass was calculated at (actually only ) and the route skirted an immense glacier before descending to the Raush River, a tributary of the Fraser River — "clearly impracticable for a railway line". When the more southern Kicking Horse Pass was chosen instead in 1881, all the meticulously examined routes in the Clearwater River basin were abandoned. Only three place names in Wells Gray Park recognize those 10 wasted years of surveys: Murtle River & Lake, Mahood River & Lake, and Marcus Falls.
Settlement
No homesteads were ever established beside the Clearwater River because there was no arable land. The closest one belonged to John Ray who arrived in 1911 and settled about up the Clearwater Valley from the North Thompson River. His nearest neighbour, Michael Majerus, was away. Ray cleared land and became nearly self-sufficient, making trips west to 100 Mile House only once or twice a year to pick up some supplies and trade his furs. He lived alone until 1932, then, at the age of 54, he married Alice Ludtke, age 20. They raised three children on this remote homestead. In 1946, they decided to move to Clearwater so the children could be educated in a school. It took many trips to move homes and John did not return from his last one in December 1947. Some friends trekked into the remote farm and found that John had died of a heart attack there. Today, the Ray Farm buildings are deteriorating and the house has collapsed. B.C. Parks has no funds for restoration, but the trail is in good condition and some interpretive signage has been installed.
Geography
The first half of the Clearwater River's course is among the peaks of the Cariboo Mountains and deep, glacially-carved valleys are typical. The source of the Clearwater is near the northern boundary of Wells Gray Park. The river pours out of an unnamed glacier, surrounded by peaks such as Mount Goodall, the Park's second highest at ; Mount Pierrway, #5 at ; Mount Winder, #9 at ; Mount Beaman, Mount Hogg and Mount Aves. All six were named in 1966 in honour of Canadian soldiers from the Quesnel area killed in action during World War II. The first of the Clearwater is through a broad U-shaped glacial valley before it enters Hobson Lake. Mountains along the east shore of Hobson Lake include Twin Spires; Mount Hugh Neave, seventh highest in the Park at ; and Garnet Peak, third highest at . Below Hobson Lake, the Clearwater drops over a series of low waterfalls and many rapids, descending in the next . At the inflow of the Azure River from the east, the Clearwater becomes navigable. Then it sweeps through two 90-degree bends in the next and enters Clearwater Lake. East of Clearwater Lake are Zodiac Mountain, Azure Mountain and Mount Ray, the last being a volcano that erupted about 20,000 years ago.
The second half of the Clearwater River is mainly influenced by volcanic activity, so lava plateaus and lava cliffs hem the river. Clearwater Lake was dammed by lava from an eruption called Dragon's Tongue about 8,500 years ago. Today, the river drops directly out of Clearwater Lake over high Osprey Falls which creates hazardous boating conditions at the lake's outlet. For the next , the Clearwater races through one rapid after another and over three more waterfalls, Myanth Falls, Marcus Falls and Baileys Chute. Some of the more dramatic white-water sections are Gatling Gorge, Helmcken Canyon, Sabre Tooth Rapids, Batholith Rapids, The Kettle, and Granite Canyon. The only extended section of calm water is called The Horseshoe, a long meander where the river almost inscribes a complete circle. Three mountains rise east of the Clearwater River: Battle Mountain, Trophy Mountain and Raft Mountain.
Access
Clearwater Valley Road (commonly called Wells Gray Park Road) starts at the Yellowhead Highway in Clearwater and extends north along the east side of the Clearwater Valley for to Clearwater Lake. Almost all Wells Gray Park's tourists drive this road as the major attractions such as Spahats Falls, Trophy Mountain, Helmcken Falls and Clearwater Lake are reached by this route. However, during the first this road is either high above the Clearwater River or at least east of it, so river access is only by hiking trails. This road is paved to Helmcken Falls, then gravel in good condition for the remaining distance to Clearwater Lake.
Trails to the river from Clearwater Valley Road (distances from Yellowhead Highway)
km 4.3 - Triple Decker Falls
km 10.2 - Bottom of Spahats Falls (the footbridge in Spahats Canyon is washed out and unlikely to be repaired)
km 13.2 - First Canyon
km 17.1 - Canyon Creeks
The above 4 trails all connect with the Clearwater River Trail which follows the east side of the river.
km 20.7 - Moul Falls (trail continues to the river through private property and permission should be obtained from Wells Gray Tours)
km 29.4 - Flatiron and Hemp Canyonlands
km 36.2 - Green Mountain and White Horse Bluff
km 42.5 - Helmcken Falls side road, then trail to Gatling Gorge or scrambling route into Helmcken Canyon
km 52.5 - The Horseshoe
km 57.1 - Baileys Chute, Marcus Falls and Myanth Falls
km 64.2 - Norman's Eddy
Clearwater River Road starts in Clearwater and extends north along the west bank of the Clearwater River for to the confluence with the Mahood River. This road is seldom out of sight of the Clearwater River and can even be closed in May or June due to high water. This road is usually maintained by its users and is rough and slow. A high clearance vehicle is recommended. The Kettle, a major rapid, is reached by an unsigned trail at km 8.0. Sabre Tooth Rapids are below the road at km 21.1. Another unsigned trail starts at km 32.6 and leads to a beach on the river with White Horse Bluff opposite. At the end of the road, a trail leads to Sylvia Falls, 3.5 km up the Mahood River.
2023 update - A major washout in July 2020 has closed the Clearwater River Road at km 11.4. The rest of the road to the Mahood River is accessible by mountain bike or on foot. BC Parks is assessing the repairs and the cost is well over $1 million. The road will remain closed to vehicles for the foreseeable future.
Fishing
The Clearwater River supports Kokanee, Chinook salmon, Coho salmon, Sockeye salmon, Rainbow trout, Dolly varden and Mountain white fish. Several thousand Chinook, 200 Sockeye and 500 Coho spawn in the river.
Baileys Chute is a good place to view the Chinook as they try to leap the falls from mid-August through September. They are the largest of the Pacific salmon, weighing from 8 kg to 22 kg. Most spawn near The Horseshoe after a life cycle of four to six years.
The Clearwater River was famous for its fabulous fishing starting in the 1940s. The McDiarmid family built four fishing camps along the east bank between Grouse Creek and the Mahood River. In 1950, they started construction of Trophies Lodge, named for the fish, as headquarters for this operation. During the 1950s and 1960s, they hosted many anglers who came from around the world to experience the Clearwater. The guestbook for Trophies Lodge contains distinguished names such as Vanderbilts, DuPonts, H.R. MacMillan (who came twice a year), and even semi-royalty in the person of Wallis Simpson. According to Mac McDiarmid, the proprietor, fish up to four pounds were always thrown back. After the Clearwater River Road was built along the west bank, the river became easily accessible and was quickly fished out. The McDiarmids closed Trophies Lodge and their fishing camps in 1970.
The Clearwater River remained almost devoid of fish for the next 30 years. An assessment in 1992 showed that the river downstream from the Mahood confluence had far fewer fish than upstream, proving the serious effect of the Clearwater River Road. In 1994, new regulations came into effect which called for catch and release, a bait ban, a single barbless hook, and no fishing prior to July 15 each year. Another 10 years passed before the fishing improved and the regulations were relaxed a little around 2015. These rules apply only to the Clearwater River downstream from Clearwater Lake.
Boating
Whitewater rafting is offered by three companies, all operating in Granite Canyon since the Clearwater River Road washout in 2020 has prevented access to the river further upstream. Interior Whitewater Expeditions has been on the river for over 25 years. Other companies are Liquid Lifestyles and Riverside Adventures.
Kayaking requires expert skills for many sections of the river. Kayakers who are unfamiliar with the river should try it first at low to medium flows in July, August and September. The Clearwater River Road provides access to of the river. The run through Granite Canyon is the most exciting section. Only a few expert kayakers have gone through The Kettle, rated at 6+. Many parts of the Clearwater River between Clearwater Lake and Deer Creek, a river distance of , are accessible from the Clearwater Valley Road. Marcus Falls and Baileys Chute require a portage and Myanth Falls is rated as 4+. The Horseshoe is the longest stretch of calm water on the entire Clearwater River. Taking out at Deer Creek is critical because downstream is the start of of rapids, culminating in Gatling Gorge and Helmcken Canyon.
Canoeing. The only safe section for canoeists downstream from Clearwater Lake is around The Horseshoe meander bend. There is a put-in at Alice Creek and a take-out at Deer Creek, both on the Clearwater Valley Road. The Clearwater River between Azure Lake and the upper end of Clearwater Lake is safe for a canoeist to go downstream, but the current is too strong to go upstream and a portage trail is available.
Oddities
Many rivers that have meanders have several of them. The Clearwater River has only one meander, called The Horseshoe. See 'Geography' section above.
Every major tributary to the Clearwater River has a waterfall on it. Falls Creek Falls even drops directly into the Clearwater River.
97% of the Clearwater River shoreline is protected by Wells Gray Provincial Park.
There are only two private properties on the Clearwater River within Wells Gray Park. One was owned by industrialist H.R. MacMillan and was his private fishing retreat starting in 1934. He donated the property and cabin to Westminster Abbey, east of Vancouver, in 1972. The other property is owned by the Neave family. The properties consist of about 70 acres each.
White Horse Bluff rises vertically from the east bank of the Clearwater River about north of Clearwater. The south side of the cliffs has a rare volcanic formation called the Rock Roses. Unlike most formations of columnar basalt which are like organ pipes, these are horizontal and the ends of the columns point out, rather like the tiles on a shower wall. Further west, the columns suddenly change direction and resemble the wall of a log house.
Beside the Clearwater River at the base of White Horse Bluff, there is a natural refrigerator. The McDiarmid family operated four fishing camps along the river from 1944 to 1970. One summer, they noticed a cold draft of air blowing outward from some cracks here. They enlarged it, built some walls and were able to keep ice solid and perishable foods cold even in the summer heat, truly a luxury in the wilderness. The refrigerator is still there today (although partly fallen in) and, when measured by this writer in 2014, was 2 degrees Celsius inside.
There is an abandoned donkey engine in the forest near the west bank of the Clearwater River at Marcus Falls. It can be seen from the viewpoint in late fall when leaves are off the trees, but otherwise it is not accessible. It was moved here in the winter of 1912-13 when the Canadian Northern Railway was being planned and some loggers figured they could get the contract for the Clearwater River bridge at Baileys Chute if they had a donkey on site. The 10-ton machine was skidded over the ice of Canim Lake, rafted along Mahood Lake in the spring, then winched to this location. The men had already cut 9000 cubic meters of timber when the railway was confirmed along a different route.
See also
List of tributaries of the Fraser River
List of British Columbia rivers
References
External links
Interior Whitewater Expeditions
Riverside Adventures
Liquid Lifestyles
Wells Gray Provincial Park official government website
Rivers of British Columbia
Wells Gray-Clearwater
Thompson Country
Kamloops Division Yale Land District
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5106514
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight%20Imperium
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Twilight Imperium
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Twilight Imperium is a strategy board game produced by Fantasy Flight Games in the genre of science fiction and space opera. It was designed by Christian T. Petersen and was first released in 1997. The game is in its fourth edition (2017), which has large changes over previous editions. It is known for the length of its gameplay (often greater than six hours), and its in-depth strategy (including military, political, technological and trade).
Game background
The game's premise is a large-scale space opera. It is set in the unstable power vacuum left after the centuries-long decline and collapse of the previously dominant Lazax race. The old galactic central capital, Mecatol Rex, located in the center of the map is maintained by custodians who maintain the imperial libraries and oversee the meetings of the galactic council. Players assume the roles of rising empires on the fringes of the galaxy, vying for military and political control, until one finally becomes sufficiently dominant to take over as a new galactic emperor.
Development history
First edition
The first edition of Twilight Imperium was conceived by Christian T. Petersen while working as an importer of European comics. Drawing from a background of working at a Danish game importer, Petersen designed, published, and assembled the first edition of the game single-handedly. The final version of the first edition debuted at the Origins Game Fair in 1997. Fantasy Flight set up demos of the game in a high-traffic corridor to garner more attention, and ended up selling out of all of their available copies in under two days.
Second edition
The second edition of Twilight Imperium was published in 2000. It was the first edition of the game to feature art by Scott Schomburg and Brian Schomburg. It also introduced plastic spaceship pieces, replacing cardboard tokens that were used in the first edition.
Third edition
The third edition of Twilight Imperium, published in 2004, was designed at roughly the same time that Petersen was also working on A Game of Thrones, and his desire was to emphasize similar narrative development in this new edition's gameplay. He also looked to the mechanics of Eurogames like Puerto Rico for inspiration of how to represent complex mechanisms simply. The game box proved to be so large that wholesale distributors had to purchase custom-sized shipping cartons in order to make them fit.
Fourth edition
Development of Twilight Imperium Fourth Edition began in 2015. The original plan for the game was to seek funding on the crowdsourcing website Kickstarter, releasing a product with an MSRP of approximately US$250. Ideas pitched for this version included featuring only the six original races but each with unique ship designs, as well as presenting Mecatol Rex as centrepiece figure instead of a tile. However, this plan was scrapped in the summer of 2016 as the features were proving too costly to create within their budget. The revised version included all previous species introduced into Twilight Imperium, and was released at Gen Con in August 2017. Fourth edition was initially intended as a stand-alone game without any variant rules and expansions, but the expansion Prophecy of Kings was introduced in November 2020.
Components
The game consists of cardboard map tiles, cards, plastic units, cardboard counters, and player sheets. The map is built from hexagonal tiles, each showing up to three planets, empty space, or a red-bordered system containing an obstacle (with additional types added in the expansions). The centre tile is always Mecatol Rex, with the remainder of the galaxy built out in concentric rings.
Plastic playing pieces represent various starship classes and ground forces. Players are limited to the number of playing pieces provided with the game, except for fighters and ground forces. Counters are included for record-keeping, including command tokens, control markers, trade goods, and extra fighter and ground force counters. Cards are used to track planet ownership, trade agreements, technologies, public objectives, secret objectives, special actions, and policy voting agendas.
Gameplay
Three to six (eight, with 'Prophecy of Kings') players can play, with games typically taking more than six hours to complete (approx. 1.5 hours per player), although players new to the game can take longer. The game works on a 'victory points' system such that players earn points by completing a combination of public and secret objectives.
Setup
Each player randomly selects a race to control. Either a pre-designed map can be used, or players can generate a map via a pre-game mechanic whereby each takes turns in placing map tiles to construct a galaxy map with Mecatol Rex at the centre and home systems around the periphery.
Factions
Players can choose from several alien factions (up to 25 in the 4th edition) to play as. Anywhere from three to six (or eight, with the 'Prophecy of Kings' expansion) of these factions will appear in a game, depending on the number of players. Each faction has unique abilities, home planets, starter units and technologies. Additionally, each faction has distinct characters and themes, and they each specialize in particular areas of the game, such as trade, combat, technology, or politics.
Faction list below:
Rounds
Play consists of up to 10 rounds (though usually less, depending on how quickly players gain victory points) -- each of which contain several turns. In each round, players choose a strategy card, which provides large bonuses to a particular gameplay mechanic and determines the order in which the players take turns during the round.
Players take turns to perform actions (building units, moving units, using strategy cards, using special action cards). Players are limited in the number of actions they can take during a round by their supply of command tokens, which are divided between strategy (used to access the secondary action of other players' strategy cards), fleet supply (limiting the number of ships that can occupy a system), and command pools (used for tactical actions). Players continue taking actions in turn order until each player has passed.
Units and combat
Units are purchased throughout the game using the resources from occupied planets. Combat is fought in rounds with each unit rolling one or more 10-sided dice to attempt to score "hits" on the enemy player, who is allowed a counter-attack with all their units before choosing which units are destroyed.
Politics
Politics and discussion play an important role in Twilight Imperium. Agendas are voted on at multiple points throughout the game, with each player's voting power being proportional to the quality and quantity of planets they control. Laws that are successfully passed can greatly modify certain game mechanics and thus change the flow of the game.
Scoring
At the end of each round, players have the opportunity to score victory points for a public goal that has been revealed and/or for a secret objective assigned to each player at the start of the game. The first player to achieve 10 victory points is declared the new Emperor and wins the game. After the 6th round, the game also has a mechanism where the game has a chance of ending on any subsequent round and the highest scoring player at that point declared the winner.
Online implementation
A community-made implementation of the game was created in Tabletop Simulator. It stems from a fan-version of the third edition game called "Shattered Ascension" that was built in Tabletop Simulator in 2011 using the same components but a variant ruleset and gained a significant online community. After the publication of game's fourth edition in 2017, a similar Tabletop Simulator implementation was created in 2018 and is now used for online tournaments.
Expansions, variants and optional rules
Twilight Imperium 3rd Edition: Shattered Empire
Fantasy Flight Games released an expansion called Shattered Empire in December 2006. It includes two new sets of playing pieces and additional system tiles, expanding maximum player number to eight. It also introduced several rules-fixes to address common criticisms of the base game.
Twilight Imperium 3rd Edition: Shards of the Throne
Fantasy Flight Games released a second expansion called Shards of the Throne in May 2011, with additions including new factions, technologies, scenarios and units.
Variant rulesets
The base game and its expansions come with several optional rules and the counters necessary to play them out. The simplest variant is the long game, where the winner must score 14 victory points, rather than 10. However, most variants are intended to allow players to customise the game-play in favour of their preferred mechanics. For example, there are alternative variants of all the strategy cards, which can drastically alter how players organise their turns. Some rule variants introduce new units, whilst others can introduce completely new mechanics, such as race-specific leaders and diplomats, or random encounters for the first player to land on each neutral planet.
Twilight Imperium 4th Edition: Prophecy of Kings
Fantasy Flight Games released an expansion for 4th Edition Twilight Imperium in November 2020. The expansion contains seven new factions, some of which are based in the lore of Twilight Imperium's previous editions. It also brings in many of the systems and units that were first contained in 3rd edition. A new layer of technologies has been introduced giving more flexibility on how players choose their technology paths. The expansion also includes the Omega updates that were published in April 2020. It does not include any variant rules and is intended to be fully incorporated into the base game.
Twilight Imperium 4th Edition: Twilight Codex
The Codex is the official web based publication, published by Fantasy Flight Games that highlights rule updates and showcases new content for Twilight Imperium Fourth Edition and eventually the Prophecy of Kings expansion. The predominant figure behind the codex is Dane Beltrami, the head developer of Twilight Imperium Fourth Edition.
Differences between editions
Third edition vs previous versions
The third edition significantly changed many of the game mechanics. While some of the core elements remained the same, the game as a whole was completely revamped. Here are some of the more significant differences:
In 2E, only the Hacan, Letnev, N'orr, Jol-Nar, Sol, and Xxcha were playable races. The Mentak and Yssaril were introduced in the Hope's End expansion as new playable races. The L1Z1X were present as non-player hostile invaders, introduced to gameplay via some of the events. The Naalu were completely new to the 3rd Edition (although it first appeared in the first edition expansion: The Outer Rim). While the races present in both games kept the same basic flavor and feel, the racial abilities changed between editions.
In 2E, the game rounds were broken into phases: the political, production, movement, invasion, and technology steps. Each player had equal access to these phases every round. In 3E, these phases were largely spread out among the strategy cards, coupled with the new threaded activation sequence.
In 2E, players collected credits as tangible money that could be spent from round to round. 3E's spending is mostly done by exhausting planets, though the trade-good concept does allow some limited form of savable liquid assets.
In 2E, the only spaceships that could be built were cruisers, carriers, dreadnoughts, and fighters. 3E introduced destroyers (cheaper and weaker than cruisers, but more mobile than fighters), and war suns (expensive and powerful super ships).
While most of the technologies were ported from 2E to 3E, many of the effects changed significantly (largely to fit with the 3E sequence better).
Politics in 2E was done at the beginning of each game round by drawing a card from a political card deck, and voting on the agenda. Some of these cards were events which automatically affected the game in some way (such as introducing hostile L1Z1X forces). In 3E, the concept of "events" was removed completely.
In 2E, players achieved victory by progressing along a fixed set of objectives, largely centered around the number of resources, influence, and planets controlled, as well as technologies. In 3E, players instead try to achieve victory points by completing objectives revealed during the game; these objectives could change from game to game.
The tiles, cards, and playing pieces in the 3E are noticeably larger in size than their 2E counterparts.
Fourth edition vs previous versions
Players now have 17 factions available to choose from, including factions that were only available in the expansions for earlier editions such as the Ghosts of Creuss, the Mentak Coalition, the Naalu Collective, and the Yssaril Tribes. The number of factions has been increased to 25 with the Prophecy of Kings expansion and the Twilight Codex Vol. III.
The phases of play in each round are now strategy, action, status, and the agenda phase. The agenda phase is added only after a player has taken Mecatol Rex.
In the strategy phase, players choose a Strategy Card to use in the upcoming action phase. The strategy cards now control many of the fundamental mechanics that were tied to a phase in the 3rd Edition. As a result, players may be in competition for a particular strategy card, and a taking a particular Strategy Card may be necessary for a player to achieve certain objectives. The Strategy Cards confer abilities such as the purchase of additional command counters, changing who is the Speaker and thus will get first pick of the strategy cards in the next round, refilling commodities for trade, building Planetary Defense Systems (PDS') or Space Docks, researching technology, drawing additional Action Cards or Secret Objectives, or scoring an objective early (in the action phase, while all other players must wait for the status phase).
In the action phase, players take turns expanding their empire by moving ships, building units, engaging in trade and combat, researching technology, making deals, using their Strategic and Action Cards, and attempting to complete the requirements for public and secret objectives. The player's initiative order (the turn order) is determined by a player's lowest number strategy card, e.g. a player with the leadership card (no.1) will go first and a player with the imperial Card (no.8) will go last. The action phase continues until every player has chosen to pass, and once a player has passed they cannot make any more tactical actions. Each strategy card has a primary and a secondary ability - the bearer of a strategy card uses only the primary and the other players may only use the secondary. So that no player ever misses out on the powerful abilities of the strategy cards, the bearer of a strategy card may not pass and end their action phase until they have used their strategy card, and all other players always have the option to use the secondary ability of a strategy card once activated, even if they passed on a previous turn.
The status phase is a book-keeping and maintenance phase. Players score public and secret objectives in the same initiative order from the action phase (not clockwise from the Speaker), reveal the next public objective, draw action cards, remove and regain command tokens (and may redistribute command tokens among their tactical, strategic, and fleet pools), ready all exhausted cards (including the strategy and technology and planetary cards), repair any damaged units, and return the strategy cards to a common play area.
The agenda phase has replaced the politics phase. Once a player has taken Mecatol Rex, it is appended as the fourth phase after the status phase to each round. In the agenda phase, players convene the galactic council on Mecatol Rex and vote on two agendas. Agendas are either Laws (permanent changes to the current game's mechanics, such as allowing all players to build War Suns without needing to research the qualifying technologies) and Directives (a one-time effect such as each player drawing a secret objective, or giving a victory point to the player in last place). Each player casts votes by exhausting their planets for its influence score (where each point of influence is one vote), and may spend as many as they have for the agendas, or abstain from voting. Players may not spend trade goods as influence for casting votes in this phase, but the voting (the active) player is free to offer deals - Promissory Notes, commodities or trade goods - to influence or purchase another player's vote. Players are also allowed to make deals and transactions during the agenda phase whether they share borders or not, allowing for the exchange of promissory notes, and commodities and trade goods. Once both agendas have been voted on, the players refresh all their exhausted planets so they have the resources and influence and technology specialties available for the action phase in the next round.
The technology tree has been simplified. Rather than a confusing flow chart of pre-requisites, technological advancement is through four linear branches, and players can upgrade most of the available units by satisfying pre-requisites in the four branches.
Trade has been simplified. Players now exchange faction commodities which become trade goods when another player acquires them. Instead of requiring trade agreements, the active player is now allowed to trade their commodities with neighbors (anyone they share a border with) during their turn.
List of games
Main
First edition
Twilight Imperium
Twilight Imperium: Borderlands
Twilight Imperium: Twilight Armada
Twilight Imperium: Distant Suns
Twilight Imperium: The Outer Rim
Second edition
Twilight Imperium 2nd Edition
Twilight Imperium: Hope's EndThird edition
Twilight Imperium 3rd Edition Twilight Imperium 3rd Edition – Shattered Empire Twilight Imperium 3rd Edition – Shards of the ThroneFourth edition
Twilight Imperium 4th Edition Twilight Imperium 4th Edition – Prophecy of Kings
Spin-off boardgames
Mag·Blast (two editions)
Twilight Imperium: Armada
Twilight Imperium: Armada: Stellar Matter
Twilight Imperium: Armada: Incursion
Rex: Final Days of an Empire
Twilight Inscription
Role-playing game
Twilight Imperium: The Role-Playing Game (1999)
Embers of the Imperium (2023)
References
External links
Board games introduced in 1997
Board games with a modular board
Christian T. Petersen games
Fantasy Flight Games games
Space opera board games
4X games
Space conquest board games
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5106564
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry%20Fielding
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Jerry Fielding
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Jerry Fielding (born Joshua Itzhak Feldman; June 17, 1922 – February 17, 1980) was an American jazz musician, arranger, band leader, and film composer who emerged in the 1960s after a decade on the blacklist, to create boldly diverse and evocative Oscar-nominated scores, primarily for gritty, often brutally savage, films in western and crime action genres, including the Sam Peckinpah movies The Wild Bunch (1969) and Straw Dogs (1971).
Childhood and education
Jerry Fielding was born as Joshua Itzhak Feldman in Pittsburgh, to Hiram Harris Feldman and Esther Feldman, both Russian-born American Jews. By 1930, "Joshua Itzhak" had been discarded once and for all, as evidenced by both the 1930 US Census and the recollections, published more than seven decades later, of fellow Pittsburgher Henry Mancini. During the ensuing decade, Jerry briefly experimented with the trombone, then took up the clarinet and joined the high school band, eventually earning a scholarship to the Carnegie Institute for Instrumentalists. After a short attendance, because of ill health he was bedridden for two years with an undiagnosed ailment. While housebound, Feldman listened to the radio, and became a fan of the big band sound and Bernard Herrmann's music for Orson Welles's radio dramas.
Freelance arranger
Somewhat recuperated, Feldman worked at Pittsburgh's Stanley Theater (where his fellow players included Mancini, Erroll Garner and Billy May), learning composition and arranging there from the theater's pit orchestra conductor, Max Adkins (as did Mancini and another notable Pittsburgh native, Billy Strayhorn). In June 1941, shortly before his nineteenth birthday, Feldman left Pittsburgh to work for Alvino Rey's swing band. His contributions to the band's repertoire included an arrangement of "Three Blind Mice" and an original composition, "Picnic in Purgatory".
This job ended when most of the band was drafted. Too frail for service, Feldman became vocal arranger for Lucy Ann Polk's Town Criers and then joined Kay Kyser's band. He became their chief arranger in 1945. In addition, he arranged for the big bands of Mitchell Ayres, Claude Thornhill, Jimmie Lunceford, Tommy Dorsey, Charlie Barnet and Les Brown.
Radio work: from Feldman to Fielding
Feldman arranged for the Kay Kyser's Kollege of Musical Knowledge radio program, and then became the band leader for several radio programs: The Jack Paar Program (1947–1949), The Hardy Family 1952–1953, as well as work on The Fitch Bandwagon, The Life of Riley, and the Sweeney and March Show.
In the spring of 1947, having suitably impressed prospective employer, radio emcee Jack Paar (and his production team), Feldman was compelled to change his name as a prerequisite to securing the position of providing live on-air music (records were still not allowed on the air in 1947). He chose the name Fielding, and he would recount this transformation with some bitterness almost 25 years later:
They told me I was not going on with any name as Jewish as Feldman. I don't think there's any lessening of prejudice today. There's just more politeness about where and when it happens now. I think it's going to be the downfall of Homo sapiens.
In 1948, Fielding replaced Billy May as musical director on Groucho Marx's radio program You Bet Your Life. In 1951, the famous comedian brought Fielding along for the same musical directing job when he moved "You Bet Your Life" to television, one of the first hit shows of the new medium, and a job Fielding would hold until 1953. In June 1952, drawing on the same musicians employed in his radio and television work, he formed the Jerry Fielding Orchestra for the purposes of performing and recording his music while the television season was in its annual summer hiatus.
Fielding later recalled the reasons for doing this: "So a couple of [professional jazz] guys formed little bands, not to go in buses on the road, but to record with, do a few weekends at the Palladium, just rehearse, and keep the thing going. We were doing it for each other, really. And the first records I made—that's what they were. Frank had put a band together for the Palladium: and I said: "If he can do it, I can do it." I had five radio shows at the time: so we put this bunch together, and we started to do some wild things. ... In that band were Conrad Gozzo, Sam Donahue, Shelly Manne, Johnny Williams, Buddy Collette, Red Callender—everybody. I knew what these guys could do, and I wrote to the absolute limit of their abilities, which no one else did. We did some spectacular performances. Albert Marks recorded us a couple of times, and those are the early Trend records which are such collector's items now. I think they were collector's items the day they went in the store; they never really sold well."
The group would be featured on Fielding's own short-lived but well-received all-music TV series, the JF TV Show, and by the following summer, had released its debut LP, Jerry Fielding and His Great New Orchestra (Trend, 1953).
Blacklisted, but welcomed in Vegas
Though never a Communist, Fielding was called before the House Un-American Activities Committee in December 1953 during the anti-Communist hysteria, particularly in Congress, and the FBI, who were in the throes of punishing the many talented FDR supporters in entertainment who had helped to defeat isolationists before Pearl Harbor. This was done by smearing them with innuendo and charges of Communism. Fielding's sin appeared to be his Radio Union membership (which was obligatory for all nationally broadcast radio performers) which was in turn one of a dozen or more unions in the Hollywood Writers Mobilization which was founded in 1941 to promote show business efforts against Nazism and in support of the American war effort. However, Fielding later joked that all the committee really wanted was to get him to name Groucho Marx as a communist, which he refused to do. He also believed he was being singled out for his integrated bands, using African-American jazz performers in his radio and television music, which was carried live at the time. All integration and equal rights to black performers were deeply offensive to some HUAC members, and to FBI head, J. Edgar Hoover.
Fielding took the Fifth Amendment, refusing to divulge the names of any colleagues who might be suspected of "Communism", doing so knowing that pleading the Fifth would damage his thriving radio and television career, as it did. He was blacklisted by the national television and radio networks, who were being pressed by these same forces with a similar fate if they 'failed to cooperate."
The blacklist destroyed Fielding's embryonic career as an on-screen television host, but the talented musician survived what would be a decade-long exile from broadcasting by returning to his live performing and recording careers, both as a featured artist and a freelance arranger. In Las Vegas, Nevada he led a band at the Royal Las Vegas Hotel; in addition, he toured for the only time with his name orchestra, which also released several albums during this period, first for a little-known independent label, with Jerry Fielding Plays a Dance Concert (Trend, 1954), followed by Sweet with a Beat (1955), Fielding's Formula (1957), and Hollywoodwind Jazztet (1958), all on Decca. His jazz and pop background allowed him to survive while the blacklist destroyed the concert and film-based careers of musicians such as Schoenberg champion and film composer Louis Gruenberg and the first black Broadway and film star, Paul Robeson.
The end of the blacklist
In 1959, musical star Betty Hutton insisted that the still-blacklisted Jerry Fielding direct her new series, The Betty Hutton Show, a television series for CBS, having gotten to know him while they were both working the music circuit in Las Vegas. Television had been a surreptitious haven for the blacklisted writers, directors and composers for many years, and it was Desilu Productions, founded by Lucille Ball, who'd briefly been a member of the Communist Party and also dragged before HUAC in the early 1950s, who backed Hutton's choice. With her own career hanging by a thread, Hutton – along with Desilu and CBS – made a brave stand against the blacklist in television, but the show unfortunately failed.
Fielding's career as a film composer did not begin until 1962, when leading Hollywood director Otto Preminger, himself a refugee of Nazism, hired him to compose the score for his all-star, Washington, D.C.-based adaptation of the best-selling novel, Advise and Consent. Preminger deliberately violated and thus finally ended the blacklist in American filmmaking – he released Man with the Golden Arm in 1955 without the Production Code's seal of approval and named blacklisted screenwriter Dalton Trumbo in his first onscreen film credit since his blacklisting fifteen years before, in Exodus (1960), his hiring of blacklisted actor Franchot Tone and composer Fielding for Advise and Consent was particularly fitting for a film which attempted to expose the evil of innuendo and blacklisting in political Washington. It was his friend, prolific and long-suffering blacklistee Dalton Trumbo, who had suggested Fielding to Preminger for the job.
Composing for the screen
Preminger had used the great jazz leader, Duke Ellington and his band for an all-jazz score for his pioneering realist trial drama Anatomy of a Murder (1959) – unusual at a time when most film scores were still lush symphonic orchestrations and even more unusually in that he featured the African-American Ellington and other band members in the film itself. Thus Fielding was given permission to employ his own wide-ranging and eclectic musical skills for the film. It was a remarkable debut score, the first to contain Fielding's signature ability to bring dark irony to his themes.
Fielding was now also free to write television scores for hit 1960 shows, Mission Impossible (1966) (though not the best known theme, which is by Lalo Schifrin) and Star Trek in second and third seasons. It was his composing for a contemporary made-for-TV Western, Noon Wine, directed by then-unknown Sam Peckinpah, that led to Fielding's breakthrough score for Peckinpah's first critical and box-office hit, The Wild Bunch (1969) as well as a volatile but ultimately fruitful collaboration between the two men. A neo-noir Western with a wordless, staggeringly violent final shootout still imitated to this day, The Wild Bunch quartet of taciturn, bitter gunmen, led by Bill Holden, are given power, humor and voice largely through Fielding's brilliant score. The composer "caught the weariness, dust, dirt and blood of a vanishing West in a rich underscore that interspersed sprightly action cues with wistful Mexican folk melodies and nostalgic, bittersweet dirges", writes British film composer Heathcliff Blair. The soundtrack brought his first nomination for an Oscar for Best Dramatic Score.
"The Wild Bunch gave me a chance to illustrate to the public, and the entertainment industry, that if a composer is given real freedom to create, he can produce a score that is unlike any other ever written", Fielding said later. In his next film outing, the quaint English countryside is blown apart by sadistic violence in Peckinpah's second masterpiece, Straw Dogs (1971) in which Fielding for the first time used Stravinsky-influenced "sound clusters", another highly-influential score whose echoes can be heard, for example, in the following year's The French Connection which has a brittle quarter-tone score by jazz composer Don Ellis. Straw Dogs was also followed by an Oscar nomination.
The following year, in Peckinpah's The Getaway (1972), a troubled production starring Steve McQueen and Ali MacGraw, Fielding's score was removed from the final picture. It was replaced by music of Quincy Jones, much to Fielding's shock and dismay, an ordeal documented in a short film by his wife, Camille and daughter Elizabeth Fielding in 2007. Peckinpah then asked Fielding to compose around songs by Bob Dylan, for Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid (1973). While already lionized for his protest and rock music by 1972, Dylan had no formal musical training whatsoever and Fielding eventually backed out in frustration. Despite this, Fielding returned to score Peckinpah's surreal anti-Western, Bring Me the Head of Alfredo Garcia (1974). In this black comedy Fielding again expresses the despairing subtext and unspoken whimsy of his frequently inchoate collaborator, this time in a film whose exercise in futility seems a personal statement by Peckinpah indeed. "In many ways, Sam doesn't know what the hell he's talking about", Fielding said of the director, whom he considered a close friend. "In other ways, he's a fantastically gifted man." Fielding claimed the two used to sort out their differences in fist fights.
Fielding had fruitful and rather less stressful relationships with two other leading 1970s action directors. For Michael Winner he demonstrated his versatility through six films, from the first jazz-tinged score for a Western in Lawman (1971) to the Gothic period melodrama The Nightcomers (1971), where Fielding delighted in creating a neo-Baroque orchestral score of which he was most proud. Winner would go on to team with Charles Bronson in Death Wish. His last film for Winner was the 1978 remake of The Big Sleep, starring Robert Mitchum and considered a classic of 1970s neo-LA Noir.
His collaboration with the famously jazz-loving Clint Eastwood began when Eastwood chose Fielding to compose the score to The Outlaw Josey Wales. Fielding presumably didn't know that the author of the original novel, Forrest Carter, was a Klansman and segregationist. Fielding, assuming he was scoring a popular young people's Western novel, researched and included Irish folk tunes from the Civil War, creating another newly explored direction for period films and winning his third and final Oscar nomination. On that Oscar night, Fielding was up against Jerry Goldsmith's The Omen, Lalo Schifrin's Voyage of the Damned, and the two final scores by his former hero in 1930s radio, prolific Hitchcock favorite Bernard Herrmann, for Scorsese's Taxi Driver and de Palma's Obsession. (Goldsmith won.)
In his next two films for Eastwood, Fielding employed urban scores featuring living jazz musicians for The Enforcer (1976) and The Gauntlet (1977). Other notable scores were for Demon Seed (1977), that included electronic instruments and atonal passages; and The Bad News Bears (1976), inspired by the 19th century opera Carmen by French composer, Bizet.
Funeral Home (1980) was the film he was scoring at the time of his death.
Popular television themes
Fielding combined his film scores with television work, not an unusual combination at the time, particularly since the theme song for a hit television series could go on paying dividends for years, generating royalties every time it was played on the air. He scored two episodes of the first Star Trek television series: cult classic The Trouble with Tribbles and Spectre of the Gun. He also wrote the title themes for what became enduring 1960s shows of the network era: Hogan's Heroes and The Bionic Woman, as well as Run, Buddy, Run; He & She . His last television theme tune was for the 1970 situation comedy The Tim Conway Show. He also did notable work with Kolchak: The Night Stalker (1974). His last television soundtrack, for the mini-series High Midnight, won an Emmy.
Personal life
Fielding married twice, first to Kay Kyser band production assistant, Ann Parks(d), in December 1946 in Tijuana. They raised two children, Georgia and Hillary. This marriage ended in the spring of 1963. His second marriage took place on August 6, 1963, to Camille J. Williams, a Las Vegas dancer. They had two children.
Fielding died, at the age of 57, from a heart attack followed by congestive heart failure, while in Toronto where he was scoring the motion picture Funeral Home (also known as Cries In The Night). He was survived by wife Camille and two daughters: Claudia and Elizabeth; and former wife Ann and daughter Hillary. He is interred in Crypt 30 at Glen Haven Memorial Park in Los Angeles.
Awards and honors
On Thursday November 12, 2009, Jerry Fielding was awarded a lifetime achievement award for his composition in The Wild Bunch which celebrated its 40th anniversary. It was received by his daughter Claudia Fielding.
Film scores
The Nun and the Sergeant (1962)
Advise & Consent (1962)
For Those Who Think Young (1964)
McHale's Navy (1964)
McHale's Navy Joins the Air Force (1965)
The Wild Bunch (1969)
Suppose They Gave a War and Nobody Came (1970)
Lawman (1971)
Johnny Got His Gun (1971)
The Nightcomers (1971)
Straw Dogs (1971)
Chato's Land (1972)
Junior Bonner (1972)
The Mechanic (1972)
Scorpio (1973)
The Outfit (1973)
The Super Cops (1974)
Bring Me the Head of Alfredo Garcia (1974)
The Gambler (1974)
The Killer Elite (1975)
The Black Bird (1975)
The Bad News Bears (1976)
The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976)
The Enforcer (1976)
Demon Seed (1977)
The Gauntlet (1977)
The Big Sleep (1978)
Mr. Horn (1979)
Beyond the Poseidon Adventure (1979)
Escape from Alcatraz (1979)
Funeral Home (1980)
References
Notes
Further reading
Articles
Cohen, Harold V. (January 21, 1956). "The Drama Desk: Local Scrappings". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
Blank, Edward L. (May 14, 1972). "Fielding Mercurial Over Film Music". The Pittsburgh Press.
Staff (February 19, 1980). "Jerry Fielding, Writer of Scores for Movies; Named for 3 Oscars" The New York Times
Rosenbaum, Jonathan; Lehman, Peter (July 1980). "Film Music: An Interview with Jerry Fielding". Wide Angle.
Fielding, Camille (February 2000). "Twenty Years Gone: Camille Fielding Remembers Jerry". Film Score Monthly.
Redman, Nick (February 2000). "Music by Jerry Fielding: A 20th Anniversary Remembrance". Film Score Monthly.
"Groucho/Fielding Blacklist Shows Discovered". Film Score Monthly. July 2000.
Books
Gelfand, Steve. Television Theme Recordings: An Illustrated Discography, 1951–1994. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Popular Culture, Ink., 1994
Redman, Nick. "Jerry Fielding" Dictionary of American Biography, Supplement 10: 1976–1980. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center, Gale, 2008.
Terrace, Vincent. Radio Programs, 1924–1984. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 1999.
External links
Demon Seed score on compact disc
Jerry Fielding, From the Bands to the Films - interview by Les Tomkins in 1974
Jerry Fielding, Speak the Truth - interview #2 by Les Tomkins in 1974
Jerry Fielding/Dan Carlin interview conducted by Jonathan Rosenbaum and Peter Lehman; Originally published in Wide Angle, vol. 4, no. 3, 1979
Jerry Fielding Biography and LP Discography
Film Discography from Soundtrack Collector
A portrait of Jerry Fielding ( in French)
Jerry Fielding papers, MSS 2116 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
1922 births
1980 deaths
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
American conductors (music)
American film score composers
American jazz bandleaders
20th-century American Jews
American male conductors (music)
American television composers
Big band bandleaders
Decca Records artists
Hollywood blacklist
Kapp Records artists
American male film score composers
American male jazz musicians
Male television composers
Jazz musicians from Pittsburgh
Taylor Allderdice High School alumni
Varèse Sarabande Records artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Marshall%20Williams
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David Marshall Williams
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David Marshall Williams (November 13, 1900 – January 8, 1975) was an American firearms designer and convicted murderer who invented the floating chamber and the short-stroke piston. Both designs used the high-pressure gas generated in or near the breech of the firearm to operate the action of semi-automatic firearms like the M1 Carbine.
Early life
David Marshall Williams was born in Cumberland County, North Carolina, the son of James Claude Williams by his second wife, Laura Susan Kornegay. He was the eldest of seven children and the younger half brother of the five surviving children from the first marriage of James Claude Williams to Eula Lee Breece. James Claude Williams was a wealthy and influential landowner of hundreds of acres in and around Godwin, North Carolina.
As a young boy, he worked on his family's farm. He was expelled from school during the eighth grade by Godwin School Principal H.B. Gaston and began work in a blacksmith shop. At the age of 15 he enlisted in the Navy by claiming he was 17 years old. His Navy enlistment was short-lived when the Navy became aware of his true age.
In 1917, he enrolled in Blackstone Military Academy. He failed to complete the first semester due to his expulsion for theft of government property in possession of the school. Several rifles and 10,000 rounds of ammunition were found in his trunk by Col. E.S. Ligon, owner of the academy, who found Williams had shipped the stocks from the rifles home and refused to return them.
On August 11, 1918, in Cumberland County, he married Margaret Cooke and they later had one child, David Marshall Jr.
After his marriage, he obtained employment as a manual laborer with the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad. Several weeks later, while working with a railway team, he pulled a handgun and shot at a bird flying by, missing the bird but succeeding in having his employment terminated by his supervisor, Captain McNeill, section master.
Murder of Deputy Alfred Jackson Pate
Williams began operating an illegal distillery near Godwin, North Carolina. On July 22, 1921, the Cumberland County Sheriff and five deputies seized the still and product after the workers fled. While transporting the evidence away from the scene, the deputies came under gunfire from the woods. Riding away from the scene on the police car sideboard, Deputy Sheriff Alfred Jackson Pate was struck by two bullets and died at the scene. Williams was arrested for the murder the following day.
Coroner's Inquest testimony on August 1, 1921, followed by the arraignment on August 2, 1921, revealed a total of five shots had been fired at the deputies from a single location. One of the deputies present at the shooting identified Williams as the person who fired the rifle at Deputy Pate. Williams was held to answer for first degree murder with the possibility of a death sentence. Attorneys representing Williams then notified the court Williams could not be tried for the charges against him owing to insanity. Williams and five black workers he hired to run the still were charged with operating the still.
On October 11, 1921, a 12-man jury was impaneled to hear the testimony and decide the issue of Williams's sanity. Testimony started on October 12 and continued for four days. Williams was again identified by the deputy sheriff as the person who shot at Deputy Pate. The gunshots had come from the direction in which Williams had run, and all five workers employed by Williams testified that they ran in a different direction. The hearing ended in a hung jury (11-1 for sanity).
On November 22, 1921, his attorneys withdrew the insanity plea and Williams entered a plea of guilty to murder in the second degree. Immediately afterwards, Williams and his five workers pleaded guilty to the charge of making liquor.
On November 25, 1921, Williams received a sentence of a “term of Thirty Years at hard labor, to wear felon stripes” for the murder of Deputy Pate. On the same day, one of the black workers employed by Williams, Ham Dawson, was indicted and tried in Cumberland County Superior Court on the charge of secret assault on Deputy Pate. Williams testified during the trial that he had fired the first shot but didn't intend to kill the deputy. Dawson fired the remaining shots with the intent to kill the deputy. The same day, the all-white 12-man jury voted 12-0 for acquittal and Dawson was released.
Prison years
While serving time at the Caledonia State Prison Farm in Halifax County, North Carolina, Williams related that the superintendent, H.T. Peoples, noted his mechanical aptitude and allowed him access to the prison's machine shop, where he demonstrated a knack for fashioning his own tools the shop lacked. He began servicing the weapons used by the guards at the prison. His skills in the machine shop permitted him to stay ahead of his assignments and allowed him time to develop his ideas for self-loading firearms.
He would save paper and pencils and stay up late at night drawing plans for various firearms. His mother sent him a drafting set and technical data on guns and eventually provided him with patent attorney contacts, who were unable to help him as long as he was incarcerated.
Williams designed and built four semi-automatic rifles while in prison. All four used the high-pressure gas within the breech as a cartridge was fired to operate their semi-automatic actions. The means used to accomplish this was a floating chamber containing the cartridge that channeled the gas at the front of the chamber to force the floating chamber backwards into the bolt with sufficient energy to operate the action. Rearward movement of the chamber was limited to a short stroke to impact the bolt face, in effect making the floating chamber a short-stroke gas piston. All four rifles are part of the permanent David Marshall Williams display in the North Carolina Museum of History.
Commutation and parole
His family started a campaign to commute his sentence, and they were joined by the sheriff to whom he had surrendered. The widow of the man he was convicted of killing was approached and agreed his sentence should be commuted if his work would help the country. The request for commutation was submitted to North Carolina Governor Angus McLean on November 22, 1927.
On December 16, 1927, North Carolina Governor Angus McLean commuted the sentence from thirty years to “a minimum of ten and maximum of twenty years”.
Records of the Office of Superintendent, NC State Prisons indicate Williams was "regularly discharged from the State's Prison by Expiration of Sentence" on September 29, 1929.
Firearms development
Back in Cumberland County, he set to work perfecting his inventions, filing his first patents on February 2, 1931. Amongst these was a patent application entitled “Automatic Firearm” published August 24, 1937. This application detailed his concept for the use of the high-pressure gas in or near the breech to operate the action of a semi-automatic firearm. The application and subsequent patent detail several different designs to accomplish this, including the floating chambers he manufactured on the four rifles he built while imprisoned.
Colt Manufacturing Company
In 1931, Colt Manufacturing Company introduced the Colt Ace pistol, a .22 long rifle caliber rimfire version of Colt's M1911A1 .45 ACP pistol for training purposes. This pistol was specific to the .22 rimfire cartridge, with a recoil equivalent to its cartridge. In 1933, Williams was contracted by Colt to redesign the Colt Ace with his floating chamber. The end result was the Colt Service Ace (“Firearm” published August 24, 1937), a .22 caliber rimfire pistol with a recoil stronger than that of the Colt Ace but less than that of its M1911A1 .45 ACP counterpart.
In 1938, Colt introduced the Colt .22 - .45 Service Model Conversion Unit (Ace). Also designed by Williams, the conversion unit could be used to convert the 1911A1 .45 ACP pistol to .22 long rifle caliber rimfire for training. The kit allowed for the pistol to be converted back to its original 1911A1 .45 ACP. The kit was also used to convert the earlier Colt Ace pistol for use as a Colt Service Ace with the floating chamber.
U.S. Ordnance Department
After two years, he went to Washington, DC to show his work to the War Department. He received his first contract to modify the .30 caliber Browning machine gun using the floating chamber system to fire .22 caliber rimfire ammunition to facilitate inexpensive training. His conversions were permanent. Two patents were filed for this design on Mar 19, 1935, and published February 22, 1938: “Automatic Weapon Patent” and "Belt Feeding Means for Guns" .
The original Williams design was redesigned and improved upon by others into a .22 caliber conversion unit that allowed the M1919A1 to be converted back and forth between .30 caliber and .22 caliber rimfire (“Automatic Firearm” published February 22, 1938). This conversion kit was designated the “Trainer, Machine Gun, Caliber .22 M3” (for the 1919A1). Subsequent versions were created for the 1919A4 (Caliber .22 M4) and AN-M2 (Caliber .22 M5 .30).
Remington Arms
Around 1937, Remington Arms contracted Williams to produce a .22 long rifle caliber rimfire semi-automatic rifle utilizing his floating chamber intended for the commercial market. The rifle designed and developed by Williams can be seen in two patents: “Firearm” and “Firearm” .
The Williams design was not accepted by Remington. The rifle was redesigned by Remington employees K. Lowe and C.C. Loomis using the Williams floating chamber. The rifle was designated the Remington Model 550 and introduced in 1941.
The patents for the rifle, “Firearm” published July 18, 1944, and “Firearm” published August 22, 1944, credited the earlier Williams patent () of the Williams floating chamber for use with a .22 long rifle caliber rimfire rifle. This rifle was the first semi-automatic rimfire rifle capable of operating with either the .22 short, .22 long, or .22 long rifle cartridges.
Winchester Repeating Arms and World War II
Management at Winchester Repeating Arms Company was already aware of the work of Williams when in 1938 one of its patents () was contested by Williams as it infringed on one of his earlier patents for a sear (). Winchester agreed with Williams and negotiated a settlement.
The Ordnance Department's General Julian Hatcher was impressed by Williams's work and in 1938 recommended Winchester hire him because he showed the greatest native ability of anyone Hatcher knew. Winchester entered into negotiations with Williams, who was hired full time by Winchester on July 1, 1939.
Williams was assigned the task of redesigning a semi-automatic rifle invented by Jonathan Edmund Browning, half brother of John Browning and Matt Browning. The design had been purchased by Winchester, who had also hired Jonathan Browning to improve the design. Winchester hoped the Browning design might replace the M1 rifle invented by John Garand.
One of the problems encountered was the gas system that operated the rifle's semi-automatic action. By May 1940, Williams had fitted the rifle with a short-stroke gas piston outside the bore of the barrel that used the gas forward of the breech to cause the piston to strike the operating slide and cycle the action. Winchester designated this rifle the Model G30M. The rifle developed with this version of the short-stroke gas piston was used during U.S. Ordnance Department trials at Quantico, Virginia, and Aberdeen, Maryland, from March through April 1940, followed by trials with the Marines in San Diego, California, during the fall and winter of 1940.
Based on the experience gained during these trials, Winchester directed Williams to redesign the rifle to correct additional problems, chamber it for the standard military rifle cartridge .30 M2 (.30-'06), and make it as light as possible. Williams completed the changes by May 1941, with the result weighing only . Winchester designated this rifle the G30R.
By May 1941, the U.S. Ordnance Dept. had started trials of a number of submissions for a light rifle design that would eventually be chambered for the .30 caliber Carbine cartridge. Winchester initially decided against developing a submission because of other commitments that included the Browning prototype being worked on by Williams. During the trials of the Model G30M at Quantico and San Diego, it had become apparent to Winchester they were not going to be able to replace the M1 by Garand. When Williams produced the Model G30R, it convinced Winchester they should be able to come up with a prototype for the light rifle trials.
The challenge for Winchester was producing a working light rifle in time for preliminary tests pending a second set of light rifle trials. Williams had already shown he worked at his own pace, so Winchester assigned two other employees to head up the project. When Williams was not included, he was livid. Williams refused to have anything to do with the gun and did not want his name associated with it. Thirteen days after they had begun, Winchester employees completed the first prototype.
The receiver, rotating bolt, slide, and short-stroke gas piston used on this first prototype were based on those used by Williams to produce the Model G30R. Of these four parts, three were designed by Williams from parts already in use on other rifles. The one part Williams could take sole credit for was the short-stroke gas piston that accessed the high-pressure gas near the breech to operate the semi-automatic action.
The preliminary tests of the first prototype by the Ordnance Department on August 9, 1941, proved the design had sufficient merit for Winchester to proceed with the development and submit a light rifle by the September 15, 1941, deadline for the final trials.
For the second prototype, Winchester formed a second team consisting of the two prior employees and others with Williams as the project director. Three days later, Winchester removed Williams from the team after assessment of a dispute between Williams and the others that had forced the project to a halt. The team continued the work on the second prototype without Williams, whom Winchester allowed to design his own prototype concurrent with the others.
On September 12, 1941, the second prototype light rifle designed by the team was complete and ready for submission but for two problems that had yet to be resolved. Williams was asked to help the others sort out the problems, and collectively solutions were found that allowed the prototype to be transported and submitted to the Ordnance Department by the deadline. The Ordnance trials were completed and the Winchester light rifle was adopted as the Carbine, Caliber .30, M1 Carbine on September 30, 1941. Williams had been unable to complete his own light rifle prototype in time for the trials. The prototype by Williams was a downsized version of his G30R design. Photographs of this carbine are retained by the Springfield Armory Museum and the Cody Firearms Museum Buffalo Bill Historical Center.
Williams had previously entered into a license agreement with Winchester on September 9, 1940, for use of his patented short-stroke gas piston () in exchange for a royalty payable on the basis of the value of each gun manufactured containing the invention. From the end of 1941 and into 1942, Western Cartridge Co. (Winchester) negotiated with the Ordnance Department over the design of the M1 Carbine. In February 1942, the Ordnance Department proposed a one-time lump sum royalty payment of $886,000 in exchange for a royalty-free production license. On March 19, 1942, Williams voluntarily entered into another agreement with Winchester, accepting 26.411 percent of this lump sum ($234,100.46 over and above his salary) in lieu of royalty payments. Winchester signed the agreement on March 20, 1942.
The contract for the M1 Carbine cited 14 patents as part of its design. Four of these were held by Williams as an assignor of Western Cartridge Company (Winchester). Two were related to the Model G30 (“Takedown Firearm” published December 7, 1943, and “Gas Operated Self-Loading Firearm” published April 18, 1944). The third was Winchester's patent for the M1 carbine itself (“Automatic Firearm Construction” published January 12, 1943) with Williams as the assignee. The fourth was the carbine's short-stroke gas piston (“Piston Means for Gas-Operated Firearms” published February 8, 1944). Winchester felt the earlier Williams patent for his floating chamber gas piston (“Automatic Firearm” ) was sufficiently different from the design used in the M1 carbine, and that they would have won an inevitable court battle with Williams. But they saw no point in it, as Winchester retained the patent rights with Williams as the company's assignee and the time taken by a court battle would be counterproductive to the overall goal of manufacturing the carbine for timely use by American forces already at war.
Williams continued working at Winchester on the Model G30, a light machine-gun version known as the Winchester Automatic Rifle (WAR) intended to replace the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR), and a .50 caliber anti-tank rifle version. As the design of several of these firearms neared completion, the war's end in August 1945 and subsequent budget cutbacks ended these projects. Williams assisted Winchester throughout the war on a number of smaller projects, including the design and development of the rear flip sight for the M1 carbines.
Winchester Repeating Arms – Post World War II
Along with his .30 M2 Browning Military Rifle, Jonathan Edmund Browning had developed, patented, and sold to Winchester a design for a semi-automatic shotgun , , . After the war, Winchester assigned Williams to the project of developing the shotgun for sporting use.
As an assignee of Olin Industries (Winchester) Williams obtained two patents related to his design: “Inertia Operated Bolt Lock” published July 12, 1949, and “Firearm with Movable Chamber and Sealing Sleeve” published August 19, 1958.
Winchester introduced the shotgun in 1954 as its Model 50 Automatic Shotgun in 12 and 20 gauge. The shotgun featured an Inertia Operated Bolt Lock designed by Williams. The bolt block and cartridge sat within a large floating chamber. When the gun was fired, the gas forward of the floating chamber forced the chamber to the rear approximately 1/10th of an inch in a short stroke that generated the energy necessary for the bolt block to disengage the rear of the floating chamber and operate the semi-automatic action. This was the first semi-automatic shotgun with a fixed nonrecoiling barrel. In 1960 Winchester introduced its Model 59 Automatic Shotgun, which also utilized the Williams design from the Model 50. This model featured the Winlite 'glass' barrel; it was a thin tube wrapped with microfilament glass fibre. This model could be had with the first ever screw-in Versalite choke tubes.
Movie fame
In 1952, MGM released the film Carbine Williams starring James Stewart as Williams with Jean Hagen as his wife, Maggie. The movie details Williams's life from his discharge from the Navy to his release from prison. The movie premiered April 24, 1952, at the Colony Theater in Fayetteville, North Carolina. After the premier, Williams traveled the country, appearing where the film was shown and offering autographs and photographs.
The story presented in the movie Carbine Williams was entertainment based on the story as told to MGM's producers by David Marshall Williams, verbally, in writing, and as a technical consultant during the production of the movie. The original movie script is archived within the MGM Collection by the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library, Beverly Hills, California. A cover page indicates the script was prepared by a member of the MGM script department on March 15, 1951. The script consists of two documents: The Williams Story by David Marshall Williams (copyrighted by Williams February 9, 1951 - Copyright AA0000174857) and Army Carbine: The Rifle that was Born in Prison by David Marshall Williams "as told to B. Fay Ridenour".
The original story of the Army Carbine: The Rifle that was Born in Prison, as authored by Williams and told by Ridenour, a newspaper reporter for The Charlotte Observer, was published prior to the creation of the movie script by The Charlotte Observer on February 25, 1951. The article includes an introduction by Ridenour declaring the article to be a correct accounting of events. Within the article, Williams is quoted as stating: "In 1939, I went to work for Winchester and it was while working for them that I invented the U.S. Army Carbine that is in use today".
Returning to Godwin, NC, after his travels for the movie, Williams was thereafter known as "Carbine Williams" and personally adopted the moniker. During newspaper, magazine, and radio interviews stimulated by the movie, Williams repeated his story as presented in Army Carbine: The Rifle that was Born in Prison. The fictional legend created by the publication of this story has continued to be the source for authors to this day.
Final years
The November 6, 1960, edition of The Fayetteville Observer included an article entitled "Condition of Williams Is Still Critical”: “David Marshall (Carbine) Williams, 66, of Godwin, Rte. 1, inventor of the Army carbine, was in critical condition Saturday at midnight in a Dunn Hospital. Williams' physician, Dr. L.R. Doffermyre, said his examination late Saturday night indicated that Williams was 'extremely critical'. The Cumberland County man was admitted to the hospital earlier last week for treatment of a liver ailment. He had been unconscious at least three days." The article indicates that his wife and son and three grandchildren were at his bedside. The November 14, 1960, Fayetteville Observer included a follow-up report indicating Williams was recovering.
During the 1960s, Williams remained at home with his wife and family. Williams eventually donated his personal collection and entire workshop to the North Carolina Museum of History. On June 22, 1971, the museum held an opening ceremony of the David Marshall Williams exhibit at the museum, where it remains on permanent display. The display includes the entire building of the Williams workshop. All contents remain in the same location where Williams left them.
In 1972, David Marshall Williams was admitted to Dorothea Dix Hospital in Raleigh, North Carolina. His wife described his condition as being unable to recognize his own family. Dorothea Dix Hospital is a psychiatric hospital with short-term and long-term care for patients with a variety of mental disorders, both psychological and physical. Williams remained at the hospital until his death on January 8, 1975.
His death certificate lists the primary cause of his death as cardiorespiratory arrest with contributing factors of bronchial pneumonia and organic brain syndrome. Organic brain syndrome (OBS) is decreased mental function owing to a medical disease other than a psychiatric illness. Examples are stroke, Alzheimer's disease, liver failure, long-term alcohol abuse, and withdrawal from alcohol, amongst many others.
Williams is buried in the cemetery of the Old Bluff Presbyterian Church near Wade, North Carolina.
Legacy
While the fictional legend of “Carbine Williams” has garnered Williams more attention over the years, his design, redesign, and development of firearms that used the high-pressure gas in or near the breech to operate their semi-automatic action have remained a significant contribution used in the design and development of new firearms and as a starting point for other inventors to come up with new ideas.
The U.S. patent for the highly successful Benelli Shotgun () references Williams's patent for his “Inertia Operated Bolt Lock” . The Weatherby Model SA-08 and SA-459 semi-automatic shotgun lines manufactured for Weatherby by Armsan in Istanbul, Turkey, use an external gas piston housing and short-stroke gas piston that impacts an operating rod to cycle the semi-automatic action. Armsan manufactures and markets in Europe its own line of semi-automatic shotguns using this design.
See also
Carbine Williams (Jimmy Stewart film, 1952)
References
Further reading
Lucian Cary, "Big Trouble and A Big Idea," True, March 1951.
John Kobler, "The Story of 'Carbine' Williams," Colliers''', 3 March 1951.
H.T. Peoples, "The Most Unforgettable Character I Ever Met", Reader's Digest, March 1951.
William B. Edwards, “The Impossible Shotgun of Carbine Williams”, Guns Magazine, Oct 1956.
Ross E. Beard, Jr. The Story of David Marshall Williams. Lexington, SC: Sandlapper Store, 1977.
H. G. Jones, "David Marshall (Carbine) Williams." Dictionary of North Carolina Biography, Vol. 6; p. 205-206. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina Press, 1996.
Pat Reese, four-part series on the life of Williams, Fayetteville Observer-Times, Apr 20-23, 1997.
Larry L. Ruth, “War Baby! The U.S. Caliber .30 Carbine”, Collector Grade Publications, 1992.
Larry L. Ruth, “War Baby! Comes Home: The U.S. Caliber .30 Carbine, Volume II”, Collector Grade Publications, 1993.
Bruce N. Canfield, "'Carbine' Williams: Myth & Reality." The American Rifleman'', February 2009.
Larry L. Ruth, “War Baby! III; The U.S. Carbine into the 21st Century”, Collector Grade Publications, 2013.
Bruce N. Canfield, “Backing Another Horse: The Winchester G30 Semiautomatic Rifle.” “The American Rifleman”, November 2013.
External links
USCarbineCal30.com, “David Marshall Williams, Inventions of the Mind”
David Marshall Williams at Find a Grave
North Carolina Museum of History
1900 births
1975 deaths
American people convicted of murder
People from Cumberland County, North Carolina
Firearm designers
People convicted of murder by North Carolina
20th-century American inventors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Dispatches
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Black Dispatches
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Black Dispatches was a common term used among Union military men in the American Civil War for intelligence on Confederate forces provided by African Americans, who often were slaves aiding the Union forces. They knew the terrain and could move within many areas without being noticed; their information represented a prolific and productive category of intelligence obtained and acted on by Union forces throughout the Civil War.
Black Dispatches resulted from frontline tactical debriefings of slaves—either runaways or those having just come under Union control. Black Americans also contributed to tactical and strategic Union intelligence through behind-the-lines missions and agent-in-place operations. Two such Union agents functioned as part of as Confederate President Jefferson Davis's "White House" staff in Richmond, Virginia. Even such a prominent woman as Harriet Tubman, best known for her activities involving the "underground railroad," played an important role in Union intelligence activities.
All the following groups, which aided the Union effort, were minor compared to the quality of intelligence provided by black slaves. There were Union sympathizers who were members of the following groups: Orders of the Heroes of America, the Peace and Constitutional Society, organized in Arkansas; and the Peace Society, which existed in Alabama, East Tennessee, Georgia, Mississippi, and perhaps even Florida that furnished the majority of intelligence that were verified by the network of northern spies that infiltrated the South. These groups consisted of Catholic, Methodist, Quakers, Jewish and other religious groups with relatives in the north where they funnelled the intelligence.
The value of the information that could be obtained, both passively and actively, by black Americans behind Confederate lines was clearly understood by most Union generals from early in the war. A stream of articles and stories in the Northern press during the war highlighted the important role of southern African Americans. Gen. Robert E. Lee, commander of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, was equally aware, and in May 1863 he said, "The chief source of information to the enemy is through our Negroes." Because of the culture of slavery in the South, Negroes involved in menial activities could move about without suspicion. Also, officials and officers tended to ignore their presence as personal servants when discussing war-related matters. Confederate General Patrick Cleburne explained the problem in a letter to Confederate high command, complaining "All along the lines slavery is comparatively valueless to us for labor, but of great and increasing worth to the enemy for information. It is an omnipresent spy system, pointing out our valuable men to the enemy, revealing our positions, purposes, and resources, and yet acting so safely and secretly that there is no means to guard against it. Even in the heart of our country, where our hold upon this secret espionage is firmest, it waits but the opening fire of the enemy's battle line to wake it, like a torpid serpent, into venomous activity."
After the war, however, the intelligence contributions of black Americans began to be lost to history. While racial prejudice probably played a part in this, as it did regarding the military contributions of black American Union military units, several other factors added to this lack of recognition. Historically, most successful spies do not want their identities made public. Even individuals who may have provided one-time pieces of useful intelligence usually prefer anonymity. This was particularly true in the emotional period after the Civil War, when many of these black Americans lived near people who had not given up their insurgency and were intent on imposing white supremacy on blacks.
Neither side had many official records related to their intelligence activities, having been reluctant to document them, for the above reasons of secrecy. Many records were purposely destroyed to protect those involved and still living. Before fleeing Richmond in 1865, the Confederate Secretary of War ordered the destruction of virtually all intelligence files, including counter-intelligence records regarding Union spies.
In Washington, the War Department turned over portions of its intelligence files to many of the participants involved. Most of these records were subsequently destroyed or lost. Thus, accounts by individuals of their parts in the war, or official papers focusing on larger subjects, such as military official correspondence, have become important sources of information on intelligence activities. Due to the lack of supporting documents, much of this information is difficult to substantiate or place in perspective and context.
George Scott
George Scott, an escaped slave, provided information that helped lead to one of the first large-scale battles of the war. He furnished intelligence on Confederate fortifications and troop movements to Gen. Benjamin F. Butler, commander of Fort Monroe located at the mouth of the James River on the tip of the Virginia Peninsula. Shortly after the start of the war, Butler had issued orders that all "contraband" arriving in Union lines be brought to his headquarters for debriefing.
Scott had escaped from a plantation near Yorktown. While making his way toward Fort Monroe, he observed that Confederate forces had thrown up two fortifications between Yorktown and the fortress. Butler's officers were impressed with Scott's information but wanted to confirm it. Scott agreed to accompany a Union officer on several scouting trips behind Confederate lines to obtain more specific intelligence. On one of these missions, Scott barely avoided being wounded by a Confederate picket; the bullet went through his jacket.
Based on the intelligence gained from these missions, Butler determined that Confederate forces were planning an attack on Newport News, capture of which would isolate Fort Monroe from Union resupply. He ordered a preemptive attack on the Confederate position, but the military operation was poorly conducted and ended in a Union defeat.
John Scobell
As the number of Union forces increased, requiring better organization, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan was appointed as commander of the Army of the Potomac defending Washington. He brought with him as his chief of intelligence Allan Pinkerton, who had gained some renown running a Chicago detective agency. Pinkerton, often using the alias Major Allen or E. J. Allen, had responsibilities for collecting intelligence on the enemy and for counterintelligence activities against enemy agents. He gained most of his intelligence by conducting an extensive and well-organized debriefing program of people crossing over from Confederate lines. These informants included merchants with business ties on both sides, deserters from the Confederate Army, prisoners of war, civilians traveling to escape the fighting or for other personal business, and former slaves. While each group provided valuable information, Pinkerton soon discovered that the former slaves were the most willing to cooperate and often had the best knowledge of Confederate fortifications, camps, and supply points.
Pinkerton instructed his operatives to focus their efforts on debriefing former slaves. He also directed them to be on the lookout for former slaves who had some education or seemed particularly skilled in observing and remembering military details. Once these individuals were identified, they were sent to Pinkerton for further assessment and evaluation. From these black Americans, Pinkerton recruited a small number for intelligence collection missions behind Confederate lines.
John Scobell was recruited in the fall of 1861 and became the best-known of the Pinkerton black agents. As a slave in Mississippi, Scobell had been well educated by his owner, a Scotsman who subsequently freed him. He was quick-witted and an accomplished role player, which permitted him to function in several different identities on various missions, including food vendor, cook, or laborer. He often worked with other Pinkerton agents, sometimes playing the role of their servant while in the South. He worked with Timothy Webster, perhaps Pinkerton's best agent, on missions into Virginia and also with Mrs. Hattie Lawton, Pinkerton's best female operative.
Scobell is credited with providing valuable intelligence on Confederate order of battle, status of supplies, and troop morale and movements. Frequently, while the white Pinkerton agents elicited information from Confederate officials and officers, Scobell would seek out leaders in the black community and collect their information on local conditions, fortifications, and troop dispositions.
Scobell often used his membership in the "Legal League," a clandestine Negro organization in the South supporting freedom for slaves, to acquire local information. League members sometimes supported Scobell's collection activities by acting as couriers to carry his information to Union lines. On at least one occasion, as described by Pinkerton, Scobell protected the escape of Mrs. Lawton from pursuing Confederate agents. He worked for Pinkerton from late 1861 until the intelligence chief closed down his operations in November 1862, when McClellan was replaced by Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside.
According to Corey Recko, historians have not been able to discover proof that slave/spy John Scobell existed. He may have been a fictional character created by Allan Pinkerton for his book The Spy of the Rebellion.
Riverboat spy
W. H. Ringgold was a free person of color who worked on a riverboat on the York River in Virginia. He had been "impressed" (coerced) into service as a result of having been in Fredericksburg at the time Virginia seceded from the Union. Ringgold spent six months on the river, helping move troops and supplies on the Virginia peninsula. When his ship was damaged by a storm, he and the other crewmen were permitted to travel to the North by way of Maryland's Eastern Shore. On reaching Baltimore, he sought out Union officials, who immediately sent him to Pinkerton in Washington.
In December 1861, Ringgold provided Pinkerton with detailed intelligence on Confederate defenses on the peninsula. This included locations of fortifications and artillery batteries, troop concentrations, and defenses on the York River. His information was the best McClellan received before the start of his Peninsula Campaign in March 1862. It was the basis for much of his strategic planning for the opening of that campaign.
Naval intelligence
Black Americans provided equally valuable intelligence to the Union Navy. Mary Louvestre, a freed slave, worked in Norfolk as a housekeeper for an engineer who was involved in the refitting and transformation of the USS Merrimack into the Virginia, the first Confederate ironclad warship. Overhearing the engineer talking about the importance of his project, she recognized the danger this new type of ship represented to the Union navy blockading Norfolk. She stole a set of plans for the ship which the engineer had brought home and fled North. After a dangerous trip, she arrived in Washington, DC and arranged a meeting with officials at the Department of the Navy.
The stolen plans and Louvestre's verbal report of the status of the ship's construction convinced the officials of the need to speed up construction of the Union's own ironclad, the USS Monitor. The Virginia destroyed two Union frigates, the USS Congress and the USS Cumberland, and ran another, the USS Minnesota, to ground before the Union ironclad was completed and reached forces for the war. If Louvestre had not given her intelligence, the Virginia may have had several more unchallenged weeks to destroy Union ships blockading Hampton Roads. The risk was that the Confederates could have opened the port of Norfolk to urgently needed supplies from Europe.
Robert Smalls
The strategic Confederate port of Charleston, South Carolina was one of the few in the south with railroad lines capable of speedy transportation of supplies to Richmond and other key Confederate manufacturing and supply centers. In March 1862, Robert Smalls, a free black, rowed out to a Union warship that was part of a large fleet assembled to attack the seacoast town of Fernandina, Florida. He reported that Confederate troops were preparing to evacuate the town as well as Amelia Island, which guarded the approach to Fernandina. Smalls, a harbor pilot, had observed Confederate preparations to destroy the town's harbor facilities during the withdrawal.
Smalls understood the importance of keeping the Fernandina harbor operable as a logistics facility and base for Union operations against Charleston. Based on the intelligence he provided, Union forces attacked Fernandina and routed the enemy's rear guard before the Confederates could sabotage the harbor. The intelligence provided by Smalls was considered so significant that the Secretary of the Department of the Navy described it in detail to President Lincoln in the Secretary's annual report.
While this information was Smalls' greatest intelligence contribution to the Union, he subsequently provided another gift to the Navy. On the night of May 12, 1862, he, family members, and other black American crewmen of the Planter, a cargo steamer turned into an armed coastal patrol ship, sailed out of Charleston harbor after the captain and two mates had gone home. In the dark, Smalls pretended to be the captain and, from his previous experiences, was able to provide all the correct countersigns to challenges from the various harbor fortifications. Upon reaching ships forming the Union blockade, he surrendered the Planter to them. Later that month he and his fellow crewmen received payment as a reward from the US government for half the appraised value of the ship as a reward.
When Pinkerton left his position as chief of intelligence for the Army of the Potomac in November 1862, he took all his intelligence files on the Confederacy with him. (Because he had been a private contractor, the files belonged to him). This left Union forces without centralized Confederate order-of-battle information, and the one remaining intelligence officer in the Army of the Potomac had to travel to the War Department in Washington to re-create this information from records of previous battles.
Charlie Wright
When Gen. Joseph Hooker took command of the Army of the Potomac on 27 January 1863, he immediately saw the need for an effective centralized intelligence system. On 11 February, Col. George H. Sharpe, an attorney and an officer of New York state volunteers, accepted the post of head of the Army's intelligence service. Under Sharpe, with direction from Hooker, the Bureau of Military Information (BMI) was created. Its sole focus was collection of intelligence on the enemy; it had no counterintelligence responsibilities. It soon developed into the first "all-source intelligence" organization in US history. Sharpe obtained, collated, analyzed, and provided reports based on scouting, spying behind enemy lines, interrogations, cavalry reconnaissance, balloon observation, Signal Corps observation, flag signal and telegraph intercepts, captured Confederate documents and mail, southern newspapers, and intelligence reporting from subordinate military units. This structured approach, which ended with the Confederate surrender, was not re-institutionalized until 1947, when the CIA was created.
Sharpe's BMI was well established when Charlie Wright, a young black man, arrived at Union lines from Culpeper, Virginia, in June 1863. While being debriefed, his extensive knowledge of units in Lee's army became apparent. He had an excellent memory for details. On 12 June, Capt. John McEntee, an officer from the BMI who had deployed with Union cavalry forces just after the battle of Brandy Station, telegraphed Sharpe the following: "A contraband captured last Tuesday states that he had been living at Culpeper C. H. for some time past. Saw Ewells Corps passing through that place destined for the Valley and Maryland. That Ewells Corps has passed the day previous to the fight and that Longstreet was them coming up." Shortly thereafter, McEntee also reported that Wright was well acquainted with these two corps and that he believed Wright's information was reliable. Wright identified more than a dozen separate Confederate regiments from both Ewell's Corps and Longstreet's Corps. The key intelligence Wright provided was that these troops had passed through Culpeper bound for Maryland.
Thanks to the Bureau's records and all-source information, Sharpe was able to confirm Wright's descriptions of the various Confederate units. This confirmation convinced General Hooker of Wright's assertion that Lee's army was moving into Maryland. Hooker ordered his army to shadow the Confederate forces' movements while traveling on the eastern side of the Blue Ridge Mountains out of view of Lee's troops.
This movement by the Union Army shielded Washington from Lee's forces and eventually forced the battle at Gettysburg. For several decades after the war, Union cavalry reconnaissance was given credit for identifying Lee's movement in the valley toward Maryland. But historical records now make it clear that Wright's intelligence was the key factor in convincing Hooker to move his forces.
While many reasons can be cited for Lee's defeat at Gettysburg, there can be no doubt that the ground held by the Union forces played a significant role in the victory. This was Charlie Wright's contribution. He had provided the intelligence that eventually enabled Union forces to get to Gettysburg first and seize the best ground.
Agents in place
Because both sides were poorly prepared for the war, notwithstanding the many years of political buildup to the actual fighting, there apparently were few intelligence agents who had been specifically placed in the enemy's institutions. In-place agents have the strategic advantage of providing the plans and intentions of an enemy rather than reporting on how and when they are carried out. Although the Confederacy did not create its civilian and military power structure until just before the war began, the Union did have several such agents in the Confederate capital by the first year of the war. Two were black Americans employed by Confederate President Jefferson Davis in his official residence.
William A. Jackson was a slave hired out by the year to President Davis as a coachman. His first documented report was on 3 May 1862, when he crossed into Union lines near Fredericksburg, Virginia. As a servant in the Davis household, he was able to observe and overhear the Confederate President's discussions with his military leadership. While no record remains of the specific intelligence he produced, it apparently was valuable enough to cause General McDowell to telegraph it immediately to the War Department in Washington.
The second agent, Mary Elizabeth Bowser, was part of a Union spy ring known as "the Richmond underground," directed by Elizabeth Van Lew, whose family was well respected and well connected socially in Richmond. While not hiding her Union loyalties, Van Lew affected behavior that made her appear harmless and eccentric to Confederate authorities. After the war, she traveled to Washington and obtained all the official records from the War Department related to her activities and destroyed them. Thus, details on Bowser's specific activities are sparse.
Bowser had been a slave of the Van Lew family, but Van Lew freed her and sent her North to be educated. When Van Lew decided to establish a spy ring in Richmond shortly before the fighting began, she asked Bowser to return and work with her for the Union. Van Lew obtained a position for Bowser as a servant in the Confederate "White House" through the recommendation of a "friend" who provided supplies to that household.
Bowser pretended to be uneducated but hardworking and, after working part-time at several functions, was hired as a regular employee. Her access provided her with opportunities to overhear valuable information. As a black servant, Bowser was almost certainly ignored by the President's guests. Her reporting focused on conversations she overheard between Confederate officials at the President's residence and on documents she was able to read while working around the house. She and Van Lew, often dressed as a country farmwife, would meet at isolated locations on the outskirts of Richmond to exchange information.
Another Union spy, Thomas McNiven, noted that Bowser had a photographic memory and could report every word of the documents she saw at the "White House." In recognition of her intelligence contributions, Bowser was inducted into the US Army Intelligence Hall of Fame at Fort Huachuca, Arizona, on 30 June 1995.
Tubman's triumphs
Harriet Tubman, another black woman involved in intelligence collection for the Union, is well known for her activities with the underground railroad. Her intelligence activities, however, are well documented. Tubman, often referred to by her contemporaries as "Moses," is best known for the numerous trips she made into the south to free relatives and friends and bring them to safety. Her last trip took place in 1860. With the advent of the fighting, she spent the early years of the war assisting with the care and feeding of the many slaves who had fled to Union-controlled areas.
By the spring of 1863, Union officials had found a more dramatic and active role for Tubman. The Union forces in South Carolina badly needed information about the Confederate forces opposing them. Intelligence on the strength of enemy units, location of encampments, and designs of fortifications was almost nil. All these requirements could be met by short-term spying trips behind enemy lines, and it fell to Tubman to organize and lead these expeditions.
Tubman selected a few former slaves knowledgeable about the areas to be visited and established her spy organization. Often disguised as a field hand or poor farm wife, she led several spy missions herself, while directing others from Union lines. She reported her intelligence to Col. James Montgomery, a Union officer commanding the Second South Carolina Volunteers, a black unit involved in guerrilla warfare activities.
The tactical intelligence Tubman provided to Union forces during the war was frequent, abundant, and used effectively in military operations. For example, her part in a June 1863 Union raid up the Combahee River in South Carolina is well documented. Tubman had conducted spy missions into the area, identified enemy supply areas, and reported weaknesses in Confederate troop deployments.
In late May, Gen. David Hunter, commander of all Union forces in the area, asked Tubman to personally guide a raiding party up the river. On the evening of 2 June, Tubman led Montgomery and 150 of his men up the river past Confederate picket lines. In a swift raid, taking the Confederates by surprise, the Union forces destroyed several million dollars worth of Confederate supplies and brought back more than 800 slaves and thousands of dollars in enemy property. By this action alone, Tubman's contribution to the Union cause was significant. When Tubman died in 1913, she was honored with a full military funeral as a mark of respect for her activities during the war.
A signal achievement
No discussion of intelligence activities by black Americans during the Civil War would be complete without mention of a popular story about a black couple who provided intelligence on Confederate troop movements to the Union during the fighting around Fredericksburg, Virginia in 1863. The original account evidently appeared in a newspaper or magazine article written by a Union officer who claimed to have been a witness to the events. No official records have documented this story, and the claims about the value of the intelligence produced are questionable. But there is probably some factual basis for the tale.
The story involved a runaway slave named Dabney, who crossed into Union lines with his wife and found employment in General Hooker's headquarters camp. It became apparent that Dabney knew the geography of the area very well, and, though he had little education, was clever. He quickly developed an interest in the Union flag-signal system, and he learned all he could about it.
After several weeks, Dabney's wife asked permission to return to Confederate lines as a personal servant to a Southern woman returning to her home. A few days after his wife's departure, Dabney began reporting Confederate movements to members of Hooker's staff. His reports soon proved accurate, and he was questioned as to the source of his intelligence.
Dabney explained that he and his wife had worked out a signaling system based on the laundry that she hung out to dry at her mistress's house, which was observable from Hooker's headquarters. As the wife observed Confederate troop movements, she would hang the laundry in a particular sequence to signal Dabney of the activity. For example, a white shirt represented Gen. A. P. Hill, a pair of pants hung upside down represented the direction west, and so forth. This system produced useful intelligence on Confederate movements until Hooker moved his headquarters.
While such a signaling system could produce simple messages such as "Hill-north-three regiments," the value of the information would not be great. Union cavalry pickets and Signal Corps observers would have provided similar intelligence. But the fact that this story is repeated in numerous articles and books makes it a part of the legend of intelligence activities during the war.
References
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the Central Intelligence Agency.
External links
African Americans and the Civil War - slideshow by Life magazine
American Civil War espionage
Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War
Pinkerton (detective agency)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrone%20Mears
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Tyrone Mears
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Tyrone Robert Mears (born 18 February 1983) is an English former professional footballer who played as a right-back. His clubs include Bolton Wanderers, Preston North End, West Ham United, Derby County, Olympique de Marseille, Burnley, Seattle Sounders FC, Atlanta United FC, Minnesota United FC, and West Bromwich Albion. From Stockport in the north west of England, Mears once played for the Jamaica national football team despite not being eligible to do so.
Club career
Manchester City
Mears came through the ranks at Manchester City and signed trainee forms in August 2001. Mears only made one appearance for City, replacing Stuart Pearce as a substitute in the 84th minute against Nottingham Forest in March 2002. On Manchester City's promotion to the FA Premier League in 2002, Mears' first-team opportunities became limited and he was sold to Preston North End.
Preston North End
Mears joined Preston in July 2002, for a fee of £200,000. He signed a three-year contract and was expected to provide cover for Graham Alexander.
After missing out the start of the season, due to a thigh injury he suffered in the pre-season training, Mears made his debut for Preston as a substitute in a 3–3 draw with Walsall on 19 October 2002, After playing in the reserve for a while, Mears played his first match in months against Grimsby Town on 14 December 2002. It wasn't until on 15 April 2003 when he scored his first goal for the club, in a 5–1 loss against Reading. Though Manager Craig Brown expressed disappointment over the results, he singled out praises to Mears, including his "spectacular". In his first season at Preston North End, Mears went on to make a total of 24 league and cup appearances in the 2002–03 season, as Preston finished in mid-table of the Football League Championship.
In the 2003–04 season, Mears struggled to regain his first team, as he suffered a hamstring that kept him sidelined at the start of the season. It wasn't until on 27 September 2003 when he made his first appearance of the season, in a 2–1 loss against Walsall. However, he struggled to continue to in the first team, as he compete with Graham Alexander and Rob Edwards over the wing-backs position. Despite this, Mears scored his first goal of the season on 10 March 2004, in a 3–3 draw against Sunderland and only made 14 appearances. Nevertheless, Mears was awarded the club's most improved player this season.
However, in the 2004–05 season, Mears suffered a stress fracture in the pre-season training, which put him out of the game for ten months. Despite his long-term injury, he was offered and signed a further three-year contract in March 2005, saying "I was out for 10 months so you worry about what is going to happen to you. You need to be in the team but Preston have been very good to me and I can't speak more highly of the manager. Last season to get the stress fracture was very hard but that's all behind me now and I'm looking forward to a fresh start with a three-year deal." Mears made his return from the first team on 16 April 2005, coming on as late a substitute, in a 3–0 win over Cardiff City and went on to make five appearances in the 2004–05 season.
After suffering from injury at the start of the 2005–06 season, Mears managed to regain his first team place since returning from the first team and then scored his first goal of the season on 18 October 2005, in a 2–2 draw against Cardiff City. His second goal then came on 11 February 2006, in a 5–1 win over Luton Town. He made 39 league and cup appearances in the 2005–06 season as Preston reached the Championship play-offs semi-final. During that season, instead of having his surname Mears on the back of his shirt, he had his nickname "Tye", a rare occurrence in English football.
In July 2006, after rejecting two bids from Charlton Athletic, Preston accepted an offer for Mears from West Ham United.
West Ham United
Mears signed for West Ham for an initial £1 million in July 2006, rising to £1.9 million depending on appearances and possible future international recognition with England. Mears made his West Ham United debut on 19 August 2006, in a 3–1 win over Charlton Athletic, in the opening game of the season and then a month later, he played his first European match on 14 September 2006, playing the whole game, in a 1–0 loss against Palermo.
However, he was only to make six league and cup appearances for West Ham as he struggled to break into the first team. He memorably produced an athletic overhead clearance on the line, after Stiliyan Petrov lobbed West Ham keeper Roy Carroll in a match against Aston Villa in September 2006.
Loan to Derby County
With his opportunities in the West Ham first-team limited, he was allowed to join Derby County on loan until the end of the 2006–07 season in January 2007. Derby manager, Billy Davies, who had managed Mears at his previous club Preston, said of him, ""He is a very attacking full-back with excellent pace who adds great competition. Ideally we would like to make this deal permanent in the summer."
Mears made his debut as an 84th-minute substitute in a 1–0 win at Southampton on 3 February, and went on to make a total of 17 league and cup appearances, as Derby were promoted to the Premier League after beating West Bromwich Albion in the Championship play-off final in May. He went on to make seventeen appearances for the club in the 2006–07 season, during which Mears scored his first goal for Derby against Leeds United in a 2–0 win on the last day of the 2006–07 season.
Mears then joined Derby permanently for £1 million on 4 July 2007, signing a three-year contract. Manager Billy Davies said, ""We're delighted with this deal. Tye is a very good young full back with excellent pace and potential. We need him for the challenge ahead and I know he is committed to working hard." Mears' first game after signing for the club on a permanent basis came on 11 August 2007, in a 2–2 draw against Portsmouth in the opening game of the season. However, a stress fracture sustained in January 2008 ruled him out for three months of the 2007–08 season. Mears made his return from injury against Fulham on 29 March 2008, coming on as a late substitute, in a 2–2 draw, a game that saw Derby County relegated to the Championship next season. Despite this, Mears scored his second goal for Derby on 19 April 2008 against his former club West Ham United, which saw them lose 2–1 and made 26 appearances (25 in the league and once in the FA Cup) in all competitions.
Following the club's relegation to the Championship, Mears switched number shirt from 24 to 15 after Miles Addison took his shirt. At the start of the season, Mears competed with Paul Connolly over the right-back position and played first five matches to the start of the season in all competitions.
Loan to Marseille
On 29 August 2008, Mears caused controversy when he flew to France to go on trial with Olympique de Marseille without the express permission of Derby manager Paul Jewell. Jewell responded, saying that Mears would never play for the club again whilst he was in charge, and the club fined Mears six weeks wages. Following the trial, the clubs agreed that Mears would go on loan to Marseille for the duration of the 2008–09 season, for a loan fee of £160,000, with the French club having the option to buy him for £1.5m at the end of the loan.
A combination of injury and the good form of Laurent Bonnart meant that Mears did not make his first appearance for Marseille until the UEFA Cup tie against FC Twente in mid-January. Following an injury in March that ruled Bonnart out for the rest of the season, Mears filled in at right-back in his absence. He made his league debut against Paris Saint-Germain. His first goal for Marseille came in the second leg of a UEFA Cup knockout-stage match against Ajax. His goal, scored in the 20th minute of extra time, gave Marseille a 4–3 win on aggregate, allowing the team to progress to the competition's quarter-final round. Mears went on to make seven appearances in all competitions. Marseille decided not to take up the option of signing him at the end of his loan spell and he returned to Derby on 3 June 2009, with his future at the club in doubt.
Burnley
On 26 June 2009, he was the subject of an accepted £500,000 (rising to £600,000 with add-ons) bid from Premier League side Burnley. He completed the move, signing a three-year deal on 30 June.
Mears made his Burnley debut in a 2–0 defeat at Stoke City in the opening game of the season, followed up by bouncing back in the next game, with a 1–0 victory over defending champions, Manchester United. Mears then provided an assist to help the club score two goals, in a 2–0 win over Hull City on 31 October 2009. After the match, Mears' performance was praised by Manager Owen Coyle. His performances also saw him being linked with a move to Premier League rivals' Sunderland, but this was denied by the club. Despite this, Mears stayed at the club and played in all 38 games as Burnley were relegated after finishing 18th in the 2009–10 Premier League and accumulated just 30 points. Nevertheless, Mears was awarded South West Clarets Player of the season, Accrington Clarets Player of the season and Earby Clarets Player of the season.
Following relegation, Mears began looking for a move away from Turf Moor due to his desire to remain in the top flight. Despite this, Mears stayed at the club throughout the summer and despite the club's good start to the 2010–11 season, Mears was suspended twice after picking up a yellow card against Nottingham Forest in the opening game of the season and another, which saw him earned a second yellow card, in a 1–0 loss against Swansea City on 28 August 2010. Despite the suspension, Mears continued to be in the regular first team at Burnley and scored his first goal for Burnley in a 2–1 win over his former club Derby County on 27 November 2010. In a match against Port Vale in the third round of FA Cup, Mears scored his second goal of the season and setting up one of the goals, in a 4–2 win. He went on to finish the 2010–11 season, making 49 appearances (44 in the league) and scoring two times in all competitions.
Bolton Wanderers
On 29 July 2011, Mears, along with Burnley teammate Chris Eagles, joined Bolton Wanderers on a three-year contract for a joint fee in the region of £3 million.
However, on 4 August he broke his leg in a training session. Manager Owen Coyle later said he expected Mears to be absent for a minimum of five months. On 24 January 2012, Mears played his first full ninety minutes since his injury in the Reserve team's 1–0 defeat to Sunderland Reserves, he was an unused substitute in Bolton's 2–1 FA Cup win over Swansea City on 28 January. He made his full debut for the club when being named in the starting line up for the game at Norwich City on 4 February, which Bolton eventually lost 2–0. However, following the game Mears complained about a pain in the leg that had been broken the previous August and, after a screw was removed from the leg, manager Owen Coyle said he expected Mears to be out of action until late March. Afterwards, Mears didn't make another appearance for the rest of the season.
In the 2012–13 season, Mears played his first match of the season in the opening game, making his first start since returning from injury, in a 2–0 loss against Burnley. Since making his return, Mears became a first team regular until he was dropped from the first team by new Manager Dougie Freedman, but managed to regain his first team place soon after. Mears then set up one of the goals on 29 December 2012, in a 3–1 win over Birmingham City. However, as the 2012–13 season progressed, Mears suffered blood infection at first and then suffered glandular fever that kept him out for the rest of the season. Despite this, Mears went on to finish the 2012–13 season, making twenty-eight appearances in all competitions.
In the 2013–14 season, Mears recovered from injury and having fallen out of favor under the management of Freedman, Mears was expected to leave the club in the summer, but stayed. By August, Mears made three appearances, playing twice in the League and once in the league against Blackburn Rovers on 31 August 2013. Afterwards, Mears never made another appearance again, as he remained out of favor by Freedman throughout the season, having become the club's third choice right-back this season. At one point, Mears was set to join Blackpool on loan, but the move was in doubt, as he rejected the move. At the end of the 2013–14 season he was released by the club along with Chris Eagles, Zat Knight and Jay Lynch.
Seattle Sounders FC
On 29 December 2014, Mears joined Seattle Sounders FC of Major League Soccer. Terms of the deal were not disclosed per Major League Soccer's policy.
Mears made his Sounders debut, in the opening game of the season, where he set up one of the goals, in a 3–0 win over New England Revolution. For his performance, Mears was named in the MLS Team of the Week. It wasn't until on 4 July 2015 when he scored his first goal for the club, in a 1–0 win over D.C. United. Mears established himself in the right-back position throughout the season and made 37 appearances (34 in the league) in all competitions, as he helped finished fourth place in Western Conference, sixth place overall, and reach the play-offs in the semi-final.
In 2016 season, Mears continued to established himself in the first team as a right-back position despite suffering from injury at the start of the season. Shortly after recovering from a hamstring, Mears made his first appearance for the club this season on 12 March 2016, in a 2–1 loss against Real Salt Lake. Mears went on to make 32 league appearances despite missing out 1 match, due to tactical changes at one point against FC Dallas on 14 July 2016. Mears then helped the club reach the final of the MLS Cup to play against Toronto FC and played the whole 120 minutes throughout extra time as a right-back and win the Cup after beating Toronto 5–4 in the penalty shootout. Just one day after winning the Cup, Seattle Sounders declined Mears' contract option for 2017.
Atlanta United
After his release from Seattle, Mears' rights were traded to Atlanta United in exchange for $50,000 of general allocation money. Mears was released by Atlanta at the end of their 2017 season.
Minnesota United
Following his release by Atlanta, Mears entered the 2017 MLS Re-Entry Draft on 15 December 2017. He was selected by Minnesota United FC in the first round. He and the team mutually agreed to part ways in late August.
West Bromwich Albion
On 28 August 2018, Mears returned to England signing for West Bromwich Albion on a short-term contract until 1 January 2019. He made his debut on the same day, playing against Mansfield Town in the EFL Cup in a 2–1 win. His deal was later extended by another month to run until the end of January 2019. On 1 February 2019, his deal was extended again until the end of the 2018–19 season.
He was released at the end of the season in July 2019.
Retirement
By October 2020, Mears was retired.
International career
Born and raised in England, Mears believed he had Jamaican ancestry and it was reported on 4 February 2009, that he had accepted an offer to play for the Jamaica national football team. Mears made his debut on 11 February 2009 in a friendly match against Nigeria, playing 71 minutes of the 0–0 draw at the New Den. Mears said, "It was a fantastic feeling to be selected. When John Barnes first phoned me I was really excited. It's a fantastic opportunity to play for Jamaica." Despite making an appearance for Jamaica, it was later reported that Mears' father, whom he thought he qualified through, may actually be from Sierra Leone. An official from the Jamaica Football Federation stated that Jamaica fielded Mears without undergoing thorough checks because verification of a player's passport is not required for friendly internationals and such matches do not affect a player's international eligibility.
After discovering his ineligibility to play for Jamaica, Mears petitioned FIFA to have the cap rescinded and have his ongoing eligibility to play for England reaffirmed.
Personal life
Mears is studying a course in criminal justice and counter-terrorism at Southern New Hampshire University via online. Mears is a father of four children and spouse is Nadine Mears. Mears revealed he left school when he was 15 to pursue his football career.
Mears holds a U.S. green card which qualifies him as a domestic player for MLS roster purposes.
Career statistics
Club
International
Honours
Seattle Sounders FC
MLS Cup: 2016
References
External links
1983 births
Living people
Footballers from Stockport
English men's footballers
Jamaican men's footballers
Jamaica men's international footballers
Men's association football defenders
Manchester City F.C. players
Preston North End F.C. players
West Ham United F.C. players
Derby County F.C. players
Olympique de Marseille players
Burnley F.C. players
Bolton Wanderers F.C. players
Seattle Sounders FC players
Atlanta United FC players
Minnesota United FC players
West Bromwich Albion F.C. players
Premier League players
English Football League players
Ligue 1 players
Major League Soccer players
Southern New Hampshire University alumni
English expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in France
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
English expatriate sportspeople in France
English expatriate sportspeople in the United States
English sportspeople of Sierra Leonean descent
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Idolmaster%20%28video%20game%29
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The Idolmaster (video game)
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is a Japanese raising simulation video game developed by Metro and published by Namco (later Namco Bandai Games). It was released on July 26, 2005 as an arcade game and is the first game in The Idolmaster series. It was ported to the Xbox 360 on January 25, 2007 with many changes and improvements. The gameplay and story follows the career of a producer in charge of training prospective pop idols on their way to stardom. This includes arranging the idol's schedule, taking them to jobs, training them during lessons, and directing them through auditions. As gameplay continues, a relationship will develop between the idol and her producer fostered through talking with the idol and forming good memories.
Development for the game began in 2001 to make an arcade game that would make players want to come back to play every day. To effectively use the competitive culture that surrounds video arcades, the game was developed so players would raise and compete against other players' idols on a national network. A port of the game had been discussed as early as two months before the arcade game was even released. The Xbox 360 was chosen because the development team felt its hardware and the Xbox Live network could handle the game's specifications. The original game features 10 songs the idols perform, which is increased to 16 in the Xbox 360 version, later released on several music albums. The raising simulation system has been described as simple and easy to understand, and the various minigames have been described as "addictive". However, the game has been criticized as presenting a narrow and unrealistic view of the idol world.
Gameplay
The Idolmaster is a raising simulation game in which the player assumes the role of a producer working for the talent agency 765 Production (765 Pro) who is in charge of training 10 prospective pop idols on their way to stardom. They include: Haruka Amami, Chihaya Kisaragi, Yukiho Hagiwara, Yayoi Takatsuki, Ritsuko Akizuki, Azusa Miura, Iori Minase, Makoto Kikuchi, and Ami and Mami Futami (who work as a pair). The player starts by choosing an idol to train and the idol's unit name. The player is initially able to train a single idol, but this can increase to up to three idols at a time once the player gains enough experience as a producer. The game depicts the activities of the producer and idol during one day of each in-game week.
At the start of every in-game day, text progression pauses when the player is given the option to greet the idol or take a break, which ends that in-game week. There are multiple responses to choose from, and the player is given a limited amount of time to make a choice; if no choice is made before time runs out, the choice with the worst possible outcome is automatically chosen. Depending on which choice is made will affect an idol's enthusiasm, which is displayed at certain points throughout gameplay by the color of a heart on the heads-up display. An idol's enthusiasm ranges from black, to teal, yellow-green, violet and finally red as enthusiasm increases. The player can view the state of an idol's statistics at this time, which are divided into three categories: vocal, dance and visual image. As these increase, an idol's overall image level will also increase. The player is shown an idol report which shows an idol's rank and level, and contains current popularity trends in vocal, dance and visual image, which gives the player a guide on how to gain popularity. The player can next choose to either change the idol's song, her costume and accessories, or neither. Each idol unit can only perform at most three different songs, but these songs can be switched any number of times. The idol's daily schedule is divided into two choices: taking a lesson, which is followed by a communication phase, and taking an audition.
The lessons are in the form of five minigames which serve to increase an idol's statistics in either vocal, dance or visual image. Each lesson is divided into six parts, and the lesson's overall performance is ranked from bad, to normal, good and finally perfect. Sometimes a lessons is temporarily unavailable. The communication phase of the gameplay mainly deals with the player talking with the idol and doing jobs to further her exposure to the public. The player is given multiple jobs to choose from, which change as an idol's rank increases. Like when greeting the idol before, the player is given multiple responses to choose from over the course of a conversation. Depending on which choice is made will affect how well or poorly the communication is received from bad, to normal, good and finally perfect communication, which results in either good or bad memories. The good memories are tallied in the heart on the heads-up display.
When the player chooses to do an audition, the idol will use the previously chosen song and costume if she passes the audition; the song is also used during the audition. Each costume and song have either a vocal, dance or visual attribute which will affect the idol's statistics and thus the results of the audition. There are three types of auditions: ones limited to idols with an E or F rank, national auditions for idols of any rank, and special auditions that can be taken after satisfying certain conditions. Once an audition is chosen, the player can view the rank and level of the other idols who are auditioning. While the game's network was still active up to 2010, the game would match up to five other players from around the country who were auditioning at the same time; if enough players could not be found, non-player characters would fill the necessary spots. When taking an audition, the player guides the idol to appeal to three judges in vocal, dance and visual image by receiving points in each category. How many points an idol receives when appealing is dependent on her statistics. Each audition is divided into three segments of nine attempts at an appeal followed by a mid-audition review. At the end of each segment, the three idols with the most points in a given image category will receive a number of stars in that category dependent on the current popularity trends from the idol report; an idol will also lose a star if she has the fewest points in a given category.
The interest level of the judges is indicated by three gauges which increase and decrease depending on how well or poorly an appeal is received. The appeals are also affected by how well the player stays in rhythm with the chosen song. If one judge is appealed to too many times, their interest level may drop to zero, at which point all the stars earned for that category will be revoked. The player also has the option to use up to three good memories during each audition which serve to dramatically increase an idol's appeal points and the gauges for the judges. At the end of the audition, the number of stars received determines if the idol passes or not. If an idol passes the audition, she is chosen to do a televised performance of the song previously chosen. In the case of a multiple idol unit, the player can choose who sings which lyrics, though at least one singer is needed for each line. A performance serves to increase an idol's number of fans, which in turn can increase an idol's rank if enough fans have been obtained for a given rank. An idol's rank starts at F, and goes up in stages to E, D, C, B, A and finally S. It is possible for an idol to make mistakes during a performance if she has not trained enough, which may affect the number of fans gained from the performance. The player is allowed to take photos during the performance, but only the last one taken can be saved.
Once the day's schedule has been completed, the player returns to 765 Pro with the idol in the evening. The player will be shown the idol's rank, how many fans she has gained over the course of the day, and how many fans she currently has. If available, the idol will be given various presents and letters from her fans at this time. The player's idol unit may be forced to retire under certain circumstances, such as the player not gaining enough fans by a specified time, which is called the rank up limit. In addition, if an idol's rank is either A or S, the idol will be forced to retire on week 62.
Xbox 360
The Xbox 360 port of The Idolmaster features several changes to its gameplay. Miki Hoshii was added as another idol at 765 Pro the player can produce. An idol's enthusiasm is now displayed in a horizontal bar next to the heart containing the number of the idol's good memories. An idol's enthusiasm ranges from black, to blue, yellow and finally orange as enthusiasm increases. Each idol unit can now perform at most five different songs, but these songs can be switched any number of times as before. The scheduling system now offers four choices: doing promotional work, which is the same as the communication phase in the arcade version, taking a lesson, taking an audition, or taking the day off. If the player chooses to take the day off, a conversation event will sometimes occur, but does not include any choices for responses as during the normal communication phase. Otherwise, choosing to take the day off will cause the game to immediately proceed to the next in-game week and will cause an idol's enthusiasm to automatically increase.
The rank up limit has been removed, and the player is now given 52 weeks to produce an idol unit with the addition of specifying the month. This does not include an additional three weeks which take up the idol's pre-debut period. The port uses Xbox Live during auditions to match players online, but an Xbox Live Gold subscription is needed to participate. An Xbox Live Free subscription only allows a player to view player rankings. The auditions limited to idols with a rank of E or F are split into two categories, Rookie and Local, and the national auditions now require a minimum rank of D to participate. Up to five photos can now be saved during a performance. The game also includes 10 achievements.
Development and release
The Idolmaster was primarily developed by Metro, in conjunction with Namco. In the early 2000s, there were arcade games already in use that allowed players to save their progress on magnetic stripe cards so as to continue playing later. In 2001, Namco designer Akihiro Ishihara chose to create an arcade game that used that technology. Ishihara wanted to make a game that would make players want to come back to play every day, which would be tied to the growth of video arcades. Ishihara realized that players would need an emotional attachment to the game for them to play it every day. With the target audience to be male players, Ishihara thought that a raising simulation where players could befriend girls and young women would lead players to form a strong emotional attachment for the game.
Next, in order to effectively use the competitive culture that surrounds video arcades, Ishihara thought about various themes for the game, including professional wrestling and volleyball. Ishihara finally settled on a game featuring pop idols, who players would raise and compete against other players' idols to reach the top of the entertainment industry. The popularity of the talent search show Asayan partially influenced Ishihara in deciding on idols for the subject of the game, although he was still unsure if it was the right decision at the time. Video game producer Junichirō Koyama also points out that the concept of developing a simulation game featuring girls was influenced by the positive reception of bishōjo games such as Tokimeki Memorial and the horse raising simulation arcade game Derby Owners Club. There were some members of Namco that thought it would feel awkward to play The Idolmaster in public and that it would not be well received by players. However, when the game was first tested in arcades, there were long lines of people waiting to play. As word spread and its popularity grew, rival game companies said they had wanted to be the first to create a game like The Idolmaster.
The goal of the development team was to create a raising simulation game that would have gameplay distinctive of arcade games at the time, including making use of a large touchscreen and a national online network. Koyama suggested that it would be interesting to have a touchscreen so that players could touch the girls at certain times during gameplay and get interesting reactions. While developing the game, Koyama realized that most bishōjo games at the time focused on specializing characters for players' specific tastes, which he felt was detrimental to the community surrounding such games. Therefore, one of Koyama's goals in developing the game was to restore a community where players would discuss what parts of which characters they like or find cute. Ishihara focused on developing realistic characters because of his view that there were too many bishōjo games at the time that had characters who were developed to be convenient for the player. Ishihara wanted to place the burden of an idol's mistakes on the player for not training her enough to deepen a player's attachment with the idols.
The ultimate focus was to create a game with a "cool, club-like image" that would be close to the feel of a music game. Originally, the protagonist was going to be put in the role of the idol's manager, but it was later changed to the idol's producer because the latter was perceived to be "cooler". The basic concept of the game dealing with a producer training a prospective idol to reach the top of the entertainment industry was only solidified late in the development process. The development team had many problems with creating a game that had no close equivalent or preceding game that involved training idols, so trial-and-error served to lengthen the development process. The balance between the graphics, music and gameplay system had to be adjusted to lessen concerns about players being embarrassed to play the arcade game. The staff wanted to strike a balance with the character designs so they would not appear too moe. It was decided from the start the characters would be rendered using 3D graphics, so Toshiyuki Kubooka was chosen to do the character design because his art could be easier translated into 3D. The developers employed motion capture to present a realistic view of the characters—not only during normal gameplay, but also during performances, which were rendered using motion capture from professional dancers. It was originally planned that the game would include 12 or 13 idols, and at least two of these extra characters also had character designs. The idols of Morning Musume were used as an influence to create character types in The Idolmaster traditionally found in bishōjo games.
Following the success of the arcade game, Namco (now Namco Bandai Games following their merger with Bandai) went on to develop its Xbox 360 port starting in early 2006, though a port of the game had been discussed as early as May 2005. Namco Bandai Games producer Yōzō Sakagami was initially unsure if The Idolmaster would be suited for a video game console due to hardware and network limitations, but he felt that the Xbox 360 and its Xbox Live network could handle the game's specifications. This would also allow the developers to improve the game's quality and attract attention from those who never played the arcade game. Many people who were interested in the arcade game but never played it would tell Sakagami that this was either because their local arcade did not have The Idolmaster, or because they were embarrassed to play it in public. According to Sakagami, to the development team of the port, there was a large significance in correcting these issues. Their other focus was on allowing players to comfortably play the game and enjoy its various scenarios without the rushed gameplay found in the arcade version. When developing the Xbox 360 port of The Idolmaster, the characters had to be entirely redone, including the motion capture, which used the same actors as before. Further details were able to be added to the character designs because of the Xbox 360's improved, high-definition hardware.
The Idolmaster was first unveiled in February 2004 at the All Nippon Amusement Machine Operators' Union. It was released on July 26, 2005 as an arcade game using Namco's System 246 arcade system board. The game uses the touchscreen Rewritable Stage arcade cabinet, which issues the player two rewritable cards containing the player's profile and save data. It also makes use of Sega's ALL.Net network service to keep track of national idol rankings. The network was discontinued on September 1, 2010, though a few of the arcade cabinets still survive. The game was ported to the Xbox 360 on January 25, 2007, and it was released on Microsoft's Platinum Collection on November 1, 2007. The Idolmaster became available for download through the Xbox Live Marketplace on August 11, 2009. Namco Bandai Games released 12 downloadable content updates between January 24 and December 25, 2007 available through the Xbox Live Marketplace. The updates include new costumes, accessories, stages, and additional side-stories called "Idol Dramas".
Music
The Idolmaster features 10 songs in the arcade version and 6 additional songs in the Xbox 360 version written and composed by a variety of songwriters. Ishihara asked Hiroto Sasaki, one of the music composers, to compose normal pop songs that would not sound odd or similar to songs "from bishōjo games." The music staff was otherwise given the freedom to compose what songs they wanted. The composers were first introduced to the characters, and then personally chose which girls they wanted to compose songs for. In the arcade version, the nine songs for the idols were composed first as theme music for each girl, followed by Koyama asking for one more song with a "European" feel to be composed. Since each idol can sing any of the songs in the game, this resulted in 90 separate recordings over a period of two months.
The songs from the arcade version were released by Nippon Columbia on a five-part CD series of compilation albums titled The Idolmaster Masterpiece between 2005 and 2006. The songs from the Xbox 360 version were released by Nippon Columbia on a four-part CD series titled The Idolmaster Masterwork between 2006 and 2007. The first release was the single for on December 20, 2006. This was followed by three compilation albums. Songs from The Idolmaster were also released on The Idolmaster Master Box volumes one and two between July 19, 2006 and April 4, 2007.
Reception
The Xbox 360 port of The Idolmaster sold 25,000 copies in its first week of sale and was the fifteenth best selling console video game in Japan for the time of its release. The Xbox 360 version received a combined score of 26 out of 40 from the Japanese video game magazine Famitsu. The port has been credited with making Japan's ratio of sign-ups for Xbox Live compared to the number of consoles sold as the world's highest. Over four times as many Microsoft points were sold on the date of The Idolmasters Xbox 360 release as on the date before it. The raising simulation system has been described as simple and easy to understand, and the various minigames have been described as "addictive". Despite there being a limited number of minigames for the lessons, they are described as having an "abundance of variation" that do not get tiring because of their unexpectedly high degree of difficulty. Similarly, choosing correct responses, such as during the promotional phase, is also described as fairly difficult because each of the given choices often appear to be similar despite having radically different outcomes.
While one reviewer for Famitsu suggested it was natural to identify with the idols when watching them perform, a different reviewer in the same magazine issue stated that the game would be somewhat tiresome if the player did not have an emotional attachment to a given idol. In writing for Dengeki Online, reviewer Aogeyarō's first impression of The Idolmaster was embarrassment about playing a bishōjo game in public, but after playing it, he felt that the emotional ups and downs of the game, including the passing and failing of auditions, was very enjoyable. In reviewing the Xbox 360 port, he likened the 52-week limit to the heartlessness that surrounds the entertainment industry. The game has also been criticized as presenting a narrow and unrealistic view of the idol world. Dom Nguyen writing for Wired described the arcade version as awkward at times and felt apprehension about the various touchscreen minigames that "encourage you to fondle the screen." He also called the "coin-guzzling nature" of the game "perturbing," and that it would result in a "ridiculous sum" if played long enough. Aogeyarō also commented on the high prices of an entire downloadable content pack for the Xbox 360 version, and cautioned that not everything in the pack may be needed or wanted.
References
External links
The Idolmaster arcade version official website
The Idolmaster Xbox 360 version official website
2005 video games
Arcade video games
Japan-exclusive video games
Music management games
Namco arcade games
Bandai Namco games
Namco games
Raising sims
The Idolmaster
Video games developed in Japan
Xbox 360 games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
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5107854
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian%20Army%20during%20the%20French%20Revolutionary%20and%20Napoleonic%20Wars
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Austrian Army during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
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The Imperial-Royal or Imperial Austrian Army (, abbreviated k.k. Armee) was the armed force of the Habsburg monarchy under its last monarch, the Habsburg Emperor Francis II, composed of the Emperor's army and not to be confused with the Army of the Holy Roman Empire. When the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806, it assumed its title of the troops of the Austrian Empire under the same monarch, now known as Emperor Francis I of Austria.
Background to the army
The name "Imperial-Royal Army" was used from 1745, as "Imperial" referred until 1804 to the Holy Roman Empire and from 1804-1867 to the Austrian Empire. "Royal" referred to the Kingdom of Bohemia (not to be confused with "Imperial and Royal" used after 1867 where "Royal" referred to the Kingdom of Hungary).
The key feature of the Austrian Army during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815) was that, due to the multi-national nature of the territories, regiments were split into German units (which included Czech-troops recruited from Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, Polish and Ruthenian units recruited from the territory of Galicia, Flemings and Walloons from the territory of the former Austrian Netherlands, and Italians) and Hungarian units (which included troops from Croatia, Serbia and Transylvania).
Conscription resulted in elements of untrained men in every battalion, a problem exacerbated by incoherent training across the regions. The army was beset by constant government frugality and several reorganisations. A Militär-Hof-Commission sat for six years from 1795 (known as the Nostitz-Rieneck commission and from 1798, Unterberger) to overhaul the kit, producing the simpler 1798-pattern uniform, the famous crested helmet and a standard musket, copied from the French 1777 pattern. Although some regiments were disbanded in 1809 following the loss of their recruiting-grounds, others were allocated new areas yet kept their old designations; for example, the Walloon regiments whose recruiting areas were transferred to Galicia.
Key victories over the French were won at Neerwinden, Würzburg, Stockach, Caldiero, Aspern-Essling and Leipzig, while major defeats were suffered at Jemappes, Fleurus, Rivoli, Marengo, Hohenlinden, Ulm, Austerlitz and Wagram.
The most powerful individual in the Imperial Austrian Army during the period was Archduke Charles, who implemented wide-ranging and modernising reforms, particularly following the crushing defeat at Austerlitz. Charles was responsible for the severe check Napoleon suffered at the Battle of Aspern-Essling, but after the subsequent defeat at Wagram retired from active command.
The Austrian Army also played a significant role in the Neapolitan War of 1815 by defeating Murat's regime, and beat a vastly bigger Neapolitan army at the Battle of Tolentino.
The staff
In a great irony of history, it was the French attaché to the Austrian court, Montazet, whose memorandum was used by Count Leopold Joseph von Daun in January 1758 in a letter to the Empress Maria Theresa to press for a more important role for the Generalquartiermeister (Chief of Staff). The failures in the army, especially at the Battle of Leuthen made it clear that Austria had no “great brain” and the command needed to spread the workload to allow the commander-in-chief the time to consider the strategic picture. The 1757 regulations had created the Grosse Feldgeneralstab and Kleine Generalstab and after changes in 1769, a permanent staff of 30 officers was established under the director, Franz Moritz von Lacy, which would be expanded in wartime with junior officers. The Grosse staff was divided into three: First, the intrinsecum, which handled internal administration and directing operations; secondly, external activities, including the pioneers; thirdly, the inspection service, which handled the issuing of orders and prisoners of war. Alongside the general staff was the general adjutant, who led a group of adjutant staff selected by the army commanders to handle the details of internal administration and collating intelligence, and answered to the commander-in-chief. The Chief of Staff became the chief adviser to the commander-in-chief and, in a fundamental move away from the previous administrative role, the chief of staff now undertook operational planning, while delegating the routine work to his senior staff officers. Staff officers were drawn from line units and would later return to them, the intention being that they would prove themselves as leaders during their time with the staff. In a battle or when the army had detached corps, a small number of staff would be allocated to the column commander as a smaller version of headquarters. The senior man, usually a major, would be the chief of the column staff and his principal task would be to help the commander to understand what was intended.
When Karl Mack von Leiberich became chief of staff of the army under Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld in the Netherlands, he issued the Instruktionspunkte fur die gesamte Herren Generals, the last of 19 points setting out the roles of staff officers, dealing with offensive and defensive operations, while helping the commander-in-chief. In 1796, Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen augmented these with his own Observationspunkte, writing of the chief of staff: “he is duty bound to consider all possibilities related to operations and not view himself as merely carrying out those instructions”. On 20 March 1801, Feldmarschalleutnant Peter Duka von Kadar became the world's first peacetime Generalquartiermeister at the head of the staff and the wartime role of the chief of staff was now focused on planning and operations to assist the commander. Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen himself produced a new Dienstvorschrift on 1 September 1805, which divided the staff into three; 1) political correspondence; 2) the operations directorate, dealing with planning and intelligence; 3) the service directorate, dealing with administration, supply and military justice. The Archduke set out the position of a modern chief of staff: “The chief of staff stands at the side of the commander-in-chief and is completely at his disposal. His sphere of work connects him with no specific unit”. “The commander-in-chief decides what should happen and how; his chief assistant works out these decisions, so that each subordinate understands his allotted task”. With the creation of the korps in 1809, each had a staff, whose chief was responsible for directing operations and executing the overall headquarters plan. The staff on the outbreak of war in 1809 numbered over 170. Finally in 1811, Joseph Radetzky von Radetz produced his Uber die bessere Einrichtung des Generalstabs, which prioritised the chief of staff's managerial and supervisory role with the departments (political correspondence, operations and service) under their own directors, effectively merging the adjutants and general staff officers. In this system lay the beginnings of a formal staff corps, whose members could specialise in operations, intelligence and logistics.
Recruitment
Recruitment in the German areas was by voluntary enlistment and a scheme of conscription, which was for lifetime service before 1802, ten years thereafter. All able-bodied men between 17 and 40 were liable, although the many exemptions for the nobility, skilled trades, most townsfolk and married men, meant the bulk were drawn from the younger sons of rural peasants and the urban proletariat. Recruits for Hungarian regiments were organised by the Diet of Hungary by quotas in each county.
Each regiment had its own zone of recruitment within the Empire. The only exception to this was the Poles of Galicia, who were initially recruited in 'Aushilfsbezirke' (supplementary recruitment districts, before being organised into proper recruitment districts from 1808).
Officers
All regiments had an honorary colonel-in-chief, the 'Inhaber', whose title the regiment bore, but he only exercised a formal authority to confirm the appointment of junior officers within that regiment. Contrary to French revolutionary propaganda that Austrian officers were largely from the lesser aristocracy, most officers were recruited as cadets or appointed from within the regiments.
The infantry
At the outset of war in 1793, the army numbered fifty-seven line regiments, including two grenadier companies each. Seventeen Grenzer light infantry regiments, three garrison regiments and the Stabs Infanterie Regiment for HQ duties. In addition, irregular Frei-Corps light infantry battalions were raised in wartime.
Line regiments
From 1768 until 1805, a line regiment typically consisted of two field battalions – Leib- and Oberst- battalions – each of six fusilier companies; also, a grenadier division of two companies, which were normally detached to form composite grenadier battalions with those of two other regiments. In addition, it included one garrison battalion (Oberstleutnant – Battalion) composed of four companies which served as a source for reserves at the regiment depot. The established strength of a 'German' line regiment in theory was 4,575 men, though this number was rarely above 2–3,000, especially in peacetime. With three battalions, 'Hungarian' regiments had a nominal strength of 5,508.
Company strength
The line company had four officers –
Hauptmann (captain)
Oberleutnant (1st lieutenant)
Unterleutnant (2nd lieutenant)
Fähnrich (ensign)
The NCOs in a line company numbered 14 and included –
Feldwebel (sergeant)
Four corporals (corporals)
Fourierschützen (quartermaster, or furir)
Eight Gefreiter (lance corporals)
The 1769 regulations show the original peacetime company strengths at 113 per company in peacetime (The 'Kopf' figure down the left side of the regulations.) and from Entwurf 5 on p. 81, the wartime strength expanded to 115 in the Grenadiers and 152-4 in the fusiliers.
In addition, the company had three musicians and a Zimmermann (pioneer). Wartime company strengths of all other ranks ranged from 120–230; grenadier companies between 112–140.
In 1805, a new organisation was implemented under Karl Mack von Leiberich, creating six battalions, each of four companies, per regiment: The senior Grenadier (or Leib) Battalion comprised the two former Grenadier companies and two companies of infantry (in the 1798 pattern helmet). The army reverted to its former 1798 organisation on 6 December 1806
Light infantry
The Grenzers formed the basis of the light infantry.
In 1808, IR64 was broken up and its nine divisions formed the rifle-armed cadre divisions (two companies), which were each augmented by two divisions of carbine-armed troops to form the nine new Jäger battalions.
Regulations, 1757–1805
A) 1769 reglement fur die sammtliche kaiserlich-konigliche Infanterie was the main service and drill regulation:
a) Vol 1 covers the functions of each rank, military justice, camps and pickets plus report forms
b) Vol 2 covers the service regulations for each rank, camp rules, basic drill and forming of basic tactical formations
B) 1769 Generals-Reglement is the Austrian generalcy and staff manual
C) The 1757 Artillery regulation was originally produced as part of Lichtenstein's overhaul.
The reform period regulations, 1806–15
Archduke Charles emphasised education of the troops and officers in particular. So, the Second Reform period (1806–08) produced a stepped series of manuals:
A) Dienst-reglement für die K.k.Infanterie was the basic service manual with job descriptions and service regulations
B) Abrichtungs-Reglement (1806) was basic drill regulation up to company level
These two were the basic regulations, which had to known by every soldier.
C) Exercier Reglement für die K.K. Infanterie (1807) was the higher level drill regulation up to regiment size and had to be known by NCOs and officers
D) Beiträge zum practischen Unterricht im Felde für die Officiere der österreichischen Armee (1806–13) were a series of booklets for the education of junior officers. All of them are quite short at 35-80pp with diagrams
No. 1) (1806) covers outposts and patrols
No. 2) (1807) covers reconnaissances and marches to the front, flank and rear
No. 3) (1808) covers skirmishing, both with the third rank and in the light infantry sense
No. 4) (1808) covers attacking and defending both woodland and villages plus fighting in a position with several villages
No. 5) (1808) covers the attack and defence of positions held by large bodies of troops, including outflanking them
No. 6) (1810) covers attack and defence of defiles, crossing rivers and attack and defence of mountain passes
No. 7) (1811) covers feints and demonstrations, observation and siege of fortresses, leading, defending and attacking supply trains
No. 8) (1813) covers obtaining supplies and foraging, winter positions for small and large forces
E) Grundsätze der höheren Kriegs-Kunst für die Generäle der österreichischen Armee (1806) was a small book about strategy for the senior generals, updated as Grundsätze der höheren Kriegskunst und Beyspiele ihrer zweckmässigen Anwendung für die Generale der Österreichischen Armee (1808)
Tactics
The introduction of new regulations in 1805 and 1807 did little to disrupt the traditional three-rank line formation of battalions in action, and the use of the 'battalion-column' for movement. Having led the way in skirmishing tactics amongst its light infantry and employing the third ranks of line battalions, Austria tried to expand those light troops with Freikorps raised in wartime and from 1808, formalised and separate Jäger battalions. The 1807 Exercier-Reglemnt formalised the training of infantry skirmishers as organic to their battalions and the employment of Masses (closed-up battalions and two-company divisions) in the more densely-packed battlefields. While still vulnerable to artillery, the formation was more than adequate against cavalry and easier to deploy around the battlefield.
The artillery
Some guns still exist: There are 3pdr trails in Forchtenstein Castle; a 3pdr 1814 gun in the Zeughaus in Graz Austria; two 6pdr trails and a limber with ammunition box in the Schlossberg Castle in Graz; barrels outside the Museum of Military History, Vienna and in a covered external area.; a reconstructed 6pdr in the Military Museum in Budapest; a short 1753 18pdr siege gun is in the Royal Artillery Museum collection is now in long-term storage. There are unconfirmed rumours of a 6pdr gun and a 6pdr Cavalry gun in Moscow, painted red and captured from the Saxon contingent of Napoleon's 1812 army.
See also
Imperial Army (Holy Roman Empire)
Army of the Holy Roman Empire
Imperial Austrian Army (1806-1867)
Flags of the Imperial Austrian Army of the Napoleonic Wars
References
Further reading
Bassett, Richard. For God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austrian Army, 1619–1918 (2016).
Fremont-Barnes, G. (editor) Armies of the Napoleonic Wars 2011
Fremont-Barnes, G. (editor) The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History 2006
Dawson, Dawson & Summerfield: Napoleonic Artillery (2007)
Haythornthwaite, P. Austrian Army of the Napoleonic Wars (1) Infantry (Osprey Men-At-Arms 176) 1986
Haythornthwaite, P.: Austrian Army of the Napoleonic Wars (2) Cavalry (Osprey Men-At-Arms 181) 1986
Haythornthwaite, P.: Austrian Specialist Troops of the Napoleonic Wars (Osprey Men-At-Arms 223) 1990
Hollins, D.: Austrian Auxiliary Troops 1792–1816 (Osprey Men-At-Arms 299) 1996
Hollins, D.: Austrian Frontier Troops 1740–1798 (Osprey Men-At-Arms 413) 2005
Hollins, D.: Austrian Napoleonic Artillery 1792–1815 (Osprey New Vanguard 72) 2003
Hollins, D.: Austrian Grenadiers and Infantry 1788–1816 (Osprey Warrior 24) 1998
Hollins, D.: Hungarian Hussar 1756–1815 (Osprey Warrior 81) 2003
Hollins, D. Austrian Commanders of the Napoleonic Wars 1792–1815 (Osprey Elite 101) 2004
Rothenberg, G. Napoleon’s Great Adversaries (Batsford, London) 1982 (rep.1995)
Encerbi, E. 'The Austrian Imperial-Royal Army 1805–1809' http://www.centotredicesimo.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/ACERBI-The-Austrian-Imperial-Army-1805-09.pdf
In German
Kriegsgeschichtliche Abteilung des k.u.k. Kriegsarchivs: Kriege gegen die französische Revolution (Seidel, Vienna) 1905
Kriegsgeschichtliche Abteilung des k.u.k. Kriegsarchivs: Krieg 1809 (Seidel, Vienna) 1907
Kriegsgeschichtliche Abteilung des k.u.k. Kriegsarchivs: Befreiungskriege (Kriegsarchiv, Vienna) 1913
Osterreichische Militärische Zeitschrift (Streffleur, Vienna) 1808–1918
Regele, O.: Generalstabschefs aus vier Jahrhunderten (Vienna) 1966
Rauchensteiner, M: Kaiser Franz und Erzherzog Carl (Verlag für Geschichte und Politik, Vienna) 1972
Dolleczek, A.: Monographie der k.u.k. österr.-ung. Blanken und Handfeuer-Waffen (1896/rep.1970)
Sagvari, G. & Somogyi, G.: Das Buch der Husaren (Magyar Konyvklub) 1999
Military history of Austria
Military history of Austria-Hungary
Armies of Napoleonic Wars
1804 establishments in the Austrian Empire
Military units and formations established in 1804
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind%20Brook%20High%20School
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Blind Brook High School
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Blind Brook High School (BBHS) is a public, four-year secondary school in Rye Brook, New York, United States. It is the only public high school that serves the Blind Brook School District. BBHS is a relatively small high school; the Class of 2008 was made up of 102 students. The principal is Dr. Jennifer Chirles. The assistant principal is Mark Greenwald, a former teacher.
History
Beginnings
Blind Brook High School opened its doors in the fall of 1973. The construction of the Blind Brook School District's first high school came about after the community (which was the unincorporated area of the Town of Rye at the time) wanted to expand the local school district, District #5. This push for expansion started after the community became frustrated about spending much money to send their children to local high schools including Port Chester, Mamaroneck, Rye Neck, and Valhalla, without commensurate representation or influence on those districts' policies and programs. In addition, the Ridge Street School, which housed classes from kindergarten to 8th/9th grades, was becoming overcrowded and could not accommodate the growing population that would become known as Rye Brook (in 1982). Land was purchased on King Street, and construction was started in 1972 and ended in late 1973, months into the school year. The high school today stands on the same campus as in 1973.
1973-2003
In the fall of 1973, Blind Brook opened its doors, with David Schein as its first principal. Construction was ongoing in the new building during the first months of the school year. In fact, some classes were held while construction proceeded around them.
The original building was considered modern as it contained "open classrooms". This setup contained classrooms that had movable walls and/or book cases separating them. This made for an interesting and different learning environment since students walking in hallways would also be walking behind classes. The building was designed this way as the district chose to focus around a humanities curriculum that included interdisciplinary studies. Its faculty, a blending of teachers already working on the K-9 Ridge Street staff with new hires committed to the open-space educational concept, began an educational adventure that lasted in spirit for over 20 years.
Since the school officially opened in 1973 with Grades 7–10, Blind Brook's first graduating class was the Class of 1975, a class made up of only four advanced students, with the graduation taking place in the middle of the school year, at the conclusion of the first semester.
1997 brought the arrival of Principal Robert Chlebicki, who would hold the position until 2003. During his tenure at Blind Brook, Chlebicki helped Blind Brook move into the 21st century in many areas. In 1999, with the construction of Bellefair, a new housing development, and the influx of younger families to the community, the Blind Brook community started to outgrow the footprint of the original high school building. Further, after spending several years at the Ridge Street building, as Blind Brook grew into a 9-12 high school, the seventh and eighth grades were reintroduced back at the Blind Brook campus, adding to the crowded conditions. A parent-school district committee, called "Let's Bond for our Kids", formed a construction plan and encouraged the community to get involved and vote for funding to build a separate middle school wing. The bond passed by a large margin, bringing construction to the BB campus for the first time since 1973.
In the summer of 2000, Portables 1 and 2 were installed to create additional classroom space during the construction. These modular buildings are connected to each other, but are not connected to the main high school building. To this day, the modular classrooms, or as they are often called, the portables (though they cannot be moved), are still used for daily classes and are fairly popular among the student body.
During this time of physical change in the district, Susan Shirken, the assistant principal for the middle/high school, left to become an administrator in the Edgemont district. This marked the arrival of Michael Mitchell in 2001.
With administrative change occurring, the construction project progressed. The project ultimately resulted in a middle school wing, a middle school gymnasium, a renovated Instructional Media Center (library), new middle school and high school main offices, a 450-seat auditorium, a new front walkway and entrance, a renovated commons area, and high school classroom renovation. In addition to expansion of the building, in order to meet state fire codes, the construction also resulted in traditional, four-walled, closed classrooms. By removing wall-less classrooms, the new classroom setup left some interior rooms windowless. In addition, the Commons had its carpet removed and new, artistic walls were installed. These walls were often poked fun at and seemed very silly in the eyes of students, with statements of "This is a school, not an art museum!" pushing a backlash against the walls. Many wanted the walls removed, though that wouldn't happen until Blind Brook went through a second wave of construction. The new auditorium was also criticized as it was too small and could not fit the entire high school and its faculty in the facility at the same time. In addition, the end-of-the-year graduation would not be able to be held in the new facility as it lacked necessary seating for guests. Graduations are held in the gym as it can accommodate the larger number of guests.
2002-2003 brought much more change to Blind Brook High School. A new look, some new technology, and several new "traditions" changed the style of the culture throughout the school's new halls. A (non-merged) football team, albeit at the junior varsity level, was created, after a long absence of any type of recreational football. The team was originally made up of 25 students, and practiced at Ridge Street School.
Parking issues at the then-IBM building between the high school and the building's owners continued, resulting in tense negotiations between the two groups.
Three International Baccalaureate classes (12th grade English, 11th grade Chemistry, and Theory of Knowledge) were added in order to create a more difficult and challenging baccalaureate curriculum, though after months of discussion and debate, the Board of Education voted 4 to 1 against the continuation of the program in March 2003.
The end of the school year also brought the resignations of Blind Brook's top administrators, long-time principal Robert Chlebicki and assistant principal Michael Mitchell, leaving a sense of uncertainty in the Blind Brook community. Chlebicki left Blind Brook for the North Shore School District on Long Island to become the Assistant Superintendent for Instruction.
2004-present
Blind Brook's administration was still up in the air in the 2003–2004 school year, as an interim principal was hired while the search for a new principal continued. Anthony Baxter and Jane Wermuth were hired for the positions of principal and assistant principal, respectively.
Blind Brook's future curriculum plans were also in limbo after the International Baccalaureate plan was rejected. A new strategy was put into action by the Board of Education to investigate the AP program and to see if it would be a good fit for BBHS. From 2004 to 2006, Blind Brook added numerous AP classes to its class offerings. In addition to new AP classes, Blind Brook, in the 2005–06 school year, also added Latin as an elective.
In early 2005, the Blind Brook community was once again outgrowing the High School building. This gave school officials no other choice than expand onto the high school building once again. A bond vote was conducted and passed by a high percentage. With this bond passed, construction returned to the Blind Brook campus for the second time in only five years.
Construction, however, did not start until late 2005, around October, because of problems with architectural plans and a slow permit approval by the New York State Education Department. In the 2005-06 phase of construction, a new middle school cafeteria, fitness center, science labs, HS and MS classrooms, and new athletic fields were built.
Problems arose when students became concerned with the future of the Rock, a tradition Blind Brook students take part in every year as the senior class paints it. The problem was fixed as the rock was moved out of harm's way.
The new fields feature synthetic grass, to give teams more flexibility in when and how often they can use they fields and.
A significant retaining wall malfunction delayed the construction of the soccer/football field, as it had to be rebuilt. The manufacturer said that the wrong type of stones had been chosen for the wall, meaning all retaining walls on the campus had to be taken down and rebuilt. This set the field projects back several months. The wall was finally completed in October 2006. The company which installed the wall and provided the stones paid for the damages. The upper field contains an artificial turf baseball field and the lower contains a six-lane track and an artificial turf lacrosse/soccer/football field. Because of the new field space, girls' lacrosse was started in 2007 at the JV level. The baseball field, complete with stands, backstop, and sliding-dirt cutouts, was completed in mid-October 2006, while the soccer/football field wasn't complete until the spring of 2007, and the track wasn't complete until July 2007.
The Village of Rye Brook, New York, at the same time, was building their fields adjacent to the BBHS campus. These fields contain a softball field and a soccer/football field.
It was announced in the spring of 2007 that Anthony Baxter would not be returning to Blind Brook for the 2007–08 school year. The Board of Education hired William Stark in June 2007 as the interim principal until a permanent replacement was found.
In the summer of 2007, Blind Brook was the site of the 2007 Empire State Games men's soccer matches, which helped further show the community the new and state-of-the-art facilities Blind Brook had to offer.
At the 2008 graduation ceremonies, the Board of Education President announced that the IMC would be renamed the Monroe E. Haas Library and IMC, in honor of the outgoing board member.
On April 16, 2008, it was announced that Scott Bersin, who had been the assistant principal at Great Neck High School North on Long Island, had been hired as the school's new principal effective July 1, 2008.
However, Bersin only served one year of his three-year probationary appointment. At a special meeting held on Tuesday, June 2, 2009, the Board of Education accepted Bersin's resignation, making him the third principal to resign in six years.
Bersin's resignation produced a great deal of controversy, according to newspaper reports. Vincent Galasso, the former science coordinator for the middle school and high school, was appointed as an interim principal as of July 1, 2009.
On July 1, 2010, Gina Healey became the sixth principal of Blind Brook High School in seven years. When the vice principal Jane Wermuth was the only administrator not to be given a raise by Superintendent Stark, she left for the principal position at Yonkers High School.
In 2013, Blind Brook saw yet another change in staffing. After Healy's resignation, Patricia Lambert moved up from the middle school to fill the vacant position. Lambert had served as the middle school principal for two years before her promotion. Todd Richard, the vice principal, was promoted to principal of the middle school.
In 2018, high school principal Patricia Lambert became the middle school principal, and was replaced by assistant principal Derek Schuelein. Social studies teacher Mark Greenwald filled in his spot as assistant principal.
Academics
Blind Brook High School is known for its strong educational program. In 2010, U.S. News & World Report ranked Blind Brook #55 in its list of best high schools in the country, up from 85 in 2009, placing Blind Brook on its Gold Medal List for the second year in a row.
In 2008, Blind Brook, along with other high schools across the United States, asked Newsweek magazine to be left off the magazine's controversial rankings. Blind Brook signed a letter to Newsweek saying that it didn't want to be on a list that ranks high schools based on the ratio of students who take advanced-placement exams. Previously, Blind Brook had been placed 89th on Newsweek magazine's Top 100 Schools list in 2006, and 94th in 2007.
BBHS has expanded its Advanced Placement program. In 1999–2000, seven AP courses were offered. As of 2007, BBHS offered 14 AP courses in addition to high-school-level regents classes.
BBHS was the home to a regional BOCES program for hearing impaired students. However the program concluded at the end of the 2014–2015 school year.
Extracurricular activities
Blind Brook has many activities and clubs that students can take part in during Activity Period and after school. In recent years, these clubs and teams have been recognized as top performers in their fields. Clubs range from academic teams to community groups to the arts. In 2007–08, clubs were moved from Activity Period to after-school, after formal complaints by the BBHS Congress and students. As a result of their moving, new procedures concerning clubs were established. These procedures require that both new and pre-existing clubs submit a complete list of members in order to obtain a one-year charter allowing them to operate.
Student-produced media
Blind Brook's FOCUS is a newspaper. It has won the Columbia Scholastic Press Association's gold medal. The paper is produced in-house by the students and faculty adviser.
What was first known as the Underground Literary Magazine in the early 1980s, is Blind Brook's student-produced literary magazine, Impulse. This magazine is popular for its short stories, poems, and art.
In addition to print, Blind Brook operates a cable television station through BBTV, the school's video club. This club produces original programming for the station and helps run the station.
Community service-based clubs
Blind Brook students are well known for their commitment and enthusiasm towards improving the community, and often surpass the 80 hours required to graduate. In order to expand the community service opportunities, the Blind Brook Community Service Club organizes events with senior citizen centers, holds fundraisers, and has established a pen pal program with a local elementary school. The Blind Brook Soup Kitchen is a weekly soup kitchen run by Blind Brook students since its establishment in 1998. It serves the Port Chester community by serving meals to the needy and less fortunate. In 2001, Blind Brook's Habitat for Humanity chapter was created. The club has worked on numerous construction sites helping build homes, clean up debris, and paint churches.
Clubs for social change
The students of Blind Brook run many clubs that promote social change. These help inform the Blind Brook community of the issues facing today's world.
The AIDS Awareness Club's mission is to promote AIDS research and educate people about the topic.
SAGA, a gay-straight alliance, helps bring different groups of students together to promote acceptance, among other things.
SADD, "Students Against Destructive Decisions", is a very active club. Its goal is to help students make the right choices. Topics range from drug use to drinking and driving to social issues. The club gets its message out through guest speakers, drunk driving simulators, and bake sales.
Another popular club at Blind Brook is the Human Relations Club. It is known for its annual weekend retreat.
Language clubs
The study of foreign languages is a vital part of the Blind Brook culture. Each club uses bake sales, movie nights, and other creative means to expand the knowledge of other cultures and people.
These include BBHS Italian Club ]</ref>
Spanish Club, Latin Club, and World Languages Club (which promotes all languages other than the "big 4" listed previously).
Academic clubs
Blind Brook houses many academic clubs whichll strive to further educate students about topics of interest and expose them to different activities.
These include the Chess Club, in which students meet weekly to play chess, and JSA, in which students debate political issues. During the presidential race, the JSA club sponsors a mock debate between the candidates.
Academic teams
Mock Trial
The Blind Brook Mock Trial team has been very successful on all levels of the New York State Mock Trial Competition, sponsored by the New York State Bar Association. The New York competition is the largest in the United States, with over 375 high schools participating each year. The Blind Brook team is usually made up of 14-16 students. Those wanting to join must go through an interview and question/response tryout. Six students are assigned lawyer positions (three for Prosecution, three for Defense) and six are given witness positions (three for Prosecution, three for defense).
The team prides itself on its competitiveness and selectivity. The team meets every week throughout the school year for up to nine hours total, to prepare the various materials required for a trial, as well as to prepare for spontaneous situations that may come up during testimony.
The Blind Brook Mock Trial Trojans have won the Westchester County Championship at least twelve times, in 1994, 1995, 1998, from 2004 through 2007, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2018, and 2023. Each year, between 16 and 36 schools compete for the county title.
From 2004 to 2007, Blind Brook beat North Salem High School for the 2004 title, beat John Jay High School for the 2005 title, beat Harrison High School for the 2006 championship, and defeated Scarsdale High School for the 2007 title. The team won back the Westchester champion title in 2011, beating Rye Neck High School. The team lost in the county final round of 2012 to Rye Neck, but in their third meeting in the 2013 county finals, Blind Brook came out ahead, regaining the title of Westchester Country Champions. In 2014, Blind Brook defended the county championship for the first time since 2007, making Westchester County Champs for the ninth time in the team's history. Most recently, the team defeated Edgemont High School in the 2023 Championship, with Captains Melina Kohilakis, Brooke Sosin, and Jackson Weinstein.
In each year the team captured the county title, Blind Brook moved on to the regional competition. Blind Brook is in Region IV, the Lower Hudson Valley, which is made up of Westchester, Rockland, Orange, Putnam, Sullivan, Dutchess and Ulster County. Blind Brook won the regional championship in 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2011.
In the years that Blind Brook captured the regional title, they moved onto the state level of the competition in Albany. In 2005, 2006, and 2011 the team were New York State semi-finalists. In 2007 they were runners-up, losing to the Bronx School for Law, Government, & Justice.
Math Team
The Blind Brook Math Team was one of the more popular academic teams at the school. Approximately 60 students took part in six competitions throughout the school year. In 2006 and 2007, the team finished 5th and 8th, respectively.
Model UN
The Blind Brook Model United Nations club attends several conferences throughout the school year. Blind Brook delegates have won awards at Brown University, Johns Hopkins University, and Cornell University, including Best Delegate, Outstanding Delegate, Honorable Mention, and Verbal Commendation.
Student government
The Blind Brook student government is split up into four organizations: Congress, Senate, a Shared Decision-Making Team, and class officers.
Congress
Congress is an elected body of Blind Brook High School which is composed of elected students, faculty, student-related personnel, administration, parents, and Board of Education members. Congress is responsible for policy decisions within the school. In 2011 and 2012, Congress held a school-wide Career Day.
Senate
Senate consists of 20 students, 5 from each grade with a faculty advisor, formerly Ms. Stephanie Jacobs. They are responsible for the winter homecoming dance and other various school spirit events. Senate also sponsors other events such as an annual blood drive and the annual senior fashion show.
Class officers
Class officers are responsible for running their grades, with the assistance of a class advisor. Freshmen and seniors have five officers and the sophomores and juniors have four.
Athletics
Blind Brook is in Section 1, Class "C" for athletics.
State championships
Soccer
1980 NY State Class "C" Boys' Soccer Champions
1978 NY State Class "C" Boys' Soccer Champions
Basketball
2004 NY State Class "C" Boys' Basketball Champions
2002 NY State Class "C" Boys' Basketball Champions
Teams
V = Varsity, VB = Varsity B, JV = Junior Varsity, F = Freshmen, Mod = Modified
N/I = need information, – = not applicable
References
External links
Official Blind Brook Schools website
Public high schools in Westchester County, New York
Educational institutions established in 1973
1973 establishments in New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amar%20Prem
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Amar Prem
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Amar Prem () is a 1972 Indian Hindi romantic drama film directed by Shakti Samanta. It is a remake of the Bengali's Classic film Nishi Padma (1970) starring Uttam Kumar and Sabitri Chatterjee, directed by Arabinda Mukherjee, who wrote screenplay for both the films based on the Bengali short story Hinger Kochuri by Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay. The film portrays the decline of human values and relationships and contrasts it by presenting an illustrious example of a boy's innocent love for a neighbourhood courtesan. The movie is about a school boy, who is ill-treated by his step mother, and becomes friends with a prostitute neighbour. The film stars Sharmila Tagore playing a prostitute with a heart of gold, with Rajesh Khanna in the role of a lonely businessman and Vinod Mehra as adult Nandu, the young child, who they both come to care for.
The film is noted for its music by R. D. Burman; numbers sung by playback singers like Kishore Kumar, R.D. Burman's father S.D. Burman and Lata Mangeshkar; lyrics were by Anand Bakshi. The songs and soundtrack written by Anand Bakshi and sung by Kishore Kumar were well-received, with Chingaari Koi Bhadke topping at 5th position on the year-end chart Binaca Geetmala annual list 1972.
Plot
Pushpa is expelled from her house by her husband and his new wife. When she refuses to leave, her husband beats her and throws her out. She goes to her mother for help, but her mother too disowns her. When she tries to commit suicide, she is sold to a brothel in Calcutta by her village-uncle, Nepal Babu. On her audition at the brothel, Anand Babu, a businessman seeking love, is attracted by her singing. Anand Babu is unhappily married and lonely and becomes her regular and exclusive visitor as love blossoms.
Later, a widowed man with his family, from the same village as her, moves in close to Pushpa's place. The new neighbour's son, Nandu, does not get any love at home, as his father works all the time and his stepmother does not care about him. Nandu's father learns about Pushpa's new life and forbids her from interacting with him and his family as he fears what people would say. However, Pushpa starts treating Nandu as her own son when she realises that he is mistreated at home, and often goes hungry. Nandu also comes to love Pushpa and starts to regard her as his mother. He visits her every day and comes upon Anand Babu, who also becomes fond of him becoming a father figure, calling him Pushpa's son, seeing the way Pushpa loves the child.
One day, Anand Babu's brother-in-law comes to see Pushpa and demands that she tell Anand Babu to stop visiting her. With great reluctance, Pushpa agrees and she turns Anand Babu away when he comes to see her. It is then that the businessman realises that he is in love with Pushpa. When Nandu suffers from fever and his treatment is too expensive, Pushpa asks Anand Babu for help and he secretly finances the treatment and does not let anybody know. When the doctor asks him why is he so keen on helping Nandu, he replies some relationships have no names. However, when Nandu's father asks the doctor who paid for the treatment, the doctor says that his mother did. Then Nandu's father discovers that it was Pushpa who saved her son's life and he thanks her and gives her the sari that he had bought for his wife, telling her that it was a gift from a brother to a sister. A touched Pushpa accepts.
Nandu's family has to move to the village and Nandu plants a sapling of night-flowering jasmine (Harsingaar or Parijat) at Pushpa's home, making her promise to always take care of it. Pushpa cries and agrees.
Several years later, Nandu grows up to become a government engineer posted in the same town. Anand Babu meets Pushpa, now working as a maidservant who is ill-treated and they both reconcile. Nandu unsuccessfully searches for her and gives up after inquiring in the neighbourhood. Nandu's son gets sick and they go to the same doctor. Meanwhile, having met Pushpa, Anand Babu decides to catch up with all his old friends and meets the doctor. During the conversation, he reveals that he has stopped drinking and visiting brothels once he left Pushpa. He also tells him that he is now divorced/separated due to his wife's partying ways, but is finally at peace and is happy with Pushpa's love and affection in his heart. They talk about Nandu and the Doctor informs him that Nandu is in town. Nandu meets Anand Babu when he comes to meet the doctor to ask regarding the medicine, who takes him to meet Pushpa. Both of them, unable to see Pushpa ill-treated, stand up for her and in the end Nandu takes Pushpa home with him, like a son who is reunited with his long lost mother with Anand Babu looking on, crying happily.
Cast
Sharmila Tagore as Pushpa
Rajesh Khanna as Anand
Vinod Mehra as Nandkishore Sharma "Nandu"
Abhi Bhattacharya as Dr. Ghosh
Satyendra Kapoor as Vijay
Madan Puri as Nepali Babu
Sujit Kumar as Mahesh Sharma
Bindu as Kamla Sharma
Farida Jalal as Nandu's wife
Om Prakash as Natwarlal
Master Bobby as Young Nandkishore Sharma "Nandu"
Master Raju as Nandu's younger brother
Leela Mishra as Mausi
Asit Sen as Chandar
Manmohan as Ram Ratan
Rakesh Pandey as Anand's Brother-in-law
Hiralal as Hostel Supervisor
Moolchand as Pan Shop Owner
Jankidas as Priest
Production
Script
After making entertainers like China Town (1962), Ek Raaz (1963), Kashmir Ki Kali (1964), Sawan Ki Ghata (1966) and An Evening in Paris (1967) through the 1960s, with Aradhana (1969) and Kati Patang (1971), Samanta had entered the phase of emotional dramas in his career. Nishi Padma (Night Flower, 1970), for night-flowering-jasmine, was made by Arabinda Mukherjee with Uttam Kumar and Sabitri Chatterjee as leads. When Samanta saw the film, he was so impressed by the performance of Uttam Kumar, that he decided to remake it. However, he decided to make some changes in the script. The original film was based on the Bengali short story Hinger Kochuri, written by Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay,. The title derives its name from a typical Bengali late afternoon snack, kachori, made with of fried dough stuffed with lentils, and hing (asafoetida).
The story was first published in Bandopadhyay's short story collection, Galpa Panchashat (Fifty Stories, 1956). His stories had previously been adapted by Satyajit Ray as Pather Panchali (1955) and the Apu Trilogy. Shakti Samanta asked Mukherjee who also wrote Nishi Padmas screenplay to write a Hindi version, with Ramesh Pant, a longtime-collaborator with Samanta penning the Hindi dialogues. The famous dialogue, "Pushpa, I hate tears" though also there in the original, was merely part of a dialogue, Samanta decided to use it to great effect, delivered in Rajesh Khanna's trademark style. Later, both the writers of the film won Filmfare Awards in their respective categories.
Casting
Once the script was ready, Samanta approached Sharmila Tagore, with whom he had done a string of films, like Kashmir Ki Kali (1964), An Evening in Paris (1967) and most recently Aradhana (1969), with Rajesh Khanna. Tagore found her character "Pushpa", "a very strong role in the iconic mould of Mother India" and instantly agreed, thus it was one of the first films she signed on after the birth of her son Saif Ali Khan. For the role Anand, actor Raaj Kumar was Samanta's first choice, as he believed Khanna who had become a super star after the hit Aradhana, wouldn't be interested in doing a film that focussed on the female lead. However, Khanna convinced Samanta that would do justice to the role. However, Khanna changed the character's name from Ananta to Anand to draw connection to his character in Hrishikesh Mukherjee's critically acclaimed Anand (1971).
Filming
The film was shot in Eastmancolor, entirely at Natraj Studios in Mumbai, including the famous song, Chingari koi bhadke, which was set on a boat on the Hooghly River, with Howrah Bridge of Kolkata in the background. Earlier authorities in Kolkata didn't give the film crew permission to shoot under the bridge, as it would be a crowd problem. Thus the song was shot in a water tank in the studio, with the crew filming in knee-deep water. Samanta has been using music directors like O. P. Nayyar and Shankar-Jaikishen, but chose R. D. Burman once again after Kati Patang (1971), who also laboured to produce one of his best scores; later in an interview Samanta recalled: "Pancham (R. D. Burman) would go into his room and work from 9 o'clock in the morning till 9 o'clock in the night for Amar Prem."
Themes and allusions
Amar Prem takes forward the popular genre of self-sacrificing mother or woman prevalent in the decade as seen in Aradhana (1969) and Kati Patang (1971), though seen as early as in 1957 in Mother India, though here it places a wronged wife Pushpa in the narrative. When her husband marries the second time, due to her apparent infertility, she is kicked out of her home, her mother and community both abandon her, subsequently she is tricked into prostitution. Thus the fallen women ends up as courtesan, with a heart of gold; though the original version Nishi Padma (1970), clearly portrays her as a common prostitute, in Samanta's version she is a tawaif who sings to her customers for a living. As Pushpa is introduced to the audience singing a genteel mystic Meera Bai-like bhajan, Raina Beeti Jai, Shyam Na Aaye (Night is passing, Shyam (Krishna) hasn't arrived), calling on to Krishna; however in many part of the film she is treated by her environment as common prostitute. This blurring in representation of a courtesan and a common prostitute has been a recurrent feature in mainstream Bollywood cinema, just as the theme of the fallen woman is. However, things were changing rapidly, only a few years later, Sharmila Tagore herself portrayed a far more realistic and feisty prostitute in Gulzar, directed, Mausam (1975), meanwhile, B.R. Ishara had already made the bold film Chetna (1970), with Rehana Sultan, clearly ringing in the end of monochromatic filmi-version of prostitutes and courtesans, which was seen in films like Bimal Roy's Devdas (1955), B. R. Chopra's Sadhna (1958) and even in Guru Dutt's classic Pyaasa.
As the film evolves, Pushpa is no longer the fallen woman; she is not just redeemed — Anand Babu tells her, Tumne is kamre ko mandir bana diya (You have turned this room into a temple) – but in the end is deified, as she chooses to relinquish her profession and makes a living washing utensils, quietly suffering societal and psychological abuses all through the film, instead of fighting back or standing up for herself. This is also conveyed with the use of symbolism like the handful of mud being taken from Pushpa's brothel grounds to make goddess Durga idols prior to the annual Durga Puja festival, a popular festival of goddess worship. Further towards the end of the film, her purity is compared with that of the Ganges itself by Anand Babu, when she finally visits the banks of Hooghly river, a distributary of the sacred Ganges River to break her bangles after her ill-treating husband dies; and in the very end, the juxtaposition of the home-coming of Durga idols used in Durga Puja festival just as Nandu is taking Pushpa home. This makes her a veritable model for womanhood, although conservative and affirming patriarchal traditions. The fallen woman, solely longs to marry the man, but in vain, Pushpa too is reunited with Anand Babu in the end, however this is only a momentary meeting, and Anand Babu suggests she goes home with her foster son, Nandu as a mother. This genre was in direct contrast with similar maternal melodrama of 1930s Hollywood, where the abandoned mother often disappeared into oblivion and destitution; it continued in Hindi cinema for another decade, before the "avenging heroine" marked her entry and the women narratives began to change.
The film also deals with the theme of urban melancholy, of the bhadralok, the gentlefolk, through Anand Babu, a businessman trapped in a bad marriage, whose wife is constantly busy in beauty-parlours and parties, and seeks company in Pushpa and alcohol. Pushpa, herself lonely, fulfills her maternal instincts through Nandu, a young boy in the neighbourhood, often ill-treated by his step mother. Thus three lonely people become surrogates for each other and create their own family unit, even though briefly, as Anand Babu defines it, "Koi agar apna na hoke bhi bahut apna ho, toh ise kya kehte hain? Bahut pyara rishta, na?" (If someone is bound to you in spite of not being related to you, isn't that a lovely relationship?) Also through his song, Kuch To Log Kahenge, Anand Babu mocks society's moral judgement and hypocrisy, as he consoles a despondent Pushpa by singing, "Sita bhi yahan badnaam hui" (Even Sita (King Rama's wife in Ramayana) was insulted here) relating to an episode in epic, where in Sita having returned from captivity of demon king Ravana, she had to prove her purity, and even then was banished by Rama to the forest.
Music
The score and soundtrack for film was composed by R.D.Burman, with lyrics by Anand Bakshi. The soundtrack was melody based, which gave Lata Mangeshkar her finest classical solo of the decade, Raina Beti Jaaye, set in an unusual blend of two Ragas, Todi in mukhara or the opening verse and Khamaj in the antara. Burman had heard his father, music composer S. D. Burman sing, Bela Boye Jaye, which he said was on his mind, while composing the song. Bakshi's lyrics, created a Meera bhajan-like idiom for the song, employing the Krishna-Radha motif.
However, when it came to "Bada Natkhat hai Re Krishna Kanhaiyya", things took a different turn when his father, veteran music director, S. D. Burman intervened and asked Burman to redo the tune. Burman was given the brief of "usual bhajan situation" by Samanta, later as he was giving final touches to the tune, his father heard the tune, and asked for the precise description of situation. On listening to the situation, he expressed his dismay as not doing justice to the situation, as R.D. Burman recounted in a later interview, "But where's the composer in you in this tune, Pancham (Burman's nickname)?" and went on to explain: "..For Sharmila here is something more than the nautch-girl she plays. Her motherly instincts have been aroused by that kid. Your tune therefore must communicate all the agony of the nautch-girl wanting to be the mother she can never be. Do it again, your way, but with the moving human situation in mind." Thus R.D. Burman made a tune in Raga Khamaj, which Lata Mangeshkar too sang with marked emotional clarity and abandon, who is usually prone let her technical dexterity outshine. The song became a classic, and later Burman called it his "best lesson in music" from his father.
Finally, Burman roped in his father, S. D. Burman to sing "Doli Mein Bithai Ke Kahaar" in his typical bardic voice, and the song which appears twice in the film, was to become one of the most memorable songs of his career as a playback singer.
The song "Kuchh Toh Log Kahenge" is considered to be one of the most loved filmi songs of all time.
Reception
Release
Prior to the release of the film, a special show was organised in Delhi, where Gen Sam Manekshaw invited the cast, however the next day a blackout was declared, as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 had begun. The film was commercially released in January 1972.
Response
Though 1972 was a year of the big films Pakeezah, Dushman and Beimaan, upon its release, Amar Prem was eighth amongst Khanna's top releases in the year. Samanta achieved a hat-trick of hits with Rajesh Khanna, which started with Aradhana (1969) and Kati Patang (1971). The music by R. D. Burman proved one of the best scores of his career, with hits like "Chingaari Koi Bhadke", "Kuchh Toh Log Kahenge", "Yeh Kya Hua" sung by Kishore Kumar and "Raina beeti jaaye" by Lata Mangheskar.
Accolades
20th Filmfare Awards:
Won
Best Screenplay – Arabinda Mukherjee
Best Dialogue – Ramesh Pant
Best Sound Design – Jehangir Nowrojee
Nominated
Best Actor – Rajesh Khanna
Best Actress – Sharmila Tagore
Best Music Director – R. D. Burman
Best Lyricist – Anand Bakshi for "Chingari Koi Bhadke"
Best Male Playback Singer – Kishore Kumar for "Chingari Koi Bhadke"
Legacy
After the film's success, the Rajesh Khanna–Sharmila Tagore pair, which had already achieved success in Aradhana (1969), worked again in Yash Chopra's Daag (1973) and Basu Bhattacharya's Avishkaar (1973), besides films like Chhoti Bahu (1971), Maalik (1972) and Raja Rani (1973). Today, they are still considered one of the leading on-screen romantic couples in the 100 years of India cinema. Rajesh Khanna's dialogue "Pushpa, I hate tears", which appeared five times in the film, was not only parodied over the years, but also went on to become one of the epic dialogues of Indian cinema. Apart from her work with Satyajit Ray, lead actress Tagore's films with Samanta including Amar Prem, defined her screen image for her career. The film's success also affected the fashion trends of the time, the puff-sleeved blouses, which were first seen on Devika Rani in the 1950s were revived again after Tagore's character Pushpa wore them through the film.
In July 2009, after Samanta's death in April of the same year, Amar Prem was the inaugural film of a retrospective on Shakti Samanta Films organised in Delhi.
References
Bibliography
External links
"The Magic of Rajesh Khanna, Sharmila and Amar Prem" at Rediff.com
1972 films
Indian romantic drama films
1970s Hindi-language films
1972 romantic drama films
Films about courtesans in India
Films set in Kolkata
Films scored by R. D. Burman
Films directed by Shakti Samanta
Hindi remakes of Bengali films
Films based on short fiction
Films shot in Mumbai
Hindi-language romance films
Films based on works by Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1923%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1923 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1923 24 Hours of Le Mans, officially the 24 Hours Grand Prix of Endurance (), was the inaugural Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 26 and 27 May 1923.
A strong field of twenty manufacturers entered, all from France aside from a single Bentley from Great Britain and a pair of Excelsiors from Belgium. In a rain-soaked race it was the Chenard-Walcker team and the Bentley that set the pace, chased by the smaller 2-litre Bignan. The Bentley was delayed by stones smashing a headlight and puncturing the fuel tank, and in the end the Chenard-Walckers of René Léonard / André Lagache and Christian Dauvergne / Raoul Bachmann had a comfortable 1–2 victory.
However, there was no official victory for them as this event was the first part of three consecutive annual races, for the Rudge-Whitworth Triennial Cup, where the ultimate winner would be the manufacturer whose best car exceeded their nominated target distance by the greatest margin. So it was the small 1.1-litre Salmson of Desvaux/Casse that took the lead in that competition. It had completed 98 laps, 46 over its 52-lap target.
The race was also an excellent exhibition of machine endurance and reliability. Thirty cars finished the event, a number not equalled at Le Mans again until 1993.
Regulations
The final regulations for the event were not completed by Charles Faroux and the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) until February 1923. All cars had to be standard four-seater production models, except those under 1100cc which could be two-seaters where at least thirty cars had been built. The vehicle had to carry 60 kg lead ballast for each passenger space aside from the driver. A maximum of two drivers were allowed (but not riding together), and they alone could replenish the fluids (petrol, oil and water), although there was no minimum distance between refills as in later years. The fuel was to be supplied by the ACO. Engines had to be turned off at pit-stops, and only re-started with an onboard starter.
All cars had to have standard touring equipment, such as wheel wings, hood (if a convertible), running boards, headlights, a rear-view mirror and "warning devices" (horn). None of the entered cars had window-wipers.
There was an hors course rule such that every car had to meet a certain ratio of their minimum distance at the 6, 12, and 18-hour marks or face disqualification. The ratios were 80%, 85% and 90% respectively. The final minimum distances were on a sliding scale based on engine capacity that were kept deliberately lenient for the first race. The distances included the following:
To encourage future entries and manufacturer commitment to the event, the sponsor, wheel supplier Rudge-Whitworth, put up a trophy for the manufacturer whose best-performing car had completed the furthest distance in 24 hours over three consecutive years. So, in effect, there was no prize for the individual race win. Curiously, the weekend chosen for the event was also when the French moved to "summer time" so clocks were moved forward an hour at 11 pm, therefore the race started at 4 pm Saturday but finished at 5 pm on Sunday.
Track
Automobile racing was well established in the Sarthe region, with races since 1906 with the very first French Grand Prix. The post-war circuit had hosted a number of races since 1920 and was in length. From the outskirts of Le Mans city, it ran on the main road southwards to the village of Mulsanne and back. The start/finish line was two-thirds of the back on the return leg on land rented for the event. The depôts (pits) consisted of wooden counters with canvas-roofed areas behind for each car. A race-control tower and two 44m wooden grandstands were built opposite the pits. A footbridge sponsored by Meyrel was built just after the start-line. The track was very narrow in places, including the country roads from Mulsanne to Arnage and from the start-line to Pontlieue hairpin.
For the spectators’ comfort and entertainment through the event, cafés and a dancefloor with jazz-band were set up behind the stands. There was also an area for people to use radios to pick up classical music broadcast from the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Generators provided power for the public address system and lighting around the spectator area, and a long scoreboard was manually maintained giving the cars’ positions and laps completed and target distance.
Although most of the track was fenced from the spectators, the roads were not tar-sealed. Roading engineers were employed before the race to apply a temporary mixture of gravel, dirt and tar to the road surface. Acetylene floodlights from the army were set up at the tight corners of Pontlieue, Mulsanne and Arnage.
Entries
For this first endurance trial there were 37 entries, all submitted by the manufacturers rather than individual drivers.
Only the 2-car Avions Voisin team were late scratchings. With the cars all painted in their national racing colours, there was a predominance of French blue cars except for a single green Bentley from Great Britain and two Belgian Excelsiors in yellow. The cars were assigned their numbers in the order of their engine size. Many of the car models were co-identified with the French CV-system of automotive horsepower tax.
The biggest-engined cars in the field were the 5.3-litre Excelsiors, luxury car-makers from Belgium founded in 1903. Success in racing and sales to the Belgian royal family established the company. The 1922 Adex C had a straight-six engine putting out 130 bhp and could reach 145 km/h (90 mph), however its hefty weight impeded its acceleration rate. It had perhaps the first anti-roll bar suspension running on Belgian Englebert tyres. Works drivers, Belgians Nicolas Caerels and André Dills, were pre-war veteran riding mechanics from Grand Prix and Indianapolis.
Lorraine-Dietrich had been founded as a locomotive manufacturer in 1884 in Alsace-Lorraine, moving to automobiles in 1896 entering the early inter-city road-races. At war's-end the factories but soon resumed car production. The B3-6 appeared in 1922 with a straight-6 engine and 3-speed gearbox and three body-style variants were sent to Le Mans under competition director Maurice Leroux. The fastest was the lightened Torpédo bodystyle, capable of almost 145 km/h (90 mph).
Delage was another famous French car company with a strong pre-war motor-racing pedigree already, including winning the 1914 Indianapolis 500, and quickly resumed racing after the war with its big 5- and 6-litre racing cars. The DE raced at Le Mans was a 1-off special of the current popular production model fitted with its engine modified to carry an overhead-valve cylinder head. It was raced by new works driver Paul Torchy and test driver Belbeu.
Chenard-Walcker was a major Parisian automotive company, established in 1899 and one of the city's biggest suppliers of taxis. They had a close relationship with coachbuilding company FAR who built their bodywork, led by André Lagache and Raymond Glaszmann (both keen racers). Lucien Chenard, son of the founder, had set up a works racing team in 1921 with the company test-driver René Léonard. Active in post-war racing they sent a trio of cars with the latest Torpédo bodystyle from FAR. Two had the new U3 3-litre engine that put out 90 bhp, driven by Léonard with Lagache, and Glaszmann with Fernand Bachmann. The third car, with a less powerful U2 engine was run by Bachmann's brother Raoul with veteran Christian Dauvergne. They were supported by a well-drilled pit crew to assist the drivers.
The sole British entry was a privately-owned Bentley with a small support team from the factory. W. O. Bentley had founded his own company straight after the war in January 1919 and regularly raced his 3-litre Sports. John Duff was Bentley's new London agent, who had set almost 40 international records at Brooklands. He had then broken both ankles there at the end of 1922 when he crashed, going over its banking. Duff's was the first entry received by the ACO for the race. Bentley was not convinced, but released his test driver Frank Clement as co-driver. Duff drove the car to Newhaven then Clement took it to Le Mans, with two Bentley mechanics, their luggage and tools in the back seats. Unlike most other of the leading teams, the Bentley only had rear drum brakes. It ran special long-endurance tyres, designed by Lionel Rapson, convincing Duff he could get away without the weight of carrying a spare wheel.
The biggest entry came from Rolland-Pilain, who presented four cars. The innovative company from Tours was founded in 1905. Émile Pilain filed patents for a hydraulic braking system and a Sleeve valve engine. The four cars were all different. There was the B22 with a Torpédo open-top body and an R Berline saloon. Both had pushrod engines, and hydraulic front brakes with Dunlop tyres. The smaller RP models (Torpédo and Berline variants) had 1.9-litre side-valve engines, cable-brakes on the rear and Michelin tyres.
Ford had a major automotive plant at Bordeaux producing around cars per year by 1923. Charles Montier was Ford's agent in France and a skilled engineer who specialised in building high-performance specials. His Le Mans entry was based on the abundant Ford Model T with his own engine design and sturdier mechanical parts. Racing his own car, he also added two rear seats hanging over the back of the rear axle to comply with the ACO regulations.
Brasier had a strong racing heritage in the pre-war inter-city races, winning the last two Gordon Bennett Cups in 1904 and 1905. The brand-new TB4 model had a 2062cc engine, 4-speed gearbox and Rudge wheels. In contrast, Marius Berliet had little racing experience and saw Le Mans as a good opportunity to raise his company's profile. His Lyon-based factory had made huge numbers of trucks during the war. Two of the new VH model were at Le Mans, with 2617cc engines, 4-speed gearboxes, and again, Rudge wire-wheels.
Corre La Licorne had grown from the company originally founded by former professional cyclist Jean-Marie Corre. Its cars had raced with moderate success before the war. Two models arrived for the race. The popular B7 tourer with a 2-litre Ballot engine and the new V14 with smaller 1.4-litre SCAP engine. In a similar fashion, Vinot-Deguingand had started building bicycles in 1898 before moving onto voiturettes and then automobiles, raced for the Parisian company by the brothers Léon and Lucien Molon. One of the new BP models, with an 1847cc engine, was brought to Le Mans, again to be driven by the Molon brothers.
Jacques Bignan was a Parisian engineer who expanded and founded his own automobile company in 1918. It was initially subcontracted by Automobiles Grégoire to build cars for British importer Malcolm Campbell. Two of their successful 11CV cars were entered, one with a special Desmodromic valve engine developed by French race-driver Albert Guyot and engineer Némorin Causan. The complex valve-system gave the 2-litre engine 75 bhp instead of 70 bhp but had a far better acceleration curve. It was driven by Paul Gros and Baron de Tornaco.
Georges Irat was a decorated French pilot from the war who moved from being a foreign-car importer in Paris to setting up his own company in 1921 with Maurice Gaultier, an engine designer from Delage. Two of the latest Torpédo-bodied versions of their Type A were entered. The 1995cc engine put out about 50 bhp.
Salmson had been formed in 1890 as a pump and compressor-manufacturer. After being one of the earliest makers of air engines (in 1908), it had been an important French aircraft manufacturer during the war. In 1919, it converted its Paris factories to car and cyclecar production. The works racing team, formed in 1921, had been dominant in the small-engine classes led by former fighter pilot Robert Benoist. Lucien Desvaux, Benoist and Georges Casse had just finished 1–2–3 at the single-driver 24-hour Bol d’Or cyclecar race the weekend before Le Mans. Two VAL-3 voiturettes were entered for Desvaux / Casse and the other regular team driver Luis Ramon Bueno, who drove with Maurice Benoist (Robert's brother).
Bugatti was still a small company, yet to achieve its great fame. Recently relocated back to Molsheim when the Alsace was ceded to France after the war, Ettore Bugatti was still only producing small touring cars. The two T22 "Brescia Bugattis" were privately owned, fitted with the new 1495cc engine capable of 95 km/h (50 mph). However the cars were heavy and further stymied by the 180kg of required passenger-ballast to be carried for a 4-seat car.
SARA was a new Parisian company, only formed a year earlier to build cars based around the pioneering new pressurised air-cooling system of August Tisserant. The new ATS 2-seater model had the only French 4-cylinder air-cooled engine, and produced 30 bhp and two cars were entered. French financier and company co-owner François Piazzoli drove a lightened version without running boards. Amilcar was another new Parisian company formed in 1921 producing small-engined cars and cyclecars. Their CC model won Europe's first 24-hour event at the 1922 Bol d’Or, beating Salmson. An entry to Le Mans was filed at the behest of privateer owners Maurice Boutmy and Jérôme Marcandanti to race the new CV model. The 1004cc engine produced just 18 bhp. But as a 2-seater it was also given the smallest target distance of just 48 laps.
Practice
With no official practice session, some teams (including La Lorraine, Chenard-Walcker and Bignan) arrived earlier in the week before Friday scrutineering to learn the track.
For the standing start, the cars were lined up on the front straight two-by-two with engines off. Pictures show them in numerical order, although the "Autocar" review of the time says it was in the order their entries were received by the ACO.
Salmson's race engineer Émile Petit was furious when he arrived at the track to find company director André Lombard had changed the cars’ electrics to a new supplier.
Race
Start
The early summertime start of the first 24 Hours of Le Mans at 4 pm began just after a hailstorm, in cold rain and wind. The honour to drop the flag to start the race fell to Monsieur Carpé, the ACO chief timekeeper. The big Belgian Excelsiors were overtaken from the start by Robert Bloch's Lorraine-Dietrich. What was supposed to be an "endurance trial" soon became a race along the narrow country roads.
It was perhaps surprising then that throughout the rain that lasted the first four hours, there were no major incidents. It was soon apparent that the quickest cars were the Chenard-Walcker team, the Bentley, one of the Excelsiors, and one of the 2-litre Bignans. The first pitstops for fuel and driver-changes did not start until after 7 pm. The 38-year-old Lagache and veteran Dauvergne bought their Chenard-Walckers in with a good lead. The Belgian-driven Excelsior gradually lost time with its sluggish acceleration rate. After a brief respite the rain and wind returned making for very difficult night-driving, especially as most cars chose not to run with their hoods up, as it compromised top speed and fuel economy. Most drivers were not wearing goggles despite the rain and all the mud-splatter coming off the cars ahead of them.
Night
The roads were soon getting muddy and rutted. A number of cars had headlamp failures as water got into their acetylene and electrical systems, particularly the two SARAs. Indeed, the lights went out on the Piazzali/Marandet SARA just as it was cornering. Running off the road, it was too badly damaged to continue, becoming the first retirement in the history of the Le Mans 24 Hours. Convoys would form as those cars followed ones with functioning lights. The Chenard drivers were equipped with hand-operated acetylene spotlamps to help with their main lights.
During the night a stone struck René Marie's Bugatti and punctured the fuel tank. The car came to a halt near Arnage and Marie walked the 5km back to the pits. The officials had not anticipated this circumstance in their regulations that fuel could only be added in the pits, as it was accidental rather than a miscalculation. They agreed he would be allowed to carry two fuel tanks back to the car to get it going again. He got back to the pits, made the repairs and was able to continue the race.
Just before midnight the Bentley was delayed by an errant stone smashing a headlamp. Not thinking to bring a spare, the team was sportingly offered one by the Chenard team. But the time needed to fit the lamp was deemed too long and the car continued with just the one. Later in the night, the Bentley had a very near miss avoiding Paul Gros’ Bignan that had burst a tyre approaching Mulsanne corner. Both cars braked hard and swerved onto the grass, ending up only inches apart. Another incident occurred when the French-driven Excelsior went off the road into a sand-trap, taking an hour to dig it out, relatively undamaged.
At the half-way point, at 5 am, the Chenard-Walcker of Léonard/Lagache had a two-lap lead over the Bentley (assisted by their car's better brakes) and the other two Chenards and the Bignan. The rain finally eased off as dawn came.
Morning
Superior pitwork by their well-drilled team got all three Chenard-Walckers a three-lap lead over the Bentley in the early morning. But as the roads gradually dried out, the Bentley was able to put in quicker lap-times. Lagache and Léonard in turn picked up their pace setting new lap records, even though Duff was able to get one of the laps back.
Then just before midday the Bentley came to a stop at Arnage, after another stone had hit it. Like the Bugatti, the fuel tank had been punctured and the petrol had drained out. Clement walked back to the pits, and using the Bugatti precedent earlier, was allowed to use a gendarme's bicycle with two fuel tanks over his shoulder to refill the Bentley enough to get it back to the pits (and return the bicycle).
Finish and post-race
It took two and a half hours to get the Bentley back and repaired with a cork in the hole. He then went out and set the fastest lap of the race in the drying conditions. However, the Chenard-Walckers could not be caught and eased off to score a decisive 1–2 victory on distance. Third was the Bignan of Gros/de Tornaco comfortably winning the 2-litre category by 8 laps from its team-mate. But there was a bad incident after the end of the race. Paul Gros left his Bignan and was crossing the circuit to shake the hand of a friend, when he was struck by the car of second-place Raoul Bachmann. Bachmann's was the last car to complete the final lap and when he arrived the finish line was already full of cars and spectators. He braked hard and swerved, and fortunately Gros only suffered a broken arm and bruises.
Fourth equal on distance, having all completed 112 laps were the Bentley, the lead Excelsior driven by the Belgians Caerels and Dills, and the second Bignan of de Marne and Martin.
The Chenard-Walcker of Léonard and Lagache is often cited as the inaugural winner of the Le Mans 24 Hours, which it was on distance. However, the regulations stipulated it was merely the first of three annual races with the winner being the one who exceeded their minimum stipulated by the greatest ratio. In fact, the leader at this first stage of the event (and awarded the Coupe Interim) was the 1.1-litre Salmson of Desvaux and Casse that finished 12th but had exceeded its target distance by 46 laps.
Despite some cars having time-consuming engine issues, only three were not running at the end of the race. Indeed, the 90% finish ratio was the best for many years and it was not until 1993 that as many as 30 cars finished a Le Mans. Despite the weather, it was a record distance for a 24-hour race. The Bentley went through on one set of its Rapson tyres, as did the Berliet, and the smaller Corre-La Licorne was the only tourer to drive with its hood up for the race's duration.
The Rolland-Pillain team caused the scorekeepers some confusion on the Sunday. Firstly, the target laps required that was set on the scoreboard was transposed between the bigger- and smaller-engined cars and then the scorers may have confused the two open-top cars and credited laps by Marinier/Robin to Delalande/Marguenat. Or the bigger-engine cars in the team were assigned the lower numbers by mistake. Despite issues with leaks from the hydraulic brake system, all four cars reached their target distances. Similarly, the leading Bugatti apparently covered an impossible number of laps on Sunday afternoon (to complete 40 laps in the same time as the leader only managed 32), credited for laps at the expense of the delayed Pichard/Marie team car.
The Georges-Irat team had requested the ACO to monitor their fuel consumption through the race, and officials came back with figures of for their best-finishing car. By contrast, the SARA that covered the least distance in the 24 hours had an economy of 47 mpg (6.0 litres/100km). Excelsior were not convinced they could win the Coupe Rudge-Whitworth and did not return, however they had further success in their local endurance race, the Spa 24 Hours. Delage also would not return for over a decade, choosing instead to concentrate on a new Grand Prix racing team.
After the major argument at Salmson before the race, Lombard left the company and the successful race-team was disbanded at the end of the year. Although now well-placed to win the Triennial Cup, they would not return until 1926.
Repusseau & Cie, French agents for the American Hartford Suspension Company, had set up a dining area for the drivers and pit crews. They later reported that 150 gallons of onion soup, 50 chickens, 450 bottles of champagne (and an unspecified quantity of red and white wine) had been consumed over the weekend by the racing personnel.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Although there were no official engine classes, the highest finishers in unofficial categories aligned with the Index targets are in Bold text.
Note: confusion exists over which cars were numbered as what.
Did not finish
Did not start
Interim Coupe Triennale Rudge-Whitworth positions
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings.
Footnotes
Highest finisher in class
Note: setting a new class distance record.
With no official class divisions, these are the highest finishers in unofficial categories aligned with the Index targets.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap – F. Clement, No. 8 Bentley 3-litre – 9:39secs;
Longest Distance –
Greatest Average Speedon Distance –
Citations
References
Clarke, R.M. – editor (1998) Le Mans 'The Bentley & Alfa Years 1923–1939' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Spurring, Quentin (2015) Le Mans 1923–29 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1923 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 24 Aug 2018
Le Mans History – entries, results (incl. photos and a copy of the full original regulations). Retrieved 20 Aug 2018
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 20 Aug 2018
24h en Piste – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers (in French). Retrieved 19 Feb 2018
Radio Le mans – Race article and review by Charles Dressing. Retrieved 5 Dec 2018
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 24 Aug 2018
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 24 Aug 2018
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1923 in French motorsport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary%20of%20Portugal
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Judiciary of Portugal
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The judiciary of Portugal is a system of courts that together constitute one of the four organs of Sovereignty as defined by the Portuguese Constitution. The courts are independent from the other three Portuguese organs of Sovereignty (President of the Republic, Government and Assembly of the Republic).
The Portuguese courts are divided by four independent orders, each of which corresponds to the separate Constitutional, Judicial, Administrative and Auditors jurisdictions.
The public prosecution and the representation of the State before the courts is assured by an independent body of magistrates, known as Public Ministry.
The Ministry of Justice is the Government department responsible for the administration of the Judiciary system.
Orders of courts
The Portuguese judiciary system is not unitary, but it is instead divided in four independent categories or orders of courts: Constitutional, Judicial, Administrative and Auditors. Each order contains their own structure of courts. The Constitutional and Auditors orders include a single court each one, while the other two orders include a plurality of hierarchical organized courts. Until 2003, a fifth order of courts existed, this being the Military Jurisdiction.
A higher court of appeal exists to appreciate and judge the conflicts of jurisdiction between the Judicial and Administrative orders of courts, this being the Conflicts Court (). The Conflicts Court is headed by the president of the Supreme Administrative Court, including also other three judges of this court and three judges of the Supreme Court of Justice.
Constitutional Court
The Constitutional Court (Tribunal Constitucional) is the sole court in the Constitutional jurisdiction. It is a special court, mainly tasked with reviewing the constitutionality of newly approved laws, but it also has important powers related to the President of the Republic, the political parties and referendums. The judges of the Constitutional Court are independent from the other branches of government, such as the executive or the legislature, and cannot be impeached. The court is installed in the Ratton Palace in Lisbon.
Judicial courts
The Judicial order (Ordem Judicial) is the first category of common courts (excluding the Constitutional Court), forming a proper hierarchical structure that has the Supreme Court of Justice (Supremo Tribunal de Justiça) in Lisbon as its superior body. This order also includes the five intermediate level courts called Relação (Guimarães, Oporto, Coimbra, Lisbon and Évora) and the judicial courts of first instance. The judicial courts of first instance can be courts of generic competence or courts of specific competence.
For the purpose of the Judicial order, until 2014, Portugal was divided in 231 uneven comarcas, constituting the territorial areas of jurisdiction of the courts of first instance. With some adjustments carried away over the years, that division was essentiality the one established in the judiciary reform of 1835. Depending on the size of its population, each comarca could have from a single court of general jurisdiction with just a single judge to a complex structure of diverse courts of special jurisdiction (civil, criminal, criminal procedure, labour, family, etc.), each of which, by itself, could include several specialized sections and judgeships. The comarcas were grouped in 57 judicial circles (círculos judiciais) and these in four judicial districts (distritos judiciais).
Following the judiciary organization reform of 2014, the country is now divided in 23 larger comarcas, all of them having, each one, a single judicial court of first instance, with general jurisdiction. Each judicial court is divided in judgeships (juízos), with the following types existing: central civil, local civil, central criminal, local criminal, local minor crimes, criminal procedure, labor, family and juvenile, commercial, execution, general jurisdiction and proximity.
The comarca courts are typically installed in monumental courthouses, called palácios da Justiça (palaces of Justice), many of them built between the 1940s and the 1960s. Before the reduction of the number of comarcas due to the 2014 reform, each palace of Justice was usually a seat of a court, but now most of them are only seats of judgeships of larger courts.
Besides the 23 generic competence judicial courts of each comarca, there are also some subject-matter jurisdiction courts of first instance that have territorial jurisdiction over several comarcas. These include the penal supervisory courts of Porto, Coimbra, Lisbon and Évora, the Maritime Court at Lisbon, the Intellectual Property Court at Lisbon, the Concurrency, Regulation and Supervision Court at Santarém and the Central Criminal Procedure Court at Lisbon.
The judges of the Supreme Court of Justice have the title of conselheiros (counselors), those of the Relações have the title of desembargadores and those of the courts of first instance have the title of juízes de direito (judges of law).
As Justice of first instance, there are also the judges of peace and the arbitral tribunals. The judges of peace have competence to appreciate and to judge small actions regarding values that do not exceed the ceiling below which it is not possible to appeal from a court of first instance.
Administrative and tax courts
The administrative and tax order includes the courts that deal with the administrative law and with the tax law. They constitute a hierarchical system that has the Supreme Administrative Court (Supremo Tribunal Administrativo) in Lisbon as its superior body. This order also includes the second instance central administrative courts of North at Oporto and of South at Lisbon, as well as the courts of first instance.
For the purpose of the administrative and tax jurisdiction, the country is territorially divided in 16 circles. To each of the circles correspond a first instance administrative court of circle and a tributary court, being that both of which may be aggregated, in that case being unitarily designated "administrative and tax courts". At the present, only the Lisbon circle has a separate administrative and a tributary court, with the rest of the circles each having a single administrative and tax court.
The judges of the Supreme Administrative Court have the title of conselheiros, those of the central administrative courts have the title of desembargadores and those of the first instance courts have the title of juízes de direito.
Auditors Court
The Auditors Court (Tribunal de Contas) is the single court of its order. It has both pure court functions (namely the supervision of the legality of the public expenses and the judging of public accounting) and also advising functions (namely to give opinion about the State accounts, alloying the Parliament to analyze them and decide).
The judges of the Auditors Court are chosen through civil service examination and have the title of conselheiros (counselors).
Military courts
Until 2003, Portugal had a system of permanent military courts that dealt with the military justice, which constituted a separate jurisdiction. The superior body of this order of courts was the Supreme Military Court (Supremo Tribunal Militar) in Lisbon. As lower instance courts of military justice, several territorial military courts and the Naval Military Court also existed.
With the approval of the new Portuguese Code of Military Justice on 15 November 2003, the permanent military courts were disbanded, ceasing to exist during the time of peace. In time of peace, the military crimes or the crimes committed by military personnel are now judged in the criminal sections of the common Judicial courts. For the propose of military justice, there are four military judges (one for each branch of the Armed Forces and the other for the National Republican Guard) in each of the following courts: the Supreme Court of Justice, the Relação of Lisbon and the Relação of Oporto.
However, in times of war, separate military courts can be re-established. These can be ordinary or extraordinary. The ordinary courts are the Supreme Military Court, the military courts of 2nd instance and the military courts of 1st instance. The military ordinary courts would be composed of the military judges that usually serve in the criminal sections of the common Judicial courts. The extraordinary military courts are non-permanent courts created, near military forces or installations outside the national territory or national waters, only to judge specific processes, being dissolved as soon as these are decided. Each of these courts would be composed by members of the military with a higher rank than the defendants and by a person with a degree in Law (preferable a judge, if available).
Public Ministry
The Public Ministry (MP, Ministério Público) is the Judiciary body responsible for the public prosecution and the representation of the Portuguese State before the courts. It is an hierarchic organized body, composed of magistrates and headed by the Attorney-General of the Republic (Procurador-Geral da República), being totally independent from the executive and other branches of Government.
The superior body of the Public Ministry is the Procuradoria-Geral da República (PGR, Attorney-General's Office), headed by the Attorney-General. Besides directing the MP, the PGR also assures its representation in the four supreme courts: Constitutional Court, Supreme Court of Justice, Supreme Administrative Court and Auditors Court. This representation is done directly by the Attorney-General, assisted by the Vice-Attorney-General and by deputy attorneys-general.
The intermediate level bodies of the MP are the four procuradorias-gerais distritais (district attorneys-general's offices) and the two procuradorias-gerais de coordenação (coordinating attorneys-general's offices). The first represent the MP in the relação courts, while the last represent it in the central administrative courts.
The first level bodies of the MP are the 23 procuradorias de comarca (comarca attorney's offices), which represent it in each of the judicial courts of comarca.
One of the main roles of the Public Ministry is to guide the criminal investigation in the country. For this role, the MP includes the departments of investigation and prosecution, composed of attorneys specially dedicated to the investigation of the most serious crimes. There is one central department in the PGR and one of such departments in each of the district attorneys-general's offices. For the criminal investigation, the MP also controls the activity of the Judiciary Police.
Ministry of Justice
The Ministry of Justice (Ministério da Justiça) is the department of the Government of Portugal responsible to conceive, conduct, execute and assess the Justice policy defined by the Assembly of the Republic and by the Government and to assure the relationship of the Government with the courts, the Public Ministry, the Higher Council of Magistrates and the Higher Council of the Administrative and Tax Courts. As part of its responsibilities, it administers the judiciary system, with functions that include the payment of salaries and the construction of courthouses.
It is headed by the minister of Justice, who is a member of the Portuguese Cabinet.
On the contrary of what happens in other countries, the Portuguese minister of Justice is not the head of public prosecution, not having any kind of authority over the attorneys of the Public Ministry, who are independent magistrates.
Judiciary professions
Judges
The judges are the independent magistrates that judge accordingly with the Portuguese Constitution and the law.
There are two separate bodies of career judges, that are part of the civil service. The first one is the Judicial Magistrates Corps, that is formed by the judges who serve in the Judicial courts. The superior body of this Corps is the Higher Council of Magistracy, presided by the President of the Supreme Court of Justice. The other is the body of Judges of the Administrative and Tax Jurisdiction. This is headed by the Higher Council of the Administrative and Tax Courts, presided by the President of the Supreme Administrative Court. Although independent of each other, the two bodies of career judges share many characteristics. Both have the same categories of judges, that are those of conselheiro (counselor), desembargador and juíz de direito (judge of Law), corresponding, respectively to the judges of the supreme, second instance and first instance courts.
The access to the careers of judges implies the graduation in a special school of magistrates, the Centro de Estudos Judiciários (Judicial Studies Center) or CEJ. The admission to the CEJ is made through civil service examination. Previous conditions for admission is to be National of Portugal or of another Portuguese Speaking Country, to have a degree in Law and to fulfill all the conditions to be a public servant.
The judges of the Constitutional Court and of the Accountants Court are not career judges. The majority of those of the first court are chosen by the Assembly of the Republic and the rest by co-optation. Those of the Accountants Court are chosen through civil service examination.
Public Ministry magistrates
The attorneys of the Public Ministry are magistrates as the judges, but constitute a parallel and independent body from the Judicial Magistracy.
The career of the magistrates of the Public Ministry includes the following categories: procurador-geral-adjunto (deputy attorney-general), procurador da República (attorney) and procurador-adjunto (deputy attorney).
The Procurador-Geral da República (attorney-general) has also the status of the magistrate while in office, but it is not mandatory that the Procurador-Geral da República had been a Public Ministry magistrate before being appointed for the role. The Vice-Procurador-Geral da República (vice-attorney-general) is a magistrate with mandatory origin in the Public Ministry career magistracy.
The Public Ministry is represented by the Procurador-Geral da República and by procuradores-gerais-adjuntos before the Supreme Court of Justice, the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Administrative Court and the Accountants Court. It is represented by procuradores-gerais-adjuntos before the relações and the central administrative courts. Before the first instance courts, it is represented by procuradores-gerais-adjuntos, procuradores da República and procuradores-adjuntos.
The access to the career of Public Ministry magistrate obeys to the same previous conditions as the access to the careers of judges, also implying the graduation in the Centro de Estudos Judiciários.
Barristers and solicitors
The barristers (advogados) and solicitors (solicitadores) are the legal practitioners who represent the natural and legal persons before the courts and deal with other legal matters.
The legal representation by a barrister is considered an essential element in the administration of Justice and is admissible in any proceedings. It can not be prevented before any jurisdiction, authority, or public or private entity.
Both the professions of barrister and solicitor are statutory regulated and represented by public professional associations, respectively the Ordem dos Advogados (Order of the Barristers) and the Câmara dos Solicitadores (Chamber of the Solicitors). Being member of those professional associations is a mandatory condition for the practice of the professions of barrister or solicitor. The admission to the professional associations implies the previous graduation in Law (or alternatively having a solicitor's degree in the case of solicitors candidates), performing an internship and passing in access examinations.
Officers of Justice
The officers of Justice constitute the special class of public servants that serve in the secretaries of the courts and of the Public Ministry offices. Their roles include the providing of the administrative services of the Judiciary, the execution of warrants, the service of scrivener in the trials and the function of criminal police in the inquiries.
The career of officer of Justice of the courts includes the categories of escrivão de direito (scrivener of Law), escrivão-adjunto (deputy scrivener) and escrivão auxiliar (auxiliary scrivener). Regarding the career of officer of Justice of the Public Ministry, it includes the categories of técnico de Justiça principal (principal technician of Justice), técnico de Justiça-adjunto (deputy technician of Justice) and técnico de Justiça auxiliar (auxiliary technician of Justice).
See also
Public Ministry
Law of Portugal
Judicial Studies Center
Judiciary of Brazil
Judiciary of Macau
References
Court system
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province%20of%20Westphalia
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Province of Westphalia
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The Province of Westphalia () was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Free State of Prussia from 1815 to 1946. In turn, Prussia was the largest component state of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918, of the Weimar Republic and from 1918 to 1933, and of Nazi Germany from 1933 until 1945.
The province was formed and awarded to Prussia at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. It combined some territories that had previously belonged to Prussia with a range of other territories that had previously been independent principalities. The population included a large population of Catholics, a significant development for Prussia, which had hitherto been almost entirely Protestant. The politics of the province in the early nineteenth century saw local expectations of Prussian reforms, increased self-government, and a constitution largely stymied. The Revolutions of 1848 led to an effervescence of political activity in the province, but the failure of the revolution was accepted with little resistance.
Before the nineteenth century, the region's economy had been largely agricultural and many rural poor travelled abroad to find work. However, from the late eighteenth century, the coal mining and metalworking industries of the Ruhr in the south of the province expanded rapidly, becoming the centre of the Industrial Revolution in Germany. This resulted in rapid population growth and the establishment of several new cities which formed the basis of the modern Ruhr urban area. It also led to the development of a strong labour movement, which led several large strikes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.
After World War II, the province was combined with the northern portion of Rhine Province and the Free State of Lippe to form the modern German state of North Rhine-Westphalia.
Early history
Foundation and structure
Napoleon Bonaparte founded the Kingdom of Westphalia as a client state of the First French Empire in 1807. Although named for the historical region of Westphalia, it contained mostly Hessian, Angrian and Eastphalian territories and only a relatively small part of the region of Westphalia. After the reconquest of the region by the Sixth Coalition in 1813, it was put under the administration of the .
It was not until the Congress of Vienna in 1815 that the Province of Westphalia came into being. Although Prussia had long owned territory in Westphalia, King Frederick William III made no secret of the fact that he would have preferred to annex the entirety of the Kingdom of Saxony.
The province was formed from several territories:
regions in Westphalia under Prussian rule since before 1800 (the Principality of Minden and the counties of Mark, Ravensberg and Tecklenburg)
the Prince-Bishoprics Münster and Paderborn, acquired by Prussia in 1802–03; the northernmost parts of the geographically enormous Bishopric of Münster, however, became part of the Kingdom of Hanover or the Grand Duchy of Oldenburg
the small County of Limburg, acquired in 1808
the portions of the Principality of Salm which had been annexed by France in 1810 and the southern part of the Duchy of Arenberg were acquired by Prussia in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna,
the Duchy of Westphalia, placed under Prussian rule in 1816 following the Congress of Vienna
the Sayn-Wittgensteiner principalities of Hohenstein and Berleburg, along with the principality of Nassau-Siegen (in 1817)
In 1816, the district of Essen was transferred to the Rhine Province.
The new province had an area of . The establishment of Westphalia and the neighbouring Rhine Province marked a decisive economic and demographic shift to the west for Prussia. It also marked a significant expansion of the number of Catholics in Prussia, which had hitherto been nearly exclusively Protestant. At the beginning of Prussian rule, the province had around 1.1 million inhabitants, of which 56% were Catholic, 43% Protestant, and 1% Jewish.
With the foundation of the province, the new administrative structure created during the Prussian reforms was introduced. The administrative incorporation of the province into the Prussian state was chiefly accomplished by the first , Ludwig von Vincke. The province was divided administratively into three ("government districts"): Arnsberg, Minden, and Münster. The borders of the province were slightly altered in 1851 and during the Weimar Republic.
In general, the Prussian administration focussed on the alignment of political institutions and administration, but legally they were distinct. In most parts of Westphalia, the General State Laws for the Prussian States (PrALR) were the fundamental basis of the law. In the Duchy of Westphalia and the two Sayn-Wittgensteiner principalities, however, the old regional legal traditions were retained until the introduction of the (civil law code) on 1 January 1900.
Reaction to the establishment of the province
The establishment of the province provoked different reactions in the region. In areas that had already been under Prussian control, like Minden-Ravensberg and the County of Mark, the return to their old connection with Prussia was celebrated. In Siegerland, acceptance of Prussian rule was eased by the fact that Protestantism was the main religion. Catholic areas, like the former prince-bishoprics of Münster and Paderborn and the Duchy of Westphalia, were particularly sceptical of the new lords. The Catholic nobility, which had played a leading role in the old prince-bishoprics, were mostly hostile. Twenty years after the province's establishment, Jacob Venedey called the Rhenanians and Westphalians ("have-to-be-Prussians").
In practice, the incorporation of the region into the Prussian state faced a number of problems. Firstly, the administrative unification was opposed by the mediatised houses (). These nobles, who had ruled small principalities of their own before the Napoleonic Wars, retained special privileges of their own well into the nineteenth century. They maintained a certain amount of control or oversight over schools and churches. The second major problem for unification was the question of the redemption of manorial rights by the peasants within the context of peasant liberation. Although a law was passed in 1820 that allowed for redemption through monetary rents, there were also numerous individual regulations and regional peculiarities. Redemption remained controversial until 1848 and prompted significant conflicts in the provincial Landtags in the period before 1848, since these bodies were dominated by the landed nobility. The uncertainties surrounding land ownership were a cause of rural uprisings at the beginning of the Revolutions of 1848. In the longer term, the fear that the peasants would be expelled from their land by great estates was not fulfilled. Instead, the two western provinces of Prussia remained the areas with the lowest numbers of large estates.
One thing that initially contributed to the acceptance of Prussia was the policy of reform which aimed at the establishment of a "civic order". This involved the creation of a predictable system of administration and justice, rights of self-administration for communities, the emancipation of the Jews, and the liberation of the economy from guilds. The educated bourgeois class (the ), both Protestant and Catholic, recognised that the Prussian government was the prime motor of change. In the longer term, the combination of such different territories into a single province had consequences for identity and self-perception. Throughout the 19th century, there always remained a consciousness of the old territories' pasts, but alongside this a Westphalian self-perception also developed (fostered by the Prussian government). This often came into competition with the developing German national consciousness.
Constitutional debate and the Restoration Period
Bourgeois Westphalians like and Benedikt Waldeck were particularly hopeful for the promulgation of a constitution. In newspapers like the and , the desire for a constitution was clearly articulated from the beginning. Draft constitutions were issued by Sommer and of Dortmund. Other participants in the debate included and . This optimistic attitude shifted with the beginning of the Restoration Period, when the absence of a national constitution and the censorship of the press became clear. , who was later a member of the Reichstag, wrote as a schoolboy in 1820, that it was not for the "pathetic squabbles of princes" that people had fought in 1813, but so that "justice and law would have to be the foundation of public life as well as citizenship."
The establishment of provincial parliaments () in 1823 had little impact on the criticism, since they lacked central legislative powers. They had no right to raise taxes, were not involved in the drafting of laws, and had only advisory functions on important matters. The representatives were not allowed to discuss administrative matters and their minutes were subject to censorship.
The first met in the Münster City Hall in 1826. The high voter turnout shows that, despite all the restrictions, the bourgeoisie saw the Landtag as a forum for the expression of their views (the lower classes had no voting rights). The Baron vom Stein as first (presiding officer of the Landtag) did not restrict discussion to purely local matters, and under the surface the constitutional question played an important role in discussions in the Landtag in 1826 and in the next Landtag in 1828. This became even clearer during the Landtag of 1830/31, when and even the noble Baron of Fürstenberg openly called for the establishment of a constitution for Prussia. The question of what such a constitution should look like was fiercely debated. Most nobles, including Fürstenberg, sought a restoration of the old order, while the bourgeoisie pursued early liberal ideas. In this, Bracht was supported by industrialist Friedrich Harkort and publisher among others. Other members of the "opposition" included the mayor of Hagen, and the mayor of Telgte, . Even among the landed nobility, there were supporters of liberalism, such as Georg von Vincke.
The district ordinance () of 1827 also clearly diverged from the basic ideas of the Prussian reformers. It provided for the election of district councils which were basically drawn from the circle of the landed nobility and gave the people of the districts only a right to present their views for consideration; the appointment was reserved for the king. Equally untimely was the revised civic ordinance () of 1831, which heavily restricted the voting right for town councils and provided for organs of self-government which were really just offices of the central government. The municipality ordinance () was similar.
Lead-up to the 1848 Revolution
During the Vormärz, the period leading up to the German revolutions of 1848–1849, the importance of the constitutional question in Westphalia was not matched by interest in German unification, which was very low. The mayor of Rhede in Münsterland wrote in 1833, "The Hambach Festival and Burschenschaft colours have no meaning to the peace-loving inhabitants of this land." Public feeling in Sauerland and Minden-Ravensberg seemed similar. German nationalism only became a force in Westphalia in the 1840s. In many municipalities, singing clubs were formed, which nurtured national myths. Westphalian participation in the Cologne Cathedral construction festival and the gatherings in support of the Hermannsdenkmal was considerable. A lively mass of associations and clubs developed.
In addition to the disappointment about the failure of the promised reforms to materialise, the arrest of Archbishop of Cologne Clemens August Droste zu Vischering in 1837, during the "" led to a greater politicisation of Westphalian Catholicism. The liberal Catholic journalist, Johann Friedrich Joseph Sommer wrote "contemporary events, like those of the last ten years, have stirred up the docile Westphalian and have contributed no little degree to bring a kind of religious somnolence to an end." At the same time, Sommer saw the mass unrest in connection with the riots as a precursor of the revolutions of 1848. The "state must give way, for the first time, power quakes before the popular mood." In the 1830s and 1840s, the discussion circles of liberals, democrats, and even some socialists consolidated (e.g. the journal ).
In addition, the agrarian reforms which were negatively received by many rural groups, led to growing dissatisfaction. To this were added several bad harvests in the 1840s, which caused the price of food to rise notably, particularly in the cities. Traditional manufacturing also faced a stark structural crisis. A consequence of the difficult social situation was the high level of emigration. Between 1845 and 1854, around 30,000 people left the province, most heading overseas. Almost half of these people came from the crisis-ridden linen-producing areas in the eastern part of Westphalia.
Revolution of 1848-1849 in Westphalia
In Westphalia, there were very diverse reactions to the outbreak of revolution in 1848. The democratic left of the "Rhede Circle" celebrated the coming of a new era in the , "The people of Europe, freed from the oppressive nightmare, have almost caught their breath." The journal Hermann, published in Hamm supported the introduction of a new calendar era, on the model of the French revolutionary calendar. The left also looked to France for their political programme and called for "Wealth, Education, and Freedom for all." There were also countervailing opinions, like that of Bielfeld superintendent and later member of the Prussian National Assembly, , who spoke of a "disgraceful event", in which the "simple Philistine" expected "that a constitution would sweep all misery and inequality from the world." He feared instead the "collapse of all order" and general "disorder."
After news reached Westphalia of the February Revolution in Paris and the March Revolution in various parts of Germany, including Berlin and Vienna, rural uprisings broke out in parts of Westphalia, especially in the Sauerland, the , and Paderborn. Some of the buildings of the stewards of in Olsberg were attacked and the documents inside were burnt, as people sung songs of freedom. Manors were attacked elsewhere, also, for example in Dülmen. This rural revolt was quickly defeated by the military. In the areas of Westphalia where industrialisation was beginning to take hold, like the County of Mark, some factories were attacked. In the cities, there was talk of the appointment of a liberal government and the victory of the revolution was celebrated almost everywhere with parades and black-red-gold flags. However, there was also an anti-revolutionary movement, especially in the old Prussian parts of the province. In the County of Mark, this centred around the industrialist Friedrich Harkort, who promoted his views in his famous (Workers' Letters).
In the elections to the Prussian National Assembly and the Frankfurt Parliament, the political leanings of the candidates were not the decisive factor. Rather, their reputation among the people played a central role in their nomination. In Sauerland, therefore, the conservative Joseph von Radowitz, the liberal / ultramontanist Johann Friedrich Sommer, and the democrat were all elected. Leading Westphalians in the Prussian National Assembly included the democrats Benedikt Waldeck and . In constitutional discussions in Berlin, Waldeck and Sommer played notable roles on the left and right respectively. In Frankfurt, Westphalia's representatives included Georg von Vincke, , and the later bishop Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler.
In the province itself, political clubs and journals of every stripe were established. The spectrum ranged from Catholic and liberal pamphlets to Karl Marx's radical . The range of political opinions was as diverse as the media landscape. However, conservative groups generally included only protestant officers and officials of the central government. A notable exception was the conservative attitude of rural people in the pietistic Lutheran milieu of Minden-Ravensberg. The vast majority of politically active bourgeoisie joined constitutional or democratic clubs. The liberals founded an umbrella organisation of constitutional societies in the provinces of Rhineland and Westphalia at a congress in Dortmund in July 1848. In the district of Arnsberg alone, there were twenty-eight such societies by October. In the other two districts, the number of societies was clearly lower and in Münster the local association was split by internal conflicts. The democratic societies only managed to reach an agreement at a congress in September 1848. In Münster, the local democratic association had at least 350 members. The labour movement, in the form of the (General German Workers' Brotherhood) had very little representation in Westphalia, compared with the Rhineland. There was a strong labour association in Hamm, which played a leading role in the democratic camp and maintained contacts with the Arbeiterverbrüderung at the same time. In total, the number of democratic and republican associations remained substantially lower than the liberal ones. In the Catholic parts of Westphalia, the first organisations of political Catholicism also developed at this time. The Pius Associations were established in many places, but were focused on the association in the provincial capital.
In petitions, workers' groups and community representatives called on their delegates to speak on behalf of their demands in the national assemblies. In the following months, the political excitement declined markedly. In Catholic areas, the election of Archduke John of Austria as regent (Reichsverweser) of the new German Empire by the Frankfurt Parliament was met with great enthusiasm and patriotic celebrations were held in Winterberg and Münster, for example. However, the reaction to this election showed that the difference between Catholics and Protestants in Westphalia was as great as ever. In the old Prussian areas, the duty of establishing unity and freedom was seen as resting above all with Prussia, while in Catholic Westphalia, the establishment of the Frankfurt Parliament was seen as a step towards a united state under Catholic leadership. Thus, the conflict between supporters of the little or greater solutions to the German question intersected with religious affiliation.
Only the beginning of the counter-revolution notably increased political excitement. In many parts of Westphalia, the power of the democrats increased, while the discontent of the people with hesitant liberals like Johan Sommer was palpable. In the face of the threat to the revolution's accomplishments, the democrats and constitutional rebels resolved to cooperate, culminating in the "Congress for the matter and rights of the Prussian National Assembly and of the Prussian People" in Münster in 1848. After the Prussian National Assembly was dissolved on 5 December 1848, democratic candidates like managed to win election to the lower chamber of the Landtag of Prussia. The end of the revolution in Westphalia came with the comprehensive defeat of the in June 1849. A few Westphalian revolutionaries, like Temme and Waldeck, were later subject to political prosecutions. By summer 1849, Westphalian democrats had already begun departing for America.
Economy and society
Pre-industrial period
At the beginning of the 19th century, Westphalia was already a very economically and socially diverse region. Agriculture was dominant and in many places it was still practiced in very traditional and ineffective ways. In most areas, small and medium farms were most common. Only in the Münsterland and Paderborn regions were larger establishments widespread. These areas, as well as the Soest Börde, were especially suitable for agriculture. On the other hand, agriculture in Minden-Ravensberg and the southern Bergisches Land was fairly unproductive. Even in the pre-industrial period, some agricultural products were exported. Westphalian ham was a known export commodity, for example. Industrialisation encouraged the integration of agricultural activity with the new centres of industrial production. The increased demand led to an expansion of pig farming. Cereals produced in the province were an important raw material for the brewing industry that developed first in the Ruhr and later elsewhere. In Dortmund alone, there were more than eighty individual breweries. The huge market for agricultural goods in the nearby industrial areas meant that in the fertile parts of the province, agriculture was the dominant industry well into the twentieth century and that it remained a profitable economic sector everywhere.
In many places, yields at the beginning of the nineteenth century were insufficient to support the growing population. The number of poor and landless peasants grew. Many of them sought opportunities to work outside their home regions. Travelling merchants like the and the became a symbol of the region. In the northern part of the province, the travelled to work in the Netherlands. from east Westphalia and the neighbouring principality of Lippe also migrated to work. The , in which men would make linen at home in winter and then travel to the Netherlands to sell it the following summer, developed from the Hollandgänger.
Within Westphalia, the low cost of labour enabled the expansion of pre-industrial manufacturing, which made products for export. In the "Northwest German linen belt," which stretched from western Münsterland, through Tecklenburg, Osnabrück, and Minden-Ravensberg, to modern Lower Saxony, household production developed into proto-industrial levels. Especially in Minden-Ravensberg, pre-industrial linen production played an important role. The fabric was bought up and sold on by (transporters).
In southern Westphalia, there was a major iron extraction and processing region in Siegerland, parts of the Duchy of Westphalia, and the Sauerland, which extended over the provincial borders to the Bergisches Land and Altenkirchen. The iron ore extracted in and was smelted at places like Wendener Hütte and made into finished products in the western part of the region (e.g. wire drawing in Altena, Iserlohn, and Lüdenscheid, or at Iserlohn). These businesses were partially cooperative and organised into a network by Reidemeisters. In the southern part of the Ruhr, coal was exported for neighbouring regions from early times. in Sprockhövel was active from the beginning of the 17th century, for example.
Industrialisation
At the start of the nineteenth century, parts of the province were the first areas to see the Industrial Revolution in Germany and in the it was among the economic hubs of the German Empire.
The end of Napoleon's Continental System opened the region up to English industrial products. Household-based textile production in particular was not able to compete with this in the long term and eventually disappeared from the market. Conversion to industrial forms of production in and around Bielefeld enabled a transition to the new circumstances. The , founded in 1854 by , was the largest flax mill in Europe. In 1862, the "Bielfeld Action Society for Mechanical Weaving" () was established. The success of textile enterprises was subsequently a basis for the establishment of iron and metalworking industries in the region. However, the new mechanised industry could not employ the available workforce like the old cottage industry. In the linen-producing areas of Westphalia, poverty and overseas emigration from rural areas rose sharply in the 1830s and 1840s.
In the ironworking and metalworking areas in southwestern Westphalia, industrial competition from overseas initially had only negative consequences. Some pre-industrial enterprises, like sheet metal production in and around Olpe, disappeared. More devastating for the old village smithies and cottage metalworking enterprises was the establishment of a modern metalworking industry in Westphalia itself, based on coal from the Ruhr. Decisive for the development of the was the invention of longwall mining, which allowed the removal of the ore without stripping off the surface layer. This was employed for the first time in 1837 in the Ruhr region near Essen. In Westphalia, the first shaft mine was in Bochum, opened in 1841.
In 1818, Friedrich Harkort and established , a mechanised ironworks, in Wetter and in 1826 in the same place they established the first puddling furnace in Westphalia. Later, the works were relocated to Dortmund where they developed into Rothe Erde. Further ironworks were established in Hüsten (), Warstein, Lünen (Westfalia Hütte), Hörde (), Haspe (), Bochum (), and other places. These new coal-powered ironworks were far more productive than their charcoal-based pre-industrial equivalents.
A precondition for industrial development was the expansion of transport infrastructure. From the end of the 18th century, rural highways () began to be constructed, rivers in the lower part of the Ruhr were made navigable for ship traffic, and canals were built. Most of all, railways were the motor of industrial development. In 1847, the Cologne-Minden Railway Company completed a west-east branch line from the Rhine to the Weser. The Bergisch-Markisch Railway Company's Elberfeld–Dortmund railway followed in 1849 and the Royal Westphalian Railway Company was established in the same year.
Regions like Sauerland, which were only connected to the railway network in the 1860s or 1870s, remained economically marginal even in this age of economic growth. Some parts of these regions experienced a marked process of deindustrialisation. Instead, in many places, forestry took over, from that point on practiced in a sustainable manner. Only a few places, like Schmallenberg with its concentration on , saw new industrial developments. The expansion of also slowed.
As the nineteenth century progressed, the coal mining industry in the Ruhr grew ever stronger. In the 1850s, Hermannshütte, Rothe Erde, , , and in Hattingen were established. As a result, some of the pre-industrial areas in Westphalia became marginal and were only able to succeed by concentrating on particular products (e.g. lead production in ). Even more new pit mines and mining companies were established in the Ruhr region in the following years, such as the . Moreover, older factories grew into massive enterprises with several thousand employees. By the middle of the nineteenth century at the latest, the Westphalian portion of the Ruhr was clearly the economic centre of the province.
Population growth and social change
The developing industry initially pulled numerous jobseekers mostly from the agriculturally and economically stagnant parts of the province. From around the 1870s, the supply of workers within Westphalia was exhausted and companies increasingly drew workers in from the eastern provinces of Prussia and beyond. The large number of Polish-speaking workers established their own societies, labour unions and pastoral care organisations, which operated in their own language. A particular population profile developed in the mining districts, which differed from the rest of Westphalia in some respects, such as dialect (Ruhrdeutsch). In 1871, the province of Westphalia had 1.78 million inhabitants, around 14% more than in 1858. By 1882, the population had grown more than 20% and the growth from then to 1895 was similarly high. In the ten years between 1895 and 1905, the population grew by more than 30%, surpassing 3.6 million. The highest growth took place in Arnsberg district, the centre of Westphalian industry. Between 1818 and 1905, the population of Münster and Minden districts grew by slightly more than 100%, but that of Arnsberg grew by over 400%.
In all the industrialised areas of Westphalia, but especially in the Ruhr, the social consequences of industrialisation were substantial. In these areas, the working class became the largest social group by some margin. Immigration meant that the population growth over time was erratic. The supply of housing was insufficient and, in the Ruhr, lodgers and (people who rented a room for only a couple of hours a day) were common. Corporations sought to plug this gap to some extent with company housing or workers' settlements. The ulterior motive for this was the creation of a workforce that was loyal to the corporation and would not engage with the labour movement.
The population growth led to the development of a number of towns and villages into large cities. While some cities, like Dortmund and Bochum, had a long civic heritage to look back on, places like Gelsenkirchen and Recklinghausen grew from small villages to major centres in a matter of decades. Other settlements that became major industrial cities included Witten, Hamm, Iserlohn, Lüdenscheid, and Hagen (now on the edge of the mining area), as well as Bielefeld.
Urban life
A characteristic of the rapidly growing industrial cities was the general absence of the bourgeoisie. The middle class was notably weak. The cities concentrated at first on the most essential infrastructure, like supply routes, rubbish collection, public transport, schools, etc. Improved hygiene conditions brought the death rate down markedly, especially among children. Epidemics like cholera ceased to play a significant role. On the other hand, the limits of these positive developments are clear from the continued prevalence of tuberculosis, work-related illnesses like silicosis, and the general strain on the environment from mining and industry.
The new industrial cities only acquired cultural infrastructure, like museums and theatres later on. These were concentrated in the old cities, which had a civic tradition, and did not appear in the newly formed industrial centres until well into the twentieth century. There was little provision for higher education. Although the universities of Münster and Paderborn were established in the 18th century, these were reduced to "rump universities" with only a limited offering of courses at the beginning of Prussian rule. Münster was only promoted to full university status in 1902. The establishment of higher education in the Ruhr area only really began during the expansion of higher education in the 1960s.
Social disruption and unionisation
The rapid expansion of mining and industry in the Ruhr region in the context of the Industrial Revolution led to a drastic transformation of the province's society and economy and massive population growth. With the introduction of the General Mining Act in 1865, the privileges of the "Bergknappen" ("ordinary miners") came to an end, and thereafter miners did not differ from other workers in their employment rights. Initially, they reacted to falling wages, extended hours and other issues as normal, with – generally unsuccessful – petitions to government administration. Increasingly, they began to adopt the forms of action used by other groups of workers. The first took place in 1872. It was local, limited, and unsuccessful.
In 1889, the pent-up anger of the previous decades was unleashed in , in which roughly 90% of the 104,000 miners then working in the region participated. The strike began in Bochum on 24 April and Essen on 1 May. They were joined spontaneously by numerous other workers. A central strike committee was formed. The workers sought higher wages, the introduction of an eight-hour day, and various other changes. That the miners' old loyalty to authority had not been forgotten is shown by the fact that the strike committee sent a deputation to Kaiser Wilhelm II. Although he criticised the strike, he agreed to launch an official investigation of the strikes. Since the indicated a willingness to make concessions, the strike gradually petered out.
The strike in the Westphalian and Rheinish coal mining areas provided a model for miners in Sauerland, the , and even in Silesia in the same year. Moreover, the strike had clearly shown that organisation was necessary to advocate for workers' interests. On 18 August 1889, what which would later be known as the "Alte Verband" ("Old Union") was established in Dotmund-Dorstfeld. The Christian Miners' Union was founded in 1894 and a Polish Union in 1902. The began attempts at organisation in the 1880s, but remained insignificant. With respect to unionisation, the miners also provided a model for other groups of workers.
In 1905, broke out in the Bochum region, which grew into a general strike of all mining unions. In total, around 78% of miners in the region participated in the strike. Although it eventually had to break up, it had indirect success, since the Prussian government met many of the workers' demands through revisions to the General Mining Act. In 1912, the Alte Verband, Polish Union and the Hirsch-Dunckersche Union joined together in a , although the Christian Miners' Union refused to lend its support. As a result, strike participation reached only about 60%. The strike was prosecuted with great bitterness and violent riots led the police and military to intervene in the end. The strike eventually broke up without success.
Alongside the miners, Westphalian workers in other areas also participated in the labour movement. In the metal industry, these actions were focused on small and medium-sized enterprises and the labour movement was not able to establish a toehold in the larger companies for various reasons. In particular, employers in the iron and steel industry defended their "Lord-of-the-Manor position" by firing workers as necessary. This was enabled by the starkly differentiated internal structure of these companies, which militated against the establishment of a sense of common purpose like that of the miners.
Political culture
The political culture of Westphalia, reflected above all in the long-term shifts in electoral results, was closely linked to the religious and social structure of the province, but also to the political debates of the first half of the nineteenth century. In particular, religion played a central role in Westphalia. As in the rest of Germany this led to the formation of Catholic and social democratic milieus, which heavily shaped the lives of their members "from the cradle to the grave." This tendency was less marked among the liberals and conservatives. On 1 August 1886, the districts and cities of Westphalia formed a ("provincial union"), a body whose members henceforth met as the Westphalian provincial Landtag. Henceforth, the Landtag consisted of the representatives of the districts and cities, elected by means of the Prussian three-class franchise. The Landtag elected a head of government for the province, known as the Landeshauptman or "Headman of the State" (Landesdirektor before 1889).
Centre Party
Especially following the Kulturkampf, the Centre Party (Zentrum), based on the traditional patterns from the early nineteenth century and the Revolution of 1848, largely monopolised politics in the Catholic parts of the province. The party was focussed on religious confession and was supported regardless of social class by Catholic workers, farmers, bourgeoisie, and nobility. Westphalia was the party's heartland. The party grew out of a meeting of politicians in Soest in the 1860s, to discuss the foundation of a Catholic political party. The 1870 Soest Programme was one of the founding documents of the party. Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler and Hermann von Mallinckrodt were among the leading politicians in the establishment of the party who came from the province of Westphalia.
From the 1890s, social differences led to a clear regional differentiation within the party. In the predominantly rural areas, the Centre Party was usually rather conservative and the ("Westphalian Farmer's Association") had an influential role. The Association primarily represented small- and medium-scale farmers; the landed nobility remained influential well into the Weimar Republic and could take care of themselves politically. In the Münster-Coesfeld electorate, someone like Georg von Hertling (later Minister-President of Bavaria and Imperial Chancellor) stood as a candidate from 1903 to 1912. Similarly, the later Chancellor Franz von Papen, who belonged to the far right wing of the party, came from rural Werl and had his political base in Münsterland.
On the other hand, in the industrialised parts of the province, social Catholicism was very strong. This current was particularly strong in the Ruhr and in Sauerland. The Christian unions there were mostly stronger than their social-democratic competitors. Westphalian Catholics like August Pieper and , who were both leaders of the People's Association for Catholic Germany, were prominent individuals who were engaged in social politics.
Alongside increasing secularisation, the social focus of political Catholicism was a reason why the Centre Party lost support in middle-class areas during the Weimar Republic. In Sauerland, the party's support in 1933 had fallen to around 20% of what it had been in 1919. Nevertheless, in Catholic areas it generally remained the leading political force and remained the leading party in both of the province's electorates in the 1930 German federal election.
Social democrats and communists
The Centre Party's dominance in Westphalia meant that liberal, conservative, and social democratic movements were restricted to Protestant Westphalia. Thus, leading early social democrats, like Carl Wilhelm Tölcke and Wilhelm Hasenclever, came from Catholic Sauerland, but began their careers in the neighbouring Protestant areas.
The County of Mark and the area around Bielfeld were early hotbeds of social democracy. In Mark, Ferdinand Lassalle's General German Workers' Association (ADAV) and its successors were strong from its foundation in 1863. Above all, Tölcke was responsible for the establishment of local branches of the party in Iserlohn, Hagen, Gelsenkirchen, Bochum, Minden and Oeynhausen by 1875. The ADAV merged with the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany (SDAP) in 1875 to form the Social Democratic Workers' Party (SAP), which was later redubbed the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SDP). After this, Tölcke ran as the party's main candidate in Westphalia. In Bielefeld, personalities like Carl Severing had a substantial impact on political life from the Empire until the early years of the Federal Republic of Germany.
Before 1933, the Westphalian portion of the Ruhr was in no way a "heartland" of the SPD. Although the social democratic "Old Union" was the first workers' union, it was weaker than the Christian unions by the turn of the century, and was subsequently also challenged by a significant Polish workers' association. Only in Protestant parts of the coalfields, like Dortmund, was the SPD able to achieve significant power in the period before World War I. The mining workers' leaders, and Fritz Husemann were among the leading social democrats in the Ruhr.
In the Ruhr, the SPD was even more directly affected by the crises of the Weimar Republic than the Centre Party. Disenchantment with the party's approach to the Ruhr uprising in 1920, the hyperinflation between 1921 and 1923, and the Great Depression in the 1930s led many workers to move to the far left, initially to syndicalism and later to communism. The Communist Party of Germany (KPD) was already a mass party before the Great Depression, while the SPD fell into the background.
Liberals and conservatives
In growing cities like Dortmund and Bielefeld, which had a considerable bourgeoisie and a comparatively strong middle class, the SPD was unable to dominate the political landscape. This was due to the Prussian three-class franchise, which gave the rich disproportionate voting power in Prussian elections, and these classes' support for the liberal and conservative movements.
These movements also attracted members of the working class. In Siegerland, the Protestant working class long remained conservatives or adherents of Adolf Stoecker's Christian Social Party, which combined a strong Christian-right programme with progressive ideas on labour and tried to provide an alternative for disillusioned Social Democrat voters. Stoecker was elected to the Reichstag in the Siegen-Wittgenstein-Biedenkopf electorate in the 1881 German federal election. The socialist parties did not manage to gain a foothold in Siegerland until the time of the Weimar Republic.
Minden-Ravensberg remained a stronghold of the German Conservative Party until the 1912 German federal election, when the Minden-Lübbecke electorate went over to the liberal left Progressive People's Party
The south of the old County of Mark, especially the Hagen-Schwelm electorate, was a stronghold of liberalism, particularly the liberal left-wing German Free-minded Party of Eugen Richter, who held Hagen-Schwelm until 1906.
Most liberal and conservative voters went over to the Nazi Party during the Great Depression.
First World War and Weimar Republic
World War and Revolution
At the beginning of the First World War, the same nationalist enthusiasm prevailed in Westphalia as in the rest of Germany. In contrast to the widespread skepticism about the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, the enthusiasm also extended to the Catholic parts of the province and to the working class. The local newspaper in Arnsberg recorded, on the occasion of the Austro-Hungarian mobilisation, "Suddenly, someone began the song Deutschland, Deutschland über alles and the crowd immediately joined in with gusto... As more troops marched through the streets, their sympathy for the allied Danube monarchy and their martial enthusiasm is expressed through their singing of patriotic songs. Loud rallies of the locals expressed their enthusiasm. Only late at night did it finally fall quiet." Similar accounts are recorded from other parts of the province. However, this enthusiasm was not universal. In rural areas and small towns, concern about the war and the future were widespread.
The daily experience of the war, especially the short phase of significant unemployment immediately after the outbreak of the war, the rising prices, and the food shortages in industrial cities in the second half of the war dampened the initial enthusiasms. Gradually, the existing political system of the province began to lose legitimacy. Within the social democratic workers' unions and the SPD, criticism of the Burgfriedenspolitik (policy of party truce) led to the formation of the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) in 1917. Although the SPD's membership numbers decreased significantly in Westphalia, only a few local party organisations (like those in Hagen and Schwelm) crossed over to the new party. The Centre Party, which dominated Westphalia, supported the monarchy with all their strength until the end, but among their voters war weariness increased ever more.
From the beginning of 1918, social unrest increased markedly and there were numerous strikes throughout the province. However, the November Revolution was sparked by external forces. On 8 November 1918, mutinying sailors from the High Seas Fleet reached Westphalia by train. They were joined in Bielefeld, Münster, and soon throughout the province, by the troops garrisoned there. Everywhere, Workers' and Soldiers' Councils were established, which generally supported the revolutionary government of Friedrich Ebert and supported the establishment of a parliamentary democracy. In Westphalia, their members were mostly supporters of the social democratic parties, although in the Catholic parts of the province, some Christian unions also participated. The broad support for the revolution soon waned however, in the context of the elections for the Weimar National Assembly, as Catholics opposed the "new Kulturkapf" of Minister Adolph Hoffmann (USPD). At the same time, there was even some support for the establishment of an independent "Rhinish-Westphalian Republic."
Weimar Republic
In January 1919, parts of the Westphalian Workers' and Soldiers' Councils were beginning to radicalise. There was a campaign for nationalisation of the mining industry and a widespread strike movement in the Rhinish and Westphalian parts of the Ruhr. On the political right, the Freikorps began to form in the province on the lines of the in Münster. When these began to move against the strikers, the strike had reached its peak with 400,000 participants across the coalfields. Externally, calm was restored by Carl Severing, the leading social democrat in Bielefeld and a Prussian , although he did not actually defuse the tension.
In response to the Kapp Putsch in March 1920, strikes and general rioting broke out in the cities of the Ruhr, including Bochum, Wetter, Witten, Herne, Haltern, and Hagen. This was the Ruhr uprising. Workers were successful against the Freikorps everywhere. The workers were generally supporters of the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), and the anarcho-syndicalist Free Workers' Union of Germany (FAUD). After the failure of the Putsch, the workers did not disarm. Instead, many joined a "Red Ruhr Army", numbering up to 100,000 men, which controlled most of the Ruhr and extended their control into Münsterland. Although Severing managed to negotiate a ceasefire, Army troops and Freikorps from the whole of Germany were gathered to put the workers down by force. Following high losses, especially on the workers' side, the uprising collapsed on 8 April 1920. As part of the democratisation of Prussia, voting for the Westphalian Landtag was changed to equal suffrage in 1921.
Normality was shortlived in the Ruhr, since the Occupation of the Ruhr by French and Belgian troops began on 11 January 1923. This led to a call for a campaign of passive resistance by the Weimar Government, but this was eventually broken. The costs of this were a contributing factor to the start of hyperinflation. During the period of hyperinflation, Westphalia printed some Notgeld ("emergency money") with portraits of Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, the Baron vom Stein, and the heraldic Saxon Steed, with face values of up to a . In practice, only the 1921 coins were actually used as Notgeld. The other issues had a "medallion character".
After the introduction of the Rentenmark in 1923, the political and economic situation in the province stabilised for several years. However, in 1928, the Ruhr iron dispute and the lockout of 200,000 workers showed how fragile peace was.
Reichsreform and district reform
During the Weimar Republic, discussion on a national reform of the provinces (Reichsreform) placed the existence of the province in question. In response, the provincial administration attempted to use folklore and history to legitimise the idea of a historical "Westphalian region". This led to the publication of a work called Raums Westfalen in several volumes, starting in 1931, which dealt with the question of whether there was a "Westphalian region" in northwest Germany, which was distinct from the rest of the region. The conclusion was not entirely clear. Some people were confident that Lippe, Osnabrück, parts of Oldenburg, and other areas outside the province belonged to the historical "Westphalian region."
During the Republic, the process of community formation and the establishment of large cities, which had begun in 1875 with Münster, continued and expanded, reaching its peak in 1929 with the . A whole series of districts (e.g. Dortmund, Hörde, and Bochum) were abolished and their territory transferred to the neighbouring cities. New territorial arrangements were created for Ennepe-Ruhr-Kreis and the city of Oberhausen. In 1920, the was founded as a communal organisation for all the Ruhr cities.
Nazi period
As in the rest of Germany, the Nazi party was a totally insignificant splinter party in Westphalia in the 1928 election. In Arnsberg it got only 1.6% of the vote. Over the course of the Great Depression, the party's following greatly increased and, in the 1930 election, their vote in Arnsberg rose to 14%. There were significant differences in their support among different religious groups and social classes. In the March 1933 elections, the Nazi party averaged 44% of the vote across Germany, but only 28.7% in the largely Catholic Münster district, 33.8% in mixed-religion Arnsberg, and 40.7% in mostly Protestant Minden.
The general process of Gleichschaltung or "Nazification" in Westphalia after 1933 did not differ significantly from the rest of Germany. The new government divided the province into two "Gaue" (regional party branches), which were the primary means by which it controlled the region. Although the province continued to exist, the Gau system largely superseded it in practice.
Gleichschaltung (Nazification)
Immediately after the Nazi seizure of power, politicians and civil servants who were associated with the Centre Party or the SPD were fired. These included the head of Arnsberg district . Some members of the provincial Landtag and mayors, like in Münster, in Herne, and in Hagen, were removed because they refused to fly the Nazi flag from the roofs of their town halls. The Landeshauptmann (Centre Party) was fired and replaced with the Nazi and the Oberpräsident (Centre Party) was also replaced, with Ferdinand von Lüninck, an unusual appointment, since he had been a Catholic member of the German National People's Party, rather than a Nazi. He joined the Nazi party after his appointment and his non-Nazi background helped to ensure the acceptance of the new regime in Westphalia. He was replaced by Alfred Meyer in 1938.
Numerous party supporters and functionaries (especially from the workers' parties) were arrested and spent time in concentration camps. People in many regions of Westphalia participated in the boycott of Jewish businesses on 1 April. After 1 May 1933, the headquarters of the free labour unions were seized. In Neheim, the local union chief subsequently killed himself. On 10 May 1933, there were book burnings in cities of the provinces, including Münster.
Reconciliation and resistance
The majority of the population generally reconciled themselves to the demands of the regime – many of them enthusiastically. The strongest Christian unions in the province hoped to escape from their status as banned free organisations by issuing statements of subservience to the Nazi party and joining the German Labour Front.
The active opponents of Nazism in Westphalia were a small minority. A strong motivation for this was religious membership. Around a thousand Catholic priests were at least temporarily arrested or prosecuted. Some were sent to concentration camps, where at least fifteen died. The dismissal of Oberpräsident Ferdinand Lüninck in 1938 and his later execution in connection with the 20 July plot were religiously motivated. This is also documented by the statement of the jurist Josef Wirmer, who was born in Paderborn and grew up in Warburg, who replied to judge Roland Freisler during the trial before the People's Court, "I am... deeply religious and it is because of my religious beliefs that I entered this conspiratorial clique." The sermons by Münster's bishop Clemens August Graf von Galen in opposition to the Nazi euthanasia campaign were known throughout Germany. Protestant priests were also arrested and sent to concentration camps for similar reasons. In general in the Prussian church province of Westphalia, Protestant churches were enmeshed in the Kirchenkampf between the pro-Nazi "German Christians" and the Confessing Church. Initially, German Christians who were closely associated with the regime won most priestly and synodal elections, but in 1934 a noted member of the Confessing Church, , was elected as the head of the church province.
The resistance of members of the socialist and communist workers' movements was clearly politically motivated. Dortmund was the centre of a communist resistance which continued to renew itself continuously despite arrests. At the beginning of 1945, the Gestapo arrested twenty-eight communists, who were executed in Dortmund's Bittermark forest, along with other detainees and prisoners of war in March and April. Supporters of the SPD were generally less assertive, focussing on maintaining old contacts and exchanging information. Their fragmented organisation meant that the group revolving around Fritz Henßler generally went undetected by the secret police until around 1937.
In Dortmund and other large Westphalian cities there were also groups of Edelweiss pirates, an informal youth movement which passively and actively resisted the Hitler Youth.
Persecution of Jews and euthanasia
On Kristallnacht, during and after 9 November 1938, synagogues were burnt and in some places, such as Lünen, Jewish citizens were murdered. Events in Medebach are well documented. As in the rest of Germany, the Jewish community in Westphalia was almost completely destroyed. In Dortmund in 1933 there were around 4,000 Jews, of whom 44 had fallen victim to the various persecutory measures by 1939. Over a thousand died between 1940 and 1945 in concentration camps and another 200 died from exhaustion in the months following the end of the war. Another portion of the Jewish population successfully made it out of the country before 1941. In the whole of Westphalia, the Jewish population sank from around 18,000 in 1933 to a little over 7,000 in 1939. By the beginning of systematic deportation in 1941, the number had fallen to 5,800. Oberpräsident Alfred Meyer participated in the Wannsee Conference in his role as state secretary in the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories. The deportations began in Westphalia on 10 December 1941, with transport from Münsterland. Bielefeld and Arnsberg followed a few days later. By the end of March 1943, there were only around 800 Jews in Westphalia. Most of these were probably protected persons in the context of miscegenation laws and the Geltungsjuden. After the war only a few of them returned to the region. These included Hans Frankenthal of Schmallenberg, who later wrote about his experiences, and the family of Paul Spiegel (later leader of the Central Council of Jews in Germany).
In hospitals and nursing homes under direct provincial control, the number of dead in the euthanasia programmes was high. Most adult patients were killed outside the province, at the Brandenburg Euthanasia Centre. Mentally disabled children were killed at Nidermarsberg in the Sauerland, in the . In total, around 3,000 Westphalian patients were involved, of which around 1,350 have been proven to have been killed at the Hadamar Euthanasia Centre. Including later victims, the total number of Westphalian patients killed is likely to be around three thousand. However, with a few exceptions, the Bethel Foundation managed to prevent the murder of its patients through to 1945.
World War II
Aside from the transition to a war economy and the introduction of ration stamps, the employment of prisoners of war and forced labourers in agriculture, factories, and mines was the first major change that the war brought to the province. The largest prisoner of war camps were Stalag VI-K (326 Senne) in Stukenbrock and Stalag VI-A at Hemer, but there were several others in the province. According to some estimates, over 65,000 soldiers, mostly Soviet, died at Stukenbrock alone. There are similar estimates for Hemer, although the officially recorded number of deaths there is lower.
The war touched the civilian population of Westphalia directly for the first time with the bombing of the Ruhr. Münster experienced its first bombing raid in 1940 and the city became the target of severe night-time bombing even before the beginning of widespread bombing in 1941. In total, over a thousand people died in the city as a result of aerial attacks. In Bochum, over four thousand died and only 35% of buildings there survived from 1939 to 1945 unscathed. It was very similar in other cities, not just in the Ruhr and the large cities, but also in marginal areas. The cities of Soest and Meschede, for example, were mostly destroyed, and even small rural settlements like Fredeburg suffered massive damage from allied bombardment. On the night of 16–17 May 1943, RAF Lancaster Bombers ("The Dambusters") during Operation Chastise breached the dam of the Möhne Reservoir, causing a flood which killed at least 1,579 people. Neheim was particularly hard-hit with over 800 victims, among them at least 526 victims in a camp for Russian women held for forced labour.
Towards the end of March 1945, the ground war also reached the territory between the Rhine and the Weser. There was frequent heavy fighting between German and allied troops. In the forested area around Winterberg, Medebach, and Schmallenberg there were infantry battles with heavy casualties over Easter 1945. The opposition proved futile and on 1 April, American troops coming from the south met up with British and Canadian troops coming from the north, encircling the German forces within the Ruhr pocket. German resistance, initially rather determined, dwindled rapidly. During this period, the Nazis carried out various atrocities (known as the Endphaseverbrechen, "end-phase crimes"), such as the Arnsberg Forest massacre at Warstein and Eversberg. The surrender of the last units of the German army on 18 April 1945 marked the end of the Second World War in Westphalia.
End of the province
After the Second World War, the Province of Westphalia was part of the British Occupation Zone. The border with Hesse was also the border between the British and American Occupation Zones, while the Westphalian districts of and Olpe bordered the French Occupation Zone. The headquarters of the British occupation authority, the "Control Commission for Germany – British Element," were at Bad Oeynhausen until after the Potsdam Conference in August 1945. In July 1945, they appointed Rudolf Amelunxen as the new Oberpräsident of the province. New heads of government were also appointed for Arnsberg (), Minden und Münster. At the beginning of 1946, a new political assembly, the Provinzialrat ("Provincial Council") was established, to advise the military government and the Oberpräsident. Its members were drawn according to a fixed pattern from a set of parties that had been newly founded or refounded since the end of the war. The SPD had 35 members, the CDU 30, the KPD 20, the Centre 10, and the FDP 5.
The British abolished the Prussian provinces in their zone on 23 August 1946 in accordance with a decision made by the British cabinet in June 1946. Westphalia was merged with the northern portion of the former Rhine province to form North Rhine-Westphalia. In 1947, the Free State of Lippe was merged into North Rhine-Westphalia, becoming part of Detmold district. Even before the official Abolition of Prussia on 25 February 1947, the province had disappeared from the political stage. After the founding of the Federal Republic of Germany and the passage of the Basic Law on 23 May 1949, North-Rhine Westphalia became one of the states of the new federation.
List of Oberpräsidents
The Prussian central government appointed an (Supreme President) as their representative in each province, supervising the implementation of central prerogatives. Between 1920 and 1933 their appointment needed the consent of the (provincial diet), in those years directly elected by the Westphalians.
List of Landeshauptmänner
The provincial diet, until 1886 represented by the Westphalian estates of the realm, elected their president titled (Provincial Captain). In order to strengthen self-rule in the provinces, the Westphalian provincial diet was reorganised as a legislature composed of representatives elected from the assemblies of the rural counties and independent cities in 1886. These districts and cities then formed a public-law corporation called the provincial federation (). The elected speaker of the provincial diet, who was initially titled (Provincial Director), but renamed in 1889, was also head of the provincial government, the (Provincial committee). Between 1920 and 1933 the provincial diet was directly elected by the Westphalian electorate. From 1933, in the course of the abolition of parliamentarism in Nazi Germany, the Landeshauptmann was appointed by the central Prussian government, presided over by Hermann Göring, and became subject to the authority of the . Kolbow was elected in 1933 (by a provincial diet dominated by Nazi representatives), but his successors were appointed and the diet was officially dissolved in 1934. The task of the Westphalian provincial federation is carried on by the , which was established in 1953 and also includes the territory of the former Free State of Lippe, which was disestablished in 1947.
References
Bibliography
Hans-Joachim Behr: Rheinland, Westfalen und Preußen in ihrem gegenseitigen Verhältnis 1815–1945. In: Westfälische Zeitschrift 133/1983, pp. 37ff.
Ralf Blank: Kriegsendphase und „Heimatfront“ in Westfalen. In: Westfälische Forschungen 55 (2005), pp. 361–421.
Detlef Briesen et al., Gesellschafts- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte Rheinlands und Westfalens. Köln 1995, ISBN 3-17-013320-9.
Gustav Engel: Politische Geschichte Westfalens. Köln 1968.
Jürgen Herres, Bärbel Holtz: Rheinland und Westfalen als preußische Provinzen (1814–1888). In: Georg Mölich, Veit Veltzke, Bernd Walter (ed.): Rheinland, Westfalen und Preußen – eine Beziehungsgeschichte. Aschendorff-Verlag, Münster 2011, ISBN 978-3-402-12793-3, pp. 113–208.
Harm Klueting: Geschichte Westfalens. Das Land zwischen Rhein und Weser vom 8. bis zum 20. Jahrhundert. Paderborn 1998, ISBN 3-89710-050-9.
Friedrich Keinemann: Westfalen im Zeitalter der Restauration und der Julirevolution 1815–1833. Quellen zur Entwicklung der Wirtschaft, zur materiellen Lage der Bevölkerung und zum Erscheinungsbild der Volksstimmung. Münster 1987.
Wilhelm Kohl: Kleine Westfälische Geschichte. Düsseldorf 1994, ISBN 3-491-34231-7.
Wilhelm Kohl (ed.): Westfälische Geschichte. Bd. 2: Das 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Politik und Kultur. Düsseldorf 1983, ISBN 3-590-34212-9.Hans-Joachim Behr: Die Provinz Westfalen und das Land Lippe 1813–1933. pp. 45–165, Alfred Hartlieb von Wallthor: Die landschaftliche Selbstverwaltung. pp. 165–210, Bernd Hey: Die nationalsozialistische Zeit. pp. 211–268, Karl Teppe: Zwischen Besatzungsregime und politischer Neuordnung. pp. 269–341.
Nordrhein-Westfalen. Landesgeschichte im Lexikon. Red. Anselm Faust et al., Düsseldorf 1993, ISBN 3-491-34230-9.
Armin Nolzen: Die westfälische NSDAP im „Dritten Reich“. In: Westfälische Forschungen 55 (2005), pp. 423–469.
Wilfried Reinighaus, Horst Conrad (ed.): Für Freiheit und Recht. Westfalen und Lippe in der Revolution 1848/49. Münster 1999, ISBN 3-402-05382-9Horst Conrad: Westfalen im Vormärz, pp. 5–13, Wilfried Reininghaus: Sozial- und wirtschaftsgeschichtliche Aspekte des Vormärz in Westfalen und Lippe, pp. 14–21, Ders., Axel Eilts: Fünfzehn Revolutionsmonate. Die Provinz Westfalen vom März 1848 bis Mai 1849, pp. 32–73.
Wilhelm Ribhegge: Preussen im Westen. Kampf um den Parlamentarismus in Rheinland und Westfalen. Münster, 2008 (Sonderausgabe für die Landeszentrale für politische Bildung NRW)
Karl Teppe, Michael Epkenhans: Westfalen und Preußen. Integration und Regionalismus. Paderborn 1991, ISBN 3-506-79575-9.Michael Epkenhans: Westfälisches Bürgertum, preußische Verfassungsfrage und Nationalstaatsgedanke 1830–1871.
Veit Veltzke: Rheinland und Westfalen: „Reichslande“ im wilhelminischen Kaiserreich (1888–1918). In: Georg Mölich, Veit Veltzke, Bernd Walter (ed.): Rheinland, Westfalen und Preußen – eine Beziehungsgeschichte. Aschendorff-Verlag, Münster 2011, pp. 209–287.
Alfred Hartlieb von Wallthor: Die Eingliederung Westfalens in den preußischen Staat. In: Peter Baumgart (ed.): Expansion und Integration. Zur Eingliederung neugewonnener Gebiete in den preußischen Staat. Köln 1984, pp. 227ff.
200 Jahre Westfalen-Jetzt! Katalog zur Ausstellung der Stadt Dortmund, des Landschaftsverbandes Westfalen-Lippe und des Westfälischen Heimatbundes. Münster 2015.
Kirchen-Ordnung für die evangelischen Gemeinden der Provinz Westphalen und der Rhein-Provinz. Bädeker, Koblenz 1835 ()
Provinces of Prussia
States and territories disestablished in 1946
Westphalia culture
1815 establishments in Prussia
1946 disestablishments in Germany
1940s disestablishments in Prussia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province%20of%20Pomerania%20%281815%E2%80%931945%29
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Province of Pomerania (1815–1945)
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The Province of Pomerania (; ) was a province of Prussia from 1815 to 1945. Pomerania was established as a province of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1815, an expansion of the older Brandenburg-Prussia province of Pomerania, and then became part of the German Empire in 1871. From 1918, Pomerania was a province of the Free State of Prussia until it was dissolved in 1945 following World War II, and its territory divided between Poland and Allied-occupied Germany. The city of Stettin (present-day Szczecin, Poland) was the provincial capital.
Etymology
The name Pomerania comes from Slavic , which means "Land at the Sea".
Overview
The province was created from the former Prussian Province of Pomerania, which consisted of Farther Pomerania and the southern Western Pomerania, and former Swedish Pomerania. It resembled the territory of the former Duchy of Pomerania, which after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 had been split between Brandenburg-Prussia and Sweden. Also, the districts of Schivelbein and Dramburg, formerly belonging to the Neumark, were merged into the new province.
While in the Kingdom of Prussia, the province was heavily influenced by the reforms of Karl August von Hardenberg and Otto von Bismarck. The Industrial Revolution primarily affected the Stettin area and the infrastructure, while most of the province retained a rural and agricultural character. From 1850, the net migration rate was negative; Pomeranians emigrated primarily to Berlin, the West German industrial regions and overseas.
After World War I, democracy and the women's right to vote were introduced to the province. After Wilhelm II's abdication, it was part of the Free State of Prussia. The economic situation worsened due to the consequences of World War I and worldwide recession. As in the previous Kingdom of Prussia, Pomerania was a stronghold of the national conservatives who continued in the Weimar Republic.
In 1933, the Nazis established a totalitarian regime, concentrating the province's administration in the hands of their , and implementing . The German invasion of Poland in 1939 was launched in part from Pomeranian soil. Jewish and Polish populations (whose minorities lived in the region) were classified as "subhuman" by the German state during the war and subjected to repressions, slave work and executions. Opponents were arrested and executed; Jews who by 1940 had not emigrated were all deported to the Lublin reservation.
Besides the air raids conducted since 1943, World War II reached the province in early 1945 with the East Pomeranian Offensive and the Battle of Berlin, both launched and won by the Soviet Union's Red Army. Insufficient evacuation left the population subject to murder, war rape, and plunder by the successors.
When the war was over, the Oder–Neisse line cut the province in two unequal parts. The smaller western part became part of the East German State of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The larger eastern part was attached to post-war Poland as Szczecin Voivodeship. After the war, ethnic Germans were expelled from Poland and the area was re-settled with Poles. Currently, most of the territory of the province lies within the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, which share the same city—now Szczecin—as its capital.
Until 1932, the province was subdivided into the government regions (Regierungsbezirk Köslin (eastern part, Farther Pomerania), Stettin (southwestern part, Old Western Pomerania), and Stralsund (northwestern part, ). The Stralsund region was merged into the Stettin region in 1932. In 1938, the Grenzmark Posen-West Prussia region (southeastern part, created from the former Prussian Province Posen-West Prussia) was merged into the province. The provincial capital was Stettin (now Szczecin), the capitals were Köslin (now Koszalin), Stettin, Stralsund and Schneidemühl (now Piła), respectively.
In 1905 the Province of Pomerania had 1,684,326 inhabitants, among them 1,616,550 Protestants, 50,206 Catholics, and 9,660 Jews. In 1900 Polish was the native language of 14,162 of the inhabitants (at the border to West Prussia), and there were 310 (at the Lake Leba and at the Lake Garde) whose native language was Kashubian. The area of the province amounted to . In 1925, the province had an area of , with a population of 1,878,780 inhabitants.
Creation and administration of the province within the Kingdom of Prussia
Although there had been a Prussian Province of Pomerania before, the Province of Pomerania was newly constituted in 1815, based on the "decree concerning improved establishment of provincial offices" (), issued by Karl August von Hardenberg on 30 April, and the integration of Swedish Pomerania, handed over to Prussia on 23 October.
The Hardenberg decree reformed all Prussian territories, which henceforth formed ten (later eight) provinces with similar administrations. After the implementation of the reform, the new Province of Pomerania consisted basically of its predecessor and Swedish Pomerania, but also of the Dramburg and Schivelbein counties.
The province was headed by a governor (, literally "senior president") with his seat in the capital, Stettin. It was subdivided into government regions () headed by a president (). Initially, two such regions were planned (Regierungsbezirk Stettin, comprising Western Pomerania, and Regierungsbezirk Köslin, comprising Farther Pomerania). Hardenberg however, who as the Prussian chief diplomat had settled the terms of session of Swedish Pomerania with Sweden at the Congress of Vienna, had assured to leave the local constitution in place when the treaty was signed on 7 June 1815. This circumstance led to a creation of a third government region, Regierungsbezirk Stralsund, for the former Swedish Pomerania at the expense of the Stettin region.
In early 1818, Governor Johann August Sack had reformed the county () shapes, yet adopted the former shape in most cases. Köslin government region comprised nine counties, Stettin government region thirteen, and Stralsund government region four (identical with the former Swedish (districts)).
The new parliament () assembled first on October 3, 1824. Based on two laws of June 5 and July, 1823, the was constituted by 25 lords and knights, 16 representatives of the towns, and eight from the rural communities.
Subordinate to the provincial were two assemblies, one for former Swedish Pomerania (Western Pomerania north of the Peene River) and one for the former Prussian part.
The counties each assembled a , where the knights of the county had one vote each and towns also just one vote.
Throughout its existence, the province was a stronghold of the Conservative Parties.
Infrastructure
In the 19th century, the first overland routes () and railways were introduced in Pomerania. In 1848, 126.8 Prussian miles of new streets had been built. On October 12, 1840, construction of the Berlin-Stettin railway began, which was finished on 15 August 1843. Other railways followed: Stettin–Köslin (1859), Angermünde–Stralsund and Züssow–Wolgast (1863), Stettin–Stolp (1869), and a connection with Danzig (1870).
In rural areas, many narrow-gauge railways were built for faster transport of crops. The first gas, water, and power plants were built. Streets and canalisation of the towns were modernized.
The construction of narrow-gauge railways was enhanced by a special decree of July 28, 1892, implementing Prussian financial aid programs. In 1900, the total of narrow-gauge railways had passed the threshold.
From 1910 to 1912, most of the province was supplied with electricity as the main lines were built. Plants were built since 1898.
The Świna and lower Oder rivers, the major water route to Stettin, were deepened to five meters and shortened by a canal (kaiserfahrt) in 1862. In Stettin, heavy industry was settled, making it the only industrial center of the province.
Stettin was connected to Berlin by the Berlin-Stettin waterway in 1914 after eight years of construction. The other traditional waterways and ports of the province, however, declined. Exceptions were only the port of Swinemünde, which was used by the navy, and the port of Stolpmünde, from which parts of the Farther Pomeranian exports were shipped, and the port of Sassnitz, which was built in 1895 for railway ferries to Scandinavia.
With the infrastructural improvements, mass tourism to the Baltic Coast started. The tourist resort () Binz had 80 visitors in 1870, 10,000 in 1900, and 22,000 in 1910. The same phenomenon occurred in other tourist resorts.
Agricultural reform
Already in 1807, Prussia issued a decree () abolishing serfdom. Hardenberg issued a decree on September 14, 1811, defining the terms by which serfs were to be released (). This could either be done by monetary payment or by releasing title to the land to the former lord. These reforms were applied during the early years of the province's existence. The so-called "regulation" was applied to 10,744 peasants until 1838, who paid their former lords 724,954 taler and handed over of farmland to bail themselves out.
Tumults arose in 1847 in the towns of Stettin and Köslin due to food shortages, as a result, prices for some foods were fixed.
On March 2, 1850, a law was passed settling the conditions on which peasants and farmers could capitalize their property rights and feudal service duties, and thus get a long-term credit (41 to 56 years to pay back). This law made way for the establishment of Rentenbank credit houses and farms. Subsequently, the previous rural structure changed dramatically as farmers, who used this credit to bail out their feudal duties, were now able to self determine how to use their land (so-called "regulated" peasants and farmers, regulierte Bauern). This was not possible before, when the jurisdiction had sanctioned the use of farmland and feudal services according not to property rights, but to social status within rural communities and estates.
From 1891 to 1910, 4,731 farms were set up, most (2,690) with a size of .
Bismarck era administrative reforms
Otto von Bismarck inherited from his father the Farther Pomeranian estates Külz, Jarchlin and Kniephof. Aiming at a farming career, he studied agriculture at the academy in Greifswald-Eldena. From 1867 to 1874, he bought and expanded the Varzin estates.
In 1869, Friedrich Albrecht Graf zu Eulenburg drafted a county reform () that was promoted by Bismarck. The reform passed the House of Lords on December 7, 1872. Most importantly, the reform cut the linkage between noble status and the right to vote, the latter now depended on property (one had to be above a certain tax threshold) and not on status, aiming against the overrepresentation of the knights compared to burghers.
On June 29, 1875, a new constitution for the province was passed (), which entered into force in 1876. It redefined the responsibilities of the provincial administration (headed by the ) and the self-administrative institutions (, comprising the provincial parliament (), a (head) and a (commission)). The Provinzialverband was financed directly from the Prussian state budget. The Landtag was responsible for streets, welfare, education, and culture. Landownership was no longer a criterion to become elected. The provincial Landtag (Provinziallandtag) was elected by the county representative assemblies ( for counties, for town districts) for a six years' term. A subordinate Kommunallandtag only existed for Regierungsbezirk Stralsund, until it was abolished in 1881.
In 1891, a county reform was passed, allowing more communal self-government. Municipalities hence elected a (head) and a (communal parliament). Gutsbezirk districts, i.e. estates not included in counties, could be merged or dissolved.
World War I
During the First World War, no battles took place in the province.
Nevertheless, the war affected society, economy, and administration. During the war, the provincial administrative institutions were subordinate to the military and headed by military officials. Mobilization resulted in work force shortage affecting all non-war-related industry, construction, and agriculture. Women, minors and POWs partially replaced the drafted men. Import and fishing declined when the ports were blocked. With the war going on, food shortages occurred, especially in the winter of 1916/17. Also coal, gas, and electricity were at times unavailable.
When the Treaty of Versailles entered into force on January 10, 1920, the province's eastern frontier became the border to the newly created Second Polish Republic, comprising most of Pomerelia in the so-called Polish Corridor. Minor border adjustments followed, where 9,5 km2 of the province became Polish and 74 km2 of former West Prussia (parts of the former counties of Neustadt in Westpreußen and Karthaus) were merged into the province.
Province of the Free State of Prussia
After the Kaiser was forced to abdicate, the province became part of the Free State of Prussia within the Weimar Republic.
German Revolution of 1918–19
During the German Revolution of 1918–19, revolutionary councils of soldiers and workers took over the Pomeranian towns (Stralsund on November 9, Stettin, Greifswald, Pasewalk, Stargard, and Swinemünde on November 10, Barth, Bütow, Neustettin, Köslin, and Stolp on November 11). On January 5, 1919, "Workers' and Soldiers' Councils" () were in charge of most of the province (231 towns and rural municipalities). The revolution was peaceful, no riots are reported. The councils were led by Social Democrats, who cooperated with the provincial administration. Of the 21 Landrat officials, only five were replaced, while of the three heads of the government regions ("Regierungspräsident") two were replaced (in Stralsund and Köslin) in 1919.
On November 12, 1918, a decree was issued allowing farmworkers' unions to negotiate with farmers (Junkers). The decree further regulated work time and wages for farmworkers.
On May 15, 1919, street fights and plunder occurred following Communist assemblies in Stettin. The revolt was put down by the military. In late August, strikes of farmworkers occurred in the counties of Neustettin and Belgard. The power of the councils however declined, only a few were left in the larger towns in 1920.
Counter-revolution
Conservative and right-wing groups evolved in opposition to the revolutions' achievements. Landowners formed the Pommerscher Landbund in February 1919, which by 1921 had 120,000 members and from the beginning was supplied with arms by the 2nd army corps in Stettin. Paramilitias ("Einwohnerwehr") formed throughout the spring of 1919.
Pommerscher Landbund units participated in the nationalist Kapp Putsch in Berlin, 1920.
Members of the "Iron Division" (), a dissolved Freikorps in the Baltic, reorganized in Pomerania, where the Junkers hosted them on their estates as a private army.
Also, counter-revolutionary Pomeranians formed Freikorps participating in fights in the Ruhr area.
Constitution of 1920
In 1920 (changed in 1921 and 1924), the Free State of Prussia adopted a democratic constitution for her provinces. The constitution granted a number of civil rights to the Prussian population and enhanced the self-government of the provinces.
The provincial and county parliaments (Landtag and Kreistag) were hence elected directly by the population, including women, in free and secret votes.
The "Provinzialverband", which included all self-governmental institutions of the province such as the provincial parliament (), gained influence on the formerly Berlin-led provincial government: The Provinzialverband would hence elect the "Oberpräsident" (head of the administration) and appoint representatives for the Reichsrat assembly in Berlin. Furthermore, the Provinzialverband officials could hence self determine how to spend the money they received from Berlin. From 1919 to 1930 Julius Lippmann served as governor of the province.
Economy
The border changes however caused a severe decline in the province's economy. Farther Pomerania was cut off from Danzig by the corridor. Former markets and supplies in the now Polish territories became unavailable.
Farther Pomeranian farmers had sold their products primarily to the eastern provinces, that were now part of the Second Polish Republic. Due to high transport costs, the markets in the West were unavailable too. The farmers reacted by modernizing their equipment, improving the quality of their products, and applying new technical methods. As a consequence, more than half of the farmers were severely indebted in 1927. The government reacted with the Osthilfe program, and granted credits to favourable conditions.
Stettin particularly suffered from a post-war change in trade routes. Before the territorial changes, it had been on the export route from the Katowice (Kattowitz) industrial region in now Polish Upper Silesia. Poland changed this export route to a new inner-Polish railway connecting Katowice with the new-build port of Gdynia within the corridor.
As a counter-measure, Prussia invested in the Stettin port since 1923. While initially successful, a new economical recession led to the closure of one of Stettin's major shipyard, AG Vulcan Stettin, in 1927.
The province also reacted to the availability of new traffic vehicles. Roads were developed due to the upcoming cars and buses, four towns got electric street cars, and an international airport was built in Altdamm near Stettin.
The Pomeranian agriculture underwent a crisis. Programs were started to regain soil that had turned into swamps during the wartime, and even to establish new settlements by setting up settlement societies. The results were mixed. On the one hand, of farmland were settled with 8,734 new-build settlements until 1933. The settlers originated in Pomerania itself, Saxony, and Thuringia, also refugees from the former Province of Posen settled in the province. On the other hand, people left the rural communities en masse and turned to Pomeranian and other urban centers (Landflucht). In 1925, 50.7% of the Pomeranians worked in agricultural professions, this percentage dropped to 38.2% in 1933.
With the economic recession, unemployment rates reached 12% in 1933, compared to an overall 19% in the empire.
Nazi era
Pomeranian Nazi movement before 1933
Throughout the existence of the Weimar Republic, politics in the province was dominated by the nationalist conservative DNVP (, German National People's Party); an entity composed of nationalists, monarchists, radical volkisch and anti-semitic elements, and supported by Pan-German League an old organisation believing in superiority of German people over others. The Nazi party (NSDAP) did not have any significant success at elections, nor did it have a substantial number of members. The Pomeranian Nazi party was founded by students of the University of Greifswald in 1922, when the NSDAP was officially forbidden. The university's rector Theodor Vahlen became Gauleiter (head of the provincial party) in 1924. Soon afterwards, he was fired by the university and went bankrupt. In 1924, the party had 330 members, and in December 1925, 297 members. The party was not present in all of the province. The members were concentrated mainly in Western Pomerania and internally divided. Vahlen retired from the Gauleiter position in 1927 and was replaced by Walther von Corswant, a Pomeranian knight estate holder.
Corswant led the party from his estate in Kuntzow. In the 1928 Reichstag elections, the Nazis got 1.5% of the votes in Pomerania. Party property was partially pawned. In 1929, the party gained 4.1% of the votes. Corswant was fired after conflicts with the party's leadership and replaced with Wilhelm Karpenstein, one of the former students who formed the Pomeranian Nazi party in 1922 and since 1929 a lawyer in Greifswald. He moved the headquarters to Stettin and replaced many of the party officials predominantly with young radicals. In the Reichstag elections of September 14, 1930, the party gained a significant 24.3% of the Pomeranian votes and thus became the second strongest party, the strongest still being the DNVP, which however was internally divided in the early 1930s.
In the elections of July 1932, the Nazis gained 48% of the Pomeranian votes, while the DNVP dropped to 15.8%. In March 1933, the NSDAP gained 56.3%.
Nazi government since 1933
Immediately after their gain of power, the Nazis began arresting their opponents. In March 1933, 200 people were arrested, this number rose to 600 during the following months. In Stettin-Bredow, at the site of the bankrupt Vulcan shipyards, the Nazis set up a short-lived "wild" concentration camp from October 1933 to March 1934, where SA maltreated their victims. The Pomeranian SA in 1933 had grown to 100,000 members.
Oberpräsident Carl von Halfern retired in 1933, and with him one third of the Landrat and Oberbürgermeister (mayor) officials.
Also in 1933, an election was held for a new provincial parliament, which then had a Nazi majority. Decrees were issued that shifted all issues formerly in responsibility of the parliament to the commission, and furthermore, shifted the power to decide on these issues from the to the official, although he had to hear the commission before. Once the power was shifted to the Oberpräsident with the Provinzialrat as an advisor, all organs of the ( (parliament), and all other commissions), the former self-administration of the province, were dissolved except for the downgraded Provinzialrat, which assembled about once a year without making use of its advisory rights. The Landeshauptmann position, the Provinzialverband's head, was not abolished. From 1933, Landeshauptmann would be a Nazi who was acting in line with the Oberpräsident. The law entered into force on April 1, 1934.
In 1934, many of the heads of the Pomeranian Nazi-movement were exchanged. SA leader Peter von Heydebreck was shot in Stadelheim near Munich due to his friendship to Röhm. Gauleiter Karpenstein was arrested for two years and banned from Pomerania due to conflicts with the NSDAP headquarters. His successor, Franz Schwede-Coburg, replaced most of Karpenstein's staff with Corswant's earlier staff, friends of him from Bavaria, and SS. From the 27 Kreisleiter officials, 23 were forced out of office by Schwede-Coburg, who became Gauleiter on July 21, and Oberpräsident on July 28, 1934.
As in all of Nazi Germany, the Nazis established totalitarian control over the province through their policy of Gleichschaltung.
Deportation of the Pomeranian Jews
In 1933, about 7,800 Jews lived in Pomerania, of which a third lived in Stettin. The other two thirds were living all over the province, Jewish communities numbering more than 200 people were in Stettin, Kolberg, Lauenburg in Pomerania, and Stolp.
When the Nazis started to terrorize Jews, many emigrated. Twenty weeks after the Nazis seized power, the number of Jewish Pomeranians had already dropped by eight percent.
Besides the repressions Jews had to endure in all Nazi Germany, including the destruction of the Pomeranian synagogues on November 9, 1938 (Reichskristallnacht), all male Stettin Jews were deported to Oranienburg concentration camp after this event and kept there for several weeks.
On February 12 and 13, 1940, 1,000 to 1,300 Pomeranian Jews, regardless of sex, age and health, were deported from Stettin and Schneidemühl to the Lublin-Lipowa Reservation, that had been set up following the Nisko Plan in occupied Poland. Among the deported were intermarried non-Jewish women. The deportation was carried out in an inhumane manner. Despite low temperatures, the carriages were not heated. No food had been allowed to be taken along. The property left behind was liquidated. Up to 300 people perished from the deportation itself. In the Lublin area under Kurt Engel's regime, the people were subjected to inhumane treatment, starvation and outright murder. Only a few survived the war.
Peter Simonstein Cullman in "History of the Jewish Community of Schneidemühl: 1641 to the Holocaust" and jewishgen.org say that the Jews of Schneidemühl were not "deported together with the more than 1,000 Jews of Stettin [Region] (who were subsequently sent to Piaski, near Lublin in Poland)", based on lack of evidence in the archives of Reichsvereinigung der Juden in Deutschland (cf. file 75 C Re1, No. 483, Bundesarchiv Berlin, and USHMM Archives: RG-14.003M; Acc. 1993.A.059). He concludes that "while the deportations of the Jews of Schneidemühl had indeed been planned by the Gestapo to coincide with the terrible events that occurred in Stettin – those actions were not carried out together. The deportations of all Jews from the Gau were primarily planned on orders of Franz Schwede-Coburg, the notorious Gauleiter of Pomerania, in cahoots with several Nazi authorities of Schneidemühl. The Gauleiter’s personal goal was to be the first in the Reich to declare his Gau Judenrein – cleansed of Jews". He based his statement on doc. 795 of the Trial of Adolf Eichmann.
According to Cullmann, the following events took place in Schneidemühl: "On February 15, 1940, an order had been issued by the Gestapo in Schneidemühl that the Jews of that town should get ready to be deported within a week, ostensibly to the Generalgouvernement in Eastern Poland. When Dr. Hildegard Böhme of the Reichsvereinigung had become aware of Gauleiter Schwede-Coburg's plan – and fearing a repetition of the events on the scale of the Stettin deportations – her timely and tireless intervention on behalf of the Reichsvereinigung with the RSHA in Berlin resulted in a modification of the planned deportations of Schneidemühl's Jews. The Stapo, the State police in Schneidemühl, however, played its own part in the planned round-up of the city's Jews by giving in to the local Nazi Party cadre and to the orders of the city's fanatic Mayor Friedrich Rogausch, in concert with the Gauleiter. The latter two are known to have planned a Schneidemühl-Aktion as a revenge for the earlier interference by the Reichsvereinigung in the Stettin deportations. Thus on Wednesday, February 21, 1940 – merely one week after the Stettin deportations – one hundred and sixty Jews were arrested in Schneidemühl, while mass arrests of Jews took place concurrently within an radius of Schneidemühl, in the surrounding administrative districts of Köslin, Stettin and the former Grenzmark Posen-Westpreussen, whereby three hundred and eighty-four Jews were seized by the Gestapo. In total 544 Jews were arrested during the entire Aktion in and around Schneidemühl. Those rounded up ranged from two-year-old children to ninety-year-old men. Surviving documents give a grim account of the subsequent Odyssey of those arrested. By then it had been decreed in Berlin that the victims of the round-up should not be sent to Poland but be kept within the so-called Altreich, i.e. within Germany's borders of 1937. Over the following eighteen months most of the arrested became ensnared in the Nazi's maw – on a journey of terminal despair. Only one young woman from Schneidemühl survived the hell of Auschwitz-Birkenau and the death marches of mid-January 1945."
Repressions against Polish minority
Grzęda (1994) says that in 1910, according to German data, 10,500 Poles lived in the Stettin (Szczecin) area, and that in his view the number was most likely reduced.<ref>Polonia sczcecińska na przełomie dwóch epok, 1930–1935; Marian Grzęda Uniwersytet Szczeciński 1994 page 21</ref> Fenske (1993) and Buchholz et al. (1999) say that in 1910, 7,921 Poles lived steadily in the province; Skóra (2001) says that in 1925, according to German data, 5,914 Poles lived in the province (1,104 in the Stettin and 4,226 in the Köslin government regions), while the Polish consul "boldly assumed" that over 9000 Poles lived in the province. Wynot (1996) says that during the interwar era, between 22,500 and 27,000 Poles lived "along the border of the Poznan/Pomorze region", the majority of whom were peasants, with a small number of shopkeepers and craftsmen. In addition, "a colony of about 2,000 workers" existed in Stettin.
A number of the Poles in Szczecin(Stettin) were members of the Union of Poles in Germany, a Polish scouts team was established there as well, in addition to a Polish school where the Polish language was taught.
Repressions intensified after Adolf Hitler came to power and led to closing of the school. Members of Polish community who took part in cultural and political activities were persecuted and even murdered. In 1938 the head of Stettin's Union of Poles unit Stanisław Borkowski was imprisoned in Oranienburg. In 1939, all Polish organisations in Stettin were disbanded by the authorities. During the war, two teachers from Polish school: Golisz and Omieczyński were murdered.
Resistance
Resistance groups formed in the economical centers, especially in Stettin, from where most arrests were reported.
Resistance is also reported from members of the nationalist conservative DNVP. The monarchist Herbert von Bismarck-Lasbeck was forced out of office in 1933. The newspaper Pommersche Tagespost was banned in 1935 after printing an article of monarchist Hans Joachim von Rohr (1888–1971). In 1936, four members of the DNVP were tried for founding a monarchist organization.
Other DNVP members, who had addressed their opposition already before 1933, were arrested multiple times after the Nazis had taken over. Ewald Kleist-Schmenzin, Karl Magnus von Knebel-Doberitz, and Karl von Zitzewitz were active resistants.
Within the Pomeranian provincial subsection of the Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union, resistance was organized within the Pfarrernotbund (150 members in late 1933) and Confessing Church (), the successor organization, headed by Reinold von Thadden-Trieglaff. In March 1935, 55 priests were arrested. The Confessing Church maintained a preachers' seminar headed by Dietrich Bonhoeffer in Zingst, which moved to Finkenwalde in 1935 and to Köslin and Groß Schlönwitz in 1940. Within the Catholic Church, the most prominent resistance member was Greifswald priest Alfons Wachsmann, who was executed in 1944.
After the failed assassination attempt of Hitler on July 20, 1944, Gestapo arrested thirteen Pomeranian nobles and one burgher, all knight estate owners. Of those, Ewald von Kleist-Schmenzin had contacted Winston Churchill in 1938 to inform about the work of the German opposition to the Nazis, and was executed in April 1945. Karl von Zitzewitz had connections to the Kreisauer Kreis group. Among the other arrested were Malte von Veltheim Fürst zu Putbus, who died in a concentration camp, as well as Alexander von Kameke and Oscar Caminecci-Zettuhn, who both were executed.
World War II and aftermath
First war years
The invasion of Poland by the Nazi Germany on September 1, 1939, which marked the beginning of World War II, was in part mounted from the province's soil. General Guderian's 19th army corps attacked from the Schlochau and Preußisch Friedland areas, which since 1938 belonged to the province ("Grenzmark Posen-Westpreußen").
According to Kozłowski & Krzywicki (1988), around 56,000 Polish POWs were located in Pomerania after the invasion, and soon Germany stripped them of their status (against international law) turning them into forced labourers;in April 1940 they were 82.417 of them in Pomerania, with the number reaching 116.330 Polish forced labourers in 1944 September
Because the invasion of Poland (and later the Soviet Union) was a success and the battle front moved far more east (Blitzkrieg), the province was not the site of battles in the first years of the war.
Since 1943, the province became a target of allied air raids. The first attack was launched against Stettin on April 21, 1943, and left 400 dead. On August 17/18, the British RAF launched an attack on Peenemünde, where Wernher von Braun and his staff had developed and tested the world's first ballistic missiles. In October, Anklam was a target. Throughout 1944 and early 1945, Stettin's industrial and residential areas were targets of air raids. Stralsund was a target in October 1944.
Despite these raids, the province was regarded "safe" compared to other areas of the Third Reich, and thus became a shelter for evacuees primarily from hard-hit Berlin and the West German industrial centers.
The Pomeranian Wall was renovated in the summer of 1944, and in the fall all men between sixteen and sixty years of age who had not yet been drafted were enrolled into Volkssturm units.
The province of Pomerania became a battlefield on January 26, 1945, when in the beginning of the Red Army's East Pomeranian Offensive Soviet tanks entered the province near Schneidemühl, which surrendered on February 13.
East Pomeranian Offensive
On February 14, the remnants of German Army Group Vistula () had managed to set up a frontline roughly at the province's southern frontier, and launched a counterattack (Operation Solstice, "Sonnenwende") on February 15, that however stalled already on February 18. On February 24, the Second Belorussian Front launched the East Pomeranian Offensive and despite heavy resistance primarily in the Rummelsburg area took eastern Farther Pomerania until March 10. On March 1, the First Belorussian Front had launched an offensive from the Stargard and Märkisch Friedland area and succeeded in taking northwestern Farther Pomerania within five days. Cut off corps group Tettau retreated to Dievenow as a moving pocket until March 11. Thus, German-held central Farther Pomerania was cut off, and taken after the Battle of Kolberg (March 4 to 18).
The fast advances of the Red Army during the East Pomeranian Offensive caught the civilian Farther Pomeranian population by surprise. The land route to the west was blocked since early March. Evacuation orders were issued not at all or much too late. The only way out of Farther Pomerania was via the ports of Stolpmünde, from which 18,300 were evacuated, Rügenwalde, from which 4,300 were evacuated, and Kolberg, which had been declared fortress and from which before the end of the Battle of Kolberg some 70,000 were evacuated. Those left behind became victims of murder, war rape, and plunder. On March 6, the USAF shelled Swinemünde, where thousands of refugees were stranded, killing an estimated 25,000.
Battle of Berlin
On March 20, the Wehrmacht abandoned the last bridgehead on the Oder rivers eastern bank, the Altdamm area. The frontline then ran along Dievenow and lower Oder, and was held by the 3rd Panzer Army commanded by general Hasso von Manteuffel. After another four days of fighting, the Red Army managed to break through and cross the Oder between Stettin and Gartz (Oder), thus starting the northern theater of the Battle of Berlin on March 24. Stettin was abandoned the next day.
Throughout April, the Second Belorussian Front led by general Konstantin Rokossovsky advanced through Western Pomerania. Demmin and Greifswald surrendered on April 30.
In Demmin, more than 1,000 people committed mass suicides after the Red Army had conquered the town facing only modest resistance. Coroner lists show that most drowned in the nearby River Tollense and River Peene, while others poisoned themselves. This was fueled by atrocities – rapes, pillage and executions – committed by Red Army soldiers after the Peene-bridge had been destroyed by retreating German troops. 80 percent of the town was destroyed in the first 3 days after its conquest.
In the first days of May, Wehrmacht abandoned Usedom and Wollin islands, and on May 5, the last German troops departed from Sassnitz on the island of Rügen. Two days later, Wehrmacht surrendered unconditionally to the Red Army.
Dissolution of the province
By the terms of the Potsdam Agreement, Western Pomerania east of the Oder–Neisse line became part of Poland. This line left the Oder river north of Gartz (Oder) and included the Stettin and Swinemünde area () into the Polish state. The remaining German population was expelled and the area was resettled with Poles. Western Pomerania west of the Oder-Neisse line was merged with Mecklenburg to constitute the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany, that in 1949 became the German Democratic Republic (GDR). was soon dropped from the federal state's name, and after the GDR states were abolished, the coastal Western Pomeranian Landkreis districts became part of Bezirk Rostock whereas the mainland Landkreis districts became part of Bezirk Neubrandenburg.
In 1990, after the GDR communist system was overthrown, the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was recreated, with Vorpommern being a non-administrative region. The districts Vorpommern-Rügen and Vorpommern-Greifswald constitute most of the German part of former Pomerania, but these districts also contain some former Mecklenburgian territory, and a small part of former Pomerania is now part of Brandenburg. Due to this, the old Pomeranian border disappeared from the map and today is only prevailed by the border of the Pomeranian Evangelical Church. The part of the province of Pomerania which had become Polish was re-organized as Szczecin Voivodeship after the war, from which the eastern part was split off as Koszalin Voivodeship in 1950. Słupsk Voivodeship was split off from this voivodeship in 1975, there were also territorial exchanges with neighboring voivodeships. Since 1999, the area of the former province of Pomerania is included in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship (Zachodniopomorskie, bulk) and Pomeranian Voivodeship (western part around Słupsk, formerly Stolp).
Administrative subdivisions
Köslin government region (Farther Pomerania)
The Köslin government region () was the administrative name for the region of Farther Pomerania () along with the smaller region of Lauenburg and Bütow Land (easternmost part).
These parts of Pomerania were integrated into the Brandenburg-Prussian Province of Pomerania (1653–1815) already after the Thirty Years' War. During the war, the noble House of Pomerania (Griffins), ruling the Duchy of Pomerania since the 1120s, became extinct in the male line with the death of Bogislaw XIV in 1637. Throughout the existence of the Griffin Duchy, Brandenburg had claimed overlordship and was asserted of Pomerania inheritance in numerous treaties. Yet, Sweden had been one of the most important players in the war and as such, she was awarded some of her territorial gains in Pomerania after the war by the Peace of Westphalia, thwarting Brandenburg-Prussia's ambitions for inheritance of the whole former Duchy of Pomerania. This led to tensions between Brandenburg-Prussia and Sweden in Pomerania until Sweden lost her Western Pomeranian possessions in 1720 (Stettin government region) and 1815 (Stralsund government region).
Landkreis Lauenburg-Bütow comprised the Lauenburg and Bütow Land, a Pomerelian borderland with a somewhat different history than the rest of Pomerania. It was in 1846 dissolved into smaller administrative units. In contrast to ethnic German Pomerania, this area also had a Kashubian population.
Landkreis Fürstenthum comprised the earlier secular possessions of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kammin prince-bishops, and was ruled by administrators from the Pomeranian ducal house since the aftermath of the Reformation until 1650. Until 1872, the area kept its territorial integrity, before it was dissolved into smaller administrative units.
Subdivisions
urban districts ():
Stolp: population 27,293 (1900); 50,377 (1939)
Köslin: split off Landkreis Köslin in 1923, population 33,479 (1939)
Kolberg: split off Landkreis Kolberg-Körlin in 1920, population 36,617 (1939)
rural districts ():
Landkreis Belgard (Persante): population 47,097 (1900); 79,183 (1939)
Landkreis Dramburg: population 35,863 (1900);
Landkreis Fürstenthum (1816–1872), 1872 divided into
Landkreis Bublitz: population 20,916 (1900); in 1932 merged into Landkreis Köslin
Landkreis Kolberg-Körlin: population 57,871 (1900); 38,785 (1939)
Landkreis Köslin: population 48,678 (1900); 80,287 (1939)
Landkreis Greifenberg i. Pom.: until 1939 administered by Regierungsbezirk Stettin, population 47,891 (1939)
Landkreis Lauenburg-Bütow (the Lauenburg and Bütow Land), 1846 divided into:
Landkreis Bütow: population 26,021 (1900); 28,018 (1939)
Landkreis Lauenburg i. Pom.: population 45,986 (1900); 63,985 (1939)
Landkreis Neustettin: population 76,101 (1900); since 1938 administered by Regierungsbezirk Grenzmark Posen-Westpreußen
Regenwalde: 49,668 (1939), until 1938 administered by Regierungsbezirk Stettin
Landkreis Rummelsburg i. Pom.: population 33,785 (1900); 40,692 (1939)
Landkreis Schivelbein: population 19,656 (1900); in 1932 merged into Landkreis Belgard (Persante)
Landkreis Schlawe i. Pom.: population 73,206 (1900); 78,363 (1939)
Landkreis Stolp: population 75,310 (1900); 83,009 (1939)
Stettin government region (Western Pomerania)
The Stettin government region () since 1932 comprised the region of Western Pomerania (, "Hither Pomerania"), the former Swedish Pomerania. From 1815, the Stettin government region comprised only the southern parts of Western Pomerania (Old Western Pomerania, i.e. south of the Peene river). This part had been Swedish only until 1720, thereafter it was merged into the Prussian Province of Pomerania (1653-1815). New Western Pomerania (north of the river) was administered as Regierungsbezirk Stralsund until it was merged into Regierungsbezirk Stettin in 1932.
Stettin, the former ducal residence, was made capital of the province and also was the administrative center of the Regierungsbezirk Stettin.
Subdivisions
urban districts ():
Greifswald: until 1932 administered by Regierungsbezirk Stralsund, population 37,051 (1939)
Stargard (Pommern): split off Landkreis Saatzig in 1901, population 39,760 (1939)
Stettin: population 210,702 (1900); 382,984 (1939)
Stralsund: until 1932 administered by Regierungsbezirk Stralsund, population 52,931 (1939)
rural districts ():
Landkreis Anklam: population 32,693 (1900); 39,527 (1939)
Landkreis Cammin i. Pom.: population 42,485 (1900); 45,694 (1939)
Landkreis Demmin: population 48,090 (1900); 54,769 (1939)
Landkreis Franzburg-Barth (Capital: Barth): until 1932 administered by Regierungsbezirk Stralsund, population 55,542 (1939)
Landkreis Greifenberg i. Pom.: population 37,483 (1900); after 1939 administered by Regierungsbezirk Köslin
Landkreis Greifenhagen: population 48,258 (1900); 69,326 (1939)
Landkreis Greifswald: until 1932 administered by Regierungsbezirk Stralsund, population 39,207 (1939)
Landkreis Grimmen: until 1932 administered by Regierungsbezirk Stralsund, population 42,259 (1939)
Landkreis Naugard: population 52,777 (1900); 61,320 (1939)
Landkreis Pyritz: population 42,686 (1900); 48,418 (1939)
Landkreis Randow: population 94,859 (1900); partitioned in 1939 by Stadtkreis Stettin, Landkreis Greifenhagen, Landkreis Ueckermünde, and Landkreis Naugard
Landkreis Rügen (Capital: Bergen auf Rügen): until 1932 administered by Regierungsbezirk Stralsund, population 62,261 (1939)
Landkreis Regenwalde: population 44,954 (1900);
Landkreis Saatzig (Capital: Stargard (Pommern)): population 69,762 (1900); 43,258 (1939)
Landkreis Ueckermünde: population 56,767 (1900); 79,996 (1939)
Landkreis Usedom-Wollin (Capital: Swinemünde): population 52,193 (1900); 83,479 (1939)
Stralsund government region (Northwest)
The Stralsund government region () comprised the Western Pomeranian region of .
The reason for creating a Regierungsbezirk as small as Stralsund was that Neuvorpommern had a somewhat different history than the rest of Pomerania. This region, consisting of the island of Rügen and the adjacent mainland between the Recknitz and Peene rivers, made up the Rani and Danish Principality of Rugia in the Middle Ages. Although it was inherited by the Pomeranian dukes in 1325, the region was for some time governed as the splinter duchy of Pomerania-Barth. While a part of Swedish Pomerania, Denmark maintained her old claims and occupied the area in 1715 during the Great Northern War. Yet, the Danes were forced to return it to Sweden by the 1720 Treaty of Stockholm (Great Northern War). In the 1813 Treaty of Kiel, Denmark again gained nominal overlordship, yet was unable to pay her war reparations to Sweden and awarded her claim to Prussia in the 1815 Congress of Vienna along with her debts in exchange for the Duchy of Lauenburg.
The name New Western Pomerania () stems from that era, to distinguish the Western Pomeranian areas south of the Peene River gained by Prussia in 1720 (Old Western Pomerania or Altvorpommern) from the northern regions gained in 1815 and to replace the outdated term Principality of Rügen.
When merged into the province in 1815, Neuvorpommern was guaranteed her constitution to be left in place. The administration was led by the former Swedish general governour, prince Malte von Putbus, until was officially created in 1818. Prussian law ( and ) was not enforced, and the Swedish jurisdiction with the court in Greifswald was left in place.
Regierungsbezirk Stralsund was fused into Regierungsbezirk Stettin in 1932.
Subdivisions
urban districts ():
Stralsund: split off Landkreis Franzburg-Barth in 1874, population 31,076 (1900)
Greifswald: split off Landkreis Greifswald in 1913
rural districts ():
Landkreis Franzburg-Barth: population 41,704 (1900)
Landkreis Greifswald: population 61,840 (1900)
Landkreis Grimmen: population 35,540 (1900)
Landkreis Rügen (capital Bergen auf Rügen): population 46,270 (1900)
Posen-West Prussia government region
The Posen-West Prussia government region () was created in 1938 from the northern part of the former Prussian province of Posen-West Prussia, known as the Schneidemühl government region.
Following World War I, most of the Prussian provinces of Posen and West Prussia became part of the Second Polish Republic. The remainders of these provinces formed the province of Posen-West Prussia, combining small German-settled regions all along the new German-Polish border ( meaning border march''). In 1938, this province was dissolved and partitioned between Pomerania, Brandenburg and Silesia. The Pomeranian share was extended by the districts of Neustettin and Dramburg, formerly administered by Regierungsbezirk Köslin. The formerly Branderburgian districts of Arnswalde and Friedeberg were also incorporated into the Posen-West Prussia government region.
During World War II, it became a battlefield and was occupied by the Red Army in early 1945. Shortly thereafter, by the terms of the Potsdam Agreement, the Grenzmark became part of Poland and the remaining German population was expelled.
Subdivisions
urban districts ():
Schneidemühl
rural districts ():
Landkreis Arnswalde
Landkreis Deutsch Krone
Landkreis Dramburg
Landkreis Flatow
Landkreis Friedeberg Nm.
Netzekreis (capital: Schönlanke)
Landkreis Neustettin
Landkreis Schlochau
Demographics
1818: The province with an estimated area of 540 (Prussian) square miles had a population of 630,000. The Prussian state official ("Staatsminister") von Beyme stated in his report, that the province was in a "low state of population and culture".
1823: In 1823, Georg Hassel published the following data about the population of the Province of Pomerania:
According to Georg Hassel, there were 65,000 Slavic-speakers in the whole Provinz Pommern in 1817–1819. Modern estimates for just eastern parts of Pommern in early 1800s range between 40,000 (Leszek Belzyt) and 25,000 (Jan Mordawski, Zygmunt Szultka). The number declined to between 35,000 and 23,000 (Zygmunt Szultka, Leszek Belzyt) in the years 1827–1831. In the 1850–1860s there were an estimated 23,000 to 17,000 Slavic-speakers left in Pommern, down to 15,000 in year 1892 according to Stefan Ramułt. The number was declining due to Germanisation. The bulk of Slavic population in 19th century Pommern was concentrated in its easternmost counties: especially Bytów (Bütow), Lębork (Lauenburg) and Słupsk (Stolp).
Until 1841, immigration to the province was higher than emigration. This trend reversed since 1850. However, the population grew further due to high birth rates.
1850: 1,255,900 inhabitants, predominantly Protestants, 11,100 Catholics, 9,700 Jews and 100 Mennonites.
1858: 1,125,000 people, 28% of whom lived in towns.
1871: 1,431,492 people, 68,7% of those lived in communities with less than 2,000 inhabitants.
1875: 1,445,852 people lived in the province, then with an area of 30,131 km2. Of those, 685,147 lived in Regierungsbezirk Stettin, and 554,201 in Regierungsbezirk Köslin.
1890: 1,520,889 people, 62,3% of those lived in communities with less than 2,000 inhabitants, and 7,6% in Stettin. Among them were 1,476,300 Protestants, 27,476 Catholics, 4,587 persons belonging to other Christian religious groups, 200 dissidents and 12,246 Jews; 1,519,397 were citizens of the German Empire, 758 came from foreign territories attached to the empire, and 734 did not belong to any of these groups. With the exception of 10,666 persons composed of Poles, Kashubians and Masurians, all people of the Province used German as their native language. According to Stefan Ramułt the number of Slavic-speakers was higher, 15,000 just in the three easternmost counties of Stolp, Lauenburg and Bütow in year 1892.
Between 1871 and 1914, the prime characteristic of the province's demography was migration from the rural areas, first to urban centers (), then to destinations in other German provinces and overseas (). Despite the emigration during this time span, the population increased by 300,000 people.
Between 1871 and 1880, 61,700 people emigrated to America.
Between 1881 and 1890, 132,100 people emigrated to America; 95,000 of these emigrated between 1881 and 1885.
Between 1891 and 1900, 56,700 people emigrated to America.
Between 1871 and 1895, 242,505 people emigrated from the province, primarily from 1880 to 1885 (95,000 emigrants).
Between 1880 and 1910, 426,000 more people emigrated than immigrated. Emigrants came primarily from rural areas, which they left for economic reasons; prime destinations were Ruhr area and Berlin ().
Most people emigrated from Regierungsbezirk Köslin, where the population numbers of 1880 were only reached again in 1899.
The Province of Pomerania was one of the three provinces (the other two were West Prussia and Province of Posen) responsible for most of the German emigrants who went overseas. Imperial Commissioners for emigration ("Reichskommissar für Auswanderung") organized emigration from Hamburg, Bremen, Stettin, and Swinemünde. Emigration to overseas ended in 1893, when in America the free availability of soil claims ended.
1905: Of 1,684,326 inhabitants 1,616,550 were Protestants, 50,206 Roman Catholics and 9660 Jews, (1900) 14,162 Polish speakers (at the West Prussian border) and 310 Kashubian speakers (at the Lakes Lebasee and Gardescher See).
1907: 440,000 people born in the province lived in other areas of Germany.
1910: 1,716,921 inhabitants, 55,3% of those lived in communities with less than 2,000 inhabitants, and 13,7% in Stettin. Of those, the majority was Protestant (1,637,299; i.e. 95,36%), 56,298 were Roman Catholics (3,27%), less than one percent were Old Lutherans (primarily in the Cammin and Greifenberg counties), and 8862 were Jews (0,52%)
Polish seasonal workers were employed in Pomeranian agriculture since the 1890s, initially to replace the emigrants. In 1910, 7921 Poles lived steadily in the province. In 1912, 12,000 seasonal workers were employed in agriculture, in 1914 their number increased to 42,000.
1919: On October 8, 1919, the province had 1,787,179 inhabitants. This population had increased by 160,000 in 1925.
On October 1, 1938, the bulk of the former Province of Posen-West Prussia was merged into the Province of Pomerania, adding an area of with a population of 251,000.
On October 15, Stettin's city limits were expanded to an area of , housing 383,000 people.
During the Soviet conquest of Farther Pomerania and the subsequent expulsions of Germans until 1950, 498,000 people from the part of the province east of the Oder-Neisse line died, making up for 26,4% of the former population. Of the 498,000 dead, 375,000 were civilians, and 123,000 were Wehrmacht soldiers. Low estimates give a million expellees from the then Polish part of the province in 1945 and the following years. Only remained with Germany, about a fourth of the province's size before 1938 and a fifth of the size thereafter.
Modern inhabitants
During the Polish post-war census of December 1950, data about the pre-war places of residence of the inhabitants as of August 1939 was collected. In the case of children born between September 1939 and December 1950, their origin was reported based on the pre-war places of residence of their mothers. Thanks to this data it is possible to reconstruct the pre-war geographical origin of the post-war population. The same territory corresponding to 1939 Provinz Pommern east of the Oder-Neisse line (which became part of Poland in 1945) was inhabited as of December 1950 by:
Over 90% of the 1950 population were newcomers to the region, with less than 10% residing in German Province of Pomerania already back in August 1939 (so-called autochthons, who had German citizenship before World War II and were granted Polish citizenship after 1945). The largest group among new inhabitants were Poles expelled from areas of Eastern Poland annexed by the Soviet Union. The second largest group were newcomers from pre-war Polish part of historical Pomerania. The third-largest group were Poles from pre-war Poznań Voivodeship of Poland.
See also
List of towns in Western Pomerania
List of towns in Farther Pomerania
References
External links
Administrative Subdivision of the Province of Pomerania in 1900/10
Provinces of Prussia
History of Pomerania by period
States and territories established in 1815
States and territories disestablished in 1945
1815 establishments in Prussia
1945 disestablishments in Germany
Former eastern territories of Germany
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20Jamaicans
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Chinese Jamaicans
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Chinese Jamaicans are Jamaicans of Chinese ancestry, which include descendants of migrants from China to Jamaica. Early migrants came in the 19th century; there was another moment of migration in the 1980s and 1990s. Many of the descendants of early migrants have moved abroad, primarily to Canada and the United States. Most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka and many can trace their origin to the indentured Chinese laborers who came to Jamaica in the mid-19th to early 20th centuries.
Migration history
Despite an old census record stating a "Chinese Painter" named Isaak Lawson lived in Montego Bay, St. James, in the year 1774, most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka and can trace their origin to the indentured labourers who came to Jamaica in the mid-19th to early 20th centuries. The British parliament made a study of prospects for Chinese migration to the West Indies in 1811, and in 1843 made an attempt to recruit Chinese workers to come to Jamaica, British Guiana and Trinidad and Tobago, but nothing came of it. The two earliest ships of Chinese migrant workers to Jamaica arrived in 1854, the first directly from China, the second composed of onward migrants from Panama who were contracted for plantation work. A further 200 would arrive in the years up until 1870, mostly from other Caribbean islands. Later, in 1884, a third group of 680 Chinese migrants would arrive. With the exception of a few from Sze Yup, most of these migrants were Hakka people from Dongguan, Huiyang and Bao'an. This third wave of migrants would go on to bring more of their relatives over from China.
The influx of Chinese indentured immigrants aimed to replace the outlawed system of black slavery. It entailed signing a five-year contract that bound the laborers physically to specific planters and their estates and subjected them to physical and financial penalties whenever any contractual conditions were broken. The contracts consisted of a $4 wage for a 12-hour work day, also including food, clothing, medical care, and housing, although these contracts were regularly violated. Chinese immigrants could also arrive independent of the indentured system. These independent immigrants could come by paying their own way as an individual free migrant, or they could come sponsored and have their passage paid for reimbursement later. In 1917, the entire indentured immigration system was outlawed, largely due to pressure from Gandhi, who was then leading the nationalist movement in India.
From 1910, Chinese immigrants were required to pay a £30 deposit and pass a written test to demonstrate that they could write 50 words in three different languages. The restrictions on Chinese migrants were tightened even further in 1931, but relaxed again by 1947 due to lobbying by the Chinese consulate. The 1943 census showed 12,394 Chinese residing in Jamaica. These were divided into three categories by the census, namely "China-born" (2,818), "local-born" (4,061) and "Chinese coloured" (5,515), the latter referring to multiracial people of mixed African and Chinese descent. This made Chinese Jamaicans the second largest Chinese population in the Caribbean, behind Chinese Cubans. By 1963, the Chinese had a virtual monopoly on retail trade in Jamaica, controlling 90% of dry goods stores and 95% of supermarkets, along with extensive holdings in other sectors such as laundries and betting parlours.
In the 1970s, thousands of Chinese Jamaicans fled a wave of inter-ethnic violence against them; at first, they went primarily to Canada, which was more open to immigration than the United States, with the U.S. becoming a major immigration destination later on. As a result, clusters of Chinese Jamaicans can be found outside Jamaica primarily in locales like Toronto, New York City and South Florida. However, in the 1980s and 1990s, there was a new wave of Chinese migration to Jamaica, consisting of Hong Kong and Taiwanese entrepreneurs who set up textile factories on the island targeting the U.S. market and often brought in migrant workers from China to staff their ventures.
Community organizations
In comparison to Overseas Chinese communities elsewhere, hometown associations related to migrants' places of origin in China were not very influential among migrants to Jamaica. Some secret societies such as the Hongmenhui were active in organizing plantation workers in the 1880s; however, the first formal Chinese organization in Jamaica was a branch of the Freemasons. Later, the Chinese Benevolent Association (中華會館) was founded in 1891. The CBA established a Chinese Sanatorium, a Chinese Public School, a Chinese Cemetery and a Chinese Almshouse. It also published its own newspaper. The CBA helped maintain a strong connection between Chinese Jamaicans and China, while simultaneously preparing Chinese Jamaican students for the Jamaican school system. The CBA continues to operate from a two-story building with guardian lion statues in the front; the ground floor is occupied by the Jamaican-Chinese Historical Museum. The building has been featured on a Jamaican postage stamp.
The first Chinese-language newspaper in Jamaica, the Zhonghua Shang Bao (中華商報), was founded in 1930 by Zheng Yongkang; five years later, it was taken over by the Chinese Benevolent Association, who renamed it Huaqiao Gongbao (華僑公報). It continued publication until 1956, and was revived in 1975. The Chinese Freemasons also published their own handwritten weekly newspaper, the Minzhi Zhoukan (民治周刊) until 1956. The Pagoda, started in 1940, was the first English-language newspaper for the Chinese community. The local branch of the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) also began publishing their own paper, The Chung San News (中山報) in 1953.
Prior to Jamaican independence, there was an annual Miss Chinese Jamaica pageant, initially organized as a fundraiser for the CBA. It came to be supported by The Pagoda, which wrote editorials exhorting girls from the Chinese community to join, and in some years offered sponsorship prizes such as, in 1955, a two-week trip to Miami for the winner, in an effort to spark participation in what was sometimes a sparsely attended event. However, as the pageant grew in popularity, it drew charges from Afro-Jamaican journalists that the ethnic pride on display there was "unpatriotic" and "un-Jamaican". The pageant renamed itself to the Miss Chinese Athletic Club, in an effort to avoid controversy, but nevertheless, held its final "openly racialised beauty contest" in 1962. Over the following years, Chinese Jamaican women did not participate in the Miss Jamaica pageant for fear of racial controversy. However, this informal colour line was broken in 1973, when Patsy Yuen entered and earned the Miss Jamaica title in 1973, going on to place third in the Miss World competition in London; however, Yuen publicly portrayed herself as a completely assimilated Jamaican with little connection to her Chinese heritage, claiming in media statements that she didn't even like Chinese food, in order to avoid "disrupt[ing] the official picture of the country's identity".
There was also a Chinese Jamaican community school, the Chinese Public School. It was set up first by the Chinese Freemasons in 1920 (under the Chinese name 華僑公立學校), and operated until 1922; a Chinese drama club revived the school in 1924 (and gave it a new Chinese name 新民學校, literally "New People's School"), charging tuition fees of £6. The drama club continued to operate the school until 1928, when the CBA purchased it for £2,300 and gave it its present name, and moved it into a larger building. The CBA promulgated a new constitution for the school in 1944, which stated that it would follow the curriculum of the Republic of China's Ministry of Education and that Chinese was the primary medium of instruction while "foreign languages" were secondary. In 1945, with enrollments booming to 300 students and competitor schools being established as well, the Republic of China consulate called for donations to renovate the school, eventually raising £10,000. In the 1950s, there was heated debate in the community over the medium of instruction, with some suggesting curriculum localisation in the name of practicality, while others saw abandonment of Chinese-medium instruction as tantamount to abandonment of Chinese identity. Practical considerations won out; the curriculum was reorganised with English as the primary instructional medium in 1952 and by 1955, the school only had two teachers who could speak any Chinese. After that, the school's fortunes fluctuated and it was finally closed down in the mid-1960s.
The Chinese-Jamaican community remains prominent. In 1970, there were still 11,710 Chinese living in Jamaica. The community remains strong and they continue to celebrate traditional Chinese holidays, such as the Harvest Moon and Chinese New Year.
Interethnic relations
The Chinese establishment of grocery shops throughout Jamaica had provoked concern amongst whites and blacks in Jamaica as early as 1911. It was widely believed that the Chinese were guilty of arson against their own property for insurance purposes, whereas previously they were only accused of sharp business practices.
Along with other immigrant ethnic groups to Jamaica that had made significant entrepreneurial achievements such as Lebanese, Syrians and Cubans, Chinese entrepreneurs were ready targets for the frustrations of some of the local Jamaican poor.
According to a newspaper report (31 March 1934) on "pernicious drugs" in Jamaica, the issue concerning opium became one of the early roots of xenophobic attitudes against the new Chinese immigrants of the early 1900s. The white elites became intolerable of this new wave of Chinese migrants coming in large numbers as shopkeepers. The newspaper editorial (10 June 1913) made the distinction between the earlier Chinese migrants and their present "poverty stricken, ignorant fellow countrymen", who were blamed for the 'opium scare' in Jamaica now that the "natives are succumbing to the vile and deadly habit". This first anti-Chinese thrust was rooted in the opium drug trade. The foundation was set for the first and a massive anti-Chinese riot in 1918.
In his book, Howard Johnson (1982) argued that, when compared to other anti-Chinese events, the 1918 event was a massive expression of anti-Chinese sentiments in Jamaica. It began in Ewarton and spread quickly to other parts of St Catherine, and other parishes such as St Mary, St Ann and Clarendon. The events were incited by a story that a Chinese shopkeeper in Ewarton caught a Jamaican off-duty policeman in a romantic liaison with his Jamaican "paramour". The shopkeeper and several of his Chinese friends brutally thrashed the Jamaican man. It was then rumoured that the policeman was killed which led to violence breaking out against the Chinese shopkeepers.
During the late 1920s letters (22 September 1926) the colonial secretary L P Waison held meetings with the police. According to the letter, Waison accused the government for its failure to employ the law against Chinese immigrants: "such as the open exploitation of shop assistants; the breaking of the spirit and gambling laws" (peaka-pow). Waison's threats were drastic. He advocated extreme violence against Chinese, "that their shops will be burnt down".
Newspaper reports in January and March 1934 described this "pernicious" drug traffic by the Chinese and expressed concern that it was spreading among the lower class of that community who were becoming "chronic opium addicts".
Religion
Early Chinese migrants to Jamaica brought elements of Chinese folk religion with them, most exemplified by the altar to Lord Guan which they erected in the old CBA building and which remains standing there, even as the CBA moved its headquarters. However, with the passage of long decades since their ancestors first migrated from China, traditional Chinese religious practices have largely died out among Chinese Jamaicans. Some traditional practices persisted well into the 20th century, most evident at the Chinese Cemetery, where families would go to clean their ancestors' graves during the Qingming Festival in what was often organised as a communal activity by the CBA (referred to in English as Gah San, after the Hakka word 掛山); however, with the emigration of much of the Chinese Jamaican community to the North American mainland, the public, communal aspect of this grave-cleaning died out and indeed it was not carried out for more than a decade before attempts by the CBA to revive it in 2004.
Christianity has become the dominant religion among Chinese Jamaicans; they primarily adhere to the Catholic Church rather than the Protestantism of the majority establishment. Anglicans can also be found in the Chinese Jamaican community, but other denominations which are widespread in Jamaica such as Baptist (traditionally connected with the Afro-Jamaican community) are almost entirely absent among Chinese Jamaicans. Conversion of Chinese Jamaicans to Christianity came about in several ways; some made conversions of convenience in order to obtain easy legal recognition for marriages and births, while Chinese men who entered into relationships with local women were often absorbed into church community through the selection of godparents for their children and the attendance of children at Sunday schools. Furthermore, Catholic teachers taught English at the Chinese Public School up until its closure in the mid-1960s, which facilitated the entry of Chinese Jamaicans to well-known Catholic secondary schools. There were a large number of conversions in the mid-1950s, evidence that the Chinese were "increasingly trying to adapt themselves to local society"; a former headmaster of the Chinese Public School, He Rujun, played a major role in attracting Chinese converts to Christianity in those years.
The newest wave of Chinese migrants from Hong Kong and mainland China are mainly non-Christians, but they have not brought with them any widely visible Chinese religious practises. A few of them were already Protestants and have formed their own churches, which conduct worship services in Chinese; due to language barriers, they have little connection to the more assimilated segments of the Chinese Jamaican community.
Cultural syncretism
Chinese Jamaicans have also affected the development of reggae. The trend of Chinese Jamaican involvement in reggae began in the 1960s with Vincent "Randy" Chin, his wife Patricia Chin, and their label VP Records, where artists such as Beenie Man and Sean Paul launched their careers; it remains common to see Chinese surnames in the liner notes of reggae music, attesting to the continuing influence.
Assimilation has taken place through generations and few Chinese Jamaicans can speak Chinese today; most of them speak English or Jamaican Patois as their first language. The vast majority have anglicized given names and many have Chinese surnames. The Chinese food culture has survived to a large degree among this group of people.
Common surnames among the Chinese population in Jamaica include Chai, Chan, Chang, Chen, Chin, Chong, Chung, Chow, Fong, Fung, Hugh, Kong, Leung, Li, Lim, Ling, Lowe, Lyn, Ng, Wan, Wang, Wong, Yap, Yapp, Young, Yuen, Yang, Zhang, Zheng and Zhu.
Notable people
Supa Dups
Tyson Beckford, model
Naomi Campbell, model, actress and businesswoman
Ray Chen, photographer
Ashley Chin, actor
Clive Chin, record producer
Tessanne Chin, Singer
Vincent Chin, record producer and VP Records label founder and owner
Cornel Chin-Sue, Football player
Delroy Chuck, Cabinet Minister
Mark Chung, Footballer
Patrick Chung, American football player
Sarah Cooper, comedian
Ayesha Curry, actress and author
Vincent HoSang, Businessman
Leslie Kong, music producer
Robinne Lee, actress and author
Michael Lee-Chin, billionaire businessman, philanthropist and the chairman and CEO of Portland Holdings Inc
Rose Leon, Cabinet minister
Paula Madison, journalist, writer, and businesswoman
Sean Paul, recording artist, producer and actor
Rachelle Smith, Football player
Karin Taylor, model and actress
Kreesha Turner, record artist and songwriter
Tom Wong, creator of the Tom the Great Sebastian sound system
Henry Vernon Wong, physicist
Byron Lee and the Dragonaires, musician, record producer, and entrepreneur
Josh Ho-Sang, ice hockey player
Phil Chen, bass guitarist
Craig Wong, chef, restaurateur
See also
Caribbean–China relations
China–Jamaica relations
Chinese Caribbeans
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
ChineseJamaican.com
Asian Jamaican
Chinese Caribbean
Ethnic groups in Jamaica
Jamaican
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scot%20Breithaupt
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Scot Breithaupt
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Scot Alexander Breithaupt (July 14, 1957 – July 5, 2015) was an entrepreneur, "Old School" professional motorcycle MX and bicycle motocross (BMX) racer and a founding father of BMX in 1970 whose prime competitive years were from 1970 to 1984. Many consider him, in some ways, a founder of "Old School BMX"—an era from roughly 1969 to 1987 or 1988, from its very beginnings to just after its first major slump in popularity from 1985 to 1988. Racing started to rise in participation again around 1988–89 and is considered the start of Mid School BMX, roughly 1988–2000. He was born in Long Beach, California.
Pioneer and entrepreneur
Breithaupt was a BMX pioneer—perhaps the inventor of its modern infrastructure. He first organized what was called Pedal-Cross at the time on November 14, 1970., and established a track in a vacant lot in Long Beach, California. He also founded what could be called BMX's first sanctioning body of any kind, the Bicycle United Motocross Society (B.U.M.S).
Breithaupt—who was a teenage MX racer for Yamaha—set up organizational features around his races much as later sanctioning bodies did: rulebooks, a point system, a skill level structure, a racing season, trophies and promotions of special races that were the prototype for Nationals. He produced the 1st California State Championships in 1972.
Breithaupt adapted these structures from motocross sanctioning bodies such as the AMA, CMC and AME, as would other pioneers like Ernie Alexander, [founder of the National Bicycle Association (NBA)] and George Esser [(founder of the National Bicycle League(NBL)]—both of whom, like Breithaupt, had roots in motorcycle motocross as racers or promoters. Breithaupt was the first to do it in BMX, at the age of 13.
His nickname was and is "OM" for "Old Man," in part because he was older at a time when BMX was seen as a pre-teen and early teen activity. By the late 1970s, he did things beyond his young age—promoting races, nationwide tours, teaching racing clinics, safety seminars for the C.P.S.C. and starting and consulting with companies while still a teenager. Later, it became a running gag as to just how old he was. In the January 1975 issue of Cycle Illustrated in its report on the Yamaha Bicycle Gold Cup Finals (a.k.a. the Bicycle Motocross Championship of California State), which Breithaupt conceptualized, promoted, and built a custom track for, has him listed as 17 years old. At 17, his age hadn't become a running gag yet, although he could not participate in the Yamaha Bicycle Gold Cup series finals-ironically since he was the race promoter-because he was disqualified after a win in the Expert Class in the first qualifying race at Birmingham High School in Van Nuys, California, with Brian Ramocinski declared the winner. This was the first of three preceding qualifying races prior to the final to be held in September 1974. Only those 16 years and younger could participate and he had turned 17 between the time he signed up for the race and the day the qualifying race was actually held, July 20, 1974. He turned 17 on July 14, 1974, six days before the race. This makes his birth year 1957, and makes him 13 when he started organizing races in Long Beach in November 1970. In fact nine other riders in the event were over 16. In fact, Ramocinski's sponsor, Dirtmasters, and its general manager Mike Devitt protested Breithaupt. Further confirmation came on page 11 of the November 1975 issue of Bicycle Motocross News, which described Breithaupt as an "18-year-old dynamo."
This running joke is with his complicity. He used to put a "?" mark in the space for the rider's age on the ABA sign-up form for when he raced Cruiser class. Also, in part two of a four-part series of interviews by BMXUltra.com profiling Mr. Breithaupt and SE Racing in response to a question "When did you start SE?" he quips "I started SE Racing in Mid 1977 when I was 14." Of course the joke being, if true he helped invent BMX in 1970 when he was seven years old.
Young Breithaupt did not just tend to his own track. He designed the Saddleback Park B.M.X. Track in Orange County, California, Westminster BMX, City of Walnut BMX, Signall Hill BMX, Escape Country, and also collaborated with the municipal government of La Palma, California, to design the La Palma Youth Village BMX track, and also Fountain Valley Boys and Girls Club Track. Significant accomplishments for a teenager by any standard. In later years, Breithaupt designed and built Narler Park in Long Beach, California, the first track with a separate pro section. It was also the site of the last ever National Bicycle Association (NBA) Grandnationals in December 1982. It was a story in Popular Mechanics in 1974 by Mike Anson, headlined, "Promotional Genius at 16."
In his early years, Breithaupt promoted a bevy of races, both independent and in conjunction with the nascent NBA. He was brought on as their National Public Relations Director in 1975 and announced many of their major events, including the 1975 Shimano Grandnationals, which he sat out due to injuries. He also produced and promoted the very first Pro BMX @ Saddleback Park in 1975.
Breithaupt had a hand in virtually every aspect of BMX: racing, promoting, announcing, designing tracks, manufacturing, sponsoring and managing teams. He even had a hand in founding and/or guiding the existence of the founding four BMX publications; Bicycle Motocross News where he wrote some of the first articles and was the first racer interviewed by a nation spanning BMX publication. He was a contributing writer and staff product tester on Minicylce/BMX Action,** later known as Super BMX, when it began to transition from combined minicycle and BMX racing coverage to BMX only reporting.
He was one of the first staff writers with Bicycle Motocross Action, having a monthly editorial article, and co-founded BMX Plus! with Jim Stevens. After he gave up racing to devote more time to his company, SE Racing, he made it to be one of the more innovative organizations in the niche industry of BMX. At least two products bicycle frames conceived in the mid 1970s survive on the market today in modernized form: The Quadangle and the P.K. Ripper the former known for its highly distinctive configuration the other for being the first truly successful aluminum bicycle frame. They are sold by SE Racing-now known as Sports Engineering Racing-to this day, long after many beloved but now obsolete 1970s and 1980s era frames have become beloved museum pieces. Over this was a persistent dark cloud over Breithaupt; that of drug abuse, that had been with him since the 1980s and tied to the untimely loss of his father. It has resulted in his incarceration on three different occasions although he was in his 5th year of recovery as of April 2010. He started the first large wheel (26-inch) Cruiser Classes with the sanctioning bodies, attracting more adults to the sport. He even set bicycle long distance jump (assisted by being towed by a motorcycle) records. He had a hand in starting the first attempt of a racer's Professional Guild in 1976. The list goes on. His being one of the organized sport's first champions (NBA National Champion in 1976) is almost a footnote. Many of the sport's early stars can trace their career beginnings to Breithaupt's Long Beach B.U.M.S. course.
In 1978 at the track in Carson, California, called the Runway because it was next to the skateboard park, Breithaupt ran NBS-sanctioned races. He did all the work—from promoting to setting up the track to recording results. He held the first Pro race at the Runway sanctioned by the NBA, which Harry Leary won, riding for factory JMC. The first National held at Saddleback in 1979 was won by Stompin' Stu Thomsen fresh on the SE Racing team.
He may not have been the very first to put on a BMX race, but it would be very difficult to come up with any other single person who has left a bigger mark on the sport.
On July 4, 2015, he was found dead at age 57 in a vacant lot in Indio, CA. He was a drug addict, primarily cocaine, who started in his early 20s and aside from brief periods of sobriety he never stopped; it was Breithaupt's downfall. His addiction had led him to homelessness, and he was found in 106 degree (F) heat in a makeshift tent.
As an entrepreneur, Breithaupt ventured into many industries, creating over 25 entities. Most were "sports related" and involved Breithaupt's passions. Besides being "The founding Father of BMX," he's considered a pioneer in promoting, marketing and televising extreme sports such as BMX, Skateboarding, Karting, Mixed Martial Arts, Snowboarding, Mountain Biking and Extreme Sports.
Breithaupt's 400 + TV shows, commercials and videos include:
1st TV production of BMX racing distributed internationally; 1987 IBMXF World Championships from Orlando, Fl. thru Prime International, HNK, STAR, TSN, BSN, and on Nickelodeon in the U.S. and others through Breithaupt’s cable syndication of over 60 million homes.
1st Mountain Bike TV program; 1988 SWATCH World Championships from Mammoth Mountain Resort, distributed through ESPN & international networks.
1st BMX Freestyle TV show with ESPN & International distribution; The 1987 AFA SOCKO Finals.
1st to televise the ABA Grand Nationals for ESPN and distribute internationally 1987–1992.
1st to televise Snowboarding; 1988 SIMS/VISION STREET WEAR – SNOWDAZE.
1st to televise Skateboarding; 1987 ESPN/VISION STREET WEAR-ROCK –N-ROLL JAM, then broadcast through international networks.
1st to televise GPV and Luge racing; 1987 GPV RAMP JAM on ESPN, PRIME SPORTS, International distribution.
Other shows and TV series include:
Action Cycle Sports Series – ESPN −1988–1990
Nickelodeon Special Delivery 1987–1990
Kids Sports – TSN Canada, PRIME SPORTS, PRIME INTERNATIONAL-STAR – 1990–1992
Action Karting – PRIME/FOX SPORTS 1992–1993
Boxing at Tony Longval’s Country Club 1991
Bob Hope Chrysler Classic Golf Digest 1992–1993
History of Martial Arts – SHOWTIME – 1993
Adrenaline High – NICKELODEON, ESPN & INTERNATIONAL – 1991
Guinness World Book of Records Day ( BMX, Freestyle & Skateboarding world records) – NBC WORLDWIDE – 1989
World Martial Arts Challenge – UNLV, SHOWTIME, PAY-PER-VIEW, B-Rolls, Pre-show, commercials – 1993
Video Catalogs for GT BICYCLES, MONGOOSE, SE RACING, DIAMOND BACK, SCHWINN, IRONHORSE, TIOGA, ATI, FINISHLINE LUBES and others
IHBA Drag Boat Series – ESPN – 1991–1992
Vintage Grand Prix Series – ESPN – 1992–1993
List of firsts
1970: First sanctioning body with rules, points system, classifications and championship events.
1971: Promoted first California State Championships.
Promoted & conducted first official-paid BMX racing schools.
1972: First California State Champion in 16-over Expert Class
1973: Promoted first 100% trophy race.
First rider featured on a P.O.P. display in all Sears and Montgomery Ward stores for Matthews Motocross.
First featured rider in national news…Parade Magazine and CycleNews.
Built and created first municipal BMX track for cities of LaPalma, Cerritos & Westminster, CA.
1974: Promoted, conceptualized, created, designed and laid out coursed for the Yamaha Bicycle Gold Cup Series with Finals at LA Colesium.
Won Expert Class at first event of the Yamaha Bicycle Gold Cup Series on July 20 at Birmingham High School.
First featured rider in premier issue of Bicycle Motocross News.
Created first BMX trophy figurine used for awards, derived from pictures of the OM on a motobike. Worked with Majestic Trophy in Ontario, CA
First rider and BMX promoter featured in an international magazine (Popular Mechanics).
1975: Promoted, conceptualized, designed, laid out courses for the Yamaha Bicycle Gold Cup II, where there were 6 events over 2 days. ALA ISDT format – Trials, obstacle course, drags, hill climb, BMX race, downhill and Cross Country time clock.
First BMX rider on cover of Shimano World Magazine.
Promoted, staged and announced first BMX Pro Race at Saddleback Park w/$200. purse.
Announced first NBA Grand Nationals at Randall Ranch, sponsored by Shimano
First Nike-sponsored BMX rider.
1976: First to use tubing shape in alloy frames, Foiler teardrop designed for Cycle Pro.
First NBA Sidehack National Champion with Jeff Utterback.
1Created first full BMX uniform, with coordinated helmet, jersey, pants and shoes; red/yellow.
First editor of BMX Action magazine and creator of Scotomania.
Created and conducted first national tour of racing clinics, safety seminars and racing NBA & NBL Nationals.
1978: Created first professional racing organization (P.R.O.)
Co-Founded BMX Plus magazine
Created Cruiser Class, getting NBA, ABA and NBL to recognize and expand racing to include larger bikes with classes for kids through adults.
*The BMX Plus! 1988 Calendar has it allegedly happening on October 23, 1974
**This publication is not to be confused with BMX Action, which began publishing in late 1976
Racing career milestones
Note: In the early days of professional racing, 1976 and prior, many tracks offered small purse prize money to the older racers of an event, even before the official sanctioning bodies offered prize money in formal divisions themselves. Hence, some early "professionals" like Stu Thomsen turning "pro" in 1975 at 16 years old—racing for small amounts of money at track events. This was before the NBA, considered the first true national BMX sanctioning body, had a professional division. For the sake of consistency and standardization noted professional first are for the first pro races for prize money offered by official BMX sanctioning bodies and not independent track events. Professional first are also on the national level unless otherwise indicated.
Started racing: November 14, 1970, when he was 13 years old at an old field called BUMS that became his first track. It was retroactively named Bicycle United Motocross Society (B.U.M.S). It was in Long Beach, California, on the corner of 7th and Bellflower streets.
Sanctioning body: None. Started the B.U.M.S proto sanctioning body.
Home Sanctioning body district(s): American Bicycle Association (ABA) California District 22 (CA-22) (1980–1985)
First race result:1st Place
First win (local):B.U.M.S. BMX
First sponsor: Trickray (for BMX) Yamaha (for motorcycles)
First national win: Yamaha Bicycle Gold Cup series "proto national" on July 20, 1974, at Birmingham High School in Van Nuys, California, but he was disqualified for being over aged at 17 years old. No one over 16 years old was allowed to race despite him actually signing up to race prior to his 17th birthday. This helped established the "Old Man" moniker. His first true national win was in both Open class and in Sidehack class with Jeff Utterback at the National Bicycle Association (NBA) Shawnee Nationals in Shawnee, Oklahoma, on July 17, 1976, doubling.
Turned professional: 1975
First Professional win:1975
Retired: From 20" racing on May 15, 1977, at the Two Wheeler's/RC Cola Race of Champions national to devote more time to his business and promotional career and his associate editorship at Bicycle Motocross Magazine among other commitments, all of which infringed on his racing career. He then started racing a 26-inch Beach Cruiser beginning in 1979. Due largely to the lack of training time incurred because of his responsibilities of running a company and his promotions, he retired altogether from pro racing in May 1983. He himself reclassified an amateur in the ABA's 22–30 and NBL's 25–35 Cruiser Classes. It was joked in the August 1983 issue of BMX Action that they could start figuring out his age by the cruiser class he raced. He raced intermittently in these older amateur cruiser classes in between commitments with his business. He raced in Vet and Hall of Fame races in his spare time. In May 2005 it was announced that Briepthaupt, then at 49 years of age (approximately), would race for SE Bikes (see below in Factory sponsors, professional, SE Bikes).
Approximate height and weight at the height of his career (1974–1978): Height: 5'10; Weight: 175 lbs.
Career factory and major bike shop sponsors
Note: This listing only denotes the racer's primary sponsors. At any given time a racer could have numerous co-sponsors. Primary sponsorships can be verified by BMX press coverage and sponsor's advertisements at the time in question. When possible exact dates are given.
Amateur
Matthews Motocross Products (a division of Leisure Recreation Vehicles (LRV)):* 1973 – early 1974
Matthews Motocross/Yamaha International:* Early 1974 – December 1974 He consulted with Yamaha to create and refine their famous Moto-bike, a BMX bicycle that was designed to mimic the look and feel of a motocross motorcycle, including having shock absorbers built into its frame and fork. It is a famous milestone in BMX with early BMX stars like David Clinton winning the first BMX titles on it but it with its energy robbing shock absorbers was not the future that the BMX bicycle would take.
Dan Gurney All American BMX Bicycles/Bell Helmets:* January 1975–
FMF (Flying Machine Factory):* Early 1976 – December 1976 (Partner w/Tony Rogers & Donnie Emler)
*He was employed with these companies as consultant, team manager official tester as well as a racer.
SE (formerly Scot Enterprises, now called Sports Engineering, Inc.) Racing: January 1977 – 1999. Breithaupt turned professional with this company, which he founded.
Professional
SE (formerly Scot Enterprises, now called Sports Engineering, Inc.) Racing: January 1977 – November 1999. Scot Enterprises, Breithaupt founded and owned this company as an advertising and promotional organization. It expanded into Scot Enterprises Racing Division, which made and sold stickers, T-shirts, and hats. In 1978 it produced its first BMX component the JU-6 frame (JU stood for Jeff Utterback, a top racer at the time, the six referred to his status as the number six rider in the country in the National Bicycle Association (NBA) after the 1977 season). Breithaupt's friend Mike Devitt, took over SE Racing in the late 1980s. After a failed bid to buy out foreign investors, Breithaupt and Devitt lost control of SE Racing's trademarks, and control of the company passed to the foreign investors on October 15, 1999. Devitt and Breithaupt left SE Racing as a result. Later, with Gary Turner (co-founder of GT Racing, later called GT Bicycles), they founded Alliant Bicycles. after Breithaupt and Devitt left the company, a Taiwanese firm acquired SE Racing, but it lay dormant for several years, not making or selling any bikes. Sports Engineering is now owned by Advanced Sports International, which bought SE in August 2002.
SE Bikes (Sports Engineering Bikes, formerly Scot Enterprises Racing Division): 2005–2006 Showing that BMXers never really retire, on May 15, 2005, Breithaupt announced he had signed a contract to race for SE Racing the old company he had founded but left in 1999, in the BMX cruiser class. At an approximate age of 50 in 2006 this would mean he would race in the 46–51 Cruiser class in the American Bicycle Association (ABA) and 50–54 Cruiser class in the National Bicycle League (NBL).
Career bicycle motocross titles
Note: Listed are District, State/Provincial/Department, regional, national, and international titles in italics. "Defunct" refers to that sanctioning body in question no longer existing at the start of the racer's career or at that stage of his or her career. Depending on point totals of individual racers, winners of Grand Nationals do not necessarily win National titles. Series and one off Championships are also listed in block.
Amateur
Bicycle United Motocross Society (B.U.M.S)
1972 California State Championship.
National Bicycle Association (NBA)
1976 Open Grandnational Champion.
1976 National No.1
National Bicycle League (NBL)
1980 16 Expert Grandnational Champion
American Bicycle Association (ABA)
None
United States Bicycle Motocross Association (USBA)
None
International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF)
None
Pro Series Championships
Professional
National Bicycle Association (NBA)
1980 Pro Cruiser National No.3. Jeff Kosmala was Pro Cruiser No. 1 in 1980.
National Bicycle League (NBL)
None
American Bicycle Association (ABA)
None
United States Bicycle Motocross Association (USBA)
None
International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF)
None
Pro Series Championships
Notable accolades
He co-founded BMX Plus! magazine and was contributing editor to both Bicycle Motocross Action and Minicycle/BMX Action (not to be confused with Bicycle Motocross Action, which later condensed its name to BMX Action), which subsequently became Super BMX. Therefore, he had a large hand in all three major founding BMX magazine periodicals.
He put on the first event that could be called a pro-class race anywhere in 1975 at Saddleback Park in Orange, California (US$200 purse).
He was a founding member and President of the Professional Racing Organization (PRO), the first attempt to form a BMX professional racers guild.
He both invented the modern BMX racing Cruiser and the Cruiser class to race them with. In September 1978, Breithaupt appeared at the famous Corona Raceway, in Corona, California, on a converted Emory beach cruiser. It had wheels and low rise handlebars from a motorcycle. That same year he convinced the National Bicycle Association (NBA) to start the Cruiser class.
He also invented the inverted BMX racing bicycle stem (also known as a "gooseneck"). Unlike the standard "quill gooseneck" stem, BMX bicycles in need of a stem with a much tighter clamping force on the bars to eliminate movement forward or back. That could be caused by the more violent physical abuse racers put upon it like pulling with maximum force during racing and jumping their bicycles, these stems were four-point block clamps secured with Allen bolts, unlike the single point quill gooseneck that had a single "pinchbolt" configuration to clamp the bars. Most other stems of this type, like the standard gooseneck, raised the bottom level of the handlebars up, the inverted stem dropped them down. Breithaupt was heading to an NBA National in Las Vegas, Nevada, in 1979 to race cruiser class a new division in BMX that at the time was made up of BMX bicycles (during this time most were converted Beach Cruisers with 26" diameter wheels, built for the larger rider as opposed the standard 20" vehicle). As he was fitting his handle bars onto the stem of the bicycle he noticed that it was to high for his liking and presumably it couldn't be lowered far enough down to get the feel and leverage he desired. he then removed the clamp the part that actually held fast to the handlebars, from the stem, that was inserted into the head tube and into the fork's neck. He flipped it over and reattached it. He was able then to drop the bottom of the bars another few millimeters to his liking. He later won his Cruiser class at this national using that configuration. He would then persuade "Tuff Neck", a leading manufacturer of BMX bicycle parts at the time, to mass-produce the new component.
Held the long distance jump record for bicycles in 1979 at an average 76 feet.* He accomplished it on a SE OM Flyer 26" Cruiser. The record held for 10 years.
He won the very first Pro Cruiser Main of the first Pro Cruiser class in BMX history at the ABA Northwest National in Seattle, Washington, on January 18, 1981, defeating Tim Lillethorupt and Jess Goymon who came in second and third respectively.
In 1990, Breithaupt was inducted into the ABA BMX Hall of Fame.
*The third and last jump for the average was only 58 feet, so the average was brought down and therefore the previous two jumps were significantly longer than 76 feet.
Significant injuries
Broke ankle in November 1974 during photograph session for a book. Was thought never to be able to race again. He was laid up until March 1975.
Racing habits and traits
Miscellaneous
His pants motto* was: "C-YA"
*Riders often put slogans on the seat of their pants instead of their surname or nickname as a small psychological ploy against their competitors behind them to read.
Post-BMX career
After a failed bid to buy out foreign investors Scot Breithaupt and Mike Devitt lost control of SE Racing trademarks and the control of the company passed to the foreign investors on October 15, 1999.
Breithaupt was in the promotional and real estate business, but he still was involved with the sport he helped create on a casual basis including racing. In 2005, Breithaupt raced for SE Racing, now called SE Bikes, in the amateur cruiser classes – proving that senior BMXer's can still have fulfilling post BMX careers.
Breithaupt was found dead in a tent in a vacant lot in Indio, California, on July 4, 2015. Breithaupt was survived by his two sons, Scot Breithaupt Jr. and Brandon Breithaupt, his mother, Carole White Breithaupt, his brother Jeffrey Breithaupt, sister Lynda Breithaupt Muenzer, and several nieces and nephews.
BMX press magazine interviews and articles
"Interview with Scot Breithaupt" Bicycle Motocross News June 1974 Vol. 1 No. 1 pg. 7
"Scott Breithaupt" Bicycle Motocross News August 1974 Vol. 1 No. 3 pg. 18 article in which Breithaupt gives racing pointers.
"Talkin' Twenty-Fours" BMX Action May 1982 Vol. 7 No. 5 pg. 53 side bar
"The Origins of BMX" Super BMX March 1984 Vol. 11 No. 3 pg. 60
"The Origins of BMX" (part II) Super BMX April 1984 Vol. 11 No. 4 pg. 27
BMX magazine covers
Bicycle Motocross News:
July 1974 Vol. 1 No. 2 with Brian Ramocinski
Minicycle/BMX Action & Super BMX:
Bicycle Motocross Action & Go:k
February 1981 Vol. 6 No. 2 (23) to the far right behind John Crews (53) leading and ahead of Bobby Encinas (54), Kenny Nachman (142), and Seth Buccieri (5).
June 1981 Vol. 6 No. 6 with Perry Kramer and R.L. Osborn.
BMX Plus!:
May 1980 Vol. 3 No. 5
Total BMX:
Bicycles and Dirt (ABA Publication):
None
NBA World & NBmxA World (The official NBA/NBmxA publication under two names):
Bicycles Today & BMX Today (The official NBL membership publication under two names):
ABA Action, American BMXer, BMXer (The official ABA membership publication under three names):
USBA Racer (The official USBA membership publication):
Notes
External links
An August 2003 multipart interview by BMXUtra.com. See under "The OM Interview" for the links to the other parts.
The American Bicycle Association (ABA) Website.
The National Bicycle League (NBL) Website.
vintagebmx.com
Breithaupt's faasthelp.com site against Drug Abuse.
1957 births
2015 deaths
American male cyclists
BMX riders
People from Long Beach, California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sekigahara%20Campaign
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Sekigahara Campaign
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The Sekigahara Campaign was a series of battles in Japan fought between the Eastern Army aligned with Tokugawa Ieyasu and the Western Army loyal to Ishida Mitsunari, culminating in the decisive Battle of Sekigahara. The conflict was sparked by a punitive expedition led by Ieyasu against the Uesugi clan in the northeastern Tōhoku region, providing Mitsunari with an opportunity to denounce Ieyasu in the name of the infant ruling taikō Toyotomi Hideyori while the Tokugawa troops were in the field.
Much of the campaign consisted of a struggle to control key castles on the Tōkaidō and the Nakasendō, the main roads linking Edo and the capital of Kyoto. However, battles and sieges far from these key highways, both in the Tōhoku and in pockets of resistance around the capital, had wide-reaching effects on the manoeuvring and availability of troops for the decisive battle at Sekigahara. The campaign also spilled over briefly into the southern island of Kyūshū, but Ieyasu quickly ordered his forces to stand down following his victory for political reasons.
The campaign dramatically changed the political landscape of Japan, resulting in the ascendancy of the Tokugawa Shogunate over the Toyotomi clan and the shifting of political power between the various daimyō who participated in it.
Background
With the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1598, his 5 year-old son Toyotomi Hideyori succeeded him formally as the taikō or imperial regent, and rule of Japan fell under a Council of Five Elders appointed by Hideyoshi as regents for Hideyori until he came of age.
Tokugawa Ieyasu, a member of the council, installed himself in Hideyoshi's former residence of Fushimi Castle and arranged political marriages for his children in defiance of the council's restriction on doing so, drawing political ire. Ishida Mitsunari, one of the Five Commissioners appointed to civil administration by Hideyoshi, attempted to approach Maeda Toshiie, a councilman and guardian of Hideyori, at Ōsaka Castle to conspire against Ieyasu; however, the intervention of Hosokawa Tadaoki, a friend of Ieyasu and of the Maeda clan, convinced Toshiie's son Toshinaga to dissuade Toshiie from opposing Ieyasu.
Mitsunari resorted to attempting an assassination plot on Ieyasu, but when the plot failed, several of Ieyasu's generals independently attempted to eliminate Mitsunari. Mitsunari infamously escaped the castle at night disguised as a woman and fled to Fushimi Castle to beg Ieyasu to protect him from retaliation. Ieyasu agreed on the condition that Mitsunari go into exile in his holding at Sawayama Castle in the spring of 1599. Soon after, Maeda Toshiie died in April, and Toshinaga was elected to replace him; however, Ieyasu himself took up guardianship of Hideyori, occupying Ōsaka Castle on 28 October and further enraging the commissioners and council.
Mobilisation
Uesugi Kagekatsu, another councilman, defied Ieyasu by militarising, ordering 80,000 men to construct a castle in Aizu and expand its fortifications and road networks. On 7 May 1600, Ieyasu dispatched a letter to Kagekatsu demanding an explanation, Kagekatsu's chief advisor, Naoe Kanetsugu responded with mocking refusal. Subsequent negotiations broke down, with Kagekatsu even attempting to have one of Ieyasu's envoys killed as a spy, and after Kagekatsu refused to present in person at Ōsaka to account for his actions, Ieyasu summoned a war council on 12 July to plan a punitive expedition.
On 24 July, Ieyasu departed from Ōsaka Castle for his punitive campaign, stopping at Fushimi Castle the next night to give his retainer Torii Mototada instructions against a likely Ishida-backed assault before continuing towards Aizu. Ieyasu was wary of a sudden attack by Mitsunari and his allies, and so he marched at a slow pace to monitor his rivals' movements, arriving in Edo on 10 August where he began mustering troops. Date Masamune and his uncle Mogami Yoshiaki, rulers of Sendai and Yamagata respectively on the border with the Uesugi clan's territory, returned swiftly to their home provinces to defend against Kagekatsu. Mitsunari immediately began summoning conspirators to Sawayama Castle following Ieyasu's departure, some even being convinced to abandon their journeys to join Ieyasu's campaign such as Ōtani Yoshitsugu. On 17 August Mitsunari's war council resolved to form the Western Army as a coalition against Ieyasu, with councilman Mōri Terumoto as its nominal commander-in-chief.
On 22 August 1600, the coalition entered Ōsaka Castle and proclaimed the creation of the Western Army, claiming guardianship of Hideyori. The same day, Mitsunari issued a series of 13 charges against Ieyasu on behalf of the Five Commissioners and three members of the Council of Five Regents. This proclamation effectively marked the declaration of war between the Western and Eastern armies.
Chūbu-Kansai theatre
Engagements around Kyoto
The first major assault of the Western Army in the region of the capital was the siege of Fushimi Castle commencing 27 August. Torii Mototada was resolved to defend the garrison to the last, and despite setbacks the defense held until 6 September when Mototada committed seppuku with his remaining forces, majorly setting back Mitsunari's attempts to support his castles along the Nakasendō road. Nine days later, Mitsunari entered Ōgaki Castle uncontested.
Though the Western Army had attempted to win over the loyalty of Hosokawa Fujitaka, the father of the Eastern Army general Hosokawa Tadaoki, Mitsunari had alienated Fujitaka during the period following Ieyasu's departure from Ōsaka through an abortive hostage-taking ploy resulting in the death of Tadaoki's wife. Fujitaka had instead fortified Tanabe in Tango Province with 500 men in support of Ieyasu. In mid-August, even prior to the official denouncement of Ieyasu, 15,000 Ishida troops under Onoki Shigekatsu had begun a siege of the fortress. However, Fujitaka's influence and prestige as a scholar-poet was so great that the sympathetic Ishida troops gave a weak offense, such as "forgetting" to load cannons before firing on the keep. The siege only ended 19 October following an order by the emperor to surrender to preserve his life and his precious library, following which the Western Army facilitated his retirement to Kyoto.
Ōtsu Castle on the southwest shore of Lake Biwa, garrisoned by Kyōgoku Takatsugu came under siege on 13 October by the 15,000-strong Western forces of Mōri Motoyasu, Tachibana Muneshige and Tsukushi Hirokado, along with a naval blockade by Mashita Nagamori. The staunch resistance of the Eastern Army troops under Takatsugu was only ended on the 21 October after the Western Army bombarded the castle from Mount Nagara, by which point the Western besiegers, like Onoki Shigekatsu's troops at Tanabe, were too late to join the decisive battle at Sekigahara.
Tōkaidō campaign
On 29 August, Ieyasu had established a base of operations in Oyama, and by 1 September Ieyasu began relocating 50,000 troops mustered in Edo north to Oyama, preparing to strike at Kagekatsu in Aizu but not expecting to do so, believing the Date, Mogami and Maeda forces sufficient to halt the Uesugi advance. With the news of the fall of Fushimi, Ieyasu quickly returned to Edo by 10 September, already planning a westward return. Eager to secure the crossroads near Gifu Castle now threatened by the Western Army at Ōgaki Castle, Ieyasu sent Fukushima Masanori, Kuroda Nagamasa, Honda Tadakatsu, Ii Naomasa and Hosokawa Tadaoki ahead along the Tōkaidō road with 16,000 men, followed by 15,000 men under Ikeda Terumasa, Asano Yoshinaga and Yamanouchi Kazutoyo, to fortify Masanori's holding of Kiyosu and to seize Gifu Castle from Oda Hidenobu. The combined 31,000 troops of this "Tōkaidō Corps" quickly besieged Gifu on 28 September and forced the capitulation of Hidenobu.
Meanwhile in Ōsaka, Mōri clan retainer Kikkawa Hiroie was enraged by Mitsunari confining Mōri Terumoto, nominal commander-in-chief of the Western Army, to the castle, and in response to the insult Hiroie secretly communicated with the Tōkaidō Corps promising to keep the 36,000 Mōri troops from engaging the Eastern Army. Mōri Hidemoto, Terumoto's cousin and deputy, also urged Terumoto to defect to the Eastern Army before any engagement occurred.
On 29 September, the Tōkaidō Corps occupied the highlands of Akasaka to threaten Ōgaki Castle as Nabeshima Naoshige besieged the Eastern Army stronghold of Matsuoka Castle. The following day, 30,000 Western troops under Mori Hidemoto, Chōsokabe Morichika, and Nabeshima Katsushige besieged An'nōzu Castle, held by Fukuda Nobutaka and his 1,700-strong garrison. Ishida Mitsunari left Ōgaki Castle on 1 October for Sawayama Castle, where he relented and summoned Mōri Terumoto, who had returned to his own domain to raise troops, to return; one messenger was intercepted, and though a second messenger succeeded in prompting Terumoto to depart with his 30,000 troops, they were delayed from reaching the major confrontations.
Ieyasu moved quickly towards the capital region, reaching Shimada in Suruga Province on 12 October and Nakaizumi in Totomi Province the following day. At the same time, Mōri Hidemoto and Kikkawa Hiroie entered Mino Province and fortified Mount Nangu. During this march, Ieyasu received a letter from Western Army commander Kobayakawa Hideaki offering to defect to the Eastern Army. On 17 October Ieyasu reached Kiyosu Castle, intending to bypass Ōgaki entirely to threaten Sawayama Castle or Ōsaka, and 2 days later he had arrived at Gifu Castle.
Ieyasu arrived in Akasaka around noon on 20 October, meeting up with the main body of the Tōkaidō Corps, and encamped on the hill at Okayama. Western Army generals convinced Mitsunari to permit a testing raid, and Shima Sakon and Akashi Masataka led a small force to attack the Eastern Army at the Kuisegawa river near Ōgaki, mauling the Eastern Army and forcing them to retreat to Sekigahara to regroup. That night, Shimazu Yoshihiro with Ukita Hideie's support suggested a night assault on the exhausted Eastern Army troops, but was opposed by Shima Sakon who convinced Mitsunari to decline the proposal, insulting Yoshihiro. Mitsunari instead ordered a general withdrawal in the evening to the valley of Sekigahara after learning of Kobayakawa Hideaki's occupation of Mount Matsuo, emptying Ōgaki Castle of most of its garrison.
On 21 October, the Western Army arrayed itself in the valley with Mitsunari's headquarters at the foot of Mount Sasao facing the Eastern Army, while Mōri Hidemoto led a separate formation at the Eastern Army's left flank at the foot of Mount Nangu. While both sides became aware of each others' positions at dawn, a thick fog halted plans initially and battle was not commenced until 8am when the fog cleared. The subsequent battle of Sekigahara saw a decisive defeat for the Western Army, with Mitsunari's contingent annihilated by Kobayakawa Hideaki defecting to the Eastern Army and rolling down the formation's right flank, while after a smaller engagement and the treachery of Kikkawa Hiroie forced the eastern formation under Mōri Hidemoto to withdraw rather than join battle.
From 21 to 30 October, Ōgaki Castle was subsequently besieged and taken by the Eastern Army, while on 22 October Kobayakawa Hideaki began besieging Sawayama, ostensibly as a sign of penance and loyalty to Ieyasu; Ishida Masazumi, Mitsunari's brother and commander at Sawayama, capitulated and committed suicide on the second day of the siege. Ishida Mitsunari and Ankokuji Ekei were captured fleeing north from Sekigahara, and were subsequently executed in Kyoto on 9 November.
Nakasendō campaign
On 25 August, Ōtani Yoshitsugu had made contact with the Sanada clan at Ueda Castle and recruited Sanada Masayuki and his son Yukimura; the eldest son, Sanada Nobuyuki, had already been sent by Masayuki to join the Tokugawa, with whom he already had marriage ties through his wife Komatsuhime in an attempt to preserve the Sanada clan. After dispatching the Tōkaidō Corps, Ieyasu sent his son Tokugawa Hidetada along the Nakasendō road with 36,000 men towards Mino, ordering him to threaten Ueda Castle while continuing on to meet the Tōkaidō Corps. He reached Karuizawa on 7 October and subsequently arrived in Komoro on 12 October; however, there he disobeyed his father's orders and instead marched on Ueda, encaping at Sometani. Komatsuhime herself had a brief but bloodless confrontation at Numata Castle with Masayuki and Yukimura before the siege of Ueda began in earnest.
Hidetada, being unexperienced in warfare at 21 years old, besieged Ueda Castle and its commander Sanada Masayuki unsuccessfully until 16 October, at which point he realised his delay and broke the siege to continue westward along the Nakasendō. He would still, however, only rendezvous with his disappointed father's forces late in the day on 21 October, after the Battle of Sekigahara had been fought and decided.
Tōhoku theatre
Uesugi Kagekatsu's uprising began in earnest even before the Western Army's proclamation, but Date Masamune and Mogami Yoshiaki began responding to hostilities even before the declaration of war. The Satake clan of Kubota Domain declared neutrality in the conflict due to a secret treaty with the Uesugi and the divided sympathies of clan head Satake Yoshinobu. Maeda Toshinaga also declared for the Tokugawa, but was initially blocked from supporting the campaign due to an internal conflict with the pro-Western faction within the Maeda clan led by his brother Toshimasa in Noto Province. Toshinaga eventually laid siege to Daishōji Castle on 7 September, prompting the suicide of the garrison commander and Toshimasa's capitulation.
Keichō Dewa Campaign
The northern campaign in and around Dewa province, known as the Keichō Dewa Campaign, was the key flashpoint providing the casus belli for the Sekigahara Campaign at large, and largely consisted of actions by the Uesugi clan against the combined forces of Mogami Yoshiaki and Date Masamune in an unsuccessful attempt to draw Ieyasu's troops northward from Edo.
In the course of responding to the Uesugi clan's mobilisation prior to the declaration of war, Date Masamune seized Shiroishi Castle south of Sendai from the Western Army-aligned Uesugi army in a short siege from the 18–19 August. Masamune's 20,000 troops under Katakura Kagetsuna, Oniniwa Tsunamoto and Yashiro Kageyori attacked Matsukawa, defended by 6,000 defenders under Honjo Shigenaga and Suda Nagayoshi, on October 6, but were repelled.
Uesugi Kagekatsu nominated Naoe Kanetsugu to lead the campaign against the Date and Mogami. The three-division invasion of Mogami territory was launched on 14 October with the aims of taking Yamagata Castle, the 10,000-strong headquarters of Mogami Yoshiaki. Kanetsugu advanced from Yonezawa on 14 October with 20,000 troops of the first division westward towards Yamagata Castle; en route, the Uesugi army besieged Hataya Castle on 18 October, where the garrison of 300 led by Eguchi Gohei fell defending it to the last man. Simultaneously, the 4,000-strong second division under Honmura Chikamori and Yokota Munetoshi besieged Kaminoyama Castle south of Yamagata, held by the Mogami retainer Satomi Minbu; the Uesugi forces conquered it but suffered setbacks thanks to a Mogami counterattack, losing Chikamori in battle and delaying the second division's approach towards Yamagata. The third division, comprising 3,000 men under Shida Yoshihide and Shimo Yoshitada, also advanced towards Yonegawa from the north via Shōnai.
Kanetsugu arrived at Hasedō Castle on 21 October, the day of the Battle of Sekigahara, commencing the Siege of Hasedō. During the course of the siege, Date Masamune and Rusu Masakage crossed the mountain passes to encamp 2.5 km east of Yamagata on 24 October, and Rusu Masakage led an attempt to relieve the siege, prompting Kanetsugu to attempt to storm Hasedō; the assault was repelled, and Kanetsugu retreated leaving a holding force to threaten Hasedō. On November 5, news finally reached Kanetsugu of the defeat at Sekigahara and orders were given to lift the siege entirely, withdrawing the skeleton force to Yonezawa. Date Masamune capitalised on this withdrawal by attempting to besiege Fukushima Castle on 12 November, but withdrew when Uesugi Kagekatsu led a force to relieve the defenders. The Uesugi conflict with the Date and Mogami would outlast the Sekigahara Campaign proper, with a subsequent abortive attempt by Date Masamune to take Fukushima Castle defeated in battle at Matsukawa on 28 May 1601.
Kyūshū theatre
In the run-up to hostilities, Nabeshima Naoshige of Saga Domain intended to support the Tokugawa; however, his son Katsushige was present at Mitsunari's war council on 17 August and swayed him towards joining the Western Army. However, while the Nabeshima forces participated in some operations on Honshu including the assaults on Fushimi and Annotsu, Naoshige eventually recalled Katsushige to Kyūshū prior to the decisive battle at Sekigahara and switched allegiance to the Eastern Army. Tachibana clan head Tachibana Muneshige also joined the Western Army forces under the Mōri clan, leaving the defense of their hegemon Ōtomo clan's territory to his wife and co-clan head Ginchiyo. However, following the defeat at Sekigahara which Muneshige could not attend due to the protracted siege of Ōtsu, Muneshige also returned to defend his Kyūshū holdings.
Katō Kiyomasa quickly began a campaign in Kyūshū to besiege the holdings of Konishi Yukinaga, a Mōri vassal and rival of Kiyomasa's who had fought under the Western Army at Sekigahara and fled into hiding following the battle. Kuroda Yoshitaka also separately marched on Ōtomo Yoshitsugu's territory, taking Ishitatewara Castle easily on 19 October. Kiyomasa besieged Udo Castle before meeting up with Kuroda Yoshitaka, who had already conquered several minor locations on Kyūshū, and Nabeshima Katsushige, whose family had defected to the Tokugawa. The two then began the siege of Yanagawa in Chikugo Province, defended by Tachibana Muneshige and Tachibana Ginchiyo. The Tachibana troops continued to hold out in the castle, with Ginchiyo organising an ad-hoc militia of nuns to slow the advance of the Eastern Army, donning armour herself to serve as Muneshige's rearguard. Muneshige eventually surrendered the castle following the suggestion that he defect to the Eastern Army in order to attack the Shimazu clan, their long-time rivals; however, Ieyasu instituted a plan of appeasement for the Shimazu to prevent unrest following their defeat at Sekigahara, and so forbade any further action against them.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Paul Davis used the following sources to compile the chapter "Sekigahara, 21 October 1600" in 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present
De Lange, William. Samurai Battles: The Long Road to Unification Groningen: Toyo Press, 2020
Sadler, A.L. The Maker of Modern Japan: The Life of Tokugawa Ieyasu London: George Allen & Unwin, 1937
Sansom, George. A History of Japan from 1334–1615 Stanford University Press, 1961
Turnbull, Stephen. The Samurai: A Military History New York: Macmillan, 1977
1600 in Japan
Wars involving Japan
Conflicts in 1600
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew%20Roots
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Hebrew Roots
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The Hebrew Roots Movement (HRM) is a religious movement that advocates adherence to the Torah and believes in Jesus, whom they often refer to by the Hebrew name Yeshua, as the Messiah.
The movement emphasizes and promotes the belief that the Law of Moses was not abolished by Jesus and is therefore still in effect on his followers. Because HRM believes the Mosaic law is still active, they advocate the keeping of the seventh day Sabbath, the Torah feasts, the kosher food laws, and circumcision. Some HRM also choose to wear tzitzit and other Jewish religious items. However, HRM do not follow Judaism or embrace obedience to the Talmud.
HRM is not a monolithic movement with a central set of doctrines or a formal organizational structure. Rather, HRM is made up of various independent groups, congregations, and sects. Many adherents of HRM prefer not to use the term "Hebrew Roots Movement." They self-identify as "Torah-keepers," "Torah-observant Christians", "Messianics," or "Pronomians."
History
Since the early 20th century, different religious organizations have been teaching a belief in Jesus (called Yeshua by adherents) as mankind's redeemer and savior from man's own sinful nature and a lifestyle in keeping with the Torah, the Sabbath and the annual Feasts (or mo'adim, Holy Days). These include Messianic Judaism (to a very limited degree) in 1916, the Sacred Name Movement (SNM) in 1937, and the Worldwide Church of God (WCG) in the 1930s, and, later, the Hebrew Roots Movement. Thus far, the WCG has had the greatest impact on all organizations which teach these beliefs, including obedience to much of the Old Testament law, both nationally and internationally until about 1994–95. Within a few years after the death of its founder, Herbert W Armstrong, in 1986, the succeeding church administration modified the denomination's doctrines and teachings in order to be compatible with mainstream evangelical Christianity, while many members and ministers left and formed other churches that conformed to many, but, not all, of Armstrong's teachings. Consequently, the WCG spawned numerous splinter groups, with most of these new churches adopting names bearing the term "Church of God" (COG) and retaining the belief system developed by Armstrong.
In contrast, Hebrew Roots (or sometimes, Hebraic Roots) is a grassroots movement without an ecclesiastical superstructure and it does not adhere to the COG belief system, nor does it adhere to Messianic Judaism, or to the SNM, although there are commonalities. A number of its founders began teaching about the need to keep the 7th Day Sabbath, to observe annual Feasts, and to obey Old Testament commandments years before these topics were taught and accepted by some in the Christian churches. These early teachers include William Dankenbring (1964) and Dean Wheelock (1981) (both of whom had prior associations with different Churches of God), Joe Good (1978), and Brad Scott (1983). Batya Wootten's curiosity about the Gentile majority in many Messianic Jewish congregations resulted in her first book about the two houses of Israel in 1988. This was later followed by her 1998 book entitled Who is Israel (now renamed in its 4th edition as Redeemed Israel).
In 1994, Dean and Susan Wheelock received their federal trademark for the term "Hebrew Roots", after which they began publishing the Hebrew Roots magazine in April/May 1998, and later a website at Hebrewroots.net. The goal of this group is "Exploring the Hebrew Roots of the Faith Once Delivered", "roots" which go back to not only Yeshua and the Talmidim (Disciples), but to the Nazarenes of the first century and, ultimately, the original Hebrews (Ivrim), Abraham and his offspring, who were the first to "cross over" (which is one view of what "Hebrew" means in the Hebrew language). Those who continue in this Hebraic walk seek out the history, culture, and faith of the first century believers who, like Abraham and Moses obeyed God's voice, charge, commandments, statutes, and laws (Gen 26:5). The 41,000 denominations of Christianity commonly believe that such obedience (viz, to the 613 Torah commands) is no longer required. This is largely due to a number of statements by Paul the Apostle.
The Hebrew Roots movement began emerging as a distinct phenomenon in the mid-1990s (1993–96). In 1997, Dean Cozzens of Open Church Ministries (Colorado Springs, CO) published "The Hebrew Movement", claiming that God had foreordained four major moves for the 20th century, Pentecostalism, faith healing, the Charismatic movement and finally the Hebrew Roots movement, the "final stage of empowerment" before Christ returns. Several Hebrew Roots ministries are now preferring to use the term Awakening instead of the term "movement" which has been used widely since the 1960s to define politically oriented movements.
The movement has accelerated in the last few years, mainly because of a shift within the Messianic Jewish community. The Hebrew Roots movement and a few Messianic Jewish groups diverge on the issue of One Law theology (one law for the native born and the sojourner, c.f. Numbers 15:16) which Hebrew Roots subscribes to, but which some Messianic Jewish groups deny. One Hebrew Roots teacher, Tim Hegg, responded to this issue by defending what he believes to be the biblical teaching of One Torah theology and its implications concerning the obligations of Torah obedience for new Messianic believers from the nations. The Two-House and One Law differences have affected musicians who are welcomed by Hebrew Roots fellowships notwithstanding their beliefs: "...many Messianic Jewish artists who are heavily influenced by organizations like the MJAA and the UMJC have been told by their leadership that if they ever appear at an MIA event they will not be able to play with them again".
Beliefs
The books of both the Old and New Testaments are held as holy books. The Torah serves as the foundation to all subsequent understanding and interpretation of scripture. A foundational distinction of the Hebrew Roots movement is the manner in which scripture is translated and interpreted so that the latter scriptures, particularly the New Testament (usually called by adherents the "Brit Chadashah", a modern Hebrew usage to refer to these scriptures, or "Apostolic Scriptures"), do not conflict with Torah commandments. Those in the Hebrew Roots movement believe that Yeshua the Messiah did not come to establish a new religion or to do away with the Law of Moses, as Yeshua states in Matt. 5:17, but to clarify that the Jewish Oral Law was not of divine origin. An example of such is at Mark 7:1-13.
Salvation derives from the belief in Yeshua the Messiah as personal savior, not from commandment/Torah keeping. Hebrew Roots followers believe that sin is breaking the Torah (cf. 1 John 3:4), all of the purity laws such as dietary restrictions and sabbath keeping are in the Torah, thus it is sinful to not keep the sabbath and to eat forbidden animals, among other social and religious observance laws. They believe that the ability to obey God's laws is an effect of God's Grace and outpouring of the Holy Spirit onto His people. People would not be able to keep the laws absent of God's holiness, which shows why humans are sinners in need of a Savior. Yeshua said he did not come to change the law, but to fulfill it (Matthew 5:17). This means that prior to Yeshua, Israel was attempting to obey the Lord out of their own strength. 50 days after Yeshua rose was the first outpouring of the Holy Spirit (Pentecost). Once people had access to the Spirit and God's Grace, obeying God's law went from impossible to possible.
The Jewish Oral Law (the Talmud) does not represent Scriptural requirements to be obeyed, but can provide deeper understanding as to how some have applied the scriptures to practical life. Traditions considered to have Pagan origins, such as Christmas, adopted by Judaism and/or Christianity are to be avoided.
Old Testament/Torah Laws and the teachings of the New Testament are to be obeyed by both Jews and Gentiles in the community of believers. (See Numbers 15:15–16 for the explanation).
The Hebrew language is generally studied because it amplifies an understanding of the Scriptural text.
Unlike most Americans, followers of the Hebrew Roots movement actively study the scriptures as well as the history, faith, and culture of the first and second century, to understand how traditional Christianity diverged from its Hebrew roots.
The mo'adim or appointed times listed in Leviticus 23, including the 7th day Sabbath and the Feast days, foreshadow the 1st and 2nd comings of the Messiah and the Creator's plan of salvation for the world.
Jewish feasts
Hanukkah and Purim can be recognized as being more of a national holiday (such as the American 4 July Independence Day) and are generally explained in-season. They may or may not be observed since they are not commanded in the Torah.
The Feasts of YHWH (Lev 23:2)
Hebrew Roots adherents teach that the seven Torah annual Sabbath Holy Days (sometimes called High Sabbaths) reveal the Messiah Jesus Christ and his plan of salvation. "In the festivals, God explains, defines, demonstrates and reinforces Himself and His plan". They believe that the feasts were ordained at creation (Gen. 1:14—seasons = mo'adim in Hebrew (mow-ah-deem'--which is the plural of the singular [mo'ed]): appointed times or rehearsals), and are YHWH's (Yahwehs) feasts—not Jewish or Israeli holidays or "our" feasts (Lev 23). They also abide by the instructions given in Lev. 18:1–3; and Lev. 20:23 prohibiting pagan customs (e.g. Christmas and Easter).
The feasts in Hebrew are termed chag, which comes from the Hebrew root word chagag, meaning "to move in a circle, to march in a sacred procession, to celebrate or dance." Although it is commonly stated there are seven feasts, it is perhaps more precise to state that there are seven appointed times which include the three feasts (chagim). The weekly 7th day Sabbath is also considered an appointment.
Scripture indicates that these chags are to be observed at the Temple in Jerusalem, which is not possible today. In a more profound fulfillment, however, believers have now become the spiritual temple in which the Holy Spirit (Ruach HaKodesh) dwells and His name is now placed within the believer to determine the place of observance (e.g. Rev 22:4). Believers rejoice and rehearse the meaning of these days when they gather to meet.
The two seasons (Spring and Fall) of the appointments and their feasts form both a history and a prophetic picture of things to come (Col 2:16–17; Heb 10:1). They portray the two comings of Jesus Christ, in as much as the two daily Temple sacrifices are also types. In the first century the Jewish people debated whether there would be two comings (the Suffering Servant or the Conquering King) of the Messiah which precipitated John the Baptist's question (Matt 11:3).
1 & 2. Feast of Unleavened Bread (Passover) | Chag haMatzot (Chag haPesach)
Unleavened Bread is a seven-day firstfruits of barley harvest festival where unleavened bread is to be eaten during this time. Believers dispose of all yeast laden bread products (it is not called the feast of unleavened beer). Yeast is a fungal spore which is present in the air and can infiltrate bread dough and make it rise through the process of fermentation—not by induced chemical reaction (e.g. baking soda). Symbolically, unleavened bread contains no yeast. Leaven is a symbol of false doctrine (sin) that is spread through the air and of which believers must be aware (Matt 16:6–12).
Historically, this festival has been commonly called the Feast of Passover and the festival separated into two festivals by some Messianics: Passover and Unleavened Bread since there is a Sabbath (mo'ed=appointment) on the first and last days of the Feast. Technically it is only one festival with only the first day of the Feast commonly termed Passover (named for the lamb (Ex 12:21) eaten that night and also refers to YHWH (i.e. the in most Bibles) passing over the Israelite homes (Ex 12:23). Over the centuries the term Passover in the Gospel accounts has become somewhat clouded: e.g. Did the term begin the season on Nisan 10 when the lambs were chosen? Did it only refer to Nisan 14? Or did it refer to the entire seven day festival? One might see a similar situation with Christmas and the Christmas season.
There is no record of the Jewish people changing their observance of the Passover date. Both John 4:6 and 19:14 are offered as evidence that the traditional observance of the Lord's Supper (also called the "Christian Passover") was not held the night before the Jewish Passover. John was a Jew and, therefore, used Jewish time of day in both verses. Christ's placement on the cross at 9 AM and death at 3 PM fulfills the dual typology of temple sacrifices, the slaying of the Passover lambs at 3 PM, and the setting of the Sun (according to Jewish culture began at the noon hour— i.e. “between the evenings”). (See Quartodecimanism and Passover (Christian holiday). Consequently, some Hebrew Roots adherents follow the Jewish time of observance, not the Roman time, and are aware that a Passover meal is not plausible where leavened bread is used in a meal as a "sop" (John 13:26–30) along with other timing inconsistencies with Roman time such as John 13:1 and 18:28. Others in the movement may still observe the traditional Last Supper Passover the night before. and offer the similar Gospel accounts of Mark 14:12–26; Matt 26:17–30; and Luke 22:70 as evidence to the contrary. Although the issue is more complex than this quite brief summary, the observing of either of the two different times, whichever one chooses, thus far, has not been a serious dividing issue in the movement. The Jewish Seder may or may not be followed as a general outline, but the inclusion of the Messiah's life and events into the evening's observance is always addressed.
Meaning: The festival is rich in many meanings as traditionally taught and for the Torah pursuant Hebrew Roots believer in Christ.
3. Feast of Weeks (Pentecost) | Chag Shavuot
Pentecost is a Greek word meaning “fiftieth (day)”. Shavuot (Shah-voo-oat') is the Hebrew word. The day is also called by other names, such as the Feast of Harvest (Ex. 23:16), Feast of Weeks (Ex. 34:22), and Day of Firstfruits (Num. 28:26). The main Shavuot ritual involved the "new meal-offering" which was the main ritual of that day and consisted of two loaves of leavened bread. Scripture does not directly reveal the meaning of the two loaves and various conjectures have been made: e.g. the two Houses of Israel, Israelites and Gentiles, etc. Many begin the count to Pentecost on the first weekly Sabbath following the Passover day, while others begin the count on Nisan 15 following the Jewish tradition and interpretation of which constitutes a "sabbath". This difference in counting is not a dividing issue. People observe either the one day or the other according to their conscience and knowledge of scripture and still gather to meet on the weekly Sabbath and other annual Sabbath days.
Meaning: The day pictures the firstfruits of the wheat harvest, the Holy Spirit given to the Apostles, and a type of Jubilee (biblical) since it occurs 50 days after the Wave Sheaf Offering during the Feast of Unleavened Bread. The meaning of the day has also been compared to the Bride of Christ: “It signifies the completion of the cleansing and preparation of the Bride of Messiah (that's us!) for her wedding day.” Jewish tradition indicates that the Torah was given on Shavuot. It was the acceptance of Torah which bound ancient Israel to God in a marriage contract. “All ancient Israelite marriages required a marriage contract, or covenant document, called a Ketubah (Keh-too'-bah). The Torah constitutes the Ketubah between God and the children of Israel. The bride was required to accept the terms of the Ketubah (a kind of covenant) so they could be fully married. Israel, as the bride, did this when she said:"... 'All that the LORD [YHWH] has spoken we will do.'" (Ex. 19:8). Shavuot has also been linked as a type of “Eighth Day” to the Feast of Unleavened Bread.
4. Trumpets | Yom Teruah (Rosh HaShanah)
Jews call this day Rosh Hashanah—but it is not termed so in scripture where it is commanded to be kept. Instead it is found in Ezk. 29:17 and 45:18. The Hebrew word for trumpets is also not used where the command to be blown is found in Lev 23:24. An exact translation of the term would be 'Feast of Clamor' or 'Feast of Acclamation' or, the 'Day of Blowing'—as the Jews sometime name it. Instead, the day is most commonly known as Yom Teruah (Yohm Teh-roo-ah') and is translated into English as 'Feast of Trumpets”. It is not clear whether a trumpet or shofar is to be blown on this day. The ancient Jewish tradition, however, was to blow a shofar.
Meaning: This day is also known as the 'Day of the Awakening Blast.' with at least four meanings. 1) Tradition holds that loud blasts are connected to this day when the Messiah will be crowned King over all the earth (Num 23:21); 2) when the people of the earth hear the sound of the shofar they are to repent of their sins, and 3) the resurrection of the dead at the return of the King, and 4) a battle cry of the King's vengeance which that rehearses the coming of the "Day of the Lord." The Jews also call Trumpets the “Day of Judgment”.
5. Atonement | Yom Kippur
In Hebrew yom means "day" and kippur is from a root meaning "to atone". On this day the Great Shofar (the Shofar haGadol) is blown to signify the “Day of Judgment”—another name for Yom Kippur.
Meaning: The general meaning of this appointed day of [Yom Kippur] is a generally similar to those in both the Jewish and Christian faiths: it is a day of fasting, repentance, and acknowledgment of the covering sacrifice of Jesus the Christ (Yeshua HaMashiach) for sin. It is commonly understood that the Messiah is the first goat. It is not so commonly understood that He is the second goat that is set forth to go into the wilderness—into the world—to fulfill His purpose in two comings. Some recognize this understanding in Hebrew Roots, some do not. The Feast Days are all about the Messiah and His Plan of Salvation for mankind.
6. Booths (Tabernacles) | Chag haSukkot (Sukkot)
Sukkot is a seven-day autumn harvest festival where believers are instructed to dwell in temporary dwellings (Lev 23). Although no specific harvest crop is noted in scripture, Jewish tradition associates wine and water with festivals at Temple rituals. The Hebrew word Sukkot is usually translated as "tabernacles," or "booths" and is the plural form of sukka (sue’-kah)— a Hebrew word meaning tent or (temporary)booth that one lived in–not the Tabernacle (which was used for worship and was the portable sanctuary in the wilderness). The sukka symbolizes man's need to depend upon God for food, water, and shelter. Other translations translate the word more closely to its intended meaning of a tent or booth; hence the name “Feast of Booths”. “This feast is also known by other names, such as, the Festival of Ingathering (Ex. 23:16), the Feast of the Nations, the Festival of Dedication, the Festival of Lights, and the Season of Our Joy.
Meaning: Anciently the feast represented the wandering in the wilderness and the physical harvest. For the believer, today, Sukkot has additional manifold spiritual meanings: it is the church’s journey; the harvest of souls at the end of the age (Olam Hazeh=”this world”) (Matt13:39; Rev.14:15; Joel 3:13), while the 7 days and the Feast being the 7th appointment also foreshadow the millennial reign of Christ in the 7,000th year with His Bride. These seven days especially represent a time to place the cares of our life aside for a time, to fellowship, to learn, to recreate, and, perhaps have the opportunity to travel to beautiful areas of the nation where more than 110 festival locations (including Church of God) are located and share in meaning of the festival. It has a far deeper meaning and expression than Christmas. The last day of the feast is known as Hoshana Rabbah.
7. Eighth Day | Shemini Atzeret
The Hebrew word means "Eighth [day of] Assembly" and immediately follows the Feast of Sukkot. Hebrew Roots adherents view this day in a different light than those in the Jewish faith in which the day is “characterized as a day when the Jewish people "tarries" to spend an additional day with God at the end of Sukkot”.
Meaning: There is no direct Scriptural indication for what the day means; however, clues may be determined in the use of the number 8 in scripture. The number 8 is widely accepted as meaning “a new beginning”. It is prophetic of the time after the 7000 year millennium when the White Throne Judgment is held. A new beginning, termed the “World to Come” (Olam Haba in Hebrew) will occur with the establishment of a new Heavens, new Earth, and a new Jerusalem as described in Revelation 22.
Messianics and some in Hebrew Roots combine this appointment with the Feast of Sukkot and, therefore, do not recognize it as the special day that it is made to be.
Christology
There is no unified Christology in the Hebrew Roots movement. The vast majority believe that Yeshua is God in the flesh. However, there are those who don't, stating that the "notion of a "Trinity" or any other "God in the flesh" Messiah teaching is a fundamental violation of that clear understanding of the ONE and ONLY true God".
Other beliefs
Hebrew Roots teachers emphasize the adoption of all Christians into the faith of Abraham, often referred to in the Bible as the unified "House of Israel" (), (), (), (), (). This unified "House of Israel" consists of Jews and Non-Jews who maintain faith in the Messiah and a Spirit-led adherence to the Torah, God's teaching and instruction, as a lifestyle of faith and love.
Hebrew Roots followers believe that Christians have the "testimony of Jesus," but are often found innocently to be keeping fewer commandments than they are intended to () according to the erroneous idea that Yeshua died to do away with the Torah, thus abolishing it and any requirements to "guard" or "keep" it, which is contrary to scripture.
The Hebrew Roots movement emphasizes the completion of the unified "House of Israel" in Yeshua, which includes both Jews and non-Jews. Its followers believe that they are co-heirs and equal members of the chosen people of the God of Israel through the blood of Messiah, and that returning to a 1st-century mindset provides deeper and more authentic insights into the Hebrew idioms of the New Testament (which are often garbled after their translation to Greek), which provides deeper cultural understanding of scripture. Also of importance is a greater understanding of the dispersion of tribes of Israel, and the future regathering of those tribes according to prophecies of scripture.
Some Hebraic Roots congregations encourage the use of Hebrew-based forms of the sacred names, but this is generally a minor emphasis.
Christian Hebrew Roots movement
The Hebrew Roots movement is related to a subgroup known as "Christian Hebrew Roots." This subgroup follows the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:3–17) and the feasts of the Lord (Lev 23:1–44), but like mainstream Christianity it believes that all other Old Testament requirements have been "done away with".
The Christian Hebrew Roots movement rejects many of the same practices of many Protestant sects that the Hebrew Roots movement rejects. In particular, they reject the Roman Catholic Church's "transubstantiation" doctrine, and instead follow what it sees as the biblical teachings set forth in the New Testament regarding the "nature of Communion" as a symbol of Christ's body instead of the literal body and flesh of Jesus. This, they deduce from the words Jesus spoke to describe what they call an "amendment" to the Passover service being symbolic and not literal (in accordance with how they interpret the New Testament Greek).
The Christian Hebrew Roots movement does not teach a return to the law as dispensed by the scribes who Jesus rebuked as hypocrites. They interpret the "law" as pertaining to the Torah, and not the Jewish Oral Law. The movement follows what it claims is the worship pattern of Jesus, whom they claim freed mankind from the yoke of the letter of the law; and, in fulfilling the law, Jesus taught Christians to practice only the Ten Commandments and feasts of the Lord which make up "the acceptable year of the Lord" in his speech inaugurating his personal earthly ministry.
This main distinction between the two groups is that followers of the Hebrew Roots movement understand the word "fulfill" (playroo G4137), found in Matthew 5:17, to mean "fill up" specifically with meaning. This is in contradistinction to "destroy" (kataluo G2647) with which it is contrasted earlier in the same verse. Fulfill is also found to mean to place the commandments of God "on a firmer footing by interpreting them correctly in terms of God's ultimate will as He originally intended for His commandments to be obeyed", and not dispensing with them as something that has been "done away" by the atoning work of Jesus Christ, as Christian Hebrew Roots followers define it.
Both movements include adherents who are of Jewish heritage as well as Gentile heritage. The Christian Hebrew Roots movement is completely nondenominational, consisting of persons from many different religious backgrounds and teaches adherence to the health laws of the Torah but not the portions of the Torah which it believes were abandoned by Jesus. As such, they function as a sort of "bridge" between true Hebrew Roots theology and mainstream Christianity.
Premises
Matthew 5:17-19 ESV
Matthew 17-19 is commonly cited by those who argue for the Hebrew Roots movement.
They believe that the definition of sin is transgression of Torah, citing 1 John 3:4 as evidence.
1 John 3:4 KJV
From this they argue that since sin is bad, and sin is disobedience to the Torah, then it is good to obey Torah. Although most mainstream Christians would argue that since Jesus died for our sins, we no longer have an obligation to obey the law of Moses.
Criticism
The Hebrew Roots movement, similar to the Messianic movement, has been accused by some in the Jewish community of cultural appropriation.
Many Christians and Messianic Jews argue that the Torah was only for the Jews, meaning that Gentiles are exempt from obedience to the Law of Moses.
A leading critic of the Hebrew Roots Movement is Professor R. L. Solberg (Nashville, TN), who has published a book called Torahism: Are Christians Required to Keep the Law of Moses. This is the first book published by a scholar that specifically addresses many of the theological positions held by HRM. Prof. Solberg has debated a number of Hebrew Roots teachers and his apologetic ministry Defending the Biblical Roots of Christianity focuses on this area of theology.
See also
Christian Torah-submission
Christian views on the Old Covenant
Early Christianity
Ebionites
Judaizers
Nazarene (sect)
New Perspective on Paul
Paleo-orthodoxy
Restorationism
References
External links
Pam Dewey, Hebrew Roots Movement (Field Guide to the Wild World of Religion)
Jewish Christianity
Christianity in the United States
Sacred Name Movement
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans%20My%20Hedgehog
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Hans My Hedgehog
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"Hans My Hedgehog" () is a German fairy tale collected by the Brothers Grimm (KHM 108). The tale was translated as Jack My Hedgehog by Andrew Lang and published in The Green Fairy Book. It is of Aarne-Thompson type 441.
The tale follows the events in the life of a diminutive half-hedgehog, half-human being named Hans, who eventually sheds his animal skin and turns wholly human after winning a princess.
Origin
The tale was first published by the Brothers Grimm in Kinder- und Hausmärchen, vol. 2, (1815) as tale no. 22. From the second edition onward, it was given the no. 108. Their source was the German storyteller Dorothea Viehmann (1755–1815).
Synopsis
A wealthy but childless farmer wishes he had a child, even a hedgehog. He comes home to find that his wife has given birth to a baby boy that is a hedgehog from the waist up. They then name him "Hans My Hedgehog".
After eight years, Hans leaves his family riding a shod cockerel (; ) to seek his fortune. He goes off into the woods and sits in a tree and plays his bagpipe and watches the pigs and donkeys hook up for a year. A few years later, a lost king stumbles upon Hans after hearing him play beautifully on the bagpipes. Hans makes a deal with the king: he will show him the way home if the king promises to sign over whatever first comes to meet him upon his return. However, the king thinks Hans is illiterate, and decides to trick him by writing an order that Hans should receive nothing. When they arrive at the kingdom, the king's daughter runs to greet him. The king tells her about the deal Hans has tried to make and how he has tricked him. Unconcerned by the betrayal, Hans continues to tend to his animals in the forest.
A second lost king stumbles upon Hans and agrees to his deal. Upon his return, the second king's only daughter rushes out to greet him, and in doing so becomes the property of Hans. For the sake of her father, the princess happily agrees to Hans' deal.
In time, Hans My Hedgehog goes to claim his promises. The first king attempts to withhold his daughter, but Hans forces him to give her up. Hans then makes her take off her clothes, pierces her with his prickles until she is bloody all over, and sends her back to the kingdom in disgrace. The second king agrees to the marriage; the princess holds herself bound by her promise and Hans My Hedgehog marries her.
On their wedding night, he tells the king to build a fire and to post guards at his door. Hans removes his hedgehog skin and instructs the guards to throw the skin in the fire and watch it until it is completely consumed. Hans appears black, as if he has been burned. After physicians clean him, he is shown to be a handsome young gentleman. After several years, Hans returns home to collect his father and they live together in the kingdom.
Characters
Characters list
Hans – Main character, with a tiny human's lower body but quilled head and torso of a hedgehog.
Farmer (Hans' father) – Wishes for a son "even if it's a hedgehog"
Farmer's wife (Hans' mother)
First King – Betrays Hans and breaks his promise reward him with his daughter's hand in marriage.
Second King – Fulfills his promise and becomes Hans's father in-law.
First Princess – Refuses to marry Hans and is punished by being pricked by Hans' quills until she bleeds.
Second Princess – Honors her father's wishes and agrees to marry Hans.
Analysis
Tale type
The tale is similar to other ATU 441 tales such as Straparola's literary fairy tale Il re Porco ("King Pig") and Madame d'Aulnoy's Prince Marcassin.
Motifs
The animal husband
Polish philologist Mark Lidzbarski noted that the pig prince usually appears in Romance language tales, while the hedgehog as the animal husband occurs in Germanic and Slavic tales. Also, according to Swedish folklorist , in type ATU 441 the animal husband may be a hedgehog, a wild boar or a porcupine. The Grimms' notes state that in these fairy tales, "Hedgehog, porcupine, and pig are here synonymous, like Porc and Porcaril".
The animal skin
"Grimm's tale, "Hans, My Hedgehog," exhibits motif D721.3 "Disenchantment by destroying skin (covering)".
This motif is found in other Grimm's fairy tales and myths as a symbol of psychological metamorphosis. Hans was born half-hedgehog and he cannot break the spell until he is able to burn his prickly hedgehog skin.
This same motif of the burning of false or alternative skins in the attempt to create a single whole can also be found in the Grimm's tale of "The Donkey" (Das Eselein). In these cases, the groom upon marriage "literally undress from the donkey skin or quills.. casting their skins aside like old garments", according to researcher Carole Scott, who thus counts the animal skin as a sort of "magical dress". By shedding the skin/dress, Hans has assumed a new identity.
Interpretations
Deformed dwarf
The Hans the Hedgehog character is a half-hedgehog, of clearly tiny stature. In the tale he rides a cock like a horse, and the two together are mistaken for some "little animal". Hans is treated as a "monster" in his folktale world, and thus distinguished from Thumbling or Tom Thumb who are merely diminutive humans. Unlike the other Grimms' tale characters who are portrayed as a fully animal form, Hans is the only half-animal half-human hybrid, thus increasing his overall outlandishness.
Researcher Ann Schmiesing engages in a disability studies analysis of the tale and its protagonist. According to her, the Grimms implicitly suggest Hans's outward appearance as symbolic of "a disease or impairment that stunted physical or cognitive growth", and thus Hans's condition is to be associated with disability as well as deformity. Hans therefore qualifies as being classed as the "cripple", or rather the "super cripple (supercrip)" hero figure. The fairy tale "cripple" is stereotypically ostracized and shunned by society, but even after he turns "supercripple", i.e., demonstrates "extraordinary abilities" and "overachievement", this does not vindicate him in the eyes of other folk in the story, but rather only exacerbates his "enfreakment", according to Schmiesing. To the readership, however, the able underdog is a figure that "defies pity".
In this analysis, his level of "freakiness" is also heightened after he requests bagpipes from his father who is going to the market, as does the rooster that he rides.
Variants
According to Swedish folklorist and narrative researcher Ines Köhler-Zülch, tale type ATU 441 is reported in Germany, Baltic Countries, Hungary and among West Slavic and South Slavic peoples (although Liungman mentioned the existence of variants in Sweden, Greece, and Italy).
Another version is "Der Lustige Zaunigel" ("The Merry Hedgehog"; actually "Porcupine") collected by Heinrich Pröhle and published in 1854.
The Scottish version "The Hedgehurst" recited by Traveller storyteller Duncan Williamson has also been published in book collection.
Hungary
The Hungarian Folktale Catalogue (MNK) registers 8 variants in Hungary indexed as type AaTh 441, A sündisznó ("The Hedgehog"), three of them combined with other types.
In a Hungarian variant translated by Jeremiah Curtin (Hungarian: A sündisznó; English: "The Hedgehog, the Merchant, the King and the Poor Man"), the tale begins with a merchant promising a hedgehog one of his daughters, after the animal helped him escape a dense forest. Only the eldest agrees to be the hedgehog's wife, which prompts him to reveal his true form as a golden-haired, golden-mouthed and golden-toothed prince. The tale continues as tale type ATU 707, "The Three Golden Children" (The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Speaking Bird).
In a Hungarian tale published by author Val Biro with the title The Hedgehog, a poor couple wish to have a son, but as the years pass by, they have no luck. One day, they decide to find any kind of animal in the forest they can adopt as their son. The man finds a hedgehog and brings it home to raise as their child. One day, the hedgehog begins to talk - much to the couple's surprise - and suggests they buy more pigs so he can become a swineherd and herd the pigs. They agree to it and let their hedgehog son herd the swine in the forest. Some time later, the Black King's retinue lose their way in the forest, and the hedgehog promises to help them, in exchange for the hand of the Black King's daughter. They sign a contract to mark their deal. The next day, the Red King's retinue also lose their way, and the little animal makes the same deal with him. On the third day, the White King also loses his way in the forest, and the hedgehog makes a third deal. Later, the hedgehog tells his parents he will go seek his bride, a princess. He goes first to the Black King's court and demands the princess as wife, and a dowry. When they are riding the coach, the hedgehog asks the princess if she loves the little animal, to which she gives a rude answer. Offended, he makes a returns to the Black King's court and leaves the princess there, but takes the dowry for himself. The same events happen to the Red King's daughter, who says she does not live him. Finally, with the White King's daughter, she tells him she loves him, and he turns into a handsome prince. The prince explains he was under a spell, and marries the White King's daughter.
Slavic
In a South Slavic tale published by Slavicist Friedrich Salomon Krauss with the title Prinz Igel ("Prince Hedgehog"), a childless empress and emperor wish for a child even if he is the size of a hedgehog, so God grants them their wish. Seven years later, the little animal marries a human girl, who is advised to sprinkle the hedgehog with holy water, prickle her fingers on three of his quills and let her blood fall on his body. Following this advice, the girl disenchants the hedgehog into a normal youth. The tale was translated as Prince Hedgehog and published in The Russian grandmother's wonder tales.
Czech writer collected a Czech tale (sourced from Bohemia) with the title Ježek ženichem ("The Hedgehog as Bridegroom"), which translated as Der Igel as Bräutigam ("The Hedgehog as Bridegroom"). In this tale, a peasant lives with his wife and does not have a child, until one night she expresses her wish for a hedgehog for a son. Her husband warns her about her words, to no avail: the next morning, a little hedgehog appears from behind the stove and becomes their son, despite the man's complaints. Some time later, the hedgehog asks his father for a whip and a shepherd's staff so he can graze the sheep. One day, a prince becomes lost in the woods, and the hedgehog offers to guide him out of the woods, if the prince agrees to give one of his daughters as bride for the animal. To seal the deal, they signs a written document. Later, the hedgehog saddles a rooster and goes to the prince's castle to fulfill the latter's part of the deal. The prince asks which of his daughters shall marry the hedgehog: the elder two refuse, but the youngest agrees to be his bride. They marry. On the wedding night, the prince's daughter cries, and the hedgehog asks the girl to take a knife and cut open his body. The girl obeys and cuts open the hedgehog's body, revealing a handsome youth underneath. The next morning, the human hedgehog takes his wife for breakfast with the prince and his family and introduces himself as the hedgehog, explaining his mother's hasty wish was the cause of his animal form. The prince's elder daughters kill themselves out of envy: one throws herself from a window and the other jumps into a well. As for the girl, she lives happily ever after with her human husband.
In a Croatian tale collected by Croatian linguist with the title O ježu mladoženji ("About the Hedgehog Bridegroom"), a couple does not have a son, until one day the wife prays to God to be given a son, even if he is a hedgehog. Thus God grants her prayer and a little hedgehog is born to them. Scared, the woman releases a piglet after the hedgehog to shoo it away, but the hedgehog takes the piglet in the forest and raises a herd of them for nine years. Time passes, and a man loses his way amongst the pig herd, and the hedgehog helps him through it, gaining a hundred forints as a reward. The hedgehog returns home to his parents, gives them the reward and lets the herd stay with them, then asks his mother to find him a bride. Despite his mother's reservations, she finds him a maiden who is willing to marry him. They marry; at night, he takes off the hedgehog skin, revealing a handsome youth, and hides it under the bed. The next day, the maiden tells her mother about the hedgehog husband's skin, and she suggests the girl takes it and burns it in a oven. The maiden follows her advice. The next morning, the now human hegdehog wakes up and cannot find the skin, then asks his wife what she has done with it. The girl answers she burnt it, and the youth tells her that, if she had waited a little more, happiness would have been his. The tale ends. Linguist August Leskien translated the tale as Der Igelbräutigam ("The Hedgehog Bridegroom"), and, in his notes to the tale, supposed that the story could have led into another sequence, but the second part was apparently missing.
Poland
Philologist and folklorist Julian Krzyżanowski, establisher of the Polish Folktale Catalogue according to the international index, classified tales about the hedgehog husband as Polish type T 441, Królewicz-jeż ("Prince-Hedgehog").
In a Polish tale translated as The Enchanted Hedgehog, a poor peasant woman sees a hedgehog in the forest and wishes to have a son, just like a hedgehog, so one is born to her and her husband. The little hedgehog son helps the couple in the house chores, and one day decides to herd the pigs. He brings the pigs to the forest and herds them for six years. One day, he meets a king who lost his way in the woods, and promises to help him, in exchange for one of the princesses as his wife. The king agrees and signs a deal with the hedgehog, then goes home. Later, the hedgehog rides a rooster to the king's castle and demands the king delivers him one of his daughters. The king decides to renege on his part of the deal, and sends for his army to shoot the little animal. The hedgehog, however, summons his own army of hedgehogs with a whistle to circle the castle. Afraid, the king orders his youngest daughter to marry the hedgehog. They wed in a grand ceremony, and they retire to their bedchambers. Reluctantly, the princess allows for the hedgehog to sleep beside her, and, in the morning, she finds a handsome prince in its place. The human prince explains he was enchanted to that form.
Slovenia
In a Slovenian tale, The Little Hedgehog (Ježek), or in the Slovenian original, ("Little Hedgehog Janček"), little Jancek is accidentally cursed by his mother, turns into a hedgehog and flees to the woods. Years later, when a count becomes lost in the forest, the little hedgehog helps the nobleman in return for the hand of one of his daughters in marriage.
In a Slovenian-language tale from Varaždin with the title Sin jež ("Hedgehog Son"), a childless couple pray to God to have a son, even if he is the size of a hedgehog, so God grants them one. Despite some fright at first, their hedgehog son grows up and asks his father to her his pigs in the forest. His father agrees to let him work with the pigs so he can stay away from them. The hedgehog son grazes the pigs in the woods when he sees that the king got lost and offers to help him. They make a deal and the hedgehog guides him out of the woods. Some time later, when his pig herd is large enough, the hedgehog goes to the king's castle and demands one of his daughters as part of their deal. the king asks his three daughters which will go with the hedgehog: the eldest would rather be stabbed, the middle one would rather jump in a well, but the youngest agrees to marry him, so they marry. One day, the princess stabs the hedgehog husband, and out of the skin comes out a handsome youth, to her delight and her sisters' resignation. The now human hedgehog son goes back to his parents to introduce his wife, and shows them the loose animal skin as proof of his claims.
In a Slovenian tale collected from Martinj Vrh with the title ("Hedgehog Son"), a woman has a hedgehog son. He finds work with a local farmer and takes the pigs to graze in the forest and meets a man who lost his way. The hedgehog guides him out of the forest. The man loses his way again in the next year and in the year after. On the third time, however, the hedgehog makes a deal with the man: he will guide him out of the woods, but asks for one of the man's daughters as his bride. The hedgehog comes to the man's house on a rooster and demands his bride. The man asks his daughters which will go with the little animal: the eldest says she would rather cut her own throat, the middle one that she rather throw herself in a well, but the youngest agrees to marry him. The hedgehog and his bride walk to church, but the little animal asks her to go ahead of him, while he passes by the graveyard. When he comes out on the other side, the hedgehog has turned into a handsome youth, to the girl's sisters' despair: one cuts her throat and the other jumps into a well. The now human hedgehog and the girl marry.
Baltic Region
Estonia
In the Estonian Catalogue, the type is known as ATU 441, Siil pojaks ("The Hedgehog as Son"): a childless couple longs for a son and wishes for one that may even look like a hedgehog, so their wish is granted. The hedgehog grows up, works as a herd and tries to woo a princess. The king is then forced to give one of his daughters in marriage: only the youngest princess agrees, and she disenchants the hedgehog with three sticks.
In an Estonian tale translated into German as Wer will den Igel heiraten? ("Who shall marry the Hedgehog?"), a rich, but childless couple longs to have a son, even if he is a hedgehog, so one is born to them. After he grows up, he overhears his father saying that he can herd the cows, so he climbs on an ox's horns and herds the cows. The next time, he overhears his mother saying that, if he wasn't an animal, he could find a bride, so the hedgehog rides a rooster and goes to a man's house to court his daughters. The man asks his three daughters which shall marry the little animal: the elder two refuse, but the youngest agrees. On the wedding day, before the hedgehog and the girl arrive at church, the hedgehog asks her to find three sticks in a bush and hit him with them. The girl follows his orders and turns him to human shape, while the quills on the hedgehog's skin turn to gold coins.
Lithuania
Lithuanian folklorist , in his analysis of Lithuanian folktales (published in 1936), listed 19 variants of type 441, Ežys - karaliaus žentas ("Hedgehog as King's Son-in-Law"). In a later revision of the catalogue, professor renames it as type AT 441, Ežiukas, with 67 variants registered.
In a Lithuanian variant collected by linguist August Leskien and Karl Brugman, Vom Igel, der die Königstochter zur Frau bekam ("About the Hedgehog who took the King's Daughter for Wife"), a poor man adopts a hedgehog from the forest. The animal decides to fatten its father's pig in order to give birth to more piglets. The usual story occurs, but the narrative does not mention that the hedgehog becomes human. They also noted that this Lithuanian tale lacked the usual beginning of the mother's hasty wish and the ending with the prince's disenchantment.
Latvia
According to the Latvian Folktale Catalogue, tale type ATU 441 is quite well known in Latvia, indexed as type 441, Ezītis-dēls ("The Hedgehog as Son"): a couple adopts a hedgehog as their son, and he works as a shepherd; later, he marries a princess, who takes his hedgehog skin and burns it.
In a Latvian tale translated into German as Das Igelpelzchen and into English as The Porcupine's Little Quill Coat, a poor couple prays to have a son, even if he is a little hedgehog. Suddenly, a hedgehog appears to them and declares to be their son. Years later, the little hedgehog offers to take care of their pigs. Three years pass, and the little hedgehog becomes a fine swineherd. One day, the ruler of the country loses his way in the forest and the little animal offers his help, in exchange for the ruler's youngest daughter in marriage. The ruler refuses and keeps losing his way in the woods, until he relents and accepts the hedgehog's proposal. The ruler's youngest daughter marries the hedgehog and takes him to the bridal chambers. The animal takes off the animal skin. The girl takes the animal skin and burns it. However, her husband (now a man) has a fever and a pained state, but endures it and becomes a man for good.
Other adaptations
Books
Hans my Hedgehog was readapted by the German children's book-writer Janosch, in Janosch erzählt Grimms Märchen 1972, translated as Not Quite as Grimm. Janosch's fairy-tale book distinguishes itself from all previous fairy-tale books. It lives from the lively language stamped by the oral tradition. It demands reading aloud: it is acoustic and at the same time porous enough so that the child can make something out of the telling by himself or herself. In short, the anachronistic language of the children's book that has been polished for children is missing. The form of the fairy-tale material that the Brothers Grimm had gathered loses its conservative form. In reading Janosch the reader leaves the ceremonial fairy-tale seriousness of the Brothers Grimm. This does not mean that he has less than what the brothers have too much. As Jack Zipes summarizes, "Hans is transformed from a porcupine looking character into a hippy rock singer, who plays the harmonica. When his father gives him sunglasses and a motorcycle to get rid of him, he goes into the city and eventually becomes a movie star named Jack Eagle (Jack Adler). In the end the father is proud of him, and everyone from the village wants to look like him."
It was adapted into a children's book in 2012. The book is titled Hans My Hedgehog and is written by Kate Coombs and illustrated by John Nickle. The book is published by Atheneum Books for Young Readers and has the .
Andrzej Sapkowski's short story "A Question of Price" in The Last Wish collection is inspired by Hans My Hedgehog.
Television
The story was featured as a cel animated short (Hungarian: Sündisznó) in the "Hungarian Folktales" episode of the 1989~1993 U.S.A. TV series Long Ago and Far Away.
A version of it was also produced as an episode of Jim Henson's The StoryTeller which stars Jason Carter as Hans' human form, Terence Harvey as the voice of Hans the Hedgehog, Abigail Cruttenden as the Princess, David Swift as the King, Helen Lindsay as the Queen, Eric Richard as the Farmer, and Maggie Wilkinson as the Farmer's Wife.
The Hexer and The Witcher, adapted from Andrzej Sapkowski's The Witcher books, both include an adaptation of "A Question of Price", the short story based on Hans My Hedgehog.
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Hog Bridegroom: Tales of type 441 by D. L. Ashliman
Grimms' Fairy Tales
German fairy tales
Fictional hedgehogs
Fiction about magic
Fiction about shapeshifting
Child characters in literature
Male characters in literature
Male characters in fairy tales
Animal tales
Mythological human hybrids
ATU 400-459
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Negima%21%20Magister%20Negi%20Magi%20characters
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List of Negima! Magister Negi Magi characters
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The Negima! Magister Negi Magi manga and anime series features a wide cast of fictional characters designed by Ken Akamatsu. The series follows Negi Springfield, a 10-year-old boy from Wales with magic powers, who becomes a teacher of a Japanese middle school class of 31 girls. He discovers he is able to unlock many of the girls' magical powers as they assist him in his adventures. He and his students encounter a number of characters, friends and foes, many of whom have magic powers or are connected to the Magical World, and some even have connections to his estranged father.
Main characters
Negi Springfield
live action actor: Yukina Kashiwa
is a mage in-training and the homeroom and English teacher of Class 2-A/3-A of Mahora Academy Middle School for girls. He is the son of Nagi Springfield, known as the legendary "Thousand Master", and Arika Anarchia Entheofushia, princess and last Queen of the Vespertatia Empire in the magic world, known as "Queen of Calamity". He is raised by his cousin and the people around his small village because of his father's disappearance. After numerous demons attack his village, he is saved by Nagi, who gives Negi his staff and mysteriously leaves. Negi, determined to find his father, quickly joins a magic academy and graduates at the age of ten under the kazoe system which makes him nine years old as the kazoe system starts a newborn infant at 1 and adds a year every New Years. He is sent to Japan to act as a teacher at Mahora Academy as part of his training.
Negi quickly bonds with most of his students, especially Asuna, and many learn of his magical background. Several develop feelings for Negi, citing his maturity for his age, and the fact that he will be suitable to be with in five years. Also, he eventually meets Kotaro, who eventually becomes his closest friend/rival. He forms a number of pactio with most of his students, which helps him to become stronger. He tends to overwork himself, often hurting himself for the sake of others. He is still childlike in various ways, such as hating baths, sleeping in the same bed as his sister, resulting in him clutching anyone nearby while he is away from her, and being rather naive and gullible.
Negi is a master of basic magic, though he is initially lacking in battle experience. He eventually becomes a master of using delayed spells as a battle tactic. He initially uses wind and light magic, though he begins to master lightning spells as well. He later trains under Kū Fei in martial arts to make up for his weakness in close combat, advancing very quickly (even learning how to do instant movement, otherwise known as shundou), and applies a strong magical barrier around himself to avoid damaging his frail body. His proficiency at learning is shown when he masters techniques Kū Fei says would usually take a month in only three hours. He also trains under Evangeline and Jack Rakan, which increases his combat and magical capability exponentially.
He also learns and improves upon Evangeline's "Magia Erebea" to "load (supplementum)" & infuse the body with magic (Supplementum Pro Armationem).
"Hell's Refining Fire (Sim Fabricatus Ab Incendio)": Absorbing the magic from the "Flames of Hell (Incendium Gehennae)" strengthens physical resilience and creates resistance to heat. The sinister nature of the magic also absorbs magic from living things upon physical contact.
"Lightning Speed (Agilitas Fulminas)": Absorbing the magic from "Thunderous Gale (Jovis Tempestas Fulguriens)" grants the caster extreme mobility and "lightning attribute" to his physical attacks, as well as granting some immunity to weather magic.
"Thunder in Heaven, Great Vigor (Ê Astrapê Uper Ouranou Mega Dunamenê)": Absorbing the magic from "Thousand Lightning Bolts (Kilipl Astrapê)" transmogrifies Negi into a mass of electrically charged particles capable of incredible speeds by becoming lightning with a type of lightning-style Shundō called .
"Thunder in Heaven, Great Vigor 2 (Tastrapê Uper Ouranou Mega Dunamenê)": Absorbing two "Thousand Lightning Bolts" spells, Negi obtains a "constant lightning form", liken to a high-level lightning spirit, he can maintain lightning-speed indefinitely. Also with "Twin Vigor", both Negi's physical maneuverability and mental-processes increase dramatically, overcoming the fundamental weaknesses of the regular "Great Vigor".
He also came up with a new spell: "Spell Synthesis: Lightning God Lance: Titan Slayer" which is a new high class lightning spell that he used to lure Jack Rakan into a trap in their gladiator match. Negi is also able to use a magic circle to stop and absorb an opponent's power in order to use their own strength against them (Agite Extractio, Negica Magia Erebea: Circuli Absorptionis Ex Tempore). Negi used this ability to fight Rakan to a draw. According to Evangeline's spirit clone, this is the ultimate ability of Magia Erebia, one that not even she was able to master. He developed these abilities of Raisoku Shundou, Perpetual Lightning Form, Spell Synthesis and enemy magic absorption in ten days; Jack Rakan noting that any one would be enough to impress the most advanced professors of magic development. In a recent chapter, Negi lost control of Magia Erebea while fighting his father's old comrade, Governor General Kurt Godel. As of Chapter 314 Negi has mastered his inner demon, and in doing so, has become something that can't be called human. In later chapters it has been stated that Negi has become an immortal/vampire like Evangeline. Later is revealed in UQ Holder! that he confessed his love for Chisame, marrying her some years after he rescued his father from the Mage of the Beginning.
He also forms a probationary contract (pactio) with Theo and is awarded the Mile Vincula (The Thousand Bonds), a passport-holder-like artifact that allows him to freely use his partners' artifacts. Ken Akamatsu has noted, however, that Negi cancelled the contract after his match with Jack Rakan was finished; he should no longer be able to use his exceedingly rare artifact.
Asuna Kagurazaka
Live-action actor: Sara Wakatsuki, Mirai Kamiyama (young)
is student number eight in the class, and the lead female character. In the first season, the OADs and the manga, she has heterochromia (in the second season and early OVA's both eyes are of the same color) and appears to be 14 or 15 years old, but her exact age is unknown, as her name was mentioned in a video that occurred 21 years ago. She is very short-tempered and quick to resort to violence (especially towards Negi), though she is very protective of those close to her. Asuna has a crush on her former home room teacher, Takahata, and she spends a significant amount of time attempting to become closer to him. She bonds with Negi after he becomes her teacher, though she is initially wary of him.
It is later revealed to Evangeline and Negi that she is actually Asuna Vesperina Theotanasia Entheofushia, a princess of the fallen country of Vespertatia (whose capital used to be the ruined city of Ostia), who was saved by Nagi and his group. She is also The Imperial Princess of Twilight, the one with the power from the time of the Gods which is "the power to create worlds, and the power to destroy them". She occasionally has dreams regarding her past, but cannot recall them at will due to Takahata erasing her memory. Negi states that she has the same look and smell as Nekane Springfield. She also has the natural ability to cancel magic, which is an exceedingly rare ability. A number of Asuna's character traits and design are inspired by Naru Narusegawa from Love Hina, Ken Akamatsu's previous work, including her attraction to an older man/teacher, and violent personality towards the protagonist. While she claims to hate children, she is easily the closest in the class to Negi, which leads a number of her classmates believe the relationship is romantic, a claim that she repeatedly denies. Although she denies having feelings for Negi, it has been hinted throughout the story that she harbors some form of love towards him, though it may just be brotherly, it has not been explicitly expressed.
After forming a pactio with Negi, she gains the artifact "Ensis Exorcizans" (Blade of Exorcism), which can take the form of either a harisen or a massive sword, which enhances her natural ability to cancel magic. Initially, she can only summon the harisen on command, however she is later able to call upon both at will. She also has a degree of mastery over , a strong combination of magic and ki which enhances all of her abilities. Although her memories are erased by Takahata, they are restored by Fate.
She is somehow related to Negi Springfield (Although Cousin/Aunt fit well as Asuna's older sister is Negi's mother), though the specifics of this relation are unknown, and she is the only relative of Negi's that lives in Japan. She became Negi's guardian before she knew their familial bond. It is implied that her real age is around 25 years old, however she is about 15 years old in both civil registration and physical appearance. That makes her one of the look-younger-than-her-real-age girls in Negi's class (the others are Evangeline A.K. McDowell, the twins and the ghost.)
In the anime and manga, Asuna is the Red Baka Ranger (known as the Dummy Force in the English anime), a group widely accepted as the most unintelligent in the class. However, the Baka Rangers are seen as capable of performing great feats either by luck or by strong physical prowess.
Mahora Girls' Jr. High Class 2/3-A
Class 2/3-A is considered one of the most rambunctious classes in the school known for energetic students. Though not all of them are aware of the fact, the class contains a wide assortment of characters, from the usual student athletes, bookworms, and cheerleaders, as well a ghost, an android, a vampire, a demon, two half-demons, a girl with super agility and strength, two super-geniuses (one of whom is from the future), a ninja, and a kung fu master. Even before Negi became the homeroom teacher of the class, already 8 out of the 31 students knew about magic.
Sayo Aisaka
Live-action actor: Mai Nishida
is student number one in the class. She still goes to the same class, and sits in the same seat, which always remains empty. She desperately attempts to make friends, though she always ends up being treated as an evil spirit. While trying to scare people as a ghost, she fails miserably and often trips, despite not having feet. After Negi starts teaching the class, she is eventually noticed by him over time.
After befriending much of the class, she becomes very close with Kazumi, often helping her by spying for her journalism reports. Kazumi later obtains a doll from Evangeline that Sayo can possess and control, which allows her to leave the school campus and go with Negi's group to the Magic World. She later gains a robotic body similar to Chachamaru, though she controls it from the inside with her doll body.
Yūna Akashi
Live-action actor: Mayo Yamamoto
is student number two in the class and an active member in the sports clubs. Her father is Professor Akashi, one of the Mage-teachers at the Academy, though until recently she knew nothing about the existence of magic. She is very close to her father to the point of feeling jealousy about other women, occasionally to the point of disturbing her classmates. She is capable of using magic-powered weapons even without the presence of ambient magic in her area. Yūna is among the group of students who secretly follow Negi and Ala Alba into the Magic World, but is separated from the group, along with Makie, after a battle between Negi and Fate Averruncus. She and Makie manage to find work, and eventually make their way to where Negi is located. She takes Negi's being a mage rather well, and as of late, the truth about her parents being Mages was revealed to her by Takane, which she also takes rather well. She also verifies this by performing a simple magic spell, one she recalls from her childhood. By Chapter 289, she has formed a pactio with Negi. In Negima!?, she is also a military buff.
Yūna's artifact is revealed in Chapter 291 as the "Iris Tulmentum" (Seven Prismatic Colored Gun), which takes the form of a pistol. The shots fired from her gun are highly powerful, and may also take different forms of ammunition. It is hinted that that gun might be the gun her mother used before she died. In the manga's final chapter, we learn that Yūna followed in her mother's footsteps and joined Megalo-Mesembria.
Kazumi Asakura
Live-action actor: Mihoko Kondo
is student number three in the class and the class reporter. She likes to get the inside scoop on everything that goes on, and is part of the Mahora Paparazzi. Her dedication to digging out the "truth" extends to knowingly working with her friend's enemies so long as she gets a "scoop." She is also very sadistic and loves to take embarrassing stories/pictures of her classmates. She discovers magic while spying on Negi, though she is persuaded to keep it a secret in exchange for a probationary contract. She is close friends with Sayo and often has her spy on people for information. She later obtains a doll for Sayo to possess, so that she can leave the school grounds. Her pactio, "Oculus Corvinus" (Raven's Eye), creates up to six small golem cameras that she is able to manipulate and send to any part of the world. It is also revealed during the story and in the character bios that she has the 4th largest breasts in class 2/3A.
Yue Ayase
Live-action actor: Ami Ohse
student number four in the class. She is intelligent, but has low grades because she is lazy. She has a marked like for strange juices, and is very close friends with Nodoka, who shares her interest in books. Yue initially fully supports Nodoka's pursuit of Negi as a love interest by helping Nodoka overcome her shyness, but realizes that she also has feelings for Negi, which she tries to suppress. Eventually she comes to terms with it as Nodoka's opinion of Yue doesn't change when this fact is revealed. Yue is also the leader of the Baka Rangers (Dummy Force), wearing a black uniform.
Yue forms a Pactio with Negi, which takes the form of the artifact, "Orbis Sensualium Pictus" ("Visible World in Pictures", probably an hommage to a school book from 1658 of the same name). Although it gives Yue only basic magical equipment, it also provides her with a complete magical encyclopedia that can instantly access any magic-related information that is updated in real time. Yue also studies magic under Negi, and quickly progresses due to her constant training and her artifact. 'While in the magical world, she suffers from a memory loss spell, and enrolls at Ariadne Magic Academy while waiting for her memory to return. During this time, she studies hard, and is soon recognized as a mage and candidate for Ariadne Knight. She has shown a strong affinity for lightning and wind spells.
After the events of the Magical world arc, she is able to muster enough courage to tell Negi she loves him. Immediately afterwards, her memory returns, and she again feels guilty for loving her best friend's crush. However, when the opportunity arises to learn of Negi's 'favorite' of the girls by forcing it out of him with magic, Yue and Nodoka stop the spell out of respect for Negi's feelings. In the latest chapter, taking place 7 years after the previous events, she runs a spiritual detective agency in Japan, gaining power through potions.
Ako Izumi
Live-action actor: Izumi Fujimoto
is student number five in the class, and a member of the band "Dekopin Rocket." She does not consider herself anyone special
and is very insecure due to a large scar on her back. After being accidentally transported to the Magic World, she is forced to become an indentured servant along with Akira and Natsumi to pay for medication she received. After Negi, disguised as "Nagi" using "Age Deceiving Candy", helps her overcome her insecurities somewhat, she develops a crush on him, believing him to be Negi's cousin. She eventually finds out that Nagi is actually Negi, which leaves her heartbroken. Over time, she gets over it and accepts "Nagi" as Negi. By Chapter 289, Negi tried to form a pactio with Ako using the aging pills to appear as "Nagi", but Ako stops him and forces a reverse aging pill in his mouth so he reverts to Negi, after which Ako chides him for putting a facade on her, and admitting that she'd rather make a pactio with "Negi" rather than with "Nagi" by now. They then do so afterwards.
Her artifact is a giant syringe, which injects a drug that can boost the abilities of the one injected to amazing levels; while Ako herself calls it the ultimate support item, her classmates are disturbed by the fact that the drug apparently must be injected into the rump.
Akira Okochi
Live-action actor: Yuki Takikawa
is student number six in the class. She is very active in the swimming club, and the high school's swimming club also wishes to recruit her. Unlike her friends, Akira only talks when she needs to. She accidentally travels to the Magic World with Negi's group, where she ends up as an indentured slave after having to pay for medicine for Ako. In chapter 166, it is revealed she is very strong, and was able to catch Misora, even when the latter was using her artifact. After learning that Nagi is just a disguise for Negi, she attempts to hide the truth from Ako. After Ako does find out the truth, Akira consoles her. It is also implied that she is falling in love with Negi. In chapter 349 she gains an artifact that turns her into a mermaid but it is never named. It allows her jump from the surface of one body of water to another with a maximum range of 300 meters.
Misa Kakizaki
Live-action actor: Asumi Ohshima
is student number seven in the class and one of its three cheerleaders along with Madoka and Sakurako. She is the one who implants the idea in her classmates heads to groom the ten-year-old Negi as a future boyfriend, many of them basing the idea off seeing Negi using age changing pills and the illusion of Negi's father. Misa also enjoys dressing up Negi or other classmates in embarrassing outfits.
Misora Kasuga
Live action actor: Shizuka Hasegawa
is student number nine in the class, and one of the many secret mages at the school. She is an active member of the track and field club, rivaling Asuna in the class sprint runs. She always wears a crucifix and is sometimes seen wearing a nun's habit, although she has a serious streak of mischief. She has an active pactio with Cocone, and her artifact, Joculatrix Monachans, is a pair of sneakers that allow her to run and jump with superhuman ability. She is one of the three students that had died and was buried.
Chachamaru Karakuri
Live-action actor: Mari Saigusa
is student number ten in the class. She is a two-year-old robot created by Satomi Hakase to serve Evangeline and protect her during time where the spell binding weakens her. She is initially without any real emotions, although after her confrontation with Negi she begins to exhibit emotions and develop feelings for Negi. These feelings go against her original programming, which excites Hakase. She spends most of her free time helping people and rescuing stray animals. She strongly fears the idea that she is nothing more than a robot.
Chachamaru's body is powered by an internal spring combined with magic, and it has to be wound with a key by someone with magical energy to power her. The actual winding process is apparently pleasurable and/or arousing, although too much magic can intensify the feeling to "uncomfortable" levels (usually when Negi does it, but always by accident). She is skilled in hand-to-hand combat, being equipped with weapons such as rocket fists and laser emitters, and is also proficient with various types of high-powered weaponry. She has been upgraded several times, increasing both her combat capability and her human resemblance.
Her pactio artifact, "Al-Iskandariya" (old Arabic name for Alexandria), includes a combat armor suit with a jet pack, a cat-eared battle-gear for her head, and a cat-shaped hand-held laser-alignment system/"portable control terminal" for an orbital bombardment from a satellite cannon known as the "Type-2130 Chao Bao Zi Satellite Support System", which is also summoned whenever and wherever the pactio card is activated. It is extremely powerful, destroying Cosmo Entelecheia's summoned beast in a single blast. All parts of the set have the Chao Bao Zi logo on it, implying that they were all Chao's inventions.
Madoka Kugimiya
Live-action actor: Madoka Ichikawa
is student number eleven in the class and one of its three cheerleaders, along with Sakurako and Misa. She attempts to keep the other two out of trouble, but usually fails. She likes gyūdon, silver accessories, and Western music. It looks like she had an interest towards Kotaro's older form. She is not often shown in "Negima!?" but she is probably the most calm and quiet cheerleader.
Kū Fei
Live-action actor: Sari Okamoto
Kū Fei (古 菲; katakana: クー フェイ; romaji: Kū Fei; Pinyin: Gǔ Fēi) is student number twelve in the class. She is an extremely skilled Chinese martial artist, who is very energetic and joyful. She ranks near the bottom of the class, and she has problems studying due to her native language being Chinese, while she is still learning Japanese. In the original manga, she ends her sentences with to address her depiction of the language, while the English adaptation has her speak in "pidgin" English. She is a close friend of Chao Lingshen, often working at her restaurant, sparring with her, or eating her nikuman. Additionally, she becomes very close to Negi, becoming his master in martial arts. She is a previous winner of the martial arts tournament at the academy, so she constantly fights others looking to prove their own strength around campus. In the anime, Kū Fei is the yellow Baka Ranger (known as Dummy Force in English).
While Kū is extremely skilled and knowledgeable about Chinese kenpo style martial arts, Kū lacks knowledge and control of magic, but has strong ki, which rises to otherworldly levels after learning of the magical world. Mana states that "as a normal human, Kū Fei is without a doubt the strongest". Kū is a highly skilled warrior both unarmed and armed. She sometimes uses knives, swords, Chinese war hammers, and she can use the tail on her clothing in a spear-like fashion in order to restrain opponents. While in the Magic World, she was presented with the idea of forming a pactio with Negi, but initially held out due to her embarrassment and family rules; she later made a pactio with Negi after losing to him in an armwrestling match; followed with telling Negi as the man who took her lips he is indebted to become her husband. She than says she is kidding, but Kamo quickly takes into account that Negi's descendant, Chao Lingshen, is Chinese; making for an interesting situation. Her artifact is "Shintetsu Jizaikon", a virtually indestructible staff able to shift length. It is said to be the replica of the Ruyi Jingu Bang.
After the events of the Magical World trip, Kū was inspired by the courage Nodoka and Yue showed in confessing their Affection to Negi, and as a result, became the third of the students of Class 3-A to confess to Negi. She admitted that her feelings were a bit complicated, and was not overly confident in them herself, but she was able to confess nonetheless, even though she later thought it was probably too early for a confession.
Konoka Konoe
Live-action actor: Hiroko Matsunaga
is student number thirteen in the class. She is a very cheerful and optimistic young girl, who is the daughter of chief of the Kansai magic association, the granddaughter of the school dean, and a member of the Konoe family one of the Five regent houses. Konoka is friendly to almost everyone and barely ever uses honorifics, even with strangers, with one exception being the powerful Jack Rakan whom she calls 'Rakan-han' due to her Kansai accent. She has a hobby of fortune telling, before and after learning about magic, though most predictions are jokes. Though she initially knows nothing of magic, she is said to hold great potential, on par with Negi, the son of the man regarded as the strongest mage. She is kept unaware in order to protect her from groups looking to exploit her, as well as the fact that her father wanted her to lead a "normal" life. However, she is eventually told the truth and chooses to begin magical studies. She lives in the same dormitory with Asuna and Negi, and she often mediates the frequent fights between them. She is very close to Setsuna, who is Konoka's protector and childhood friend, although Setsuna becomes flustered when Konoe tries to do anything with her. Later on, Konoka's relationship with Setsuna appears to grow closer to romantic rather than that of just friends; as Konoka frequently flirts with Setsuna and holds a long, passionate Pactio kiss with her.
Konoka has two Pactio agreements; she first forms one of these with Negi, which takes the form of the artifact, "Flabellum Euri" (Fans of the East), fans which are able to heal most injuries, including fatal injures, as long as it occurred within three minutes. While treating fatal injuries, her soul leaves her body, and she uses much more power than she normally has to treat the wound, though she is left drained and unable to use her artifact for a period of time. She also practices in minor healing magic to heal small wounds. Her second Pactio agreement is formed with Setsuna with Konoka as the Magistra. In the manga's final chapter, Konoka has become a Magister Magi herself and used her powers to heal everyone that turned to stone in Negi's childhood village, as well as his father. She also married in the year 2017, though the original manga did not specify whom.
Haruna Saotome
Live-action actor: Ayumi Watanabe
student number fourteen and the local rumor-monger. She is a talented artist who draws a manga series, and a frequent companion of Yue and Nodoka. After finding out about the existence of magic, she is initially hurt that she wasn't told, though they explain it was because of her gossiping. Much to her classmates' chagrin, she is unusually perceptive about romantic entanglements, such as when she quickly identifies Natsumi's developing feelings for Kotaro. She forms a pactio with Negi, "Imperium Graphices" (Empire (or maybe Empress) of Pictures/Graphics), which takes the form of a sketchbook able to bring any drawing to life for a short time. She becomes very adept in using her artifact, able to create complex drawing in seconds that can attack or defend. She can also draw copies of herself, allowing her to draw at a much faster pace. She is also a good pilot, able to drive the goldfish-ship Paru-sama.
Setsuna Sakurazaki
(Japanese) Dana Schultes (Series 1) Cherami Leigh (Series 2) (English)
Played by: Haruki Ichikawa (1-19, 26) Aina Nishiaki (20-25)
is student fifteen in the class. She is a half-demon thrown out of her tribe due to her pure-white wings, which were considered to be a bad omen as she was born into the normally black-winged bird tribe of demons. She is later taken in by Eishun Konoe. She is also a Shinmeiryuu swordsman, similar to Motoko Aoyama from Akamatsu's previous work, Love Hina. She becomes very close to his daughter, Konoka, who she promises to protect. After being unable to save Konoka from almost drowning as a young child, she distances herself personally, while still protecting her. She generally refers to Konoka as "Ojō-sama," a deferential term used for the daughter of an important figure. After joining with Negi's group to stop Chigusa's plan in Kyoto, she resumes her personal relationship with Konoka, and learns that her friends do not care that she is a half-demon. She also has a habit of wearing more masculine clothing to events, like wearing a suit instead of a dress to the ball in the magic world.
Setsuna is a kenjutsu expert of the of fighting. She wields a nodachi passed down to her from Eishun Konoe named . Evangeline has implied that Setsuna dyes her hair and wears colored contacts, and Negi himself has observed that Setsuna has a very pale complexion, which could mean that her white wings are a result of albinism. Besides her fighting skills, Setsuna also has some ability to manipulate magic, such as using paper dolls to create doppelgangers of other people, and creating a miniature version of herself, so that she can be in two places at once. She forms a pactio with Negi, which takes the form of the artifact "Sica Shishikushiro". It allows her to create up to sixteen independent wakizashi that can be manipulated with her mind. She later forms a pactio with Konoka, after much hesitation, that grants her a new card. The resulting artifact is named "Tsurugi no Kami: Takemikazuchi" (named after one of the patron deities of martial arts, Takemikazuchi-no-Mikoto, also a war god; the one who rode a deer into the city of Nara), a sword that grows larger and more powerful as Konoka infuses Setsuna with more of her magical power.
Initially a reserved character devoted entirely to her work protecting Konoka, at the expense of friendship and childhood experiences, Setsuna becomes much more open when she befriends Asuna and Negi, and when her secret is exposed. She then goes on to consider Asuna her best friend, and her relationship with Konoka develops into something more romantic. However she remains highly deferential, and has great difficulty using names without honorifics. She continues to consider Konoka's protection her top priority, and she constantly re-evaluates her ability and worthiness to do so, fearing that her new friendships, engagement in typical schoolgirl concerns and sense of fun have caused her to lose focus. Her battle opponents, such as Evangeline and rival Tsukuyomi have exposed these weaknesses to their advantage. Konoka has observed that Setsuna, "is one of those creatures who finds her greatest happiness in serving those who come from long lines of power" and that she, "thinks in circles and solves things by making them more complicated."
In the manga's final chapter it is revealed that, like Konoka, she marries in 2017.
Makie Sasaki
Live-action actor: Yuri Kawase
is student number sixteen in the class. She is an energetic rhythmic gymnast, who constantly competes in competitions. She is, in the second anime, the roommate of Ayaka, which often leads to conflicts over their shared obsession with Negi, although Ayaka's desire for Negi far outstrips Makie, or anyone else in the class for that matter. In Negima! Chapter 56 however she is shown to be the roommate of her best friend, Ako Izumi (room number 662). In the anime, Makie is the pink Baka Ranger (known as Dummy Force in English).
Makie has extremely honed reflexes, but she lacks mental strength, which is detrimental to her gymnastics. She has mastered control over a ribbon, which she carries with her at all times, the point where she can use it to easily grab a balloon out of midair. She is accidentally brought to the Magic World with Negi's group, where she eventually begins to learn basic magic.
Makie's possible feelings towards Negi seem to surface after Negi starts to become consumed by the Darkness magic he's trying to master. After Negi goes berserk at one point and is pacified by Evangeline, Makie quickly takes his hand and holds it firmly, which somehow has the effect of clearing the darkness from him. By Chapter 289, Makie has formed a pactio with Negi, while admitting that she likes him.
Makie's first artifact is the "Liberum Lemiscus" (Universal Ribbon). This ribbon can extend to any length, increasing the range and ability she usually has with her "normal" ribbon. The second and third are named "Bombus Globus" (bomb ball) and "Frango Stipes" (Breaking clubs). Their actual abilities are unknown yet, as well as if there are more artifacts in Makie's pactio which would most likely refer to her abilities in Rhythmic gymnastics, as do the others and the image on the pactio card. If this would be the case, the tools still missing to complete the set would be rope and hoop. In the manga's final chapter, Makie becomes a middle school gym teacher.
Sakurako Shiina
Live-action actor: Ao Kayama
is student number seventeen in the class, and one of the three cheerleaders along with Madoka and Misa. She loves karaoke and her pet cats, Cookie and Biscuit, and is in the lacrosse club. She constantly gambles, though she wins very often. It appears she has almost supernatural luck, which makes it nearly impossible for her to be wrong when she makes a wild, uninformed guess - when they lost track of the group going to the magical world it fell upon Sakurako to guess the correct direction to take. The odds of doing so were about the same as winning the lottery. She also managed to guess correctly what was actually in the sky in the recent chapters, saying that the castle in the sky was "A castle from the magic country that suddenly appeared" in a random guess (though Evangeline was thinking how she was spot on). She is extremely positive and hyper, often being the first to respond to a question or inquiry, and mixing up words constantly.
In the first anime series, her hair was shown to be a darker shade of red. In Negima?!, it was changed to blonde.
Mana Tatsumiya
Live-action actor: Juri
is student number eighteen in the class and the daughter of the keepers of the Tatsumiya shrine. She is referred to as "Captain Tatsumiya" by Negi. She acts as a priestess, exorcist, and mercenary, employing guns with spellbreaker bullets as her tool of exorcism. She is not particularly sociable, keeping to herself most of the time and not engaging in conversation. She carries a pactio card, which is the remnant of a contract she had with a mage who is now deceased. Mana possesses a number of mystical abilities, one of which is her Demon-Eye, which allows her to see demons and spirits. As well as being a skilled gunman and sniper, she is also skilled in close combat, using a style that utilizes coins as projectiles. It has been heavily suggested in a recent chapter that her abilities are due to her being a half-demon. Although she is somewhat friendly with Negi and the rest of her class, she is a true mercenary, taking on any assignment which will pay her sufficiently, even if it directly competes with Negi's goals, such as when she acted as a sniper for Chao Lingshen in Chao's bid to alter the future. In the end of chapter 299 she shows a form that she hasn't used in 5 years before the series. Mana has revealed that she is a half demon in her fight with Zazie's sister.
Chao Lingshen
Live-action actor: Kaeki Watanabe
is student number nineteen in the class. She is known as the smartest student in the class, and one of the smartest people on campus. She spends most of her time on robotics research, Chinese medicine, life sciences, and atomic research with Satomi Hakase, though she also works at the Chao Bao Zi restaurant with Satsuki Yotsuba. Chao is also a master of various Chinese martial arts, having learned from Kū Fei. During the Mahora Festival Arc, she is revealed to be a descendant of Negi from the future who has traveled back in time to expose the existence of magic to the world, thus serving as the arc's primary antagonist. After Negi and his comrades successfully stop her, she accepts her defeat and returns to her own time, but not before revealing a family tree which contains who Negi would eventually be with; this however was quickly destroyed without anyone seeing its contents. It is suggested that the Family Tree may have been a fake since no one saw if anything was written in it before it was destroyed (thanks to Asuna), though it was still enough to incapacitate Class 2/3-A in 57 seconds. She makes another appearance near the end of the manga series, where Asuna meets her in the future after being sealed for 100 years. She and Evangeline eventually help take her back to her present time to rejoin Negi and her friends.
Kaede Nagase
Live-action actor: Yuna Arai
is student number twenty in the class and a member of the Koga ninja clan. She has an easy-going attitude and is almost always seen with her eyes almost closed, a trait shared with Mitsune "Kitsune" Konno of Akamatsu's previous work, Love Hina. Kotaro admires her strength very much since she's the first girl who has ever defeated him. She refers to herself as "sessha" and she frequently ends her sentences with "de gozaru", an archaic verb form historically used by samurai. She trains in the mountains, displaying a wide range of cinematic ninja abilities such as the ability to create clones. After learning about the existence of magic, she helps Negi in various situations, including traveling to the Magic World in search of his father. She is close to Kotaro and often trains with him. She is one of the three students that had died and was buried.
Chizuru Naba
Live-action actor: Ai Tanimoto
is student number twenty-one in the class. She is a kind person to everyone, one trait among many others she shares with Mutsumi Otohime from Love Hina, which is another of Ken Akamatsu's works. She volunteers at the daycare center in Mahora City and has exceptional domestic skills. According to notes taken down by Kazumi of Class 2-A/3-A, Chizuru is the girl with the biggest breasts of all the class. After Kotaro comes to the school for Negi, she forces him to live in their dorm under the identity of Natsumi's younger brother, although he lives in great fear of her home remedies, which invariably consist of spring onion suppositories. She forms a Pactio with Negi very late in the story and gains an artifact. It is a scepter in the form of a spring onion that cures every ailment or status effect, but in return forces a person to obey any of Chizuru's commands when stabbed by it.
In chapter 340 it is revealed that her family runs a conglomerate. In the manga's final chapter, Chizuru becomes a nursery day care worker and dotes on Fuka's and Fumika's daughters.
Fuka Narutaki
Live-action actor: Saya Kataoka
is student number twenty-two in the class and the elder of the Narutaki twins. She constantly causes trouble, often using ninjutsu "skills" taught to her by Kaede to sneak around or run away. Her pactio in Negima! allows for the creation of unlimited cloning.
Fumika Narutaki
Live-action actor: Manaka Yamamoto
is student number twenty-three in the class and the younger of the Narutaki twins. She is the opposite of her sister, often telling her that her ideas are bad.
Satomi Hakase
Live-action actor: Ririko Uchida
is student number twenty-four in the class, and an expert in robotics. She is very close to Chao, actively taking part in the plan to reveal magic to the world, and utilizing Chao's magic and technology from the future, although she defers to Chao in judging whether they are doing the right thing. Her great intelligence, obsession in her work, and lack of common sense lead her classmates to refer to both her and Chao as mad scientists. She is the creator of Chachamaru, and essentially acts like her mother. She constantly upgrades her and takes special interest in the ways she develops, such as developing feelings for Negi.
Her last name, "hakase", is a homophone of 博士, which means "doctor" (i.e., a person who has obtained a doctorate). Often, she is referred to as Hakase-Hakase (or just "Hakase", but with the alternate meaning). The English manga translates this as "Professor Hakase" or "Professor"; even the meaning "Professor-Professor" would be correct, depending on which version of the pun is in use.
Chisame Hasegawa
Live-action actor: Natsuko Aso
is student number twenty-five in the class. She is grumpy, unsocial, and views her classmates as idiots and freaks, citing that it is obvious that Chachamaru and Mana don't belong in the school and that 10-year-old Negi teaching the class does not make any sense. However, as much as Chisame avoids any and all attention in the real world, in the privacy of her own room, she takes on the role of , a famous Net Idol and Model, devoted to cosplay. Although she is, fitting with her character, rather disturbed by the idea of other students being openly attracted to and/or in love with 10-year-old Negi, she eventually becomes very close with Negi as he convinces her to interact with the real world. After finding out about the existence of magic, she reluctantly becomes part of Negi's group.
Chisame is extremely skilled with computers, and she is able to hack into large databases with minimal effort. After forming a pactio with Negi, she gains the artifact, "Sceptrum Virtuale" (Virtual Scepter), a heart-topped staff that allows her to actually enter cyberspace as a physical realm, upon which she can internally hack into systems. She can allow others to enter with her while their bodies stay in the real world. She is assisted by virtual "spirits", Kincha, Hanpe, Konnya, Chikuwafu, Negi, Daiko, and Shirataki, who can communicate with her while she is nearby an electronic device. They can watch out for any viral attacks, and manipulate data, which allows her to increase the ranking of her site. However, her Pactio ability has the drawback of being near-useless when not connected to the internet, although her spirits can also navigate the magic worlds systems which might be electrically powered. Her spirits disappear when her laptop's batteries are exhausted. Her Pactio has an additional ability which she uses more often, which allows her to transform into various Net-idol cosplay outfits. During the "Magical World" arc she takes Asuna's place as Negi's "Guardian" temporarily. In the manga's final chapter, Chisame becomes a recluse while assisting with the ISSDA (International Solar System Development Agency). Later is revealed in UQ Holder! that Chisame was the girl Negi chose in the end, marrying her some years after he rescued his father from the Mage of the Beginning.
Evangeline A.K. McDowell
Live-action actor: Sakina Kuwae, Hitomi Miwa (adult)
, listed as , and usually called by her classmates as Evachan, is student number twenty-six in the class. She is a British "high daylight walker" who was turned at the age of ten during the Hundred Years' War. After many years of struggle, hiding, and hardship, she eventually became known as one of the most feared mages in both worlds. After coming into contact with Nagi Springfield, she starts following him around out of love until he seals her within the Mahora Academy grounds, telling her to "live in the light for a change" and promising to free her upon graduation. He disappears soon after, which means that she cannot be freed without blood from his bloodline, which makes her target Negi.
Evangeline attempts to obtain Negi's blood and free herself from the curse, but as she cannot regularly access her power, she is eventually defeated. She takes an interest in Negi afterward, and decides to not pursue him any longer. She takes him as a student sometime later, helping him improve his combat and magical abilities. She occasionally takes his blood as payment, and they train within a special miniaturized world, which she refers to as her "resort," which is located within a glass sphere where a day inside the sphere is only an hour. She also trains Asuna, Setsuna, and several other members of Negi's group. During regular school activities, she is in the tea ceremony club out of enjoyment, and she often visits Konoemon Konoe, the School Dean, and occasionally Albireo Imma.
Evangeline's power is notorious in the Magic World, which leads to nicknames like "Advent of Evil", "Apostle of Calamity", "Gospel of Darkness", "Dark Evangel", "Puppet/Doll Master", "Maga Nosferatu", "The Girl Queen of Darkness", "The Visitation of Woes", and "The Disciple of Dark Tones." As a dark mage, Evangeline specializes in ice-based spells and dark magic, and is shown to be incredibly powerful once in her full capacities. She created the style "Magia Erebea", which absorbs magic into the users body; bonding it to the user's soul. Her abilities allow her to fly and give her extremely fast regeneration, even while under the curse; though Chachamaru is generally used to fight in her stead. She is also a master of puppetry, and she is able to control hundreds of marionettes at once, or use the ability on her opponents. She currently only uses one sentient doll, , a very rude and violent being, though she cannot move without a large concentration of magic. In her resort, she makes use of several other sentient dolls who can move due to the high concentration of magic within her resort.
Chachamaru is a servant to her. She refers to Evangeline as "master" and does anything she orders. While Chachazero is a puppet, Chachamaru is a robot, and requires no power from Evangeline. Instead, she plugs herself in.
Nodoka Miyazaki
Live-action actor: Miyu Wagawa
is student number twenty seven in the class at Mahora Academy. She is a shy bookworm, who spends most of her time in the library or the bookstore. She is among the top ranking students in the school, and she possesses knowledge of a wide variety of topics from her constant reading. She often uses her hair to cover her eyes completely, but when brought out of her shy shell, gains confidence, and shows one of her eyes. Although Negi is several years younger than her, she still has a crush on him because she believes he carries the maturity of an adult. She is also very close to Yue, and after learning of Yue's feelings for Negi and her distress of having the same crush as her friend, Nodoka comforts her, although she still has normal jealousy on occasion.
Nodoka is the second person to hold a pactio with Negi, which takes the form of the artifact, "Diarium Ejus" (His Diary, probably meant as "God's Diary" or "The Opponent's Diary), a diary that shows the inner thoughts and feelings of any person whose name she calls using writing and illustrations. The book can levitate and automatically turn its pages, and she can edit or delete anything in it. The thoughts appear in the way Nodoka would write them and draw them, so they are always polite and simplistic. Nodoka finds this book she carries quite useful for finding out what Negi thinks of her. However, Nodoka must know the name of the person she wants to read the mind of or it will not work; if she does not call a name, it reads her own thoughts, which often embarrass her due to her (apparently unconscious) sexually explicit thoughts. She later gains the ability to split the book into multiple smaller diaries, which allows her to read multiple minds at once.
During her stay in the magic world with a group of treasure hunters, she gains the (non-Pactio) artifacts "Comptina Daemonia" (Demonic Nursery Rhyme), which allows her to instantly know the true name of anyone who she asks, and "Auris Recitans" (the Reading into your Ear), which allows her to hear the thoughts written through an earpiece by placing clips in her artifact. Her experience of treasure hunting while being separated from the main group greatly develops Nodoka's resolve and initiative; she goes on to take full advantage of her artifact to make split-second decisions that can get her party out of scrapes. Her evolution is such that after witnessing the apparent death of one of her new friends, she instantaneously reacts, stealing the powerful Grand Master Key and escaping with it single-handedly. While she remains humble and quiet outside of battle, this 'new' Nodoka frequently surprises her friends with her drive and ability.
Natsumi Murakami
Live-action actor: Eri Mukunoki
is the twenty-eighth student in the class. She is a shy girl, who is an actress in the drama club. She feels that her body is underdeveloped, so she is constantly depressed and jealous of her more developed classmates. She bonds with Kotaro after he arrives at the school; and begins to develop slight jealousy of his interactions with other girls. She is accidentally brought to the Magic World, where she is forced to become an indentured servant. After being saved, Haruna convinces her to form a pactio with Kotaro, rather than Negi. Although she is very embarrassed by the idea of kissing Kotaro to form the contract (due to the romantic implications and the age difference between herself and 10-year-old Kotaro), she is convinced due to Kotaro's speech in which he states that he thinks of Natsumi and friends as the closest things to family he has and that he loves her. She succeeds in the formation of the Pactio and then suddenly tells Kotaro that she has feelings for him; she immediately regrets this and runs off. Her Pactio artifact is "Adjutor Solitarius" (Lonely Helper), a mask that has the ability to suppress her presence and the presence of anyone she is holding hands with when held up to her face. In the epilogue, it is revealed that she marries Kotaro after they grow up.
Ayaka Yukihiro
Live-action actor: Rei Ohtsuka, Haruka Fukuhara (young)
is student number twenty-nine in the class. She comes from a wealthy family, and is the class representative. As such, she is frequently referred to by other classmates as "Iincho," (Japanese: 'class representative') She is one of the top ranking students in the school, and she is well trained in martial arts. She has a heated rivalry with Asuna that often causes conflict between the two, although the rivalry is in truth a cover for a caring friendship. She is obsessed with Negi, claiming that he needs a mother figure, and is the most vocal in her class in her open desire to "claim" him. However, most of her classmates feel that it is an unhealthy obsession, as Negi is only 10 years old, but she seems to have no qualms at all about his age. She later reveals that she would have had a younger brother, had he not died during childbirth, and she greatly wishes for that sort of connection, although her obsession with Negi still appears to be romantically based. Her Pactio gives her the ability to meet anyone, no matter how important without prior permission. Fate points out that this would allow the user to find and assassinate anyone without worry of being stopped on the way there.
Satsuki Yotsuba
Live-action actor: Mei Shimizu
is student number thirty in the class, and an aspiring chef. She is part of the school's cooking club, and cooks at a streetcar restaurant. Satsuki's dream is to have her own restaurant, as she likes making people happy through her food. Most other students state that they admire her for following her dream; she even draws rare praise from Evangeline, who thinks nearly everyone else in 3A lacks direction. Satsuki has a unique way of speaking that is shown in the manga by depicting her words without a speech bubble; she displays great wisdom for her age, and an image of a koala tends to be drawn beside her when she is making a speech. Although not directly linked or involved in the various incidents that take place throughout the manga, she seems passively aware of the magical students and events that take place in throughout the school and unsurprised at the feats of magic that occur in her presence. She is one of the three students that had died and was buried.
Zazie Rainyday
Live-action actor: Taeka Hatazawa
is student thirty-one in the class. She rarely speaks, and doesn't associate with anyone outside of the school's acrobatic club. She often spends time juggling and hanging around with a group of masked monster-like black blobs she simply refers to as "friends". In the Mahora Festival Arc, it was the first time she spoke to anyone with more words than one. Her lack of character development and speaking lines is occasionally the subject of in-character jokes; when Ayaka claims to be speaking to Zazie on the phone (although in truth all that Zazie said was "Bye"), the other students express disbelief that she is even talking. Recently, she had appeared before Negi and his group at the lower entrance of the Gravekeeper's Palace; however, that was revealed to be in fact her older sister. Zazie's sister used her pactio to put Negi and the people of his party who were not satisfied with their life into a copy of Cosmo Entelecheia, to show its effect and try to dissuade Negi from trying to stop Fate. Zazie herself aided Negi while he was in Cosmo Entelecheia, bringing more questions as to her involvement with Fate, and what her powers are. Her Negima! pactio is a set of magical slicing cards. She speaks much more often in Negima!?, and makes very bad puns.
Mahora Academy characters
Teachers
Takamichi T. Takahata
Live-action actor: Hiroshi
is the teacher Negi replaces at Mahora, though he takes up a position as a guidance counselor. He was a member of Ala Rubra, and though he was only a child at the time, he fought actively during the war. Although he is greatly respected (and quite famous) in the magic community, he is a magic school dropout due to the fact that he cannot perform incantations. Instead, he uses "kankahō", a fighting style that combines eastern Ki, western magic, and a bare-fist version of iaidō, "iaiken". Asuna is obsessed with him, though he hides the truth from her, and that he erased her memories of the Magic World. He comments that he has no right to be loved for an unknown reason. His fighting style and personal appearance/habits, including cigarette smoking, are based on Gateau von Vandenberg, another Ala Rubra member who was his master. In Negima!?, he is the assistant of Negi, as well as being an avid fan of ramen.
Shizuna Minamoto
Live-action actor: Nao Oikawa
is Negi's advisor at Mahora Academy. She primarily attempts to be a motherly figure while Negi adjusts to the school, slowly leading him into the different aspects of his job. She and Takahata are rumored to have been dating, although this is never confirmed.
Konoemon Konoe
Live-action actor: Gajiro Sato
is the school dean and Konoka Konoe's grandfather. He is also the chief of the Kantō Magic Association. Despite Konoka being unwilling, he constantly arranges miai ("wedding interviews" or dates pre-arranged by family members), so that she can choose a future fiancé. He humorously offers one of these to Negi upon their first meeting. It was hinted at the end of episode 19 that he likely had great feelings for Sayo Aisaka (student number 1 in class 2/3-A) when she was alive.
Other teachers
Professor Akashi is the father of Yuna Akashi. He researches magical phenomenon, such as the connection between Fate and Wilhelm. His daughter is unaware of magic, so he keeps porn magazines in his office to distract his daughter from his magic related research papers. As of late, his being a Mage was revealed to Yūna, and furthermore, his late wife, Yūko, was revealed to be not just a mage herself, but a government agent sent to Megalomesembira in an operation related to the current situation, which was also where and how she died.
is the woman in charge of the Mahora mage organization's operations division, ranking second only to the Headmaster. She is a Shinmeiryuu swordswoman, who acts as Setsuna's master.
Kataragi is a mage employed by Mahora Academy. He's most distinguished by his deep black goatee, sunglasses and black suit. Also referred to as Sunglasses Beard Sensei by the students of the school. Kataragi specializes in Western wind magic, severing techniques, long range and unincanted spells.
is a dark-skinned mage, who uses both a handgun and knife in combat.
, is a mage teacher, who heads the Mahora nun patrol squad. She seems particularly skilled in combat and uses floating crosses in battle. Both Misora and Cocone are under her guidance at the church on Mahora's campus. She is voiced by Marina Inoue in the Drama CD.
Students
Kotaro Inugami
is a ten-year-old humanoid with pointed ears and furry tail. He can perform a partial dog transformation which gives him more canine aspects similar to modern movie representations of a werewolf. He forms a strong rivalry and friendship with Negi after facing him as an opponent in Kyoto while serving as a mercenary. He later joins the school where Negi teaches, living with Chizuru, Natsumi, and Ayaka under the guise of Natsumi's brother. He also has a strong dislike of practitioners of Western-style magic, with Negi being one of the few exceptions. Kotaro is an expert in physical combat and charms, and has the power to summon dog spirits, but prefers to fight hand to hand using a self-taught ninja style. He is also capable of temporarily transforming himself into a black puppy. He trains with Kaede in ninjutsu in order to strengthen himself enough to be a help to Negi's future battles. Although he holds no Pactio with Negi, Kotaro often acts as a partner of Negi in combat, partnering with him in a tournament in the Magical World in order to gain money to free their friends from indentured servitude. In the finals, he transforms into a giant demonic black dog. Instead of forming a Pactio contract with Negi, Kotaro acts as the Magister in a contract with Natsumi, who is in love with him, although as a 10-year-old, he fails to comprehend the meaning behind Natsumi's interrogation of his thoughts towards other girls. He later marries Natsumi during the epilogue of the final chapter of the manga.
Takane D. Goodman
Voiced by: Naomi Inoue (Drama CD)
is a high-school student and secret mage. Her magical affinity is shadows, and she can summon and direct shadow warriors, as well as create highly elaborate shadow armor, which mimics clothes. When she is defeated and her magic depleted this causes her armor-clothes to disappear, leaving her naked. This tends to cause her trauma within the story, as it generally happens in front of a group of people. It looks like she has a crush on Negi after defeated by him in mahora martial arts tournament based on her behavior around him. This was confirmed at the end of the manga when she challenged him to a fight and demanded that he must go out with her if she wins. After she loses against Negi without being stripped she asks him why he didn't strip her and asks if it was out of pity or it was because she no longer attractive to him and chases him yelling at him if he was going to undress her or go out with her before their "marriage". In the final chapter she and Mei are seen working with Akashi Yuna as agents of Megalo-Mesembria.
Mei Sakura
is another student-mage. She constantly travels with Takane and shares her penchant for losing her clothing in battle. Her artifact is a broomstick and she has an elemental magic affinity for fire. After losing to Kotaro he saves her from drowning and she gains a great admiration for him. It is hinted that she has a crush for him.
Cocone Fatima Rosa
is a young dark-skinned ninja-nun. She was born in the magical world and almost always tags along with Misora Kasuga due to the fact that Misora is her Ministra Magi. She specializes in telepathy, and is much better at drawing than Misora. Overall, she tends to show a little more common sense than Misora, but rarely speaks, and usually goes along with whatever Misora does, even if she gets into trouble right along with her. She is very attached to Misora, silently hugging the older girl's neck when the latter talked about how much she wished to stop her training, leading Misora to add in that she would never leave Cocone.
Megumi Natsume
, alias is a Dark-haired, glasses-wearing girl who is a magic student from the Mahora Elementary School. Nutmeg carries a short staff and primarily uses water magic, and is part of a Mahou Shojo team with Mei and Takane. She made her first major appearance with Takane and Mei as they tried to capture Asuna and Negi's other partners in the future using a water spell, but was defeated by Negi's partners.
Welsh characters
Nekane Springfield
Nekane is Negi's cousin whom Negi addresses as "oneechan," a more casual Japanese term for "older sister." Nekane took on a maternal role during Negi's childhood, even sharing a bed with him. Asuna bears some physical resemblance to Nekane, which is why Negi sometimes sleeps beside her, much to her (Asuna's) dismay.
Six years ago, when demons attacked the village where she and Negi used to live in, she was almost turned to stone while trying to protect Negi from a petrification spell, but was saved by the Thousand Master just in time. Her legs were turned to stone and broke off. A later shot of her in Volume 10 reveals that her legs have been restored.
In Negima!?, Nekane does gain a greater role in the second anime. As the Star Crystal crisis slowly grows, Nekane chooses to assist her brother by disguising as the "Black Rose Baron", an enigmatic character initially seen not working for either Negi or for the one controlling the crystal. Eventually, Nekane appears as herself to assist Negi and his class in the running of the day-to-day activities, but Negi eventually discovers her secret. However, he is forced to keep Nekane's other identity a secret to protect her and his students.
Albert Chamomile
, or is a talking, perverted, chain-smoking and lingerie stealing ermine. He has been close to Negi ever since he saved Chamo from a trap. Chamo often acts as Negi's trusty advisor in most things, though there are times his judgement is lacking. He is skillful at analyzing dangerous situations and coming up with countermeasures when most of the others are in a state of panic, though they are not always fully thought out. His level of magic is not as great as most of the mages shown in the series, though he has shown some considerable spell casting, chief among them is drawing up magic circles, which is essential for creating Pactios, and casting anti-telepathy spells. He also has the disturbing hobby of keeping track of the girls' feelings for Negi, often to the chagrin of all involved. In the live-action adaptation of the franchise, Chamo is depicted as an animated figure locked in a patch sewn on Negi's suit. In Negima?!, he seems to take over Negi's role as Asuna's punching bag as whenever he said something offensive about her, she will grab his head with him yelling out "Animal abuse" in return.
Anya
is a childhood friend of Negi and a former schoolmate. Upon graduating, she is sent to work as a fortuneteller in London. She has a magically affinity to fire spells. She eventually goes to Japan to make Negi return to England, though she is shocked to learn that he has already made seven different contracts and has far surpassed her in magic. She later goes to the Magic World with the group, though she is captured by Fate after they are separated. She appears to have feelings for Negi.
Negima!? features her stealing a dangerous artifact known as the "Star Crystal", which quickly consumes her due to her jealousy of Negi. She is eventually saved by Negi and his class, but as punishment, she joins Negi's class as student number 32 in Negima!? Neo.
Ala Rubra (Crimson Wing)
Nagi Springfield
Live-action actor: Hassei Takano
is Negi's father and a legendary mage known as "The Thousand Master." He led the group "Crimson Wing" during the Great War, and he and his companions are held as saviors. After the war, he traveled for ten years, becoming even more famous for his heroic deeds before suddenly disappearing in Istanbul the year of Negi's birth. His fate is unknown, but he is known to be alive, as his pactios are still in effect, and Negi believes that Nagi saved him from the demons attacking his home village. It has since been revealed that, like Zecht before him, he has become possessed by the Mage of the Beginning. Nagi is shown to be straight forward, childlike, laid back, and disrespectful. He hates respectful titles, and would rather be called by his name.
In the anime, it is revealed that Nagi was protecting young Asuna from demon attacks in Germany nine years ago when he disappeared. Nagi detects a flying demon approaching, but failed to cast a protective spell as Asuna cancels out all nearby magic. As the demon picks Nagi up on the tip of its massive sword, away from Asuna, Nagi casts a spell that draws himself and the demon into a portal to an unknown place. He swears to Asuna this state will be temporary, but it is strongly implied that Nagi does not make it back to Asuna within the following nine years as Negi and Class 2-A are the ones who eventually save Asuna from the demons.
Rumors state that he is the master of one thousand spells, though he is actually a dropout who has to use notes to properly cast the few spells that he knows. He has a strong affinity for lightning, having mastered the element's strongest spells. Nagi is so strong, in both magical and physical combat, that he does not even need any partners to help him. His fighting style was that of a Combat Mage, using both speedy magic casting and hand-to-hand combat in tandem. He has made pactios with Jack Rakan and Albeiro Imma. He also had Negi with Arika, the former queen of Ostia, currently known as the Queen of Calamity.
In the end of the series, it is revealed that Nagi was possessed by the spirit of the Mage of the Beginning, but was somehow saved by Negi and Ala Rubra, and is also revealed in UQ Holder! that he married Evangeline in the original timeline, while in the alternate timeline where the events of UQ Holder! is set, he was killed by Negi, who became the new vessel for the Mage of the Beginning instead.
Jack Rakan
, also known as "Rakan of the Thousand Blades", is the large, dark-skinned member of Nagi's group. He is known as a legendary fighter, and one of the very few people able to fight evenly with Nagi. He built up his skills from years of life and death battles in coliseums, hunting beasts, and acting as a mercenary. He eventually meets Nagi after being hired to kill him, acknowledges his strength, and joins his group. He has a very greedy and laid back personality, rarely doing anything for free or getting willingly involved in disputes. He is rarely serious in battle, often utilizing flashy techniques just for fun.
He has been Negi's master and is joining Negi's group. In the latest chapters, it seems that Rakan is in trouble. He is fighting Fate Averruncus and he manages to fight and defeat Fate, before Fate uses a large key - referred to as the "Code of the Lifemaker" - to alter reality so that the battle did not occur and he was unhurt. He is later erased by this key.
Rakan's Pactio item, "Ho Heroes Meta Chilion Prosopon" (The Hero with a Thousand Faces), can create numerous bladed weapons that Rakan can instantly change upon a whim. He can create a building-sized sword, numerous small blades, and he can also charge energy into the weapons. His pactio also allowed him to create artificial limbs and a giant piledriver arm when his limbs were erased by Fate. He also utilizes energy attacks, and though he knows spell incantations, he does not use them in battle. He is a skilled hand-to-hand fighter, able to react to lightning fast movements with years of experience. Jack's actual age is unknown.
Eishun Konoe
is Konoka's father, the chief of the Kansai Magic Association, and a former member of Ala Rubra. In order to defuse a feud between the two associations, Konoemon Konoe set up an arranged marriage between Eishun with his daughter. Eishun is a Shinmei-ryū swordsmaster. He does not initially tell his daughter about magic, sending her to Mahora Academy under the care of his father-in-law.
Albireo Imma
, is one of Nagi's former companions. He is registered as a librarian in the Mahora Library Island. Unable to leave the area for unknown reasons, he is only able to leave using replicas fueled by the world tree's magic. He admits to Eva that he spent at least ten years in rehabilitation. During the Mahorafest arc he takes the pseudonym "Ku:nel Sanders", an allusion to Colonel Sanders, stated in an omake that this is probably just because he enjoys chicken from KFC. Albireo would not respond to a person, in fact he would completely ignore them, if they did not call him "Colonel Sanders". Albireo takes delight in tormenting and playing mindgames with Eva. He's also a cunning and shrewd man, and is considered as one of the two natural enemies which Evangeline has, the other one being Nagi himself. He is voiced by Daisuke Ono.
Albireo has displayed high proficiency with both gravity and healing magic in addition to being a skilled unarmed combatant. During the Great War he defeated Dynamis during the final battle. His Pactio item is a series of books, with an accompanying bookmark, that can be used to transform into a specific person, using all their skills and abilities. His present Pactio is with Nagi, but he has had 12 other contracts with other mages in the past, all of whom are dead. The fact that his pactio with Nagi remains active serves as proof that Nagi is still alive. Albireo's actual age is unknown.
Gateau Kagura von Vandenburg
is one of Nagi's companions. Before he became a member of Ala Rubra he worked in the military for Megalomesembria. He is Takamichi's master and taught him, and Asuna, the magical combat form called "Magic Ki Fusion" or "Kanka", that combines both Eastern chi and Western magic. He dies before the start of the series, with his dying wish to have Asuna's memories of him erased.
Filius Zect
Filius Zect is a calm, collected, and skilled warrior excelling in unarmed combat and counter magic. Nagi refers to him as "master" despite looking older and being more powerful. Filius fought alongside Nagi against the Mage of the Beginning and died after the battle, vanishing into dust after stating that "A war hero cannot shape the future," that "humanity is beyond saving" and finally that "his 2600 years of despair [ended now]." However, he has appeared again roughly 8 years after the battle as the Mage of Beginning. It is possible that, before he was defeated, the Mage of Beginning may have transported his soul into Zect, though other possibilities exist.
Magical World characters
Arika Anarchia Entheofushia
Arika Anarchia Entheofushia the princess of the Vespertatia royal family in the nation of Ostia, and Negi's mother. She comes into contact with Ala Rubra during the struggle between the empire and the confederation after failing to act as an arbitrator. They protect her from Cosmo Entelecheia, though she is eventually captured. After the destruction of Ostia Arika, charged with its destruction, was tried in an international court, and said to have been executed eighteen years before the series. However, Nagi rescued her on the day of her execution and took her back to the old world. Despite being publicly known as the "Queen of Calamity" destroyer of her own country, the citizens of Ostia have fond memories of her and declare that she did her best to save the country. It is hinted that she is a sister to Asuna Kagurazaka, who is a descendant of the Ostian royal family.
Theodora
Theodora, the third princess of the Hellas Empire is a tomboyish woman, who was saved by Ala Rubra during the war. She is close to Jack Rakan, though he treats her like a child and it is assumed that she has feelings for him. She is thirty years old, though that is only the equivalent of ten human years in her race. She makes a pactio with Negi in order to help him have a better chance of beating Rakan.
Tosaka
Tosaka is a leading member of the arena team "Grancius Fortes". He initially is portrayed as a thug who abuses the slaves, although he is a former slave himself. After Negi and Kotaro join his team, Tosaka slowly gains respect for them, while also resenting the fact that they are so easily gaining the money to free their friends from slavery, while it took him over eighteen years. He attempts to blackmail Negi into being his slave, but after Ako prepares to trade away the little freedom she has left for the evidence, he decides to drop it. It is later hinted that Tosaka did this because he has a crush on Ako. He is also erased by the Cosmo Entelecheia.
Emily Sevensheep
Emily Sevensheep is a beastgirl who attends the magical academy in the city-state of Ariadne as a magical knight in training. She is the class president of Class 3-C and one of the most promising cadets. She is a fan of Nagi Springfield, and wishes to see Negi, posing as Nagi in battle. She is initially very cruel towards Yue and Collet Farandole, but she becomes close to them during a competition. During their time in Ostia she gains more respect (and possibly more intimate feelings) for Yue, and is later erased protecting Yue.
Beatrix Monroe
Beatrix is Emily's close childhood friend and her second. She is also a magical knight of Ariadne. She is very loyal to Emily, calling her Ojou-sama, but unlike Emily she is a human. Beatrix is a calm person who rarely sticks out. She got the same role as Setsuna to Konoka with Emily. While Emliy is a Nagi Springfield fan, Beatrix is secretly a Jack Rakan fan. Yue and Beatrix goes into a rage after Emily is erased. She is later turned to stone by Fate Averruncus petrification magic after protecting Yue.
Collet Farandole
Collet Farandole is a beastgirl who attends the magical academy in the city-state of Ariadne as a mage knight in training. She accidentally releases a memory-erasing spell on Yue, so she decides to watch over her while also hiding the truth. They become close friends, with Collet helping Yue with her studies and personal problems.
Kurt Godel
Kurt Godel is the governor-general of New Ostia and the former disciple of Eishun Konoe. He confronts Negi with knowledge of his mother and many other personal details, and a mysterious claim of knowing Negi's "true enemy." He tells Negi that he wants to rule the world, and that Negi can easily have half of it. Though he claims that he has a weak body, he is an extremely skilled swordsman, capable of quickly dispatching Negi and Asuna with perfect use of the highest-level techniques of Shinmei-ryuu that only the clan's leaders are supposed to master. He learned his swordplay from Eishun after being taken in as an orphan by Ala Rubra. He initially learned only through imitation, which impressed Eishun enough to properly teach him. After the war, he left the group because he considered their methods of saving the world to be lacking. He pursued a career in politics in Megalomesembria and fell out of touch with Jack Rakan for about 10 years. Godel wished Negi to join him to save the 67 million humans in the Magical World, and revealed to Negi the true story of how the Megalomesembria Senate used Arika as a scapegoat to seize control of the country, as well as the true culprits behind the attack on his village. Negi almost signed a contract signifying his support, until he asked Godel why he only wished to save the 67 million humans of Megalomesembria and not the whole world, and disagreed with him that it was unrealistic to save everyone. It seems that he had a crush on Arika Anarchia Entheofushia.
Cosmo Entelecheia
Cosmo Entelecheia is a mysterious group that wants to destroy the Magic World for unknown purposes. Twenty years before the series, its leader the "Mage of the Beginning" or the "Life Maker", a very tall man, clad in black robes and cloaks with an empty hood, was the mastermind behind the destruction of the Magic World. He easily manages to wipe out Ala Rubra, though Nagi is eventually able to defeat him. The group later reemerges under the leadership of Fate, or at least, it seems so. In the later chapters it is revealed that Dynamis is their current leader.
Fate Averruncus
, whose real name is Tertium (Latin for "The Third", with the "-um" ending indicating a gender neutral object), is the main antagonist of the series. He first appears as a mercenary hired by Chigusa Amagasaki in Japan. He later appears in the Magic World with a small group of followers, and attacks Negi's group, though it is apparently only by coincidence that they meet. He later attempts to force Negi into swearing an unbreakable oath, though Negi refuses with Asuna's help. Through Jack Rakan and Fate's own word, Negi learns that Fate is a remnant of Cosmo Entelecheia, a group that Ala Rubra fought against, and that ten years before the series, Fate fought Nagi and they defeated each other. Fate claims that he is going to save the world by destroying the Magic World, though it is suggested by Nodoka's mind reading diary that he no longer cares much about the plan, and that he simply wishes for Negi to get stronger in order to be a worthy opponent like his father. It has been recently revealed that his plan to destroy the Magic World is due to the fact that it is already at risk of collapsing, and should it do so without warning, its entire inhabitants would suddenly be thrust into Mars's inhospitable landscape, cut off completely from earth.
There have been at least 3 persons with the name of Averruncus. Fate's real name is Tertium ("The Third"). Fate is much more like a human than the other two before him since his "creator" stated that he left all his parameters normal, and that he has no loyalty to his master. Jack also mentions that Fate must be the "Averruncus of earth". Near the end of the series, three more constructs with the name of Averruncus are added: Quartum ("The Fourth") - "Averruncus of fire", Quintum ("The Fifth") - "Averruncus of wind", & Sextum ("The Sixth") - "Averruncus of water".
Fate Averruncus (Tertium) is an expert in both Western and Eastern magic, and he is highly skilled in martial arts (his fighting style is Kung Fu). He use a lot of water-based spells, petrification spells, and his specialty: earth spells (all from minor to massive stone attacks). He can also perform Eastern magic (such as summoning demons). Rakan said his strength is at least 8000, but it seems that Fate might be stronger than that. He has Pactio contracts with five female mages, Shirabe (real name Brigitte), Shiori (real name Luna), Homura, Koyomi and Tamaki and possibly 57 others. He also created an item by using Asunas magic canceling power. It grants him the powers of the Mage of the Beginning called "The Code of the Life Maker", which allows him to destroy and recreate worlds or dimensions at will.
Dynamis
Dynamis is a dark skinned, long black haired muscle man who spends the majority of the story in long black mage robes and a white mask. Along with Fate Averruncus, he is one of the few members of Cosmo Entelecheia that has survived. Unlike Fate who seems to be a bit careless about their goal, Dynamis is much more determined to follow their master, the "Mage of the Beginning", wishes. Fate has showed some interest to have fun with fighting Negi, but Dynamis wants to eliminate Negi. He said in chapter 301: "I am but a defeated general who has lost his master". He is highly skilled as a shadow-user, has the ability to summon a giant shadow-demon (like during the fight with Albireo Imma under the final battle of the Great War), and he is able to transform into a stronger form of a shadow-beast (seen in chapter 301). Dynamis is the one who reviewed Fate Averruncus (both the second and the third) after the Great War. Which basically means that Dynamis is the current leader of Cosmo Entelecheia.
Tsukuyomi
is a Shinmei Ryuu swordswoman, is one of the three mercenaries hired to help Chigusa. Unlike Setsuna who uses a single sword style, she uses a sword and dagger style. She later joins with Fate in the Magic World, gathering information and spying on White Wing. She has an obsession with fighting Setsuna, often exhibiting bloodlust when doing so. She also exhibits the tendencies of being a sadist. She is shown to wield the fey blade "Hina" in the latest chapters. She appears briefly in UQ Holder with the name Tsukuyomi Iwai, where she fights on Fate's Ala Alba team.
The Master of the Grave
A mysterious mage at the same size as Fate Averruncus, who first appeared at the Gateport and probably is the one who destroyed the gateport's magical barrier. She is the one who called out Poyo Rainyday for the battle, the older sister of Zazie Rainyday. In chapter 314 it seems that she might be an ancestor of Asuna and Negi, since Negi somehow recognized her and she called Negi; "my descendant". Furthermore, she also looks like Asuna. The reason she has been working with Cosmo Entelechheia has never been revealed.
Poyo Rainyday
Poyo Rainyday is Zazie's sister, and one of the higher ranked Demonfolk. She got the artifact: "Magical Lantern Circus", which is an illusion of "the perfect world" ("cosmo entelecheia").
Other antagonists
Chigusa Amagasaki
was Negi's first major antagonist, the one responsible for causing trouble at beginning of the school field trip. She tried to stop Negi from giving a letter from Mahora's headmaster, to Konoe, chief of Kansai Magic Association, because she feared improved relations between the Kansai and Kantō Magic Associations. She bears a grudge against Western mages, because her parents were killed in the great magic war that both Eastern and Western mages fought in twenty years ago. Seeking revenge against Western mages, Chigusa captured Konoka, intending to use the young girl's magic potential to summon the demon god "Ryōmen Sukuna-no-Kami". She succeeded in doing so, but the demon god was defeated easily by Evangeline. Chigusa attempted to flee but was captured by Chachazero, and is now under the custody of the Kansai Magic Association.
Graf Wilhelm Josef Von Herrman
is a high level demon, who poses as a descendant of a line of German counts. He is one of the many demons who attacked Negi's village and the one who turned nearly everyone in the village to stone. He is sealed during the attack and released to gauge the threat that Negi and Asuna represent, and to temporarily disable Negi from combat. He is defeated by Negi and Kotaro, though Negi spares his life. He is connected to Fate Averruncus and his group.
In his human form, he looks like an elderly gentleman wearing a suit and a hat. He is a very strong physical fighter, with a fighting style that seems rooted in boxing, who can use magic without chanting. However, his greatest weapon is his petrification spell. He permanently petrified the citizens of Negi's childhood home. This petrification is seemingly incurable; however, it is revealed in the final volume that Konoka is capable of developing her powers sufficiently enough to restore the citizens.
Explanatory notes
"Ch." is shortened form for chapter and refers to a chapter number of the Negima manga.
References
Negima! Magister Negi Magi
Characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1954%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1954 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1954 24 Hours of Le Mans was a 22nd race for Sports Cars, and took place on 12 and 13 June 1954, at the Circuit de la Sarthe, Le Mans, France. It was also the fourth race of the 1954 World Sportscar Championship. The race was won by José Froilán González and Maurice Trintignant driving a Ferrari 375 Plus.
People viewed this race as a battle between brute force and science (per the July 1954 "Motor Sport" article). In the high technology corner, with its sleek, aerodynamic bodywork was the new 3.4-litre Jaguar D-Type, and in the other corner was Ferrari's formidable 5.0-litre V12 375 Plus. Ranged in between was everyone else. The race was heavily affected by poor weather throughout and was a thriller right to the end, producing the closest finish for the race since 1933: less than 5km (half a lap).
Regulations
The ACO again extended the replenishment window (last updated in 1952) of fuel, oil and water from 28 to 30 laps (405 km) although brake fluid was now exempted from this restriction for safety reasons. The equivalence multiplier for forced-induction engines (i.e. supercharged) was reduced from x2.0 to x1.4.
On the track, the stretch from the corners at Mulsanne to Arnage was widened to 8 metres (finishing the work starting in 1950) and the Indianapolis corner was given a slightly banked camber.
Also, this was the first year the race would be televised, getting it a far bigger potential audience.
Entries
After the previous year's intense interest from manufacturers for the new Championship, this year the variety of works teams was reduced: Mercedes had decided to stay focused on F1, Alfa Romeo had closed its racing division, Lancia scratched their team (supposedly daunted by the speed of the Jaguars) and Austin-Healey boycotted the event because of the ongoing presence of the sports-car prototypes. But there were still 85 cars registered for this event, of which a full field of 58 arrived for practice as the remaining manufacturers increased their presence.
As before, Jaguar's sole racing focus for the year was Le Mans and after their 1953 success, they arrived with three of the fantastic new Jaguar D-Type - purpose-built for the smooth tarmac of La Sarthe. A beautiful design, it had been tested in a wind-tunnel and featured the now-famous vertical fin to provide high-speed stability. Low (only ) and sleek, it was extremely fast: the 3.4-litre straight-6 engine was redesigned and tilted at 8 degrees (to reduce height, like the Mercedes-Benz 300 SL had done) and developed 250 bhp with a top speed over 270 km/h. The cars were so new that they had not even been painted when they got to Le Mans. The driver line-up was kept pretty much the same from 1953 with winners Tony Rolt / Duncan Hamilton, and 2nd place Stirling Moss / Peter Walker. This year Peter Whitehead was paired with F1 driver Ken Wharton (his former co-driver Ian Stewart was racing with his brother, Graham, at Aston Martin). An ex-works C-Type was provided for the Belgian Ecurie Francorchamps team when their original car was crashed on the way to the circuit by a Jaguar mechanic.
The major Italian works teams, Scuderia Ferrari, Officine Alfieri Maserati and Automobili Osca all brought new cars for this race: Ferrari's answer to the D-type was the new Ferrari 375 Plus: styled by Pinin Farina, it had a bored-out version of the Lampredi-designed V12 engine, now up to 4,954cc and putting out some 345 bhp, (nearly 40% more than the Jaguars) and a top speed approaching 270 km/h. Not as fast as the Jaguar, but its excellent acceleration was a suitable equaliser on a power-circuit such as Le Mans, with its long straights. With three of his best drivers now unavailable – Alberto Ascari was with Lancia, Giuseppe Farina had been injured in the Mille Miglia and Mike Hawthorn's father had just died suddenly – Ferrari could still field a top team of drivers: three of them - Umberto Maglioli, José Froilán González and Maurice Trintignant were in the current Ferrari F1 works team. With them were Paolo Marzotto (the only works finisher in the 1953 race), ex-Gordini driver Robert Manzon (like Trintignant) and Louis Rosier, 1952 race winner with Talbot.
They were backed up three other Ferraris entered by Briggs Cunningham's and Luigi Chinetti's American teams. Glamour came with Chinetti's team with film star Zsa Zsa Gabor accompanying her rich playboy-boyfriend, Dominican Porfirio Rubirosa.
Maserati was taking over the Formula 1 world in 1954 with its outstanding 250F. They had also developed an uprated version of their A6GCS sportscar, replacing the 2.0-litre engine with the 2.5L version from the 250F. A standard 2.0-litre version was also privately entered, with factory support, for the Marquis de Portago. OSCA had started the year sensationally when a 1500cc MT-4 entered by Cunningham and driven by Stirling Moss and Bill Lloyd won the Sebring 12-hours against far more powerful opposition. Three such cars arrived at Le Mans.
Always looking to be competitive, as well as running the Ferrari 375 MM (because Ferrari had refused to sell him an engine for his own cars), Cunningham had tried to secure the new Dunlop disc brakes for his cars. However Jaguar used its contract-right to veto the deal. He arrived with a pair of the older Cunningham C-4R roadsters for his regular driver complement– the sole entrants in the Over-5 litre class.
It was a big entry for Lagonda-Aston Martin with five works cars and two private entries. One of the two DB3S spyders had a supercharged 2.9L engine that developed 235 bhp driven by British F1 drivers Reg Parnell and Roy Salvadori, the other was run by Carroll Shelby. Alongside them were a pair of aerodynamic coupés & the long-running, expensive Lagonda sports car with a 4.5L V12 (effectively a double-Aston Martin engine)
Gordini arrived with four cars, competing in three classes. The lead car, a T24S driven by Behra and Simon, had a 3.0L engine developing 230 bhp and new Messier disc brakes was capable of over 230 km/h. Gordini also entered a pair of older T15S, also with disc-brakes but with 2.5L and 2.0L engines respectively. Talbot sent no works team this year but supplied an improved 4.5L engine (now capable of 280 bhp) for the T26 spyders of the three private entries (Levegh, Meyrat, Grignard).
In the S-2000 class Bristol returned with three coupés developed from the previous year's model, with better styling and improved aerodynamics. There were also three Frazer-Nashes, using the same Bristol engine, as well as the first entries in the race for Triumph (an off-the shop-floor TR2) and Maserati.
Porsche returned with three cars to contest the S-1500 category against the OSCAs. The Porsche 550s were given a new quad-cam engine making 110 bhp and 210 km/h, and this year were open-top spyders. Another was also given a smaller 1089cc engine for the S-1100 class.
The small British sportscar firm Kieft arrived with two cars to take on the smallest Porsche – bringing the first fibreclass chassis to Le Mans. One was also the first car with the new Coventry Climax FWA engine.
The small-engine classes were well-represented, and again dominated by the French Renault and Panhard derivatives. This year DB had five cars present that comprised a pair of the tiny new central-seat HBR model with Panhard engines and three HDR models using rear-engined Renault power. Panhard itself, now with a full racing department, had 4 works entries built by Monopole who also had their own entry.
Practice
Jaguar was able to get an unofficial practice in May on the full track in an unrelated event and Tony Rolt took the prototype D-type round fully 5 seconds faster than Alberto Ascari's lap record from the previous year in the Indy-engined Ferrari. In the official practice, all three works cars recorded identical times. and they and the Ferraris were a step up from the rest of the field. Overall, the Jaguars had better handling, disc brakes and were faster (Moss was timed at 154.44 mph/278 km/h over the flying kilometre, giving a huge 20 km/h advantage), but the Ferrari had superior power and acceleration. The supercharged Aston Martin, the Lagonda, and the Porsches were also impressively quick.
Unfortunately the Maserati works transporter broke down en route to the track and the car had to be withdrawn as it arrived too late for scrutineering. The Marquis de Portago was able to take the start however, as he had driven his own car direct from the Modena factory in Italy.
Controversially, Gilberte Thirion qualified the 2-litre works Gordini but was excluded from competing because of her gender (only three years after the Coupe des Dames was awarded to female drivers) – her father drove in her stead in the race.
Race
Start
At 4pm the race was started under dark clouds by Prince Bernhard, consort of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands, and an avid motor-racing fan. It came as no surprise when the mighty 375's of González, Marzotto and Manzon stormed away in 1-2-3 formation at the start, with Moss, Rolt and Wharton (who had a startline collision) in close pursuit. After only five laps the first heavy downpour arrived, negating the Ferrari power advantage. By the end of the first hour, González and Marzotto and Moss had a gap over Rolt, and Manzon. The rest of the field was already a lap down. Forty minutes later on lap 22, still in heavy rain, Moss managed to take the lead, starting the to-and–fro battle between the two marques. Wharton had been held up in the first hour with a blocked fuel filter and over the next couple of hours, the other two Jaguars suffered engine misfires giving the Ferraris a lap's lead over the field. Walker stopped out on the track for 50 minutes, but the Moss/Walker car would not be staging an epic comeback this year. Meanwhile, Behra's Gordini and Fitch's Cunningham were regularly trading places in the top-10, mimicking the disc-brakes versus power battle at the front. However soon after 7pm, Behra pitted with ignition problems and then stopped out on the track beyond Mason Blanche. He pushed the car all the way back to the pits to get going again, but it eventually retired in the middle of the night.
A number of other cars had been caught out in the rain: On only lap 5 Count Baggio planted the playboy Ferrari right into the Tertre Rouge sandbank and could not dig it out (so Rubirosa never got a chance to drive for his movie-star girlfriend). The other American Ferrari, of Fitch/Walters, was running 6th when a rocker-arm broke, dropping them out of the running while the engine was repaired. Eric Thompson spun the Lagonda backwards into the bank at the Esses. After nearly 2hours to get it mobile and back to the pits it was retired because the rear lights were too badly damaged and deemed unsafe.
After four hours, at 8pm, González and Marzotto were lapping together, still having not swapped with their respective co-drivers, and a lap ahead of Rosier and Whitehead. Salvadori was fifth in the supercharged Aston, then Hamilton and the two Aston coupés, the Belgian Jaguar and Cunningham's own car filling out the top ten.
Night
At 9.30pm, the Talbot of Meyrat collided with the Aston Martin of 'Jimmy' Stewart as both were lapping a slower car in the fast section coming up to Maison Blanche. Meyrat ended in the hedgerows, but the Aston Martin rolled throwing Stewart clear. The car was completely written off and Stewart was very lucky to only suffer a serious arm break (that eventually contributed to his retirement from racing). The mid-evening showers caused another flurry of accidents and retirements, including Levegh who was in 8th place when he spun and wrecked his Talbot's suspension.
As the rain finally eased off Wharton and Whitehead made a strong comeback, getting back to 3rd which became 2nd when the Maglioli/Manzon Ferrari broke its gearbox just after 11pm.
The D-types were now steadily hauling themselves back into contention. At midnight González/Trintignant were two laps ahead of Whitehead/Wharton. Manzon/Rosier were third, ahead of Rolt/Hamilton and the Aston Martins of Parnell/Salvadori and Collins/Bira completing the top six. The rain returned and the lead Jaguar had to pit again with fuel-line issues. After several more pitstops it finally retired with a broken gearbox. It joined Moss' car that had become undriveable after he had a total brake failure at the end of the Mulsanne straight doing 160 mph (taking two miles to stop on the escape road with hand-brake and gearbox!) Rolt and Hamilton however, managed to move into 2nd place by half-time, albeit still two laps adrift. Third was the other Ferrari, followed by the Spear/Johnston Cunningham and the supercharged Aston Martin. Just afterward, in an unusual co-incidence, Prince Bira crashed his Aston Martin, while running in 4th place, within yards of Thompson's Aston coupé that had crashed earlier. In the next hour, the Herrmann/Polensky Porsche, leading the S-1500 class and an impressive 7th place overall, retired with a blown head gasket. This left Macklin leading the class in the OSCA, a full 20 laps ahead of the Bristol leading the S-2000 class
Morning
As dawn arrived the Ferrari of Rosier/Manzon, running third, retired with a broken gearbox, jammed in second gear. Now the battle was reduced to just one car for each team at the front of the field. What's more, as the clouds built up and rain became an ever-present threat, the prospects for the aerodynamic D-types were starting to look promising.
By breakfast time, the rain started to come down very heavily and the stage was set for a heroic chase. González and Trintignant could afford to take things cautiously, but any unnecessary delays would enable the pursuing Jaguar to open up a chink the Ferrari's armour, and as the rain intensified, the sole remaining D-type piled on the pressure. But Trintignant responded and both cars roared round doing sub-4'30" lap-times. By 9.30am, after González's fuel stop when the Ferrari hesitated in restarting, the Jaguar team got more motivation and the lead was down to 3 minutes. But at 10am, Rolt glanced the bank coming out of Arnage lapping a slower car, and 2 minutes were lost in the pits for a bout of impromptu panelbeating.
The rain then eased during the morning, allowing the Ferrari to use its power to better effect, but still the Jaguar would not give up. Despite this, the race order remained fairly constant and at midday the order was still Ferrari, Jaguar, Cunningham, Jaguar, Cunningham, Aston Martin, Gordini and the OSCA as the leading small-engined car. The two remaining Porsches were running slowly, trying to get to the end of the race. The supercharged Aston Martin had been running surprisingly well all race until just after midday when a head-gasket failure caused its retirement. Around 1pm a ferocious squall slowed all the cars to a snail's pace, then the Jaguar drivers began to close the gap again on Trintignant as the track dried.
Finish and post-race
With just two hours left to run, González and Trintignant were still almost two laps ahead of the English car. Ninety minutes to run and Trintignant brought the Ferrari in for a routine stop. González took over, but the V12 refused to restart. The Ferrari lost 7 minutes as the mechanics desperately worked on the engine. The rain started again and Rolt was now in sight: he came in to stop for new goggles, but his pit crew waved him on, and now the Jaguar was on the same lap as the leader.
Finally the Ferrari mechanics found the problem: the rain had saturated the ignition wiring. When González finally got going he was now only 3'14" ahead of the Jaguar. With thunder and lightning now lashing the circuit and unable to see, Rolt pitted and handed over to Hamilton for the final assault with an hour to go. Hamilton then put in extraordinary times in the rain, cutting the lead to just 90 seconds. González was exhausted (he had not eaten or slept through the weekend) and his lap times dropped to 5'30", but his pit-crew urged him on and as the rain stopped with a half-hour to go, and the track dried out, he was once more able to bring the power of the Ferrari to bear again and extend the gap. Finally able to ease off on the final lap, González crossed the line to win by just under three minutes - but still the closest finish in the race since 1933.
Meanwhile, in the smaller classes, the pair of works OSCAs had an ample lead of 15 laps over the struggling Porsches and running in the top-10 overall. Yet within ten minutes, with just 2 hours to go, everything fell apart. First, the leading one of Giardini crashed and rolled at Mulsanne, then the one running second hit the barriers at Dunlop curve. Pierre Leygonie ran the short distance back to the pits to get equipment and advice from the pit-crew. He managed to get it going again and back to the pits to hand over to Lance Macklin but they were then disqualified at race-end for having abandoned the car. To round off a bitter race for OSCA, their last car was running second in the S-1100 class but its transmission broke in the final laps of the race.
Despite the atrocious weather, González and Trintignant had still driven their Ferrari 375 Plus through 302 laps, just 2 laps less than the year before, and covering over 2,500 miles (4,000 km). In his delight, Prince Bernhard jumped aboard with Trintignant for his victory lap in the rain. In the end it came down to pit-time: 37 minutes for the Jaguar versus 29 minutes for the Ferrari. The podium was completed by the American pair, William "Bill" Spear and Sherwood Johnston, in their Cunningham C-4R, who were far behind, 19 laps (over 250 km) back, Briggs himself came in 5th. Despite their very reliable Chrysler engines, the Cunninghams were unable to match the pace of the leaders. Splitting the two American cars was the Belgian Jaguar which had run like clockwork despite not getting any pre-race testing. The last remaining Gordini came in 6th earning a special FF1 million prize as first French car home. After the demise of the OSCAs, Porsche inherited class wins in the S-1500, and S-1100, by having the only cars left running in their classes.
Bristol had a great race: finishing 6-7-8 overall and a clear 1-2-3 in their class. Although running most of the race behind the smaller OSCA, their leader finished over 30 laps ahead of the only class-competitor Fraser-Nash to finish. Aside from a window-wiper making life difficult for Wilson/Mayers (they had to drive at times with the door open to see out!) and Jack Fairman spinning with less than an hour to go (thereby losing the class win) they had a trouble-free run.
The little DB cars also had one of their best races – finally winning the Index of Performance, as well as the Biennial Cup. Owner-driver René Bonnet and Élie Bayol finished a remarkable 10th overall with a class-distance record (going further than Nuvolari's winning Alfa Romeo 20 years earlier), embarrassing many far-bigger cars left in their wake. The Monopole entry was second in class, but had the remarkable record of having spent a mere five minutes and ten seconds at rest in the pits for the whole race.
One who did not finish was the last Talbot running – after numerous issues with engine and gearbox problems, the pit crew sent it out with ten minutes to go to do the final lap, but it could not complete it within 30 minutes and so was not classified.
The Argentinian winner earned a special place in Ferrari history: Three years earlier, he had scored Ferrari's first F1 victory. Now, in his last appearance at La Sarthe, he also gave the first victory for the Scuderia Ferrari at Le Mans.
The weather had precluded any chance of breaking distance records, although in the dry both González and Marzotto had smashed Ascari's lap record by over 10 seconds.
Despite its abortive attempt in this race, the 2-litre Maserati proved dominant across Europe, winning over 20 class wins in the season. In October, DB inaugurated the first one-make race series, Formula Monomill for young drivers, using an 851cc DB-Panhard. The first race, at Montlhéry,
was won by Jo Schlesser.
The Porsche 550s had great success in the Championship's final round, in the Carrera Panamericana, with Herrmann finishing an excellent 3rd overall. The year before they had a class win, and the name 'Carrera' was applied to the 356 road-cars with the quad-cam engine. Many sales followed to privateer racers, furthering the company's racing reputation.
Official results
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Note *: Not Classified because of Insufficient distance, as car failed to cover 70% of its class-winner's distance
Note **: Not Classified because of failing to complete the final lap of the race in under 30 minutes
Did not finish
Index of Performance
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
20th Rudge-Whitworth Biennial Cup (1953/1954)
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice – Maglioli, #3 Ferrari 375 Plus & Walker, #12 Jaguar D-Type – 4m 18.0s; 188.23 kp/h (116.96 mph)
Fastest Lap – González, #4 Ferrari 375 Plus & Marzotto, #3 Ferrari 375 Plus – 4m 16.8s; 189.14 kp/h (117.53 mph)
Fastest Car in Speedtrap – Moss, #12 Jaguar D-Type – 278.15 kp/h (172.84 mph)
Distance – 4061.15 km (2523.56 miles)
Winner's Average Speed – 169.22 km/h (105.15 mph)
Attendance – ?
World championship standings after the race
Championship points were awarded for the first six places in each race in the order of 8-6-4-3-2-1. Manufacturers were only awarded points for their highest finishing car, with no points awarded for positions filled by additional cars.
Citations
References
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1949-59 Sherborne, Dorset: Evro Publishing
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Jaguar Years 1949-1957' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Henry, Alan (1988) Fifty Famous Motor Races Northamptonshire: Patrick Stephen Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Pomeroy, L. & Walkerley, R. - editors (1954) The Motor Year Book 1954 Bath: The Pitman Press
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1954 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 20 November 2016..
Formula 2 – Le Mans 1954 results & reserve entries. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Burnett%20%28ice%20hockey%29
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George Burnett (ice hockey)
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George Burnett (born March 25, 1962) is the general manager of the Guelph Storm of the Ontario Hockey League. Burnett previously played in the OHL with the London Knights, and later became a two-time OHL Coach of the Year and won an OHL championship in his first tour of duty with the Guelph Storm. Burnett was head coach and general manager of the Belleville Bulls for 11 seasons, and drafted all three Subban brothers into the OHL; P. K. Subban, Malcolm Subban and Jordan Subban.
Burnett briefly coached in the National Hockey League for three seasons. He was head coach of the Edmonton Oilers for part of the 1994–95 season, and was an assistant coach for the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim for two seasons. Burnett coached in the American Hockey League for four seasons, winning one division title and one Calder Cup championship. Burnett was the head coach of Canada's U18 National team which won the gold medal at the Six Nations Cup in the Czech Republic in 2001, and another gold medal at the 2010 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament. Burnett was assistant coach for the Canada's U20 National Junior team at the 2011 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships and the 2012 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships winning silver and bronze medals.
Playing career
London Knights (1979–1982)
Burnett began playing junior hockey with the London Knights of the OMJHL in the 1979–80 season. In 68 games he scored 14 goals and 29 points. Burnett saw his offensive numbers explode in the 1980–81 season, as he scored 17 goals and 76 points in 67 games to finish fourth in team scoring. In Burnett's third season in 1981–82, he scored 26 goals and 92 points, which was the third highest point total on the Knights. In four playoff games, Burnett scored a goal and two points. In 203 career games with the Knights, Burnett scored 57 goals and 140 assists for 197 points.
McGill Redmen (1982–1985)
Following his junior career, Burnett joined the McGill Redmen of the QUAA where he was recruited and coached by head coach Ken Tyler. In the 1982–83 season he played 38 games scoring 21 goals and 81 points, capturing the Friends of McGill Hockey Trophy as the team's rookie of the year, and winning the CIAU scoring title, and being named an All-conference and All-Canadian selection. In 43 games with McGill in 1983–84, Burnett had 22 goals and 59 points. He appeared in three games with the Redmen in 1984–85, scoring two goals and six points. While at McGill, Burnett was a teammate of future NHL coach Mike Babcock. Burnett graduated from McGill University with a physical education degree in 1985.
Playing statistics
Coaching career
Early career (1985–1989)
While in his third year at McGill, Burnett volunteered to coach at Selwyn House School, a private school in the Westmount area of Montreal.
After graduating McGill, he returned home to Port Perry to be an assistant coach for the nearby Uxbridge Bruins of the Central Ontario Junior C Hockey League for the 1985–86 season.
For the 1986–87 season, Burnett became head coach of his hometown Port Perry Mojacks in the Central Ontario Junior C Hockey League. Despite finishing fourth place in the 1987–88, the Mojacks won the league playoffs in only Burnett's second season. The Mojacks made it to the Provincial Final of the Clarence Schmalz Cup, but lost to the Great Lakes Junior C Hockey League's Mooretown Flags 4 games to 1.
For the 1988–89 season, Burnett became head coach of Seneca College of the OCAA.
Oshawa Generals (1989–1990)
Burnett began his OHL coaching career as an assistant coach for the Oshawa Generals in the 1989–90 OHL season, under head coach Rick Cornacchia. Twenty games into the season, Burnett was offered the positions of head coach and general manager of the struggling Niagara Falls Thunder. Despite the strength of the Oshawa squad, the offer was too good to pass up. The Generals would go on to win the OHL championship and the 1990 Memorial Cup with the likes of Eric Lindros.
Niagara Falls Thunder (1989–1992)
Twenty games into the season, Niagara Falls Thunder owner Rick Gay fired head coach Bill LaForge and assistant coaches Benny Rogano, and Heavy Evason. Rick Gay was a businessman from Oshawa, Ontario, and used his connection as a former director on the Oshawa Generals to work out a deal with owner John Humphreys to hire Burnett as head coach and general manager. Randy Hall became an assistant coach to Burnett for the remainder of the season. Hall left to become head coach of the Kingston Frontenacs for 1990–91, but returned to Niagara Falls for the 1991–92 season. Niagara Falls native Chris Johnstone was Burnett's assistant coach for the 1990–91 season. In Burnett's three seasons with Niagara Falls, he coached 178 games in the regular season and earned 97 wins. Burnett's teams reached the third round of the playoffs each season, earning 26 postseason victories.
1989–1990
Burnett took over the Niagara Falls Thunder after they began the 1989–90 OHL season with only 4 wins and 2 ties in 20 games (4–14–2). The Thunder initially struggled with only one win in Burnett's first 12 games as coach before turning around. Burnett led Niagara Falls to a record of 19–25–2 during his tenure, and a record of 23–39–4 overall, to earn sixth place and the final playoff spot in the Emms Division. Keith Primeau won the Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy as the league's leading scorer, with 57 goals, 70 assists, and 127 points. Brad May was second in team scoring with 33 goals, 58 assists, and 91 points. Rounding out the top scorers were Jason Winch (71 points), Paul Laus (48 points) and Andy Bezeau (39 points). In the first round of the playoffs, Niagara faced the first placed London Knights. Burnett's Thunder won the first two games by scores of 7–6, and 5–1, then lost two in a row by scores of 2–6, and 3–5. Niagara pulled out a 3–2 victory in overtime in game five, then won game six by a 6–2 score to win an upset series. In the second round, Burnett's team faced the fourth placed Owen Sound Platers. Niagara lost the first game by a 3–7 score, but then Burnett coach four straight victories by scores of 11–2, 3–2, 4–3, and 7–4 to win the series in five games and earn a trip to the division finals. Niagara faced the second place Kitchener Rangers, trying to pull off a third consecutive upset. The Thunder lost the first two games by 2–5, and 1–5 scores, then won game three by a 6–5 score. The cinderella run by Burnett and Niagara Falls came to an end as the Thunder lost the last two games by 3–5, and 5–10 scores, and lost the series in five games. If Niagara had won the third round, they would have faced Burnett's old team, the Oshawa Generals in the finals.
1990–1991
In the 1990–91 OHL season, Burnett participated in his first OHL draft as a general manager. The Niagara Falls Thunder had five draft picks in the first three rounds. Burnett drafted three future NHLers; first round pick Steve Staios, second round pick Manny Legace, and third round pick Greg de Vries. Staios and Legace had an immediate impact for Burnett's team, however Greg de Vries did not report to Niagara Falls until the 1992–93 season. Burnett had the second highest scoring team in the OHL, with 335 goals scored. The team was led in scoring by second-year centre Todd Simon, with 51 goals, 74 assists, and 125 points. Jason Winch scored 40 goals, 82 assists, and 122 points. Also scoring 30 goals were John Johnson with 38 goals, and Brad May netted 37 goals. Burnett led the Thunder to a 39–18–9 record, earning 87 points and a second-place finish in the Emms Division. In the first round of the playoffs, Niagara Falls faced the fifth place Kitchener Rangers. Burnett's team won the first game 5–4 in overtime, then lost 6–7 in overtime, followed by two wins by 5–1, and 7–4 scores. After losing game five by a 3–4 score, Burnett and the Thunder won the series in six games with a 5–2 victory. In the second round, Niagara Falls faced the fourth place Windsor Spitfires, and swept the series in four games by scores of 7–2, 10–4, 4–3, and 6–5. Burnett had led the Thunder to the Emms Division finals again, and facing the first place Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds. Niagara Falls was swept in four games by scores of 2–7, 0–2, 4–6, and 3–8. Burnett had greatly improved the Thunder by 37 points over the previous season, and was awarded the Matt Leyden Trophy for OHL Coach of the Year.
1991–1992
Burnett returned for a third year with the Thunder in 1991–92 OHL season, with most of the previous year's team intact. In the OHL draft, Burnett picked future NHLer Ethan Moreau in the first round, and defenceman Ryan Tocher in the second round. Burnett's team topped 300 goals scored for the season. Todd Simon led the team, and the league in scoring with 53 goals, 93 assists, and 146 points, to win the Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy. Other top scorers include Kevin Brown with 42 goals, 58 assists, and 100 points; Rick Corriveau with 21 goals, 57 assists, and 78 points; and Ethan Moreau with 20 goals, 36 assists, and 55 points in his rookie season. Burnett led the team to a 39–23–4 record, earning 82 points and second place in the Emms Division. In the playoffs, the Thunder faced the seventh place Detroit Compuware Ambassadors first round. Burnett's team struggled at first against Detroit, a team in its franchise's first playoff appearance. Detroit won the first two games by 3–5, and 3–4 scores. Niagara Falls won game three 8–6, but lost game four by a 3–5 score and was in danger of being eliminated. Burnett rallied his team to three straights wins by 6–3, 8–3, and 7–2 victories to win the series in seven games. In the second round the Thunder faced the third place London Knights. Burnett's team won another three straight games by scores of 4–3 in overtime OT, 4–3, and 5–4 in overtime. After a 2–4 loss in game four, the Thunder won game five by a 5–1 score. To return to the Emms division finals against the first place Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds. Burnett's team won the first game 8–7, but then lost four straight by 2–7, 5–7, 3–4, and 1–7 scores. Burnett was awarded his second Matt Leyden Trophy as OHL Coach of the Year for 1991–92.
Cape Breton Oilers (1992–1994)
Burnett was head coach of the Edmonton Oilers' American Hockey League affiliate, the Cape Breton Oilers for two seasons starting in the 1992–93 AHL season. His assistant coach in both seasons was Norm Ferguson, a local NHL and WHA veteran forward from Sydney, Nova Scotia. In his first season with the club, Burnett led Cape Breton to a 36–32–12 record, earning 84 points and third place in the Atlantic Division, earning a playoff berth. Dan Currie led the team with 98 points in the regular season. Burnett led the Oilers through the first round of playoffs defeating the second place Fredericton Canadiens in five games, and defeated the first place St. John's Maple Leafs in four games. Cape Breton defeated the Springfield Indians in two games of a best-of-three series with the winner advancing to the finals. Burnett's Oilers defeated the Rochester Americans in five games to capture the first Calder Cup in franchise history. The Oilers charge through the playoffs was led by Bill McDougall, scoring 26 goals and 26 assists in 16 games and being awarded the Jack A. Butterfield Trophy as the most valuable player of playoffs.
Burnett coached Cape Breton in the 1993–94 AHL season to a 32-35-13 record, earning 77 points and fourth place in the Atlantic Division. Peter White led the team with 70 points. Jim Nesich was awarded the Fred T. Hunt Memorial Award as the player best exemplifying sportsmanship, determination and dedication to hockey. In the postseason, the Oilers lost to the St. John's Maple Leafs in five games in the first round. After the season, Burnett was promoted to become the head coach of the Edmonton Oilers.
Edmonton Oilers (1994–1995)
Burnett took over the head coaching duties for the 1994–95 Edmonton Oilers season. Due to the 1994–95 NHL lockout, his first game coaching the Edmonton Oilers would be January 20, 1995, a win 2–1 win over the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim 2-1. After 27 games into the 1994–95 NHL season the Oilers had a 12–13–3 record. The club then lost seven games in a row to fall to 12–20–3. During this losing streak, Burnett had a publicized dispute with team captain Shayne Corson. After a 7–2 loss to the Los Angeles Kings on April 3, 1995, Burnett took the captaincy away from Corson. General manager Glen Sather relieved Burnett of his duties after a 4–3 overtime loss to the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim on April 5, 1995. Burnett was replaced with assistant coach Ron Low for the remainder of the season.
Binghamton Rangers (1995–1997)
Burnett returned to the coaching in the American Hockey League after his NHL tenure. Burnett was hired as head coach of the New York Rangers' AHL affiliate, the Binghamton Rangers. Mike Busniuk was his assistant coach for two seasons in Binghamton. In the 1995–96 AHL season, Burnett led the club to the South Division title with a 39–31–7–3 record and 88 points. The Rangers were led in scoring by twin brothers Peter Ferraro (101 points) and Chris Ferraro (99 points). In the playoffs, the Rangers were upset by the Syracuse Crunch in the first round.
Burnett returned for the 1996–97 AHL season. The Rangers offence struggled in the newly created Empire Division, scoring 88 fewer goals than the previous season. The Rangers finished in fifth place with a 27-38-13-2 record earning 69 points. In the playoffs, the Rangers lost to the St. John's Maple Leafs in the first round. Burnett was let go after the season.
Guelph Storm (1997–1998)
Burnett was hired as head coach of the Guelph Storm for the 1997–98 OHL season by general manager Alan Millar. Burnett took over a Storm team that made it to third round the playoffs in 1996–97 and the league finals both years before that. Burnett's team included six future NHL players; Eric Beaudoin, Chris Hajt, Manny Malhotra, Kent McDonell, Brian McGrattan and Brian Willsie. Burnett's team had a balanced attack, with only one playing having 70 points. Brian Willsie led the team in scoring with 45 goals and 76 points. Burnett also have five other twenty-goal scorers in Andrew Long (29), Kent McDonell (28), Nick Bootland (23), Matt Lahey (23), and Jason Jackman (21). Off the ice, Manny Malhotra was awarded the Bobby Smith Trophy as the OHL's scholastic player of the year. Burnett's team conceded the second fewest goals against in the league. Goaltender Chris Madden played 51 games, and won 33. The Storm had struggled in the early part of the year, but after February 20 the team had an 18–2–2 record in the last 22 games. Burnett led the Storm to first overall in the OHL with a 42–18–6 record overall, earning 90 points and the Emms Trophy as winners of the central division, and the Hamilton Spectator Trophy as first overall in the league. In the playoffs, Guelph earned a first round bye, then swept the central division's fifth place Sudbury Wolves in the second round, by scores of 6–3, 4–1, 8–1, and 4–1. In the third round, Guelph swept the west division's second place Plymouth Whalers by scores of 2–1, 5–1, 5–1, and 5–2. In the OHL championship, Burnett's team faced the Ottawa 67's, winners of the east division, and second place overall in the regular season. Guelph won the first two games by scores of 5–2, and 3–2, but were blown out in game three, losing 1–8. Burnett rallied his team to two consecutive one-goal victories, winning 2–1, and 4–3 to claim his only J. Ross Robertson Cup to date as the Storm defeated Ottawa in five games.
1998 Memorial Cup
Burnett and the Storm continued onto the 1998 Memorial Cup hosted in Spokane, Washington. The host team Spokane Chiefs were coached by Mike Babcock, a teammate of Burnett's while at McGill University. Guelph lost the first game against the Portland Winterhawks by a 2–6 score. Burnett's team rebounded by winning the next two games, 3–1 over the Spokane Chiefs, and 7–0 over the Val-d'Or Foreurs. The 2–1 round-robin record put the Storm in the semifinals, where Burnett's Storm defeated the Spokane Chiefs 2–1 in overtime. Burnett was just one goal away from winning the Memorial Cup, as the Storm lost 3–4 in overtime in the final against the Portland Winterhawks. Goaltender Chris Madden was awarded the Hap Emms Memorial Trophy as outstanding goaltender at the Memorial Cup, and also the Stafford Smythe Memorial Trophy as most valuable player in the tournament. Manny Malhotra was named the most sportsmanlike player, winning the George Parsons Trophy. Burnett was set to return to Guelph for the 1998–99 OHL season, but resigned on August 18, 1998, to return to coaching in the NHL.
Mighty Ducks of Anaheim (1998–2000)
After a very successful season with Guelph, Burnett returned to the NHL for the 1998–99 season as an assistant coach to Craig Hartsburg and the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. The Mighty Ducks were led in scoring by Teemu Selanne and Paul Kariya, and finished with a 35–34–13 record earning 83 points and sixth place in the Western Conference. In the playoffs, the Mighty Ducks were swept by the Detroit Red Wings in four games. In the 1999-2000 season, the Mighty Ducks finished with a 34–33–12–3 record earning 83 points, and ninth place, missing the playoffs.
Oshawa Generals (2000–2004)
Eleven seasons after being hired as an assistant coach with the Oshawa Generals, Burnett returned to his original OHL team in the dual role as head coach and general manager. Michael Futa was an assistant coach and the assistant general manager for Burnett's first two seasons in Oshawa. Barclay Branch (son of OHL commissioner David Branch) was an assistant coach each of first three seasons under Burnett, then director of scouting and player development in Burnett's fourth season. Former Oshawa Generals captain Joe Cirella remained with the team as an assistant coach all four seasons with Burnett. In Burnett's four seasons with the Generals, he coached 272 games in the regular season and earned 107 wins.
2000–2001
Burnett took over a club with very few returning veterans for the 2000–01 OHL season. Burnett started rebuilding with the OHL entry draft by selecting future stars Ben Eager in the first round, and Paul Ranger in the second round. The team struggled offensively scoring only 184 goals, and were led by Jamie Johnson with 46 points. Oshawa finished the season with a 20–36–7–5 record and 52 points, for ninth place in the eastern conference, missing the playoffs. The bright spots in the season were the progress of draft picks Eager and Ranger, and the arrival of rookie Brandon Nolan. Oshawa would also pick second overall in next season's OHL draft.
2001–2002
In the 2001–02 OHL season, Burnett used the second overall draft pick to select Nathan Horton, who had a successful rookie season with 31 goals, 36 assists and 67 points. The Generals offence was again led by Jamie Johnson with 17 goals, 61 assists, and 78 points. Oshawa featured two more 30-goal scorers in Chris Minard (36 goals) and Brandon Nolan (30 goals). Ben Eager added 14 goals and a physical presence, tied for third in the league with 255 penalty minutes. Burnett also added partial seasons from future NHLers Brian McGrattan and Sean McMorrow to improve the team record to 23–33–7–5, earning 58 points, and seventh place in the eastern conference. The Generals faced the second place Belleville Bulls in the playoffs. Oshawa won the first game 4–3 on home ice, but then lost the next four games by scores of 0–3, and three consecutive one-goal games by 1–2, 4–5 (OT), and 2–3.
2002–2003
For the 2002–03 OHL season, Burnett looked to add more size and offence. Burnett acquired the OHL rights to overage forward Anthony Aquino in a trade with the Owen Sound Attack in the previous season. Aquino was having a stellar season with the Generals, scoring 10 goals and 9 assists in only 14 games, when the league ruled him ineligible to continue playing on November 5. Burnett replaced this loss with Ahren Nittel who scored 15 goals and 7 assists in just 20 games. Goaltender Chris Beckford-Tseu had a breakout season playing 54 games, winning 25. Jamie Johnson led the team in points for the third consecutive season, with 24 goals, 76 assists, and 100 points. Burnett's Generals also had 30-goal seasons from Brandon Nolan (36 goals), and Nathan Horton (33 goals). Burnett had built a strong team that was in third place as of February 21, until a nine-game losing streak had them in seventh place with one game to play. Burnett was able to win the final game of the year 7–5 over the Peterborough Petes to finish sixth place in the conference with a record of 34–30–2–2 and 72 points. Burnett and the Generals would face the third place Petes in the first round of the playoffs, with 4 of the 7 games decided in overtime. Oshawa won game one 3–2 (OT), lost game two 5–6 (OT) and game three 4–5 (OT). Oshawa won two of the next three games by score of 3–0, 2–5, and 3–1 to set up a game 7 in Peterborough. Burnett's season looked to be over as the Petes held onto a 3–2 lead late into the third period, when Brandon Nolan tied the game with 3 seconds on the clock, then Nathan Horton scored the winner in overtime. Burnett led the Generals into round two against the first place Ottawa 67's. Burnett's team split the first four games by scores of 3–2, 3–4, 1–8, and 7–5, but were easily defeated in the last two games by scores of 1–7, and 0–6.
2003–2004
Burnett began a rebuilding process for the 2003–04 OHL season, by trading to get younger players, including goalkeeper Dan Turple who won 20 games and played in 35 games. Rookies and 16-year-old twins Tyler Donati and Justin Donati from the previous season's draft, emerged as offensive leaders. Second year forward Adam Berti emerged as one of the top scorers, with 17 goals and 29 assists, after being limited to just 15 games in the previous season. Ben Eager led the team in goals with 25, Tyler Donati led in overall points with 20 goals, 36 assists, and 56 points. First round draft pick Justin Wallingford was selected to help build the defence. Burnett's Generals finished the season with a 30–29–8–1 record, earning 69 points and sixth place in the conference. In the playoffs, Oshawa faced the third place Mississauga IceDogs. Oshawa lost the first game 0–3, but came back with two wins by scores of 1–0, and 5–2. Mississauga won the next two games 2–0, and 5–1. Burnett pulled out a season-saving 4–3 overtime win in game six, but lost the final game by a score of 1–6. The Generals were sold to new owners in the off-season. Burnett was let go after choosing the Generals' draft picks in the OHL entry draft for the upcoming season.
Belleville Bulls (2004–2015)
Burnett was hired to become the head coach and general manager of the Belleville Bulls by a former high school friend, and team's new owner Gord Simmonds. Barclay Branch followed Burnett to Belleville and served as Burnett's assistant general manager and director of player personnel all eleven seasons. Burnett's assistant coach for his entire eleven season tenure in Belleville was Jake Grimes, a former player with the Bulls. Belleville native Jason Supryka was an assistant coach for eight of the eleven seasons, and a conditioning coach for the other three seasons. In Burnett's eleven seasons with the Belleville Bulls, he coached 748 games in the regular season and earned 365 wins, won four division titles, and one Memorial Cup appearance in 2008.
2004–2005
For the 2004–05 OHL season, Burnett took over a team that had finished last in the league in the previous season. His hiring was after the Bulls took part in the OHL draft, choosing John Hughes first overall. The Bulls were led by top scorer Marc Rancourt with 26 goals, 52 assists, and 78 points. Burnett also found two other twenty-goal scorers in Evan Brophey (25), Cody Thornton (23), and the emergence of two future NHL-ers in rookies Matt Beleskey and Shawn Matthias. Burnett led the club to a 29–29–6–4 record, earning 68 points, and seventh place in the eastern conference. In the playoffs, Belleville faced the second place Peterborough Petes. The Bulls lost the first three games by scores of 0–5, 2–3, and 1–5. Burnett and the Bulls pulled out a 4–3 overtime win in game four, but lost the fifth game by a score of 1–4.
2005–2006
Burnett took over the full drafting responsibilities for the 2005–06 OHL season, and drafted Bryan Cameron in the first round. Cameron scored 20 goals as a rookie, and John Hughes led the team in scoring with 28 goals, 54 assists, and 82 points. Also emerging as a rookie was sixth round draft pick P. K. Subban. Goaltender Kevin Lalande played in 50 games, winning 24. Burnett improved the Bulls record to 32–28–5–3, earning 72 points and seventh place in the conference, and facing the second place Brampton Battalion in the first round. Belleville split the first two games by 3–2 overtime scores, then two in a row by scores of 1–3 and 3–4 in overtime. After winning game five 3–2, Burnett and the Bulls lost game six 2–5 on home ice.
2006–2007
The 2006–07 OHL season was Burnett's third season of rebuilding, and continued improvement on previous seasons. Burnett solidified the team with OHL draft picks Shawn Lalonde and Marc Cantin on defence, and goaltender Edward Pasquale. The offence was bolstered by acquiring Tyler Donati, whom Burnett previously drafted with the Oshawa Generals. Donati led the team with 54 goals, 75 assists, and 129 points, winning the Leo Lalonde Memorial Trophy as the league's best overage player. Rounding out the offence were Shawn Matthias with 38 goals, Bryan Cameron with 33 goals, and Matt Beleskey with 27 goals. Burnett had a strong debut from rookie Eric Tangradi, drafted in the previous season. Off the ice, Andrew Gibbons was the OHL's humanitarian winner of the Dan Snyder Memorial Trophy. Burnett led the Bulls to the east division title and the Leyden Trophy with a 39–24–0–5 record, earning 83 points and second place in the conference. In the playoffs, the Bulls faced seventh place Ottawa 67's in the first round. After losing the first game 3–4 in overtime, Burnett and the Bulls won four consecutive games by scores of 5–4, 3–0, 4–2, and 4–3 in overtime. Burnett's Bulls were well prepared for the second round, and swept the fourth place Oshawa Generals in four games by scores of 7–5, 5–2, 6–4, and 5–2. The Bulls faced the sixth place Sudbury Wolves in the third round, and eastern Conference finals, and Burnett coached his ninth straight playoff victory by a 3–2 score in game one. Four of the next five games went into overtime. The Wolves won game two in overtime, 2–3. Burnett pulled out a 2–1 overtime win in game three, only to see the Wolves win the next three games by scores of 2-3 in overtime, 1–4, and game six 3–4 in triple overtime.
2007–2008
In the 2007–08 OHL season, Burnett had his most successful regular season as a coach in terms of most wins and points, and led the Bulls to the most wins and points in a season in franchise history. Burnett led the Bulls to a record of 48–14–4–2 and 102 points to win another Leyden Trophy, and finish first overall in the eastern conference. Burnett use Belleville's first round draft pick to select future NHLer Tyler Randell. Burnett's offence was built around Matt Beleskey who led the team with 41 goals, 49 assists, and 90 points. Burnett also had 20–goal seasons from Bryan Cameron (41 goals), Shawn Matthias (32 goals), Eric Tangradi (24 goals), and Keaton Turkiewicz (23 goals). Burnett made mid-season trades for forwards Jan Mursak and A.J. Perry, and veteran defender Nigel Williams. Goaltender Mike Murphy led the league with 36 wins, and a 2.24 GAA, winning the OHL Goaltender of the Year award. In the first round of the playoffs, Belleville faced the eighth place Peterborough Petes. Belleville won the first game 4–1, then lost game two 4–5 in overtime. Burnett's team won the next three games by scores of 4–3, 3–2 in overtime, and 7–1 to win the series in five games. Belleville swept the seventh place Barrie Colts in the second round, by scores of 7–2, 5–1, 2–1, and 3–2. In the third round, Burnett's Bulls faced the third place Oshawa Generals. Belleville won the first three games by scores of 3–2, 4–3, and 5–2. Burnett's team rebounded from a 1–2 loss in game four, with a resounding 11–0 victory in game five to win the eastern conference finals in five games, and win the Bobby Orr Trophy. Burnett reached the J. Ross Robertson Cup final for the second time in his coaching career, as the Bulls faced the first place team in the regular season, the Kitchener Rangers. Burnett's team lost the first three games by scores of 2–5, 2–5, and 3–5. Belleville won the next three games by scores of 5–4 in overtime, 2–1, and 6–3. Burnett was denied his second OHL championships, as Kitchener won the seventh game by a score of 4–1.
2008 Memorial Cup
Burnett and the Bulls qualified for the 2008 Memorial Cup as the OHL representative, since the Kitchener Rangers were already guaranteed a berth as the host team. This would be the second Memorial Cup coaching appearance for Burnett, after coaching the Guelph Storm to the 1998 Memorial Cup final. Burnett and the Bulls faced the Spokane Chiefs in their first game, losing 4–5 in overtime. Belleville won their second game 6–3 versus the Gatineau Olympiques. Burnett's team faced the Kitchener Rangers in the final game of the round robin. Belleville prevailed with a 4–3 overtime win, with goaltender Mike Murphy making 54 saves. Burnett's team finished the round-robin in second place, and faced the Kitchener Rangers again in the semifinal. Burnett's team was overwhelmed in the rematch, losing 0–9, as the Bulls finished the tournament in third place.
2008–2009
Burnett had a large group of returning players for the 2008–09 OHL season, and looked to repeat the success. Burnett drafted Stephen Silas in the first round to add to defence. Eric Tangradi led the scoring with 38 goals, 50 assists, and 88 points. Bryan Cameron also contributed 37 goals, 44 assists, and 81 points. P.K. Subban had 14 goals, 62 assists, and 76 points on defence and was a +47 in plus/minus rating. Goaltender Mike Murphy improved on the previous season by leading the league with 40 wins, and a 2.08 GAA, to win the OHL Goaltender of the Year award again, in addition to the Dave Pinkney Trophy for the team with the best goals against average, and the CHL Goaltender of the Year award. Burnett led the Bulls to the best record in the eastern conference at 47–17–2–2, earning 98 points and a third consecutive Leyden Trophy. Burnett and the Bulls faced the eighth place Sudbury Wolves in the first round. Belleville split the first two games at home by scores of 3–1 and 1–2, then won the next two games on the road 3–1 and 2–1. Sudbury won game five 6–2 on home ice, but Belleville closed out the series at home in six games with a 6–1 win. Burnett's team faced the sixth place Niagara IceDogs in the second round, and won the first two games in overtime, by scores of 4–3 and 5–4. After losing game three 0–2, Belleville had two straight 5–2 victories to win the series in five games. Burnett's team returned to the eastern conference finals for the third consecutive season, and would face the second place Brampton Battalion. Belleville lost the first two games by scores of 2–4 and 2–7, then split the next two games winning 6–2, then lost 3–4. Burnett coached a 3–2 double overtime win in game five to extend the series, but lost game six 4–7 on the road.
2009–2010
Burnett began a rebuilding process for the Bulls in the 2009–10 OHL season. In the OHL draft, Burnett used his first pick to select local Quinte Red Devils goalie, Tyson Teichmann, followed up by centre Michael Curtis. Also drafted were Scott Simmonds (son of owner Gord Simmonds), and Malcolm Subban (brother of P. K. Subban). The Bulls struggled on offence, as the top two scorers were defencemen Shawn Lalonde with 13 goals, 43 assists, and 56 points; and Stephen Silas with 4 goals, 45 assists, and 49 points. Luke Judson scored 29 goals, and rookie Michael Curtis scored 19 goals. Burnett's team finished with a record of 20–40–2–6 and 48 points, placing last in the eastern conference and missed the playoffs.
2010–2011
Burnett continued the rebuilding process with the 2010–11 OHL season, and used his second overall pick in the OHL entry draft to select future NHLer Brendan Gaunce. The offence was led by Andy Bathgate with 25 goals, 35 assists, and Luke Judson with 28 goals, and 28 assists. Malcolm Subban won 10 games in net with a 3.16 GAA Despite earning fewer points than the previous season, Burnett's team finished eighth place in the conference with a 21–43–0–4 record, and 46 points. Belleville was overmatched in the first round of the playoffs, being held to a single goal scored, and were swept by the first place Mississauga St. Michael's Majors, by scores of 1–4, 0–1, 0–2, and 0–4.
2011–2012
Burnett achieved a couple coaching milestones in the early part of the 2011–12 OHL season. Burnett coached his 1000th OHL regular season game on October 13, 2011. Burnett recorded his 500th OHL coaching victory on December 2, 2011.
Burnett used his first round draft pick in the 2011–12 OHL season to select Jordan Subban, younger brother of P.K. and Malcolm Subban. Burnett had four twenty-goal scorers in Brendan Gaunce (28), Austen Brassard (27), Daniil Zharkov (23), and Adam Payerl (22). Goaltender Malcolm Subban had 25 wins and a 2.50 GAA. Burnett improved the team to a 35–32–1–0 record, earning 71 points. The seventh place Bulls faced the second place Ottawa 67's in the playoffs. The Bulls lost the first two games by scores of 2–3 in overtime, and 2–4. Burnett coached two consecutive 4–3 overtime victories to tie the series, but lost the next two games by scores of 2–5, and 1–2.
2012–2013
Burnett had a lot of returning players for the 2012–13 OHL season, and added Niki Petti, Daniel De Sousa, Michael Cramarossa, and Chad Heffernan in the draft. Burnett's top line in included Joseph Cramarossa leading the team in scoring with 19 goals, 44 assists, and 63 points, and Brendan Gaunce with 33 goals, 27 assists, and 60 points. Daniil Zharkov added 25 goals to a team with a balanced offence. Burnett made key mid-season acquisitions to build the team, adding centreman and Belleville native Alan Quine, overage defenceman Jake Cardwell, and forward Tyler Graovac who would win the William Hanley Trophy as the league's most sportsmanlike player. Burnett's team conceded the second fewest goals in the league, and both goaltenders had excellent seasons. Malcolm Subban had 29 wins, and led the league with a 2.14 GAA. Backup goalie Charlie Graham had 15 wins, and a 2.59 GAA. Burnett led the Bulls to a 44–16–5–3 record, and 96 points to win another Leyden Trophy, and first place in the Eastern Conference. The Bulls faced the eighth place Mississauga Steelheads in the first round of the playoffs. Belleville won the first two games at home by scores of 8-1, and 4-1, then lost two games on the road by scores of 1-2, and 2-5. Returning home for game five, Burnett's team won 5-0, then finished the series with a 3–1 win in game six. In the second round, Belleville swept the fifth place Sudbury Wolves by scores of 6-3, 4-1, 4-0, and 5-0. Burnett had returned his team to the third round of the playoffs for the fourth time since taking over in Belleville, and then faced the second place Barrie Colts. Belleville won the first game 3-2, but lost three straight games by scores of 0-5, 4-5 in overtime, and 3-4 in overtime. Burnett coached two consecutive 3-1 victories to even the series, but lost game seven by a score of 1-3.
2013–2014
Burnett began another rebuilding cycle for the 2013–14 OHL season, with a lot of trades made. Remi Elie was brought in from the London Knights, and led the team in scoring with 28 goals, 37 assists, and 65 points. Overage forward Cameron Brace came from the Owen Sound Attack and scored 27 goals. Jordan Subban led the defence with 12 goals, and 30 assists. OHL entry draft picks Justin Lemcke, and Adam Laishram, earned the most playing time for 16-year-olds. Charlie Graham emerged as the number one goalie playing 53 games. Scott Simmonds was awarded the Dan Snyder Memorial Trophy as the OHL Humanitarian recipient. The Bulls finished with a record of 23–38–4–3 record, earning 53 points. Burnett's team narrowly missed the playoffs, just one point out of eighth place.
2014–2015
Burnett continued to build the Bulls for the 2014–15 OHL season. Defenceman Jordan Subban led the team in scoring with 25 goals, 27 assists, and 52 points. In the OHL draft, Burnett picked up centreman Brandon Saigeon, and defenceman Cole Candella. Goaltender Charlie Graham played 51 games, earning 23 wins. Burnett recorded his 600th OHL coaching victory on December 13, 2014. Burnett improved the team's record to 27–33–3–5, earning 62 points and seventh place. On March 12, 2015, it was announced that Gord Simmonds had sold the team to Michael Andlauer, and it would be relocated to Hamilton, Ontario, for next season. Burnett and the Bulls entered the playoffs knowing it would be the final chance for success in Belleville. The Bulls faced the second place Barrie Colts in the first round, and were swept in four games, by scores of 2-3, 2-8, 1-2 in overtime, and 2-4.
Hamilton Bulldogs (2015–2016)
The Belleville Bulls became the Hamilton Bulldogs for the 2015–16 OHL season. On April 10, 2015, Andlauer confirmed that Burnett was retained to be head coach and general manager of the Bulldogs. Burnett's assistant coaches were Troy Smith who was previously head coach of the Kitchener Rangers, and Ron Wilson who was a long-time assistant coach in the AHL and had worked with the previous Hamilton Bulldogs. Burnett's new boss would become Steve Staios, who was named president of the Bulldogs on June 5, 2015. Staios had previously played for Burnett on the Niagara Falls Thunder. Burnett continued a rebuilding process in Hamilton that started the previous season in Belleville. The Bulldogs offence struggled as no player scored 60 points in the season, and the team scored only 197 goals. The Bulldogs finished in ninth place with a 25–35–8–0 record, and missed the playoffs. On April 4, 2016, Burnett was terminated as Bulldogs coach and general manager as the team wanted to go a different direction and separate the two roles.
Flint Firebirds (2016–2017)
On May 17, 2016, the OHL appointed Burnett as the general manager of the Flint Firebirds, signing a three-year contract starting with the 2016–17 season. Burnett took over the managing duties of a Firebirds franchise that earned only 46 points in the 2015–16 season and had missed the playoffs for a second consecutive season. Burnett was successful in getting commitments from each of the top three draft picks, including fellow Port Perry native and first round draft pick Ty Dellandrea. In the 2016–17 season the Firebirds earned 72 points, and making the playoffs as the 7th place seed. In the off-season, Burnett left the Firebirds to return to the Guelph Storm.
Guelph Storm (2017–present)
After a year off from coaching, Burnett returned to the Guelph Storm for the 2017–18 OHL season in the dual role as head coach and general manager. Burnett takes over a team that finished last place in the Western Conference in the 2016–17 season. Burnett used the second overall pick in the 2017 OHL entry draft to select Tag Bertuzzi, the son of Guelph Storm alumnus Todd Bertuzzi.
On September 22, 2017, Burnett coached his first game in his return to Guelph, as the Storm lost to the Sarnia Sting 4-3 in a shootout. One week later, on September 29, Burnett earned his first victory with the Storm since 1998, as Guelph defeated the Oshawa Generals 5-4. Under Burnett, the Storm improved in the 2017-18 season, as Guelph returned to the post-season since 2015, as they earned a record of 30-29-9 record, finishing in seventh place in the Western Conference. In the post-season, the Storm took the heavily favoured Kitchener Rangers to six games in the first round before being eliminated from the playoffs.
Guelph saw more improvement during the 2018-19 OHL season, as the club finished in fourth place in the Western Conference with a 40-18-10 record, earning 90 points. In the post-season, the Storm swept the Kitchener Rangers in four games in a rematch from the previous season in the Western Conference quarter-finals. In the semi-finals, the Storm found themselves down 3-0 in their series against the London Knights, however, Guelph rebounded and staved off elimination, winning four games in a row to win the series and advance to the Western Conference finals. In the conference finals against the Saginaw Spirit, Guelph dropped their first two games, however, the Storm turned the series around, winning four in a row, to win the series and advance to the J. Ross Robertson Cup finals. In the championship round, Guelph once again dropped their first two games against the Ottawa 67's. The Storm once again turned the series around, winning four games in a row, to win the 2019 OHL championship and earning a berth in the 2019 Memorial Cup. At the tournament, Guelph finished the round-robin portion in second place with a 2–1 record. In the semi-final game, Guelph lost to the Rouyn-Noranda Huskies 6-4 to be eliminated from the tournament.
Many expected the Storm to struggle during the 2019-20 OHL season, as a number of veteran players graduated from the club following their championship run. Guelph finished the season with a 32-23-8 record, earning 72 points, and sixth place in the Western Conference, exceeding expectations. The 2020 post-season was cancelled due to the 2020 coronavirus pandemic in North America.
The 2020-21 season was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Burnett was back behind the Storm bench for the 2021-22 OHL season, leading the club to a 36-24-5-3 record, earning 80 points and finishing in fifth place in the Western Conference. In the post-season, Guelph lost to the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds in five games during the conference quarter-finals. On June 10, 2022, Burnett stepped down as head coach of the club, as Scott Walker was named as his replacement. Burnett will remain with the club as the general manager for the 2022-23 season.
National coaching duties
Burnett's success with the Guelph Storm earned him his first Hockey Canada appointment. Burnett was named head coach of Canada's U20 National Junior team for the 1999 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Winnipeg. Claude Julien and Stan Butler were named as assistant coaches. After the conclusion of the team's summer evaluation camp, Burnett resigned on August 18, 1998, to become an assistant coach for the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in the NHL. The team would claim the silver medal with Tom Renney replacing Burnett.
In 2001 while coaching the Oshawa Generals, Burnett was named head coach of Canada's U18 National team along with assistant coaches Jim Hulton and Guy Lalonde for the summer's Six Nations Cup in the Czech Republic. Canada defeated the host team Czech Republic in the final to win the gold medal.
Burnett was named to four Team Canada staffs while coaching with the Belleville Bulls. Burnett was named an assistant coach for Canada's U18 National team at the 2010 IIHF World U18 Championships in Belarus, along with head coach Guy Carbonneau, and assistant coach Rob Sumner. Canada lost its first game 1–3 to Switzerland, won its second game 11–3 against Belarus, lost the third game 0–5 to the United States, and lost its fourth game 4–5 to Sweden. Canada missed out on the medal round and played in the relegation round instead. Canada won 5–1 against Latvia, and won 4–2 against Slovakia to finish 7th overall and avoid relegation.
Burnett was promoted to head coach of the U18 National team for the summer's 2010 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament, with Jim Hiller and Ron Choules as assistant coaches. The event was jointly hosted in Slovakia and the Czech Republic. Canada won its first three games to progress to the medal round. Canada defeated the Czech Republic 6–2 in the semifinal and defeated the United States 1–0 in the final to win the gold medal.
On July 20, 2010, Burnett was named to replace Bob Boughner as an assistant coach for the Canada's U20 National Junior team to work with head coach Dave Cameron and assistant coaches Ryan Huska and André Tourigny. The 2011 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships began on Boxing Day in Buffalo, New York. In the opening game, Canada won 6–3 against Russia. Canada won its next two games, 7–2 over the Czech Republic and 10–1 over Norway. In the fourth game, Canada lost 5–6 to Sweden in a shootout. Canada won 4–1 over Switzerland in the quarterfinals, and won 4–1 over the United States in the semifinals. The gold medal game was between Canada and Russia. The game marked Canada's tenth consecutive appearance in the final. The Russians had lost their three previous gold medal games to Canada. Canada led 3–0 after two periods. However, the Russians scored five unanswered goals in the third period, including two in a span of 13 seconds, to win the game. Canada won the silver medal.
Burnett and Huska returned to Canada's U20 National Junior team, joined by new head coach Don Hay, and assistant coach Scott Walker The 2012 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships were hosted between Calgary and Edmonton, Alberta. Team Canada won all four games in the groups stage; 8–1 over Finland, 5–0 over the Czech Republic, 10–2 over Denmark, and 3–2 over the United States. Canada earned a bye into the semifinals, then played team Russia. Canada missed the final for the first time in 11 years when they lost 5–6, in a game which Canada was down 1–6 halfway through the third period. Canada won the bronze medal with a 4–0 victory over Finland.
Personal life
Burnett was born on March 25, 1962, in Port Perry, Ontario. He graduated from the McGill University with a physical education degree in 1985. Burnett had intended on being a teacher if he didn't follow a professional playing career. Burnett had spent some summers teaching and working with kids at a local detention school. Burnett later taught at Port Perry High School where he had attended as a student.
On October 22, 2009, Burnett was inducted into the Township of Scugog Sports Hall of Fame.
Coaching record
References
External links
1962 births
Living people
Anaheim Ducks coaches
Belleville Bulls coaches
Canadian ice hockey centres
Canadian ice hockey coaches
Edmonton Oilers coaches
Guelph Storm coaches
Hamilton Bulldogs coaches
London Knights players
McGill University Faculty of Education alumni
Niagara Falls Thunder coaches
Oshawa Generals coaches
People from Scugog
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jam%20%26%20Jerusalem
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Jam & Jerusalem
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Jam & Jerusalem (also known as Clatterford in the United States) is a British sitcom that aired on BBC One from 2006 to 2009. Written by Jennifer Saunders and Abigail Wilson, it starred Sue Johnston, with an ensemble cast including Sally Phillips, Jennifer Saunders, Dawn French, Rosie Cavaliero, Patrick Barlow, Joanna Lumley, Maggie Steed, Pauline McLynn, David Mitchell, Salima Saxton, and Doreen Mantle.
The show centred on a Women's Guild in a small, fictional, West Country town called Clatterford St. Mary. It first aired on 24 November 2006, and the second series began airing on 1 January 2008 with a 40-minute special, finishing on 1 February 2008. The third series was aired as three one-hour specials, and began its broadcast on BBC One on 9 August 2009.
Plot
Jam & Jerusalem is set in the small West Country town of Clatterford St. Mary and is based around Sal, a local practice nurse. The surgery's indiscreet Irish receptionist, Tip, is also her best friend, and both are at the centre of community life. Despite this, Sal is not a member of her local Women's Guild, but after the death of her husband, the local GP, and the loss of her job, she soon joins. Tip is married to a farmer, Colin. The chairwoman of the Women's Guild is Eileen Pike, who always wears her chains of office. Other members include lollipop lady Queenie, elderly church organist Delilah Stagg, and Rosie, a cleaner who has an angry and rude alter ego called Margaret. Delilah is absent from the second series except a brief appearance in the first episode. Wealthy Caroline and Susie are slightly separate from the rest of the Guild. Sal's family consists of James, her son, and his wife, Yasmeen. Sal's daughter, Tash, has a son of her own, Raph, and she has a boyfriend Marcus until the end of the second series. Tash's friend Samuel "Spike" Pike, a postman, is a fellow hippie who becomes her husband in the final episode of Series Two.
Production
The first episode of Jam & Jerusalem was recorded in Autumn 2005 as a pilot (not broadcast at the time) and led to the BBC commissioning the rest of the six-part series and a Christmas special, which were filmed in Autumn 2006. The second series was filmed in Autumn 2007, and the third beginning in April 2009. The show was filmed in North Tawton, Devon, on nearby Dartmoor, and in Staines. The first two series were a co-production of the BBC and Saunders & French Productions in association with BBC America; the third was solely a BBC production.
Saunders, who had moved to Devon in 1999, created the show out of frustration at stereotypical portrayals of Devonians on television, as well as a desire to work with Johnston. Saunders wrote the pilot alone, but co-wrote the rest of the show with her longtime personal assistant, Abigail "Abi" Wilson. Wilson was credited for "additional material" for episodes 2-6, then credited alongside Saunders beginning with the Christmas special.
The programme was one of a group of shows recorded in the then-new High-Definition format for a trial run in November 2006 on the BBC. The theme tune is a cover of The Kinks' "The Village Green Preservation Society" performed by Kate Rusby, whose songs are also used as incidental music, and who wrote the show's score with her longtime collaborator John McCusker. Jam & Jerusalem has no laugh track and is not recorded before a studio audience. The title phrase has traditionally been associated with the Women's Institute in England and Wales, which is popularly supposed to devote much time to the making of jam, and for whom the hymn "Jerusalem" is an unofficial anthem.
Saunders' real life daughters, Ella, Beattie, and Freya Edmondson, all appear in the show: Ella plays a folk singer, whilst Beattie and Freya appear as the daughters of Saunders' character, Caroline, also respectively named Beattie and Freya.
In November 2009, Pauline McLynn announced on her blog that Jam & Jerusalem would not be returning for a fourth series. She later stated that it was the decision of the BBC and not Jennifer Saunders. Saunders later lamented the show's cancellation despite its improving ratings, noting that the cast had offered to take pay cuts for a fourth series, and attributed the cancellation to "some twat in a meeting".
Cast
Regular characters
Recurring and guest characters
Characters
Sal Vine
Sal (Sue Johnston) is practice nurse at the Clatterford Health Centre. She is mother to James and Tash, and widow of Mike. After the death of her husband, James takes over the surgery and replaces Sal with his wife, Yasmeen. Sal subsequently joins the Women's Guild to give herself something to do. Her best friend Tip helps her get her old job back by bringing in James' old headmistress Joyce Midge for a smear test. Overwhelmed with embarrassment, James accepts Sal back part-time on her old wage. As the practise nurse, Sal is responsible for Rosie's well being, and is sympathetic towards her condition. She usually steps to defuse the situations caused by Rosie and Margaret's antics, maintaining that she is no danger to anyone. In the Christmas Special, it is revealed that Sal had still not scattered Mike's ashes, and she asks Spike to send them up over the town in a firework. This is not quite done to plan, as the firework is instead used to end the pantomime that Sal helped produce, cast and choreograph, and the ashes end up scattered over the audience and the cast. In the third series, Sal is dismayed to find that her privacy is being invaded by builders and bulldozers, as a residence for esteemed actor Charles Dance (ostensibly) was to be built behind her house. In addition, she begins seeing older patients at her house, which leads to accusations of her being a prostitute. Sal's attitude to the builder (Jock, played by Clive Russell) subsequently thaws, and in the last episode they are seen to share a kiss.
Tip Haddem
Tip (Pauline McLynn) is an Irish woman, who worked as the receptionist at the health centre for the first two series. She is married to Colin, who owns a farm. She is best friends with Sal, and helps her in many situations, such as getting James to rehire her. She is very indiscreet, and often reveals people's personal medical information gleaned from patient files. Tip joins the Guild with Sal despite being Catholic; she was apparently brought up in a convent in Ireland, and loved it, saying she would not hear a word said against the nuns there. In the Christmas special, Tip is cast as the Wicked Stepmother, but, as in previous years, spends most of the panto at the pub, arriving drunk for the finale. In the second series, her marriage to Colin is deteriorating. In the last episode, he sleeps in a caravan outside the house, and the two communicate by writing to each other on the back of an envelope. By the end of the episode, however, their marriage seems to be back on track. Tip takes a job as bartender at the Fountain pub in series 2; in series 3, she is regularly seen there, having left the health centre. Throughout series 3, she is a supporter of Sal's protest against the building behind her house.
Rosie Bales
Rosie (Dawn French) is a sweet, if naïve, woman with an alter ego called Margaret, who is angry, rude and hateful towards anyone and everyone. Rosie has at least two sons and an unseen husband called Ricky, all of them unseen. Rosie works at the local cheese factory, and often presents cheese as presents for things such as luck, remembrance and welcoming. She has numerous adventures and incidents during the series, such as forgetting to order pasties for a picnic, finding a potato with Jesus' face on it, going on a celebrity diet (and subsequently swallowing a marigold glove because she couldn't find a balloon), stealing from the Spar, and getting the Guild bowls team disqualified for indecent exposure. Rosie is implied to be intellectually disabled as well as having dissociative identity disorder, the latter of which seems to stem from a bad experience (implied to be sexual abuse) as a child with a man called Peter. In the Christmas special, Rosie borrows decorations from around the town to make her costume for the pantomime, in which she plays the Fairy Godmother.
Delilah Stagg
Delilah (Joanna Lumley) is the elderly church organist, and often gets herself into problematic situations. These include getting jammed in her car, taking a day to put her donkey called Hetty on a lead, nearly choking on her false teeth, and trying to buy a tomato, during which the shopkeeper gave her 10p to go away. At the subsequent bring-and-buy, she is influenced by the shopkeeper's actions and ended up giving away all of the profits. Delilah once reveals that her family were Nazis; on one occasion, she is seen in a photograph shaking hands with Hitler, who she says had more charisma than anyone she had ever met, apart from Lester Pigott. In the Christmas Special, Delilah comes to audition before anyone else had arrived, then leaves as soon as Eileen, Queenie and Pauline arrived to hold the auditions. She always says a simple sharp "Goodbye" when leaving. In the pub, she offers youths drinks before leaving them to pay the tab. Delilah has a bad cycling accident in the first episode of the second series and does not return.
Eileen Pike (née Brewer)
Eileen (Maggie Steed) is self-proclaimed chairwoman of the Women's Guild, and proudly marks her position with some handmade "regalia", which Rosie insists are medals or armour of some sort. Eileen has a haughty personality and a superiority complex. She is revealed to be adopted in the first series when she takes her adoptive father to a hospice. Sal and Tip use Genes Reunited to find that she had a brother, in whom at first she has no interest, but after consideration contacts, learning she also has nieces and nephews. Eileen is very sympathetic towards Rosie's condition, and assists Sal in reprimanding the Vicar after he is less than sensitive towards Rosie. However, she is not as adept at dealing with it as Sal, as she is frightened by Margaret. Eileen helps cast, produce and choreograph the pantomime in the Christmas special with Queenie and Sal. In the third series, Eileen agrees to help with Sal's protest against the development behind Sal's house until she finds out that the person moving into the development is apparently Charles Dance. She regularly suffers from hot flushes, and always orders a Bénédictine at the pub.
Caroline Martin
Caroline (Jennifer Saunders) is a wealthy mother of four: Mikey, who is in a rock band; Christopher, who is in the army; and two daughters, Beattie and Freya. She is married to a man called John. She enjoys horse-riding, and does not understand why Freya does not show the same enthusiasm. Caroline often spends time with the various celebrities that her son Mikey knows, particularly Sting and Trudie Styler. While a prominent member of the Guild, she and Susie seem separate from it, keeping their own company. Caroline often mistakes words such as dogging and rimming to mean something completely different from what they actually mean, like taking dogs to the river to swim, and wetting the rim of a glass and making a tune (respectively). It is Susie who divulges their true meanings, to which Caroline expresses deep shock. In the Christmas Special, Caroline helps backstage with make-up and general organisation. In the third series, she initially supports Sal in her protest, but changes her mind after learning that the development will bring Charles Dance to Clatterford. Saunders deliberately chose to play a character with little screen time in Jam & Jerusalem, stating she preferred to write, sit back and watch, though the third episode of series three is centred around Caroline.
Dr. James Vine
James (David Mitchell) is Sal's elder child, who inherits the practice after the death of his father, Mike. He is married to Yasmeen, who takes Sal's job as practice nurse, despite Yasmeen being horrifically squeamish. James is uptight and often has difficulty connecting with patients. He dislikes his mother's interference in his work, and often harshly reminds her she is no longer employed at the practise. After Sal helps James deal with an embarrassing smear test of his old headmistress, he brings her back part-time. In the Christmas special, he takes his deceased father's place in the Clatterford Christmas Panto and plays an Ugly Sister in Cinderella. His relationship with his sister Tash is very negative, yet he expresses his love for her wedding, at which he speaks on behalf of their deceased father. In the third series, he believes a rumour that his mother was a prostitute, and also expressed interest in becoming Clatterford's local MP. He shows that he has emotionally matured when he approves of the relationship between his mother and Jock.
Natasha "Tash" Vine
Born in 1971, Tash (Sally Phillips) is Sal's younger child, who is a hippy. She has a son from an unknown relationship, called Raph. Her selfish and irresponsible behaviour causes frequent disputes between her and her mother, and extremely barbed exchanges with her brother. In the first series, she is in a relationship with a man called Rufus, who then leaves her. A recurring theme throughout the show is Sal's frustration with her inability and refusal to settle down and care for Raph; Mike once kicked her out of the house in the hope the reality of life would shock her into action, but she carried on as before. She plays the lead role in the Christmas pantomime (for the 21st time running, despite being 36 at the time), and subsequently starts a relationship with an old school friend called Marcus. She eventually leaves him in the second series, and marries his rival for her affections, fellow hippy Spike. In the third series, she, Spike and Raph are all living in the old portable library outside Sal's house, which is then removed by force, partly because they refused to move it themselves, but mostly because the battery in the engine was dead. When they finally repair and move the van, Sal is concerned she will not take her responsibilities as Raph's mother seriously, but her first decision is to arrange a van-warming party for him, in the hope he will feel at home.
Queenie
Queenie (Doreen Mantle) is verger at the church and local lollipop lady, despite there being hardly any traffic in Clatterford. She is seemingly second-in-command to Eileen in the Guild. In the first series, it is mentioned that she has a daughter called Gaye, who coincidentally is a lesbian. In the Christmas special, she is director of the pantomime, but often falls asleep during rehearsals, and seems more interested in eating biscuits. In the second series, she has her arm in a sling, changing arms sometimes. Queenie is absent from the third series, having moved in with her sister.
Yasmeen Vine
Yasmeen (Salima Saxton) is wife to James, and becomes practice nurse after he inherits the practice, putting Sal, her mother-in-law, out of a job. She is terrible at her job due to being extremely mysophobic and squeamish, unable to even say "smear". She is accomplished in netball and tries to teach the Guild how to play, despite coming to blows with Susie over who is the better player. Owing to her infrequent visits to Sal's home, Sal and Tash often assume that Yasmeen is pregnant whenever she turns up. Yasmeen is Muslim.
The Vicar / Hillary
Hillary (Patrick Barlow) is the fussy, old-fashioned and grumpy vicar at the local church. He has difficulty suffering the eccentric townsfolk of Clatterford, saying that "being vicar around here is like ploughing bloody concrete". In the second series, he has a girlfriend called Veronica, who reveals his first name to be Hillary, to which the Guild all respond with laughter. His attempts to make himself look dignified in front of his parish almost invariably end badly. The Vicar is opposed to plans that might damage the community, such as the cancellation of the re-enactment of the Clatterford Skirmish, and the building of Charles Dance's residence behind Sal's house.
Kate Bales
Kate (Rosie Cavaliero), called "Katie" by Eileen and occasionally others, is a self-pitying, lonely and irritating young widow. She is initially disliked by the majority of Clatterford, once described by Eileen as having "the charisma of a flip-flop". Her husband died shortly after they got married, and she is still wallowing in grief after five years. She became a bereavement counsellor but often ends up being counselled by those she is trying to help. She holds several other jobs as well: as a teacher in series one, a real estate agent in series two, and a community support officer in series three. Despite being an atheist, she joins the Guild to try to come out of mourning. In the Christmas special, she almost inaudibly sings "Nine Million Bicycles" at her audition, but subsequently admits that she does not want to be on stage and so is enlisted to be a ticket saleswoman. Kate is also the guild's computer wizard, despite a lack of real expertise. She runs a class for older people who wanted to learn to use a computer, called the "Silver Surfers". In the third series, Kate and the Vicar have a whirlwind romance after Kate supports him during his emotional crisis over the safety of Caroline's soldier son.
Susie
Susie (Suzy Aitchison) is a wealthy friend of Caroline's and a Guild member, and is married to a man called Charles. She often mistakes Caroline's son Mikey for being in a pop band rather than a rock band. She is very competitive, especially about playing centre in netball. In the Christmas special, she wants and expects to be cast as Prince Charming, but is recast as Dandini when her performance opposite Tash makes Eileen and Sal uncomfortable. She goes to Sal for advice when she had a pregnancy scare in the second series. She acts as something of a dogsbody to Caroline on many occasions, and often has to inform her of the real meaning of slang terms.
Jock
Jock (Clive Russell) is a Scottish builder who renovates the barn behind Sal's house in the third series. Sal discovers the planning application too late (Tash saw it but ignored it), and takes her ire out on Jock. Jock, having an abrasive, no-nonsense personality, ignores all protests. Rosie, on speaking to Jock, gets the mistaken idea that the house is being built as a hideaway residence for Charles Dance. The thought of a celebrity in the village removes local opposition to the build, leaving Sal without support. Jock, over time, becomes friendly with Sal, eventually becoming her love interest. When it dawns on Sal and Tip that Charles Dance will not be appearing at the local Ladies meeting, it is Jock who saves the day.
Episodes
Series 1 (2006)
Series 2 (2008)
Series 3 (2009)
Other countries
The first series of Jam & Jerusalem was broadcast on BBC America in the United States. The first series was screened in Australia, starting in December 2007 on the ABC. In late 2007, the show began to air in Canada on BBC Canada, and in India on BBC Entertainment.
Home media
The first series and 2006 Christmas Special of Jam & Jerusalem were released in the United States (Region 1) as Clatterford: Season 1, on 8 May 2007. The first series was released in the United Kingdom (Region 2) on 21 January 2008 and in Australia (Region 4) on 3 January 2008.
The Complete Series 2 was released on DVD in the UK on 3 August 2009, and 1 September 2009 in the US. The Complete Series 3 was released on DVD in the UK on 2 August 2010, alongside the Complete Series 1–3.
References
External links
Jam & Jerusalem at British TV Comedy
2006 British television series debuts
2009 British television series endings
2000s British sitcoms
BBC high definition shows
BBC television sitcoms
Television shows set in Devon
English-language television shows
Television series by BBC Studios
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carg%C3%A8se
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Cargèse
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Cargèse (; or ; ; ) is a village and commune in the Corse-du-Sud department of France on the west coast of the island of Corsica, 27 km north of Ajaccio. , the commune had a population of 1,325.
The village was established at the end of the 18th century by the descendants of a group of immigrants from the Mani Peninsula of the Greek Peloponnese who had first settled in Corsica a hundred years earlier. The economy of the village is now based around tourism. Cargèse is noted for having two 19th-century churches that face one another across a small valley overlooking the harbour and the sea. One was built by the descendants of the Greek immigrants and the other by native Corsicans.
History
Paomia 1676 to 1731
In the second half of the 17th century there was a substantial emigration from the Mani Peninsula of the Greek Peloponnese. This was mainly driven by the wish to escape from the control of the Ottoman Turks but was also prompted by the lack of arable land and by the intense feuding between different clans.
In 1669 the Ottomans captured Crete, and then a year later in 1670, as part of a strategy to strengthen their control over the inner Mani, they built the fortress of Kelefa on the west side of the Mani peninsula. A number of the inhabitants of the small town of Oitylo (or Vitylo), which lay just 1.5 km west of the fortress, wished to emigrate to avoid the taxation imposed by the Ottomans and negotiated with the Republic of Genoa, which then controlled Corsica, for permission to settle on the island. The Republic offered them a choice of three locations in the Province of Vico and in October 1675 a group of 730 colonists departed from Oitylo and after a short stay in Genoa arrived in Corsica on March 14, 1676. They settled in Paomia, the site of several abandoned hamlets, which is situated 4 km east of the present village of Cargèse at around 450 m in altitude on a hillside overlooking the Gulf of Sagone. The location has similarities to that of Oitylo which also overlooks the sea. The settlers agreed to pledge loyalty to Genoa and to recognise the spiritual authority of the Pope but were allowed to retain the Byzantine Rite as prescribed by the Holy See in Rome.
The colonists prospered and reestablished the five hamlets of Pancone, Corone, Rondolino, Salici and Monte-Rosso, all within a kilometre of one another. They built (or restored) seven small churches in the different hamlets and a monastery lower down the hillside at Salici next to an abandoned church dedicated to Saint Martin. The main church in Rondolino was dedicated to Our Lady of the Assumption. The large number of churches is probably a reflection of the high proportion of clerics among the colonists. Of the 520 inhabitants listed in July 1676, there were 11 monks, 5 priests, several nuns and a bishop.
The local Corsicans resented the Greek colonists occupying land that they considered to be rightfully theirs and this led to disputes between the two communities. In 1715 an armed gang from Vico attacked the colonists but was eventually beaten off. In 1729, in the island-wide uprising of the Corsicans against the Genoese Republic, the Greeks remained loyal to the Genoese cause and as a result, their hamlets were repeatedly attacked. Finally in April 1731, 55 years after their arrival, the Greek colonists were forced to abandon Paomia and seek refuge in Ajaccio.
Ajaccio 1731 to 1775
The 700 Greeks who took refuge in Ajaccio formed around 20% of the inhabitants of the town (3200 in 1731). They were offered the use of the church of La Madonna del Carmine which is still known as the Chapelle des Grecs. The Genoese employed 200 of the Greek men as guards to defend the town. The colonists were far less isolated than they had been in Paomia and there was some intermarriage and many of the men learnt to speak Corsican. Nevertheless, there was ongoing violence between the two communities and the Greeks found it expedient to abandon their traditional dress. The Genoese Republic had increasing financial problems and had difficulty maintaining law and order on the island. The Greek guards were no longer paid after 1744 and in 1752 the companies were disbanded. The lack of Genoese protection made life very difficult for the colonists, particularly after 1745, and a number of groups chose to emigrate to Sardinia, Menorca and Florida (New Smyrna). In 1746 about fifty Greek families residing in Cargèse emigrated to Montresta, Sardinia, where they obtained from Carlo Emanuele III territories in the area of the Villa of San Cristoforo di Montresta to establish their new settlement. Many of the inhabitants of the today Montresta are of Greek Maniot descent. The census of 1773 showed that the Greek population of the town had dropped to 428. The situation changed with the Treaty of Versaille in 1768 when the French gained control of the island and the governor, the Comte de Marbeuf, took a personal interest in the Greek colonists.
Cargèse 1775 to the present day
Marbeuf arranged for the construction of the village of Cargèse on the Puntiglione headland that separates the Gulf of Sagone from the smaller Gulf of Peru. Around 120 terraced houses were built, all paid for by the French crown. In 1775, under the leadership of George-Marie Stephanopoli, most of the Greek colonists moved from Ajaccio to the new village so that by 1784 there were 386 Greeks in Cargèse. Marbeuf had a large house with a garden built for himself on the west side of the village.
In 1789 and in 1791, with the breakdown in civil order resulting from the French Revolution, Cargèse was subject to a series of attacks by the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages. On each occasion the attackers were driven off but a number of families chose to return to Ajaccio to escape the violence. By 1792 24 families had moved back to Ajaccio, selling their properties in Cargèse to Corsicans. Thus, from early in its history there were both Greek and Corsican communities in the village.
Britain took control of Corsica in 1794 with Gilbert Elliot acting as viceroy during the short-lived Anglo-Corsican Kingdom. Elliot visited Cargèse in 1795 and recorded his experiences in his journal. At the time the village had population of around 500 people divided into 114 families. The British withdrew from the island in the October of the following year, and almost immediately the inhabitants of Vico, Appriciani, Balogna, Letia and Renno attacked Cargèse. Much of the village was destroyed including Marbeuf’s own house. The inhabitants were forced to flee to Ajaccio where they stayed for three months before returning when French forces had reestablished order.
The village was threatened on two further occasions. In 1814, with the collapse of the First French Empire, the threat of violence forced the inhabitants of Cargèse to surrender some of their farmland to the surrounding hamlets. The final incident occurred in 1830 at the time of the overthrow of Charles X and the Bourbon monarchy in the July Revolution. Neighbouring villagers again threatened to attack Cargèse but the arrival of a detachment of soldiers from Ajaccio prevented serious bloodshed.
A substantial proportion of the Greek speaking inhabitants of the village emigrated to Sidi Merouane in Algeria between 1874 and 1876. Of the total population of 1078 in 1872, it is estimated that 235 emigrated, all of them Greek speakers. The large drop in the Greek population was compensated by an influx of Corsicans making the remaining Greek speakers very much a minority.
In the 20th century the number of Greek speakers rapidly declined and by 1934 there were only 20 Greek speakers in the village. The last native speaker died in 1976, 300 years after the colonists had first arrived on the island. The historian Nick Nicholas has argued that the exceptionally long time that the colonists took to assimilate was a result of several factors including the substantial size of the colony, the large religious presence and the strong antagonism felt between the Corsicans and the settlers.
The census of 1896 recorded 1216 inhabitants but in the first half of the 20th century many young people left the village to find employment in continental France. By 1962 the population had dropped to 665. Since then the expansion of tourism has provided more employment and the population has increased reaching 1,325 in 2017.
The large scale emigration from rural communities was a general phenomenon for most of Corsica in the 20th century. For villages away from the coast that have not witnessed the development of tourism, the effects were severe. For example, Évisa (situated 21 km NE of Cargese as the crow flies) had a population of 1089 in 1886, 401 in 1962 and 182 in 2007.
Population
Churches
The village contains two 19th-century Catholic churches that face one another across a small valley overlooking the sea. The church on the east side was built by native Corsicans and descendants of the Greek colonists who had adopted the Latin liturgical rites. The church on the west side, the Greek church, was built by the descendants of the Greek colonists who had retained the use of the Byzantine Rite. From 1964 until 2005, Monseigneur Florent Marchiano conducted services in the two churches on alternate Sundays. On his retirement he was not replaced and instead each Sunday a priest from Vico comes to the village to conduct mass in the Latin church. A priest based in Athens, Archimandrite Armaos Athanasios, visits Cargèse several times a year to conduct services in the Greek church. As of September, 2021, Archimandrite Antoine Forget was transferred from the Greek Melkite Catholic parish in Marseille to be pastor of both the Greek and Latin churches in Cargese, allowing weekly liturgies in both churches.
Latin church of the Assumption
The Latin church was the first to be built. Construction began in 1825 but was held up because of the lack of finance. A total of 14 requests were made to the French government for assistance before the church was completed 1850. The trompe-l'œil decoration was executed in 1928-1930 by the Russian painter Nicolas Ivanoff, a resident of Cargèse. The nave was decorated by Edmond Rocchiccioli between 1970 and 1975 while the choir was decorated between 1992 and 1997 by Russian artists Anastassiya Sokolova and Valeri Tchernoritski.
In 1999-2000 the church was completely restored in a project jointly financed by the Assemblée Régionale Corse, the Conseil Général de la Corse du Sud and the Commune of Cargèse.
The building consists of a barrel-vaulted nave with two semicircular side chapels. The choir is separated from the nave by steps and the communion table. The square bell tower on the north side of the church is capped by an octagonal lantern. The three bells date from 1887.
Above the entrance door is a 17th-century painting attributed to the School of Bologna. This work originally formed part of the collection of Cardinal Fesch and is one of four paintings given to Cargèse by the town of Ajaccio in 1865. Each of the churches now houses two of the paintings. The stained-glass window above the main entrance representing the Immaculate Conception was installed in 2000.
Greek Catholic church of Saint Spyridon
The Greek Catholic church is on the west side of the little valley of Murgana. Construction of the church began in 1852 but progress was slow. The English artist and poet Edward Lear visited Cargèse in 1868 and noted "the large building which is so conspicuous in all the views of Carghèsè, and which they tell me is the new Greek church; it is a mere shell, standing unfinished for lack of funds". The church was finally completed in 1876. The iconostasis, the wooden partition separating the nave from the sanctuary, had been designed in 1881 for the Basilian monastery of Santa Maria in Grottaferrata near Rome but a liturgical argument prevented it from being installed and in 1886 it was offered instead to the Greek church in Cargèse.
As in the Latin church, the trompe-l'œil decoration was executed in 1928-1930 by the Russian painter Nicolas Ivanoff. The frescos were the result of an initiative of Florent Marchiano, who served as the priest of the two churches from 1964 till his retirement in 2005. They were painted by a number of different artists beginning in 1987. The final four were completed in 2001: the Last Judgement on the right of the entrance, the prophet Isaiah on the left of the entrance, three recent priests (Marchiano, Chappet, and Coti) climbing stairs, and finally a large fresco at the back of the church symbolising the history of the colony (the departure from Vitylo in 1675, seeking refuge in Ajaccio in 1731 and arriving in Cargèse in 1775).
The church contains four icons that were brought to Corsica with the colonists in 1676.
hanging high up on the right hand side of the church near the iconostasis is the icon of the Three Holy Hierarchs: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus and John Chrysostom. The painting is in egg tempera on a wooden panel. It dates from the last quarter of the 17th century.
high on the left hand side is an icon of John the Baptist with the wings of an angel. He is dressed in animal skins and has a cross and a scroll in his right hand. The haloed head at his feet foreshadows his beheading. The painting dates from the last quarter of the 17th century and is in egg tempera on a wooden panel. An inscription in Greek gives the artist as Simeon Palaiologos, a monk from Mount Athos.
above the entrance door hangs an Epitaphios, a picture of Christ being placed in his tomb, shown in bas-relief on painted wood. The three figures are Christ's mother Mary, Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea.
behind the iconostasis is an icon of the Virgin Mary with the infant Jesus in her arms surrounded by golden clouds with angels and cherubs. At the bottom of the picture are Saint Spyridion and Saint Nicholas. This fourth icon is paraded through the village on feast days.
Geography
The commune of Cargèse is on the west coast of Corsica, 25 km 'as the crow flies' north of Ajaccio but 50 km by road. The countryside consists of small mountains whose highest peak is Capu di Bagliu (701 m). There are two plains that are each crossed by a small river, the Esigna and the Chiuni. To the north east is a wooded area, the forest of Esigna. The ragged coastline has three granite headlands each dominated by a Genoese tower: the Punta d’Orchinu, the Punta d’Ormigna and the Punta di Cargèse (sometimes referred to as the Punta di u Puntiglione).
The coast has five beaches that are from north to south:
Chiuni beach is 7 km by road from the village and the former site of the Club Méditerranée holiday resort. The beach is bounded on the northern end by mouth of the Chiesaccia and Chiuni rivers. A small tributary of the Chiuni river, the Truscielli, marks part of the boundary of the commune of Cargèse with that of Piana.
Peru beach lies just to the north of the village. At the northern end of the beach is the mouth of the Esigna, a small river that flows during the winter months. The beach is patrolled by life-guards during the summer tourist season.
Menasina beach is 3 km east of the village.
Capizollu beach is between the Punta di Molendinu and the Pointe des Moines. This is believed to be where the Greek colonists came ashore in 1676 on their way to Paomia.
Stagnoli beach is 6.8 km by road south of the village and the site of a UCPA water-sports centre. The small Bubia river flows into the sea at this point and marks the boundary of the commune of Cargèse with that of Vico.
The village of Cargèse is located on the Punta di Cargèse, a promontory that forms the northern limit of the Gulf of Sagone. The village sits nearly 100 m above the sea and has impressive views. The commune includes the hamlets of Frimicaghiola, Marchese, Menasina, Lozzi and Chiuni. Apart from the village with its old houses, the coastline is dotted with recent buildings which are used for summer tourism (summer camp and rental accommodation). The headlands and the adjacent coastline are protected as the land has been purchased by an agency of the French state, the Conservatoire du littoral.
Cargèse is served by the road (D81) that connects Mezzavia (Ajaccio) to Calvi. The nearest villages along this road are Piana (19 km) to the north and Sagone (13 km) to the south. There is also a small road (D181) from the village that passes through Paomia and joins the main road linking Sagone with Vico (D70).
Autocars Ile de Beauté (S.A.S.A.I.B.) operate a bus service running between Ajaccio and Ota that stops in Cargèse. Each day there are two buses in each direction except on Sundays and bank holidays when no buses operate. The journey from Cargèse to Ajaccio takes around one hour.
Climate
The climate is typically Mediterranean with warm dry summers and cool wet winters. August is the hottest month with an average maximum temperature of 29 °C and minimum of 18 °C. January is the coldest month with average maximum of 14 °C and minimum of 4 °C. The wettest months are October and November. Very little rainfall occurs in June, July and August.
Economy
Many people in the commune derive their income from tourism especially during the summer months. In 2020 there were 8 small hotels with a total of 116 bedrooms. Of the hotels, one was classified as providing three-star accommodation (Les Lentisques), 5 had two stars, one had one star and one was unclassified. There is also a campsite (Camping Torraccia) 4 km north of the village with 120 pitches. Many tourists rent accommodation. In 2017 there were 1,887 dwellings of which 625 were main residences while 1,262 were second homes or holiday accommodation. There has been a very substantial increase in all types of housing in the commune – the census of 1968 recorded 254 main residences and only 12 second homes or holiday homes.
Only a few people in the commune earn a living from agriculture. At the end of 2015 there were 9 establishments in the primary sector (agriculture, forestry and fishery), with no paid employees. Only 15 ha was used for vines, fruit and olives. The remaining 1137 ha was used for grazing, mostly cattle, with smaller numbers of sheep and goats. The transhumance is still practised: animals are moved up to the mountains in May to graze at high altitude during the dry summer months and brought back in October to pastures near the village where they spend the winter. While in the past the animals would have walked they are now taken by truck.
There are half a dozen small fishing boats that operate from Cargèse. Each boat has a crew of two or three and is equipped with a motor-driven wheel, usually at the bow, for hauling in the trammel nets. An important target species is the red spiny lobster (Palinurus elephas, langouste in French) which can only be legally fished between 1 March and 30 September. In the past lobster pots were used but these have generally been superseded by nets. The catch is generally small and most is sold locally.
A scientific conference centre, the Institut d'Études Scientifiques de Cargèse, is located near the coast about 1.5 km east of the village. It was established in 1975 and initially hosted conferences on theoretical physics. Since 1996 it has been run by the CNRS, the government financed scientific research organization. The centre hosts around 30 week-long conferences each year on a wide range of topics. The centre has a maximum capacity of 100 people, but as there is only limited accommodation within the conference complex, most attendees rent rooms or stay in hotels in the village.
There is a combined nursery and primary school in the village for children between the ages 3 and 11 (Groupe Scolaire, Rue du Colonel Fieschi). In 2012-2013 there were 72 children. Older children are bussed to the Collège Camille Borossi in Vico, a distance of 27 km.
Marina
Until the 1970s fishing boats would moor off a small protected beach to the south of the village. In the winter the boats would be hauled up onto the beach with a windlass. The whole area has now been developed into a marina.
The marina is accessible either by road or by a steep path that runs between the two churches and then alongside the cemetery. The harbour is protected by a jetty running 200 m in a north-easterly direction and can accommodate 235 boats with a maximum length of 16 m. There are 35 places allocated for visitors. The depth at the entrance is 5 m but this reduces to only 2.5 m within the harbour. Fuel, fresh water and mains power are available. There are three restaurants on the quayside but no shops. Provisions are available from a supermarket near the Place Saint-Jean 100 m above the port at the top of the village. In good weather vessels can anchor east of the harbour entrance in water with a minimum depth of 6 m.
Three towers
The three Genoese towers in the commune were built between 1605 and 1606:
Tour de Cargèse, near the village, on the Punta di Cargèse
Tour d'Omigna, to the north of the village, on the Punta d'Omigna
Tour d'Orchinu, to the north of the village, on the Punta d'Orchinu
Notes
References
Sources
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. First published in 1988.
Further reading
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. Volume 2 was never published.
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External links
. The official website of the Commune of Cargèse.
Communes of Corse-du-Sud
Greek diaspora in Europe
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The Octagon House
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The Octagon House, also known as the Colonel John Tayloe III House, is a house located at 1799 New York Avenue, Northwest in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C. It was built in 1799 for John Tayloe III, the wealthiest planter in the country, at the behest of his new family member, George Washington. In September 1814, after the British destroyed the White House during the War of 1812, for six months the Octagon House served as the residence of United States president James Madison and first lady Dolley Madison. It is one of only five houses to serve as the presidential residence in the history of the United States of America, and one of only three (along with the White House and Blair House) that still stand.
John Tayloe III was born at Mount Airy – which he later inherited – the colonial estate built by his father, John Tayloe II on the north bank of the Rappahannock River across from Tappahannock, Virginia. By this time, it was the centerpiece of a roughly 60,000 acre department of interdependent plantation farms known as the Mount Airy department, located approximately one hundred miles south of Washington, D.C., in Richmond County, Virginia. He was educated at Eton College and Cambridge University in England, served in the Virginia state legislature, and ran unsuccessfully for Congress in 1800.
John Tayloe III married Ann Ogle, daughter of Benjamin Ogle and granddaughter to Samuel Ogle of Ogle Hall Annapolis, Maryland, in 1792 at her family's country home Belair Mansion. Ann was only a year younger than her husband. Tayloe was reputed to be the richest Virginian planter of his time, and built the house in Washington at the suggestion of George Washington on land purchased from Gustavus W. Scott or Benjamin Stoddert, first Secretary of the Navy. The Octagon was originally constructed to be a winter residence for the Tayloe family, but they lived in the house year-round from 1818 to 1855. The Octagon property originally included a number of outbuildings, including a smokehouse, laundry, stables, carriage house, slave quarters, and an ice house (the only surviving outbuilding). The Tayloes were involved in shipbuilding, horse breeding and racing, and owned several iron foundries—they were fairly diversified for a plantation family. The Tayloes owned hundreds of slaves, and had between 12 and 18 who worked at the Octagon.
History
John Tayloe III
John and Anne (Ogle) Tayloe were considering Philadelphia as a place to build a town house, since Baltimore and Philadelphia were the nearest metropolitan centers to Mount Airy. George Washington – whose half-brother Augustine Washington Jr.'s son, Capt William Augustine Washington married Tayloe's sister, Sarah 'Sally' Tayloe, on May 11, 1799 – found out and persuaded the Tayloes to build their house in the new capital city in an outlying section. The plan was to establish a node of development to stimulate fill-in growth. Col. Tayloe had been considering building his new home in Philadelphia under the expert hands of architect Benjamin Latrobe. Instead he chose the primitive wilds of the new federal city and the architect Dr. William Thornton, the man who designed the new United States Capitol and the help of James Hoban winner of the White House design contest. Col. Tayloe went with the wishes of George Washington.
On April 19, 1797, Tayloe paid $1,000 (~$ in ) to Gustavus W. Scott for lot 8 in Square 170, at the corner of New York Avenue and 18th Street NW, as laid out in a plan of the District of Columbia by Major Pierre Charles L'Enfant and surveyed by Andrew Ellicott. Scott was one of the 1st purchasers of lots in the newly platted capital. The lot was in open country west of the partly built President's House, about 1 mi. from Georgetown, and about .5 mi. NE of Hamburgh, which was absorbed into the new city plan. During this time he established the Washington Jockey Club's on a mile track which extended from the rear of what is now the site of Decatur House at H Street and Jackson Place, crossing Seventeenth Street and Pennsylvania Avenue to Twentieth Street with Charles Carnan Ridgely, the current site of the Eisenhower Executive Office Building.
On April 19, 1799, Dr. William Thornton wrote to George Washington, "Mr. J. Tayloe, of Virginia, has contracted to build a house in the City near the President's Square of $13,000 value." Thoronton was a self-trained architect who had won the United States Capitol competition. His first problem was to plan a house that would fit the lot, the south side of which was cut away on the bias by the diagonal of New York Ave. If the house were built to face either of the bordering streets, it would be at an ungainly angle in relation to the other street, and outbuildings and wells had to be fitted in also. He dealt with the problem by relating the house equally to both streets, which put the two walls at a 70 degree angle from each other. The house actually has 6 sides, but was called "The Octagon" by the Tayloes. It had closets on every floor, an innovative feature for its time. The house is well built of brick trimmed with Aquia Creek sandstone. The lot is triangular and fenced in by a high brick wall. The kitchen, stable and outhouses are built of brick and accommodated a large number of both servants and horses. The interior is elaborately finished, the doors of the first story being of mahogany. All the work in the circular vestibule coincides with the circumference of the tower, the doors, sash and glass being made on the circle. The parlor mantle is made of a fine cement composition painted white. The remains of gold leaf show in some of the relieved portions. Leading into the back hall and dining-room are two secret doors in which the wash-boards, chair-boards, etc. run across the door, being ingeniously cut some distance from the actual door, no key holes, hinges or openings showing on the blind side. The knobs and shutter-buttons are of brass and evidently of a special pattern.
The Tayloes had 15 children, 13 of whom survived to adulthood (2 died in infancy: Anne, born and died in 1800, and Lloyd, born 1815, died 1816). The children were all born between 1793 and 1815. The oldest son, John Tayloe IV, served in the US Navy during the War of 1812 aboard the . His early death in 1824 was possibly connected to wounds received during the war. His parents provided for his wife and child after his death. Edward Thornton Tayloe, George Plater Tayloe and Henry Augustine Tayloe were all born at the Octagon.
The War of 1812 and temporary presidential residence
John Tayloe III was a Federalist, and not terribly supportive of President James Madison and the war with England that began in 1812, but he was active in the Virginia militia and commanded a regiment of DC cavalry. When the British marched into Washington in August 1814, there was a French flag flying outside the Octagon. Ann Ogle Tayloe had offered the house to the French consul, in the hopes of sparing the house from destruction at the hands of the British, and he was occupying the house when the British arrived in the city. The house probably would have been spared even if it hadn't been effectively a "diplomatic residence", since the British were under strict orders not to damage private property. When First Lady Dolley Madison fled the city as the British approached, she sent her pet parrot to the French consulate at the Octagon for safekeeping.
President James Madison and his wife, Dolley moved into the Octagon on September 8, 1814, after the burning of the White House by the British. President Madison ratified the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812, in the upstairs study at the Octagon on February 17, 1815. The Tayloes received $500 in rent for the Madisons' 6-month residency at the Octagon.
1815-1960s
While a resident of Washington, Tayloe helped found and organize St. John's Episcopal Church, Lafayette Square in 1814, served as a trustee in 1816 during its construction and upon completion served on the vestry and donated to the parish a communion service of silver, which Bishop William Meade, in his work on the old Churches of Virginia, says had been purchased by Col. Tayloe at a sale of the effects of the Lunenburg Parish Church in Richmond County, VA., to prevent its desecration for secular use.
Killian K. Van Rensselaer, American lawyer and Federalist politician who served in the United States Congress as a Representative from the state of New York dined at The Octagon House. "Another invitation recalls one of General Washington's closest friends, whom he persuaded to become a resident of Washington in its infancy, and who built the spacious mansion on the corner of New York Ave and Eighteenth Street, which is one of the surviving relics of the primitive city, not having been destroyed by the British in 1814 - Col. Tayloe: "Mr. Tayloe requests the favor of Mr. Van Rensselaer to dine with him on Sat next at 4 o'clock. The favour of an answer is requested. Wed 9th feb.""
John Tayloe III died in 1828 while staying at the Octagon. Ann Ogle Tayloe lived in the Octagon until her death in 1855. Both John and Ann were buried at Mount Airy. After Ann's death, the Tayloe children began renting out the house. It was rented to a girls' school in the 1860s, and the Federal government in the 1870s, when it served as office space for the Hydrographic Office of the U.S. Navy. By the 1880s, the house was occupied by 10 families, probably one living in each room, tenement-apartment-style. The residents were probably mostly workers in the factories that populated Foggy Bottom. In 1898, the American Institute of Architects (AIA) selected the Octagon to be their new national headquarters. They rented the building for 4 years, and then purchased it outright in 1902. The Octagon would continue to serve as AIA's headquarters until the construction of the current headquarters building in the 1960s.
Museum
The Octagon opened as a museum in 1970. The museum was restored to its 1817–18 era appearance in the early 1990s—the wall colors and room configurations seen today are representative of that time period. The museum was administered by the American Architectural Foundation from 1970 to 2011/2012 (though the museum was closed from 2007 through 2013). The museum is administered by the American Institute of Architects Foundation, and offers self-guided tours, permanent and changing exhibitions, public programming, and guided tours by appointment.
It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960.
The museum is currently owned and operated by the Architects Foundation and is open to the public Friday and Saturday 11am-4pm. The space hosts various public programs, educational tours, rotating exhibits, and special events.
Architectural details
The three-story brick house, adapted to an irregular-shaped lot, displays a dramatic break with the traditional, late Georgian and early Federal house planning that preceded it. The Octagon achieves a zenith in Federal architecture in the United States, through a plan which combines a circle, two rectangles, and a triangle, and through the elegance and restraint of the interior and exterior decoration. The Coade stone, stoves, other decorative elements, and furniture were imported from England. The construction materials, such as bricks, timber, iron, and Aquia Creek sandstone were all manufactured locally.
The reason behind the naming of the six-sided building as the Octagon is unknown. Though the main room is a circle, one possibility is that it resembled octagonal rooms common in England, which were also circles but called octagon salons because they were constructed of eight walls and then plastered heavily in the corners to make a circle. Another explanation is that the eight angles formed by the odd shape of the six walls are an old definition of an octagon.
Alleged haunting
The Octagon House is purported to be one of the most haunted homes in D.C. Apparitions and the presence of otherworldly forces have reportedly been seen and felt in many places at The Octagon, including on the spiral staircase, the second floor landing, the third floor landing, the third floor bedroom, and the garden area in the rear. Among the eyewitnesses have been members of the public, curators, and other employees hired by the museum .
There are many variations of ghost stories that feature the Octagon House in Washington, D.C. As one of the oldest buildings in the city, it lends itself nicely as a setting for historical, spooky, and macabre tales. The stories recorded here are merely a presentation of a few of the reported experiences and legends that have evolved over the past 200 years, and should not be taken as historical fact.
Bells
The oldest of the Octagon's ghost legends is that of the mysterious ringing of the servant's call bells, just one of the legends linked to the African American slaves who once lived there. When the house held bells to summon servants, the spirits of the dead slaves would announce their presence by ringing these bells loudly. The ghostly bell ringing is believed to have first occurred in the mid-1800s.
Virginia Tayloe Lewis, a granddaughter of John Tayloe III, grew up in the house and recorded this family memory in an unpublished manuscript: "The bells rang for a long time after my Grandfather Tayloe's death, and every one said that the house was haunted; the wires were cut and still they rang… Our dining room servant would come upstairs to ask if anyone rang the bell, and no one had."
An account by Marian Gouverneur, wife of Samuel Laurence Gouverneur Jr. (the first American consul in Foo Chow, China), tells the story of General George D. Ramsay, Chief of Ordnance for the United States Army and commander of the Washington Arsenal in Washington, D.C., and his experience with the bells: "I have been told by the daughters of General George D. Ramsay that upon one occasion their father was requested by Colonel John Tayloe… to remain at the Octagon overnight, when we was obliged to be absent, as a protection to his daughters… While the members of the family were at the evening meal, the bells in the house began to ring violently. General Ramsay immediately arose from the table to investigate, but failed to unravel the mystery. The butler, in a state of great alarm, rushed into the dining-room and declared that it was the work of an unseen hand. As they continued to ring, General Ramsay held the rope which controlled the bells, but, it is said, they were not silenced."
By 1874 the bell legend was well established. Mary Clemmer Ames wrote about it: "It is an authenticated fact, that every night at the same hour, all the bells would ring at once. One gentleman, dining with Colonel Tayloe, when this mysterious ringing began, being an unbeliever in mysteries, and a very powerful man, jumped up and caught the bell wires in his hand, but only to be lifted bodily from the floor, while he was unsuccessful in stopping the ringing. Some declare that it was discovered, after a time, that rats were the ghosts who rung the bells; others, that the cause was never discovered, and that finally the family, to secure peace, were compelled to take the bells down and hang them in different fashion. Among other remedies, had been previously tried that of exorcism, but the prayers of the priest who had been summoned availed nought."
The servants' bells are no longer in the house and there are no reports of their continuing to ring today.
Dolley Madison
There are a number of ghostly legends at the Octagon that deal with its early history as a gathering place for the elite of Washington. Dolley Madison is prominent in these legends because she was well known as a hostess during the first quarter of the nineteenth century. She is a very popular ghost in Washington, D.C., and is said to haunt several buildings around town. Dolley and James Madison resided in the Octagon House from September 1814 through March 1815, after the White House was burned by the British.
According to the legends, ghostly receptions are held by Dolley Madison, who is supposedly most often seen in the front hall and drawing room, and the smell of lilacs is noticeable whenever her ghost is present.
Colonel Tayloe's daughters
By far the most intricate and popular of the legends connected with the Octagon is that of the deaths of the Tayloes' daughters. Variations of the legend are so well developed and circulated, that visitors to the house are often thoroughly convinced that they are based on fact. In reality, there is no documentation to support any of them.
The legend, which made its first appearance in a 1908 article run by the Minneapolis Tribune, has appeared on TV shows, and in numerous ghost books, and usually follows a story-line similar to this:
Two of Colonel Tayloe's daughters are said to haunt The Octagon. The first allegedly died before the War of 1812. Colonel Tayloe and his daughter quarreled on the second floor landing over the girl's relationship with a British officer stationed in the city. When the daughter turned in anger to go down the stairs, she fell down the stairs (or over the railing; stories differ) and died. Her specter is allegedly seen crumpled at the bottom of the steps or on the stairs near the second floor landing, and sometimes exhibits itself as the light of a candle moving up the staircase. The other death, stories claim, occurred in 1817 or shortly thereafter. Another of Colonel Tayloe's daughters eloped with a young man, incurring her father's wrath. When she returned home to reconcile with her father, they argued on the third-floor landing. This daughter, too, fell to her death down the stairs (or over the railing), and her shade is alleged to haunt the third floor landing and stairs between the second and third floors.
There is no historical evidence to support these stories. Nothing about the ghosts of the daughters appears before 1908, and none of the Tayloes' daughters died in the Octagon. Of the Tayloes' seven daughters, only three died before the age of 30. Of those, one died in 1800 at the age of one month (Ann Tayloe) and never lived in the Octagon. Rebecca Plater Tayloe died in 1815 at the age of 18, but at that time the Octagon was being rented by President Madison, and the Tayloe family was staying at their Mount Airy Plantation in Richmond County, VA. Sources state that the Tayloe family was "grief stricken by the loss through illness of their eighteen year old daughter Rebecca Plater while at Mount Airy". The next youngest of their surviving daughters to die was Elizabeth Mary Tayloe, who died in 1832 at the age of 26. She died in Washington, D.C., but not at the Octagon House. At the time of her death her father had been dead for four years and she had been married to her husband, Robert Wormeley Carter II, for some time. The four remaining daughters all died over the age of 38. For a complete list of the births and deaths of the Tayloe children, see the John Tayloe III page.
Other reports of ghostly activity
The Octagon was firmly established as a haunted house by 1888, when, it is reported, twelve men decided to spend a night in the house in order to expel the ghosts or prove the legends wrong. A first-hand account was printed in a local newspaper, and this was subsequently quoted or paraphrased in articles printed in 1892, 1934, 1941, 1950, and 1969.
"The hours wore quietly on. The party were dispersed from garret to cellar. At the hour of midnight, as I and two others were crossing the threshold of a room on the second floor, three feminine shrieks rose from the center of the room. Aghast we stood. From all quarters the party rushed… Too brave to desert, yet cowards at heart, we watched the gray light of morning dawn, and each man of us thanked God his night among ghosts was past. After those screams our band was closely knit together… collectively we listened through the waning hours of night to the clanking of sabers and tramping of footfalls."
Museum superintendent Alric H. Clay claimed that in the 1960s spirits would often turn on the lights and open The Octagon's doors late at night.
In the late 1940s, a doctor who had made a house call to the Octagon had a strange encounter on the stairway. Caretaker James Cyprus had summoned the physician for his ailing wife. The doctor was preparing to leave when he mustered up enough courage to ask Cyprus if there was a costume party going on that evening. When Cyprus told him that there wasn't, the doctor looked perplexed and told him of encountering a man on the stairs just a few moments before who had been dressed in a military uniform of the early 1800s.
A gambler shot to death in the home's third-floor bedroom in the late 19th century has been reportedly seen in the room in which he died. A 1912 newspaper article related the story of a man who had stayed for a month in a room in the Octagon which he claimed was visited nightly by the spirit of a man who was killed over a card game held in the room.
There are numerous reports of occurrences in the Octagon that were supposedly caused by the household ghosts. The sound of rustling silk is said to be heard on the main staircase, the hanging lamp in the main hallway allegedly swings by itself, there is a spot at the foot of the main staircase that some people feel they are forced to avoid, and one curator is reported to have found the "tiptoeing tracks of human feet in the undisturbed dust of the top floor landing".
See also
Benjamin Ogle Tayloe House, the Tayloe mansion built on Lafayette Square
Benjamin Ogle Tayloe, buildier of said house on Lafayette Square
List of National Historic Landmarks in the District of Columbia
List of octagon houses
List of octagonal buildings and structures in the United States
List of the oldest buildings in Washington, D.C.
Mount Airy, Richmond County, Virginia
John Tayloe III
William Thornton
Architecture of Washington, D.C.
References
Further reading
External links
Octagon House – American Institute of Architects
National Park Service – Octagon House
1799 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Federal architecture in Washington, D.C.
Foggy Bottom
Historic American Buildings Survey in Washington, D.C.
Historic house museums in Washington, D.C.
Homes of United States Founding Fathers
Houses completed in 1799
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C.
James Madison
National Historic Landmarks in Washington, D.C.
Octagon houses in the United States
Presidential residences in the United States
Reportedly haunted locations in Washington, D.C.
Slave cabins and quarters in the United States
Tayloe family of Virginia
Tayloe family residences
White House
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20rules%20football%20in%20Western%20Australia
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Australian rules football in Western Australia
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Australian rules football in Western Australia (WA) (known simply as "football") is the most popular sport in the state. It is governed by the West Australian Football Commission (WAFC).
Matches were played in the Colony of Western Australia from 1868, however rugby union there became more popular and Australian rules was not fully established until the 1880s when existing rugby clubs began to switch codes. Following the Federation of Australia, courtesy of pioneering junior and schools programs the sport grew faster there than any other state. For much of the 20th century the West Australian Football League (WAFL) was the third strongest state competition in the country. In 1967 the WAFL set a record season attendance of 960,169 and the 1981 WAFL Grand Final was attended by 55,517. Even with its current semi-professional status, it remains the third most popular competition in the world for the sport.
The state is home to two fully professional Australian Football League (AFL) clubs both owned by the WAFC: West Coast Eagles (1986) and Fremantle Football Club (1994), the former having the distinction of being the first non-Victorian team to compete in and win an AFL Grand Final in 1992. The two teams compete against each other in the Western Derby. The combined membership of the two clubs is more than 150,000, making Western Australia second only to Victoria in terms of support for the national club competition. Since 2020 West Coast has had the highest membership and fastest membership growth in the AFL and is the league's most profitable and equal highest revenue generating club. With the AFL's growth in popularity, Western Australia has been speculated as having the potential to sustain a third club.
It is the most watched sport and has the third largest audience in the country. Its television viewership continues to grow strongly and its average AFL attendances are the second highest nationally. Both the AFL and the WAFL attract a significant television audience. Since 1991 it has attracted an average AFL premiership season attendance of 34,462, third in the country. As at 2022 this average attendance sits at 45,921 the second highest, boosted with the 2018 completion of Perth Stadium the state's flagship venue. While the AFL has far surpassed it in popularity, the WAFL also attracts around 200,000 fans through the gates each year as well as a significant television audience.
Western Australia has the second highest number of Australian rules football participants of any state accounting for almost a fifth of players nationally. Participation continues to grow faster than any other state. It produces the second most professional players for the AFL, with more than 100 current players, though the majority play for clubs in other states.
The state team (known as the "Black Swans" or "Sandgropers") played Interstate matches against other Australian states and Territories between 1904 and 1998 and has defeated every state and territory. They were declared national men's champions in 1921, 1961 and 1979 and was the most successful state during the State of Origin era (1977–1999) with a total of 4 titles. Brian Peake has the most caps and was the longest serving captain of the State of Origin team. The underage men's team has competed between 1976 and the present and were champions in 1999, 2007 and 2019 and the underage women's competing since 2010 were champions in 2014. Western Australia has the second most national titles after Victoria across all divisions.
Three West Australians have been named Australian Football Hall of Fame legends: Graham 'Polly' Farmer, Barry Cable and Merv McIntosh. Lance Franklin holds the AFL games record and goals record for a Western Australian, with 354 and 1,066 respectively. Kiara Bowers is arguably the state's greatest female player being four time All-Australian and the first to win the AFL Women's best and fairest. Gemma Houghton has kicked the most goals, while Emma King has played the most games for born and raised West Australians in the AFL Women's competition.
History
Early Beginnings: 1868-1884
On 19 September 1868 a match was played under Australian rules at Bishop's Collegiate School in Perth between local civilians and the visiting 2nd Battalion of Fourteen Foot (Buckinghamshire) who were camped at Mount Eliza, with the honours going to the visiting British troops. It was the first recorded football match of any code in the colony. The Fourteenth Foot had previously played against the Melbourne Football Club in a Challenge Cup match in Melbourne in July of the previous year. Further matches were played between the Western Australian Temperance and Recreation Society defeating the Town of Fremantle in three matches at Fremantle on 16 October. Despite the matches not being played under British rules, the Fremantle Herald cited the English team's involvement as justification for the colony to adopt a British code and Australian football would not be played again for at least a decade.
By 1876 British expatriates in Perth had formed the first (rugby) football clubs and introduced it into the schools in 1879 after which it became the most popular football code, with several clubs playing in organised competitions by 1880.
It was mainly cricketers who agitated for the formation of more football clubs for Perth and Geraldton from 1880 to keep them fit in the off-season however rugby was still seen as the default choice.
Despite this the first Australian rules club, Unions Football Club formed by former Victorians, emerged in Perth between 1881 and 1882. At the time there were already 3 rugby clubs in Perth and the code was still growing rapidly in the colony, though details of the Unions club's activity in this early period are scant. On 30 March 1883, N. A. ("Bill") Bateman and H. Herbert formed a second Australian rules club, The Swans Football Club in Fremantle, commencing a long inter-city football rivalry.
Perth clubs switch from rugby: 1885
By the mid-1880s the Western Australian media reported a growing dissatisfaction with rugby as a spectacle, particularly its emphasis on playing the body over playing the ball.
In 1885 one of the leading rugby clubs, Fremantle, after a meeting at the Cleopatra Hotel, decided to change to Australian Rules. It was quickly joined by three other clubs - , Victorians, and a team of schoolboys from The High School. The schoolboy side lasted just two matches, but the three other sides went on to contest what in retrospect was viewed as the first ever official Western Australian Football Association (WAFA) premiership, won by Rovers.
However, in those days many young men of Perth's wealthier families were educated in Adelaide, the capital of South Australia. On returning home from there they naturally wished to play the sport they'd grown up with and no doubt exerted some influence on their less affluent peers as to such.
Football spreads to the goldfields 1886-1890s
From 1886 Western Australia was swept up by discoveries of gold, firstly in the Kimberley, Pilbara and Murchison regions, led to a dramatic increase in WA's population, including many players and supporters of Australian Rules from the eastern colonies.
Progress of Australian Rules in Western Australia still lagged behind the big football cities of Melbourne, Adelaide and Geelong however and is evidenced by the unstable nature of the clubs that participated in the early years.
In 1886 a new Fremantle based club Union joined. Unions would later rename themselves Fremantle as those involved in the game saw the need to identify themselves with the region they were located in.
In 1887 Fremantle left the WAFA and the West Australian Football Club joined but they would only play two seasons before they disappeared.
Australian rules booms: 1890s
1891 saw two new clubs arrive, Centrals and East Perth, but they would be gone after one and two seasons respectively.
The Western Australian gold rushes began in the 1880s but accelerated in 1892 with major gold discoveries at Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie. Coupled with a major international economic depression, caused increased immigration from the eastern colonies. These migrants included a large number of footballers including some celebrated players, and the Goldfields competition (later known as the Goldfields Football League) which began in 1896 was comparable in status and standard to the Perth competition for many years. (This was shown by the fact that it had a separate seat on the Australian National Football Council until 1919.) The higher standard of play that naturally followed, helped to increase the game's popularity and increased the professionalism of the WAFA.
1899 would be the last season Fremantle would take part in the WAFA. Despite Unions/Fremantle being the most dominant club in the WAFA up to this point winning the competition 10 times in its 13 years of existence, problems with debt saw the club disappear and some people involved with the old entity formed South Fremantle Football Club in its place. Despite the fact that many involved with Fremantle moved onto South Fremantle the new club is not seen as a continuation of the old and did not lay claim to its proud records to that date.
1899 was also the last time Rovers would take part. The move to regionalisation which saw Unions take on the old Fremantle's name and colours made it difficult for this club that didn't represent a particular area to attract players. They folded and were immediately replaced by Perth Football Club who were promoted from the Perth First Rate Association.
By 1901, the WAFA had grown to have six teams. Up to this point, five sides at most had been in the competition, and this number had invariably changed from year to year, as clubs came and went. And by 1906 there were eight teams — being West Perth, East Perth, East Fremantle, South Fremantle, North Fremantle, Subiaco, Perth and Midland Junction.
In 1908 the WAFA was renamed the West Australian Football League (WAFL). West Australia sent a team to the 1908 Melbourne Carnival, over half of the team was from the goldfields league. Its success at the tournament including its defeat of South Australia and appearance in the final against Victoria captured the West Australian public and ushered in an era of immense growth for the code.
World War I and the WAFL's Youth Policy
Jack Simons (WAFL secretary between 1905 and 1914) believed that the future of the code was its introduction to schools. Senior player numbers were already beginning to wane and junior teams were suffering catastrophic loss of numbers. Simons believed the league could not continue without a younger generation. Simons was concerned with encroachment of soccer, rugby and other "non-Australian" sports was threatening the game at grassroots level. Along with several prominent Western Australians including Lionel Boas, Simons formed the Young Australia Football League in 1905 as a development organisation. Confident that Australian Football offered the greatest game in the world, his work included overseas tours and invitational teams. These initiatives would lead to the game's establishment in the schools and provide a boom in junior player numbers which would see competition continue through the war and a generation of new players introduced to the game.
Unlike many other sporting competitions, the WAFL didn't go into recess during World War I, although two teams — North Fremantle and Midland Junction — were "casualties" of the war, competing for the last time in 1915 and 1917 respectively.
Between the Wars
In 1921, Western Australia hosted the first national carnival, known as the 1921 Perth Carnival it went on to win all of its matches to take the title from Victoria.
In 1921, the WAFL introduced the Sandover Medal, for the fairest and best player over a season, as voted by the field umpires. The medal has been awarded annually ever since.
Claremont entered the league in 1926, bringing the number of teams back to seven.
In 1932, the WAFL was renamed the Western Australian National Football League (WANFL) - the "national" concept in the name being adopted by the SANFL and a couple of other leagues a few years earlier.
Swan Districts entered the league in 1934. The eight competing sides still remain today and are generally referred to as the "traditional eight clubs".
Despite WA's poineering efforts in junior development early in the century, by the 1930s the game had all but disappeared from the public school system and a lack of juniors was beginning to hurt the senior leagues, in response the WAFL re-commenced a junior development program.
Because of World War Two, the league only ran an "under age" competition between 1942 and 1944. However, the three premierships won during this time are given equal status to any other, in official records. All clubs competed, with the exception of Swan Districts who could not form a team in 1942, although they were back in 1943.
Post-war period
The 1960s saw crowds get bigger and bigger, as WAFL football captured the hearts and minds of the WA public like never before, and in the 1970s and early 80s it was easily the biggest show in town.
However, during this period more and more star WAFL players were looking to head to the Victorian Football League (VFL), enticed by the bigger money and the fact that it was more and more gaining a reputation as the "big" league.
This is perhaps best evidenced in that Victoria (i.e. the VFL representative team) had by far the best record in interstate games for a long time. But in 1977, when the first proper State of Origin match was played, it saw Western Australia inflict its biggest defeat on a Victorian team.
In 1980, the WANFL dropped the "N" and the "ern" and reverted to being called the WAFL.
At this time crowds were as big as they ever were. Soon afterwards, however, interest in the WAFL began a slow decline, as it became increasingly obvious that even larger numbers of the WAFL's best players were going to head east.
Entering the National Competition
By 1987, the WAFL had decided that the future of the game in WA depended on it entering a team in the VFL. The West Coast Eagles were formed and entered the VFL (the VFL was renamed the AFL in 1990). With many of Western Australia's best players now competing in a team that represented Western Australia on a national scale, it was suddenly apparent that the WAFL was now a second-class competition.
In 1990 the state league was renamed the Western Australian State Football League, but it had reverted to WAFL by 1991.
In 1992, the West Coast Eagles made history by becoming the first interstate club to win an AFL premiership. The win resulted in a huge boost to the side's popularity, put pressure on Subiaco Oval to expand and ultimately led to demand for a second AFL licence for the state.
Another locally based AFL team, the Fremantle FC were formed in 1995.
The popularity of the AFL with 2 sides, particularly with the Western Derby, cemented the position of WAFL as a second-class competition. WAFL clubs have struggled ever since with their sudden demise from being technically equal to any VFL club, to feeder club status. However, they have enjoyed some benefits, such as the funds flowing from the WA-based AFL teams and the influx of talented players from other states, attempting to make a name for themselves.
In 1997, Peel Thunder — somewhat controversially — became the ninth WAFL club. Throughout their brief history, they have struggled to compete with the traditional eight clubs, which are generally opposed to their presence. This is partly because having an odd number of teams forces one team to have a bye each week.
Also in 1997, the WAFL was renamed Westar Rules, in a failed attempt to revamp the league's image. However the name again reverted to WAFL in 2001.
Recent years have seen the WAFL stabilise itself as a league a step down from the AFL. Obviously the sudden player drain brought on by the expansion of the VFL into the AFL has lessened the standard of play, however this has recovered somewhat, with "veteran" AFL players returning and new players coming through.
Recent History
Western Australia was the first state to trial the derivative social game of Rec Footy in 2003.
Involvement and attendance in Australian Rules reached record levels in Western Australia 2004. The total attendance, including AFL games was a record 1,030,000. The 2005 WAFL grand final between South Fremantle and Claremont attracted 22,570 to Subiaco Oval.
In 2006, the combined membership of Fremantle and West Coast AFL clubs was a record 79,804 members.
Participation
In 2022 there were 102,213 registered adult players, marginally less than play soccer in the state. This has grown from a 2007 base of around 12,050 senior players and a total participation of 91,009. With a participation rate of around 4.2% per capita, Western Australia is the third most supported state (behind Victoria and South Australia).
Audience
Attendance Record
59,608 (2018). AFL Preliminary Final. West Coast Eagles v Melbourne. (Optus Stadium, Perth)
Major Australian Rules Events in Western Australia
Australian Football League Premiership Season (West Coast Eagles and Fremantle home games)
Western Derby
West Australian Football League Grand Final
Representative teams
The Western Australian Australian football team is nicknamed alternatively the "Sandgropers" or the "Black Swans" and have played representative matches, either as State of Origin or as a state team representing the WAFL against all other Australian states.
Governing Body
The governing body for Australian rules football in WA is the West Australian Football Commission.
Leagues & clubs
Professional clubs
West Coast Eagles (Australian Football League)
Fremantle Football Club (Australian Football League)
Open
Perth metropolitan leagues
West Australian Football League (semi-professional)
Western Australian Amateur Football League
Metro Football League (was Mercantile Football Association)
Sunday Football League (defunct)
Regional leagues
West Australian Country Football League
Avon Football Association
Central Kimberley Football Association
Central Midlands Coastal Football League
Central Wheatbelt Football League
East Kimberley Football Association
Eastern Districts Football League
Esperance District Football Association
Fortescue National Football League
Gascoyne Football Association
Goldfields Football League
Great Northern Football League
Great Southern Football League
Hills Football Association
Lower South West Football League
Mortlock Football League
Newman National Football League
North Midlands Football League
North Pilbara Football League
Ongerup Football Association
Peel Football League
Ravensthorpe & Districts Football Association
South West Football League
Upper Great Southern Football League
West Kimberley Football Association
Women's
West Australian Women's Football League Official Site
Masters
Masters Australian Football WA Official Site
Principal Venues
The following venues meet AFL Standard criteria and have been used to host AFL (National Standard) or AFLW level matches (Regional Standard) are listed by capacity.
Historic Venues
Subiaco Oval (1930s-2017)
WACA Ground (1899-2000)
Modern AFL Standard Venues
Perth Stadium (2018-)
Fremantle Oval (1890s-)
Arena Joondalup
Leederville Oval
East Fremantle Oval
Claremont Oval
Bassendean Oval
Lathlain Park
Rushton Park
Wonthella Oval, Geraldton
Collingwood Park, Albany
Centennial Stadium, Albany
Players
Greats
Graham 'Polly' Farmer was the first West Australian to be inducted into the Australian Football Hall of Fame as a legend. He was also named as the ruckman in the AFL Team of the Century. Barry Cable (2012) and Merv McIntosh (2021) have also been elevated to legend status.
Other great players from WA to have been inducted into the Australian Football Hall of Fame are Jack Clarke, George Doig, Ross Glendinning, Denis Marshall, Merv McIntosh, Stephen Michael, George Moloney, Graham Moss, Wayne Richardson, Jack Sheedy, William 'Nipper' Truscott and Bill Walker.
West Australians in the West Australian Hall of Fame Legends but not in the above (most likely due to limited involvement in the VFL) include: John Gerovich, Johnny Leonard, Phil Matson, Stan Heal, Steve Marsh and John Todd.
Retired modern VFL/AFL greats include Brad Hardie, Nicky Winmar, Jim and Phil Krakouer, Mark Bairstow, Glen Jakovich, Guy McKenna, Dean Kemp, Peter Matera, Shane Woewodin, Ben Cousins, Simon Black, Patrick Ryder, Peter Bell, Jeff Farmer, Aaron Sandilands, Dean Cox, Daniel Kerr, Lance Franklin and Nic Naitanui.
Men's
Current Players
AFL players from Western Australia
Women's
Fremantle was the first professional women's team in the state in 2017, therefore the majority of the professional players have played there, the West Coast women's team was not awarded a license until 2020. Due to the large distance to the eastern states, most West Australian female players are drafted to one of these two teams.
Current Players
AFLW players from Western Australia
See also
West Australian Football League
Australian Football League
West Coast Eagles
Fremantle Football Club
List of Australian rules football leagues in Western Australia
Australian rules football in the Goldfields region of Western Australia
West Australian State Championship
References
External links
Western Australia Team of the Century (from Full Points Footy)
West
History of Australian rules football
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Bamboozle
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The Bamboozle
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The Bamboozle is an annual three-day music festival which was held in New Jersey from 2003 to 2012, and was scheduled for a 2023 revival in Atlantic City by its founder. Every year, new bands competed for spots during the two days. The event evolved out of the Skate and Surf Festival. The 2012 event was the final one of its original run, as founder John D'Esposito subsequently left Bamboozle due to creative differences with organizing partners.
History
Early versions
In 2003, The Great Bamboozle was held from May 30 to June 1 at The Stone Pony in Asbury Park, New Jersey, with headliners Keller Williams, the Roots, and Dark Star Orchestra.
The 2004 event remained at The Stone Pony, expanding from four stages to six, and took place from June 4 to 6, with G. Love and Special Sauce, moe., and Sonic Youth headlining. Other acts appearing included Xavier Rudd, Tristan Prettyman, Matt Nathanson, the Brakes, Days Awake, Dujeous, Kaki King, Blue Highway, Railroad Earth, RAQ, Raisinhill, Antigone Rising, Corn Mo, M. Ward, Stellastarr, My Morning Jacket, Jesse Malin, Patti Smith, Lake Trout, Ambulance LTD, French Kicks, Apollo Sunshine, Steel Train, and Nicole Atkins.
The Bamboozle 2005
In 2005 the festival took the name "The Bamboozle" for the first time. It was held from April 29 to May 1, with the main stage at Asbury Park Convention Hall in Asbury Park, New Jersey, and seven other stages around the city. My Chemical Romance, the Starting Line, and Thrice headlined the three days. Brand New was originally scheduled to headline the first show, but was forced to cancel their show, while Thrice took over as the headliner. Other bands appearing included I Can Make A Mess Like Nobody's Business, Relient K, the Blood Brothers, Motion City Soundtrack, Straylight Run, Finch, Spitalfield, the Receiving End of Sirens, Roses Are Red, Minus the Bear, the Honorary Title, Nightmare of You, Acceptance, Vendetta Red, Anberlin, the Goodwill, Paulson, Kane Hodder, Kevin Devine, Extol, Embrace Today, Anterrabae, Haste the Day, Funeral for a Friend, It Dies Today, Bleeding Through, Patent Pending, I Voted for Kodos, Dropping Daylight, Scenes from a Movie, the Dirtbombs, Say Anything, Mae, Silverstein, A Static Lullaby, Hidden in Plain View, Rufio, the Early November, Midtown, Senses Fail, Further Seems Forever featuring Chris Carrabba, Fall Out Boy, Small Towns Burn A Little Slower, A Wilhelm Scream, Melee, the Academy Is..., the Fight, JamisonParker, Paramore, Moneen, Gatsbys American Dream, Emery, Big D and the Kids Table, Jenoah, House of Fools, Veda, the Honorary Title, Number One Fan, the Spill Canvas, This Day & Age, Over It, Chronic Future, Copeland, Action Action, Lovedrug, Dave Melillo, John Ralston, Lucero, the New Amsterdams, Hot Rod Circuit, Piebald, Crime in Stereo, Hit the Lights, Emanuel, Pistolita, A Thorn For Every Heart, Saosin, the Bled, the Black Maria, Lola Ray, October Fall, the Audition, the A.K.A.'s, Army of Me, Adam Richman, Long Since Forgotten, What About Frank?, Driving East, Bear vs. Shark, New Years Day, For Felix, Bedlight for Blue Eyes, Cute Is What We Aim For, My American Heart, Wakefield, Northern State, Armor for Sleep, Catch 22, the All-American Rejects, Underoath, Flogging Molly, the Bouncing Souls, Alkaline Trio, Scatter the Ashes, Hellogoodbye, Ben Nichols, Say Anything, the Explosion, Bayside, Circa Survive, Halifax, Throw Rag, Ley Royal Scam, Gym Class Heroes, Days Away, Punchline, Mike Park, Idiot Pilot, Plain White T's, Street Dogs, High School Football Heroes, Drive By, Classic Case, Boys Night Out, the Chariot, these Arms are Snakes, Fear Before the March of Flames, the Sleeping, Waking Ashland, Suburban Legends, the Loved Ones, Sirsy, and the Track Record.
The Bamboozle 2006
The Bamboozle 2006 was held over six stages at the Meadowlands Sports Complex in the parking lot of Giants Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey, from May 6–7. Fall Out Boy headlined on May 6, and Taking Back Sunday headlined on May 7. Other bands appearing included the Hush Sound, Halifax, the Spill Canvas, Armor for Sleep, Silverstein, From First to Last, Hawthorne Heights, the All-American Rejects, the Sleeping, Bayside, Hidden in Plain View, Hellogoodbye, Mae, Relient K, Streetlight Manifesto, Motion City Soundtrack, Thursday, the A.K.A.'s, the Pink Spiders, Over It, Pistolita, This Day & Age, Paramore, the Rocket Summer, October Fall, Permanent ME, Love Arcade, Drive By, Hit the Lights, Minus the Bear, Mewithoutyou, Forgive Durden, Russian Circles, Madina Lake, Endeverafter, Valencia, Chiodos, John Ralston, We the Kings, Monty, House of Heroes, the Red Jumpsuit Apparatus, Flashlight Brown, Amber Pacific, Jonas Brothers, Just Surrender, Emanuel, Alexisonfire, the Receiving End of Sirens, Thirty Seconds to Mars, Method Man, Panic! at the Disco, Senses Fail, HIM, AFI, Aiden, Moneen, Strike Anywhere, Acceptance, Say Anything, Underoath, Saves the Day, Lifetime, Bedouin Soundclash, Paint It Black, State Radio, I Am the Avalanche, Men, Women & Children, Nightmare of You, Circa Survive, As Cities Burn, the Number 12 Looks Like You, He Is Legend, Stretch Arm Strong, the Fall of Troy, Poison the Well, the Bled, Every Time I Die, From Autumn to Ashes, Crash Romeo, Zox, Sound the Alarm, Permanent Me, Envy on the Coast, Cute is What We Aim For, A Thorn for Every Heart, the Riverboat Gamblers, Fluff My Boner, and MC Lars.
2006 also saw the first year of a sister festival in the west of the United States, known as "The Bamboozle Left". This was held at the Cal Poly Pomona Athletic Field in Pomona, California, on October 14–15. Dashboard Confessional, Brand New and Thrice headlined, with 68 other bands performing on five different stages. Other bands appearing at the Bamboozle Left included Secondhand Serenade, the Red Jumpsuit Apparatus, Paramore, Cobra Starship, Gym Class Heroes, Hellogoodbye, Jack's Mannequin, Something Corporate, Sugarcult, Mêlée, the Matches, All Time Low, Envy on the Coast, Halifax, Hit the Lights, Cute is What We Aim For, William Tell, Quietdrive, Big Japan, Sherwood, Playradioplay!, Fireworks, Between the Trees, Strata, Yesterdays Rising, HORSE the Band, Valencia, Ronnie Day, We the Kings, Jonas Brothers, Supernova, the Bled, Murs, Yellowcard, Thirty Seconds to Mars, I Am Ghost, My American Heart, the Audition, Escape the Fate, the Fall of Troy, Pistolita, Chris Conley, The Spill Canvas, the Secret Handshake, Danger Radio, Permanent Me, Drop Dead, Gorgeous, So They Say, Daphne Loves Derby, Amber Pacific, the Outline, Sound the Alarm, A Thorn for Every Heart, Ernie Halter, and Men, Women & Children.
The Bamboozle 2007
The Bamboozle 2007 was again held at the Meadowlands Sports Complex from May 5–6. Linkin Park and My Chemical Romance headlined the event, along with over 150 bands, artists, and comedians performing on nine stages. A compilation album, The Bamboozle 2007: Everything Will Be Much Better Once I Get These Clowns Out of My Head, was released of the event. Several bands performed under "mystery names", such as the Matches (the Locals), Hawthorne Heights (the Death of...), Thursday (Bearfort), Motion City Soundtrack (The Great American Freedom Machine), Van Stone (Yesterday's 2morrow), the Sleeping (Biker Women), and Silverstein (XCanuckX).
Bands appearing at the 2007 event included Andrew W.K., Boys Like Girls, Silverstein, Bayside, Cartel, Say Anything, New Found Glory, Hellogoodbye, the Receiving End of Sirens, Cute Is What We Aim For, Paramore, the Spill Canvas, the Starting Line, MC Hammer, Saves the Day, Muse, the Pink Spiders, Valencia, Lydia, Secondhand Serenade, This Providence, Motion City Soundtrack, the Rocket Summer, the High Court, Permanent Me, Maylene and the Sons of Disaster, Men, Women & Children, Houston Calls, Hit the Lights, Bearfort, Lordi, Forgive Durden, the A.K.A.s, Limbeck, Manchester Orchestra, the Cribs, Hot Rod Circuit, Moneen, Playradioplay, Ronnie Day, Madina Lake, the Audition, Meg & Dia, the Almost, the Hush Sound, We the Kings, Envy on the Coast, the Matches, Thrice, the Sleeping, New Atlantic, Rookie of the Year, Whole Wheat Bread featuring Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock, Mitch Fatel, Donnell Rawlings, Just Surrender, The Liam Show, So They Say, Patent Pending, Between the Trees, Jeffree Star, Brand New, Jedi Mind Tricks, the Early November, Mae, Armor for Sleep, the Red Jumpsuit Apparatus, Thrice, Taking Back Sunday, Young Love, Relient K, From First to Last, Circa Survive, Killswitch Engage, Yellowcard, Jack's Mannequin, "Weird Al" Yankovic, the Secret Handshake, Anberlin, Lydia, Daphne Loves Derby, All Time Low, the Sleeping, Plain White T's, Lordi,
Drop Dead, Gorgeous, Haste the Day, the Devil Wears Prada, It Dies Today, the Bled, Norma Jean, As I Lay Dying, Blessthefall, the Oohlas, the Dear Hunter, Schoolyard Heroes, Halifax, State Radio, Rx Bandits, Juliette and the Licks, NORA, Sherwood, the Matches, Fair to Midland, Scary Kids Scaring Kids, Envy on the Coast, Hawthorne Heights, Catch 22, Jonas Brothers, Secondhand Serenade, the Spill Canvas, Danger Radio, Rookie of the Year, Jack's Mannequin, Treaty of Paris, Amber Pacific, Quietdrive, the Graduate, Conditions, We Are the Fury, Drive By, Dave Melillo, Powerspace, Monty Are I, Mêlée, Stereo Skyline, and Four Letter Lie.
2008
In 2008, the Bamboozle added the Bamboozle Roadshow and a new festival called the Hoodwink. The Bamboozle Roadshow 2008 took place from March 28 to May 10 at small venues across the United States featuring several acts selected by the Bamboozle staff. The Hoodwink took place on May 2, one day before the Bamboozle, in the Giants Stadium parking lot in East Rutherford, New Jersey. In addition, the Bamboozle Left, named due to its taking place on the West Coast, was held for the second time, at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre in Irvine, California.
The Bamboozle Roadshow featured Armor for Sleep, Metro Station, Saves the Day, Set Your Goals, A Cursive Memory (selected dates) and Lydia (selected dates), and stopped in Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, Santa Cruz, Chico, California, Sparks, Nevada, Las Vegas, Tempe, Arizona, Irvine, California, Albuquerque, Austin, Dallas, Oklahoma City, Houston, Fort Lauderdale, St. Petersburg, Florida, Orlando, Atlanta, Cordova, Tennessee, Cincinnati, Grand Rapids, St Paul, Milwaukee, Chicago, Detroit, Columbus, Ohio, Norfolk, Virginia, Baltimore, Philadelphia, East Rutherford, New Jersey, and Worcester, Massachusetts.
The Bamboozle Left 2008 took place on April 5–6 at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre in Irvine, California. My Chemical Romance, Paramore, and the All-American Rejects headlined the festival. Other bands and artists appearing at the festival included
Eye Alaska, Four Year Strong, We the Kings, Streetlight Manifesto, the Starting Line, Story of the Year, Reel Big Fish, Alkaline Trio, the Cab, Daphne Loves Derby, Bayside, Rx Bandits, the Bouncing Souls, New Found Glory, Face to Face, Jimmy Eat World, Automatic Loveletter, A Rocket to the Moon, An Angle, Valencia, Danger Radio, Hit the Lights, Steel Train, Alesana, Our Last Night, Josephine Collective, Rookie of the Year, Paper Rival, Sky Eats Airplane, Dear and the Headlights, the Forecast, the Audition, the Chariot, Austin Gibbs, Charlotte Sometimes, Takota, Zox, Every Avenue, Brighten, Dance Gavin Dance, the Morning Light, Supernova, House of Fools, Broadway Calls, Say No More, From First to Last, MxPx, We the Kings, Escape the Fate, Hawthorne Heights, Hot Water Music, Saves the Day, the Bravery, Chiodos, Schoolyard Heroes, Metro Station, Secondhand Serenade, Armor for Sleep, Billy Talent, Finch, Anti-Flag, Goldfinger, Blaqk Audio, Your Vegas, Protest the Hero, Pierce the Veil, Foxy Shazam, Street Dogs, Set Your Goals, Vinnie Caruana of the Movielife, the Dillinger Escape Plan, Dead to Me, Shook Ones, Drive By, the Sleeping, A Day to Remember, H2O, 7 Seconds, Suicide Silence, theStart, Chronic Future, 3OH!3, the Secret Handshake, the Color Fred, Lydia, Suburban Legends, Jeffree Star, MC Lars, Making April, Breathe Carolina, the Medic Droid, Millionaires, A Cursive Memory, the A.K.A.'s, and Dr. Manhattan.
The Hoodwink 2008 took place on May 2, 2008, in parking lot of the Giants Stadium. This was a secret concert, announced on thebamboozle.com with the message "The Bamboozle Reserves The Right To Trick Everyone on Friday Night, May 2nd With a Mysterious Concert Held Somewhere Close To Another Major Festival". Bands appearing at The Hoodwink included the Pink Spiders, Metro Station, Armor for Sleep, Jack's Mannequin, Say Anything, Mae, Finch, Saves the Day, Chiodos, Someone Say Something, Rookie of the Year, Lydia, the Sleeping, End of an Era, Men, Women & Children, Set Your Goals, and MxPx.
Immediately after the Hoodwink, the Bamboozle 2008 was held at the Meadowlands Sports Complex for the third year in a row, on May 3 – 4. Snoop Dogg and Jimmy Eat World headlined the May 3 show, and Panic! at the Disco and Coheed & Cambria headlined the show on May 4. Other bands and artists who appeared at the festival included Say Anything, Cute Is What We Aim For, Story of the Year, the Red Jumpsuit Apparatus, Less Than Jake, Pepper, Chiodos, Jack's Mannequin, Paramore, Secondhand Serenade, Metro Station, Streetlight Manifesto, Armor for Sleep, Mindless Self Indulgence, Tokio Hotel, Saves The Day, the Bravery, A Rocket to the Moon, Single File, Playradioplay, Vinnie Caruana of the Movielife, Hit the Lights, MxPx, Set Your Goals, Alien Ant Farm, Fiction Plane, I Set My Friends on Fire, Dear and the Headlights, Lydia, the Maine, Snake Milk, Family Force 5, the Rocket Summer, Valencia, Men, Women & Children, Sing It Loud, Our Last Night, Josephine Collective, A Skylit Drive, Sky Eats Airplane, Breathe Carolina, the Audition, the Chariot, Kill Hannah, the Devil Wears Prada, Jeffree Star, MyChildren MyBride, the Sleeping featuring Sebastian Bach, Aiden, Maylene and the Sons of Disaster, Drop Dead, Gorgeous, Blessthefall, A Day to Remember, From First to Last, the Birthday Massacre, Alesana, Anthony Raneri, the Pink Spiders featuring Rotten Cotton, As Tall as Lions, Madina Lake, Nore Davis, Blake, Streetlight Manifesto, A Love Like Pi, Takota, Farewell, Every Avenue, Schoolyard Heroes, the Morning Of, Dr. Manhattan, Ludo, Zox, Treaty of Paris, the Maine, Scary Kids Scaring Kids, Cobra Starship, Circa Survive, Anti-Flag, the Bouncing Souls, Bret Michaels, Motion City Soundtrack, Gym Class Heroes, Finch, All Time Low, the Academy Is..., Say Anything, the Starting Line, Senses Fail, Thrice, the Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Automatic Loveletter, My American Heart, Four Year Strong, I Am The Avalanche, Envy on the Coast, the Hush Sound, the Banner, Foxy Shazam, Danger Radio, Forever The Sickest Kids, We the Kings, the Fall of Troy, the Receiving End of Sirens, Every Time I Die, Emmure, Between the Trees, the Secret Handshake, the Dear Hunter, 3OH!3, Mayday Parade, Phantom Planet, Just Surrender, the Color Fred, the Blackout!, Paper Rival, the White Tie Affair, Tyga, Charlotte Sometimes, Street Dogs, Alien Ant Farm, the Cab, the Protomen, Patent Pending, Triumph the Insult Comic Dog, Anthony Green, the Photo Atlas, Brighten, the Morning Light, You Me and Everyone We Know, Greeley Estates, Sound the Alarm, Good Old War, and Innerpartysystem.
2009
The Hoodwink California took place on April 3, 2009, at the House of Blues in Anaheim, California, with five bands performing cover sets of other artists. Bands appearing included We the Kings covering Jimmy Eat World, Forever the Sickest Kids covering Avril Lavigne, the Cab covering Queen, Never Shout Never covering the Beatles, and Mercy Mercedes covering Midtown.
The Bamboozle Left 2009 took place on April 4 and 5, with headliners Fall Out Boy and 50 Cent on each day respectively. Other acts on the lineup included Forever the Sickest Kids, We the Kings, Senses Fail, Asher Roth, All Time Low, Metro Station, the Cab, the Aquabats, Silverstein, Bloodhound Gang, Hollywood Undead, Cobra Starship, the Get Up Kids, Stereo Skyline, Fight Fair, the Friday Night Boys, the Morning Light, Sonny Moore, Breathe Carolina, Brokencyde, the Limousines, Care Bears on Fire, Valencia, MyChildren MyBride, Stick to Your Guns, Parkway Drive, the Dangerous Summer, Sing it Loud, Hey Monday, Never Shout Never, Before Their Eyes, Blessthefall, Haste the Day, Peachcake, Ultraviolet Sound, Every Avenue, Patent Pending, Anarbor, Twin Atlantic, the Scene Aesthetic, Eye Alaska, Suicide Silence, the Vandals, the Used, Taking Back Sunday, the Bled, Shwayze, Saosin, Thrice, Deftones, Ten Second Epic, I Am Ghost, Forgive Durden, Underneath the Gun, Closure in Moscow, Attack Attack!, Leathermouth, the Ghost Inside, Winds of Plague, Emmure, the Adolescents, In Fear and Faith, Have Heart, A Skylit Drive, Born of Osiris, Ignite, the Bronx, One Block Radius, Chronic Future, Hyro Da Hero, B.o.B, LMFAO, Mac Lethal, P.O.S, Kevin Seconds, and DJ Skeet Skeet.
The Bamboozle Roadshow 2009 took place from April 5, 2009, to April 30, 2009, featuring We the Kings, Forever the Sickest Kids, the Cab, Never Shout Never, and Mercy Mercedes. The tour had 22 stops, in Tucson, Arizona, Dallas, San Antonio, Houston, Tulsa, Oklahoma, St. Louis, Missouri, Nashville, Tennessee, St. Petersburg, Florida, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Lake Buena Vista, Florida, Jacksonville Beach, Florida, Atlanta, Indianapolis, Milwaukee, Chicago, Pontiac, Michigan, Cleveland, Ohio, Alfred, New York, Philadelphia, Towson, Maryland, Worcester, Massachusetts, and Farmingdale, New York.
The 2009 edition of the Hoodwink New Jersey took place on May 1, 2009, on four stages at the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford, New Jersey, featuring bands playing entire sets covering the songs of other bands or artists, including Push Play covering Muse, Set Your Goals covering Dave Grohl's bands (Nirvana, Foo Fighters), Bayside covering NOFX, Sum 41 covering Metallica, Badfish and Todd Forman covering Sublime, Never Shout Never covering the Beatles, We the Kings covering Jimmy Eat World, Boys Like Girls covering Coldplay, New Found Glory covering Green Day, Inward Eye covering the Who, Mercy Mercedes covering Midtown, Forever the Sickest Kids covering Avril Lavigne, the Ataris covering The Misfits, Anti-Flag covering the Clash, Dubious Pastry covering Radiohead, Cartel covering New Found Glory, the Cab covering Queen, Danger Radio covering Britney Spears, and brokeNCYDE performing a Crunk set.
The Bamboozle 2009 took place on May 2 and 3. Fall Out Boy headlined the May 2 show, and No Doubt headlined the show on May 3. Other bands and artists to appear included Cash Cash, Edna's Goldfish, Bayside, the Bloodhound Gang, Gavin Rossdale, New Found Glory, the Get Up Kids, the Cab, Cartel, Forever The Sickest Kids, Metro Station, We The Kings, Boys Like Girls, Cobra Starship, All Time Low, Third Eye Blind, Dr. Acula, Sing It Loud, Patent Pending, Young Love, Our Last Night, Set Your Goals, Horrorpops, Gwar, MyChildren MyBride, International Superheroes of Hardcore, Fireworks, Attack Attack!, Dance Gavin Dance, Stick to Your Guns, Whitechapel, Parkway Drive, This Condition, the Friday Night Boys, Hey Monday, the Morning Light, Danger Radio, Cage the Elephant, Ace Enders and a Million Different People, Never Shout Never, Lydia, Forgive Durden, brokeNCYDE, Push Play, B.o.B, Mac Lethal, Shwayze, Mickey Avalon, Kid Cudi, Asher Roth, Sonny, Innerpartysystem, Anthony Jeselnik, Brian Posehn, Jon Lajoie, LMFAO, DJ Skeet Skeet, Days Difference, Stereo Skyline, the Bigger Lights, Sparks the Rescue, Family Force 5, Billy Talent, the Maine, Silverstein, Hollywood Undead, the Used, Rise Against, the Ataris, Tinted Windows, the Sounds, 3OH!3, Sum 41, Demi Lovato, Face to Face, Taking Back Sunday, Dead Men Dreaming, Closure in Moscow, Before Their Eyes, Gwen Stacy, A Day To Remember, Enter Shikari, Outbreak, This Is Hell, Haste the Day, Blessthefall, the Acacia Strain, Vision of Disorder, Suicide Silence, Motionless in White, Single File, Scotty Don't featuring Todd Forman, Hit the Lights, the White Tie Affair, Owl City, Push Play, Every Avenue, Valencia, This Providence, Ultraviolet Sound, A Rocket to the Moon, Rookie of the Year, Care Bears on Fire, Bo Burnham, Zach Galifianakis, Yak Ballz, Tina Parol, We Are the Ocean, My Favorite Highway, VersaEmerge, the Bride Wore Black, There for Tomorrow, and Locksley.
2010
The Hoodwink California took place on March 26, 2010, at The Grove of Anaheim in Anaheim, California, featuring Circa Survive covering Nirvana, the Maine covering Everclear, Say Anything covering The Misfits, and All the Day Holiday covering the Beach Boys.
The Bamboozle California took place on March 27 and 28, 2010, at Angel Stadium in Anaheim, California. Bands and artists appearing at the festival included Twin Atlantic, Envy on the Coast, Chiodos, the Bouncing Souls, Circa Survive, Say Anything, Angels & Airwaves, AFI, Molotov Solution, For Today, As Blood Runs Black, Impending Doom, Dance Gavin Dance, Pierce the Veil, the Fall of Troy, Jamie's Elsewhere, Street Drum Corps, Disco Curtis, All the Day Holiday, Chase Long Beach, the Briggs, Jonny Craig, Anthony Jeselnik, Jon Lajoie, Joe Sib, All the Day Holiday, the Summer Set, Hey Monday, Iyaz, Story of the Year, Orianthi, the Maine, Never Shout Never, Something Corporate, the Cataracs, T. Mills, He is We, Call the Cops, Vita Chambers, the Ready Set, Far East Movement, Dirt Nasty, Colette Carr, After Midnight Project, This Century, Bobby Long, We Shot the Moon, the Colourist, Anarbor, Far, Piebald, Moshe Kasher, and Bo Burnham.
The Hoodwink New Jersey took place on April 30, 2010, at the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Bands covering other bands' work included VersaEmerge covering Britney Spears, Steel Train covering Saves the Day, Emmure covering Rage Against the Machine, Take One Car covering At The Drive-In, the Maine covering Everclear, Motion City Soundtrack covering Nine Inch Nails, Eye Alaska covering Kanye West, the Summer Set covering Taylor Swift, All the Day Holiday covering the Beach Boys, Say Anything covering The Misfits, Andrew McMahon performing Bar Classics, and Saves the Day performing Weezer's Pinkerton.
The Bamboozle 2010 took place on May 1 and 2, 2010, also at the Meadowlands Sports Complex. Among the headliners were Paramore, Kesha, Weezer, Drake, and MGMT. Other acts appearing included 100 Monkeys, Four Year Strong, the Aquabats, Escape the Fate, Saves the Day, Angels & Airwaves, VersaEmerge, the Pretty Reckless, Relient K, Hanson, the Maine, Bullet for my Valentine, Something Corporate, Honor Bright, Joe Brooks, the Ready Set, Paper Tongues, the Word Alive, Of Mice & Men, Asking Alexandria, the Bled, Protest the Hero, Emmure, Title Fight, My Favorite Highway, Allstar Weekend, Miss May I, Gegen Mech, We Came as Romans, I See Stars, Chiodos, Attack Attack!, Architects, Tanya Morgan, T. Mills, Far East Movement, Dirt Nasty, I Set My Friends on Fire, Mike Posner, Spose, Jason Bishop, Justin Kredible, MC Mr. Napkins, Owen Benjamin, Eclectic Method, All the Day Holiday, Bobby Long, Nigel Pilkington, Dan Russell and Emma Tate, Stephen Jerzak, Moneybrother, the Nightlife, All The Day Holiday, Steel Train, OK Go, the Devil Wears Prada, Minus the Bear, Say Anything, Matt & Kim, the Summer Set, Hey Monday, Fun., Never Shout Never, Kesha, Motion City Soundtrack, Mutemath, Girl Talk, Sainthood Reps, the Parlor Mob, Polar Bear Club, Good Old War, the Dear Hunter, Foxy Shazam, Piebald, Every Avenue, Mod Sun, the Dig, MC Chris, the Joy Formidable, Francis and the Lights, Kevin Devine, Grieves, Samuel Adams Wisner, Sean Price, Spose, Wiz Khalifa, Wale, 88-Keys, Canyon, Rory Scovel, Eugene Mirman, Arj Barker, Eclectic Method, Beyond Redemption, Gabriel the Marine, Twin Atlantic, Moving Mountains, Lovedrug, the Morning Of, Young the Giant, Eye Alaska, Wild International, and Rhubarb Jones.
The Bamboozle Chicago took place on May 15, 2010, at Charter One Pavilion in Chicago. Bands appearing included All the Day Holiday, Kill Hannah, Travie McCoy and the Lazarus Project, 3OH!3, Cobra Starship, Something Corporate, I Fight Dragons, the Lifelines, Jump Smokers, Spose, Treaty of Paris, and Allister.
Bamboozle Road Show 2010
The Bamboozle Road Show ran for 26 dates from May 21, 2010, until June 27, 2010. Headliners of the tour were All Time Low, Boys Like Girls, LMFAO, and Third Eye Blind. All Time Low was removed from the lineup for three dates after criticizing the way their fans were treated at a previous show when some fans were pepper sprayed by police for fighting over a T-shirt thrown into the crowd.
2011
The Bamboozle 2011 took place from April 29 to May 1, 2011, over 10 stages at the new Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Artists appearing on the line-up included Sam Adams, the Ready Set, LMFAO, Thirty Seconds to Mars, 2AM Club, Mayday Parade, Travie McCoy, Wiz Khalifa, the Downtown Fiction, Rx Bandits, Thrice, New Found Glory, Marky Ramone, Lions Lions, Arsonists Get All the Girls, Motionless in White, Carnifex, Oceano, Forever the Sickest Kids, Ryan Cabrera, Boyz II Men, Dev, wait what, the Devil's Holiday, Nigel Pilkington, Dan Russell and Emma Tate, Ninjasonik, Neon Hitch, Chiddy Bang, New Boyz, Jay Pharoah, David Garibaldi, We Are the In Crowd, State Radio, Anberlin, Tokyo Police Club, Thrice, Circa Survive, Dashboard Confessional, Taking Back Sunday, Plain White T's, Rx Bandits, Streetlight Manifesto, Alkaline Trio, New Found Glory, the Gaslight Anthem, Hank & Cupcakes, O'Brother, An Horse, River City Extension, Frank Turner, the Movielife, Sleeper Agent, Tigers Jaw, Transit, Gatsbys American Dream, Abandon All Ships, A Loss for Words, Breathe Carolina, Sleeping With Sirens, Vanna, E-Town Concrete, Animals as Leaders, Alter the Ending, the Ready Set, Voted Most Random, Alex York, Kevin Hammond, Andy Grammer, Action Item, wait what, the Hood Internet, Tropidelic, Vic Mensa, Rockie Fresh, Wax, T. Mills, Hoodie Allen, Das Racist, Big K.R.I.T., Lil B, XV, Liz Lee, Bo Burnham, Black Cards, Black Veil Brides, Attack Attack!, Jack's Mannequin, A Day to Remember, Lil Wayne, the Ready Set, I See Stars, the Downtown Fiction, Senses Fail, Fuel, We the Kings, Bruno Mars, Mötley Crüe, Tonight Alive, Man Overboard, Runner Runner, Valencia, I Am the Avalanche, Eisley, Further Seems Forever, the Limousines, Mike Del Rio, Conditions, Within the Ruins, Chelsea Grin, Upon A Burning Body, Veil of Maya, After the Burial, Born of Osiris, For Today, Darkness Descends, Insane Clown Posse, Cady Groves, Young Hollywood, Wolfgang Gartner, Killer Mike, Freddie Gibbs, Machine Gun Kelly, Diggy Simmons, Pusha T, Big Sean, Hannibal Buress, and Tim Minchin.
The Bamboozle Roadshow 2011 was scheduled to take place from May 4 to June 10, 2011, featuring Chiddy Bang, Dev, Ninjasonik, and Pusha T. However, the tour was cancelled before it started.
2012
On November 7, 2011, John D'Esposito, the founder, tweeted a picture from Asbury Park, New Jersey, hinting that the festival would return there to celebrate its 10-year anniversary. This was later confirmed on the festival website. The festival took place from May 18–20, 2012, with Incubus, Foo Fighters, Mac Miller, Skrillex, Bon Jovi, Brand New and My Chemical Romance as the headliners. Originally Blink-182 were due to perform, but were replaced by My Chemical Romance when Blink-182 cancelled due to Travis Barker's medical issues. Bamboozle refused to accept refunds after Blink-182 pulled out.
In 2012, Bamboozle offered had contactless admission with wristbands using RFID technology.
Other artists appearing at the event included Mike Posner, We Came as Romans, the Receiving End of Sirens, Armor for Sleep, Volbeat, Stray from the Path, Miss May I, Cavalcade of the Odd, Whitechapel, The Wonder Years, Anamanaguchi, Timeflies, David Garibaldi, Kreayshawn, Big Freedia & the Divas, the Maine, Never Shout Never, the All-American Rejects, Jimmy Eat World, the Story So Far, Motion City Soundtrack, Boysetsfire, Anti-Flag, Less Than Jake, Hot Water Music, the Promise Ring, Motion City Soundtrack, MyChildren MyBride, Close Your Eyes, Attila, Periphery, Emmure, We Came as Romans, He Is We, Datsik, DJ Pauly D, the Knocks, Mr. Muthafuckin' eXquire, Iggy Azalea, Action Bronson, ASAP Rocky, Powerglove, A Great Big Pile of Leaves, the Dear Hunter, James McCartney, Cherri Bomb, Michael Monroe, the Protomen, Marianas Trench, Boys Like Girls, Sammy Adams, Buckcherry, the Gaslight Anthem, Folly, Bayside, Murphy's Law, Comeback Kid, Catch 22, the Bouncing Souls, Obey the Brave, Texas in July, Woe, Is Me, Alesana, Make Me Famous, Star Slinger, T. Mills, Outasight, Nigel Pilkington, Dan Russell and Emma Tate, Deas Vail, Spacehog, Dramarama, and Andrew Dice Clay.
Departure of John D'Esposito and end of the festival
In 2012, festival creator John D'Esposito. announced that he was no longer a part of Bamboozle due to creative differences with LiveNation and House of Blues. He later clarified in an interview that while he was disappointed in Live Nation's support of the festival, "It wasn't LiveNation that did this – House of Blues did. House of Blues is 100% responsible for the damage of Bamboozle."
Return of John D'Esposito and 2023 revival of the festival
In 2021, John D'Esposito reacquired the rights and trademarks of Bamboozle from Live Nation. He mentioned May 5 to 7, 2023 as the date the festival would be held in a New Jersey location. In 2022, it was stated that the location would be Bader Field in Atlantic City.
The rebooted festival was allegedly scheduled for Bader Field in May 2023, with acts including E-Town Concrete, Coi Leray, Ice Spice, Trippie Redd, Limp Bizkit, A Boogie Wit da Hoodie, and Papa Roach.
The 2023 event, to be held May 5th-7th was canceled only one week prior. This is partly due to lies surrounding the lineup, false claims that Black Friday sale prices would be the cheapest way to purchase tickets, and lying about the amount of tickets sold. The event was mainly canceled because John managed to promote and book acts for a festival he never properly secured the permits for.
Notes
References
External links
The Bamboozle Official Website
Asbury Park, New Jersey
Music festivals established in 2003
Defunct festivals in New Jersey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n%20Ng%E1%BB%8Dc%20Th%C6%A1
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Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ
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Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ (26 May 190812 June 1976) was a South Vietnamese politician who was the first Vice President of South Vietnam, serving under President Ngô Đình Diệm from 1956 until Diệm's overthrow and assassination in 1963. He also served as the first Prime Minister of South Vietnam, serving from November 1963 to late January 1964. Thơ was appointed to head a civilian cabinet by the military junta of General Dương Văn Minh, which came to power after overthrowing and assassinating Ngô Đình Diệm, the nation's first president. Thơ's rule was marked by a period of confusion and weak government, as the Military Revolutionary Council (MRC) and the civilian cabinet vied for power. Thơ lost his job and retired from politics when Minh's junta was deposed in a January 1964 coup by General Nguyễn Khánh.
The son of a wealthy Mekong Delta landowner, Thơ rose through the ranks as a low-profile provincial chief under French colonial rule, and he was briefly imprisoned by Imperial Japan when they invaded and deposed the French during World War II. During this time he met Minh for the first time as they shared a cell. Following World War II, he became the Interior Minister in the French-backed State of Vietnam, an associated state in the French Union. After the establishment of the Republic of Vietnam in 1955 following the partition in 1954, Thơ was sent to Japan as ambassador and secured war reparations. Recalled to Vietnam within a year, he helped to dismantle the private armies of the Hòa Hảo religious sect in the mid-1950s. Tho led the political efforts to weaken the Hòa Hảo leadership. While Minh led the military effort, Thơ tried to buy off Hòa Hảo leaders. One commander, Ba Cụt, was personally hostile to Thơ, whose father had confiscated the land of Ba Cụt's family decades earlier. The stand-off could not be ended peacefully in this case, and Ba Cụt was captured and executed.
This success earned Thơ the vice presidential slot in December 1956 to widen the popular appeal of Diệm's nepotistic and sectarian regime. It was reasoned that Thơ's southern heritage would broaden the regime's political appeal—Diệm's family was from central Vietnam and most administrators were not from South Vietnam. Thơ was not allowed to take part in policy decisions and had little meaningful power, as Diệm's brothers, Nhu and Cẩn, commanded their own private armies and secret police, and ruled arbitrarily. Thơ oversaw South Vietnam's failed land reform policy, and was accused of lacking vigour in implementing the program as he was himself a large landowner. He was noted for his faithful support of Diệm during the Buddhist crisis that ended the rule of the Ngô family. Despite nominally being a Buddhist, Thơ defended the regime's pro-Roman Catholic policies and its violent actions against the Buddhist majority.
Thơ turned against Diệm and played a passive role in the coup. Upon the formation of the new government, he struggled to keep the nation under control as the MRC and civilian cabinet often gave contradictory orders. Media freedom and political debate were increased, but this backfired as Saigon became engulfed in infighting, and Thơ had a series of newspapers shut down after they used the new-found freedom to attack him. During that time, South Vietnam's military situation deteriorated as the consequences of Diệm's falsification of military statistics and the misguided policies that resulted were exposed. Minh and Thơ had a plan to try to end the war by winning over non-communist members of the insurgency, believing that they constituted the majority of the opposition and could be coaxed away, weakening the communists. As part of this policy, which the U.S. opposed, the government chose to take a low-key military approach in an attempt to portray themselves to the Vietnamese public as peacemakers. However, they were deposed in Khánh's U.S.-backed coup before they could pursue their strategy.
Early career
The son of a wealthy southern landowner, Thơ was born in the province of Long Xuyên in the Mekong Delta. He began his bureaucratic career in 1930, serving the French colonial authorities as a low-profile provincial chief. During World War II, the Japanese invaded Vietnam but left a Vichy regime in place. Thơ rose to become the first secretary of the Resident Superior of Annam, the French governor of the central region of Vietnam. During this time, he crossed paths with Ngô Đình Diệm, a former Interior Minister under the French regime in the 1930s. The French thought that Diệm was working with Imperial Japan and tried to have him arrested, but Thơ tipped off Diệm and the Kempeitai, resulting in their escape.
In March 1945, Japan, which had invaded and occupied French Indochina in 1941 during World War II, decided to take direct control and overthrew the French colonial regime. Thơ was thrown into a crowded cell with several other prisoners that had no light or toilet and filled with their own excrement. One of his cellmates was Dương Văn Minh, then a junior officer in the French military forces with whom he would work over the next two decades. Thơ was released first and lobbied to have Minh released as well and the pair remained close friends.
Following World War II, Thơ became Interior Minister in the French-backed State of Vietnam under former Emperor Bảo Đại. Following the withdrawal of France from Indochina after the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ, Vietnam was partitioned into a communist north and anti-communist south. Following the proclamation of the Republic of Vietnam—commonly known as South Vietnam—by President Ngô Đình Diệm, who had dethroned Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum, Thơ was appointed the inaugural ambassador to Japan. Despite spending most of his time in Tokyo confined to his bed by a fractured hip, Thơ secured reparations from Japan for its imperial occupation of Vietnam during World War II.
In 1956, Diệm recalled him to Saigon to help deal with the Hòa Hảo, a religious sect equipped with a private army. The Hòa Hảo was effectively an autonomous entity in the Mekong Delta, as its private army enforced a parallel administration and refused to integrate into the Saigon administration. While the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) General Dương Văn Minh led the military effort against the Hòa Hảo, Thơ helped to weaken the sect by buying off its warlords.
However, one Hòa Hảo commander, Ba Cụt, continued to fight, having had a personal history of bad blood with Thơ's own family. The orphaned, illiterate Cụt's adopted father's rice paddies were confiscated by Thơ's father, which purportedly imbued Cụt with a permanent hatred towards the landowning class. Cụt was eventually surrounded and sought to make a peace deal so he sent a message to Thơ asking for negotiations so that his men could be integrated into mainstream society and the nation's armed forces. Thơ agreed to meet Ba Cụt alone in the jungle, and despite fears the meeting was a Hòa Hảo trap, he was not ambushed. However, Cụt began asking for additional concessions and the meeting ended in a stalemate. Cụt was captured on 13 April 1956 and guillotined after a brief trial and his remaining forces were defeated in battle.
During this period, Thơ was the Secretary of State for the National Economy. In November, Diệm appointed Thơ as vice president in an effort to widen the regime's popular appeal. The appointment was endorsed by the National Assembly in December 1956, in accordance with the constitution. The move was widely seen as an attempt to use Thơ's Mekong Delta roots to increase the government's popular appeal among southern peasants, because Diệm's regime was dominated by family members, Catholics from central Vietnam.
Diệm era
Despite the importance of his title, Thơ rarely appeared with Diệm in public and was a figurehead with little influence. The real power lay with Diệm's younger brothers, Nhu and Cẩn, who commanded private armies and secret police, as well as giving orders directly to ARVN generals. Nhu reportedly once ordered a bodyguard to slap Thơ because he felt Thơ had shown him a lack of respect. Diệm held Thơ in contempt and did not allow him to take part in major policy decisions, despite theoretically being the second most powerful man in the country. Thơ had a rapport with the military officers, having befriended Minh years earlier. He was regarded as a genial and affable administrator with a reputation for making compromises.
Thơ was charged with overseeing South Vietnam's land reform program, because the minister of agrarian reform, Nguyễn Văn Thời, answered to him. As both men were wealthy landowners, they had little incentive for the program to succeed. The U.S. embassy received angry criticism of Thoi's lack of enthusiasm towards implementing the policy, stating, "he is most certainly not interested in land distribution which would divest him of much of his property".
Thơ also retained a degree of influence over domestic economic policies, which ran far behind Diệm's priorities of absolute control over the military and other apparatus through which he maintained his rule. Despite never having been trained in economic matters, Thơ had a prominent hand in the administration of the Commodity Import Program, an American initiative akin to the Marshall Plan, whereby aid was funnelled into the economy through importing licenses rather than money, in order to avoid inflation. However, Thơ's administration of the program led to the vast majority of the imports being consumer goods for the upper classes, rather than capital goods to develop South Vietnam's economic capacity. Under Thơ's watch, the foreign trade deficit hovered between 150 and 200%, and the gap between the urban elite and the peasant majority grew. American advisers thought Thơ and the Ngô brothers continually went against their counsel because they were either incompetent or simply distrustful and thus did the opposite of what was recommended.
Thơ also clashed with Interior Minister Nguyễn Hữu Châu over economic strategy. Châu was married to Madame Nhu's sister and appointed due to nepotism, but was later expelled from the Ngô family due to his dissent. The Americans claimed Thơ, who was trained in public security, "knew more about political control than the 'basic laws of the market place'". In mid-1961, after a visit by U.S. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and pressure from leading American officials, Diệm relieved Thơ of his economic duties.
Thơ then began to put try to put pressure on the Americans to influence Diệm. During a fact-finding mission by General Maxwell Taylor, the chief of the U.S. military, and Walt Rostow, Thơ and Minh complained of Diệm's autocratic ways and religious favoritism towards his fellow Catholics to the disadvantage of the majority Buddhist populace. In 1962, he told senior U.S. Embassy official Joseph Mendenhall that Diệm's military subordinates invented arbitrary and falsely inflated figures of Viet Cong fighters.
Role in Buddhist crisis
Despite being a Buddhist, Thơ had a reputation for heaping praise on Diệm's Roman Catholic government. On Diệm's 62nd birthday, Thơ paid tribute, saying, "thanks to the Almighty for having given the country a leader whose genius was outweighed only by his virtue". (Buddhism is a Dharmic religion which does not recognise a supreme being in a theistic sense.) Thơ later accompanied Diệm to the Roman Catholic Redemptorist Church to pray for the President. Thơ had little public following, with American Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Maxwell Taylor calling him "unimpressive", while prominent State Department official Paul Kattenberg derided Thơ as a "nonentity".
In another project, the village of La Vang in Quảng Trị Province near the border with North Vietnam, was the scene of a female apparition in the late 19th century. Buddhists claimed that the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (also known as Kuanyin; Vietnamese: Quan Âm) performed the miracle. Diệm's brother, Ngô Đình Thục, was the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Huế and the foremost religious figure in South Vietnam's nepotistic regime. Thục declared that the apparition was the Virgin Mary, and ordered that a cathedral be built in place of the makeshift Buddhist pagoda that occupied the site. Thơ made notable financial donations to the project for political reasons.
In June, as the Buddhist crisis escalated, Diệm appointed Thơ to lead a government committee to deal with grievances raised by the Buddhist community following the Huế Vesak shootings in which eight Buddhists were killed by government forces while protesting a ban on the flying of Buddhist flags. The committee concluded the Việt Cộng was responsible for the deaths, despite eyewitness accounts and amateur video showing that the government had fired directly at protesters. The committee's whitewash caused Buddhist protests to escalate. When de facto First Lady Madame Nhu (herself a Buddhist convert to Catholicism) mockingly described the self-immolation of Buddhist monk Thích Quảng Đức as a "barbecue", Thơ refused to condemn her remarks, saying they were "personal opinions".
Thơ was part of an Interministerial Committee, a group of government officials that negotiated a Joint Communique with the Buddhists to end the civil disobedience. An agreement was signed, but never implemented. Thơ was later criticised by the Nhus through their English language mouthpiece, the Times of Vietnam, for the deal. Despite the general amnesty granted to arrested Buddhist activists, on 13 August, Thơ gave a press conference during which he vowed to prosecute the Buddhist victims of the Huế Vesak shootings, and revoking the amnesty and vowing to jail Buddhist demonstrators.
At a farewell dinner for U.S. ambassador Frederick Nolting in July, Thơ called for the Buddhists to be "crushed without pity". He derisively said that Buddhism was not a religion and further claimed that while anybody could become a Buddhist monk, it took years of training to become a Catholic priest. When the Thai ambassador disagreed, citing his own previous monastic training, Thơ taunted him in front of other diplomats.
With the pressure on the Diệm regime increasing during the Buddhist crisis, Nhu and Diệm began to shun their cabinet members because they presented arguments contrary to the thinking of the Ngô family. Many ministers attempted to resign, but Thơ was credited with persuading them to stay in office. Finding the situation increasingly intolerable, Thơ also considered resigning but the dissident generals urged him to remain. They were worried that mass resignations would arouse suspicion of a coup plot.
Prime Minister
In private, Thơ expressed his displeasure with Diệm's rule to U.S. officials. He complained of Diệm's reliance on Nhu in the running of the country, Nhu's attempt to run a police state through his secret Cần Lao apparatus and the lack of success against the Việt Cộng. During the McNamara Taylor mission to South Vietnam, Thơ confided his belief that the country was heading in the wrong direction to the American delegation, imploring them to pressure Diệm to reform his policies. He privately revealed his belief that of the thousands of fortified settlements built under Nhu's Strategic Hamlet Program, fewer than thirty were functional. Years after, Tho stated that neither Diem and Nhu, nor the American political figures that made policy on Vietnam, understood one another.
Joseph Mendenhall, a senior Vietnam adviser in the US State Department, advocated the removal of Diệm in a military coup and his replacement with Thơ. Thơ was privately aware that he was the choice of the generals to run the government after the planned overthrow of Diệm. By this time, Diệm and Nhu realized a plot was afoot against them, but did not know that General Tôn Thất Đính, a palace favourite was involved. Nhu ordered Đính and Colonel Lê Quang Tung, the ARVN Special Forces commander, to plan a fake coup against the Ngô family.
One of Nhu's objectives was to trick dissidents into joining the false uprising so that they could be identified and eliminated. Another objective of the public relations stunt was to give a false impression of the strength of the regime. The first stage of the scheme would involve loyalist soldiers, disguised as insurgents, faking a coup and vandalising the capital. A "revolutionary government" consisting of opposition activists who had not consented to being named in the regime would be announced, while Diệm and Nhu would pretend to be on the run. During the orchestrated chaos of the first coup, the loyalists and Nhu's underworld contacts would kill the leading plotting generals and their assistants, such as Thơ, CIA officer Lucien Conein, and U.S. Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. A fake "counter-coup" was to follow, whereupon the loyalists would triumphantly re-enter Saigon to restore the Diệm regime. However, the plot failed because Đính was part of the coup plot and sent the loyalist forces out of the capital to open the door for the rebels.
After the coup on 1 November 1963, in which Diệm and Nhu were killed the following day, Thơ was appointed Prime Minister by Minh's military junta five days later, on 6 November 1963. He was the leading civilian in the provisional government overseen by the Military Revolutionary Council (MRC). Minh had earlier promised U.S. officials that the civilians would be above the generals in the hierarchy. In addition, he was minister for finance and the economy. Thơ's appointment was not universally popular, with some leading figures privately lobbying for a clean break from the Diệm era.
Relationship with junta
Thơ's civilian government was plagued by infighting. According to Thơ's assistant, Nguyễn Ngọc Huy, the presence of Generals Trần Văn Đôn and Tôn Thất Đính in both the civilian cabinet and the MRC paralysed the governance process. Đính and Đôn were subordinate to Thơ in the civilian government, but as members of the MRC they were superior to him. Whenever Thơ gave an order in the civilian hierarchy with which the generals disagreed, they would go to the MRC and countermand it.
Saigon newspapers, which had re-opened following the end of Diệm's censorship, reported that the junta was paralysed because all twelve generals in the MRC had equal power. Each member of the MRC had the power of veto, enabling them to stonewall policy decisions. The press, which was liberalised following the downfall of Diệm, strongly attacked Thơ, accusing his government of being "tools" of the MRC. Thơ's record under Diệm's presidency was called into question, with allegations circulating in the media that he had supported the repression of the Buddhists by Diệm and Nhu. Thơ claimed that he had countenanced Nhu's brutal Xá Lợi Pagoda raid, attempting to prove that he would have resigned were it not for Minh's pleas to stay. The media further derided Thơ for the personal benefits that he gained from the Diệm administration's land policy. Minh defended Thơ's anti-Diệm credentials by declaring that Thơ had taken part in the planning of the coup "from the very outset" and that he enjoyed the "full confidence" of the junta.
At one point in December, Thơ could no longer withstand what the free media were publishing about him and called around 100 journalists into his office. An angry Thơ shouted at the writers and banged his fist on the table, assailing them for what he regarded as inaccurate, irresponsible and disloyal reporting. Thơ claimed the media were lying in saying that he and his civilian cabinet were puppets of the generals, and claimed that one of the journalists was a communist while another was a drug addict. He said that his administration would "take steps to meet the situation" if the media did not behave responsibly. Having already had his Information Minister, General Đỗ Mậu, circulate a list of topics that were not to be reported on, Thơ had Mậu close down three newspapers for "disloyalty" on the following day.
On 1 January 1964, a Council of Notables, comprising sixty leading citizens, met for the first time, having been selected by Colonel Phạm Ngọc Thảo. Its job was to advise the military and civilian wings of the government with a view towards reforming human rights, the constitution and the legal system. Thơ publicly stated that he expected a "rational attitude" coupled with "impartial and realistic judgments" and said that it was part of the provisional government's quest to "clear the way for a permanent regime, which our people are longing for". The council consisted almost entirely of professionals and academic leaders, with no representatives from the agricultural or labour movements. It soon became engaged in endless debate and never achieved its initial task of drafting a new constitution. Thơ later admitted that the council was unrepresentative of South Vietnamese society and had been a failure. He claimed that the council's desire to move away from the rubber stamp model of Diệm's National Assembly had caused it to degenerate into a debating society.
Policies
With the fall of Diệm, various American sanctions that were implemented against South Vietnam in response to the repression of the Buddhist crisis and Nhu's Special Forces' Xá Lợi Pagoda raids, were lifted. The freeze on U.S. economic aid, the suspension of the Commercial Import Program and various capital works initiatives were lifted. The United States quickly moved to recognise Thơ and Minh.
Thơ's government halted Nhu's Strategic Hamlet Program. Nhu had trumpeted the program as the solution to South Vietnam's difficulties with Việt Cộng insurgents, believing that the mass relocation of peasants into fortified villages would isolate the Viet Cong from their peasant support base. Thơ contradicted Nhu's earlier reports on the success of the program, claiming that only 20% of the 8,600 existing strategic hamlets were under Saigon's control, with the rest having been taken over by the communists. Those hamlets that were deemed to be tenable were consolidated, while the remainder were dismantled and their inhabitants returned to their ancestral land.
Thơ's approach to removing Diệm supporters from positions of influence drew criticism from both supporters and opponents of the deposed president. Some felt he was not vigorous enough in removing pro-Diệm elements from authority, whereas others felt that the magnitude of the turnover of public servants was excessive and bordering on vengeance. A number of officials suspected of having engaged in corruption or Diệmist oppression were indiscriminately arrested without charge, most of whom were later released. Đính and the new national police chief, General Mai Hữu Xuân, were given control of the interior ministry. The pair were accused of arresting people en masse, before releasing them in return for bribes and pledges of loyalty. Not all officials under Diệm could automatically be considered pro-Diệm, yet there were calls for further removals of the old guard. The government was criticised for firing large numbers of district and provincial chiefs directly appointed by Diệm, causing a breakdown in law and order during the abrupt transition of power. One high profile and heavily criticised non-removal was that of General Đỗ Cao Trí, the commander of the ARVN I Corps who gained prominence for his particularly stringent anti-Buddhist crackdown in the central region around Huế. Trí was simply transferred to the II Corps in the Central Highlands directly south of the I Corps region.
Thơ and the leading generals in the MRC also had a secret plan to end the communist insurgency, which called itself the National Liberation Front (NLF) and claimed to be independent of the communist government of North Vietnam. They claimed that most of them were first and foremost southern nationalists opposed to foreign military intervention and U.S. involvement and support of Diệm. The MRC and Thơ thought that an agreement to end the war within South Vietnam was possible. Thơ recalled in later years that his government's plan was to generate support among the Cao Đài, Hòa Hảo and ethnic Cambodian minorities, elements of which were in the NLF and bring them back into the mainstream fold out of the insurgency into a non-communist pro-West political system. He thought that it was possible to sideline the communists as he described them as "still having no dominance and only a minor position" within the NLF. According to Thơ, this plan was not a deal with the communists or the NLF as his group saw it as a political attempt to coax back non-communist dissidents and isolate those that were communists.
The government rebuffed American proposals to bomb North Vietnam on the grounds that such actions would cede the moral high ground, which they claimed on the basis of fighting purely for self-defense. For their part, Minh and Thơ's leadership group believed that a more low-key military approach was needed for their political campaign against the insurgency. Minh and Thơ explicitly and bluntly turned down the bombing proposal in a 21 January meeting with US officials. Australian historian Anne E. Blair identified this exchange as sealing the regime's "death warrant".
She pointed out that when the discussion was reported to Washington, the leading US generals in the U.S. military lobbied Defense Secretary Robert McNamara, claiming that it was no longer feasible to work within the parameters laid out by Saigon and that the U.S. should simply take control of anti-communist military policy, thereby necessitating a coup. The Americans became increasingly concerned with Saigon's reluctance to intensify the war effort, and bombing rebuff was regarded as a critical point. The government's plans to win over the NLF were never implemented to any degree before the government was deposed.
Downfall
The provisional government lacked direction in policy and planning, resulting in its quick collapse. The number of rural attacks instigated by the Viet Cong surged in the wake of Diệm's deposal, due to the displacement of troops into urban areas for the coup. The increasingly free discussion generated from the surfacing of new and accurate data following the coup revealed that the military situation was far worse than what was reported by Diệm. The incidence of Việt Cộng attacks continued to increase as it had done during the summer of 1963, the weapons loss ratio worsened and the rate of Viet Cong defections fell. The units that participated in the coup were returned to the field to guard against a possible major communist offensive in the countryside. The falsification of military statistics by Diệm's officials had led to miscalculations, which manifested themselves in military setbacks after Diệm's death. Aside from battlefield setbacks, something that was outside his remit, Thơ was also becoming unpopular in the military establishment. One of the goals of the various anti-Minh coup plots at the time was to remove Thơ, and the prime minister's unpopularity helped to distract some of the incumbent officers from the fact that they were the primary target; at that time, the MRC was moving toward removing Thơ, and Minh was the only senior general to retain confidence in him.
On 29 January, General Nguyễn Khánh ousted Minh's MRC in a bloodless pre-dawn coup; although Khánh accused the junta of intending to make a deal with the communists and claimed to have proof, he was actually motivated by personal ambition. After Khánh was deposed a year later, he admitted that the allegations against Minh's group were false. In later years, Khánh, Thơ and Minh's generals all agreed that the coup was strongly encouraged by the Americans and could not have occurred without their backing.
Thơ was apprehended during the coup and put under house arrest while the plotters consolidated their grip on power; he was then removed from the political scene. The civilian arm of the government was replaced with Khánh appointees, and Thơ left politics, having personally enriched himself during his period in government. His activities after leaving politics are not known. He died in 1976 in Saigon – Gia Dinh.
Notes
References
1908 births
1976 deaths
Nguyen dynasty officials
South Vietnamese politicians
Prime Ministers of South Vietnam
Vice presidents of South Vietnam
Vietnamese anti-communists
Vietnamese people of the Vietnam War
People from An Giang Province
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation%20in%20second-language%20learning
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Motivation in second-language learning
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The desire to learn is often related to the concept of ‘motivation’. Motivation is the most used concept for explaining the failure or success of a language learner. Second language (L2) refers to a language an individual learns that is not his/her mother tongue, but is of use in the area of the individual. It is not the same as a foreign language, which is a language learned that is not generally spoken in the individual's area. In research on motivation, it is considered to be an internal process that gives behavior energy, direction and persistence in research (in other words, it gives behavior strength, purpose, and sustainability).
Learning a new language takes time and dedication. Once you do, being fluent in a second language offers numerous benefits and opportunities. Learning a second language is exciting and beneficial at all ages. It offers practical, intellectual and many aspirational benefits.
In learning a language, there can be one or more goals – such as mastery of the language or communicative competence – that vary from person to person. There are a number of language learner motivation models that were developed and postulated in fields such as linguistics and sociolinguistics, with relations to second-language acquisition in a classroom setting. The different perspectives on L2 motivation can be divided into three distinct phases: the social psychological period, the cognitive-situated period and the process-oriented period.
The social psychological period
Social psychological perspectives on L2 learning motivation emphasize the role of the individuals’ social context and social interactions. The social psychological period in L2 motivation research flourished in the bilingual context of Canada from 1959 through 1990 (Dörnyei, 2005; Ushioda, 2012). During this period, Gardner developed the socio-educational model while Clément and colleagues explored the theory of linguistic self-confidence.
The socio-educational model
R.C. Gardner formulated the socio-educational model suggesting that learning an L2 cannot be solely explained by people's aptitude or their competency to acquire as many languages. He asserted that individual differences were key factors affecting L2 acquisition such that in understanding how the L2 learning process and outcomes work, it is important to consider the cultural contexts, which influence people's attitude and motivation in learning another culturally distinct language. By simply regarding aptitude as the only factor, researchers dismiss the social, contextual and pragmatic reasons that drive people to learn other languages.
The original socio-educational model (1979) proposed that there are two main factors that influence L2 performance: aptitude, and motivation in learning. The model, however, placed more emphasis on the motivation factor because Gardner was interested in how people succeeded in acquiring L2 even when it seemed that their competency/aptitude is below average. This meant that motivation played a bigger role in driving those people to learn an L2. The model then attempted to explain that these motivational factors took place in the sites where
L2 learning occurs: the formal site (i.e. the educational context), and the informal site (i.e. the cultural context). Gardner argued that these two contexts play distinct roles in boosting the learner's L2 performance in that the educational context became a place where explicit instruction and correction occurs, whereas the cultural context was an area allowing the learners to become immersed in the other culture without placing any specific rules or instructions. Both ways, the learners become increasingly knowledgeable and more confident with the social and cultural settings behind the L2, and these motivate them to learn L2 even more. Upon this transition, linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes emerge. In the linguistic component, learners tend to develop L2 proficiency and fluency, whereas in the non-linguistic outcomes, they undergo changes in attitudes towards the culture where the L2 came from.
The process of L2 acquisition starts from the social milieu where learners have initial attitudes towards the culture behind the L2; these preset beliefs were acquired from their own cultures.
The social milieu, in turn, influences the strategies, which individuals use in acquiring the L2. After knowing the individual differences in L2 acquisition, it is important to consider the context of learning (i.e. educational or cultural) because they improve L2 performance through direct (i.e. explicit instruction) and indirect (i.e. cultural immersion) means. Finally, when the learners have already acquired experience and knowledge of the L2, they gain varying positive outcomes such as fluency and appreciation of the other culture.
Revisions of the socio-cultural educational model
The model has undergone numerous revisions to capture the sub-processes underlying in each of the individual factors. In 1985, Gardner introduced three sub-measures namely the intensity, the desire to learn and the attitude towards learning to explain the motivation factor. Gardner argued that if these three criteria work together, the learner could effectively use motivation as a tool for L2 acquisition. Dornyei and other researchers, however, assert that this is not the case; they contend that one can have a ‘strong’ desire to learn, but have a different attitude towards the learning process itself. Nevertheless, some researches still claim the attitude towards learning has a high predictive capacity because attitude has a strong association with direct behavior (i.e. learning). From 1993 to 2010, the model's schema was rigorously changed to encompass the variability in the external factors affecting L2 learning; the term “social milieu” became “the external factors”. More characteristics were added to describe the variables affecting each of the individual factors; these were compiled in the Attitude Motivation Test Battery developed by Gardner.
Attitude Motivation Test Battery
Gardner also created the Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) to quantitatively measure the four main factors and their sub-units, and to predict L2 performance/outcome of the learning. The test generally instructs participants to rate a set of statements on a scale of 1 to 7 (i.e. least likely to most likely), and on a 6-level Likert Scale (i.e. strongly disagree to strongly agree). Different statements correspond to a certain variable (or main factor), and scores from those sets are added up to determine how much of that variable is influencing the language learning of the participants. Like the model, however, the test has also been revised over the years. In Gardner's review of the Socio-educational Model, he named the four overarching variables which are measured in the AMTB: (1) integrativeness, (2) attitude toward learning situation, (3) motivation and (4) language anxiety. Other variables such as the instrumental orientation and parental encouragement in the AMTB are used in different settings or as needed.
Integrativeness
The integrativeness variable (also known as the integrative motive) reflect the cultural context of L2 learning as it attempts to measure how open a learner is to the other culture that primarily uses L2. The AMTB assesses this variable by accounting for the extent to which the learner is generally interested in foreign languages, as well as his/her preset attitudes towards the community where the L2 comes from. It also accounts for the integrative orientation of the individual or the social and cultural reasons why the individual learns the L2.
Attitude toward learning situation
Contrary to integrativeness, the attitude towards learning situation accounts for the education context of L2 acquisition and the affective facts that correspond with it. The AMTB measures this variable by asking the individual to evaluate the teacher and the course in the educational context. This determines how much the educational context aids in improving L2 performance.
Motivation
Motivation, in the AMTB, is assessed through the combination of the desire to learn, attitude towards learning, and motivational intensity. While integrativeness and attitude toward the learning situation target each site of learning, motivation accounts for both contexts as well as the affective variables (i.e. individual differences) that influence the two contexts.
Language anxiety
In the AMTB, language anxiety is an affective variable, which corresponds to what the individuals feel when ‘performing’ the L2. In the AMTB, it is measured by determining how anxious the learner feels when in the classroom or when using the language in general.
Linguistic self-confidence
Clément and his associates investigated the importance of social contextual factors on L2 acquisition. Of these social contextual factors, Dörnyei (2005) argues linguistic self-confidence plays the most important role in motivation in learning a second language. Linguistic self-confidence refers to a person's perceptions of their own competence and ability to accomplish tasks successfully. This linguistic self-confidence is established through the interaction between the language learner and members of the language community, and strengthened based on the quality and quantity of these interactions. In multi-linguistic communities, self-confidence fosters language learners’ identification with the language community and increases their willingness to pursue learning that language.
The cognitive-situated period
Cognitive perspectives focus on how the learners’ mental processes influence their motivation. During the late 1980s and 1990s, emphasis in the language learning motivation field shifted towards cognitive models, reflecting the “cognitive revolution” taking place in psychology at the time. Cognitive psychologists argued that how one thinks about one's abilities, possibilities, potentials, limitations, and past performances has major influences on motivation. Thus, L2 motivation models shifted away from the broad social psychological perspectives, while more narrow-viewed microperspectives emerged. During this time, note-worthy contributions were made by Noels and colleagues through a self-determination theory-based model of language learning motivation, Ushioda through attribution theory, as well as Williams and Burden with their social constructivist model.
Self-determination theory
The self-determination theory focuses on the intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of motivation. Noels and colleagues explored this theory in the language learning context and developed the Language Learning Orientations Scale which categorizes a person's motivational orientation as either intrinsic, extrinsic, or amotivated based on a continuum of self-determination. In this line of research it was found that in the language learning classroom, teachers that were autonomy supportive and non-controlling promoted intrinsic and self-determined orientations of motivation in students.
Attribution theory
Attribution theory contends that the causal reasons we attribute to our past successes or failures plays a critical role in our motivation in future endeavors in that area. Consistent with this theory, Ushioda identified two attributional patterns associated with positive motivational outcomes in language learning.
Social constructivist model
This cognitive perspective arose from a supposed “constructivist movement” that stemmed mostly from the work of Jean Piaget and that also encompassed personal construct psychology (developed by George Kelly (psychologist)). This model suggests a constructive nature of the learning process as emphasized by Piaget, this assumes that people are actively involved in constructing personal meaning right from birth. This brings the learner into central focus in learning theory as everyone is constructing their own sense of the world, which is key to the constructivist perspective.
The learner is in control of his/her learning as a result of his/her cognitive processing and organizing, and the context in which he/she is learning. This means that the individual who is learning is in control of what he/she learns based on the way he/she think, and the immediate environment he/she is in as well as any internal factors (mood, preoccupation, motivation, etc.). Four key elements (the learner(s), the teacher, the task, and the context) are outlined by this model as affecting the teaching-learning process as they interact with and act on each other.
Framework of motivation in L2 learning
Using the social constructivist model, Marion Williams and Robert L. Burden developed a framework of motivation in language learning as an attempt to summarize motivational factors relevant to L2 learning in the classroom setting. This framework placed an emphasis on contextual influences, and it categorized motivational factors in terms of learner-internal and external factors. The framework is shown below:
The process-oriented period
With the rise of cognitive approaches to L2 learning motivation, researchers began to focus on the dynamic character of motivation. The models of the process-oriented period explore the short-term and long-term changes in the individuals’ motivation as they learn L2. This approach views motivation as a dynamic factor which fluctuates within a class period, a year, and a lifetime. Models from this period include the process model and the motivational self-system.
Process model
Dörnyei and Ottό developed a process model of L2 learning marked by three distinct, chronological stages: the preactional stage, the actional stage, and the postactional stage. The preactional stage involves the initial choice to begin learning a second language and creating goals for oneself. This stage is associated with setting goals, forming intentions, and launching action. During the preactional phase, the major motivational influences are the values associated with L2 learning, attitudes towards the L2-speaking community, learners’ expectations and beliefs, and environmental support. The actional stage includes sustaining one's level of motivation throughout the language-learning process. This stage involves generating and carrying out subtasks, appraising one's achievement, and self-regulation. During the actional stage the major motivational influences are the quality of the L2 learning experience, sense of autonomy as an L2 learner, teachers’ and parents’ influence, and usage of self-regulatory strategies. Lastly, the postactional stage involves retrospection and self-reflection on the language learning experience and outcomes. This stage entails forming causal attributions, elaborating standards and strategies, and dismissing the intention and further planning. During the postactional stage the major motivational influences are the learners’ attributional styles and biases, self-concept beliefs, and received feedback during the L2 learning process.
Motivational self system
After developing the process model, Dörnyei (2005) designed the motivational self system of L2 learning. The L2 motivational self system forms links with conceptualizations of L2 motivation by Noels (2003) and Ushioda (2001). This motivational self system has three components: the ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience. The ideal L2 self is a person's imagined ideal future self as a second language speaker. This ideal L2 self promotes motivation by inspiring the present self to strive to become the ideal self, which promotes integrative and internalized instrumental motivation in language learning. The ought-to L2 self includes the attributions a person believes they should have in order to meet expectations or avoid negative outcomes, which is associated with extrinsic motivational orientations. The L2 learning experience component includes the situational and environmental aspects of the language learning process as well as one's subjective learning experience. A meta-analysis by Al-Hoorie (2018) examined the predictive validity of this model, showing poorer predictive validity of objective measures compared with subjective measures of language learning. Recently, this model has received criticism based on its reliance on scales with questionable validity and on constructs that are not clearly distinct from existing constructs in psychology.
Motivation and L2 speaking classroom
The link between humor and motivation in the L2 speaking classroom is very interesting. L2 speaking teachers are often encouraged to find effective teaching strategies for making speaking environment more successful and enjoyable (Riyadi & Purwati, 2017). Therefore, humor can be a powerful stimulus to motivate L2 learners to engage in L2 speaking tasks (Salehi & Hesabi, 2014).
According to some studies, humor has a positive impact on classroom engagement and can strengthen the relationship between teachers and L2 learners, improve problem-solving, and make classwork more personal, enjoyable, and comfortable (Wandersee, J. 1982; Rareshide, S. 1993; Millard, E. 1999). Also, Farahani and Abdollahi (2018) found that utilizing humor as a technique in L2 speaking class has cognitive benefits for L2 students’ learning development. The authors reported that the difference between the scores in the experimental group and the scores in the control group was significant in speaking ability and willingness to communicate. Furthermore, Schmitz (2002) illustrates that L2 students who have the opportunity to learn language through humorous material will be better speakers and they progress in L2 learning more than learners who do not have that opportunity. The author also states that utilizing humorous material in the L2 classroom enables L2 learners to tell jokes and participate in different conversational exchanges. Finally, Syafiq and Saleh (2012) conclude that humor can successfully improve EFL learners’ speaking skills because learners feel that utilizing humor in speaking class contributes to creating a positive atmosphere and better achievement in L2 speaking competence. The authors investigate the effect of using humor as teaching material in the EFL speaking classroom. The focus of their treatment was on using some verbal humor. Their findings suggest that using humor as teaching material in EFL speaking class has a significant influence on the learners’ speaking ability more than normal conventional material.
Motivation and Context
Motivation and its constructs are context dependent and therefore, any language learning context has its own unique motivational model.
Notable researchers
Kata Csizér
Zoltán Dörnyei
Judit Kormos
Sarah Mercer
See also
Language exchange
Language learning
References
Second-language acquisition
Motivation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality%20development
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Personality development
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Personality development encompasses the dynamic construction and deconstruction of integrative characteristics that distinguish an individual in terms of interpersonal behavioral traits. Personality development is ever-changing and subject to contextual factors and life-altering experiences. Personality development is also dimensional in description and subjective in nature. That is, personality development can be seen as a continuum varying in degrees of intensity and change. It is subjective in nature because its conceptualization is rooted in social norms of expected behavior, self-expression, and personal growth. The dominant viewpoint in personality psychology indicates that personality emerges early and continues to develop across one's lifespan. Adult personality traits are believed to have a basis in infant temperament, meaning that individual differences in disposition and behavior appear early in life, potentially before language of conscious self-representation develop. The Five Factor Model of personality maps onto the dimensions of childhood temperament. This suggests that individual differences in levels of the corresponding personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness) are present from young ages.
Theories
The development of personality is supported and attempted to be explained by theories of personality.
Psychoanalytic
The Psychoanalytic Theory of personality was developed by Sigmund Freud. This theory consists of three main ideas that make up personality, the id, the ego, and the superego. The three traits control their own sections of the psyche. Personality is developed by the three traits that make up the Psychoanalytic theory conflicting.
Trait
The Trait Theory of personality is one of the main theories in the study of personality. According to this theory, traits make up personality. Traits can be described as patterns of behavior, thought, or emotion. Some commonly accepted trait theories are the Big Five personality traits and the HEXACO model of personality structure. Generally, strong correlations are seen in the levels of any given personality trait in an individual when they are retested several years later. Traits tend to become more stable after young adulthood, and changes in these traits often follow some noticeable trends with age. For example, the trait Honesty-Humility is typically seen to decrease during teenage years, then steadily rise as the individual ages. The trait conscientiousness is generally seen to increase with age, however, the level of the facet perfectionism stays fairly consistent.
Social cognitive
The social cognitive theory of personality views personality development in terms of reciprocal interactionism, that is, a perspective that considers the relationship of person-society as an interactive system that defines and molds personal development. Personal interaction with other individuals, society, and nature create experiences in which self-identification is organized in relation to social environment. In other words, personality traits are a function of complex cognitive strategies used to effectively maneuver through social situations. Furthermore, according to the social-cognitive perspective, cognitive processes are central to an individual's unique expression of personality traits and affective processes. Through cognitive mechanism and social competencies, individuals interpret contextual situations to derive beliefs that guide their thoughts and behaviors, thus developing an enduring pattern of personality traits.
Evolutionary
The evolutionary theory of personality development is primarily based on the evolutionary process of natural selection. From the evolutionary perspective, evolution resulted in variations of the human mind. Natural selection refined these variations based on their beneficence to humans. Due to human complexity, many opposing personality traits proved to be beneficial in a variety of ways. Primitive humans were collectivists due to tribe culture. The personalities of individuals within a tribe were very similar. The division of labor resulted in differentiation in personality traits in order to achieve a higher efficiency. Differentiation in personality traits increased functionality, therefore becoming adaptive through natural selection. Humans continued to develop personality and individuality through evolution.
Lifespan
Classic theories of personality include Freud's tripartite theory and post-Freudian theory (developmental stage theories and type theories) and indicate that most personality development occurs in childhood, stabilizing by the end of adolescence. Current lifespan perspectives that integrate theory and empirical findings dominate the research literature. The lifespan perspectives of personality are based on the plasticity principle, the principle that personality traits are open systems that can be influenced by the environment at any age. Large-scale longitudinal studies have demonstrated that the most active period of personality development appears to be between the ages of 20–40. Although personality grows increasingly consistent with age and typically plateaus near age 50, personality never reached a period of total stability.
Humanistic
Humanistic psychology emphasizes individual choices as voluntary actions that ultimately determine personal development. Individual personalities traits, although essential to the integrated self, are only parts that make up the whole of observable human experiences. Thus, personality development is articulated in terms of purposeful action geared towards experiencing mastery of free choice. Rather than compartmentalized elements of personality traits such as feelings, thoughts, or behavior, Humanistic psychology integrates these elements as functions of being in a greater encompassing system such as societies, cultures, or interpersonal relationships. Consequently, personality development is subjected to shifts in personal meaning and individual goals of achieving an ideal self.
Influencing factors
Personality traits demonstrate moderate levels of continuity, smaller but still significant normative or mean-level changes, and individual differences in change, often late into the life course. This pattern is influenced by genetic, environmental, transactional, and stochastic factors.
Genetics
Genetics can have an impact on one's development of personality. Genes are passed on from one generation to the next and contain characteristics of one's being. Personality can be influenced through many genes acting together. Behavioral genetics refers to the results of adoption studies and twin studies.
Adoption Studies: Genetics are not very highly correlated with adoptive families and their personalities. Studies have been performed comparing adoptive siblings in a family to those who were biological siblings. A correlation of p=0.05 was found between the personalities of biological siblings and of other family members. Adoptive siblings had a correlation of p=0.04 between their personalities and the others' in the family. This shows that there is no supporting evidence for genetic differences in personality in relation to a common environment. Similar correlations were associated with parents and their adoptive children compared to their biological children.<
Twin Studies: Genetics can have an influence on twins. Studies have shown that identical twins' personalities are more similar than those of nonidentical twins. Identical twins have a correlation of about 40%. Differences in sex have not shown to have any influence on gene heritability or on individual personality.
Twin and adoption studies have demonstrated that the heritability of personality traits ranges from 0.3 to 0.6, with a mean of 0.5, indicating that 50% of variation in observable personality traits is attributable to genetic influences. In contrast, family and adoption studies have demonstrated a low heritability factor. An IAT (implicit association test) on German women has found a connection between specific neurotransmitters and the predisposition for certain personality traits, such as anxiety or extraversion. With the effects of genetic similarity removed, children from the same family often appear no more alike than randomly selected strangers; yet, identical twins raised apart are nearly as similar in personality as identical twins raised together. These findings suggest that shared family environment has virtually no effect on personality development, and that similarity between relatives is almost entirely due to shared genetics.
Environmental
The weakness of shared environmental effects in shaping personality surprised many psychologists, spurring research into non-shared environmental effects, the environmental influences that distinguish siblings from one another. The non-shared environment may include differential treatment by parents, individually-distinct reactions to the shared family environment, peer influences, experiences outside the family, and test error in measurement. In adults, the non-shared environment may also include the unique roles and environments experienced after leaving the family of origin. Further effects of environment in adulthood are demonstrated by research suggesting that different work, marital, and family experiences are associated with personality change; these effects are supported by research involving the impact of major positive and negative life events on personality.
Family and Childhood Experiences:
Family and childhood experiences can have a significant impact on the development of an individual's personality. Here are some ways in which family and childhood experiences can affect personality development:
Attachment style: Attachment refers to the emotional bond that an infant develops with their primary caregiver. The quality of this attachment can influence an individual's personality development. For example, individuals who develop a secure attachment style may be more likely to have positive relationships with others, while those who develop an insecure attachment style may be more likely to struggle with relationships.
Parenting style: Parenting style refers to the way in which parents interact with their children. Different parenting styles can have different effects on an individual's personality development. For example, authoritarian parents, who are highly controlling and demanding, may lead to individuals who are less independent and less self-confident, while authoritative parents, who are warm and supportive but also set clear expectations and limits, may lead to individuals who are more self-confident and have better social skills.
Family dynamics: Family dynamics, such as the level of conflict, cohesion, and communication within a family, can also affect personality development. For example, individuals who grow up in families with high levels of conflict may be more likely to experience anxiety and depression, while those who grow up in families with supportive and nurturing relationships may be more resilient and better able to cope with stress.
Trauma and adversity: Childhood experiences of trauma, such as abuse, neglect, or exposure to violence, can have significant long-term effects on personality development. Individuals who experience trauma may be more likely to experience mental health issues such as anxiety and depression, and may also struggle with relationships and trust.
Cultural and socio-economic background: Cultural and socio-economic background can also influence personality development. For example, individuals from collectivistic cultures, which emphasize the importance of group harmony and interdependence, may have different personality traits than those from individualistic cultures, which emphasize independence and self-achievement. Similarly, individuals from low-income backgrounds may be more likely to experience stress and adversity, which can affect their personality development.
Overall, family and childhood experiences play a critical role in personality development. Understanding the impact of these experiences is essential for promoting healthy development and providing support to individuals who may have experienced trauma or adversity.
Peer Relationships:
Peer relationships can have a significant impact on the development of an individual's personality. Peer relationships refer to the interactions and social connections that an individual has with their peers, such as friends, classmates, and acquaintances. Here are some ways in which peer relationships can affect personality development:
Socialization: Peer relationships provide opportunities for socialization, which is the process of learning and internalizing social norms, values, and expectations. Through interactions with peers, individuals learn how to behave in social situations, develop communication and negotiation skills, and learn to regulate their emotions and behaviors in ways that are acceptable to others.
Identity formation: Peer relationships can also influence the development of an individual's identity. Adolescence is a time when individuals are trying to define who they are and what they stand for. Through interactions with peers, individuals can explore different aspects of themselves and develop a sense of identity.
Risk-taking behavior: Peer relationships can also influence risk-taking behavior. Adolescents who have peers who engage in risky behaviors, such as drug use or delinquency, may be more likely to engage in these behaviors themselves. On the other hand, adolescents who have peers who engage in prosocial behaviors, such as volunteering or academic achievement, are more likely to engage in these behaviors themselves.
Gene-environment interactions
A culmination of research suggests that the development of personality occurs in relation to one's genetics, one's environment, and the interaction between one's genetics and environment. Van Gestel and Van Broeckhoven (2003) write, “Almost by definition, complex traits originate from interplay between (multiple) genetic factors and environment.” The corresponsive principle of personality development states that “life experiences may accentuate and reinforce the personality characteristics that were partially responsible for the particular environmental elicitations in the first place”. This principle illustrates how gene-environment interactions maintain and reinforce personality throughout the lifespan. Three main types of gene-environment interactions are active (the process by which individuals with certain genotypes select and create environments that facilitate the expression of those genotypes), passive (the process by which genetic parents provide both the genes and the early environmental influences that contribute to the development of a characteristic in their children), and reactive (the process by which non-family individuals respond to the behavior produced by a genotype in characteristic ways).
An example of the way environment can moderate the expression of a gene is the finding by Heath, Eaves, and Martin (1998) that marriage was a protective factor against depression in identical twins, such that the heritability of depression was as low as 29% in a married twin and as high as 51% in an unmarried twin.
Stability
Over the course of an individual's lifespan, the stability of their personality has been shown in a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies to be variable, although this variability levels out in adulthood. The beginning of one's personality stability is most evident at the age of 25 years. Behavioral genetics can account for the variability experienced across the lifespan. This is highly evident in the transitions between childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. From childhood to mid-adolescence, the rate of individual differences in personality increases, primarily due to environmental influences. However, genetic influences play a larger role than environmental influences in adulthood, resulting in fewer individual differences in personality between individuals who share similar genetics. In a longitudinal study of individuals across the span of fifty years from adolescence through adulthood, personality was found to be malleable, although variations in the level of malleability stabilized in adulthood.
The personality developing in college students based on the Big Five personality trait domains and facets within those domains has been studied. Rank-order stabilities of facets are high, with values greater than .50 (indicating a strong correlation); the results for trait domains were similar to individual facets. Variation in stability occurs across periods of the lifespan, such as adolescence and adulthood.
The stability and variation of personality is explained by a complex interaction between one's genetics and one's environment.
References
Personality
Personal development
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family%20law%20in%20Japan
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Family law in Japan
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The main family law of Japan is Part IV of . The contain provisions relating to the and notifications to the public office.
Background
The ie (家) or "household" was the basic unit of Japanese law until the end of World War II: most civil and criminal matters were considered to involve families rather than individuals. The ie was considered to consist of grandparents, their son and his wife and their children, although even in 1920, 54% of Japanese households already were nuclear families.
This system was formally abolished with the 1947 revision of Japanese family law under the influence of the allied occupation authorities, and Japanese society began a transition to a more Americanized nuclear family system. However, the number of nuclear families only slightly increased until 1980, when it reached 63%, and the Confucian principles underlying the "ie" concept only gradually faded and are still informally followed to some degree by many Japanese people today.
Marriage
Marriage of Japan's formality takes the form of civil marriage. A marriage is effected by filing notification of it. A wedding ceremony performed by a religious or fraternal body is not a necessary element for a legal marriage.
According to Articles 731–737 of the Civil Code,
A man before attaining 18 years of age, a woman before attaining 16 years of age, may not marry. (Article 731)
A minor shall obtain the consent of at least one parent to marry. (Article 737)
Bigamy is prohibited. (Article 732)
[declared unconstitutional in 2016 by the Supreme Court: A woman may not remarry within 6 months of the day of dissolution or cancellation of the previous marriage, except the case in which she both gets pregnant before the day and gives birth to the child. #1 (Article 733)]
Lineal relatives by blood, collateral relatives within the third degree of kinship by blood #2, may not marry, except between an adopted child and their collateral relatives by blood through adoption. #3 (Article 734)
Lineal relatives by affinity may not marry. #3 (Article 735)
An adoptive parent or a lineal ascendant of an adoptive parent may not marry with an adopted child, their spouse, their lineal descendant, or a spouse of their lineal descendant. #3 (Article 736)
It is considered that this remarriage prohibition is to avoid confusion as to the identification of the child's father.
between one and one's sibling, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece by blood.
It may be a case in which this prohibition shall apply after the termination of a family relationship between the two parties.
If one or both in the couple is a Japanese national, the marriage is recorded in a family register with one concerned Japanese at its head.
It's a rule in principle that the two shall have the family name in common following their marriage. However, if one of them is a non-Japanese, this rule does not apply. They can use one of the spouse’s names as their family name or keep their names after marriage. If a Japanese spouse changes their family name to their spouse's, the name change must be filed within 6 months of the marriage.
In a family register, a foreigner doesn't have their own entry, while he / she can be recorded in it as a spouse, for example.
International marriage
Children
Paternity
A child born to a married woman is assumed to be the child of her husband, although her husband may file in family court to disavow paternity if the paternity of the child is questioned. If a child is born to an unmarried woman, or if paternity is disavowed by the mother's husband, the father may later claim paternity through family court proceedings, or the child may file in family court to force his or her father to be recognized as the father.
Children are given the family name of their parents at the time of birth. If the father is unknown at the time of the child's birth, the child is given the family name of the mother, but may have his or her name changed to the father's family name after the father recognizes paternity.
Adoption
Child adoption in Japan is relatively uncommon, mainly due to lack of government support and legal trouble encountered from the child's birth parents. In Japan, even if a parent is legally unfit to see their child, the parent is still the child's legal guardian and their consent is required for everyday decisions, such as the child's education or field trips that may pose safety concerns. This is an issue even for parents looking to adopt because a child adopted over the age of 6 will still be registered in their birth parent's koseki, as written in Article 817-2 of the Japanese Civil Code. As a result, if parents want a special adoption, where the child is registered under the new parent's koseki, the child has to be under the age of 6.
There are two main places to apply to for adoption. The first is a religious adoption agency. These private agencies are allowed to charge a fee for the adoption process, as opposed to the process being free through the government.
The other is the local Child Guidance Center, which is a government agency. In 2010, United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child noted that the CGC staff did not seem to be properly trained to work in child services and did not seem to be promoting adoption. In 2016, the Child Welfare Act was revised to explicitly state that the CGCs were responsible for the adoption process. Furthermore, when adopting through government agencies, prospective parents must be Japanese married couples.
Surrogacy and Reproductive Technology
Surrogacy
Although there is no law banning birth by surrogacy in Japan, there is a strong stigma against it. "Japan's first surrogate birth was announced in 2001 and led to the Health Ministry calling for an immediate ban. Although this was blocked, the Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology successfully managed to prohibit [its members from conducting] surrogate births in 2003, citing the mental and physical burden to the surrogate mother and the fear that surrogacy could confuse familial relationships."
As a result, Japanese couples tend to seek surrogate mothers abroad. However, "current law in Japan states that the mother of a child is the one who gives birth to the baby," and that children must be registered in the koseki (family registry) to be a Japanese citizen. Since the surrogate is not Japanese and the father is not the surrogate's legal husband, the legal status of children born via surrogates may end up in question. A famous case of this issue is that of the Japanese actress, Aki Mukai, who had twin sons through an American surrogate mother in 2003. The boys only had American citizenship, which resulted in a series of court cases that ultimately culminated in the Supreme Court concluding that surrogacy was ethically wrong and Mukai had to adopt her sons to be considered their mother.
In 2005, a Tokyo-based sperm bank called Excellence began offering surrogate mothers and assisted conception services in South Korea to Japanese couples. At the time, it was the only Japanese company known to provide such a service, according to Excellence's head Yuji Sasaki.
In 2006, a doctor enabled a 61-year-old woman to carry the child of her daughter who was unable to give birth herself after cancer treatment. "The procedure was performed at the Suwa Maternity Clinic by Yahiro Netsu, a long standing supporter of surrogacy procedures. In a statement issued to the press, it said: 'The clinic hopes that Japan will hold forward-looking discussions on surrogate births and that it will take place in Japan without abuses.'" In light of this procedure, "then-Prime Minister Shinzo Abe told reporters that the issue of surrogacy is 'very difficult' and Sanae Takaichi, state minister for gender, equality and population has said that 'the discussion is highly welcome, but it is extremely difficult to judge whether surrogate birth can be encouraged.'"
In 2008, Manyi Yamada was born using donated eggs, the sperm of a Japanese man Ikufumi Yamada, and an Indian surrogate mother. Yamada and his Japanese wife divorced before Manyi's birth and the latter withdrew her consent to adopt Manyi, which left Yamada's application as a single father unlikely to be accepted. An Indian child welfare charity Satya petitioned unsuccessfully to gain custody of Manyi, claiming that "'they have violated Indian laws by not signing a surrogacy agreement and taking custody of a child abandoned by its mother.' The Japanese Justice Minister, Okiharu Yasuoka, indicated to reporters that he would consider granting Manyi a visa but that the legality of the birth was something that would need to be addressed in the near future. 'Whether to permit surrogate pregnancy is a matter to be discussed by respective institutions...The ministry will study the possibilities under the law out of consideration for the child's future.'" Ultimately, the Indian Supreme Court granted custody of Manyi to her grandmother Emiko Yamada.
"The son of a wealthy IT entrepreneur, Mitsutoki Shigeta attracted controversy in 2014 after Thai officials raided his flat in Bangkok on suspicion of human trafficking and found at least nine babies, nannies and a pregnant woman." He was quoted as saying 'The best thing I can do for the world is to leave many children,' and as hoping to father between 100 and 1,000 babies. "The case, which became known as the 'baby factory' scandal in the press, cast a spotlight on Thailand's surrogacy industry and the Thai government shortly afterwards introduced a ban on foreigners from paying for surrogacy in the country." A year later, the Thai "Women and Child Welfare Protection Bureau, which is currently taking care of the children, has confirmed that six of the surrogate mothers, three of whom gave birth to twins, are seeking custody," their lawsuit alleging that the bureau is failing to adequately care for the children. By 2018, however, the women had forfeited their rights to the children and the Thai court had awarded paternity rights to "the Japanese businessman"—mostly likely Shigeta—who had fathered them. An additional six babies had also by that point been identified as having been fathered by Shigeta, bringing the total identified so far to 17. A 2018 CNN report revealed that Shigeta has two additional children born to surrogates in India.
IVF and Artificial Insemination
Rumors that Empress Masako of Japan had undergone IVF treatments were reported by the UK's The Independent in 2001.
In 2001, a woman used the frozen sperm of her husband who had died two years previously from leukemia. "Originally, when the child's mother tried to register the birth, the local government refused to allow it, on the grounds that the father had died more than 300 days before the birth date and the normal length of human gestation is about 270 days. Under the Japanese Civil Code, a child is not recognized as having been born in wedlock if it is born more than 300 days after the end of a marital relationship." The mother filed a lawsuit to have her son legally recognized as the child of his father, saying that it was her husband's will that they have children and that her son will otherwise face discrimination for being illegitimate. "In November 2003, the first court ruled against the mother on the grounds of 'common sense' saying it was impossible to recognize the father-child relationship in such a case, and that there was little social awareness for acknowledging a deceased man as a child's father, even if his sperm was used. However, in July 2004, the Takamatsu High Court overturned the lower court's ruling. Now, following an appeal, the Supreme Court has overturned the High Court decision, saying that this was not a parent-child relationship that the Civil Code had envisaged. 'No parent-child relationship in a legal sense can be recognized, given the father died before she got pregnant and there is no possibility of the baby being dependent or receiving inheritance', said Justice Ryoji Nakagawa, who heard the appeal."
In 2004, Seiko Noda, a member of parliament for the Liberal Democratic Party, published a book entitled 'Watashi Wa Umitai' (I Want To Give Birth) detailing her unsuccessful treatments and the social stigma that accompanies infertile women in Japan. Seven years later, she sought an American egg donor and made headlines for giving birth at age 50.
In 2015, the ethics committee of the Japanese Institution for Standardising Assisted Reproductive Technology approved the country's first donations of eggs from women unrelated to the recipients. (Before then, 24 babies had been born through egg donation in Japan, but all the donors were either relatives or friends of the recipients.) It must be noted that "any children born as a result of the egg donation must be notified of this fact before they enter elementary school. When they reach the age of 15, they may find out the identity of the donors, if they choose to. Children born in Japan as a result of a sperm donation are currently unable to learn the identity of the donor."
In 2019, a married couple wanted to expand their family but discovered that the husband had a hereditary genetic condition. However, "preimplantation genetic diagnosis, where embryos are created via IVF and then tested for the genetic condition, is strictly regulated in Japan and difficult to access." At that time there were also no regulated sperm banks in Japan, the first, the Mirai Life Research Institute (みらい生命研究所) in Saitama Prefecture's Koshigaya City, not being established until July 2021. "Demand for Japanese sperm outstrips supply and only 12 clinics in Japan perform artificial insemination--“non-spousal artificial insemination by donor (AID),” known in Japanese as jinko jyusei (人工授精)—with donor sperm." Furthermore, official sperm donation in Japan is limited to legally married couples or hoteki fufu (法的夫婦); "single women (officially called “elective single mothers” or sentakuteki shinguru maza (選択的シングルマザー)), same-sex couples, and de facto married couples of female-to-male (FTM) trans persons who do not meet the conditions for gender reassignment in the family register are currently excluded from receiving sperm donation." Therefore Japanese couples have to choose between "importing sperm from international sperm banks, which is expensive, or making informal arrangements with private donors outside clinic settings." The latter arrangement is what the wife entered with a man whom she later claimed lied about his identity and credentials. Her subsequent lawsuit for emotional distress and fraud—and decision to place their child up for adoption after its birth—would make headlines.
"Since 2005 so-called “right to know origin” laws were established in Japan to enable children born via AID to be able to identify the original donor...A side effect of this law is that it has become very difficult to attract potential sperm donors who desire to remain anonymous." The lack of donors caused a surge in a so-called "black market" of mail orders made via social networking and 140+ websites, "many nothing more than hook-up scams masquerading as official medical resources."
The first legislation regarding donor conception in Japan was only issued by the Diet on 4 December 2020. This legislation, created in response to the aforementioned 2019 case, "recognized partners in heterosexual couples as the legal parents of any donor-conceived child and further strengthened Article 772 of the Civil Code, which states; 'A child conceived by a wife during marriage shall be presumed to be a child of her husband.'" The Diet is set to next consider "whether to expand the scope of the law to include more than just legal couples."
Then-candidate for Prime Minister Yoshihide Suga, in a 2020 candidacy speech, announced plans to make fertility treatments more widely available by including it on insurance coverage.
Divorce
There are four types of divorce in Japan:
Divorce by agreement (Kyōgi Rikon), based on mutual agreement.
Divorce by mediation in a family court (Chōtei Rikon), completed by applying for mediation by the family court (for cases in which divorce by mutual agreement cannot be reached).
Divorce by decision of the family court (Shinpan Rikon), which is divorce completed by family court decision when divorce cannot be established by mediation.
Divorce by judgment of a district court (Saiban Rikon). If divorce cannot be established by the family court, then application is made to the district court for a decision (application for arbitration is a prerequisite). Once the case is decided, the court will issue a certified copy and certificate of settlement, to be attached to the Divorce Registration.
"Neither marriage registration nor divorce have to occur in person. One person can submit the documentation with a seal bearing the other's name resulting in a
certain number of fraudulent registrations every year."
Foreign citizens must show evidence that they are able to be divorced in their country of nationality and that the procedures used in Japan are compatible with those of their home country.
Disputes over Child Custody and Nationality
Joint custody of children ends upon divorce. In a divorce by agreement, the husband and wife must determine which parent will have custody of each child. In other types of divorce, custody is determined by the mediator or judge, with a strong preference toward custody by the mother (especially with regard to children born after the divorce).
See also
International child abduction in Japan
Family policy in Japan
Recognition of same-sex unions in Japan
References
External links
English translation (non-official) of Japanese family and inheritance laws (Parts IV and V of Civil Code)
Colin P.A. Jones, 'In the Best Interests of the Court: What American Lawyers Need to Know about Child Custody and Visitation in Japan' Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal, Volume 8, Issue 2, Spring 2007
The Japan Children's Rights Network - Extensive information on Japanese family law
Takao Tanase, “Post-Divorce Laws Governing Parent and Child in Japan” - U.S. Department of State, 14 September 2010
Takao Tanase, “Divorce and the Best Interest of the Child: Disputes over Visitation and the Japanese Family Courts”, Jiyu to Seigi vol.60, issue 12 (2009), pp. 9–27
Taimie L. Bryant, "Family Models, Family Dispute Resolution and Family Law in Japan", UCLA Pacific Basin Law Journal vol. 14 issue 1 (1995)
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Gunatitanand Swami
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Gunatitanand Swami (28 September 1784 – 11 October 1867), born Mulji Jani, was a prominent paramhansa of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya who was ordained by Swaminarayan and is accepted as the first spiritual successor of Swaminarayan by the Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS). Born into a religious family in the small farming community of Bhadra in Gujarat, India, he first received religious education under his father's guru, Ramanand Swami, before encountering Swaminarayan and becoming a swami under him at the age of 25. He was revered for his spiritual discourses and divine service.
For the BAPS, he embodies an essential element of the doctrine of Akshar and Purushottam. They believe, based on interpretation, from the Vachanamrut that "Akshar is an eternally-existing spiritual reality having two forms, the impersonal and the personal". Furthermore, BAPS claims that Gunatitanand Swami was believed to be the first personal manifestation of Akshar in the Guru Parampara: an unbroken line of "perfect devotees" who provide "authentication of office through Gunatitanand Swami and back to Swaminarayan himself". The Vadtal and Ahmedabad dioceses of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya do not subscribe to this theory.
Gunatitanand Swami held various administrative roles, most notably as the mahant of Junagadh mandir, a position he held for forty years. In addition, he was a prominent speaker and was held in high regard as an authority on religious matters in general. A collection of his most important teachings on dharma, knowledge of the atman, detachment, bhakti, and various other matters has been published under the name Swamini Vato. Gunatitanand Swami died in 1867, and a famous shrine known as the Akshar Deri was built upon the spot his cremation rites were performed.
Early life
Gunatitanand Swami was born on 28 September 1784 (Aso Sud Punam, Ashadhi Vikram Samvat 1841) to Bholanath and Sakarba Jani in the village of Bhadra, situated near the river Und in what is now Gujarat, India. His father's guru, Ramanand Swami, named him Mulji. Even from a young age, it was evident that Mulji had a "disinclination towards material objects" and would exhibit a perspicacity that was rare for a child of his age, often claiming while playing with his younger brother Sundarji that he would become a swami and inspire Sundarji to become one. Various accounts indicate a close association between Mulji and Swaminarayan, who was born four years before Mulji. One such incident details how a thin line of milk appeared on the lips of a murti of "Thakorji", a small metal idol of Swaminarayan, while Mulji was himself drinking a glass of milk. In response to his mother's surprise at this, Mulji had explained, "Mother! Thakorji is always present in my heart. When I eat, Thakorji eats with me".
As Mulji approached adolescence, his sacred thread ceremony was performed on 13 June 1793 in anticipation of his pursuit of a religious education. After this event, Mulji immersed himself in learning about the various religious beliefs that were prevalent in Gujarat at the time. He openly told others that Narayan (God) would eventually visit his village and hence he had no reason to travel to Kashi, as was traditionally done for one who wished to pursue a serious religious education. Mulji began visiting prominent religious personalities and learnt from them the various religious and social nuances associated with each sect. By the time he was in his early teens, he had grasped the principles of Shuddhadvaita from Acharya Gosai Narsinhlalji of the Vaishnav Sampradaya and learnt about the Pranami sect. Ramanand Swami's Bhagvat Dharma appealed to him the most due to its teachings and practices and he accepted him as his first guru.
Mulji would often travel to the village of Shekhpat to visit Ramanand Swami and listen to his religious discourses. He formed a lasting friendship with Lalji Suthar, a native of Shekhpat who shared Mulji's zeal for Ramanand Swami's philosophies and who would later become Nishkulanand Swami, one of Swaminarayan's prominent swami disciples. For a period, they would meet every evening at a small shrine to Shiva on a stepwell in the village of Kiri between their respective villages and discuss various religious matters.
Meeting With Swaminarayan
Mulji’s first meeting with Swaminarayan Bhagwan occurred in the village of Piplana. Ramanand Swami invited Mulji and Lalji Suthar amongst others to the Bhagvati Diksha ceremony of Neelkanth Varni (Swaminarayan) to be held on 28 October 1800. Upon seeing Mulji, Neelkanth Varni had remarked, "This Mulji (Gunatitanand Swami) is the incarnation of Akshar Brahman, my abode, and will in the future profusely display by his talk and discourses the greatness of my form."
On subsequent visits to Bhadra (Gunatitanand Swami's hometown) and throughout his association with Gunatitanand Swami, Swaminarayan had alluded to the former's standing as Akshar in the theology of the sect. One such revelation was made to Gunatitanand Swami's mother, Sakarba. Swaminarayan arrived at Mulji's house along with a slew of prominent devotees including Vashrambhai, Dosabhai and Ratnabhai. While speaking about how Mulji had once predicted that Swaminarayan would come to eat at Sakarba's house, Swaminarayan remarked to Sakarba, "Mother you may not be able to understand, but your son Mulji is my divine abode, Akshardham."
As a swami
By 1809, Mulji had been in contact with Swaminarayan for many years yet his goal of becoming a swami still remained unfulfilled. Mulji continued working on his farm in the hope that he would be initiated into the swami fold at the earliest. On 21 November 1809, Mulji had a vision that Swaminarayan wanted to meet him. Once while he was digging channels in his sugar cane fields he had a vision of Swaminarayan. Swaminarayan asked him, "what have you come to do and what are you doing?" thus asking him to visit Gadhada Mulji immediately left for Gadhada and learnt of Swaminarayan's desire to initiate him as a swami. On 20 January 1810, at a grand yagna in the village of Dabhan, Swaminarayan initiated Mulji as a swami and named him Gunatitanand Swami. On this occasion, Swaminarayan again publicly confirmed that Gunatitanand Swami was the incarnation of Akshar, declaring, "Today, I am extremely happy to initiate Mulji Jani. He is my divine abode – Akshardham, which is infinite and endless".
Over the next few years, Gunatitanand Swami continued serving under Swaminarayan and became a core member of the 500 Paramhansas, a group of swamis respected for their spiritual enlightenment and renunciation of worldly pleasures. He further gained renown as a preacher and a summary of his teachings would later be published under the title Swamini Vato. One of his legacies was the famous temple at Junagadh. He played a prominent role in its construction, served as the mahant for forty years and provided a template for the administrative development of future religious establishments in the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. According to the BAPS, Gunatitanand Swami had a central role in propagating the tenets of the Akshar Purushottam Upasana, which included the identification of Swaminarayan as Purushottam firstly through various discourses and spiritual teachings and secondly through his identification of Bhagatji Maharaj as the next personal form of Akshar.
Later life and Bhagatji Maharaj
In line with his understanding of the Akshar Purushottam Upasana, Gunatitanand Swami continued discoursing around Gujarat and along with his primary spiritual mission, helped initiate various social reforms throughout the region. In 1826, along with other prominent paramhansas, he laid the foundation stone of the Junagadh mandir. As one of the earliest Swaminarayan mandirs in the region, the mandir at Junagadh would go on to become a prominent center of learning and spiritual pilgrimage. Taking into account the socio-religious landscape of Junagadh, Swaminarayan decided to appoint Gunatitanand Swami as the mahant (religious and administrative head) due to his leadership abilities and experience. Gunatitanand Swami played a significant role in shaping the administration of Junagadh Mandir. His emphasis on listening to spiritual discourses and attaining spiritual knowledge became de rigueur for all aspirants. Furthermore, he encouraged devotional service as a means of putting the theory of the discourses into practice and insisted that everyone, regardless of social standing, engage in service. For many decades, even into his old age, Gunatitanand Swami would perform the menial task of sweeping the mandir courtyard himself despite being the head of the temple. Gunatitanand Swami served as the Mahant of Junagadh mandir for 40 years. It was during this time that Gunatitanand Swami met Pragji Bhakta, or Bhagatji Maharaj as he became known, regarded by the BAPS as his successor, . While Bhagatji Maharaj had initially served under Gopalanand Swami, he accepted Gunatitanand Swami as his guru after Gopalanand Swami told him that true liberation would only be possible through the Jogi of Junagadh (a reference to Gunatitanand Swami). Over a period of time, Bhagatji Maharaj's nuanced understanding and absolute realization of Gunatitanand Swami’s teachings, in particular the Akshar Purushottam Upasana became apparent to all. Furthermore his renunciation of worldly desires and strong adherence to the principles of ekantik dharma were a pivotal component of his relationship with Gunatitanand Swami who referred to him as "someone who has profound faith and spiritual zeal". According to the BAPS, Gunatitanand Swami would eventually install Bhagatji Maharaj as his successor and would often tell devotees that "I have now handed over the key to Akshardham to Bhagatji Maharaj.”
Legacy
Gunatitanand Swami was instrumental in the early administration of the Swaminarayan fellowship after the death of Swaminarayan. Devotees and swamis alike looked up to him for leadership and direction. He encouraged Raghuvirji Maharaj to give up the pomp and splendor of his position and nurtured both his spiritual and administrative traits. According to the BAPS, Gunatitanand Swami's most important contributions were in the propagation of the spiritual metaphysics revealed by Swaminarayan. Williams explains that BAPS followers believe that "Gunatitanand Swami established a line of spiritual authorities…who have continued in a line of succession from Gunatitanand Swami" himself. According to the BAPS, this identification of Akshar as having both a personal and impersonal form, and an incarnation on earth, was specified by Swaminarayan in Vachanamruts Gadhada I-21 and Gadhada I-71, but it was not accepted by certain sections of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. It was this principle that would lead to the eventual formation of the BAPS branch of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. Similar to Swaminarayan before him, Gunatitanand Swami also instituted various social projects, from building wells and educating villagers to establishing guidelines for social behavior and preventing practices such as sati and infanticide. In a hitherto unheard of practice, he installed Bhagatji Maharaj, a common householder of a so-called lower caste, as his spiritual successor and transcended the caste system that was prevalent during that time in India. Inspired by the teachings of Swaminarayan and Gunatitanand Swami, Shastriji Maharaj reluctantly left the Vadtal diocese due to differences in philosophy to form BAPS as a separate entity and was later expelled by the Vadtal diocese after a hastily called meeting of temple trustees. Gunatitanand Swami's murti is always seen in the central shrine alongside Swaminarayan in all BAPS mandirs, as they embody the central principle of Akshar and Purushottam.
Death
On 16 September 1867, Gunatitanand Swami paid homage to the murti of Swaminarayan in Junagadh mandir for the last time and departed for a tour of neighboring towns and villages having served as the mahant for 40 years 4 months and 4 days. As he was leaving, he declared, "I will now reside in Mahuva", assumed by BAPS followers to means as his passing of the spiritual torch to Bhagatji Maharaj who lived in Mahuva and not a reference to his physical destination. He traveled through the villages of Ganod, Upleta, Bhayavadar and Vanthali before finally arriving at Gondal to celebrate a religious festival at the behest of Madhavji Dave, the town administrator. Gunatitanand Swami visited Navlakha Palace where the Maharaja of Gondal donated a piece of land to the Swaminarayan mandir. Gunatitanand Swami returned to Swaminarayan Mandir in Gondal at 9pm and died at 12:45am on 11 October 1867. His obsequies were performed the next day on the banks of the River Gondali Abhaysinh Darbar of Ganod, a disciple of Gunatitanand Swami, later built a shrine at the spot of his final rites that is known as Akshar Deri. On 23 May 1934, despite severe financial difficulties, Shastriji Maharaj consecrated the murtis of Swaminarayan and Gunatitanand Swami in the central shrine of a new, three-shikar mandir built above the Akshar Deri, Multitudes of people from around the world visit Akshar Mandir each year and circumambulate Akshar Deri (perform pradakshina) seeking peace of mind and fulfillment of their auspicious desires, making it one of the most visited places of pilgrimage in the region.
Gunatitanand Swami as Akshar
Considerable dissent exists among various Swaminarayan groups regarding Gunatitanand Swami's status as Akshar, with BAPS being one of the foremost, though not only, groups propagating this principle as a foundation of their Akshar Purushottam philosophy, or Upasana. The Akshar Purushottam Upasana is the central theological tenet upon which the BAPS denomination of Swaminarayan Hinduism is based. Proponents of this philosophy believe that of the five eternal entities (Jiva, Ishwar, Maya, Brahman and Parabrahman), Akshar (Brahman) and Purushottam (Parabrahman) eternally transcend the illusion of maya. While both BAPS and certain sections of the dioceses of Ahmedabad and Vadtal accept Purushottam as God and the cause of all the avatars, the concept of Akshar has led to much debate and is one of the primary causes of the schism between the denominations. Yājñavalkya Smṛti was authorized as a sacred text by Swaminarayan and it contains the following proof-text of Akshar, explaining that, "If one does not know Akshar, then one’s oblations, sacrifices and austerities for many thousands of years in this world will come to an end; and when one departs from this world without knowing Akshar, one is miserable". The Vadtal and Ahmedabad dioceses believe this Akshar to be the divine abode of the supreme entity Purushottam. The BAPS denomination concurs that Akshar is the divine abode of Purushottam, but they further understand Akshar as "an eternally existing spiritual reality having two forms, the impersonal and the personal". The impersonal form is the divine abode of Purushottam while the personal form is described as the perfect devotee of Purushottam through whom this ultimate reality can be reached. Members of the BAPS branch support the ontology of Akshar through various accounts from Swaminarayan's time by pointing to the words of Swaminarayan in the Vachanamrut, specifically in the chapters of Gadhada I-21, Gadhada I-71, Gadhada III-26, Vadtal 5 and others. In Vachanamrut Gadhada I-21, Swaminarayan states that "Akshar has two forms"; one is impersonal, known as "Brahmamahol" or Akshardham, and "in its other form, that Akshar remains in the service of Purushottam Nãrãyan". The personal form of Akshar is understood to serve Purushottam within his divine abode and also when God incarnates on earth. Swaminarayan clarifies this in Vachanamrut Gadhada I-71 stating that "when God incarnates on earth … he is always accompanied by his Akshardham." Pointing to these and many other statements by Swaminarayan in the Vachanamrut, the BAPS denomination of Swaminarayan Hinduism supports the Akshar doctrine within the Akshar Purushottam Upasana. To explain their understanding that this Akshar first incarnated on earth as Gunatitanand Swami, they point to evidence from other scriptures and authoritative sources in which Swaminarayan and others revealed Gunatitanand Swami as Akshar.
In addition to sources within their oral tradition, followers of BAPS Swaminarayan Sanstha, point to several references of Gunatitanand Swami as Akshar occurring in scriptures and texts published by the acharyas of the Vadtal or Ahmedabad dioceses. One revelation of Gunatitanand Swami as Akshar occurred in 1810 at the conclusion of the grand yagna of Dabhan where Swaminarayan initiated Gunatitanand Swami as a swami. On this occasion, Swaminarayan is believed to have publicly confirmed that Gunatitanand Swami was the incarnation of Akshar, declaring, "Today, I am extremely happy to initiate Mulji Jani. He is my divine abode – Akshardham, which is infinite and endless". The first Acharya of the Vadtal diocese, Raghuvirji Maharaj, recorded this declaration in the Harililakalpataru (7.17.49-50), a scripture that he had composed. His second successor as the Acharya of the Vadtal diocese, Shri Acharya Viharilalji Maharaj, composed a series of verses in a text titled Shri Kirtan Kaustubhamala where he states, "Aksharmurti Gunatitanand Swami initiated me and guided me to practice the religious vows". Although certain leaders of the Vadtal diocese historically understood Gunatitanand Swami to be Akshar, over time their position on the issue has been reversed and currently they do not accept Gunatitanand Swami as Akshar. However, while the leadership of the Vadtal and Ahmedabad dioceses currently repudiate Gunatitanand Swami as Akshar, various groups within the Vadtal and Ahmedabad dioceses continue to understand Gunatitanand Swami to be Akshar.
So, while this doctrinal understanding of Gunatitanand Swami as Akshar had been present from the time of Swaminarayan, and it was explained as such by Gunatitanand Swami and later Bhagatji Maharaj, it was not until the time of Shastriji Maharaj that an institutional separation mirroring these two different schools of thought occurred. Matters came to a head when a majority of the swami in Vadtal opposed Shastriji Maharaj's propagation of this teaching, and after numerous attempts on his life had failed, eventually forced him to leave. Shastriji Maharaj subsequently established BAPS as a separate entity from the Vadtal and Ahmedabad dioceses of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. Shastriji Maharaj, a devotee of Gunatitanand Swami and revered as a manifestation of Akshar, explained that Swaminarayan's teaching in the Vachanamrut and other scriptures showed that there exists at all times a perfect devotee, Akshar Brahman, through whom Swaminarayan manifests on earth. He identified Gunatitanand Swami and Bhagatji Maharaj as the first two embodiments of Akshar. Furthermore, he explained that those who wish to come close to Purushottam should imbibe the qualities of his ideal devotee, that is, Akshar, in order to achieve liberation.
Thus according to Swaminarayan's statements in the Vachanamrut, there is an Akshar present on earth with Purushottam and as described previously, Gunatitanand Swami is believed by BAPS followers to be the first personal manifestation of Akshar in the Guru Parampara, an unbroken line of "perfect devotees" who provide "authentication of office through Gunatitanand Swami and back to Swaminarayan himself." As a consequence, the prefix Aksharbrahma is often added to his name. The Swaminarayan mantra itself, according to advocates of the Akshar Purushottam Upasana, succinctly expounds this doctrine in that 'Swami' represents Akshar and 'Narayan' represents Purushottam. Members of the Vadtal and Ahmedabad dioceses maintain that the Swaminarayan mantra only represents Purushottam rather than two separate entities. However, both denominations chant the name Swaminarayan with each understanding it according to their respective theological adherence.
Swamini Vato
Literally meaning "Swami’s talks", the Swamini Vato are selected excerpts of the numerous discourses given by Gunatitanand Swami over the course of his life. "The importance of Swadharma, Atmagnana, futility of sensual pleasures and detachment and devotion with the knowledge of the glory of God" form an integral part of this scripture. It has also been referred to as a "comprehensive commentary" on the Vachanamrut. The Swamini Vato used by the Vadtal and Ahmedabad dioceses contains five chapters that were recorded by Balmukunddas Swami, a disciple of Gunatitanand Swami. The BAPS denomination uses an edition of the Swamini Vato that includes the addition of two more chapters compiled by Krishnaji Ada, another disciple of Gunatitanand Swami, based on the latest research and critical study of the original manuscripts.
References
Swaminarayan Sampradaya
Indian Hindu saints
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AVCHD
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AVCHD (Advanced Video Coding High Definition) is a file-based format for the digital recording and playback of high-definition video. It is H.264 and Dolby AC-3 packaged into the MPEG transport stream, with a set of constraints designed around the camcorders.
Developed jointly by Sony and Panasonic, the format was introduced in 2006 primarily for use in high definition consumer camcorders. Related specifications include the professional variants AVCCAM and NXCAM.
Favorable comparisons of AVCHD against HDV and XDCAM EX solidified perception of AVCHD as a format acceptable for professional use. Both Panasonic and Sony released the first consumer AVCHD camcorders in spring of 2007. Panasonic released the first AVCHD camcorder aimed at the professional market in 2008, though it was nothing more than the (by then discontinued) FLASH card consumer model rebadged with a different model number.
In 2011 the AVCHD specification was amended to include 1080-line 50-frame/s and 60-frame/s modes (AVCHD Progressive) and stereoscopic video (AVCHD 3D). The new video modes require double the data rate of previous modes.
AVCHD and its logo are trademarks of Sony and Panasonic.
Overview
For video compression, AVCHD uses the H.264/MPEG-4 AVC standard, supporting a variety of standard, high definition, and stereoscopic (3D) video resolutions. For audio compression, it supports both Dolby AC-3 (Dolby Digital) and uncompressed linear PCM audio. Stereo and multichannel surround (5.1) are both supported.
Aside from recorded audio and video, AVCHD includes many user-friendly features to improve media presentation: menu navigation, simple slide shows and subtitles. The menu navigation system is similar to DVD-video, allowing access to individual videos from a common intro screen. Slide shows are prepared from a sequence of AVC still frames, and can be accompanied by a background audio track. Subtitles are used in some camcorders to timestamp the recordings.
Audio, video, subtitle, and ancillary streams are multiplexed into an MPEG transport stream and stored on media as binary files. Usually, memory cards and HDDs use the FAT file system, while optical discs employ UDF or ISO 9660.
At the file system level, the structure of AVCHD is derived from the Blu-ray Disc specification, but is not identical to it. In particular, it uses legacy "8.3" file naming convention, while Blu-ray Discs utilize long filenames (this may be caused by the fact that FAT implementations utilizing long file names are patented by Microsoft and are licensed on a per unit sold basis). Another difference is location of the BDMV directory, which contains media files. On a DVD-based camcorder the BDMV directory is placed at the root level, as on the Blu-ray Disc. On the HDD-based Canon HG10 camcorder the BDMV directory is located in the AVCHD directory, which is placed at the root level. Solid-state Panasonic and Canon camcorders nest the AVCHD directory inside the PRIVATE directory. Following a standard agreed upon by many still camera manufacturers, solid-state camcorders have a root-level DCIM directory for still images.
AVCHD is compatible with the Blu-ray format and can be authored without re-encoding on Blu-rays or DVDs, though not all Blu-ray Disc players are compatible with AVCHD video authored on DVD media, a format known as AVCHD disc.
AVCHD recordings can be transferred to a computer by connecting the camcorder via the USB connection. Removable media like SDHC and Memory Stick cards or DVDs can be read on a computer directly. Copying files from an AVCHD camcorder or from removable media can be performed faster than from a tape-based camcorder, because the transfer speed is not limited by realtime playback.
Just as editing DVCPRO HD and HDV video once demanded an expensive high-end computer, AVCHD editing software requires powerful machines. Compared to HDV, AVCHD requires 2-4 times the processing power for realtime playback, placing a greater burden on the computer's CPU and graphics card. Improvements in multi-core computing and graphics processor acceleration bring AVCHD playback to mainstream desktops and laptops.
Video formats
AVCHD supports a variety of video resolutions and scanning methods, which was further extended with the 2011 amendment of the specification. The licensing body of the specification defines a variety of labels for products compliant with specific features.
Most AVCHD camcorders support only a handful of the video and audio formats allowed in the AVCHD standard.
Interlaced video
AVCHD supports both standard definition (AVCHD-SD) and high definition (AVCHD 1080i) interlaced video. AVCHD 1080i is available on most AVCHD camcorders. For some models this is the only recording mode offered.
AVCHD-SD is used in the shoulder-mount Panasonic HDC-MDH1, as well as on its North American AG-AC7 cousin. A successor model the AG-AC8, is also capable of recording in AVCHD-SD mode. Several models from JVC like the consumer camcorders GZ-HM650, GZ-HM670 and GZ-HM690 as well as the professional camcorder JVC GY-HM70 can record AVCHD-SD video. AVCHD-SD is not compatible with consumer DVD players, because it employs AVC video encoding instead of MPEG-2 Part 2. AVCHD-SD can be played on a Blu-ray Disc player without re-encoding.
Interlaced video had been originally designed for watching on a cathode-ray tube television set. Material recorded for interlaced presentation may exhibit combing or ghosting when it is rescaled, filmed out or watched on a computer or another progressive-scan device without proper deinterlacing.
Some AVCHD 1080i camcorders can capture progressive video and record it within interlaced stream borrowing techniques from television industry. In particular, Progressive segmented frame (PsF) is utilized in some Panasonic (25p Digital Cinema), Canon (PF25, PF30) and Sony camcorders. The 2:3 pulldown technique is used in some 60 Hz versions of Canon (PF24) and Panasonic (24p Digital Cinema) camcorders for recording 24-frame/s progressive video. Most editing tools treat progressive video recorded within an interlaced stream as interlaced, though some editing systems and most standalone Blu-ray Disc players are capable of recognizing the pulldown pattern to recover the original frames using the process known as inverse telecine.
Progressive-scan video
Since the very beginning, the AVCHD specification had supported 720-line progressive recording mode at frame rates of 24 and 60 frames/s for 60 Hz models and 50 frames/s for 50 Hz models. Frame rates of 25 frames/s and 30 frames/s are not directly available in 720p mode, but can be simulated with frame repeating, when every frame is either repeated twice or a special flag in the video stream instructs a decoder to play every frame twice to adhere to output rate of 50 or 60 frames/s.
Many of the digital compact cameras made by Panasonic, such as the DMC-ZS3/DMC-TZ7, DMC-FT1, DMC-FZ35/DMC-FZ38, and DMC-ZS-7/TZ-10 offer 720p video recording with effective frame rate of 25 or 30 frames/s in a format called AVCHD Lite (see below).
Until the advent of AVCHD Progressive mode, native progressive-scan video for 1080-line resolution had been available only in 24 frames/s variant. In 2010, Panasonic introduced a new lineup of consumer AVCHD camcorders with 1080-line 50p/60p progressive-scan mode (frame rate depending on region). Panasonic advised that not all players that support AVCHD playback could play 1080-line 50p/60p video. In 2011, this mode was officially included into the AVCHD specification as part of 2.0 addendum, and has been called AVCHD Progressive. This mode uses the same AVCHD folder structure and container files for storing video, with the maximum bitrate of 28 Mbit/s. In 2011, Sony introduced consumer and professional AVCHD models capable of AVCHD Progressive recording. In 2012 JVC announced the GY-HMQ10 model, which also can record AVCHD Progressive video.
Audio formats
Most AVCHD camcorders record audio using Dolby Digital (AC-3) compression scheme. Stereo and multichannel audio is supported. Audio data rate can range from 64 kbit/s to 640 kbit/s. In practice, data rates of 256 kbit/s and 384 kbit/s have been observed.
Some professional models allow recording uncompressed linear PCM audio.
Media
AVCHD specification allows using recordable DVDs, memory cards, non-removable solid-state memory and hard disk drives as recording media.
DVD
When the AVCHD standard was first announced, recordable DVD was the only recording medium. To reduce camcorder size, manufacturers opted for an 8 cm disc, sometimes called miniDVD. Recording capacity of an 8 cm disc ranges from 1.4 GB for a single-sided single layer disc to 5.2 GB for a double-sided double layer disc.
Pros:
DVDs are familiar to most consumers, thus considered user-friendly.
Recordable DVDs are relatively cheap.
Recorded disc can be played back in most Blu-ray Disc players.
Discs can be used for long-term storage of recorded video.
Cons:
Some argue that the longevity of recordable DVDs may be shorter than expected.
Rewritable DVDs cost more than write-once discs.
DVDs must be "finalized" to play back on set-top players (though DVD-RWs can be unfinalized again).
Double-layer recording is less robust than single-layer recording.
To use both sides of a double-sided disc it must be flipped over, because camcorders have pickup from one side only.
AVCHD DVDs can only be played back on DVD/Blu-ray players specifically designed to do so.
The AVCHD specification limits data rate for DVD-based AVCHD camcorders to 18 Mbit/s, but no DVD-based AVCHD camcorder manufactured to date is capable of recording at data rate higher than 12 Mbit/s (Canon, Sony) or 13 Mbit/s (Panasonic).
A single-sided single-layer 8 cm DVD can fit only 15 minutes of video at 12 Mbit/s, 14 minutes at 13 Mbit/s.
DVD pickup mechanism is very susceptible to vibration.
8 cm DVDs cannot be used in many slot-loading drives and may even damage the drive.
As the capacity of memory cards grew and their price dropped, DVDs use for recordable media declined. No DVD-based AVCHD camcorders have been produced since 2008. While DVDs are no longer used for acquisition, they remain popular as distribution media. Many authoring programs offer "AVCHD" profile for recording high definition video on a DVD. Such AVCHD discs are incompatible with regular DVD-Video players, but play in many Blu-ray Disc players. A conventional single-layer 12 cm DVD can store 35 minutes of video recorded at the maximum bitrate the AVCHD specification allows for DVD media—18 Mbit/s.
Hard disk drive
A hard disk drive was added as an optional recording medium to AVCHD specification shortly after the new video standard had been announced. Presently, capacity of built-in HDDs ranges from 30 GB to 240 GB.
Pros:
Higher capacity than other media types, which allows for longer continuous recording.
Cons:
Sensitive to atmospheric pressure. The HDD may fail if the camcorder is used at altitudes above .
Vulnerable to mechanical shock or fast movement.
All HDD-based AVCHD camcorders employ non-removable disks. To transfer video to a computer the camcorder must be connected with a USB cable. Most camcorders require using an AC power adapter for this operation.
The sound of moving magnetic heads may be heard in the recorded video when recording in quiet environment.
Replacing a damaged HDD requires disassembling a camcorder and cannot be done by a consumer.
Solid-state memory card
Many AVCHD camcorders employ Secure Digital or "Memory Stick" memory cards as removable recording media. Solid-state memory cards offer rewritable storage in a compact form factor with no moving parts.
Panasonic and Sony chose removable flash memory as the sole type of recording media in their professional AVCHD lineups, specifically AVCCAM and NXCAM.
Until 2010, Sony insisted on usage of its own memory card format - Memory Stick. Since 2010, Sony has allowed using both Memory Stick as well as Secure Digital cards in its consumer and professional camcorders. Panasonic as well as other manufacturers of AVCHD camcorders use Secure Digital cards as removable flash media. Most models accept Secure Digital High Capacity cards (SDHC), while some models are also compatible with Secure Digital Extended Capacity (SDXC) cards, which offer higher transfer speed and capacity.
Pros:
Compact and lightweight.
Does not require time for spin-up and initialization.
Not vulnerable to magnetic fields.
Can withstand a wider range of air pressure, humidity and vibration than HDDs.
Can be easily backed up to DVD for viewing and for long-term archiving.
Can store mixed media content, including still images like snapshot photos and still-frame captures.
The recording section contains no moving parts, thus operation is almost silent; also a camera can be made more compact and less prone to mechanical damage in case of being dropped.
Most new computers, many TV sets and Blu-ray Disc players, as well as many personal portable media players have built-in card readers and can play AVCHD video directly from a card.
Cons:
More expensive per minute of recording than a built-in HDD or DVD media.
Not reliable for long term storage and may wear out more rapidly than expected, especially the cards made with MLC technology as opposed to cards using SLC technology.
Vulnerable to electrical damage, such as static discharge, and too high temperature.
A bad memory card can cause data corruption, causing loss of one or more clips.
Non-removable solid-state memory
Some AVCHD camcorders come with built-in solid-state memory either as a sole media, or in addition to other media.
Pros:
Allows making a camcorder smaller if no other media is used.
Always available for recording, in case other type of media is full or missing.
Cons:
Because recording media is non-removable, the recorded images should be backed up either to a computer with a USB cable to transfer video or (if the camera accepts them) to another FLASH card or even a DVD or Blu-ray through an externally connected burner. Usage of an AC power adapter may be required.
Non-removable media cannot be shared, sent or stored separately of the camcorder.
If damaged or worn out, non-removable media cannot easily be replaced like a memory card.
Branding
Panasonic and Sony developed several brand names for their professional as well as simplified versions of AVCHD.
AVCHD Lite
AVCHD Lite is a subset of AVCHD format announced in January 2009, which is limited to 720p60, 720p50 and 720p24 and does not employ Multiview Video Coding. AVCHD Lite cameras duplicate each frame of 25fps/30fps video acquired by camera sensor, producing 720p50/720p60 bitstream compliant with AVCHD and Blu-ray Disc specifications. As of 2013, AVCHD Lite seems to have been all but replaced with other formats. For example, the Panasonic DMC FZ-200 offers AVCHD Progressive recording mode (50fps/60fps acquisition and stream rate) as well as MP4 mode (25fps/30fps acquisition and stream rate).
AVCCAM
Formerly known as "AVCHD with professional features," AVCCAM is the name of professional AVCHD camcorders from Panasonic's Broadcast division. Some of these professional features listed in early Panasonic advertising materials included 1/3-inch progressive 3CCD sensor, XLR microphone input, solid-state media and capability of recording at the maximum AVCHD bitrate 24 Mbit/s. The aforementioned features are not exclusive to AVCCAM. Moreover, some of these features like CCD sensor technology have been dropped by Panasonic, while 24 Mbit/s recording rate is widely available from rival manufacturers even on consumer models.
AVCHD Pro
Panasonic uses "AVCHD Pro" moniker to describe camcorders like the HDC-MDH1, which combines consumer internal parts and controls with shoulder-mount type body. Panasonic touts that the camcorder is "shaped for Pro-Style shooting in Full-HD" with shoulder-mount type body being "preferred by professionals".
NXCAM
NXCAM is the name of Sony's professional video lineup employing the AVCHD format. NXCAM camcorders offer 1080i, 1080p and 720p recording modes. Unlike AVCCAM, not all NXCAM camcorders offer film-like frame rates—24p, 25p, 30p—in 720p mode.
Playing back AVCHD video
Recorded AVCHD video can be played back in a variety of ways:
Direct playback video can be played on a television set from a camcorder through HDMI or component-video cable.
AVCHD disc AVCHD video, recorded onto DVD can be played on most Blu-ray Disc players or on a PlayStation 3 gaming console.
Blu-ray AVCHD video, recorded onto Blu-ray can be played on most Blu-ray Disc players (see table below).
AVCHD memory card AVCHD video, recorded on an SDHC or Memory Stick card can be played on select Blu-ray Disc players, HDTV sets, on a PlayStation 3 gaming console and on some other set-top media players.
USB playback video files, recorded on an external storage device like a hard disk drive or a USB "stick" can be played on select Blu-ray Disc players, HDTV sets, gaming consoles, set-top media players and from a computer.
Computer playback any media and target format that is supported by a particular computer hardware and software can be watched on a computer monitor or TV set. Presently, the open-source VLC media player plays AVCHD video files and a wide variety of additional formats, and is freely available for most modern operating systems (including Linux, macOS, MS Windows) and some mobile platforms. Since Mountain Lion, macOS does support native AVCHD playback via the default media player, QuickTime. Some Windows 7 editions can import and play AVCHD video natively, having files with extensions M2TS, MTS and M2T pre-registered in the system. (Windows 7 starter edition does not support AVCHD files out of the box, and so requires a third-party player.) In editions of Windows 7 that do support AVCHD files, Windows Media Player can index content in these files, and Windows Explorer can create thumbnails for each clip. Windows 7 does not support importing of AVCHD video metadata such as thumbnail images, playlists, and clip index files. Joining AVCHD video files during the import is not supported either.
AVCHD as distribution format
A DVD disc with AVCHD high-definition video recorded on it is sometimes called an AVCHD disc. AVCHD discs cannot be played in a standard DVD player, but can be played in many Blu-ray Disc players. Smooth playback is not guaranteed if overall data rate exceeds 18 Mbit/s. It is possible to create simple menus similar to menus used for DVD-video discs.
AVCHD content can also be recorded on SDHC cards and played by many television sets, Blu-ray Disc players and media consoles.
The AVCHD specification does not officially support Blu-ray Disc media, though some software packages allow authoring AVCHD content on Blu-ray Discs. For better compatibility with Blu-ray Disc players AVCHD video can be authored on Blu-ray Disc media as Blu-ray Disc video. Authoring a Blu-ray Disc video title does not require re-encoding of AVCHD audio and video streams. The resultant disc plays in any Blu-ray Disc player, including those that do not explicitly support AVCHD.
Many software vendors support AVCHD mastering. In particular:
Cyberlink PowerDirector and PowerProducer can author a compliant AVCHD disc, or BDMV on DVD media.
Corel (formerly Ulead) DVD MovieFactory 7 can master AVCHD discs with menus.
Various Sonic products can author AVCHD discs using HD/BD Plug-in.
Compressor 3.5 is capable of authoring AVCHD discs; subtitles are not supported.
Nero Vision 9 can create an AVCHD disc with data rate up to 18 Mbit/s, or an AVCHD-compliant folder for distribution on an HDD or a memory card with data rate up to 24 Mbit/s.
Sony DVD Architect 5 can author AVCHD-compliant discs with menus using AVC encoding as well as non-standard discs using MPEG-2 encoding. In both cases data rate is limited to 18 Mbit/s.
Panasonic HD Writer AE can author AVCHD content on DVDs, BD discs and on SD cards.
MultiAVCHD can author AVCHD discs as well as Panasonic-compliant AVCHD memory cards.
Magix Movie Edit Pro 15 Plus with updates can author AVCHD content on DVDs, BD discs.
Pinnacle Studio 11.1.2 and higher offers AVCHD disc output.
Although AVCHD shares many format similarities with Blu-ray Disc, it is not part of the Blu-ray Disc specification. Consequently, AVCHD-playback is not universally supported across Blu-ray Disc players. Blu-ray Disc players with "AVCHD" logo play AVCHD discs authored either on 8 cm or 12 cm DVDs. Players without such a logo are not guaranteed to play AVCHD discs.
The 1080-line 50p/60p AVCHD Progressive recording mode employed in some camcorders, is not compliant with the current Blu-ray Disc specification, though many current player models unofficially support it if they support AVCHD format.
Hardware products
Canon
Depending on model, Canon camcorders offer 1080-line interlaced, PsF, and native 24p recording.
HR10 (DVD)
2007: HG10 (40 GB HDD)
April 2008: HF10 (SDHC, built-in 16 GB flash memory), HF100 (SDHC)
September 2008: HF11 (SDHC, built-in 32 GB flash memory), HG20 (60 GB HDD, SDHC), HG21 (120 GB HDD, SDHC)
January 2009: HF S10 (SDHC, built-in 32 GB flash memory), HF S100 (SDHC), HF20 (SDHC, built-in 32 GB flash memory), HF200 (SDHC)
August 2009: HF S11 (SDHC, built-in 64 GB flash memory, wired LANC remote capability)
January 2010: HF S21 (two SDHC slots, 64 GB flash memory, electronic viewfinder), HF S20 (two SDHC slots, 32 GB flash memory), HF S200 (two SDHC slots); HF M31 (SDHC, 32 GB flash memory), HF M30 (SDHC, 8 GB flash memory), HF M300 (SDHC); HF R11 (32 GB flash memory), HF R10 (SDHC, 8 GB flash memory), HF R100 (SDHC)
April 2011: HF G10 (with inch image sensor)
March 2012: HF M500 (with inch image sensor; 24pf, 30pf, and 60i; removable SDHC/SDXC flash memory) / HF G20 4:2:2
Hitachi
2008: DZ-BD10HA (Three-media recording: Blu-ray Disc, AVCHD on HDD, AVCHD on SDHC)
JVC
2008 June: GZ-HD10 (HDD, MicroSDHC), GZ-HD30/GZ-HD40(HDD, MicroSDHC card, dual AVCHD and TOD recording)
2009 January: GZ-HD320 (120 GB HDD, MicroSD), GZ-HD300 (60 GB HDD, MicroSD), GZ-HM200 (dual SDHC)
2009 February: GZ-X900 (SD/SDHC card)
2009 September: GZ-HM300, GZ-HM400
2009 December: GZ-HD620
2010 March: GZ-HM1
2011 January: GZ-HM30 (pre-released December 2010)
2011: GZ-HM4XX, GZ-HM6XX, GZ-HM8XX, GZ-HM9XX
2013: GZ-EX555
2014: GZ-R10BAA
2018: GZ-R495BE
Leica Camera
Digital still cameras
2010: LEICA D-LUX 5, LEICA V-LUX 2
2012: LEICA D-LUX 6
Panasonic
Panasonic AVCHD camcorders offer interlaced, progressive scan or native progressive recording and combinations of these modes depending on a particular model. 1080-line and 720-line recording is possible depending on a model.
Panasonic AVCHD camcorders use AVC with High Profile @ Level 4.0 for all modes except 1080p50/1080p60, which are encoded with High Profile @ Level 4.2. Maximum data rate is limited to 24 Mbit/s for AVCCAM models, to 17 Mbit/s for most consumer models and to 28 Mbit/s for 1080p50/1080p60 recording modes.
December 2006: HDC-DX1 (DVD), HDC-SD1 (SDHC)
HDC-SD3 (SDHC, available in Japan only)
AG-HSC1U - essentially a rebadged HDC-HC1 (SDHC, comes with portable 40 GB HDD storage)
August 2007: HDC-SD5 (SDHC), HDC-SX5 (DVD, SDHC), HDC-SD7 (SDHC)
January 2008: HDC-SD9 (SDHC), HDC-HS9 (60 GB HDD, SDHC)
April 2008: AG-HMC70 (SDHC)
June 2008: HDC-SD100 (SDHC), HDC-HS100 (60 GB HDD, SDHC)
September 2008: AG-HMC150 (SDHC)
January 2009: HDC-HS300 (120 GB HDD), HDC-HS200 (80 GB HDD), HDC-TM300 (32 GB built-in flash memory, SDHC), HDC-SD300 (SDHC, available in Europe only), HDC-SD200 (SDHC).
June 2009: HDC-TM30/HDC-TM10 (32 GB built-in flash memory, SDHC), HDC-SD10 (SDHC)
June 2009: HDC-TM350 (64 GB built-in flash memory, SDHC, available in Japan and as of October 2009, from Panasonic Stores across the UK)
September 2009: AG-HMC40 (SDHC)
February 2010: HDC-TM700/HDC-SD700/HDC-HS700 (introduced 1080p60/1080p50 modes, depending on region)
March 2010: HDC-SD60/HDC-TM60/HDC-HS60
December 2010: AG-AF100/AG-AF101/AG-AF102 (4/3" large sensor camera)
September 2011: AG-AC130/AG-AC160 (SDXC/SDHC/SD)
June 2014: AG-AC90A; upgrade of the AG-AC90
In 2009 Panasonic introduced AVCHD Lite and AVCHD to selected members of its Lumix line of digital cameras:
2009: DMC-ZS3/TZ7*, DMC-TS1/DMC-FT1* (AVCHD Lite)
2009: DMC-GH1 (AVCHD)
2010: Lumix DMC-ZS7/TZ10*, DMC-G2 (AVCHD lite)
2010: Lumix DMC-GH2, DMC-GF2 (AVCHD)
2011: Lumix DMC-ZS10/TZ20* (AVCHD lite)
2011: Lumix DMC-FX77/FX78*, DMC-TS3*, DMC-FZ45/47/48*
2011: Lumix DMC-GF2, DMC-G3/GF3 (AVCHD)
2012: Lumix DMC-ZS20/TZ30 (AVCHD, AVCHD Progressive: GPH, PSH)
2012: Lumix DMC-G5
2012: Lumix DMC-FZ200
2012: Lumix DMC-GH3 with a bit rate of 28 Megabit per second (AVCHD 2.0)
2012: Panasonic Lumix DMC-LX7
* to avoid European specific tax, Panasonic digital cameras for this market are limited to 30 minutes recording.
Sony
Consumer Sony AVCHD camcorders released before 2011 could record 1080-line interlaced video only, while the prosumer HDR-AX2000 and professional HXR-NX5 cameras were capable of recording in interlaced and progressive formats.
Released in March 2011, the Sony NEX-FS100 is the first professional NXCAM camcorder capable of 1080p50/p60 recording; consumer-grade HandyCam NEX-VG20 followed in August 2011.
The list of AVCHD camcorders includes:
September 2006: HDR-UX1 (DVD), HDR-UX3/UX5 (DVD), HDR-UX7 (DVD)
October 2006: HDR-SR1 (30 GB HDD)
June 2007: HDR-SR5 (40 GB HDD), HDR-SR7 (60 GB HDD)
July 2007: HDR-SR5C (100 GB HDD), HDR-SR8 (100 GB HDD)
Summer 2007: HDR-CX7 (Memory Stick Duo)
March 2008: HDR-SR10 (40GB HDD, Memory Stick), HDR-SR11 (60 GB HDD, Memory Stick), HDR-SR12 (120 GB HDD, Memory Stick)
HDR-TG1/TG3/TG7 (Memory Stick Duo)
August 2008: HDR-CX12 (Memory Stick Duo)
March 2009: HDR-CX100 (8 GB HDD, Memory Stick Duo)
March 2009: HDR-XR520V (240 GB HDD), HDR-XR500V (120 GB HDD Version)
March 2009: HDR-XR200V (120 GB HDD)
March 2009: HDR-XR200VE (120 GB HDD + GPS)
March 2009: HDR-XR100 (80 GB HDD)
July 2009: HDR-CX500E, HDR-CX520E
October 2009: HDR-CX105 (8GB Memory Stick Duo)
January 2010: HXR-NX5, HDR-AX2000.
March 2010: HDR-XR550 (240 GB HDD)
June 2010: Sony NEX-5, NEX-5C (without Eye-Fi support), of both models, variants with AVCHD 1080 50i and AVCHD 1080 60i only exist
July 2010: Sony HXR-MC50E.
March 2011: Sony NEX-FS100
August 2011: NEX-VG20
October 2011: Sony SLT-A65, Sony SLT-A77V, Sony NEX-5N, Sony NEX-7
In 2010, Sony introduced AVCHD to selected members of its Cybershot line of digital cameras.
January 2010: DSC-HX5V (GPS+COMPASS), HX5V-E (European version, limited to 30 minutes recording due to European specific taxes)
March 2011: DSC-HX9V (GPS+COMPASS), HX9V-E (European version, limited to 30 minutes recording due to European specific taxes)
2012: DSC-HX10V, DSC-HX20V, DSC-RX100, DSC-WX50
2013: DSC-RX100 II, DSC-HX50V
2014: DSC-RX100 III
2015: DSC-RX100 IV
Software
Codecs
FFmpeg includes an AVCHD decoder in its libavcodec library that is used for example by ffdshow, a free, Open Source collection of codecs for Microsoft Windows.
CoreAVC is an H.264 decoder for Windows, which can decode AVCHD as well as a variety of other H.264 formats.
Gstreamer uses libavcodec to decode AVCHD on Linux, BSD, OS/X, Windows, and Solaris
Converters
Badaboom is a media converter that uses NVIDIA GPUs to accelerate conversion of AVCHD to mobile devices.
HandBrake converts AVCHD Lite format to MP4 and MKV (tested on macOS; other versions available), AVI and OGM are supported in versions before 0.9.4.
Roxio Toast 10 Titanium on macOS converts AVCHD to most formats.
Total video converter is a converter for most video formats, including converting from AVCHD and burning AVCHD disc.
iDealshare VideoGo can convert AVCHD to MP4, ProRes, MOV, AVI, WMV, FLV, DV, MKV, VOB etc.
Editors
The following video-editing software features support for the AVCHD format:
Apple iMovie for some cameras/camcorders.
Adobe Premiere Pro (from version CS4 onwards). (Creative Cloud 2013 version natively supports AVCHD Dolby Digital.)
Adobe Premiere Elements (version 7 through 9 only support import, no AVCHD output), version 10 supports AVCHD output.
Avidemux Video editor for Linux and Windows
Apple Final Cut Pro X natively supports AVCHD through Import From Camera.
Apple Final Cut Pro for macOS. The latest version of Final Cut Pro 7 claims better integration with Apple's other professional applications and improved codec support for editing HD, DV and SD video formats, including encoding presets for devices such as iPod, Apple TV, and Blu-ray Discs.
Apple Final Cut Express 4, Final Cut Pro 6.0.1, and iMovie '08-'09 (iMovie is bundled with all new Apple computers; Final Cut Express and Pro are sold separately) do not support editing of AVCHD clips directly. Imported AVCHD clips are automatically converted into the Apple Intermediate Codec format, which requires more hard disk space (40GB per hour as opposed to 13.5GB per hour for Standard Definition DV), a more powerful machine (an Intel-based Mac), and a more recent OS (Mac OS X 10.5). Final Cut Pro 6.0.5 "logs and transfers" the footage from AVCHD to AppleProRes by default and also gives the option of converting to the Apple Intermediate Codec. It does not allow native transferring of the *.m2ts clips nor directly editing them. The latest release of Apple's iLife suite (specifically, iMovie) has added support for AVCHD Lite cameras. It automatically imports AVCHD files when attaching a supported camera to the computer, and it can import older MTS or M2TS files that have been rewrapped (see above) e.g. as m4v.
Avid Media Composer (version 5.x and later) supports AVCHD via transcode import. AMA linking is available in Avid Media Composer 6 when a special AMA plugin is downloaded from the Avid download center.
AVS Video Editor supports videos from HD-cameras(HD Video (inc. AVCHD, MPEG-2 HD and WMV HD), TOD, MOD, M2TS.) Burn AVCHD video to CD-R/RW, DVD+/-R, DVD+/-RW, DVD-RAM, Double/Dual Layer on Windows XP, 2003, Vista, 7 (no macOS/Linux support).
Blender supports the AVCHD format by using an FFmpeg decoder. Blender has a little-known, video editing system that integrates with its 3D editing tools. It supports proxy editing at down to 25% scaling, which helps when editing AVCHD video, which is slow.
Corel VideoStudio supports importing, rendering and burning of AVCHD format in Windows system.
Cyberlink PowerDirector 11 is capable of editing AVCHD 2.0 3D/Progressive natively, without transcoding, intermediate formats or proxy files. Using a patented technique (SVRT), AVCHD clips can be edited and output losslessly to AVCHD or Blu-ray Disc. PowerDirector also supports OpenCL encoding acceleration on Intel, AMD and nVidia graphics platforms. PowerDirector can output the finished movie to a variety of video formats, DVD, AVCHD on DVD, removable storage device, SD/SDHC/SDXC memory card, Memory Stick or Blu-ray Disc.
Dayang Montage Extreme [ME] 1.2
Grass Valley Edius from 5.5 up to 9.5 (current version) and historically Edius Neo from 2 until 3.5 but not on current Windows versions.
Kdenlive for Linux and BSD platforms
Lightworks for Windows and Linux, starting with version 11.1. AVCHD support is available in the Free and Pro versions, however, the free version requires transcoding into a different format upon import of AVCHD files.
Microsoft Windows Live Movie Maker 2011 (part of the Windows Live Essentials package) converts to lower resolution for editing and playback, but is capable of exporting in HD.
Nero Ultra Edition Enhanced (from version 7 onwards) includes the Nero Vision editor and the Nero Showtime player, which both support AVCHD files. NeroVision can author DVDs in the AVCHD format.
OpenShot Video Editor for Windows, macOS, and Linux
Pinnacle Studio Plus (from version 11 onwards)
Ulead Video Studio 11 has announced a support for MTS/M2TS, however many user report that this statement is completely false and the editor cannot import video of that format, not to mention editing.
VSDC Free Video Editor
Pitivi Video editor for Linux
Sony Vegas 7.0e
Sony Vegas Pro (from version 8 onwards)
Sony Vegas Movie Studio Platinum (from version 8 onwards)
Other developers have pledged their support but it may still take some time for the implementation.
Open Source codecs
The following open source codecs can decode AVCHD files:
ffdshow tryouts, revision 1971 May 23, 2008, decodes AVC (H.264) format video.
libavcodec (part of FFmpeg project) is a codec library that supports AVCHD. It is used in Jahshaka and Blender, notably.
Specifications
For simplicity, the combination of frame rate and video format is denoted using the common simplified notation of NNx, where NN is the frame rate rounded to integer and x is the format ("i" for interlaced and "p" for pregressive). In this table, "60" actually runs at 59.94 frames/sec, "30" actually runs at 29.97 frames/sec, and "24" actually runs at 23.976 frames/sec, a relic of NTSC video.
See also
AVC-Intra: an intra-frame video format based on AVC compression scheme, offered on professional Panasonic video cameras.
iFrame: an intra-frame video format based on AVC compression scheme, marketed by Apple and offered on some consumer camcorders.
AVCREC: a standard to allow recording of broadcast HD programming on recordable DVDs using AVC encoding scheme.
Comparison of video editing software
XAVC
References
External links
AVCHD Official Consortium Web site
High-definition television
Video storage
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andries%20Stockenstr%C3%B6m
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Andries Stockenström
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Sir Andries Stockenström, 1st Baronet, (6 July 1792 in Cape Town – 16 March 1864 in London) was lieutenant governor of British Kaffraria from 13 September 1836 to 9 August 1838.
His efforts in restraining colonists from moving into Xhosa lands served to make him immensely unpopular among the settlers of the Cape Colony frontier. As a historical figure, he long remained controversial in South Africa for supposedly hindering colonisation, and pro-imperialist histories have traditionally vilified him. However his relatively far-sighted and respectful policies towards the Xhosa have increasingly gained recognition in modern South Africa.
On Stockenström's legacy, historian Christopher Saunders concluded: "No man in the 19th century Cape had greater breadth of vision, none gained the respect of a wider constituency, black as well as white."
Early life
The eldest son of Anders Stockenström (1757-1811), a Cape landdrost of Swedish ancestry, he received an elementary education in Cape Town and in 1808 took up an appointment as clerk in his father's office at Graaff-Reinet. En route he met up with Lt-Col R Collins and accompanied him as a Dutch interpreter on a journey that took them to the Orange River and into the Xhosa country. Inclined to pursue a military career, Andries accompanied the expedition sent in 1810 to inform Ndlambe, the Rharhabe paramount chief, of the government's aim to expel him from the Zuurveld.
Military career
In the 19th century, the Cape frontier was afflicted by a recurring series of Frontier Wars, between the Cape Colony on the one side, and the Xhosa chiefs on the other. Stockenström's military career additionally saw growing disagreement between the leadership of the local Cape forces (the Burgher commandos) and the settlers on the frontier who supported greater imperial control.
While the young Stockenström was a great and sometimes ruthless soldier in the frontier wars, in the coming years he came to develop a growing sympathy with his Xhosa opponents.
The frontier policy of the colonial government at the time was the so-called "Reprisals System", whereby frontier settlers were permitted to cross the border to reclaim stolen cattle from any Xhosa settlement to which the cattle-tracks led – even if the stolen cattle were not in fact there. Stockenström was fiercely opposed to this system. His opinion that the Cape Colony colonists of the frontier were unfairly treating of their Xhosa neighbours led to his later conclusion that a strictly-enforced system of treaties must be enforced on both sides in order for peace and mutual respect to develop.
The 4th Frontier War (1811-1812)
In 1811 he was commissioned as an ensign in the Cape Regiment, took part in the 4th Cape Frontier War (1811–12), and in the campaign against Ndlambe. During this time, Andries served as aide-de-camp to his father, Anders Stockenström.
When his father was ambushed and killed, the young Andries rode from Bruintjieshoogte with 18 mounted burghers. He hunted down and overtook a number of the killers near Doringnek, slaying 13 of them.
Upon returning from Doringnek, Andries was appointed to his father's position in command of the burgher forces. Following Ndlambe's expulsion, he assisted Colonel John Graham in fortifying the Fish River frontier. Governor Sir John Cradock then appointed him as assistant landdrost of Graaff-Reinet, stationed initially at Van Stadensdam on the (upper) Fish River, and afterwards at the newly founded town of Cradock. Andries retained his commission as his duties remained mostly of a military nature.
In a rapid and successful campaign in 1813, he struck across the Fish River against Xhosa tribes that had violated the new frontier, and in May 1814 he was appointed a lieutenant in the Cape Regiment. He rose through the ranks rapidly after fighting in the fourth frontier war.
The 5th Frontier War (1818-1819)
Due in part to overcrowding, a civil war broke out between the amaNgqika (Ngqika Xhosa) and the amaGcaleka (Gcaleka Xhosa). As the Cape had signed a defence treaty with Ngqika, it was legally required to respond to Ngqika's request for military assistance in 1818. Stockenström was thus ordered to lead his commando, as an ally of Ngqika, against Ndlambe's amaGcaleka.
After swiftly intercepting and defeating the Gcaleka army, he withdrew his commando and stationed his Graaff-Reinet burghers to defend the left flank at the Kat River. However, after the Cape withdrawal, the amaGcaleka regrouped in 1819 and this time invaded the Cape Colony itself, attacking Grahamstown.
Stockenström thus took to the field again. He was first ordered to position his Graaff-Reinet commando to meet any attack across the northern section of the frontier. Then while the Cape, Stellenbosch and Swellendam commandos advanced against the main amaGcaleka army, Stockenström's Graaff-Reinet commando was ordered to clear insurgents from the dense bush in the Fish River area – previously regarded as impenetrable. After successfully implementing this supposedly impossible campaign, Stockenström was promoted to captain in the Cape Regiment.
The war ended in October 1819, when Gcaleka agreed to recognise Ngqika's independent leadership of the Western Xhosa, and the area between the Keiskamma and Fish rivers was declared a neutral zone, closed off from both black and white settlement.
From about this period, Stockenström's relationship with Governor Lord Charles Somerset declined, in part because of his "outspoken criticism of Somerset’s frontier policy or his refusal to allow the settlement of the 1820 Settlers in his district and his opposition to their location on the frontier", Duminy suggests, and in part because of a quarrel with the Governor's son, Col. Henry Somerset. In addition, Stockenström was friendly with Acting Governor Sir Rufane Donkin, and since Grahamstown editor Robert Godlonton was a staunch supporter of Col. Somerset, this "meant that the remainder of his public career was characterized by personal and political feuds".
His military career ended in July 1820 when he was transferred to the Corsican Rangers.
The Graaff-Reinet district's involvement with the frontier was also reduced by the creation in 1821 of the separate district of Albany (out of Uitenhage) and in 1826 of the district of Somerset East (out of Graaff-Reinet). However Stockenström remained landdrost until the reform of 1828 which abolished his office.
In his final year as landdrost, he played a significant role in the Cape by lobbying for Ordinance 50 (1828) to grant the right to own land to the Khoikhoi and all other free black inhabitants of the Cape. A project that led to his later establishing of the Kat River Khoi Settlement.
Commissioner-General for the Eastern Province (1829-1833)
In 1827 the Council of Advice was enlarged to include two unofficial members, and in June that year Stockenström was appointed to fill one of these positions.
Early in 1829 Major-General Richard Bourke, who had arrived in the colony in 1826 as lieutenant-governor of the Eastern Province, but instead became acting governor when Lord Charles Somerset departed, appointed Stockenström to the new post of commissioner-general for the Eastern Province.
The Kat River Khoi Settlement
In spite of the many political hindrances to his actions, Stockenström nonetheless set to work to reach an agreement for peace on the frontier and to stabilise the Ceded Territory between the Fish and Keiskamma rivers.
He decided to set aside this extensive and very fertile area for settlement, not by the white settlers of the frontier, but by the Cape's extensive Khoi and Griqua population. Some of Stockenström's top commanders were Khoi; he had long fought alongside Khoi soldiers in the frontier wars, and claimed to hold their bravery and loyalty in high esteem. He granted this displaced and marginalised people full and equal rights of land ownership and facilitated the establishment of their settlement, in what became known as the "Kat River Khoi Settlement".
The dense settlements thrived and expanded, and the Kat River Settlement quickly became a large, peaceful and successful region of the Cape that subsisted more or less autonomously from the rest of the country. Stockenström was later to regard the creation of this settlement as his proudest achievement.
Frontier policy
Cattle raiding across the frontier, by both sides, was a persistent cause for frontier violence. For this reason, Stockenström promulgated new regulations dealing with the recovery of stolen stock. The previous "Reprisals System" of the frontier meant that the reaction to a cattle raid was simply to launch a counter-raid. Stockenström ruled that armed parties were only permitted to cross the frontier and recover stolen stock by force if the civil authorities gave permission.
This policy nonetheless proved to be very problematic because, when deciding whether to authorise punitive action, Stockenström depended on information from sources which were often unreliable.
In 1830 Stockenström permitted settlers to launch a punitive expedition against Tyali, having been shown evidence that this Xhosa chief was led raids across the border. However, the expedition resulted in the shooting of another chief, Zeko, which caused considerable controversy. Based on false information, Stockenström had at first commended Field Commandant Erasmus for his conduct, but later investigations showed that reports of Zeko being armed and removing livestock were false.
Faced with growing demands for punitive expeditions, Stockenström became increasingly suspicious of the motives of Col Somerset and the frontier settler group. The issue became critical in June 1831, when the colonial government directly authorised Somerset to launch an attack on the Xhosa, without Stockenström's permission and in spite of his objections.
Stockenström became increasingly critical of the frontier policy implemented, both in his reports from Graaff-Reinet and in the proceedings of the Council of Advice. After Lord Stanley, Secretary for the Colonies, requested his resignation from the council, Stockenström left the Cape in 1833 and traveled to London where he resigned as Commissioner-General, after having failed to persuade the Colonial Office to give him more independence in his frontier work.
He moved from London to Sweden – his ancestral home – in 1834 and, at roughly the same time, the Sixth Frontier War broke out in the Cape.
Lieutenant-Governor of the Eastern Province (1836-1838)
In August 1835 he travelled to London to give evidence to the House of Commons on relations with the Xhosa in Southern Africa. In a hugely influential testimony, he blamed imperial policies and the frontier settlers' behaviour for causing repeated outbreaks of war with the Xhosa. In particular, the settlers' use of raids into Xhosa territory, to attack suspected cattle thieves.
His opinions – though hugely controversial – impressed the new Secretary for the Colonies, Lord Glenelg, who appointed him Lieutenant-Governor of the Eastern Province.
New frontier policy
As lieutenant-governor, Stockenström now had the ability to construct a completely new policy for Cape-Xhosa relations.
He began by returning the recently annexed "Province of Queen Adelaide" to the Xhosa. He then instituted his own unique treaty system, recognising the Xhosa chiefs as independent and equal authorities in his diplomacy.
This system involved the exchange of diplomatic agents as reliable "ambassadors" between the Cape Colony and the Xhosa chiefs. The diplomatic agent system was underlain by formal treaties to guard the border and return any stolen cattle from either side. Importantly, Stockenström forbade colonial expansion into Xhosa land. With this key provision, the treaty system soon brought a degree of peace to the frontier.
In his frontier policy, Stockenström was also in disagreement with the liberals and philanthropists of the Cape, in that he believed that the authority of the chiefs must be preserved, and that the relations of the borderlands needed to be strictly regulated and policed.
Legal pressure and decline of the treaty system
However many frontier colonists resented Stockenström's restrictions on their expansion into Xhosa land.
The Eastern Cape settler movement, which advocated dismantling Stockenström's treaty system and annexing the Xhosa land, was led by Godlonton and Col Somerset. This movement increasingly conducted a virulent and libellous campaign against Stockenström and his treaty system.
Godlonton had control of the most influential newspapers of the frontier region, and used them to advocate for his campaign. Godlonton also used his considerable influence in the religious institutions of the 1820 settlers to drive his opinions, declaring that the settlers were "selected by God himself to colonize Kaffraria".
Officially, Stockenström was also beset by the problem that, as lieutenant-governor, he was still legally dependent on Sir Benjamin d’Urban, the overall Governor of the Cape, who resented the fact that he had been overlooked when the British parliament authorised Stockenström to take over the frontier. An additional problem was that he also still lacked authority over the military.
Under immense pressure from the frontier settlers' press campaign, Stockenström became increasingly drawn into a series of bitter legal battles. In February 1838 he started a libel action, after being publicly accused of murder, and requested the new governor, Sir George Napier, to launch a full inquiry. Stockenström was exonerated by the court of inquiry in June 1838, but nonetheless felt his position hopeless, and travelled to Britain to consult Glenelg. Glenelg refused to accept Stockenström's resignation, but his successor, Lord Normanby, dismissed Stockenström in August 1839.
Dispirited, Stockenström returned to the Cape in May 1840 and retired to his farm Klipkraal (in the Swaershoek Valley near Somerset East), making only occasional trips to Uitenhage and Cape Town.
In 1842, a severe drought effected the region, causing an increasing in cross-border cattle raiding. This, together with the growing neglect of Stockenström's treaty system, began to lead to growing violence along the frontier.
In 1844, the new governor of the Cape, Sir Peregrine Maitland, abolished Stockenström's treaty system altogether, imposing instead a unilateral system of more severe treaties. Certain provisions of the new treaty system, such as those allowing frontier settlers to counter-raid their Xhosa neighbours if they believed that cattle had been stolen, led to a sharp increase in violence. Maitland's system also involved building a system of military fortifications on Xhosa lands so as to secure the frontier militarily.
The new governor also began to settle Mfengu in frontier Xhosa territory, and opened parts of it up for permanent white settlement.
Aware of impending war, in 1845 Stockenström moved to his farm Maasström, at the foot of the Kaga Mountains, where he remained until April 1846 when the Seventh Frontier War broke out.
The 7th Frontier War (1846-1847)
When the Seventh Frontier War (the "Amatola War") erupted, the conventional imperial troops soon suffered setbacks in the rough frontier terrain. Their long troop columns were slow and easily ambushed by the elusive Xhosa gunmen.
Faced with increasing losses and a full-scale invasion of the Xhosa armies across the frontier, the British Governor Sir Peregrine Maitland called upon the local Cape Burgher Commandos. The Cape burghers were mounted frontier gunmen, recruited locally from Boer, Mfengu, settler, Khoikhoi and Griqua populations, and fiercely loyal to Stockenström. They objected to serving under an imperial commander, so Governor Maitland promoted Stockenström to colonel, so as to place him in command of the local mixed commandos.
Stockenström's burgher force first cleared the south-western part of the Eastern Province up to the Fish River, inflicting a string of defeats on the amaNgqika, and then advanced to Fort Beaufort, where it was initially ordered that he would invade the Xhosa country. Instead of launching a military invasion to destroy the Xhosa armies, Stockenström selected a small group of his mounted commandos, crossed the Colony's border and rapidly rode deep into the Transkei Xhosa heartland, directly towards the kraal of Sarhili ("Kreli"), the paramount chief of all the Xhosa. Due in part to the speed of their approach, they were barely engaged by Xhosa forces and rode directly into Sarhili's capital.
Paramount Chief Sarhili and his generals agreed to meet Stockenström (with his commandants Groepe, Molteno and Brownlee), unarmed, on a nearby mountain ridge. The meeting was initially tense - the fathers of both Sarhili and Stockenström had been killed whilst unarmed. Both men were also veterans of several frontier wars against each other and, while they treated each other with extreme respect, Stockenström nonetheless made the extreme demand that Sarhili assume responsibility for any future Ngqika attacks. After protracted negotiations, Sarhili agreed to return any raided cattle & other property and to relinquish claims to the Ngqika land west of the Kei. He also promised to use his limited authority over the frontier Ngqika to restrain cross-border attacks.
A treaty was signed and the commandos departed on good terms.
However, Governor Maitland rejected the treaty and sent an insulting letter back to the Xhosa paramount-chief, demanding greater acts of submission and servility. Furious, Stockenstrom and his local commandos resigned and departed from the war, leaving the imperial troops and the Xhosa - both starving and afflicted by fever - to a long, drawn-out war of attrition.
Andries, his health ruined by this expedition (he remained in poor health the rest of his life), called on the British government to institute an inquiry into the war, maintaining that it had been prolonged needlessly but the new governor, Sir Harry Smith, ostentatiously blamed the Stockenström treaty system for being the cause of the war. In a meeting with the Xhosa chiefs, the Governor famously tore up a piece of paper in front of the chiefs and announced: "No more treaties". Historian Piers Brendon described "Smith, placing his foot on the neck of the Xhosan ruler and proclaiming, 'I am your Paramount Chief, and the Kaffirs are my dogs!'"
Sir Andries publicly condemned Governor Smith's policies, and warned that they would precipitate a further crisis, but Earl Grey, the Secretary for the Colonies, declined to take action.
Political career
Campaign for Representative Government
Stockenström's response to what he perceived as the incompetence of direct imperial control was to back calls for the Cape Colony to get greater local control over its affairs, through the institution of elected representative government. Stockenström was created a baronet in 1849, and used his military pension to support his drive for an elected parliament.
When Governor Smith called an election in 1850 (the only one of its kind) to get around the difficulty of finding suitable people to serve on the legislative council, Sir Andries received the most votes cast for any candidate from the Eastern Province. However, Robert Godlonton led several Legislative Council members in denying that the elections represented popular opinion, and Sir Andries and the other popularly elected members resigned in September.
In 1851 he and John Fairbairn travelled to Britain in the hope of persuading the British government to introduce representative government in the Cape. But as a result of his call for an inquiry into Governor Harry Smith's policies, Sir Andries was in turn made the scapegoat for their failure, and was additionally blamed for the Kat River rebellion during the Eighth Frontier War of 1850.
Instead of a commission of inquiry, a select committee was appointed. Duminy writes that it "neither recommended an inquiry nor prepared a report".
During his absence, his opponents destroyed his farm, Maasström, in 1851.
Member of Parliament
Representative government was nonetheless instituted in 1853, and Sir Andries was approached to run for election to the new Cape Parliament to represent the Eastern Divisions. To meet the expenses of the campaign and of the destruction of his property, he arranged for the subdivision of a part of Maasström (one-third of the 4 985 morgen) as a township, which was named Bedford, after Sir Andries's friend, the 8th Duke of Bedford.
Following a heated electoral campaign, Sir Andries defeated his old enemy, Godlonton – despite renewed publication of all the old accusations against him in Godlonton's newspaper, the Graham's Town Journal.
As a member of the Cape legislative council, Sir Andries piloted the passage of the Divisional Councils Act, which in his view restored a link between the government and the governed, which had been broken in 1828 (with the abolition of landdrosts). He also supported the passing of the Burgher Force Bill, which placed the local Cape commandos on an equal footing with the already-established military carrison.
In one of his final political acts, he gave his support to the infant movement for "Responsible Government" in the Cape, as a way to curtail what he saw as the ineptitude of direct imperial control in Southern Africa.
In other respects, he was frustrated. The Khoikhoi settlement on the Kat River was broken up, and little was done to rein in frontier warmongers and land speculators.
Retirement and later life
Failing health saw him resign his seat in March 1856, and he left the colony the following month. He lived for a while in Nice, Naples and England, returned to the Cape in 1860, and again went to London in 1862, where he would die in 1864 aged 71 of bronchitis that had plagued him for years. He was interred in Kensal Green Cemetery, London.
Family
Anders Andersen Stockenström (*1707 †1764), inspector of mines and mayor of Filipstad x Caterina Margarita Ekman (*1723).
Anders Stockenström *6 January 1757 Filipstad in Värmland, Sweden x 1 June 1786 Maria Geertruyda Broeders (baptised 11 March 1764), daughter of Peter Caspar Brodersen (or Broders), from Rantrum, a North Frisian town in Schleswig, and Elsabe Cornelia Colijn. The couple had four sons and four daughters.
Sir Andries Stockenström, 1st baronet x 8 December 1828 Elsabe Helena Maasdorp (1808-1889), daughter of Gijsbert Henry Maasdorp. The couple had six children, of whom the firstborn died as a baby.
Sir Gijsbert Henry Stockenström (1841-1912), 2nd baronet - no issue
Elizabeth Maria Henrietta Stockenström x 1852 farmer and politician Charles William Hutton (13 July 1826 – 1 February 1905), who in 1887 edited Sir Andries's autobiography in two volumes, and was Cape Colony treasurer from 1881 to 1884.
Ella Elizabeth Hutton *1 February 1853 x Christian Maasdorp - 6 children
Andries Stockenström Hutton x Blanche Giddy
Charles Henry Hutton d.1897 x Elizabeth Leonard - 3 children
Edward Drummond Hutton d.1941 x Sara Maria Nel - 2 children
Maria Susanna Stockenström d.1870 x 1864 Sir Sidney Godolphin Alexander Shippard (1838/40-1902), lawyer and administrator
Justice Andries Stockenström (22 April 1844 – 22 March 1880) x 24 December 1867 Maria Henrietta Hartzenberg, of Graaff-Reinet
Sir Andries Stockenström, 3rd baronet (1868-1922)(only son), advocate of the Transvaal Supreme Court and a member of the Transvaal and Union parliaments.
Sir Anders Johan Booysen Stockenström, 4th baronet (1908-1957)
Andrée Mabel Stockenström (only child, owner of Maasström) x Gardiner
Anders Stockenström
In September 1781 Anders Stockenström sailed from Texel as a quarter-gunner aboard a VOC ship, 't Zeepaard.
Scurvy broke out in the fleet when it reached the Equator, and when it reached Table Bay in December 1782, 1,202 of the 2,753 passengers and crew had died, and 915 were ill. Four of the most heavily armed ships, including 't Zeepaard, sailed for Batavia, after four weeks, to assist in defence of the city against an expected British attack. It is not known whether Anders sailed with the fleet, but two years later he was working as an assistant in the goods office in Cape Town, where he remained for some years. He also served on a vessel carrying slaves for the VOC from Madagascar to the Cape, and was afterwards, until 1795 with the British occupation of the Cape, bookkeeper to the fleet. In March 1796 General J H Craig appointed Anders secretary to Landdrost A A Faure, of Swellendam.
Following the takeover of the Cape by the Batavian Republic, Anders was appointed landdrost of Graaff-Reinet by both Governor Jan Willem Janssens and Commissioner-General Jacob Abraham Uitenhage de Mist. The latter swore him in on 14 February 1804, at which time Graaff-Reinet had been without a permanent landdrost since 1801.
During his eight years as landdrost – under Batavian rule until 1806, and then under British rule – the district experienced Bushman raids in the north and north-west, and an unsettled frontier with the amaXhosa. Public buildings were in need of restoration following the Khoikhoi/Xhosa invasion of 1802-03 (the Third Frontier War). While commandos were sent against the Bushmen, Anders also tried to reconcile the Bushmen by having game shot for them, and periodically giving them cattle.
When steps were eventually taken against the Xhosa in December 1811, Anders, in command of the burghers of Graaff-Reinet, occupied Bruintjieshoogte to protect the area north of the Zuurberg. The commandos of George, Uitenhage and Swellendam, together with the Cape Regiment, gathered at the Sundays River mouth and after Christmas, crossed the river to drive the Xhosa from the Addo bush.
On 27 December Col John Graham of Fintry sent orders to Stockenström to join the rest of the force at Coerney, where Col J G Cuyler (landdrost of Uitenhage) was in charge. Realising that this would leave the area north of the Zuurberg vulnerable to Xhosa attack, Anders went to discuss the matter with Graham.
He set out at sunset on 29 December 1811 with 24 men. About five hours later he encountered a number of Xhosa of the Imidange clan under Kasa on Doringnek, the watershed between the White and Coerney rivers, on the Zuurberg.
Relying on his popularity as the friend and benefactor of both colonists and indigenous peoples, Anders dismounted and went to meet the war party unarmed. He spent at least half an hour endeavouring to persuade Kasa to return to their country without bloodshed but when he returned to mount his horse, the Imidange had surrounded his party and attacked, killing eight burghers and an interpreter. Four were wounded but managed to escape.
Sir Gijsbert Henry Stockenström
Sir Andries's eldest surviving son (*1841 †1912) succeeded him as baronet and was a member of the Cape Legislative Council from 1891 to 1910. Sir Gijsbert died without issue, and the title passed to the offspring of his younger brother, also named Andries.
Justice Andries Stockenström
Justice Andries Stockenström (22 April 1844 Graaff-Reinet - 22 March 1880 Swellendam), second son of Sir Andries Stockenström (1st Baronet), was an influential judge and the Attorney-General of the Cape Colony.
His child, Andries (1868-1922), became the third and penultimate Stockenström baronet in 1912.
Notes and references
Further reading
External links
eggsa.org
geocities.com (Archived 2009-10-25)
1792 births
1864 deaths
Politicians from Cape Town
Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
Cape Colony army officers
Cape Colony politicians
Deaths from bronchitis
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
Members of the Legislative Council of the Cape Colony
South African people of Swedish descent
South African knights
19th-century South African people
Afrikaner people
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