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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Da%20Vinci%20Code
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The Da Vinci Code
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The Da Vinci Code is a 2003 mystery thriller novel by Dan Brown. It is Brown's second novel to include the character Robert Langdon: the first was his 2000 novel Angels & Demons. The Da Vinci Code follows symbologist Robert Langdon and cryptologist Sophie Neveu after a murder in the Louvre Museum in Paris causes them to become involved in a battle between the Priory of Sion and Opus Dei over the possibility of Jesus Christ and Mary Magdalene having had a child together.
The novel explores an alternative religious history, whose central plot point is that the Merovingian kings of France were descended from the bloodline of Jesus Christ and Mary Magdalene, ideas derived from Clive Prince's The Templar Revelation (1997) and books by Margaret Starbird. The book also refers to The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail (1982), though Dan Brown has stated that it was not used as research material.
The Da Vinci Code provoked a popular interest in speculation concerning the Holy Grail legend and Mary Magdalene's role in the history of Christianity. The book has, however, been extensively denounced by many Christian denominations as an attack on the Catholic Church, and also consistently criticized by scholars for its historical and scientific inaccuracies. The novel nonetheless became a massive worldwide bestseller that sold 80 million copies and has been translated into 44 languages. In November 2004, Random House published a Special Illustrated Edition with 160 illustrations. In 2006, a film adaptation was released by Columbia Pictures.
Plot
Louvre curator and Priory of Sion grand master Jacques Saunière is fatally shot one night at the museum by an albino Catholic monk named Silas, who is working on behalf of someone he knows only as the Teacher, who wishes to discover the location of the "keystone," an item crucial in the search for the Holy Grail.
After Saunière's body is discovered in the pose of the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci, the police summon Harvard professor Robert Langdon, who is in town on business. Police captain Bezu Fache tells him that he was summoned to help the police decode the cryptic message Saunière left during the final minutes of his life. The message includes a Fibonacci sequence out of order and an anagram 'O, draconian devil Oh, lame saint'.
Langdon explains to Fache that the pentacle Saunière drew on his chest in his own blood represents an allusion to the goddess and not devil worship, as Fache believes.
Sophie Neveu, a police cryptographer, secretly explains to Langdon that she is Saunière's estranged granddaughter and that Fache thinks Langdon is the murderer because the last line in her grandfather's message, which was meant for Neveu, said "P.S. Find Robert Langdon," which Fache had erased prior to Langdon's arrival. However, "P.S." does not refer to "postscript", but rather to Sophie — the nickname given to her by her grandfather was "Princess Sophie". She understands that her grandfather intended Langdon to decipher the code, which leads to Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, which in turn leads to his painting Madonna of the Rocks. They find a pendant that holds the address of the Paris branch of the Depository Bank of Zurich.
Neveu and Langdon escape from the police and visit the bank. In the safe deposit box, they find a box containing the keystone: a cryptex, a cylindrical, hand-held vault with five concentric, rotating dials labeled with letters. When these are lined up correctly, they unlock the device. If the cryptex is forced open, an enclosed vial of vinegar breaks and dissolves the message inside the cryptex, which was written on papyrus. The box containing the cryptex contains clues to its password.
Langdon and Neveu take the keystone to the home of Langdon's friend, Sir Leigh Teabing, an expert on the Holy Grail, the legend of which is heavily connected to the Priory. There, Teabing explains that the Grail is not a cup, but connected to Mary Magdalene, and that she was Jesus Christ's wife and is the person to his right in The Last Supper.
The trio then flee the country on Teabing's private plane, on which they conclude that the proper combination of letters spells out Neveu's given name, Sofia. Opening the cryptex, they discover a smaller cryptex inside it, along with another riddle that ultimately leads the group to the tomb of Isaac Newton in Westminster Abbey.
During the flight to Britain, Neveu reveals the source of her estrangement from her grandfather ten years earlier: arriving home unexpectedly from university, Neveu secretly witnessed a spring fertility rite conducted in the secret basement of her grandfather's country estate. From her hiding place, she was shocked to see her grandfather with a woman at the center of a ritual attended by men and women who were wearing masks and chanting praise to the goddess. She fled the house and broke off all contact with Saunière. Langdon explains that what she witnessed was an ancient ceremony known as hieros gamos or "sacred marriage."
By the time they arrive at Westminster Abbey, Teabing is revealed to be the Teacher for whom Silas is working. Teabing wishes to use the Holy Grail, which he believes is a series of documents establishing that Jesus Christ married Mary Magdalene and fathered children, in order to ruin the Vatican. He compels Langdon at gunpoint to solve the second cryptex's password, which Langdon realizes is "apple." Langdon secretly opens the cryptex and removes its contents before tossing the empty cryptex in the air.
Teabing is arrested by Fache, who by now realizes that Langdon is innocent. Bishop Aringarosa, head of religious sect Opus Dei and Silas' mentor, realizing that Silas has been used to murder innocent people, rushes to help the police find him. When the police find Silas hiding in an Opus Dei Center, Silas assumes that they are there to kill him and he rushes out, accidentally shooting Bishop Aringarosa. Bishop Aringarosa survives but is informed that Silas was found dead later from a gunshot wound.
The final message inside the second keystone leads Neveu and Langdon to Rosslyn Chapel, whose docent turns out to be Neveu's long-lost brother, who Neveu had been told died as a child in the car accident that killed her parents. The guardian of Rosslyn Chapel, Marie Chauvel Saint Clair, is Neveu's long-lost grandmother. It is revealed that Neveu and her brother are descendants of Mary Magdalene. The Priory of Sion hid her identity to protect her from possible threats to her life.
The real meaning of the last message is that the Grail is buried beneath the small pyramid directly below La Pyramide Inversée, the inverted glass pyramid of the Louvre. It also lies beneath the "Rose Line," an allusion to "Rosslyn." Langdon figures out this final piece to the puzzle; he follows the Rose Line (prime meridian) to La Pyramide Inversée, where he kneels to pray before the hidden sarcophagus of Mary Magdalene, as the Templar knights did before.
Characters
Robert Langdon: A professor of symbology at Harvard University and the protagonist of the novel.
Jacques Saunière: The grandmaster of the Priory of Sion, Curator of Louvre Museum.
Sophie Neveu: A cryptologist of the French police and granddaughter of Saunière.
Bezu Fache: A member of Opus Dei and a French police captain.
Silas / The Monk: A member of Opus Dei who murders Saunière and the secondary antagonist of the novel.
Manuel Aringarosa: A bishop of the Vatican and member of Opus Dei.
Sister Sandrine: A Seneschal of the Priory of Sion and nun of St. Sulpice.
André Vernet: A guard of Zurich bank.
Sir Leigh Teabing / The Teacher: A Grail scholar and British expatriate living in Paris, and the main antagonist of the novel.
Rémy Legaludec: A servant who assists Teabing.
Jérôme Collet: A French police lieutenant and Fache's deputy.
Marie Chauvel Saint-Clair: Sophie's grandmother.
Reaction
Sales
The Da Vinci Code was a major success in 2003 and was outsold only by J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.
It sold 80 million copies worldwide.
Historical inaccuracies
The book generated criticism when it was first published for the inaccurate description of core aspects of Christianity and descriptions of European art, history, and architecture. The book has received mostly negative reviews from Catholic and other Christian communities.
Many critics took issue with the level of research Brown did when writing the story. The New York Times writer Laura Miller characterized the novel as "based on a notorious hoax", "rank nonsense", and "bogus", saying the book is heavily based on the fabrications of Pierre Plantard, who is asserted to have created the Priory of Sion in 1956.
Critics accuse Brown of distorting and fabricating history. For example, theological author Marcia Ford wrote:
Richard Abanes wrote:
The book opens with the claim by Dan Brown that "The Priory of Sion—a French secret society founded in 1099—is a real organization". This assertion is broadly disputed; the Priory of Sion is generally regarded as a hoax created in 1956 by Pierre Plantard. The author also claims that "all descriptions of artwork, architecture, documents… and secret rituals in this novel are accurate", but this claim is disputed by numerous academic scholars and experts in numerous areas.
Dan Brown himself addresses the idea of some of the more controversial aspects being fact on his website, stating that the "FACT" page at the beginning of the novel mentions only "documents, rituals, organization, artwork and architecture", but not any of the ancient theories discussed by fictional characters, stating that "Interpreting those ideas is left to the reader". Brown also says, "It is my belief that some of the theories discussed by these characters may have merit" and "the secret behind The Da Vinci Code was too well documented and significant for me to dismiss."
In 2003, while promoting the novel, Brown was asked in interviews what parts of the history in his novel actually happened. He replied "Absolutely all of it." In a 2003 interview with CNN's Martin Savidge he was again asked how much of the historical background was true. He replied, "99% is true… the background is all true".
Asked by Elizabeth Vargas in an ABC News special if the book would have been different if he had written it as non-fiction he replied, "I don't think it would have."
In 2005, UK TV personality Tony Robinson edited and narrated a detailed rebuttal of the main arguments of Dan Brown and those of Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln, who authored the book Holy Blood, Holy Grail, in the program The Real Da Vinci Code, shown on British TV Channel 4. The program featured lengthy interviews with many of the main protagonists cited by Brown as "absolute fact" in The Da Vinci Code.
Arnaud de Sède, son of Gérard de Sède, stated categorically that his father and Plantard had made up the existence of the Prieuré de Sion, the cornerstone of the Jesus bloodline theory: "frankly, it was piffle", noting that the concept of a descendant of Jesus was also an element of the 1999 Kevin Smith film Dogma.
The earliest appearance of this theory is due to the 13th-century Cistercian monk and chronicler Peter of Vaux de Cernay who reported that Cathars believed that the 'evil' and 'earthly' Jesus Christ had a relationship with Mary Magdalene, described as his concubine (and that the 'good Christ' was incorporeal and existed spiritually in the body of Paul). The program The Real Da Vinci Code also cast doubt on the Rosslyn Chapel association with the Grail and on other related stories, such as the alleged landing of Mary Magdalene in France.
According to The Da Vinci Code, the Roman Emperor Constantine I suppressed Gnosticism because it portrayed Jesus as purely human. The novel's argument is as follows: Constantine wanted Christianity to act as a unifying religion for the Roman Empire. He thought Christianity would appeal to pagans only if it featured a demigod similar to pagan heroes. According to the Gnostic Gospels, Jesus was merely a human prophet, not a demigod. Therefore, to change Jesus' image, Constantine destroyed the Gnostic Gospels and promoted the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which portray Jesus as divine or semi-divine.
But Gnosticism did not portray Jesus as merely human. All Gnostic writings depict Christ as purely divine, his human body being a mere illusion (see Docetism). Gnostic sects saw Christ this way because they regarded matter as evil, and therefore believed that a divine spirit would never have taken on a material body.
Literary criticism
The book received both positive and negative reviews from critics, and it has been the subject of negative appraisals concerning its portrayal of history. Its writing and historical accuracy were reviewed negatively by The New Yorker, Salon.com, and Maclean's.
Janet Maslin of The New York Times said that one word "concisely conveys the kind of extreme enthusiasm with which this riddle-filled, code-breaking, exhilaratingly brainy thriller can be recommended. That word is wow. The author is Dan Brown (a name you will want to remember). In this gleefully erudite suspense novel, Mr. Brown takes the format he has been developing through three earlier novels and fine-tunes it to blockbuster perfection."
David Lazarus of The San Francisco Chronicle said, "This story has so many twists—all satisfying, most unexpected—that it would be a sin to reveal too much of the plot in advance. Let's just say that if this novel doesn't get your pulse racing, you need to check your meds."
While interviewing Umberto Eco in a 2008 issue of The Paris Review, Lila Azam Zanganeh characterized The Da Vinci Code as "a bizarre little offshoot" of Eco's novel, Foucault's Pendulum. In response, Eco remarked, "Dan Brown is a character from Foucault's Pendulum! I invented him. He shares my characters' fascinations—the world conspiracy of Rosicrucians, Masons, and Jesuits. The role of the Knights Templar. The hermetic secret. The principle that everything is connected. I suspect Dan Brown might not even exist."
The book appeared at number 43 on a 2010 list of 101 best books ever written, which was derived from a survey of more than 15,000 Australian readers.
Salman Rushdie said during a lecture, "Do not start me on The Da Vinci Code. A novel so bad that it gives bad novels a bad name."
Stephen Fry has referred to Brown's writings as "complete loose stool-water" and "arse gravy of the worst kind". In a live chat on June 14, 2006, he clarified, "I just loathe all those book[s] about the Holy Grail and Masons and Catholic conspiracies and all that botty-dribble. I mean, there's so much more that's interesting and exciting in art and in history. It plays to the worst and laziest in humanity, the desire to think the worst of the past and the desire to feel superior to it in some fatuous way."
Stephen King likened Dan Brown's work to "Jokes for the John", calling such literature the "intellectual equivalent of Kraft Macaroni and Cheese". A. O. Scott, reviewing the movie based on the book for The New York Times, called the book "Dan Brown's best-selling primer on how not to write an English sentence". The New Yorker reviewer Anthony Lane refers to it as "unmitigated junk" and decries "the crumbling coarseness of the style". Linguist Geoffrey Pullum and others posted several entries critical of Dan Brown's writing, at Language Log, calling Brown one of the "worst prose stylists in the history of literature" and saying Brown's "writing is not just bad; it is staggeringly, clumsily, thoughtlessly, almost ingeniously bad". Roger Ebert described it as a "potboiler written with little grace and style," although he added it did "supply an intriguing plot". In his review of the film National Treasure, whose plot also involves ancient conspiracies and treasure hunts, he wrote: "I should read a potboiler like The Da Vinci Code every once in a while, just to remind myself that life is too short to read books like The Da Vinci Code."
Lawsuits
Author Lewis Perdue alleged that Brown plagiarized from two of his novels, The Da Vinci Legacy, originally published in 1983, and Daughter of God, originally published in 2000. He sought to block distribution of the book and film. However, Judge George Daniels of the US District Court in New York ruled against Perdue in 2005, saying that "A reasonable average lay observer would not conclude that The Da Vinci Code is substantially similar to Daughter of God" and that "Any slightly similar elements are on the level of generalized or otherwise unprotectable ideas." Perdue appealed; the 2nd US Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the original decision, saying Mr. Perdue's arguments were "without merit".
In early 2006, Michael Baigent and Richard Leigh filed suit against Brown's publisher, Random House. They alleged that significant portions of The Da Vinci Code were plagiarized from The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail, violating their copyright. Brown confirmed during the court case that he named the principal Grail expert of his story Leigh Teabing, an anagram of "Baigent Leigh", after the two plaintiffs. In reply to the suggestion that Henry Lincoln was also referred to in the book, since he has medical problems resulting in a severe limp, like the character of Leigh Teabing, Brown stated he was unaware of Lincoln's illness and the correspondence was a coincidence. Since Baigent and Leigh had presented their conclusions as historical research, not as fiction, Mr Justice Peter Smith, who presided over the trial, deemed that a novelist must be free to use these ideas in a fictional context, and ruled against Baigent and Leigh. Smith also hid his own secret code in his written judgment, in the form of seemingly random italicized letters in the 71-page document, which apparently spell out a message. Smith indicated he would confirm the code if someone broke it. After losing before the High Court on July 12, 2006, Baigent and Leigh appealed to the Court of Appeal, unsuccessfully.
In April 2006 Mikhail Anikin, a Russian scientist and art historian working as a senior researcher at the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg, stated the intention to bring a lawsuit against Dan Brown, maintaining that he was the one who coined the phrase used as the book's title and one of the ideas regarding the Mona Lisa used in its plot. Anikin interprets the Mona Lisa to be a Christian allegory consisting of two images, one of Jesus Christ that comprises the image's right half, and one of the Virgin Mary that forms its left half. According to Anikin, he expressed this idea to a group of experts from the Museum of Houston during a 1988 René Magritte exhibit at the Hermitage, and when one of the Americans requested permission to pass it along to a friend Anikin granted the request on condition that he be credited in any book using his interpretation. Anikin eventually compiled his research into Leonardo da Vinci or Theology on Canvas, a book published in 2000, but The Da Vinci Code, published three years later, makes no mention of Anikin and instead asserts that the idea in question is a "well-known opinion of a number of scientists."
Brown has been sued twice in U.S. Federal courts by the author Jack Dunn who claims Brown copied a huge part of his book The Vatican Boys to write The Da Vinci Code and Angels & Demons. Both lawsuits were not allowed to go to a jury trial. In 2017, in London, another claim was begun against Brown by Jack Dunn who claimed that justice was not served in the U.S. lawsuits.
Possibly the largest reaction occurred in Kolkata, India, where a group of around 25 protesters "stormed" Crossword bookstore, pulled copies of the book from the racks, and threw them to the ground. On the same day, a group of 50–60 protesters successfully made the Oxford Bookstore on Park Street decide to stop selling the book "until the controversy sparked by the film's release was resolved". Thus in 2006, seven Indian states (Nagaland, Punjab, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh) banned the release or exhibition of the Hollywood movie The Da Vinci Code (as well as the book). Later, two states, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, lifted the ban under high court order.
Release details
The book has been translated into over 44 languages, primarily hardcover. Major English-language (hardcover) editions include:
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(as of January 2006, has sold 576,000 copies).
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, 5 million copies.
, released 200,000 copies.
, the day of the film's release. Including film stills, behind-the-scenes photos and the full script. 25,000 copies of the hardcover, and 200,000 of the paperback version.
Film
Columbia Pictures adapted the novel to film, with a screenplay written by Akiva Goldsman, and Academy Award winner Ron Howard directing. The film was released on May 19, 2006, and stars Tom Hanks as Robert Langdon, Audrey Tautou as Sophie Neveu, and Sir Ian McKellen as Sir Leigh Teabing. During its opening weekend, moviegoers spent an estimated $77 million in America, and $224 million worldwide.
The movie received mixed reviews. Roger Ebert in its review wrote that "Ron Howard is a better filmmaker than Dan Brown is a novelist; he follows Brown's formula (exotic location, startling revelation, desperate chase scene, repeat as needed) and elevates it into a superior entertainment, with Tom Hanks as a theo-intellectual Indiana Jones... it's involving, intriguing and constantly seems on the edge of startling revelations."
The film received two sequels: Angels & Demons, released in 2009, and Inferno, released in 2016. Ron Howard returned to direct both sequels.
See also
References
Further reading
Bock, Darrell L. Breaking the da Vinci code: Answers to the questions everyone's asking (Thomas Nelson, 2004).
Ehrman, Bart D. Truth and fiction in The Da Vinci Code: a historian reveals what we really know about Jesus, Mary Magdalene, and Constantine (Oxford University Press, 2004).
Easley, Michael J., and John Ankerberg. The Da Vinci Code Controversy: 10 Facts You Should Know (Moody Publishers, 2006).
Gale, Cengage Learning. A Study Guide for Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code (Gale, Cengage Learning, 2015).
Hawel, Zeineb Sami. "Did Dan Brown Break or Repair the Taboos in the Da Vinci Code? An Analytical Study of His Dialectical Style." International Journal of Linguistics and Literature (IJLL) 7.4: 5-24. online
Kennedy, Tammie M. "Mary Magdalene and the Politics of Public Memory: Interrogating" The Da Vinci Code"." Feminist Formations (2012): 120-139. online
Mexal, Stephen J. "Realism, Narrative History, and the Production of the Bestseller: The Da Vinci Code and the Virtual Public Sphere." Journal of Popular Culture 44.5 (2011): 1085–1101. online
Newheiser, Anna-Kaisa, Miguel Farias, and Nicole Tausch. "The functional nature of conspiracy beliefs: Examining the underpinnings of belief in the Da Vinci Code conspiracy." Personality and Individual Differences 51.8 (2011): 1007–1011. online
Olson, Carl E., and Sandra Miesel. The da Vinci hoax: Exposing the errors in The da Vinci code (Ignatius Press, 2004).
Propp, William H. C. "Is The Da Vinci Code True?." Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 25.1 (2013): 34–48.
Pullum, Geoffrey K. "The Dan Brown code." (2004)
Schneider-Mayerson, Matthew. "The Dan Brown phenomenon: conspiracism in post-9/11 popular fiction." Radical History Review 2011.111 (2011): 194–201. online
Walsh, Richard G. "Passover Plots: From Modern Fictions to Mark and Back Again." Postscripts: The Journal of Sacred Texts, Cultural Histories, and Contemporary Contexts 3.2-3 (2007): 201–222. online
External links
2003 American novels
American detective novels
Albinism in popular culture
American mystery novels
American thriller novels
Bible conspiracy theories
British Book Award-winning works
Novels about cryptography
Holy Grail in fiction
Novels about museums
Novels by Dan Brown
Opus Dei
Sequel novels
Novels involved in plagiarism controversies
Doubleday (publisher) books
Anti-Catholic publications
Mona Lisa
American novels adapted into films
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Religious controversies in literature
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Thompson%20%28activist%29
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Jack Thompson (activist)
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John Bruce Thompson (born July 25, 1951) is an American activist and disbarred attorney. As an attorney, Thompson focused his legal efforts against what he perceives as obscenity in modern culture. Thompson gained recognition as an anti-video game activist, criticizing the content of video games and their alleged effects on children. He also targeted rap music and radio personality Howard Stern.
Thompson's legal career was further recognized for his actions against The Florida Bar, including challenging its constitutionality in 1993. In 2008, he was permanently disbarred by the Supreme Court of Florida for inappropriate conduct, including making false statements to tribunals and disparaging and humiliating litigants.
Background
Thompson grew up in Cleveland, Ohio, attended Cuyahoga Falls H.S. and attended Denison University. He received media attention when he hosted his own political talk show on the college radio station. He then attended Vanderbilt University Law School, where he met his wife, Patricia. In 1976, they moved to Florida, where Thompson, working as a lawyer and then a fund-raiser for a Christian ministry, began attending the Key Biscayne Presbyterian Church and became a born-again Christian. Thompson admits to having a "colorful disciplinary history" as an attorney.
The Neil Rogers Show
In 1988, Thompson became involved in a feud with WIOD Radio host Neil Rogers, after Thompson was instrumental in persuading the FCC to fine WIOD $10,000 for airing such parody songs as "Boys Want Sex in the Morning" on Rogers' show. Thompson also sued the station for violating a December 1987 agreement to end on-air harassment against him. For the next eight months, Thompson recorded all of Rogers' broadcasts and documented 40,000 mentionings of his name. Thompson claimed that one of the terms of his agreement with the station was that the station would pay him $5,000 each time his name was mentioned, totaling $200 million in the suit.
Janet Reno
Thompson first met Janet Reno in November 1975, when he applied for a job as an assistant state's attorney in Miami-Dade County, Florida, but was not hired. In 1988, he ran for prosecutor against then-incumbent Dade County State Attorney Janet Reno, after she had declined his request to prosecute Neil Rogers. Thompson gave Reno a letter at a campaign event requesting that she check a box to indicate whether she was homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual. Thompson said that Reno then put her hand on his shoulder and responded, "I'm only interested in virile men. That's why I'm not attracted to you." He filed a police report accusing her of battery for touching him. In response, Reno asked Florida governor Bob Martinez to appoint a special prosecutor to investigate. The special prosecutor rejected the charge, concluding that it was "a political ploy". Reno was ultimately re-elected with 69% of the vote. Thompson repeated allegations that Reno was a lesbian when she was nominated as U.S. Attorney General, leading one of her supporters, lieutenant governor Buddy MacKay, to dismiss him as a "kook".
In 1990, after his election loss, Thompson began a campaign against the efforts of Switchboard of Miami, a social services group of which Reno was a board member. Thompson charged that the group placed "homosexual-education tapes" in public schools. Switchboard responded by getting the Supreme Court of Florida to order that he submit to a psychiatric examination. Thompson did so and passed. Thompson has since stated that he is "the only officially certified sane lawyer in the entire state of Florida".
Rap music
Thompson came to national prominence in the controversy over 2 Live Crew's As Nasty As They Wanna Be album. (Luke Skyywalker Records, the company of 2 Live Crew's Luther Campbell, had previously released a record supporting Reno in her race against Thompson.) On January 1, 1990, he wrote to Martinez and Reno asking them to investigate whether the album violated Florida obscenity laws. Although the state prosecutor declined to proceed with an investigation, Thompson pushed local officials in various parts of the state to block sales of the album, along with N.W.A's Straight Outta Compton. In sending documents to opponents, Thompson would frequently attach a photocopy of his driver's license, with a photo of Batman pasted over his own. Thompson said, "I have sent my opponents pictures of Batman to remind them I'm playing the role of Batman. Just like Bruce Wayne helped the police in the movie, I have had to assist the sheriff of Broward County." He also wore a Batman wristwatch. Thompson compared Campbell to the Joker. Thompson also said, "I understand as well as anybody that the First Amendment is a cornerstone of a free society—but there is a responsibility to people who can be harmed by words and thoughts, one of which is the message from Campbell that women can be sexually abused."
Thompson also took issue with another 2 Live Crew song, "Banned in the U.S.A.". He sent a letter to Jon Landau, manager of Bruce Springsteen, whose song "Born in the U.S.A." was to be sampled by the group. Thompson suggested that Landau "protect 'Born in the U.S.A.' from its apparent theft by a bunch of clowns who traffic toxic waste to kids," or else Thompson would "be telling the nation about Mr. Springsteen's tacit approval" of the song, which, according to Campbell, "expresses anger about the failure of the First Amendment to protect 2 Live Crew from prosecution". Thompson also said, "the 'social commentary' on this album is akin to a sociopath's discharging his AK-47 into a crowded schoolyard, with the machine gun bursts interrupted by Pee-wee Herman's views on politics".
The members of 2 Live Crew responded to these efforts by suing the Broward County sheriff in federal district court. The sheriff had previously told local retailers that selling the album could result in a prosecution for obscenity violations. While they were granted an injunction because law enforcement actions were an unconstitutional prior restraint on free speech, the court ruled that the album was in fact obscene. However, an appellate court reversed the obscenity ruling, because simply playing the tape was insufficient evidence of the constitutional requirement that it had no artistic value.
As the debate continued, Thompson wrote, "An industry that says a line cannot be drawn will be drawn and quartered." He said of his campaign, "I won't stop till I get the head of a record company or record chain in jail. Only then will they stop trafficking in obscenity". Bob Guccione Jr., founder of Spin magazine, responded by calling Thompson "a sort of latter-day Don Quixote, as equally at odds with his times as that mythical character was," and argued that his campaign was achieving "two things...: pissing everybody off and compounding his own celebrity". Thompson responded by noting, "Law enforcement and I put 2 Live Crew's career back into the toilet where it began."
Thompson wrote another letter in 1991, this time to the Minnesota attorney general Skip Humphrey, complaining about the N.W.A album Niggaz4Life. Humphrey warned locally-based Musicland that sales of the album might violate state law against distribution of sexually explicit material harmful to minors. Humphrey also referred the matter to the Minneapolis city attorney, who concluded that some of the songs might fit the legal definition if issued as singles, but that sales of the album as a whole were not prosecutable. Thompson also initiated a similar campaign in Boston. Later, Thompson would criticize the Republican Party for inviting N.W.A member and party donor Eric "Eazy-E" Wright to an exclusive function.
In 1992, Thompson was hired by the Freedom Alliance, a self-described patriot group founded by Oliver North, described as "far-right" by The Washington Post. By this time, Thompson was looking to have Time Warner, then being criticized for promoting the Ice-T song "Cop Killer", prosecuted for federal and state crimes such as sedition, incitement to riot, and "advocating overthrow of government" by distributing material that, in Thompson's view, advocated the killing of police officers. Time Warner eventually released Ice-T and his band from their contract, and voluntarily suspended distribution of the album on which "Cop Killer" was featured.
Thompson's push to label various musical performances obscene was not entirely limited to rap. In addition to taking on 2 Live Crew, Thompson campaigned against sales of the racy music video for Madonna's "Justify My Love". Then in 1996, he took on MTV broadcasts for "objectification of women" by writing to the station's corporate parent, Viacom, demanding a stop to what he called "corporate pollution". He also went after MTV's advertisers and urged the United States Army to pull recruiting commercials, citing the Army's recruitment of women and problems with sexual harassment scandals.
Video games
Thompson has heavily criticized a number of video games and campaigned against their producers and distributors. His basic argument is that violent video games have repeatedly been used by teenagers as "murder simulators" to rehearse violent plans. He has pointed to alleged connections between such games and a number of school massacres. According to Thompson, "In every school shooting, we find that kids who pull the trigger are video gamers." Also, he claims that scientific studies show teenagers process the game environment differently from adults, leading to increased violence and copycat behavior. According to Thompson, "If some wacked-out adult wants to spend his time playing Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, one has to wonder why he doesn't get a life, but when it comes to kids, it has a demonstrable impact on their behavior and the development of the frontal lobes of their brain." Thompson has described the proliferation of games by Sony, a Japanese company, as "Pearl Harbor 2". According to Thompson, "Many parents think that stores won't sell an M-rated game to someone under 17. We know that's not true, and, in fact, kids roughly 50 percent of that time, all the studies show, are able to walk into any store and get any game regardless of the rating, no questions asked."
Thompson has rejected arguments that such video games are protected by freedom of expression, saying, "Murder simulators are not constitutionally protected speech. They're not even speech. They're dangerous physical appliances that teach a kid how to kill efficiently and to love it," as well as simply calling video games "mental masturbation". In addition, he has attributed part of the impetus for violent games to the military, saying that it was looking "for a way to disconnect in the soldier's mind the physical act of pulling the trigger from the awful reality that a life may end". Thompson further claims that some of these games are based on military training and simulation technologies, such as those being developed at the Institute for Creative Technologies, which, he suggests, were created by the Department of Defense to help overcome soldiers' inhibition to kill. He also claims that the PlayStation 2's DualShock controller "gives you a pleasurable buzz back into your hands with each kill. This is operant conditioning, behavior modification right out of B. F. Skinner's laboratory."
Although his efforts dealing with video games have generally focused on juveniles, Thompson got involved in a case involving an adult on one occasion in 2004. This was an aggravated murder case against 29-year-old Charles McCoy Jr., the defendant in a series of highway shootings the previous year around Columbus, Ohio. When McCoy was captured, a game console and a copy of The Getaway were in his motel room. Although not representing McCoy and over the objections of McCoy's lawyers, Thompson succeeded in getting the court to unseal a search warrant for McCoy's residence. This showed, among other things, the discovery of additional games State of Emergency, Max Payne, and Dead to Rights. However, he was not allowed to present the evidence to McCoy, whose defense team was relying on an insanity defense based on paranoid schizophrenia. In Thompson's estimation, McCoy was the "functional equivalent of a 15-year-old," and "the only thing insane about this case is the (insanity) defense".
Early litigation
Thompson filed a lawsuit on behalf of the parents of three students killed in the 1997 Heath High School shooting. Investigations showed that the perpetrator, 14-year-old Michael Carneal, had regularly played various computer games (including Doom, Quake, Castle Wolfenstein, Redneck Rampage, Nightmare Creatures, MechWarrior, and Resident Evil) and accessed some pornographic websites. Carneal had also owned a videotape of The Basketball Diaries, which includes a high school student dreaming about shooting his teacher and some classmates. The suit sought $33 million in damages, alleging that the producers of the games, the movie, and the operators of the Internet sites were negligent in distributing this material to a minor because it would desensitize him and make him more prone to violence. Additional claims included product liability for making "defective" products (the defects alleged were violent features and lack of warnings) and violation of RICO, the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, for distributing this material to minors. Said Thompson, "We intend to hurt Hollywood. We intend to hurt the video game industry. We intend to hurt the sex porn sites."
The suit was filed in federal district court and was dismissed for failing to present a legally recognizable claim. The court concluded that Carneal's actions were not reasonably foreseeable by the defendants and that, in any case, his actions superseded those of the defendants, so the latter could not therefore be the proximate cause of the harm. In addition, the judge determined that "thoughts, ideas and images" in the defendants' materials did not constitute "products" that could be considered defective. The ruling was upheld on appeal.
Grand Theft Auto
Actions in law
Ohio
In February 2003, Thompson asked permission to file an amicus curiae (or "friend of the court") brief in the Ohio case of Dustin Lynch, 16, who was charged with aggravated murder in the death of JoLynn Mishne; Lynch was "obsessed" with Grand Theft Auto III. When Judge John Lohn ruled that Lynch would be tried as an adult, Thompson passed a message from Mishne's father to the judge, asserting that "the attorneys had better tell the jury about the violent video game that trained this kid [and] showed him how to kill our daughter, JoLynn. If they don't, I will."
In a motion sent to the prosecutor, the boy's court-appointed lawyer, and reporters, Thompson asked to be recognized as the boy's lawyer in the case. Medina County Prosecutor Dean Holman, however, said Thompson would be faced with deeply conflicting interests if he were to represent Dustin Lynch because he also advised Mishne's parents. Claiming that delays had weakened his case, Thompson asked Medina County Common Pleas Judge Christopher Collier to disqualify himself from presiding over the case because the judge had not ruled on Thompson's request for two months. The boy himself eventually rejected Thompson's offer, withdrawing his insanity plea. Lynch's mother, Jerrilyn Thomas, who had demanded that Collier appoint Thompson to defend her son, said she changed her mind after visiting with her son in jail, saying that the charge against him "has nothing to do with video games or Paxil, and my son's no murderer."
Tennessee
Thompson returned to file a lawsuit in Tennessee state court in October 2003 on behalf of the victims of two teenage stepbrothers who had pleaded guilty to reckless homicide, endangerment, and assault. Since the boys told investigators they were inspired by Grand Theft Auto III, Thompson sought $246 million in damages from the publisher, Take-Two Interactive, along with PlayStation 2 maker Sony Computer Entertainment America and retailer Wal-Mart. The suit charged that the defendants knew or should have known that the game would cause copycat violence. On October 22, 2003, the case was removed to the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee. Two days later, the plaintiffs filed a notice of voluntary dismissal, and the case was closed.
Alabama
Thompson was involved in a similar suit in Alabama in 2005 on behalf of the families of police personnel killed by Devin Moore, a teenager who was reportedly a compulsive Grand Theft Auto player. The lawyer's participation in the case, however, ran into a dispute over his pro hac vice, or temporary, admission to practice in that state. The opposing attorneys sought removal of the privilege by arguing that Thompson's conduct was unethical and claiming that he had threatened and harassed them in letters and emails. The judge added that Thompson had violated his gag order during Moore's criminal trial. Thompson tried to withdraw from the case, but his request was denied by the judge, who went ahead and revoked Thompson's temporary admission to the state bar.
For his part, Thompson said he thought the judge was trying to protect Moore's criminal conviction at any cost. He also complained about the judge's ethics, saying a local attorney who claimed to have influence on the judge had assured him the case would be dismissed unless the attorney was on Thompson's team, and also claimed that Rockstar Entertainment and Take Two Interactive posted slanderous comments about him on their website.
In the aftermath of this lawsuit, Thompson lobbied Alabama attorney general Troy King to file a civil suit and call on retailers not to sell "cop-killing games". After the slaying of another police officer in Gassville, Arkansas, by Jacob D. Robida, an 18-year-old fugitive, Thompson again raised the possibility of a connection to Grand Theft Auto, but investigators found no evidence that video games were involved.
Florida
Thompson once reported that he had videotaped a Miami Best Buy employee selling a copy of Grand Theft Auto: Vice City to his son who was 10 at the time. In a letter to Best Buy, he wrote, "Prosecutions and public relations consequences should fall on your Minneapolis headquarters like snowflakes." He eventually sued the company in Florida, arguing that it had violated a law against sale of sexual materials deemed harmful to minors.
In January 2005, Best Buy agreed that it would enforce an existing policy to check the identification of anyone who appeared to be 17 or under and tried to purchase games rated "M" (for mature audiences). No law in effect at the time prohibited selling "M" rated video games to juveniles.
New Mexico
In September 2006, Thompson and attorney Steven Sanders filed a suit in Albuquerque, New Mexico, against Sony, Take-Two, Rockstar Games, and teenage killer Cody Posey, for the wrongful death of three members of Posey's family. The suit, on behalf of surviving family members, claimed that "obsessively" playing Grand Theft Auto: Vice City made violence "pleasurable and attractive," disconnected violence from consequences, and caused Posey to "act out, copycat, replicate and emulate the violence" when in July 2004 he shot and killed his father, stepmother, and stepsister and then buried them under a manure pile. According to Thompson, "Posey essentially practiced how to kill on this game. If it wasn't for Grand Theft Auto, three people might not now be dead."
The suit claimed that Thompson had been told by a sheriff's deputy that the game and a Sony PlayStation 2 were found at the ranch. The suit also claimed that the game taught Posey "how to point and shoot a gun in a fashion making him an extraordinarily effective killer without teaching him any of the constraints or responsibilities needed to inhibit such a killing capacity." The game in question does not actually teach the player anything about handling a firearm. Gary Mitchell, Posey's attorney, said Thompson contacted him "numerous times" before the trial, urging him to highlight the game in Posey's defense, but Mitchell said he "just didn't find it had any merit whatsoever."
Take-Two reaction
On March 14, 2007, Take-Two filed a lawsuit seeking to permanently enjoin Thompson from filing any public nuisance action against the company that would block the sales to minors of the unreleased video games Grand Theft Auto IV and Manhunt 2. The suit alleged that Thompson's lawsuits violated the company's First Amendment rights.
Responding, Thompson said: "I have been praying, literally, that Take-Two and its lawyers would do something so stupid, so arrogant, so dumb, even dumber than what they have to date done, that such a misstep would enable me to destroy Take-Two." On April 19, 2007, Thompson and Take-Two settled the suit, with Thompson agreeing not to seek any legal restriction on sales of Take-Two's games, threaten to sue the company, or accuse Take-Two of any wrongdoing based on the sale of any of its games.
One analyst said that the settlement was likely to mute his public pronouncements and lawsuits against the company. However, upon the game's 2008 release, Thompson called Grand Theft Auto IV "the gravest assault upon children in this country since polio," and asked Minnesota Governor Tim Pawlenty to "pursue and file criminal charges against [Minnesota-based retailers] Target and Best Buy". He also sent a letter to Take-Two chairman Strauss Zelnick's attorney, addressed to Zelnick's mother, in which Thompson accused her son of "doing everything he possibly can to sell as many copies of GTA: IV to teen boys in the United States, a country in which your son claims you raised him to be a 'a Boy Scout'. ... More like the Hitler Youth, I would say." On May 1, 2008, Thompson appeared on the CNN Headline News program Glenn Beck, asserting that the game's sexual content made its sale to minors illegal, and that he was working with law enforcement to have criminal prosecutions brought. Thompson also filed a complaint with the Chicago Transit Authority about poster ads for the game at Chicago, Illinois bus stops.
GameZone emails
In September 2013, Thompson expressed his hatred of Grand Theft Auto V during a series of e-mails exchange with GameZone writer Lance Liebl during its launch week. The game happened to launch the day after the Washington Navy Yard shooting. Traditional media outlets such as Fox News and MSNBC sought out to find proof that violent video games, such as Grand Theft Auto V, had a role in the brutal killings. GameZone responded by writing an article that disagrees with this. These caught Thompson's attention, who then sent an e-mail to the site. "Look, Lance," he wrote in an email, "The American Psychological Association has established a causal link between these games and increased aggression. The Dept. of Defense uses them for that purpose." Liebl responded by offering Thompson a chance to come on the site and explain his stance, which he refused, describing gamers as "too brain-impaired to get it."
Bully
Beginning in 2005, Thompson supported a campaign to discourage Take-Two's subsidiary, Rockstar Games, from releasing a game called Bully, in which, according to Thompson, "what you are in effect doing is rehearsing your physical revenge and violence against those whom you have been victimized by. And then you, like Klebold and Harris in Columbine, become the ultimate bully." According to Thompson, the game "shows you how to—by bullying—take over your school. You punch people; you hit them with sling shots; you dunk their heads in dirty toilets. There's white-on-black crime in the game. You bludgeon teachers and classmates with bats. It's absolutely nuts." Thompson sued Wal-Mart, Best Buy, Target, Circuit City, GameStop, and Toys 'R' Us, seeking an order to bar the game's release. He also participated in a protest at Rockstar's office that also included students from Peaceaholics, a Washington, D.C., mentoring organization. Thompson said he hoped that the pressure would get retailers to refuse to carry the game. In March 2006, the Miami-Dade County Public Schools board unanimously passed a resolution criticizing the game and urging retailers not to sell the game to minors.
Thompson also criticized Bill Gates and Microsoft for contracting with Rockstar Games to release the game on the Xbox. The Xbox version has since been cancelled for undisclosed reasons, but a version was released years later on the Xbox 360. In August 2006, Thompson requested a congressional subpoena for an early copy, threatening to file suit in Miami if he did not gain help from U.S. Rep. Cliff Stearns. Once the game is out, according to Thompson, "the horse will be out of the barn and it will be too late to do anything about it". Thompson argued that it violated Florida's public nuisance laws, which prohibit activities that can injure the health of the community.
Rockstar Games co-founder Terry Donovan responded, saying "I would prefer it if we could simply make great games and not have to deal with misunderstanding and misperception of what we do." After receiving no response from Rockstar regarding an advance copy, Thompson filed the public nuisance complaint against Wal-Mart, Take-Two Interactive, and GameStop, demanding that he be allowed to preview the game before its October 17 release date. Take-Two offered to bring in a copy and let both Judge Ronald Friedman and Thompson view the game in the judge's chambers on October 12, 2006. The judge ultimately saw no reason to restrict sales and dismissed the complaint the next day.
Thompson was critical of the judge's decision, telling the judge "You did not see the game... You don't even know what it was you saw," as well as accusing the Take-Two employee who demonstrated the game of avoiding the most violent parts. Blank Rome subsequently filed a motion to have Thompson's behavior declared "contempt for the court". Judge Friedman then recused himself from ruling, and instead filed a complaint against Thompson with The Florida Bar, calling Thompson's behavior "inappropriate by a member of the bar, unprofessional and contemptible".
Thompson later drew attention to the game's main character, a 15-year-old male, being able to kiss other boys. Thompson wrote to ESRB president Patricia Vance, "We just found gay sexual content in Bully as Jimmy Hopkins makes out with another male student. Good luck with your Teen rating now." The ESRB responded by saying they were already aware that the content was in the game when they rated it.
Manhunt
During the aftermath of the murder of Stefan Pakeerah by his friend Warren Leblanc in Leicestershire, England, the game Manhunt was linked after the media wrongfully claimed police found a copy in Leblanc's room. The police officially denied any link, citing drug-related robbery as the motive and revealing that the game had been found in Pakeerah's bedroom, not Leblanc's. Thompson, who had heard of the murder, claimed that he had written to Rockstar after the game was released, warning them that the nature of the game could inspire copycat killings: "I wrote warning them that somebody was going to copycat the Manhunt game and kill somebody. We have had dozens of killings in the U.S. by children who had played these types of games. This is not an isolated incident. These types of games are basically murder simulators. There are people being killed over here almost on a daily basis." Soon thereafter, the Pakeerah family hired Thompson with the aim of suing Sony and Rockstar for £50 million in a wrongful death claim.
Jack Thompson would later vow to permanently ban the game during the release of the sequel Manhunt 2. Thompson said he planned to sue Take-Two/Rockstar in an effort to have both Manhunt 2 and Grand Theft Auto IV banned as "public nuisances", saying "killings have been specifically linked to Take-Two's Manhunt and Grand Theft Auto games. [I have] asked Take-Two and retailers to stop selling Take-Two's 'Mature' murder simulation games to kids. They all refuse. They are about to be told by a court of law that they must adhere to the logic of their own 'Mature' labels."
The suits were eradicated when Take-Two petitioned U.S. District Court, SD FL to block the impending lawsuit, on the grounds that video games purchased for private entertainment could not be considered public nuisances. The following day, Thompson wrote on his website "I have been praying, literally, that Take-Two and its lawyers would do something so stupid, that such a misstep would enable me to destroy Take-Two. The pit Take-Two has dug for itself will be patently clear next week when I strike back."
Mortal Kombat
In October 2006, Thompson sent a letter to Midway Games, demanding they cease and desist selling the latest game in the Mortal Kombat series, Mortal Kombat: Armageddon, claiming that the game was illegally profiting on his likeness, because gamers could use the character creation option to make a character who looked like Thompson. Midway did not respond to his letter.
Activism and lobbying
In addition to filing lawsuits, Thompson has pushed for measures against similar games in a variety of public settings. He wrote a joint article in the Christian Science Monitor with Eugene F. Provenzo, a University of Miami professor who studies the effects of video games on children. Originally brought together to provide opposing viewpoints on 60 Minutes in the aftermath of the Columbine High School massacre, they said they had become friends and were collaborating on a book. They described themselves as having "a shared belief that first-person shooter video games are bad for our children, teaching them to act aggressively and providing them with efficient killing skills and romanticized and trivialized scenarios for killing in the real world".
Thompson has supported legislation in a number of states that would ban sales of violent and sexually explicit video games to minors. In response to First Amendment concerns, he argued that the games were a "public safety hazard." However, he rejected as "completely unconstitutional" Hillary Clinton's proposed legislation to ban sales to minors of games rated "M" for Mature by the Entertainment Software Rating Board. Thompson contended that the government could not enforce a private-sector standard but had to depend on a Miller obscenity test. He charged that Clinton was simply positioning herself politically, with the support of the gaming industry, by proposing a bill which he felt she knew would be unconstitutional.
In July 2005, Thompson sent a letter to several politicians urging them to investigate The Sims 2, alleging that the game contained nudity accessible by entering special codes. Thompson called the nudity inappropriate for a game rated "T" for Teen, a rating which indicates suitability for anyone 13 and older. Manufacturer Electronic Arts dismissed the allegations, with vice president Jeff Brown explaining that game characters have "no anatomical detail" under their clothes, effectively resembling Barbie dolls. Although the game does display blurred-out patches over body regions when characters are naked, such as when taking a shower, Brown said that was for "humorous effect" and denied there was anything improper about the game. Nevertheless, a command that could be entered into the in-game console in order to disable the blur effect was removed from the game in an expansion. No official reason was given for the change.
In Louisiana, Thompson helped draft a 2006 bill sponsored by state representative Roy Burrell to ban the sale of violent video games to buyers under 18 (HB1381). In an effort to avoid constitutional problems, it avoided trying to define "violent" and instead adopted a variation of the Miller obscenity test: sales to minors would be illegal based on community standards if the game appealed to "the minor's morbid interest in violence", was patently offensive based on adult standards of suitability for minors, and lacked serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value for minors. The bill was passed unanimously by the state House and approved by the Senate Judiciary A Committee, despite industry opposition and predictions that it too would be unconstitutional. The Shreveport Times editorialized that Thompson's support of the bill "should immediately set off alarms" and described Thompson as someone who "thrives on chasing cultural ambulances". In defense of the bill, Thompson said that it was needed for public safety, and that it was a "miracle" that a Columbine-type event hadn't happened yet in Louisiana. However, the ESA filed suit under Entertainment Software Association v. Foti, and U.S. District Judge James Brady issued a preliminary injunction, temporarily blocking the law from taking effect until full judicial review can be done. The law was permanently enjoined in late November 2006, and the state was ordered to pay the legal fees of the plaintiffs. Judge Brady was "dumbfounded" that state legislators and Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco wasted taxpayer money by trying to enact the law.
At one point, Thompson was asked by the National Institute on Media and the Family to stop invoking the organization's name in his campaigns. NIMF president David Walsh felt Thompson cast the organization in a bad light whenever he brought up their name. "Your commentary has included extreme hyperbole and your tactics have included personally attacking individuals for whom I have a great deal of respect," Walsh said in an open letter to Thompson.
Thompson has additionally worked to influence police investigations concerning violent acts which he views as being connected to violence in video games media. On June 2, 2006, Thompson suggested that West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana, police detectives, investigating the murder of 55-year-old Michael Gore by 17-year-old Kurt Edward Neher, should look into the video games played by Neher. According to Sheriff J. Austin Daniel, an autopsy showed Gore was beaten to death as well as shot in the face. Concerning this, Thompson stated that "nobody shoots anybody in the face unless you're a hit man or a video gamer."
Other public commentary
Thompson predicted that the perpetrator of the Beltway sniper attacks would be "a teenaged boy, who plays video games" and speculated incorrectly that he "may indeed ride a bicycle to and from his shooting locations, his gun broken down and placed in a backpack while he pedals." Saying that the shooter, Lee Boyd Malvo, had "trained" on Halo, Thompson later claimed credit for this on The Today Show: "I predicted that the Beltway sniper would be a teen-aged boy that trained on a game switched to sniper mode. And three months later, NBC reported that that's exactly what Malvo did. And Muhammad had him train on the game to suppress his inhibition to kill." John Muhammad was a Gulf War veteran and earned an expert marksmanship badge in the U.S. Army.
Thompson has also criticized a Christian video game based on the Left Behind series. In Left Behind: Eternal Forces, players participate in "battles raging in the streets of New York," according to the game's fact sheet. They engage in "physical and spiritual warfare: using the power of prayer to strengthen your troops in combat and wield modern military weaponry throughout the game world." Thompson claims that the makers of the game are sacrificing their values. He said, "Because of the Christian context, somehow it's OK? It's not OK. The context is irrelevant. It's a mass-killing game." Left Behind author Tim LaHaye disagrees, saying "Rather than forbid young people from viewing their favorite pastime, I prefer to give them something that's positive." The dispute over the game has caused Thompson to sever ties with Tyndale House, which publishes both the Left Behind books and Thompson's book, Out of Harm's Way. Thompson has not seen the game, which he says has "personally broken my heart," but claims, "I don't have to meet Abraham Lincoln to know that he was the 16th president of the United States."
In April 2007, only hours after the Virginia Tech shooting (and before Seung-Hui Cho was actually identified), Thompson predicted that the shooter had trained on the game Counter-Strike. According to Thompson, the game "drills you and gives you scenarios on how to kill them [and] gets you to kill them with your heart rate lower." He says that Seung-Hui "was in a hyper-reality situation in virtual reality." Though Seung-Hui had last been known to have played Counter-Strike in high school, four years prior to the shooting, Thompson asserts that "you don't drop it when you go to college, typically." Thompson disputed Seung-Hui's roommate's claim that Seung-Hui only used his computer to write fiction, on the grounds that "Cho was able to go room to room calmly, efficiently, coolly killing people." Prior to being identified, Thompson attributed the "flat effect on [Seung-Hui's] face" and the efficiency of his attack to video game rehearsals of the shooting. However, a search warrant released, listing the items found in Cho's dorm room, did not contain any video games, and a Washington Post story cited by Thompson later removed a paragraph stating that Seung-Hui enjoyed violent video games in high school. Despite all evidence indicating that Seung-Hui had not played Counter-Strike in years, Thompson continued to insist that "this is not rocket science. When a kid who has never killed anyone in his life goes on a rampage and looks like the Terminator, he's a video gamer." Thompson also sent a letter to Bill Gates, saying, "Mr. Gates, your company is potentially legally liable (for) the harm done at Virginia Tech. Your game, a killing simulator, according to the news that used to be in the Post, trained him to enjoy killing and how to kill." However, Microsoft did not create Counter-Strike – they only published the Xbox version of the game. The official Virginia state panel commissioned to investigate the shooting determined that Seung-Hui "played video games like Sonic the Hedgehog," and that "none of the video games [he had played] were war games or had violent themes."
In December 2007, Thompson filed suit against Omaha, Nebraska Police Chief Thomas Warren, asking him to produce information on all "violent entertainment material" belonging to Robert Hawkins, who killed nine people, including himself, in a shooting at the Westroads Mall earlier that month. According to the Omaha Police Department, such information is not a matter of public record, as it is part of an ongoing criminal investigation.
On February 15, 2008, Jack Thompson claimed that the actions of Steven Kazmierczak, who the previous day killed five people at Northern Illinois University before committing suicide, were influenced by the game Counter-Strike. In a subsequent news release, Thompson claimed that "We have a nation of Manchurian Candidate video gamers out there who are ready, willing, and able to massacre, and some of them will." Thompson also threatened the university with a lawsuit if the school did not provide copies of "all documents that reveal [Kazmierczak's] play of violent videogames."
Relationship with the gaming industry and gamers
Thompson's "high-profile crusades" have made him an enemy of video game aficionados. On occasion, Thompson has sparred directly with the gaming industry and its fans. In 2005, he wrote an open letter to Entertainment Software Association president Doug Lowenstein, making what he described as "a modest video game proposal" (an allusion to the title of Jonathan Swift's satirical essay, A Modest Proposal) to the video game industry: Thompson said he would donate $10,000 to a charity designated by Take-Two CEO Paul Eibeler if any video game company would create a game including the scenario he described in the letter. The scenario called for the main character, whose son was killed by a boy who played violent video games, to murder a number of industry executives (including one modeled on Eibeler) and go on a killing spree at the Electronic Entertainment Expo. Video game fans promptly began working to take Thompson up on his offer, resulting in the game I'm O.K – A Murder Simulator, among others. Afterwards, he claimed that his proposal was satire, and refused to make the promised donation.
In response, Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik, the creators of gaming webcomic Penny Arcade and of the children's charity Child's Play, stepped in to make the $10,000 donation instead, writing in the memo field of their cheque, "For Jack Thompson, Because Jack Thompson Won't." Afterwards, Thompson tried unsuccessfully to get Seattle police and the FBI to investigate Holkins and Krahulik for orchestrating "criminal harassment" of him through articles on their site. Other webcomics have regularly incorporated references to Thompson, alluding to this incident as well as others.
In 2006, two Michigan gamers began a project dubbed "Flowers for Jack", soliciting donations to deliver a massive floral arrangement to Thompson's office. The flowers were delivered in February along with a letter aimed at opening a dialogue between Thompson and the video gaming community. Thompson rejected this overture and forwarded the flowers to some of his industry foes, with such comments as "Discard them along with the decency you discarded long ago. I really don't care. Grind them up and smoke them if you like."
Gamers have responded to Thompson's attempt to link the Virginia Tech massacre to the game Counter-Strike. Video game Web sites and young gamers on Internet message boards "teemed with anger" at what San Francisco Chronicle reporter Peter Hartlaub called "his serial misstatements," in some cases linking to YouTube videos of Thompson and dissecting his claims point by point. Jason Della Rocca, executive director of the International Game Developers Association, said, "It's so sad. These massacre chasers—they're worse than ambulance chasers—they're waiting for these things to happen so they can jump on their soapbox." In response, Thompson referred to Della Rocca as an "idiot" and a "jackass [...] paid not to connect the dots [connecting shootings to video games]," and compared himself to people who warned that the government should be more concerned about terrorism before the September 11, 2001 attacks. According to Della Rocca, Thompson then challenged him to a series of gaming debates, claiming that they could each make more than $3,000 per event. When Della Rocca suggested that neither he nor Thompson accept any money for the events, Thompson refused.
In July 2009, Entertainment Consumers Association (ECA) president Hal Halpin posted a copy of an email exchange between himself and Thompson, stating, "I get messages (IMs, emails, FB notes, etc.) from members all the time, asking what the (almost daily) notes are from JT. Since this one's fairly harmless and I've redacted anything personal (not that I don't love getting his threatening cease and desist letters), I thought I'd share it as a pretty typical exchange." Halpin and Thompson have been vocal opponents since 1998, when Halpin ran the game retail trade association IEMA. The exchange was sparked by a guest editorial that Halpin entitled, "Perception is Everything" for IndustryGamers.com where he called for consumers and the industry to speak out against negative stereotyping of gamers.
In March 2011, in response to the creation of a school shooter mod entitled School Shooter: North American Tour 2012, developed by Checkerboarded Studios on Valve's Source engine, Thompson emailed Valve's managing director, Gabe Newell, demanding that the mod be removed, as he speculated that Valve played a part in the mod's development. In the letter, Thompson stated that Half-Life was directly responsible for the Erfurt school massacre, as well as the Virginia Tech massacre and that Valve had until 5:00p.m. on March18 to remove the mod.
The Howard Stern Show
In 2004, Thompson helped get Howard Stern's show taken off a radio station in Orlando, Florida, by filing a complaint with the Federal Communications Commission. Thompson objected to Stern's use of perceived obscenities on the air. He argued that "Either broadcasters will accept the light harness of decency that has been the law for decades and start cleaning up their acts, or the public's deepening outrage will foster a more fearsome governmental response." Thompson claimed to have received death threats from listeners of Stern's show, noting that "you'd expect that considering the IQ of people who listen to Howard Stern. Apparently they fail to realize that I might have caller ID."
During his opposition to Howard Stern, Thompson was asked in an interview with a reporter if, by his standards, he would blame Christianity for the murders committed by Michael Hernandez, a fourteen-year-old who murdered one of his classmates in 2004, because Hernandez wrote a diary in which he constantly spoke about praying to God. Thompson replied, "The Bible doesn't promote killing innocent people, Grand Theft Auto does. Islam does." Thompson then expanded his comments in the same interview by saying, "Islam promotes the killing of innocent people. The Quran requires the infidel, whether Jew or Christian, to be killed. ... That's a core essence of the religion. ... Muhammad was a pirate who killed infidels and who advocated the killing of infidels—not a nice guy. Osama bin Laden is in keeping with his fine tradition."
He later spoke in defense of Stern during the latter's legal dispute with CBS over promoting Sirius on-air before his switch to satellite radio. Thompson contended that the technology added by CBS to edit out profanity also could have worked to edit out Stern's references to Sirius. According to Thompson, "The reason why CBS chose not to edit Stern is that Stern's Arbitron ratings remained high and were arguably even enhanced by people tuning in to hear daily about Stern's running feud with CBS and his move to Sirius. In other words, CBS actually used Stern's discussion of his move to Sirius to make more money for CBS."
CBS President Les Moonves responded, saying "You know what? You can't let people like that tell you what to put on the air or what not to put on the air. That would only open the door when suddenly next week, he says, 'Take David Letterman off the air or take C.S.I. off the air.' Or you know what? Everybody Loves Raymond was about, you know, sex last week or about a 70-year-old man—you know, we dealt with Peter Boyle having sex with Doris Roberts. 'Take that off the air.' That's something we can't let happen."
The Florida Bar
Actions against the bar
In 1993, Thompson asked a Florida judge to declare The Florida Bar unconstitutional. He said that the Bar was engaged in a vendetta against him because of his religious beliefs, which he said conflicted with what he called the Bar's pro-gay, humanist, liberal agenda. He also said that the "wedding of all three functions of government into The Florida Bar, the 'official arm' of the Florida Supreme Court, is violative of the bedrock constitutional requirement of the separation powers and the 'checks and balances' which the separation guarantees." Thompson accepted a $20,000 out-of-court settlement.
On January 7, 2002, Thompson sent the Supreme Court of Florida a letter regarding The Florida Bar's actions. The letter was filed with the court on January 10, 2002, and was treated as a petition for a writ of mandamus against The Florida Bar. Before any action was taken on the petition, Thompson sent the court another letter on January 28, 2002, voluntarily dismissing the case. The letter was filed with the court on January 30, 2002, and the Florida Supreme Court issued an order of dismissal on February 28, 2002.
In January 2006, Thompson asked the Justice Department to investigate The Florida Bar's actions. "The Florida Bar and its agents have engaged in a documented pattern of this illegal activity, which may sink to the level of criminal racketeering activity, in a knowing and illegal effort to chill my federal First Amendment rights," Thompson wrote in a letter to Alex Acosta, interim U.S. attorney for the Southern District of Florida.
In April 2006, Thompson filed another suit against The Florida Bar, this time in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida, alleging that the Bar harassed him by investigating what he called baseless complaints made by disgruntled opponents in previous disputes. His five-count complaint asked for more than $1 million in damages. The lawsuit alleged that the Bar was pursuing baseless ethics complaints brought against Thompson by Tew Cardenas attorneys Lawrence Kellogg and Alberto Cardenas of Miami, and by two lawyers from the Philadelphia office of Blank Rome, in violation of Thompson's constitutional rights. According to the lawsuit, the Bar looked at Thompson for violations of a bar rule that prohibits attorneys from making disparaging remarks about judges, other attorneys, or court personnel. Thompson also filed a motion with the court to order the mediation of his dispute with the Bar. Thompson commented, "I enjoy doing what I do and I think I've got a First Amendment right to annoy people and participate in the public square in the cultural war." Thompson also said he is optimistic his federal lawsuit will be successful. "I'm 100 percent certain that it will effect change, otherwise I would not have filed it."
On April 25, 2006, The Florida Bar filed a motion to dismiss Thompson's complaint. The Bar argued that Thompson's complaint should be dismissed for a number of reasons, including the fact that the complaint failed to state a claim on which he could be granted relief. The Bar also argued that it was absolutely immune from liability for actions arising out of its disciplinary functions, that the Eleventh Amendment barred Thompson's recovery of damages, and that the court should dismiss the case pursuant to the abstention doctrine of Younger v. Harris. On May 4, 2006, Thompson filed a motion asking Judge Federico Moreno to recuse himself from the case, as Judge Moreno was a member of The Florida Bar. Citing an "abundance of caution," Judge Moreno recused himself on May 9, 2006, and referred the case to Chief Judge William Zloch for further action. Thompson did not, however, respond to the Bar's motion to dismiss the case. Finally, on May 17, 2006, Thompson filed a Notice of Voluntary Dismissal with the court, and the case was dismissed without prejudice.
Filings
In October 2007, then-Chief U.S. District Judge Federico Moreno sealed court documents submitted by Thompson in the Bar case that depicted "gay sex acts." Thompson's submission prompted U.S. District Judge Adalberto Jordan to order Thompson to show cause why his actions should not be filed as a grievance with the court's Ad Hoc Committee on Attorney Admissions, Peer Review and Attorney Grievance, but the order was dismissed after Thompson promised not to file any more pornography. Thompson then sent letters to acting U.S. Attorney General Peter Keisler and U.S. Senators Patrick Leahy and Arlen Specter demanding that Jordan be removed from his position for failing to prosecute Florida attorney Norm Kent, who Thompson claimed had "collaborated" with the Bar for 20 years to discipline him.
In February 2008, the Florida Supreme Court ordered Thompson to show cause as to why it should not reject future court filings from him unless they are signed by another The Florida Bar member. The Florida Supreme Court described his filings as "repetitive, frivolous and insult[ing to] the integrity of the court," particularly one in which Thompson, claiming concern about "the court's inability to comprehend his arguments," filed a motion which he called "A picture book for adults", including images of "swastikas, kangaroos in court, a reproduced dollar bill, cartoon squirrels, Paul Simon, Paul Newman, Ray Charles, a handprint with the word 'slap' written under it, Bar Governor Benedict P. Kuehne, Ed Bradley, Jack Nicholson, Justice Clarence Thomas, Julius Caesar, monkeys, [and] a house of cards". Thompson claimed that the order "wildly infringes" on his constitutional rights and was "a brazen attempt" to repeal the First Amendment right to petition the government to redress grievances. In response, he sent a letter to U.S. Attorney General Michael Mukasey, referring to the show-cause order as a criminal act done in retaliation for his seeking relief with the court.
On March 20, 2008, the Florida Supreme Court imposed sanctions on Thompson, requiring that any of his future filings in the court be signed by a member of The Florida Bar other than himself. The court noted that Thompson had responded to the show cause order with multiple "rambling, argumentative, and contemptuous" responses that characterized the show cause order as "bizarre" and "idiotic."
Disbarment
In February 2007, The Florida Bar filed disbarment proceedings against Thompson over allegations of professional misconduct. The action was the result of separate grievances filed by people claiming that Thompson made defamatory, false statements and attempted to humiliate, embarrass, harass or intimidate them. According to the complaint, Thompson accused Alberto Cardenas of "distribution of pornography to children", claimed that the Alabama judge presiding over the Devin Moore case "breaks the rules, even the Alabama State Bar Rules, because he thinks that the rules don't apply to him", and sent a letter to Blank Rome's managing partner, saying, "Your law firm has actively and knowingly facilitated by various means the criminal distribution of sexual material to minors." Thompson claims that the complaints violate state religious protections because his advocacy is motivated by his Christian faith.
In May 2008, Miami-Dade Circuit Judge Dava Tunis, after reviewing 2,400 pages of transcripts and 1,700 pages of exhibits, recommended that Thompson be found guilty of 27 of the 31 violations of which he had been accused, including making false statements to tribunals, disparaging and humiliating litigants and other lawyers, and improperly practicing law outside of Florida. Thompson filed a motion with the Florida Supreme Court the day after the report was issued to strike Tunis' recommendations as vague for lack of detail. Previously, Thompson had attempted to have Tunis thrown off his case, and filed a complaint against her with the state Judicial Qualifications Commission, which is responsible for investigating judges.
On June 4, 2008, prosecutor Sheila Tuma recommended 'enhanced disbarment' for Thompson, saying that Thompson demonstrated continued misconduct, a pattern of misconduct and persistently failed to admit any wrongdoing. Enhanced disbarment lengthens the period before an attorney may reapply for admission to the bar from five years to ten. After being prevented from making a speech to begin the disciplinary hearing, Thompson distributed his written objections to lawyers, a court reporter, and a newspaper reporter, departed the courtroom, and called the proceedings against him a "star chamber" and "kangaroo court".
On July 8, 2008, Judge Tunis recommended permanent disbarment and a $43,675.35 fine for Thompson to the Florida Supreme Court, citing "cumulative misconduct, a repeated pattern of behavior relentlessly forced upon numerous unconnected individuals, a total lack of remorse or even slight acknowledgment of inappropriate conduct, and continued behavior consistent with the previous public reprimand... Over a very extended period of time involving a number of totally unrelated cases and individuals, the Respondent has demonstrated a pattern of conduct to strike out harshly, extensively, repeatedly and willfully to simply try to bring as much difficulty, distraction and anguish to those he considers in opposition to his causes... He does not proceed within the guidelines of appropriate professional behavior, but rather uses other means available to intimidate, harass, or bring public disrepute to those whom he perceives oppose him." The court approved the recommendation and fine on September 25, 2008, and ordered that Thompson be permanently disbarred effective 30 days from the date of the order so Thompson could close out his practice. He later filed for an emergency stay of the Florida Supreme Court's order with the U.S. District Court, which was ultimately denied. In an e-mail to media outlets, Thompson responded to the court's decision by stating, "The timing of this disbarment transparently reveals its motivation: this past Friday Thompson filed a federal civil rights action against The Bar, the Supreme Court, and all seven of its Justices. This rush to disbarment is in retribution for the filing of that federal suit. With enemies this foolish, Thompson needs only the loyal friends he has." He closed the email—in which he included the court ruling—with, "...this should be fun, starting now".
On September 19, 2009, Thompson announced that he intended to resume practicing law as of October 1, 2009, claiming that he was "never disbarred" because all of the orders resulting in his disbarment were legal nullities. He dared The Florida Bar to get a court order to stop him, although as of 2022 he has not practiced law since his disbarment.
Other activities
In 1992, a complaint from Thompson led Florida Secretary of State Jim Smith to withhold a $25,000 grant to the Miami Film Festival; Thompson claimed that the festival was using state money to show pornographic films. In response, Thompson was named an "Art Censor of the Year" by the ACLU. The next month, Thompson faced disbarment over allegations that he lied while making accusations against prominent Dade County lawyer Stuart Z Grossman. Thompson ultimately admitted violating bar rules of professional conduct, including charges that he contacted people represented by an attorney without first contacting their attorneys, and agreed to pay $3,000 in fines and receive a public reprimand.
In 1999, Thompson represented the parents of Bryce Kilduff, an 11-year-old boy who committed suicide by hanging himself. Police believed that the death was an accident, and that Kilduff was imitating Kenny, a character from the Comedy Central series South Park, which Bryce, according to his parents, had never watched. Thompson called for Comedy Central to stop marketing the show and toys based on the series to children. "You see, the whole show—thrust of the show is it's—it's cool for kids to act like the characters in South Park."
Prior to Thompson's disbarment, attorney Norm Kent filed a personal lawsuit against him, which eventually resulted in Thompson paying Kent $50,000 for defamation. Thompson reacted to the suit by threatening employees at one of Kent's clients, Beasley Broadcast Group, with lawsuits and depositions unless they got Kent to drop his case.
In January 2005, Beasley hired attorney Lawrence A. Kellogg of law firm Tew Cardenas, LLP, to manage Thompson's threats. Because Kellogg delayed arranging a meeting with him, Thompson on March 17 began a campaign targeting the firm's name partner Al Cardenas, a former chair of the Republican Party of Florida, accusing him of personally being involved in "a statewide racketeering activity" in a letter sent to the media, Florida Attorney General Charlie Crist, and Florida Governor Jeb Bush. Kellogg then filed a complaint to The Florida Bar that figured largely in Thompson's disbarment.
On April 30, Thompson extended his campaign against Cardenas to an attempt at embarrassing him as a trustee of Florida A&M University, a historically black university. In an email sent to FAMU interim president Castell V. Bryant, the media, the FCC, and Governor Bush, he cites racist remarks made by a caller to The Howard Stern Show to suggest that Cardenas put "profit ahead of race relations", even though Beasley, which owned a station broadcasting Stern's show, was not among Al Cardenas' clients.
On February 21, 2007, Thompson filed a complaint with the Florida Judicial Qualifications Commission against Judge Larry Seidlin, accusing Seidlin of "violating nearly every judicial canon" in conducting a hearing on the disposition of the body of Anna Nicole Smith. On June 28, 2007, Thompson filed a complaint with the State Attorney's Office, asking for an investigation and possible prosecution regarding accusations that Seidlin inappropriately accepted expensive gifts.
In March 2008, Thompson called for the New York State Supreme Court's Appellate Division to immediately suspend the law license of former state governor Eliot Spitzer, who had resigned from the position amidst reports he was a client of a prostitution ring. Thompson said that the Disciplinary Committee for the Appellate Division's First Department should stop Spitzer from practicing law until the matter was resolved, noting that Spitzer did not claim innocence in his initial public apology.
In an April 2016 interview with Inverse, Thompson stated that he was teaching civics classes to inmates in the Florida prison system, including an American history and constitutional law class at the Everglades Correctional Institution.
Facebook lawsuit
Thompson filed a lawsuit for $40 million against Facebook in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Florida on September 29, 2009. Thompson claimed that the social networking site had caused him "great harm and distress" by not removing angry postings made by users in several Facebook groups. Thompson withdrew his case less than two months later. According to Parry Aftab, a cyber-law attorney, Thompson would likely not have had any success because the U.S. Communications Decency Act provides that companies such as Facebook have no liability for what users do with their services in most cases.
Bibliography
Out of Harm's Way. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2005. .
See also
GamePolitics.com – Frequently covered Thompson
Spencer Halpin's Moral Kombat – Thompson is interviewed
Playing Columbine – Thompson is interviewed
References
External links
The Florida Bar's Member page of John Bruce Thompson
Jack Thompson versus Adam Sessler on G4's Attack of the Show!
Jack Thompson vs Paul Levinson on CNBC
Thompson interviewed on Free Talk Live
Denison University alumni
Living people
American Christians
Video game censorship
Lawyers from Cleveland
Disbarred Florida lawyers
Vanderbilt University alumni
People from Coral Gables, Florida
Activists from Ohio
1951 births
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw%20Mas%C5%82owski
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Stanisław Masłowski
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Stanisław Masłowski, born Stanisław Stefan Zygmunt Ludgard Masłowski (3 December 1853 in Włodawa, – 31 May 1926 in Warsaw) was a Polish painter of realistic style, the author of watercolor landscapes.
Biography
Masłowski was born on 3 December 1853 in Włodawa on the Bug River (present day Poland), and there was christened 8 May 1854. His certificate of baptism is stored in the archives of the Parish of St. Louis of Pauline Fathers in Włodawa.
He came from an impoverished noble family (Samson coat of arms), which originates from Wieluń (Poland) . "Masłowski" family used the nickname "Watta of Ruda" (Polish: "z Rudy"). Zygmunt Gloger in his Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski (Historic Geography of Ancient Polish Lands) repeats after Jan Długosz, that the first capital of Wieluń County was Ruda before Wieluń, which was more conveniently located.
Masłowski was the son of Rajmund Masłowski (1825–1897) and Waleria Józefa Katarzyna née Danilewicz (1827-1869). One of his four brothers was Bolesław Masłowski, chemist (1851–1928). Masłowski's grandfather from his mother, Wincenty Danilewicz vel Danielewicz, (Ostoja coat of arms, born in 1787 in Mińsk Lit. – former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth territory), was involved – as light-cavalryman – in the Napoleonic campaign, for which he was awarded the French Order of Legion of Honour. Masłowski's father was a lawyer. He was promoted several times, changing with his family place of residence.
Włodawa, place of birth of the future artist – was one of many towns where his father was employed. Masłowski family moved in 1856 from Włodawa to Garwolin, where Rajmund served as a courtroom writer. In 1858–1865 Maslowski lived in Chęciny. It is worth noting that Rajmund Masłowski in January Uprising was the head of the Chęciny district. Therefore, in mid- 1864 he was arrested, and then about six months he spent in prison in Kielce
Since 1865 Masłowski lived in Kalisz, where his first drawing teacher in the local high school, was painter Stanisław Barcikowski, a graduate of Warsaw School of Fine Arts. During this period, Masłowski drew a lot from nature, including between 1865 and 1871 in Bronów near Poddębice at his father's friends – Maria and Jarosław Konopnicki (see story by Konopnicka: "How do Children in Bronów with Rozalia Entertained", where he was called "Stasikoszczok") and then in Jędrzejów, where lived Wincenty Danilewicz, his grandfather. He was also copying Juliusz Kossak's pictures from illustrated magazines.
Art studies
Since 1871 Stanisław Masłowski lived in Warsaw, where his father was transferred by court administration. His studies at the Warsaw School of Drawing (i. e. Wojciech Gerson's drawing school) lasted perhaps permanently in 1871–1875. "In this school I received – finds the artist in an autobiographical note – the advice of Mr. Gerson and Mr. Aleksander Kamiński."
In 1875 Masłowski received the silver medal of the Academy of Fine Arts in St. Petersburg, as an award for his school drawings. During this period he took an active part in the life of the famous atelier rented by a group of artists-painters: J. Chełmoński, S. Witkiewicz, A.Piotrowski and others in the "Hotel Europejski" in Warsaw. Sincere affection for his colleagues from "Europe" (as he called it) remained him for the rest of his life.
However it was Ukraine, which gave to young Masłowski many painting emotions. For the first time he went there accompanied by writer Edward Chłopicki (1875). The second trip took place in 1876 (with this Ukrainian visit a number of Masłowski's letters to the artist-painter Władysław Leszczyński are involved). The next trips took place at least in 1878, and 1886.
In 1884–1887 Stanisław Masłowski entered a new phase of creativity and a new environment. At that time, he developed close relations with the group of friendly painters and writers associated with "Wędrowiec" weekly magazine, including Aleksander Gierymski and Antoni Sygietyński, and young painters: Józef Pankiewicz and Władysław Podkowiński. In 1886 Masłowski spent half a year in Munich, where – as he writes – "worked at home".
In Masłowski's creativity, years 1890–1907, was called a period of "the storm and ferment". Its initial phase is characterized by transition through impressionism and get away from it to find his own form. In 1897 Stanisław Masłowski became a member of the Society of Polish Artists "Sztuka" in Kraków, created at the initiative of Jan Stanisławski. A number of artists came from Warsaw e. g.: Józef Pankiewicz and Konstanty Laszczka. In 1899 Masłowski issued a number of watercolours in Aleksander Krywult Salon; this year and in 1902 he took part in the exhibitions of the Vienna Secession. In 1900 he traveled to Italy and Paris. In 1900 at the Universal Exhibition in Paris, he gained a medal award for picture "The market in the Kazimierz". In 1901 he demonstrated a small watercolours in the "Chimera" monthly editorial. Collective exhibition in 1902 in the Zachęta ends the second phase of Masłowski's creative explorations.
The restless period of 1902–1907 points out the artist's first trip in 1903 to Wola Rafałowska between Mińsk Mazowiecki and Siedlce, where he soon found his synthesis of his Polish landscape. In the following year he began a series of trips to Italy. In 1904 – to Rome, Florence, Fiesole, but also to Troki near Wilno. The special exhibition on "Zachęta" (1904) demonstrated Masłowski's 58 water-colours.
In 1905–1907 Masłowski worked in his atelier in Warsaw (at Mokotowska street) and experimented. Period of 1907–1926 was a phase of prosperity and decline of Masłowski's creativity. Plein air in Nowosiółka in Volhynia in 1908 brought 18 watercolours, which then was exhibited in the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts (Polish abbr.: TZSP). In 1909 and 1910 Masłowski had a solo exhibition there, and then exhibited there annually until 1914 the landscapes from Italy, Tunisia and from Polish village Wola Rafałowska. In 1913 Masłowski arranged a small exhibition of watercolours in the Galerie Léon Marseille in Paris.
In June 1914 Masłowski received an invitation to taking a position as professor at the Warsaw School of Fine Arts. However he not accepted the proposition. The outbreak of the World War I found him in the country. In April 1916 the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts arranged Masłowski's big collective exhibition. In December of that year he received the jubilee award of Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts. The end of the war in 1918, brought great moral relaxation. Maslowski then painted a picture "Beliniacy" (related to name of one of Polish patriotic military divisions).
Interwar period
In 1921 Masłowski was elected a member of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts in Paris. In 1922 he made another trip to Italy. In 1925 a jubilee exhibition of Masłowski's works was held in the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts. The next year, Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts issued a premium reproduction of his painting "Jarema's Duma" (of 1879). In 1925 Masłowski was awarded Officer's Cross of Polonia Restituta.
In the last year of life, suffering from a heart disease, he little worked. He died 31 May 1926 in Warsaw and was buried at the Powązki Cemetery in Warsaw, in the tomb of his mother's family (section 11-1-7/8, cf. the information boards behind the entrance of the "Saint Honorata" gate in the category: "Plastycy", i. e. "Artists").
A free time Maslowski was spending on your favorite readings of both the Old Polish literature, and foreign – mostly French or Italian (his favorite reading was Montaigne's writings – the book found by the bed after his death).<ref>(Polish) Masłowski M. [coll.]: Stanisław Masłowski – Materiały do życiorysu i twórczości, p. 232.</ref> A peculiar fruit of his reading was a translation into Polish of Giorgio Vasari's "Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects" (probably for the first time before World War I)
He was married (from 20 February 1897) to Aniela Ponikowska – sister of Cezary Ponikowski, lawyer (advocate-attorney), the first President of the Supreme Advocates Council in Poland (after restore of the independence of Poland, in 1918). They had son Maciej Masłowski, an art historian (born in Warsaw 24 January 1901, died in Wysokie Mazowieckie 17 August 1976).
Works
Masłowski's artistic talent occurred already at an early age. He received a silver medal in 1875 from the Academy of Fine Arts in St. Petersburg, for his school drawings. "Masłowski – recalls Henryk Piątkowski – while still very young boy, as a student at the Warsaw School of Drawing (i. e. Wojciech Gerson's drawing school) marked his outstanding talent in the first creative gusts" – and adds, that – "he learned mostly not in school, but in the environment of Polish nature, which he felt and spoke with the mastery". These observations complements and confirms relation of his fellow Miłosz Kotarbinski, in which we can read of the "very distinctive in school, and not yet appreciated Stanisław Masłowski. He was already a naturally born impressionist. Studies on the plaster casts of classical sculpture he led in purely impressive mode, in which forgiving executives completely did not complain. With vividly colourful and scenic landscape studies of nature he overtook most ardent later Impressionists."
The year 1875 brought in Masłowski's life the first images exhibited in the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts, namely: "Owczarek" (en. The Shepherd) and "Kozacy" (en. Cossacks), then – the first illustrations included in the "Kłosy" Weekly Magazine, and the first trip to Ukraine. Ukrainian topic had a strong influence on Masłowski in his youth. It was carrying parallel: blustering vigor and lyrical musing. That was the Ukraine, which Maslowski saw and began to enact in his studio compositions. It was unlike the painting of the noble-knight's and hunter's Ukraine by Juliusz Kossak, Józef Brandt and Józef Chełmoński. A numerous images of Ukrainian themes may be mentioned: "Odbicie branki" (en. Reflection from Captive – exhibited 1878), "Pożegnanie Kozaka" (en. Farewell Cossack – illustration, 1878), "Jarema's Duma" (1879), "Chłopcy w stepie" (en. Boys in the Steppe – illustration, 1879), "Noc" (en. Night – exhibited in 1880), "Tabun" (en. Herd of Horses, 1880), "Odpoczynek czumaka" (en. Chumak's Rest, 1880), "Wesele" (en. The Wedding, 1881), "Odpoczynek" (en. The Rest, 1882), and finally "Taniec Kozaków" (en. Cossacks Dance – Kozachok, 1883), which is a kind of closure and synthesis of the whole. At this, however, does not exhaust the subject matter and the topography of Masłowski's paintings created in atelier, in early stages of his work. It happens a Masovian village ("Na pastwisku" – en. On the Pasture, 1880), and even melodrama ("Niedola" – en. Misery, 1881), but still the Ukraine was the main emphasis of his contemporary work. Masłowski's studio painting of this period can not be reduced to a common denominator; his realism has a number of editions – closer to the romantic sentiments, or closer to the truth of nature. Generally speaking, Masłowski's way goes from linearity to ornamentation, from value to colour, from oil to watercolour, and in total – from atelier to plein air.
The most interesting result of the Ukrainian and other Masłowski's expeditions were quite precursory studies and sketches from nature – watercolours, pencils, and oils, including "Trójka bałagulska" (en. A Three-Horse Carriage, National Museum, Kraków), "Studium konia" (en. Study of a Horse – ibid.), "Zima" (en. Winter – ibid.), "Cyganka" (en. Gypsy woman, 1877, formerly in Bohdan Wydżga collections), "Studium jamnika" (en. Study of Dachshund), "Szczeniaki" (en. Puppies – owned by the artist's family), "Studium psa" (en. Study of a Dog), "Głowy byków" (en. Bulls Heads – National Museum in Warsaw), "Oset" (en. Thistle, between 1876 and 1878, reproduced as a vignette in the "Sfinks" Monthly Secession magazine in 1909 and 1912). Their cognitive function rapidly transformed and expanded. One of the most interesting studies arose during a few days stay in the Gypsy camp behind the Warsaw-Praga Turnpike. But first fame, and even financial success brought him no pioneer "minor sketches" but "Duma Jaremy" (en. Jarema's Duma) and "Taniec Kozaków" (en. Cossacks Dance – Kozachok, reproduced in the booklet No 11 of "Album of Polish Painters" (Polish: "Album malarzy polskich", ed. Warsaw 1885).
In 1884–1887 Stanisław Masłowski entered into a new phase of creativity. He came into a close relationship with a fellow group of painters and writers associated with "Wędrowiec" (en. "The Wanderer") weekly magazine, i. e. with Aleksander Gierymski and Antoni Sygietyński, with young Józef Pankiewicz and Władysław Podkowiński. This period already in 1884 resulted in large oil-composition done in the atelier, which is a landscape entitled "Wschód Księżyca" (en. Moonrise, National Museum in Cracow – in the "Cloth Hall" Department). In Masłowski's painting now pushed to the fore the problem of light in the night and day – the colour issue parallel to the value question. Masłowski's painting underwent profound changes during this period. This is evidenced also by following paintings: "Wschód słońca" (en. Sunrise, 1886), and next: "Zachód słońca" (en. Sunset, 1887), "Targ na Mariensztacie" (en. Market on Mariensztat, ca. 1887), "Południe" (en. Noon, ca. 1888). These images pave Masłowski's way to Impressionism. Gerson in criticism in 1888 notes: "Mr. Masłowski sent to the exhibition a "Mazovian Cottage" – a watercolour painting of rare beauty and strength". Gerson sees in it a lot of brightness, richness, strength of color, plasticity.
At this time a new topic appears in Masłowski's works – the city of Warsaw. Particularly interesting came out a numerous notes from Iron-Gate Square in Warsaw. From this period come a numerous watercolour studies of Masovia, picking Masłowski in a row of "the first Polish Plein air-ists and Impressionists" (S. Rutkowski).
The years 1890–1907 were a "period of storm and ferment" in Masłowski work. Its initial phase – was to go through Impressionism, and then move away from it in search of its own, separate forms. The first attempt towards a new image was reportedly "Pocztylion" (en. Postman, 1890), and then "Targ na Grzybowie" (en. Market on Grzybów district of Warsaw, 1892), "Ostatnie promienie" (en. Last rays), "Przed poborem" (en. Before the Conscription, 1892). Next years brought a numerous and still a new trials and experiments, ranging between Impressionism and Neo-romanticism. In 1893 Masłowski issued, inter alia, "Stare miasto" (en. Old Town) and "Poranek" (en. Morning) and in 1894 – "Mickiewicz and Maryla" and "Porwanie" (en. Kidnapping); in 1895 – "Wiosna" (en. Spring); in 1896 – "Sprawa o granicę" (en. The Case of the Border) and "Bociany" (en.: Storks). All these were big oil compositions. It seems that far-reaching attempt in the direction of divisionist, speckle technique of painting was image entitled: "Poranek" (en. Morning). The year 1896 brought synthesis of previous efforts, as exemplified by two major themes: "Sprawa o granicę" (en. Case of the Border) and "Bociany" (en. Storks). Great collective exhibition in the Krywult exhibition room of art in Warsaw in 1896, closed most turbulent phase of a new period of Masłowski's painting.
Turn of the century
In 1899, Masłowski exhibited a dozen of watercolours in Krywult exhibition room. This year and in 1902 he participated in the exhibitions of the Vienna Secession. In 1900 he traveled to Italy and Paris. In 1901, in the editorial of "Chimera" monthly magazine, he presented a set of small watercolours. Here are the leading Masłowski's works of these years. Of 1898 come paintings: "Chart" (en. Greyhound), "Portret dziewczynki" (en. Portrait of a Girl), "Giewont we mgle" (en. Giewont Tatra Peak in the Mist); then of 1899 – "Rynek w Kazimierzu" (en. Market Square in Kazimierz), and "Kapliczka w Kazimierzu" (en. A Wayside Shrine in Kazimierz), and finally of 1902 – a big image of "Cyganka" (en.: Gypsy Woman), landscapes of Rybiniszki (former Polish Livonia now in Eastern Latvia), "Wrona" (en. Crow), "Kamienica pod Okrętem" (en. "Tenement under Ship" in Warsaw Old Town). It is worth noting that these are only watercolours.
A Picture "Rynek w Kazimierzu" (en. Market Square in Kazimierz) was awarded the medal on the Universal Exhibition in Paris (1900). A collective show of his paintings in 1902, in the Zachęta (i. e. Society for Encouragement of Fine Arts) ends the second phase of Masłowski's explorations. Of the numerous reviews deserves reminder E. Niewiadomski's sentence: "Masłowski's place will be in the same series, in which were artists otherwise of different measure: Kossak Juliusz, Matejko, Grottger, Chełmoński, Piechowski. He is a national artist through and through. National are the motives of his works and their concepts, the national temperament, life gushing from images, colour strength [...]".
In 1903 Masłowski tried his hand in decorative arts – painting a ceiling in the ballroom and chapel choir in a palace at Supraśl.
The special exhibition in the "Zachęta" (1904) demonstrated 58 Masłowski's watercolours. In 1905–1907 Masłowski worked experimenting in his Warsaw studio (at Mokotowska street). He did illustrations for "Pan Tadeusz" (special edition in 1905 for subscribers of "Rozwój" Publishers in Łódź),Komza M.: Mickiewicz ilustrowany (Mickiewicz Illustrated), Wrocław 1987 (ed. by Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich), p. 264 (Polish). as well as other figure compositions, for instance a full of rhythm and expressive image of "Pijani Chłopi" (en. Drunken Peasants, 1906, National Museum in Warsaw), the scene of the Revolution of 1905 – "Patrol Kozaków" (en. Cossacks Patrol"), also known as "Wiosna 1905" (en. Spring 1905) or "Świt 1906" (en. Dawn 1906 – painting of 1906, Museum of Art in Łódź),W. Wankie: Z wystaw warszawskich (From Warsaw Exhibitions), Świat 1907, vol. I, p. 15 (Polish).Poem by Jacek Kaczmarski referring to this image Wiosna 1905 (wg obrazu S. Masłowskiego) [acc: 14 November 2012] – listen (in Polish): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WozUE6r8X0I [acc: 23 October 2014] (Polish). picture "Pierwsze żyto" (en. First Rye, 1907) and rare attempt of symbolism in Masłowski's work – Świątynia Sztuki" (en. The Temple of Art, 1907, lost). In autumn of 1907 the charming landscapes of Radziejowice was created – combining graphic lines with the painterly clarity of stains, such as "Pond in Radziejowice" (1907). Plein air in Nowosiółka on Volhynia in 1908 brought 18 watercolours exhibited in the "Zacheta" – Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts.
As already mentioned, in 1909 and 1910 took place Masłowski's individual exhibitions in the Zachęta. From this period (1909) originates, inter alia, watercolour, entitled "Maki" (The Field of Corn Poppies). In the following years, until 1914, he exhibited in the "Zacheta" – Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts the landscapes of Italy, Tunisia and Polish of Wola Rafałowska village, including: "Podwórze w Villi d'Este" (en. Courtyard at Villa d'Este), "Zatoka Neapolitańska" (en. Bay of Naples), "Krowy" (en. The Cows), "Białe maki" (en. White Poppies – the field of corn poppies), "Chojar" (en. A Single Old pine-Tree), "Motyw z Taorminy" (en. Theme from Taormina), "Beduinka" (en. Bedouin Woman), "Wejście do Pałacu Beja" (en. Entrance to the Bey Palace), "Kawiarnia arabska" (en. Arabic Cafe) and other. All of them presented an unusual wealth of colour and decoration, a rare freshness and directness of vision. Examples of watercolor paintings from this period are the images of "Poppies" and "A Hollyhocks in the Garden" (1911). There were also oil pictures at that time.
Soon he returned to landscape painting. Works of this final period was uneven. The most outstanding works of this time include watercolor paintings from a trip to Italy in 1922 and some landscapes of Wola Rafałowska village, such as a few from the year 1924: "Ule" (en. The Beehives – the Silesian Museum in Katowice), "Gryka" (en. The Field of Buckwheat) and "Łubin" (en. The Field of Yellow Lupin – The National Museum, Warsaw).Cękalska-Zborowska H.: Wieś w malarstwie i rysunku naszych artystów (The Country in Painting and Drawing of Our Artists), Warszawa 1969, pp. 263–285 (Polish).
Gallery
Notes
Bibliography
Archives Stanisław Masłowski family.
Artists of the World, A Bio-Bibliographical Index AZ, Vol. 4, Saur, 2000.
Bielecki R.: Szwoleżerowie gwardii (Guard Cavalrymen), series: "Słynne Pułki Polskie" [Famous Polish Regiments], ed. "Neriton", Warszawa 1996, p. 240 (entry No 2259).
"Biesiada Literacka" (Literary Feast, weekly magazine), 1896, p. 279–282.
Broniewski K.: Pogadanka artystyczna [Talk About Art], "Biblioteka Warszawska", 1902, vol.3, p. 376.
"Centropa, A Journal of Central European Architecture and Related Arts", Vol. 8, Centropa, 2008, p. 74.
Cękalska-Zborowska H.: Wieś w malarstwie i rysunku naszych artystów (Countryside in Painting and Drawing of our Artists), Warszawa 1969, p. 263–285.
Dobrowolski T.: Nowoczesne malarstwo polskie (Modern Polish Painting), Wrocław 1960, p. 267–275.
Dobrowolski T.: Sztuka Młodej Polski (Art of "Młoda Polska" Period), Warszawa 1963 (wyd. PWN).
Dobrowolski T.: Sztuka polska (Polish Art), Kraków, 1974, ed. Wydawnictwo Literackie.
Gerson W.: Wystawa TZSP, "Tygodnik Illustrowany" (Illustrated Weekly Magazine), 1888, vol. 1, p. 410.
Gerson W.: Malarstwo, "Tygodnik Illustrowany" (Illustrated Weekly Magazine), 1885, vol. 1, p. 86.
Grajewski L.: Bibliografia ilustracji w czasopismach polskich XIX i pocz. XX w. (do 1918 r.) [Bibliography of Illustrations in Polish Periodicals of the 19th and Beginning of the 20th century], ed. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe (PWN), 1972.
Jabłczyński F.: S. Masłowski, "Tygodnik Illustrowany" [Illustrated Weekly Magazine], 1902, vol. 1.
Jankowski J.: Wstęp do reprodukcji obrazu Masłowskiego "Spór o granicę" [Introduction to reproduction of S.Masłowski painting "Border Dispute"], Album sztuki polskiej i obcej [The Album of Polish and Foreign Art], Warszawa 1907–1910 (ed. S. Orgelbrand).
Jaroszyński T.: Słowo wstępne do reprodukcji obrazu Masłowskiego "Rynek w Kazimierzu" (Foreword to Reproduction of Masłowski's Painting "Market Square in Kazimierz), "Album malarstwa polskiego" [The Album of Polish Art], 1902 (ed. M. Arct).
Jasieński F.: Wstęp do reprodukcji obrazu Masłowskiego "Lasek" (Introduction to Reproduction of S. Masłowski Painting "Grove"), "Album sztuki polskiej", [The Album of Polish Art], Lwów 1903.
Jensen J. Ch.: Polnische Malerei von 1830 bis 1914 [Polish Painting From 1830 to 1914], ed. Württembergischer Kunstverein, 1978.
Karpowicz M., Chrościcki J. A.: Sztuka Warszawy [The Art of Warsaw], Warszawa 1986 (ed. PWN).
Katalog wystaw zbiorowych Masłowskiego w r. 1896 w Salonie Krywulta i w r. 1925 w "Zachęcie" (Catalogue of the Collective Masłowski's Exhibitions in 1896 in Krywult Exhibition Room, and in 1925 in Zachęta).
Kępiński Z.: Impresjonizm polski [Polish Impressionism], Warszawa 1961 ed. Arkady).
Komza M.: Mickiewicz ilustrowany (Mickiewicz Illustrated), Wrocław 1987 (ed. "Ossolineum"), p. 264.
Kopera F.: Dzieje malarstwa w Polsce [History of Painting in Poland]. Part 3, Malarstwo w Polsce 19. i 20. wieku [Painting in Poland in the 19th and 20th Centuries], Kraków 1929.
von Kritter U., Zelinsky B.: Slawische Buchillustration im 20. Jahrhundert: Russland, Polen, Tschechien, Slowakei, Literarische Bilderwelten des 20. Jahrhunderts (Slavic Book Illustrations in the 20th century), Vol. 6, Böhlau, 1998, p. 100.
Kühn A.: Die polnische Kunst von 1800 bis zur Gegenwart: Mit 150 Abbildungen (Polish Art From 1800 to Contemporary Times), ed. Klinkhardt & Biermann, 1930, p. 44.
Łoza S.: Legia honorowa w Polsce 1803–1923 (French Order of Legion of Honour in Poland 1803–1923), Zamość 1923, ed. Zygmunt Pomarański i Spółka (reprint Warszawa 1986, ed. WAiF (Art and Film Publishers), p. 38, Entry No 284.
Masłowski M. [coll.]: Stanisław Masłowski – Materiały do życiorysu i twórczości (Stanisław Masłowski – Materials for the Biography and Works), Wrocław 1957.
Mickiewicz A.: Pan Tadeusz, Łódź [1906], publ. and printed by "Rozwój" [6 reproduced S. Masłowski's illustrations for "Pan Tadeusz" poem].
Mitarski W.: Z wystaw warszawskich, salony prywatne [The Exhibitions in Warsaw, Private Lounges], "Tygodnik Illustrowany" [Illustrated Weekly ], 1922, p. 820–821.
Niewiadomski E.: Ze sztuki [From the Art], "Kurier Warszawski", 1902.
Niewiadomski E.: Malarstwo polskie XIX i XX wieku [Polish Painting of the 19th and 20th Centuries], Warszawa 1926.
Piątkowski H.: Stanisław Masłowski – sylweta artysty [Silhouette of Artist], "Tygodnik Illustrowany", 1909, No 47.
Piątkowski H.: Wystawa Stanisława Masłowskiego [Masłowski Exhibition], "Tygodnik Illustrowany" [Illustrated Weekly Magazine], 1910, vol. 2, p. 969.
Piątkowski H.: Kronika malarska – Obrazy S. Masłowskiego w Salonie Kulikowskiego (Chronicle of art – Masłowski Paintings in Kulikowski Exhibition Room), "Tygodnik Illustrowany" [Illustrated Weekly Magazine], 1907, vol. 1, p. 331–332.
Piotrowska I.: The Art of Poland, Philosophical Library Publishers, New York, 1947.
Polnische Maler des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts – Ausstellung (Polish Painters of 19th and 20th Century – Exhibition) Berlin 1949;
Polski słownik biograficzny (Polish Biographical Dictionary), Wrocław-Warszawa-Kraków-Gdańsk 1975 (ed. Polska Akad. Nauk – Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich), vol. XX/1, p. 129 (entry: "Stanisław Masłowski").
Register of Baptismal Certificates, Parish of Pauline Fathers, Włodawa.
Rutkowski S.: Stanisław Masłowski (1853–1926), "Sztuki Piękne" ["Fine Arts" Magazine], 1926, No 10–11.
Ryszkiewicz A.: Malarstwo polskie – romantyzm, historyzm – realizm (Polish Painting – Romanticism – Historicism – Realism), Warszawa 1989 (ed. "Auriga").
Sienkiewicz J., Derwojed J.: Rysunek polski – od Oświecenia do Młodej Polski [Polish Drawing Art – from the Age of Enlightenment to the "Young Poland" period], Warszawa 1970 (ed. "Arkady" Publ.).
Skimborowicz H., Gerson W.: Album widoków i pamiątek [Album of Views and Souvenirs], Warszawa 1977.
Słownik artystów polskich i obcych w Polsce działających (zmarłych przed 1966), Malarze, rzeźbiarze, graficy, Instytut Sztuki PAN (Dictionary of Polish and Foreign Artists Working in Poland (who died before 1966), Painters, Sculptors, Graphic Artists, The Institute of Fine Arts, Polish Academy of Sciences), vol. V (Le-M), ed. "Krąg", Warszawa 1993.
Stanisław Masłowski – Akwarele, 12 reprodukcji barwnych (teka ze wstępem M. Masłowskiego), Warszawa 1956 (ed. "Sztuka") (Watercolours – 12 colour reproductions of Stanisław Masłowski paintings – portfolio with an introduction by M. Masłowski).
Starzyński J.: Pięć wieków malarstwa polskiego [Five Centuries of Polish Painting], Warszawa 1952 (ed. Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy).
Struve H.: Przegląd Artystyczny (Art Review), "Kłosy" Magazine, 1881, vol. 31, p. 118.
"The Studio. An Illustrated Magazine of Fine and Applied Art", Studio Trust, 1927, Vol. 94, p. 292.
Teatr, Muzyka, Sztuki plastyczne (Theatre, Music, Visual Arts), "Tygodnik Illustrowany" [Illustrated Weekly Magazine], 1904, vol.2, p. 826.
Trzebiński M.: Pamiętnik malarza (The Diary of a Painter), Wrocław 1958.
Wankie W.: Nasi artyści (Our Artists), "Świat" ["World" Magazine], 1907, II, p. 3.
Wiercińska J.: Katalog prac wystawionych w Towarzystwie Zachęty Sztuk Pięknych w Warszawie w latach 1860–1914 (Catalogue of Works Exhibited in the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts in Warsaw in 1860–1914), Wrocław-Warszawa-Kraków 1969, Ossolineum Publ.
Wiercińska J.: Towarzystwo Zachęty Sztuk Pięknych w Warszawie (The Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts in Warsaw), Wrocław-Warszawa-Kraków 1968, Ossolineum Publ.
Wolff J.: Kształt piękna [The Shape of Beauty], Warszawa 1973.
Wystawa TZSP w Warszawie'' (Exhibition Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts in Warsaw), "Tygodnik Illustrowany" (Illustrated Weekly Magazine) 1876, vol.2, No 51, p. 394–395.
External links
Biography
Works
1853 births
1926 deaths
Polish landscape painters
19th-century Polish painters
Artists from Congress Poland
Painters from the Russian Empire
19th-century Polish male artists
20th-century Polish painters
20th-century Polish male artists
Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw alumni
People from Włodawa
Burials at Powązki Cemetery
Recipients of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Polish male painters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic%20Party%20%28United%20States%29
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Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States. It is a big tent of competing and often opposing viewpoints, but modern American liberalism, a variant of social liberalism, is the party's majority ideology. The party also has notable centrist and social democratic factions. Its main political rival has been the Republican Party since the 1850s.
Considered to be a historical successor to the left-wing Democratic-Republican Party, the Democratic Party was founded in 1828 and predominantly built by Martin Van Buren, who assembled politicians in every state behind war hero Andrew Jackson, making it arguably the world's oldest active political party. The party supported expansive presidential power, the interests of slave states, agrarianism, and expansionism, while opposing a national bank and high tariffs. It split in 1860 over slavery and won the presidency only twice in the fifty years between 1860 and 1910, although it won the popular vote a total of four times in that period. In the late 19th century, it continued to oppose high tariffs and had fierce internal debates on the gold standard. In the early 20th century, it supported progressive reforms and opposed imperialism, with Woodrow Wilson winning the White House in 1912 and 1916.
Since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition after 1932, the Democratic Party has promoted a social liberal platform, including Social Security and unemployment insurance. The New Deal attracted strong support for the party from recent European immigrants but diminished the party's pro-business wing. From late in Roosevelt's administration through the 1950s, a minority in the party's Southern wing joined with conservative Republicans to slow and stop progressive domestic reforms. Following the Great Society era of progressive legislation under Lyndon B. Johnson, which was often able to overcome the conservative coalition in the 1960s, the core bases of the parties shifted, with the Southern states becoming more reliably Republican and the Northeastern states becoming more reliably Democratic. The party's labor union element has become smaller since the 1970s, and as the American electorate shifted in a more conservative direction following Ronald Reagan's presidency, the election of Bill Clinton marked a move for the party toward the Third Way, moving the party's economic stance towards market-based economic policy. Barack Obama oversaw the party's passage of the Affordable Care Act in 2010. During Joe Biden's presidency, the Democrats moved closer to the principles of internationalism, advocating for large-scale military support to Israel and Ukraine in response to their conflicts.
The party's philosophy of modern American liberalism blends civil liberty and social equality with support for a mixed capitalist economy. On social issues, it advocates for abortion rights, the legalization of marijuana, stricter gun laws, LGBT rights, as well as criminal justice and immigration reform. Expansion of social programs, including enacting universal healthcare coverage, equal opportunity, and consumer protection form the core of its economic agenda. On abortion, trade, immigration, and foreign policy, the party has taken widely varying positions throughout its history.
As of the 2020s, the party does best among Jewish and Black Americans, women, postgraduates, higher-income voters, sexual minorities, voters under 30, and individuals who live in urban areas. Democrats hold the presidency and a majority in the U.S. Senate, as well as 24 state governorships, 19 state legislatures, 17 state government trifectas, and the mayorships in the majority of the country's major cities. By registered members, the Democratic Party is the largest party in the U.S. and the fourth largest in the world. Including the incumbent, Biden, 16 Democrats have served as president of the United States.
History
Democratic Party officials often trace its origins to the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and other influential opponents of the conservative Federalists in 1792. That party died out before the modern Democratic Party was organized; the Jeffersonian party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Historians argue that the modern Democratic Party was first organized in the late 1820s with the election of Andrew Jackson. It was predominately built by Martin Van Buren, who assembled a wide cadre of politicians in every state behind war hero Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, making it the world's oldest active political party.
Since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. Democrats have been more liberal on civil rights since 1948, although conservative factions within the Democratic Party that opposed them persisted in the South until the 1960s. On foreign policy, both parties have changed positions several times.
Background
The Democratic Party evolved from the Jeffersonian Republican or Democratic-Republican Party organized by Jefferson and Madison in opposition to the Federalist Party. The Democratic-Republican Party favored republicanism; a weak federal government; states' rights; agrarian interests (especially Southern planters); and strict adherence to the Constitution. The party opposed a national bank and Great Britain. After the War of 1812, the Federalists virtually disappeared and the only national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans, which was prone to splinter along regional lines. The era of one-party rule in the United States, known as the Era of Good Feelings, lasted from 1816 until 1828, when Andrew Jackson became president. Jackson and Martin Van Buren worked with allies in each state to form a new Democratic Party on a national basis. In the 1830s, the Whig Party coalesced into the main rival to the Democrats.
Before 1860, the Democratic Party supported expansive presidential power, the interests of slave states, agrarianism, and expansionism, while opposing a national bank and high tariffs.
19th century
The Democratic-Republican Party split over the choice of a successor to President James Monroe. The faction that supported many of the old Jeffersonian principles, led by Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren, became the modern Democratic Party. Historian Mary Beth Norton explains the transformation in 1828:
Behind the platforms issued by state and national parties stood a widely shared political outlook that characterized the Democrats:
Opposing factions led by Henry Clay helped form the Whig Party. The Democratic Party had a small yet decisive advantage over the Whigs until the 1850s when the Whigs fell apart over the issue of slavery. In 1854, angry with the Kansas–Nebraska Act, anti-slavery Democrats left the party and joined Northern Whigs to form the Republican Party.
The Democrats split over slavery, with Northern and Southern tickets in the election of 1860, in which the Republican Party gained ascendancy. The radical pro-slavery Fire-Eaters led walkouts at the two conventions when the delegates would not adopt a resolution supporting the extension of slavery into territories even if the voters of those territories did not want it. These Southern Democrats nominated the pro-slavery incumbent vice president, John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, for president and General Joseph Lane, of Oregon, for vice president. The Northern Democrats nominated Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois for president and former Georgia Governor Herschel V. Johnson for vice president. This fracturing of the Democrats led to a Republican victory and Abraham Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States.
As the American Civil War broke out, Northern Democrats were divided into War Democrats and Peace Democrats. The Confederate States of America deliberately avoided organized political parties. Most War Democrats rallied to Republican President Abraham Lincoln and the Republicans' National Union Party in the election of 1864, which featured Andrew Johnson on the Union ticket to attract fellow Democrats. Johnson replaced Lincoln in 1865, but he stayed independent of both parties.
The Democrats benefited from white Southerners' resentment of Reconstruction after the war and consequent hostility to the Republican Party. After Redeemers ended Reconstruction in the 1870s and following the often extremely violent disenfranchisement of African Americans led by such white supremacist Democratic politicians as Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina in the 1880s and 1890s, the South, voting Democratic, became known as the "Solid South". Although Republicans won all but two presidential elections, the Democrats remained competitive. The party was dominated by pro-business Bourbon Democrats led by Samuel J. Tilden and Grover Cleveland, who represented mercantile, banking, and railroad interests; opposed imperialism and overseas expansion; fought for the gold standard; opposed bimetallism; and crusaded against corruption, high taxes and tariffs. Cleveland was elected to non-consecutive presidential terms in 1884 and 1892.
20th century
Early 20th century
Agrarian Democrats demanding free silver, drawing on Populist ideas, overthrew the Bourbon Democrats in 1896 and nominated William Jennings Bryan for the presidency (a nomination repeated by Democrats in 1900 and 1908). Bryan waged a vigorous campaign attacking Eastern moneyed interests, but he lost to Republican William McKinley.
The Democrats took control of the House in 1910, and Woodrow Wilson won election as president in 1912 (when the Republicans split) and 1916. Wilson effectively led Congress to put to rest the issues of tariffs, money, and antitrust, which had dominated politics for 40 years, with new progressive laws. He failed to secure Senate passage of the Versailles Treaty (ending the war with Germany and joining the League of Nations). The weak party was deeply divided by issues such as the KKK and prohibition in the 1920s. However, it did organize new ethnic voters in Northern cities.
After World War I ended and continuing through the Great Depression, the Democratic and Republican Parties both largely believed in American exceptionalism over European monarchies and state socialism that existed elsewhere in the world.
1930s–1960s and the rise of the New Deal coalition
The Great Depression in 1929 that began under Republican President Herbert Hoover and the Republican Congress set the stage for a more liberal government as the Democrats controlled the House of Representatives nearly uninterrupted from 1930 until 1994, the Senate for 44 of 48 years from 1930, and won most presidential elections until 1968. Franklin D. Roosevelt, elected to the presidency in 1932, came forth with federal government programs called the New Deal. New Deal liberalism meant the regulation of business (especially finance and banking) and the promotion of labor unions as well as federal spending to aid the unemployed, help distressed farmers and undertake large-scale public works projects. It marked the start of the American welfare state. The opponents, who stressed opposition to unions, support for business and low taxes, started calling themselves "conservatives".
Until the 1980s, the Democratic Party was a coalition of two parties divided by the Mason–Dixon line: liberal Democrats in the North and culturally conservative voters in the South, who though benefitting from many of the New Deal public works projects, opposed increasing civil rights initiatives advocated by northeastern liberals. The polarization grew stronger after Roosevelt died. Southern Democrats formed a key part of the bipartisan conservative coalition in an alliance with most of the Midwestern Republicans. The economically activist philosophy of Franklin D. Roosevelt, which has strongly influenced American liberalism, shaped much of the party's economic agenda after 1932. From the 1930s to the mid-1960s, the liberal New Deal coalition usually controlled the presidency while the conservative coalition usually controlled Congress.
1960s–1980s and the collapse of the New Deal coalition
Issues facing parties and the United States after World War II included the Cold War and the civil rights movement. Republicans attracted conservatives and, after the 1960s, white Southerners from the Democratic coalition with their use of the Southern strategy and resistance to New Deal and Great Society liberalism. Until the 1950s, African Americans had traditionally supported the Republican Party because of its anti-slavery civil rights policies. Following the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965, the Southern states became more reliably Republican in presidential politics, while Northeastern states became more reliably Democratic. Studies show that Southern whites, which were a core constituency in the Democratic Party, shifted to the Republican Party due to racial backlash.
The election of President John F. Kennedy from Massachusetts in 1960 partially reflected this shift. In the campaign, Kennedy attracted a new generation of younger voters. In his agenda dubbed the New Frontier, Kennedy introduced a host of social programs and public works projects, along with enhanced support of the space program, proposing a crewed spacecraft trip to the moon by the end of the decade. He pushed for civil rights initiatives and proposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, but with his assassination in November 1963, he was not able to see its passage.
Kennedy's successor Lyndon B. Johnson was able to persuade the largely conservative Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and with a more progressive Congress in 1965 passed much of the Great Society, including Medicare, which consisted of an array of social programs designed to help the poor, sick, and elderly. Kennedy and Johnson's advocacy of civil rights further solidified black support for the Democrats but had the effect of alienating Southern whites who would eventually gravitate toward the Republican Party, particularly after the election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency in 1980.
The United States' involvement in the Vietnam War in the 1960s was another divisive issue that further fractured the fault lines of the Democrats' coalition. After the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in 1964, President Johnson committed a large contingency of combat troops to Vietnam, but the escalation failed to drive the Viet Cong from South Vietnam, resulting in an increasing quagmire, which by 1968 had become the subject of widespread anti-war protests in the United States and elsewhere. With increasing casualties and nightly news reports bringing home troubling images from Vietnam, the costly military engagement became increasingly unpopular, alienating many of the kinds of young voters that the Democrats had attracted in the early 1960s. The protests that year along with assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Democratic presidential candidate Senator Robert F. Kennedy (younger brother of John F. Kennedy) climaxed in turbulence at the hotly-contested Democratic National Convention that summer in Chicago (which amongst the ensuing turmoil inside and outside of the convention hall nominated Vice President Hubert Humphrey) in a series of events that proved to mark a significant turning point in the decline of the Democratic Party's broad coalition.
Republican presidential nominee Richard Nixon was able to capitalize on the confusion of the Democrats that year, and won the 1968 election to become the 37th president. He won re-election in a landslide in 1972 against Democratic nominee George McGovern, who like Robert F. Kennedy, reached out to the younger anti-war and counterculture voters, but unlike Kennedy, was not able to appeal to the party's more traditional white working-class constituencies. During Nixon's second term, his presidency was rocked by the Watergate scandal, which forced him to resign in 1974. He was succeeded by vice president Gerald Ford, who served a brief tenure.
Watergate offered the Democrats an opportunity to recoup, and their nominee Jimmy Carter won the 1976 presidential election. With the initial support of evangelical Christian voters in the South, Carter was temporarily able to reunite the disparate factions within the party, but inflation and the Iran Hostage Crisis of 1979–1980 took their toll, resulting in a landslide victory for Republican presidential nominee Ronald Reagan in 1980, which shifted the political landscape in favor of the Republicans for years to come.
1990s and Third Way centrism
With the ascendancy of the Republicans under Ronald Reagan, the Democrats searched for ways to respond yet were unable to succeed by running traditional candidates, such as former vice president and Democratic presidential nominee Walter Mondale and Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis, who lost to Reagan and George H.W. Bush in the 1984 and 1988 presidential elections, respectively. Many Democrats attached their hopes to the future star of Gary Hart, who had challenged Mondale in the 1984 primaries running on a theme of "New Ideas"; and in the subsequent 1988 primaries became the de facto front-runner and virtual "shoo-in" for the Democratic presidential nomination before a sex scandal ended his campaign. The party nevertheless began to seek out a younger generation of leaders, who like Hart had been inspired by the pragmatic idealism of John F. Kennedy.
Arkansas governor Bill Clinton was one such figure, who was elected president in 1992 as the Democratic nominee. The Democratic Leadership Council was a campaign organization connected to Clinton that advocated a realignment and triangulation under the re-branded "New Democrat" label. The party adopted a synthesis of neoliberal economic policies with cultural liberalism, with the voter base after Reagan having shifted considerably to the right. In an effort to appeal both to liberals and to fiscal conservatives, Democrats began to advocate for a balanced budget and market economy tempered by government intervention (mixed economy), along with a continued emphasis on social justice and affirmative action. The economic policy adopted by the Democratic Party, including the former Clinton administration, has been referred to as "Third Way".
The Democrats lost control of Congress in the election of 1994 to the Republican Party. Re-elected in 1996, Clinton was the first Democratic president since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected to two terms. Al Gore won the popular vote, but after a controversial election dispute over a Florida recount settled by the U.S. Supreme Court (which ruled 5–4 in favor of Bush) he lost the 2000 United States Presidential Election to Republican opponent George W. Bush in the Electoral College.
21st century
2000s
In the wake of the 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon as well as the growing concern over global warming, some of the party's key issues in the early 21st century have included combating terrorism while preserving human rights, expanding access to health care, labor rights, and environmental protection. Democrats regained majority control of both the House and the Senate in the 2006 elections. Barack Obama won the Democratic Party's nomination and was elected as the first African American president in 2008. Under the Obama presidency, the party moved forward reforms including an economic stimulus package, the Dodd–Frank financial reform act, and the Affordable Care Act.
2010s
In the 2010 midterm elections, the Democratic Party lost control of the House and lost its majority in state legislatures and state governorships. In the 2012 elections, President Obama was re-elected, but the party remained in the minority in the House of Representatives and lost control of the Senate in the 2014 midterm elections. After the 2016 election of Donald Trump, who lost the popular vote, the Democratic Party transitioned into the role of an opposition party and held neither the presidency nor Congress for two years. However, the Democratic Party won back a majority in the House in the 2018 midterm elections under the leadership of Nancy Pelosi.
Democrats were extremely critical of President Trump, particularly his policies on immigration, healthcare, and abortion, as well as his response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Before the pandemic, Democrats in the House of Representatives impeached Trump for the first time, although Trump was acquitted in the Republican-controlled Senate.
2020s
Since the early 2010s, the party has shifted significantly to the left on social, cultural, and religious issues and attracted support from college-educated white Americans.
In November 2020, Democrat Joe Biden won the 2020 presidential election. He began his term with extremely narrow Democratic majorities in the U.S. House and Senate. The Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 was negotiated by Biden, Majority Leader Chuck Schumer, Joe Manchin, Kyrsten Sinema and other Democrats and is the largest allocation of funds for addressing climate change to date.
The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine was politically and economically opposed by the Biden Administration, who promptly began an increased arming of Ukraine, with full support from Congressional Democrats and an overwhelming majority of Republicans.
In 2022, Biden appointed Ketanji Brown Jackson, the first Black woman on the Supreme Court. However, she was replacing liberal justice Stephen Breyer, so she did not alter the court's 6–3 split between conservatives (the majority) and liberals. After Dobbs v. Jackson (decided June 24, 2022), which led to abortion bans in much of the country, the Democratic Party rallied behind abortion rights.
In the 2022 midterm elections Democrats dramatically outperformed historical trends, and a widely anticipated red wave did not materialize. Democrats only narrowly lost their majority in the U.S. House, and gained a seat in the U.S. Senate, along with several gains at the state level, including acquiring "trifectas" (control of both legislative houses and governor's seat) in several states.
Name and symbols
The Democratic-Republican Party splintered in 1824 into the short-lived National Republican Party and the Jacksonian movement which in 1828 became the Democratic Party. Under the Jacksonian era, the term "The Democracy" was in use by the party, but the name "Democratic Party" was eventually settled upon and became the official name in 1844. Members of the party are called "Democrats" or "Dems".
The term "Democrat Party" has also been in local use but has usually been used by opponents since 1952 as a disparaging term. However, the use of the term "Democrat" as an adjective is not generally considered offensive in other contexts, such as "Democrat President", "Democrat Voters", "Democrat Senators", "Democrat Candidate", "Democrat Governor", etc. Nonetheless, its usage is still not as common as "Democratic" today.
The most common mascot symbol for the party has been the donkey, or jackass. Andrew Jackson's enemies twisted his name to "jackass" as a term of ridicule regarding a stupid and stubborn animal. However, the Democrats liked the common-man implications and picked it up too, therefore the image persisted and evolved. Its most lasting impression came from the cartoons of Thomas Nast from 1870 in Harper's Weekly. Cartoonists followed Nast and used the donkey to represent the Democrats and the elephant to represent the Republicans.
In the early 20th century, the traditional symbol of the Democratic Party in Indiana, Kentucky, Oklahoma and Ohio was the rooster, as opposed to the Republican eagle. The rooster was also adopted as an official symbol of the national Democratic Party. In 1904 the Alabama Democratic Party chose, as the logo to put on its ballots, a rooster with the motto "White supremacy - For the right." The words "White supremacy" were replaced with "Democrats" in 1966. In 1996, the Alabama Democratic Party dropped the rooster, citing racist and white supremacist connotations linked with the symbol. The rooster symbol still appears on Oklahoma, Kentucky, Indiana, and West Virginia ballots. In New York state, the Democratic ballot symbol is a five-pointed star.
Although both major political parties (and many minor ones) use the traditional American colors of red, white, and blue in their marketing and representations, since election night 2000 blue has become the identifying color for the Democratic Party while red has become the identifying color for the Republican Party. That night, for the first time all major broadcast television networks used the same color scheme for the electoral map: blue states for Al Gore (Democratic nominee) and red states for George W. Bush (Republican nominee). Since then, the color blue has been widely used by the media to represent the party. This is contrary to common practice outside of the United States where blue is the traditional color of the right and red the color of the left. For example, in Canada red represents the Liberals while blue represents the Conservatives. In the United Kingdom, red denotes the Labour Party and blue symbolizes the Conservative Party. Any use of the color blue to denote the Democratic Party prior to 2000 would be historically inaccurate and misleading. Since 2000, blue has also been used both by party supporters for promotional efforts—ActBlue, BuyBlue and BlueFund as examples—and by the party itself in 2006 both for its "Red to Blue Program", created to support Democratic candidates running against Republican incumbents in the midterm elections that year and on its official website.
In September 2010, the Democratic Party unveiled its new logo, which featured a blue D inside a blue circle. It was the party's first official logo; the donkey logo had been only semi-official.
Jefferson-Jackson Day is the annual fundraising event (dinner) held by Democratic Party organizations across the United States. It is named after Presidents Thomas Jefferson and Andrew Jackson, whom the party regards as its distinguished early leaders.
The song "Happy Days Are Here Again" is the unofficial song of the Democratic Party. It was used prominently when Franklin D. Roosevelt was nominated for president at the 1932 Democratic National Convention and remains a sentimental favorite for Democrats today. For example, Paul Shaffer played the theme on the Late Show with David Letterman after the Democrats won Congress in 2006. "Don't Stop" by Fleetwood Mac was adopted by Bill Clinton's presidential campaign in 1992 and has endured as a popular Democratic song. The emotionally similar song "Beautiful Day" by the band U2 has also become a favorite theme song for Democratic candidates. John Kerry used the song during his 2004 presidential campaign and several Democratic Congressional candidates used it as a celebratory tune in 2006.
As a traditional anthem for its presidential nominating convention, Aaron Copland's "Fanfare for the Common Man" is traditionally performed at the beginning of the Democratic National Convention.
Current structure
National committee
The Democratic National Committee (DNC) is responsible for promoting Democratic campaign activities. While the DNC is responsible for overseeing the process of writing the Democratic Platform, the DNC is more focused on campaign and organizational strategy than public policy. In presidential elections, it supervises the Democratic National Convention. The national convention is subject to the charter of the party and the ultimate authority within the Democratic Party when it is in session, with the DNC running the party's organization at other times. The DNC is currently chaired by Jaime Harrison.
State parties
Each state also has a state committee, made up of elected committee members as well as ex officio committee members (usually elected officials and representatives of major constituencies), which in turn elects a chair. County, town, city, and ward committees generally are composed of individuals elected at the local level. State and local committees often coordinate campaign activities within their jurisdiction, oversee local conventions, and in some cases primaries or caucuses, and may have a role in nominating candidates for elected office under state law. Rarely do they have much funding, but in 2005 DNC Chairman Dean began a program (called the "50 State Strategy") of using DNC national funds to assist all state parties and pay for full-time professional staffers.
Major party committees and groups
The Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC) assists party candidates in House races and its current chair (selected by the party caucus) is Representative Suzan DelBene of Washington. Similarly, the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee (DSCC), chaired by Senator Gary Peters of Michigan, raises funds for Senate races. The Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee (DLCC), chaired by Majority Leader of the New York State Senate Andrea Stewart-Cousins, is a smaller organization that focuses on state legislative races. The Democratic Governors Association (DGA) is an organization supporting the candidacies of Democratic gubernatorial nominees and incumbents. Likewise, the mayors of the largest cities and urban centers convene as the National Conference of Democratic Mayors.
The DNC sponsors the College Democrats of America (CDA), a student-outreach organization with the goal of training and engaging a new generation of Democratic activists. Democrats Abroad is the organization for Americans living outside the United States. They work to advance the party's goals and encourage Americans living abroad to support the Democrats. The Young Democrats of America (YDA) and the High School Democrats of America (HSDA) are young adult and youth-led organizations respectively that attempt to draw in and mobilize young people for Democratic candidates but operates outside of the DNC.
Political positions
Economic policy
Expand Social Security and safety-net programs.
Increase the capital gains tax rate to 39.6% for taxpayers with annual income above $1 million.
Cut taxes for the working and middle classes as well as small businesses.
Change tax rules to discourage shipping jobs overseas.
Increase federal and state minimum wages.
Modernize and expand access to public education and provide universal preschool education.
Support the goal of universal health care through a public health insurance option or expanding Medicare/Medicaid.
Increase investments in infrastructure development as well as scientific and technological research.
Offer tax credits to make clean energy more accessible for consumers and increase domestic production of clean energy.
Uphold labor protections and the right to unionize.
Reform the student loan system and allow for refinancing student loans.
Make college more affordable.
Mandate equal pay for equal work regardless of gender, race, or ethnicity.
Social policy
Decriminalize or legalize marijuana.
Uphold network neutrality.
Implement campaign finance reform.
Uphold voting rights and easy access to voting.
Support same-sex marriage and ban conversion therapy.
Allow legal access to abortions and women's reproductive health care.
Reform the immigration system and allow for a pathway to citizenship.
Expand background checks and reduce access to assault weapons to address gun violence.
Improve privacy laws and curtail government surveillance.
Oppose torture.
Abolish capital punishment.
Recognize and defend Internet freedom worldwide.
Economic issues
Equal economic opportunity, a social safety net, and strong labor unions have historically been at the heart of Democratic economic policy. The Democratic Party's economic policy positions, as measured by votes in Congress, tend to align with those of middle class. Democrats support a progressive tax system, higher minimum wages, Social Security, universal health care, public education, and subsidized housing. They also support infrastructure development and clean energy investments to achieve economic development and job creation. Since the 1990s, the party has at times supported centrist economic reforms that cut the size of government and reduced market regulations. The party has generally rejected both laissez-faire economics and market socialism, instead favoring Keynesian economics within a capitalist market-based system.
Fiscal policy
Democrats support a more progressive tax structure to provide more services and reduce economic inequality by making sure that the wealthiest Americans pay more in taxes.
Democrats and Republicans traditionally take differing stances on eradicating poverty. Brady said "Our poverty level is the direct consequence of our weak social policies, which are a direct consequence of weak political actors".
They oppose the cutting of social services, such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid, believing it to be harmful to efficiency and social justice. Democrats believe the benefits of social services in monetary and non-monetary terms are a more productive labor force and cultured population and believe that the benefits of this are greater than any benefits that could be derived from lower taxes, especially on top earners, or cuts to social services. Furthermore, Democrats see social services as essential toward providing positive freedom, freedom derived from economic opportunity. The Democratic-led House of Representatives reinstated the PAYGO (pay-as-you-go) budget rule at the start of the 110th Congress.
Minimum wage
The Democratic Party favors raising the minimum wage. The Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007 was an early component of the Democrats' agenda during the 110th Congress. In 2006, the Democrats supported six state-ballot initiatives to increase the minimum wage and all six initiatives passed.
In 2017, Senate Democrats introduced the Raise the Wage Act which would raise the minimum wage to $15 an hour by 2024. In 2021, Democratic president Joe Biden proposed increasing the minimum wage to $15 by 2025. In many states controlled by Democrats, the state minimum wage has been increased to a rate above the federal minimum wage.
Health care
Democrats call for "affordable and quality health care" and favor moving toward universal health care in a variety of forms to address rising healthcare costs. Progressive Democrats politicians favor a single-payer program or Medicare for All, while liberals prefer creating a public health insurance option.
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, signed into law by President Barack Obama on March 23, 2010, has been one of the most significant pushes for universal health care. As of December 2019, more than 20 million Americans have gained health insurance under the Affordable Care Act.
Education
Democrats favor improving public education by raising school standards and reforming the Head Start program. They also support universal preschool, expanding access to primary education, including through charter schools, and are generally opposed to school voucher programs. They call for addressing student loan debt and reforms to reduce college tuition. Other proposals have included tuition-free public universities and reform of standardized testing. Democrats have the long-term aim of having publicly funded college education with low tuition fees (like in much of Europe and Canada), which would be available to every eligible American student. Alternatively, they encourage expanding access to post-secondary education by increasing state funding for student financial aid such as Pell Grants and college tuition tax deductions.
Environment
Democrats believe that the government should protect the environment and have a history of environmentalism. In more recent years, this stance has emphasized renewable energy generation as the basis for an improved economy, greater national security, and general environmental benefits. The Democratic Party is substantially more likely than the Republican Party to support environmental regulation and policies that are supportive of renewable energy.
The Democratic Party also favors expansion of conservation lands and encourages open space and rail travel to relieve highway and airport congestion and improve air quality and the economy as it "believe[s] that communities, environmental interests, and the government should work together to protect resources while ensuring the vitality of local economies. Once Americans were led to believe they had to make a choice between the economy and the environment. They now know this is a false choice".
The foremost environmental concern of the Democratic Party is climate change. Democrats, most notably former Vice President Al Gore, have pressed for stern regulation of greenhouse gases. On October 15, 2007, Gore won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to build greater knowledge about man-made climate change and laying the foundations for the measures needed to counteract it.
Renewable energy and fossil fuels
Democrats have supported increased domestic renewable energy development, including wind and solar power farms, in an effort to reduce carbon pollution. The party's platform calls for an "all of the above" energy policy including clean energy, natural gas and domestic oil, with the desire of becoming energy independent. The party has supported higher taxes on oil companies and increased regulations on coal power plants, favoring a policy of reducing long-term reliance on fossil fuels. Additionally, the party supports stricter fuel emissions standards to prevent air pollution.
Trade agreements
Like the Republican Party, the Democratic Party has taken widely varying views on international trade throughout its history.
The Democrats dominated the Second Party System and set low tariffs designed to pay for the government but not protect industry. Their opponents the Whigs wanted high protective tariffs but usually were outvoted in Congress. Tariffs soon became a major political issue as the Whigs (1832–1852) and (after 1854) the Republicans wanted to protect their mostly northern industries and constituents by voting for higher tariffs and the Southern Democrats, which had very little industry but imported many goods voted for lower tariffs. After the Second Party System ended in 1854 the Democrats lost control and the new Republican Party had its opportunity to raise rates.
During the Third Party System, Democratic president Grover Cleveland made low tariffs the centerpiece of Democratic Party policies, arguing that high tariffs were an unnecessary and unfair tax on consumers. The South and West generally supported low tariffs, while the industrial North high tariffs. During the Fourth Party System, Democratic president Woodrow Wilson made a drastic lowering of tariff rates a major priority for his presidency. The 1913 Underwood Tariff cut rates, and the new revenues generated by the federal income tax made tariffs much less important in terms of economic impact and political rhetoric.
In the 1990s, the Clinton administration and a number of prominent Democrats pushed through a number of agreements such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Since then, the party's shift away from free trade became evident in the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) vote, with 15 House Democrats voting for the agreement and 187 voting against. Many Democrats today support fair trade policies when it comes to the issue of international trade agreements, such as the USMCA, the successor to NAFTA.
Social issues
The modern Democratic Party emphasizes social equality and equal opportunity. Democrats support voting rights and minority rights, including LGBT rights. Democratic president Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed racial segregation. Carmines and Stimson wrote "the Democratic Party appropriated racial liberalism and assumed federal responsibility for ending racial discrimination."
Ideological social elements in the party include cultural liberalism, civil libertarianism, and feminism. Some Democratic social policies are immigration reform, electoral reform, and women's reproductive rights.
Equal opportunity
The Democratic Party supports equal opportunity for all Americans regardless of sex, age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion, creed, or national origin. The Democratic Party has broad appeal across most socioeconomic and ethnic demographics, as seen in recent exit polls. Many Democrats support affirmative action programs to further this goal. Democrats also strongly support the Americans with Disabilities Act to prohibit discrimination against people based on physical or mental disability. As such, the Democrats pushed as well the ADA Amendments Act of 2008, a disability rights expansion that became law.
Voting rights
The party is very supportive of improving voting rights as well as election accuracy and accessibility. They support extensions of voting time, including making election day a holiday. They support reforming the electoral system to eliminate gerrymandering, abolishing the electoral college, as well as passing comprehensive campaign finance reform.
Abortion and reproductive rights
The Democratic position on abortion has changed significantly over time. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Republicans generally favored legalized abortion more than Democrats, although significant heterogeneity could be found within both parties. During this time, opposition to abortion tended to be concentrated among the political left in the United States. Liberal Protestants and Catholics — both of which tended to vote for the Democratic Party — opposed while most conservative Protestants supported legal access to abortion services.
The present platform states that all women should have access to birth control and supports public funding of contraception for poor women. In its national platforms from 1992 to 2004, the Democratic Party has called for abortion to be "safe, legal and rare"—namely, keeping it legal by rejecting laws that allow governmental interference in abortion decisions and reducing the number of abortions by promoting both knowledge of reproduction and contraception and incentives for adoption. The wording changed in the 2008 platform. When Congress voted on the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act in 2003, Congressional Democrats were split, with a minority (including former Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid) supporting the ban and the majority of Democrats opposing the legislation.
The Democratic Party opposes attempts to reverse the 1973 Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade, which declared abortion covered by the constitutionally protected individual right to privacy under the Ninth Amendment; and Planned Parenthood v. Casey, which lays out the legal framework in which government action alleged to violate that right is assessed by courts. As a matter of the right to privacy and of gender equality, many Democrats believe all women should have the ability to choose to abort without governmental interference. They believe that each woman, conferring with her conscience, has the right to choose for herself whether abortion is morally correct.
Former Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid was anti-abortion, while former President Barack Obama and Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi favor abortion rights. Groups such as Democrats for Life of America represent the anti-abortion faction of the party while groups such as EMILY's List represent the abortion rights faction. A Newsweek poll from October 2006 found that 25% of Democrats were anti-abortion while a 69% majority was in favor of abortion rights.
According to the 2020 Democratic Party platform, "Democrats believe every woman should be able to access high-quality reproductive health care services, including safe and legal abortion."
Immigration
Like the Republican Party, the Democratic Party has taken widely varying views on immigration throughout its history. Since the 1990s, the Democratic Party has been more supportive overall of immigration than the Republican Party. Many Democratic politicians have called for systematic reform of the immigration system such that residents that have come into the United States illegally have a pathway to legal citizenship. President Obama remarked in November 2013 that he felt it was "long past time to fix our broken immigration system," particularly to allow "incredibly bright young people" that came over as students to become full citizens. The Public Religion Research Institute found in a late 2013 study that 73% of Democrats supported the pathway concept, compared to 63% of Americans as a whole.
In 2013, Democrats in the Senate passed S. 744, which would reform immigration policy to allow citizenship for illegal immigrants in the United States and improve the lives of all immigrants currently living in the United States. The law failed to pass in the House and was never re-introduced after the 113th Congress. As of 2023, no major immigration reform legislation has been enacted into law in the 21st century.
LGBT rights
The Democratic position on LGBT rights has changed significantly over time, but it has typically been more supportive than the Republican position. Before the 2000s, like the Republicans, the Democratic Party often took positions hostile to LGBT rights. Today, both voters and elected representatives within the Democratic Party are overwhelmingly supportive of LGBT rights.
Support for same-sex marriage has steadily increased among the general public, including voters in both major parties, since the start of the 21st century. An April 2009 ABC News/Washington Post public opinion poll put support among Democrats at 62%. A broad majority of Democrats have supported other LGBT-related laws such as extending hate crime statutes, legally preventing discrimination against LGBT people in the workforce and repealing the "don't ask, don't tell" military policy. A 2006 Pew Research Center poll of Democrats found that 55% supported gays adopting children with 40% opposed while 70% support gays in the military, with only 23% opposed. Gallup polling from May 2009 stated that 82% of Democrats support open enlistment. A 2023 Gallup public opinion poll found 84% of Democrats support same-sex marriage, compared to 71% support by the general public and 49% support by Republicans.
The 2004 Democratic National Platform stated that marriage should be defined at the state level and it repudiated the Federal Marriage Amendment. John Kerry, the Democratic presidential nominee in 2004, did not support same-sex marriage. While not stating support of same-sex marriage, the 2008 platform called for repeal of the Defense of Marriage Act, which banned federal recognition of same-sex marriage and removed the need for interstate recognition, supported antidiscrimination laws and the extension of hate crime laws to LGBT people and opposed "don't ask, don't tell". The 2012 platform included support for same-sex marriage and for the repeal of DOMA.
On May 9, 2012, Barack Obama became the first sitting president to say he supports same-sex marriage. Previously, he had opposed restrictions on same-sex marriage such as the Defense of Marriage Act, which he promised to repeal, California's Prop 8, and a constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage (which he opposed saying that "decisions about marriage should be left to the states as they always have been"), but also stated that he personally believed marriage to be between a man and a woman and that he favored civil unions that would "give same-sex couples equal legal rights and privileges as married couples". Earlier, when running for the Illinois Senate in 1996 he said, "I favor legalizing same-sex marriages, and would fight efforts to prohibit such marriages". Former presidents Bill Clinton and Jimmy Carter along with former Democratic presidential nominees Al Gore and Michael Dukakis now support same-sex marriage. President Joe Biden has been in favor of same-sex marriage since 2012, when he became the highest-ranking government official to support it. In 2022, Biden signed the Respect for Marriage Act, repealing the Defense of Marriage Act which he previously had voted for.
Status of Puerto Rico and D.C.
The 2016 Democratic Party platform declares, regarding the status of Puerto Rico: "We are committed to addressing the extraordinary challenges faced by our fellow citizens in Puerto Rico. Many stem from the fundamental question of Puerto Rico's political status. Democrats believe that the people of Puerto Rico should determine their ultimate political status from permanent options that do not conflict with the Constitution, laws, and policies of the United States. Democrats are committed to promoting economic opportunity and good-paying jobs for the hardworking people of Puerto Rico. We also believe that Puerto Ricans must be treated equally by Medicare, Medicaid, and other programs that benefit families. Puerto Ricans should be able to vote for the people who make their laws, just as they should be treated equally. All American citizens, no matter where they reside, should have the right to vote for the president of the United States. Finally, we believe that federal officials must respect Puerto Rico's local self-government as laws are implemented and Puerto Rico's budget and debt are restructured so that it can get on a path towards stability and prosperity".
Also, it declares that regarding the status of the District of Columbia: "Restoring our democracy also means finally passing statehood for the District of Columbia, so that the American citizens who reside in the nation's capital have full and equal congressional rights as well as the right to have the laws and budget of their local government respected without Congressional interference."
Legal issues
Gun control
With a stated goal of reducing crime and homicide, the Democratic Party has introduced various gun control measures, most notably the Gun Control Act of 1968, the Brady Bill of 1993 and Crime Control Act of 1994. In its national platform for 2008, the only statement explicitly favoring gun control was a plan calling for renewal of the 1994 Assault Weapons Ban. In 2022, Democratic president Joe Biden signed the Bipartisan Safer Communities Act, which among other things expanded background checks and provided incentives for states to pass red flag laws. According to a 2021 Pew Research Center poll, 20% of Democrats personally owned a gun, compared to 30% of the general public and 44% of Republicans.
Death penalty
The Democratic Party currently opposes the death penalty. Although most Democrats in Congress have never seriously moved to overturn the rarely used federal death penalty, both Russ Feingold and Dennis Kucinich have introduced such bills with little success. Democrats have led efforts to overturn state death penalty laws, particularly in New Jersey and in New Mexico. They have also sought to prevent the reinstatement of the death penalty in those states which prohibit it, including Massachusetts, New York, and Delaware. During the Clinton administration, Democrats led the expansion of the federal death penalty. These efforts resulted in the passage of the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996, signed into law by President Clinton, which heavily limited appeals in death penalty cases.
In 1972, the Democratic Party platform called for the abolition of capital punishment.
In 1992, 1993 and 1995, Democratic Texas Congressman Henry González unsuccessfully introduced the Death Penalty Abolition Amendment which prohibited the use of capital punishment in the United States. Democratic Missouri Congressman William Lacy Clay Sr. cosponsored the amendment in 1993.
During his Illinois Senate career, former President Barack Obama successfully introduced legislation intended to reduce the likelihood of wrongful convictions in capital cases, requiring videotaping of confessions. When campaigning for the presidency, Obama stated that he supports the limited use of the death penalty, including for people who have been convicted of raping a minor under the age of 12, having opposed the Supreme Court's ruling in Kennedy v. Louisiana that the death penalty was unconstitutional in which the victim of a crime was not killed. Obama has stated that he thinks the "death penalty does little to deter crime" and that it is used too frequently and too inconsistently.
In June 2016, the Democratic Platform Drafting Committee unanimously adopted an amendment to abolish the death penalty.
Torture
Many Democrats are opposed to the use of torture against individuals apprehended and held prisoner by the United States military and hold that categorizing such prisoners as unlawful combatants does not release the United States from its obligations under the Geneva Conventions. Democrats contend that torture is inhumane, damages the United States' moral standing in the world, and produces questionable results. Democrats are largely against waterboarding.
Torture became a divisive issue in the party after Barack Obama was elected president.
Patriot Act
Many Democrats are opposed to the Patriot Act, but when the law was passed most Democrats were supportive of it and all but two Democrats in the Senate voted for the original Patriot Act legislation in 2001. The lone nay vote was from Russ Feingold of Wisconsin as Mary Landrieu of Louisiana did not vote. In the House, the Democrats voted for the Act by 145 yea and 62 nay. Democrats were split on the renewal in 2006. In the Senate, Democrats voted 34 for the 2006 renewal and nine against. In the House, 66 Democrats voted for the renewal and 124 against.
Privacy
The Democratic Party believes that individuals should have a right to privacy. For example, many Democrats have opposed the NSA warrantless surveillance of American citizens.
Some Democratic officeholders have championed consumer protection laws that limit the sharing of consumer data between corporations. Democrats have opposed sodomy laws since the 1972 platform which stated that "Americans should be free to make their own choice of life-styles and private habits without being subject to discrimination or prosecution", and believe that government should not regulate consensual noncommercial sexual conduct among adults as a matter of personal privacy.
Foreign policy issues
The foreign policy of the voters of the two major parties has largely overlapped since the 1990s. A Gallup poll in early 2013 showed broad agreement on the top issues, albeit with some divergence regarding human rights and international cooperation through agencies such as the United Nations.
In June 2014, the Quinnipiac Poll asked Americans which foreign policy they preferred:
Democrats chose A over B by 65% to 32%; Republicans chose A over B by 56% to 39%; and independents chose A over B by 67% to 29%.
Iraq War
In 2002, Congressional Democrats were divided on the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq: 147 voted against it (21 in the Senate and 126 in the House) and 110 voted for it (29 in the Senate and 81 in the House). A March 2003 CBS News poll taken a few days before the invasion of Iraq found that 34% of Democrats nationwide would support it without United Nations backing, 51% would support it only with its backing and 14% would not support it at all. The Los Angeles Times stated in early April 2003 that 70% of Democrats supported the decision to invade while 27% opposed it. Referring to Iraq, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid declared in April 2007 the war to be "lost" while other Democrats (especially during the 2004 presidential election cycle) accused the President of lying to the public about weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. Democrats were the most vocal opponents of Operation Iraqi Freedom and campaigned on a platform of withdrawal ahead of the 2006 midterm elections.
The Pew Research Center stated in August 2007 that opposition increased from 37% during the initial invasion to 74%. In April 2008, a CBS News poll found that about 90% of Democrats disapprove of the Bush administration's conduct and want to end the war within the next year. Democrats in the House of Representatives near-unanimously supported a non-binding resolution disapproving of President Bush's decision to send additional troops into Iraq in 2007. Congressional Democrats overwhelmingly supported military funding legislation that included a provision that set "a timeline for the withdrawal of all US combat troops from Iraq" by March 31, 2008, but also would leave combat forces in Iraq for purposes such as targeted counter-terrorism operations. After a veto from the President and a failed attempt in Congress to override the veto, the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007 was passed by Congress and signed by the President after the timetable was dropped. Criticism of the Iraq War subsided after the Iraq War troop surge of 2007 led to a dramatic decrease in Iraqi violence.
On February 27, 2009, President Obama announced: "As a candidate for president, I made clear my support for a timeline of 16 months to carry out this drawdown, while pledging to consult closely with our military commanders upon taking office to ensure that we preserve the gains we've made and protect our troops ... Those consultations are now complete, and I have chosen a timeline that will remove our combat brigades over the next 18 months". Around 50,000 non-combat-related forces would remain. The Democratic-controlled 110th Congress continued to fund efforts in both Iraq and Afghanistan. Presidential candidate Barack Obama advocated a withdrawal of combat troops within Iraq by late 2010 with a residual force of peacekeeping troops left in place. The last U.S. troops left Iraq on December 18, 2011, in accordance with the U.S.–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement.
Iran sanctions
The Democratic Party has been critical of the Iran's nuclear weapon program and supported economic sanctions against the Iranian government. In 2013, the Democratic-led administration worked to reach a diplomatic agreement with the government of Iran to halt the Iranian nuclear weapon program in exchange for international economic sanction relief. , negotiations had been successful and the party called for more cooperation with Iran in the future. In 2015, the Obama administration agreed to the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, which provides sanction relief in exchange for international oversight of the Iranian nuclear program. In February 2019, the Democratic National Committee passed a resolution calling on the United States to re-enter the JCPOA, which President Trump withdrew from in 2018.
Invasion of Afghanistan
Democrats in the House of Representatives and in the Senate near-unanimously voted for the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists against "those responsible for the recent attacks launched against the United States" in Afghanistan in 2001, supporting the NATO coalition invasion of the nation. Most elected Democrats continued to support the Afghanistan conflict for its duration, with some, such as a Democratic National Committee spokesperson, voicing concerns that the Iraq War shifted too many resources away from the presence in Afghanistan. During the 2008 Presidential Election, then-candidate Barack Obama called for a "surge" of troops into Afghanistan. After winning the presidency, Obama followed through, sending a "surge" force of additional troops to Afghanistan. Troop levels were 94,000 in December 2011 and kept falling, with a target of 68,000 by fall 2012.
Support for the war among the American people diminished over time. Many Democrats changed their opinion over the course of the war, coming to oppose continuation of the conflict. In July 2008, Gallup found that 41% of Democrats called the invasion a "mistake" while a 55% majority disagreed. A CNN survey in August 2009 stated that a majority of Democrats opposed the war. CNN polling director Keating Holland said: "Nearly two thirds of Republicans support the war in Afghanistan. Three quarters of Democrats oppose the war".
During the 2020 Presidential Election, then-candidate Joe Biden promised to "end the forever wars in Afghanistan and the Middle East." Biden went on to win the election, and in April 2021, he announced he would withdraw all US troops from Afghanistan by September 11 of that year. The last troops left in August, bringing America's 20-year-long military campaign in the country to a close. According to a 2023 AP-NORC poll, a majority of Democrats believed that the War in Afghanistan wasn't worth it.
Israel
The Democratic Party is a strong supporter of Israel. A 2023 Fox News poll found that an overwhelming majority of Democrats take the side of Israel "more" in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
The 2020 Democratic Party platform acknowledges a "commitment to Israel's security, its qualitative military edge, its right to defend itself, and the 2016 Memorandum of Understanding is ironclad." It also included:
Democrats believe a strong, secure, and democratic Israel is vital to the interests of the United States. Our commitment to Israel's security, its qualitative military edge, its right to defend itself, and the 2016 Memorandum of Understanding is ironclad. Democrats recognize the worth of every Israeli and every Palestinian. That's why we will work to help bring to an end a conflict that has brought so much pain to so many. We support a negotiated two-state solution that ensures Israel's future as a Jewish and democratic state with recognized borders and upholds the right of Palestinians to live in freedom and security in a viable state of their own.
Democrats oppose any unilateral steps by either side—including annexation—that undermine prospects for two states. Democrats will continue to stand against incitement and terror. We oppose settlement expansion. We believe that while Jerusalem is a matter for final status negotiations, it should remain the capital of Israel, an undivided city accessible to people of all faiths. Democrats will restore U.S.-Palestinian diplomatic ties and critical assistance to the Palestinian people in the West Bank and Gaza, consistent with U.S. law. We oppose any effort to unfairly single out and delegitimize Israel, including at the United Nations or through the Boycott, Divestment, and Sanctions Movement, while protecting the Constitutional right of our citizens to free speech.During the 2023 Israel-Hamas War, President Joe Biden requested a large-scale military aid package to Israel.
Composition
As of the 2020s, the Democratic Party does best among voters who are Jewish or Black; women; college graduates, are a sexual minority, or live in urban areas. The Democratic Party, once dominant in the Southeastern United States, is now strongest in the Northeastern United States, the Great Lakes region, parts of the Southwestern United States, and the West Coast (including Hawaii). The party is also very strong in major cities, regardless of region.
Recently, the party has significantly increased support among affluent, college-educated whites and dramatically lost support among voters with lower incomes or lacking a college degree, particularly from Asian Americans and Hispanics. In 2023, Axios stated that "the last several decades have ushered in a dramatic political realignment, as the GOP has broadened its appeal to a more [racially] diverse working class and Democrats have become the party of wealthier, more-educated voters" and that "nine of the top 10 wealthiest congressional districts are represented by Democrats".
Ideology and factions
Upon foundation, the Democratic Party supported agrarianism and the Jacksonian democracy movement of President Andrew Jackson, representing farmers and rural interests and traditional Jeffersonian democrats. Since the 1890s, especially in northern states, the party began to favor more liberal positions (the term "liberal" in this sense describes modern liberalism, rather than classical liberalism or economic liberalism). In recent exit polls, the Democratic Party has had broad appeal across most socioeconomic and ethnic demographics.
Historically, the party has represented farmers, laborers, and religious and ethnic minorities as it has opposed unregulated business and finance and favored progressive income taxes. In foreign policy, internationalism (including interventionism) was a dominant theme from 1913 to the mid-1960s. In the 1930s, the party began advocating social programs targeted at the poor. The party had a fiscally conservative, pro-business wing, typified by Grover Cleveland and Al Smith, and a Southern conservative wing that shrank after President Lyndon B. Johnson supported the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The major influences for liberalism were labor unions (which peaked in the 1936–1952 era) and African Americans. Environmentalism has been a major component since the 1970s. The 21st century Democratic Party is predominantly a coalition of centrists, liberals, and progressives, with significant overlap between the three groups. Political scientists characterize the Democratic Party as less ideologically cohesive than the Republican Party due to the broader diversity of coalitions that compose the Democratic Party.
Centrists
Centrist Democrats, or New Democrats, are an ideologically centrist faction within the Democratic Party that emerged after the victory of Republican George H. W. Bush in the 1988 presidential election as United States populace turned much further to the political right. They are an economically liberal and "Third Way" faction that dominated the party for around 20 years, until the start of Obama's presidency. They are represented by organizations such as the New Democrat Network and the New Democrat Coalition. The New Democrat Coalition is a pro-growth and fiscally moderate congressional coalition.
One of the most influential centrist groups was the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), a nonprofit organization that advocated centrist positions for the party. The DLC hailed President Bill Clinton as proof of the viability of "Third Way" politicians and a DLC success story. The DLC disbanded in 2011 and much of the former DLC is now represented in the think tank Third Way.
Some Democratic elected officials have self-declared as being centrists, including former President Bill Clinton, former Vice President Al Gore, Senator Mark Warner, former Pennsylvania governor Ed Rendell, former Senator Jim Webb, President Joe Biden, and former congresswoman Ann Kirkpatrick.
The New Democrat Network supports socially liberal and fiscally moderate Democratic politicians and is associated with the congressional New Democrat Coalition in the House. Annie Kuster is the chair of the coalition, and former senator and President Barack Obama was self-described as a New Democrat.
Conservatives
A conservative Democrat is a member of the Democratic Party with conservative political views, or with views relatively conservative with respect to those of the national party. While such members of the Democratic Party can be found throughout the nation, actual elected officials are disproportionately found within rural regions of the United States, more commonly in the South and the West. Historically, Southern Democrats were generally much more ideologically conservative than conservative Democrats are now.
Many conservative Southern Democrats defected to the Republican Party, beginning with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the general leftward shift of the party. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina, Billy Tauzin of Louisiana, Kent Hance and Ralph Hall of Texas and Richard Shelby of Alabama are examples of this. The influx of conservative Democrats into the Republican Party is often cited as a reason for the Republican Party's shift further to the right during the late 20th century as well as the shift of its base from the Northeast and Midwest to the South. Studies show that White Southerners shifted to the Republican Party due to white backlash and social conservatism.
Split-ticket voting was common among conservative Southern Democrats in the 1970s and 1980s. These voters supported conservative Democrats for local and statewide office while simultaneously voting for Republican presidential candidates. They were sometimes humorously called "Yellow dog Democrats", or "boll weevils" and "Dixiecrats". In the House after the 1994 Republican Revolution, the Blue Dog Coalition was formed, a caucus of conservatives and centrists willing to broker compromises with the Republican leadership who acted as a unified voting bloc in the past, giving its members some ability to change legislation, depending on their numbers in Congress. Until the 2010s, the Democratic Party had a conservative element, mostly from the South and Border regions. Their numbers declined sharply as the Republican Party built up its Southern base.
Liberals
Social liberals (modern liberals) are a large portion of the Democratic base. According to 2018 exit polls, liberals constituted 27% of the electorate, and 91% of American liberals favored the candidate of the Democratic Party. White-collar college-educated professionals were mostly Republican until the 1950s, but they now compose a vital component of the Democratic Party.
A large majority of liberals favor moving toward universal health care, with many supporting an eventual gradual transition to a single-payer system in particular. A majority also favor diplomacy over military action; stem cell research, same-sex marriage, stricter gun control, environmental protection laws, as well as the preservation of abortion rights. Immigration and cultural diversity are deemed positive as liberals favor cultural pluralism, a system in which immigrants retain their native culture in addition to adopting their new culture. Most liberals oppose increased military spending and the mixing of church and state. They tend to be divided on free trade agreements such as the USMCA and PNTR with China, with some seeing them as more favorable to corporations than workers.
This ideological group differs from the traditional organized labor base. According to the Pew Research Center, a plurality of 41% resided in mass affluent households and 49% were college graduates, the highest figure of any typographical group. It was also the fastest growing typological group since the late 1990s to the present. Liberals include most of academia and large portions of the professional class.
Progressives
Progressives are the most left-leaning faction in the party and support strong business regulations, social programs, and workers' rights. Many progressive Democrats are descendants of the New Left of Democratic presidential candidate Senator George McGovern of South Dakota whereas others were involved in the 2016 presidential candidacy of Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders. Progressives are often considered to have ideas similar to social democracy due to heavy inspiration from the Nordic Model, believing in federal top marginal income taxes ranging from 52% to 70%, rent control, increased collective bargaining power, a $15-an-hour minimum wage, as well as free tuition and Universal Healthcare (typically Medicare for All).
In 2014, progressive Senator Elizabeth Warren set out "Eleven Commandments of Progressivism": tougher regulation on corporations; affordable education; scientific investment and environmentalism; net neutrality; increased wages; equal pay for women; collective bargaining rights; defending social programs; same-sex marriage; immigration reform; and unabridged access to reproductive healthcare. In addition, progressives strongly oppose political corruption and seek to advance electoral reforms such as campaign finance rules and voting rights protections in the For the People Act.
Recently, many progressives have made combating economic inequality their top priority. The Congressional Progressive Caucus (CPC) is a caucus of progressive Democrats chaired by Pramila Jayapal of Washington. Its members have included Representatives Dennis Kucinich of Ohio, John Conyers of Michigan, Jim McDermott of Washington, Barbara Lee of California, and Senator Paul Wellstone of Minnesota. Senators Sherrod Brown of Ohio, Tammy Baldwin of Wisconsin, Mazie Hirono of Hawaii, and Ed Markey of Massachusetts were members of the caucus when in the House of Representatives. While no Democratic senators currently belong to the CPC, independent Senator Bernie Sanders is a member.
Demographics
Upper class and higher-income voters
Since the mid-2010s, affluent voters have been more likely to vote for the Democrats. As of 2023, by income, "the top 33%, top 20%, top 10%–15%, top 5%–10%, and top 1%", in addition to those in "stock-owning and high-income occupation[s]" are more likely to vote the Democratic Party.
The relationship between income, class, and partisan support has changed significantly in recent years. Beginning in the 1980s to 1990s, there has been a significant decline in support for the Democratic Party among white working class voters. Since the 2010s, similar trends have been observed among working class minority groups, particularly among those who are Hispanic and Latino. This political realignment meant that in the 2020 presidential election, Democratic-plurality voting counties composed 70% of United States GDP.
According to The New Yorker, by 2022 "the most affluent congressional districts in the country [were] largely represented by Democrats". Upper class voters are more likely to be in favor of culturally liberal policies. Working class Democrats are more likely to have socially conservative views, be more religious, and belong to an ethnic minority.
College graduates and professionals
Professionals, those who have a college education and those whose work revolves around the conception of ideas, have tended to support the Democratic Party since 2000. While the professional class was once a stronghold of the Republican Party, it has become increasingly in favor of the Democratic Party. Support for Democratic candidates among professionals may be traced to the prevalence of liberal cultural values among this group:
The highly educated constitute an important part of the Democratic voter base. The party has strong support among scientists, with 55% identifying as Democrats, 32% as independents, and 6% as Republicans in a 2009 study. In exit polls for the 2018 elections, 65% of those with a graduate degree said they voted Democratic, and Democrats won college graduates overall by a 20-point margin. Those with a college education have become increasingly Democratic as seen in the 2000, 2004, and 2008 elections.
Organized labor
Since the 1930s, a critical component of the Democratic Party coalition has been organized labor. Labor unions supply a great deal of the money, grass roots political organization, and voters for the party. Democrats are far more likely to be represented by unions, although union membership has declined in general during the last few decades. This trend is depicted in the following graph from the book Democrats and Republicans—Rhetoric and Reality. It is based on surveys conducted by the National Election Studies (NES).
The three most significant labor groupings in the Democratic coalition today are the AFL–CIO and Change to Win labor federations as well as the National Education Association, a large, unaffiliated teachers' union. Important issues for labor unions include supporting industrial policy that sustains unionized manufacturing jobs, raising the minimum wage, and promoting broad social programs such as Social Security and Medicare.
In the 2020 presidential election, 57% of union households voted for Joe Biden.
Younger Americans
Younger Americans, including millennials and Generation Z, tend to vote mostly for Democratic candidates in recent years.
The young have voted in favor of the Democratic presidential candidate in every election since Bill Clinton in 1992 and are more likely to identify as liberals than the general population. In the 2004 presidential election, Democratic presidential candidate John Kerry received 54% of the vote from voters of the age group 18–29 while Republican George W. Bush received 45%. In the 2006 midterm elections, the Democrats received 60% of the vote from the same age group.
Polls suggested that younger Americans have more liberal views than the general public on issues such as same-sex marriage and universal health care, helping Barack Obama carry 66% of their votes in 2008. In the 2018 midterm elections and 2020 presidential election, 67% and 60% of those in the 18–29 age range voted for Democratic candidates, respectively.
Women
Although the gender gap has varied over the years, women of all ages as a whole are more likely than men to identify as Democrats.
Since the 1990s, a majority of women have consistently voted for Democratic Party presidential tickets. According to a 2009 Gallup poll, 41% of women identify as Democrats, 25% as Republicans, and 26% as independents, whereas 32% of men identify as Democrats, 28% as Republicans and 34% as independents. Among ethnic minorities, women are also more likely than men to identify as Democrats.
However, according to a December 2019 study, "White women are the only group of female voters who support Republican Party candidates for president. They have done so by a majority in all but 2 of the last 18 elections".
The National Federation of Democratic Women is an affiliated organization meant to advocate for women's issues. National women's organizations that support Democratic candidates include EMILY's List, which aims to help elect pro-choice female Democratic candidates to office.
Of the 124 women in the United States House of Representatives and 25 women in the United States Senate at the start of the 118th Congress, 91 were Democrats in the House of Representatives and 16 were members of the Senate Democratic Caucus.
Marital status and parenthood
Americans that identify as single, living with a domestic partner, divorced, separated, or widowed are more likely to vote Democratic in contrast to married Americans who split about equally between Democrats and Republicans.
General Social Surveys of more than 11,000 Democrats and Republicans conducted between 1996 and 2006 came to the result that the differences in fertility rates are not statistically significant between these parties, with the average Democrat having 1.94 children and the average Republican having 1.91 children. However, there is a significant difference in fertility rates between the two related groups, liberals and conservatives, with liberals reproducing at a much lower rate than conservatives.
LGBT Americans
According to exit polling, LGBT Americans typically vote Democratic in national elections within the 70–80% range. In heavily gay precincts in large cities across the nation, the average was higher, ranging from 85% to 94%. This trend has continued since 1996 when Bill Clinton won 71% of the LGBT vote compared to Bob Dole's 16%. In 2000 Al Gore won 70% to George W. Bush's 25%; in 2004 John Kerry won 77% to George W. Bush's 23%; in 2008 Barack Obama won 70% to John McCain's 27%; in 2012 Barack Obama won 76% to Mitt Romney's 22%; in 2016 Hillary Clinton won 78% to Donald Trump's 14%; and in 2020 Joe Biden won 73% to Donald Trump's 25%. Patrick Egan, a professor at New York University specializing in LGBT voting patterns, calls this a "remarkable continuity", saying that "about three-fourths vote Democratic and one-fourth Republican from year to year".
Notable LGBT Democrats include Senator Tammy Baldwin of Wisconsin, Representative Becca Balint of Vermont, Representative Mark Pocan of Wisconsin, Governor Tina Kotek of Oregon, and Governor Jared Polis of Colorado. The late activist and San Francisco Supervisor Harvey Milk was a Democrat, as is former Representative Barney Frank of Massachusetts. As of the 118th Congress, there are 10 Democrats in the House and 3 members of the Senate Democratic Caucus who identify as LGBT.
The Stonewall Democrats is an LGBT advocacy group associated with the Democratic Party. The Congressional Equality Caucus is a congressional caucus of 195 Democrats (as of 2023) that advocates for LGBT rights within the House of Representatives.
By winning the 2020 Iowa Democratic presidential caucuses, former Mayor of South Bend, Indiana, Pete Buttigieg became the first openly gay candidate to win a presidential primary or caucus. In December 2020, Buttigieg was selected to serve as United States Secretary of Transportation, and he became the first openly gay cabinet secretary to be confirmed by the U.S. Senate in February 2021.
African Americans
From the end of the Civil War to the early 20th century, African Americans primarily favored the Republican Party due to its role in achieving the abolition of slavery, particularly through President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. The South had long been a Democratic stronghold, with the ranks of the fledgling Ku Klux Klan composed almost entirely of white Democrats who were angry over the treatment they had received at the hands of Northerners and also bent on reversing the policies of Reconstruction.
African Americans began drifting to the Democratic Party when Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected president. Support for the civil rights movement in the 1960s by Democratic presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson helped give the Democrats even greater support in the African American community, which has consistently voted between 85% and 95% Democratic from the 1960s to the present day, making African Americans one of the biggest support groups in any US party.
Prominent modern-day African American Democratic politicians include Jim Clyburn, Maxine Waters, Barbara Lee, Raphael Warnock, John Lewis, Karen Bass, Ayanna Pressley, Ilhan Omar, Senator Cory Booker, Vice President Kamala Harris, and former President Barack Obama, who managed to win over 95% of the African-American vote in the 2008 election. Despite not having a partisan affiliation, the NAACP often participates in organizing voter turnout drives and advocates for progressive causes, especially, those that affect people of color.
Within the 118th United States Congress, the Congressional Black Caucus, consisting of 56 Black Democrats, serves to represent the interests of African Americans and advocate on issues that affect them.
Hispanic and Latino Americans
The Latino population, particularly the large Mexican American population in the Southwest and the large Puerto Rican and Dominican populations in the Northeast, have been strong supporters of the Democratic Party. In the 1996 presidential election, Democratic President Bill Clinton received 72% of the Latino vote. In following years, the Republican Party gained increasing support from the Latino community, especially among Latino Protestants and Pentecostals. With his much more liberal views on immigration, President Bush was the first Republican president to gain 40% of the Latino vote in the 2004 presidential election. But the Republican Party's support among Hispanics eroded in the 2006 midterm elections, dropping from 44% to 30%, with the Democrats gaining in the Latino vote from 55% in 2004 to 69% in 2006. Democrats increased their share of the Latino vote in the 2008 presidential election, with Barack Obama receiving 67%. According to exit polls by Edison Research, Obama increased his support again in 2012, winning 71% of Latino voters.
Cuban Americans tend to vote Republican, though there was a notable change during the 2008 elections. During the 2008 elections, Barack Obama received 47% of the Cuban American vote in Florida. According to Bendixen's exit polls, 84% of Miami-Dade Cuban American voters 65 or older backed McCain, while 55% of those 29 or younger backed Obama, showing that the younger Cuban American generation has become more liberal.
Unaffiliated Latino advocacy groups that often support progressive candidates and causes include the National Council of La Raza and the League of United Latin American Citizens. In the House of Representatives, the Democratic caucus of Latino Americans is the Congressional Hispanic Caucus.
In the 2018 elections, 69% of Hispanic and Latino Americans voted for Democratic House candidates. In the 2020 presidential election, Joe Biden received 65% of the Hispanic and Latino vote. However, in the 2022 elections, only 60% of Hispanic and Latino Americans voted for Democratic House candidates. Since the 2020s, the party's advantage among Hispanic voters has declined.
Asian Americans
The Democratic Party has majority support from the Asian American population. Asian Americans had been a stronghold of the Republican Party up to and including the 1992 presidential election, in which George H. W. Bush won 55% of the Asian-American vote. Originally, the vast majority of Asian Americans were strongly anti-communist Vietnamese refugees, Chinese Americans, Taiwanese Americans, Korean Americans, and Filipino Americans, and the Republican Party's positions resonated with this demographic.
The Democratic Party made gains among Asian Americans starting in 1996 and in 2006 won 62% of the Asian American vote. Exit polls after the 2008 presidential election indicated that Democratic candidate, Barack Obama, won 62% of the Asian American vote. In the 2012 presidential election, 73% of the Asian American electorate voted for Obama's re-election. Barack Obama had the support of 85% of Indian Americans, 68% of Chinese Americans, and 57% of Filipino Americans. The Asian American community's increasing number of young voters has also helped to erode traditionally reliably Republican voting blocs such as Vietnamese and Filipino Americans, leading to an increase in support for Democrats.
Prominent past and present Asian American Democrats include Vice President Kamala Harris, U.S. Senators Tammy Duckworth, Daniel Inouye, Daniel Akaka, and Mazie Hirono, former Governor and Secretary of Commerce Gary Locke, and U.S. Representatives Mike Honda, Judy Chu, Doris Matsui, Ro Khanna, Pramila Jayapal, Norman Mineta, and Dalip Singh Saund. Saund was the first Asian American U.S. Representative.
In the 2018 midterm elections, 77% of Asian Americans voted for the Democratic candidates. However, in the 2022 midterm elections, only 58% of Asian Americans voted for Democratic candidates. Since 2012, Democrats have lost support from Asian Americans, with Hillary Clinton and Joe Biden receiving 65% and 63% of the Asian American vote in 2016 and 2020, respectively.
Native Americans
The Democratic Party also has strong support among the Native American population, particularly in Arizona, New Mexico, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, Alaska, Idaho, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, and North Carolina. Although now a small percentage of the population (virtually non-existent in some regions), most Native American precincts tend to vote for Democratic candidates.
Modern-day Democratic Native American politicians include former Congressman Brad Carson of Oklahoma as well as Principal Chief Bill John Baker of the Cherokee Nation, Governor Bill Anoatubby of the Chickasaw Nation, and Chief Gary Batton of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma.
In 2018, Democrats Deb Haaland of New Mexico and Sharice Davids of Kansas became the first Native American women to be elected to Congress. Democrat Peggy Flanagan was also elected in 2018 and currently serves as Lieutenant Governor of Minnesota. Flanagan is the second Native American woman to be elected to statewide executive office in U.S. history and the highest-ranking Native woman to be elected to executive office.
In December 2020, Joe Biden chose Deb Haaland to serve as United States Secretary of the Interior; she became the first Native American Cabinet secretary in March 2021.
Catholics, Mainline Protestants, other Christians
Black churches, mainline Protestants, evangelicals, and Catholics contributed to Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal coalition. During the New Deal era, President Roosevelt appealed to notions of Christian charity. In explaining his philosophy, he said: "I am a Christian and a Democrat".
Catholic Americans were once a stronghold for the Democratic Party, but in recent years they have become more divided between the two major parties. Both Catholics elected to be president, John F. Kennedy and Joe Biden, have been Democrats. The most recent Democratic Speaker of the House, Nancy Pelosi, is also Catholic and was the first female Speaker. A slight majority of Catholics voted in favor of Joe Biden over Donald Trump in the 2020 presidential election, whereas a large majority of Protestants and other Christians (including over three-quarters of White evangelical or born-again Christians) voted in favor of Trump over Biden. However, all six Republican-appointed Supreme Court Justices except possibly Neil Gorsuch are Catholics, while of the 3 Democratic-appointees only Justice Sonia Sotomayor identifies as Catholic.
During the 2020 primaries, Christians were more likely to support Joe Biden than Bernie Sanders, who was favored among religiously unaffiliated Democrats. , every Democratic president, Democratic vice president, and Democratic presidential nominee has been a Christian. According to the Pew Research Center, 78.4% of Democrats in the 116th United States Congress were Christian. 1,600 faith leaders (mostly mainline Protestants, evangelicals, and Catholics) supported Joe Biden's 2020 presidential bid. Robb Ryerse, political director at Vote Common Good, a religiously motivated anti-Trump organization, estimated that there were roughly a dozen evangelical Christians running for political office as Democrats in 2020, as opposed to two or three in 2018.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, whose members mainly live in Utah and some neighboring states, primarily vote for Republican Party candidates rather than Democrats.
Secular Americans
The Democratic Party receives majority support from most religious minorities, including nonreligious Americans. In the 2020 presidential election, voters who practiced a religion other than Christianity or Judaism accounted for 8% of the electorate and voted for Biden by a 69–29% margin.
The Democratic Party receives support from secular organizations such as the Secular Coalition for America and many agnostic and atheist Americans. Exit polls from the 2008 election showed that voters with a religious affiliation of "none" accounted for the 12% of the electorate and voted for Democratic candidate Barack Obama by a 75–25% margin. In his first inaugural address, Obama acknowledged atheists by saying that the United States is not just "Christians and Muslims, Jews and Hindus but non-believers as well". In the 2012 election cycle, Democratic president Barack Obama, who was running for re-election, had moderate to high ratings with the Secular Coalition for America while the majority of the Republican candidates had ratings in the low-to-failing range.
In the 2020 United States presidential election, exit polls show that voters with no religious affiliation accounted for 22% of the electorate and voted for Biden by a 65–31% margin.
Jewish Americans
Jewish American communities tend to be a stronghold for the Democratic Party. Al Gore received 79% of the Jewish votes in 2000, and Barack Obama won about 77% of the Jewish vote in 2008. In the 2018 House of Representatives elections, 79% of Jewish Americans voted for the Democratic candidate.
Jewish Americans as an important Democratic constituency are especially politically active and influential in large cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Boston, and Chicago and play critical roles in large cities within presidential swing states, such as Philadelphia, Miami, and Las Vegas. Many prominent national Democrats in recent decades have been Jewish, including Chuck Schumer, Carl Levin, Abraham Ribicoff, Ben Cardin, Henry Waxman, Joseph Lieberman, Bernie Sanders, Dianne Feinstein, Barney Frank, Barbara Boxer, Paul Wellstone, Rahm Emanuel, Russ Feingold, Herb Kohl, and Howard Metzenbaum.
Arab and Muslim Americans
Arab Americans and Muslim Americans have leaned Democratic since the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Zogby found in June 2007 that 39% of Arab Americans identify as Democrats, 26% as Republicans, and 28% as independents. Arab Americans, who are in general socially conservative but have more diverse economic views, historically voted Republican until recent years, having supported Republican presidential candidate George W. Bush over Democrat Al Gore in 2000. A 2012 poll found that 68% of Muslim Americans surveyed supported Democratic president Barack Obama. A 2017 Pew Research Center report found that a majority (66%) of American Muslims identify with or lean toward the Democratic Party, receiving consistent support from 63% in 2007 to 70% in 2011.
The first Arab American in the U.S. House of Representatives, Californian George A. Kasem, and the first Arab American in the U.S. Senate, South Dakotan James Abourezk, were both Democrats.
Democratic presidents
, there have been a total of 16 Democratic presidents.
Recent electoral history
In congressional elections: 1950–present
In presidential elections: 1828–present
See also
Democratic Party (United States) organizations
List of political parties in the United States
List of United States Democratic Party presidential candidates
List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets
Political party strength in U.S. states
Politics of the United States
Notes
References
Further reading
The Almanac of American Politics 2022 (2022) details on members of Congress, and the governors: their records and election results; also state and district politics; revised every two years since 1975. details; see The Almanac of American Politics
American National Biography (20 volumes, 1999) covers all politicians no longer alive; online at many academic libraries and at Wikipedia Library.
Andelic, Patrick. Donkey Work: Congressional Democrats in Conservative America, 1974–1994 (2019) excerpt
Baker, Jean H. Affairs of party: The political culture of northern Democrats in the mid-nineteenth century (Fordham UP, 1998).
Bass Jr, Harold F. Historical dictionary of United States political parties (Scarecrow Press, 2009).
Burner, David. The Politics of Provincialism: The Democratic Party in Transition, 1918–1932 (Knopf, 1968).
Congressional Quarterly. National Party Conventions, 1831–2000 (2001).
Congressional Quarterly. Presidential Elections 1789–2008 (10th edition, 2009)
Craig, Douglas. "Newton D. Baker and the Democratic Malaise, 1920–1937." Australasian Journal of American Studies (2006): 49–64. in JSTOR
Dowe, Pearl K. Ford, et al. Remaking the Democratic Party: Lyndon B. Johnson as a Native-Son Presidential Candidate (University of Michigan Press, 2016).
Feller, David. "Politics and Society: Toward a Jacksonian Synthesis" Journal of the Early Republic 10#2 (1990), pp. 135–161 in JSTOR
Frymer, Paul. Black and blue: African Americans, the labor movement, and the decline of the Democratic party (Princeton UP, 2008).
Gerring, John. "A chapter in the history of American party ideology: The nineteenth-century Democratic Party (1828–1892)." Polity 26.4 (1994): 729–768. online
online
Hilton, Adam. True Blues: The Contentious Transformation of the Democratic Party (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2021), since 1972.
Kazin, Michael. What It Took to Win: A History of the Democratic Party (2022) excerpt
Landis, Michael Todd. Northern Men with Southern Loyalties: The Democratic Party and the Sectional Crisis. (Cornell UP, 2014).
Lawrence, David G. The collapse of the democratic presidential majority: Realignment, dealignment, and electoral change from Franklin Roosevelt to Bill Clinton. (Westview Press, 1997).
Maisel, L. Sandy, and Jeffrey M. Berry, eds. The Oxford handbook of American political parties and interest groups (Oxford UP, 2010).
Mieczkowski, Yanek, and Mark C Carnes. The Routledge historical atlas of presidential elections (2001).
Neal, Steven. Happy Days are Here Again: The 1932 Democratic Convention, the Emergence of FDR—and how America was Changed Forever (HarperCollins, 2010).
Remini, Robert V. Martin Van Buren and the making of the Democratic Party (Columbia UP, 1961).
Savage, Sean J. Roosevelt: The Party Leader, 1932–1945 (U Press of Kentucky, 2015).
Savage, Sean J. JFK, LBJ, and the Democratic Party (SUNY Press, 2012).
Savage, Sean J. Truman and the Democratic Party (U Press of Kentucky, 2015).
Woods, Randall B. Prisoners of Hope: Lyndon B. Johnson, the Great Society, and the Limits of Liberalism (Basic Books, 2016).
External links
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1828 establishments in Maryland
Liberal parties in the United States
Political parties established in 1828
Political parties in the United States
Social liberal parties in the United States
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Lava Man
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Lava Man (foaled on March 20, 2001 in California) is an American Thoroughbred racehorse who was once claimed for $50,000 but wound up being inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 2015. In a forty-seven race career, despite finishing off the board while losing all 5 of his races outside California, he won seventeen times with his major victories including three Hollywood Gold Cups, two Santa Anita Handicaps and the Pacific Classic Stakes.
Background
Lava Man is dark bay thoroughbred gelding with a white blaze on his forehead. His dam L'il Ms. Leonard was claimed by Lonnie Arterburn for $16,000 and then sent to Kentucky to be bred to Slew City Slew, a son of Triple Crown winner Seattle Slew. Kim and Eve Kuhlman acquired a half interest in L'il Ms. Leonard and kept her at their farm in Kentucky before shipping her back to California. Lava Man was foaled on March 20, 2001 at Poplar Meadows Ranch near Sanger, California. He originally ran as a homebred for Arterburn and the Kuhlmans, and was trained by Arterburn.
Eve Kuhlmann, who competes in triathlons, named the horse Lava Man for a triathlon on the Big Island in Hawaii.
Lava Man is known for both his intelligent and friendly personality and his "tenacity, courage and adaptability" on the track. A jockey who regularly rode Lava Man, Corey Nakatani, has said of him, "This horse has gears, so many gears. What a horse. He's just about unbelievable."
Racing career
Early career
Lava Man first raced as a 2-year-old in a $12,500 maiden claiming race at the San Joaquin County Fair in June 2003, finishing fourth and earning a paltry Beyer Speed Figure of 27. The Fair Circuit is the lowest level of thoroughbred competition in California thoroughbred racing. Arterburn said he was a big, long-striding horse that never got tired. "But he was so laid back he could be a pony. He didn't show anything in the mornings. I took him out to Stockton, California to get him a race, make him eligible for starter allowances and not get him claimed away." In the words of Daily Racing Form columnist Dick Jerardi, "Lava Man did not start his career on the other side of the tracks. He started his career in a place [Stockton] where there are no tracks."
Lava Man lost his next two races before Arterburn tried him on the grass. The horse won for the first time on November 29 at Golden Gate Fields, then followed up with an allowance race win in January 2004. He then lost his next four races, shipping between Santa Anita, Bay Meadows and Hollywood Park, before earning his third win after Arterburn removed his blinkers. Arterburn then entered him in a $62,500 claiming race at Del Mar Racetrack because, as he said, "We had no other place to run him so we took him south. It was the usual Northern California problem." He came in sixth, so in his next race, Arterburn dropped him down a notch in a $50,000 claiming race on August 13. In that race, Lava Man was claimed by Doug O'Neill for owner Steve Kenly, who was looking for a useful California-bred for his STD Stables. "I never should have run him back down there," said Arterburn. "You go down to that claiming pit at Del Mar and you're asking for trouble. They claim crazy down there, and I never should have taken him there. I really liked the horse. He had a great personality; almost a clown. He was like a big kid, always wanting attention. He was a one of a kind character, and we tried to protect him the best we could."
Now racing for O'Neill, Lava Man won the Derby Trial Stakes at Fairplex, then finished third in the Pomono Derby. O'Neill initially kept the horse on turf, but then moved him back to dirt where he finished second in three straight races, including a promising performance behind Rock Hard Ten in the Grade 1 Malibu Stakes. Lava Man finished his three-year-old season with three wins and six seconds from thirteen starts.
2005
At the start of his 2005 campaign, Lava Man was badly beaten in his first three starts, finishing seventh, fifth and sixth, with one of these being the Sunshine Millions Classic at Gulfstream Park in Florida. O'Neill re-fitted the horse with blinkers, then entered him in a $100,000 claiming race in May. Lava Man won but was not claimed as Arterburn lacked the funds to do so at the time. Arterburn would later call Lava Man "the best and worst thing that ever happened to me" after the horse started winning major races for O'Neill. However, because California-breds winning open races in the state generate breeders' rewards worth approximately 15 percent of the purse, Arterburn continued to receive a share of some of Lava Man's earnings as his co-breeder.
On June 18, Lava Man won the Californian Stakes for his first graded stakes victory. In his next race, the $750,000 Grade 1 Hollywood Gold Cup in July, Lava Man won by a stakes-record margin of over 8 lengths and earned his career-high Beyer Speed Figure of 120 while carrying the highweight. Kenly later said, "The first Gold Cup, that was the biggest race we’d ever run in, and that was the most special because it was our first."
In August, Lava Man entered the Pacific Classic in which he led for most of the race but was caught near the wire and finished third. Despite the loss, O'Neill considered the race one of his finest efforts. "He just laid his body down – what a huge race", said O'Neill. "He was just rubber-legged, like a boxer, just no legs. He was okay. We got him back to the barn, got him drinking, got a hose on him right away, and he finally came to. But you don't see many horses run that hard to where they’re rubber-legged. They usually stop miles before that happens." Lava Man was so exhausted he had to be vanned off the racetrack. "He gave us such a scare," said O'Neill. "We thought he broke down. You wanted to hug the horse even more. He gave everything he had. People don't do that and horses don't do that."
Lava Man was sent east for the Jockey Club Gold Cup at Belmont Park in New York, where he finished over 45 lengths behind in seventh place, hampered by a sore left front hoof. In late November, he went to Japan for the Japan Cup Dirt where he finished eleventh, running without Lasix for the first time. At the start of the race, Lava Man stumbled and tore the sole of his hoof. "He bled for 1 1/2 miles. We thought it was the end of him, that he was done racing," said Leandro Mora, O'Neill's assistant trainer. He finished the year with three wins from nine starts and was named the California-bred Horse of the Year and Champion Older Horse.
2006
Lava Man's first race of 2006 was the $1,000,000 Sunshine Millions Classic at Santa Anita Park in California on January 28, restricted to California- and Florida-bred horses. Fitted with a special shoe to help with his sore feet, he returned to form with a length win. O'Neill was relieved. "If I wasn't connected to this horse, I would have said [he] had lost it," the trainer said. "But he finally ran like he had been training."
In his next race, the $1,000,000 Grade 1 Santa Anita Handicap, Lava Man faced favorite High Limit, 2005 Kentucky Derby winner Giacomo, and 2004 Breeders' Cup Juvenile Champion Wilko. He scored a "spectacular" length victory over Magnum, who was getting 7 pounds. Because of his earlier turf form, O'Neill next entered him in the restricted Khaled Stakes at Hollywood Park Racetrack. Lava Man won easily and set a new track record of 1:44.26 for 1 miles. Keeping him on the turf, O'Neill followed up by entering the horse in the Grade 1 Charles Whittingham Memorial Handicap at Hollywood Park Racetrack. Lava Man won the mile race easily after getting an unchallenged early lead. This victory made him the first horse since Eclipse Award winner Vanlandingham in 1985 to win a Grade 1 Turf and Dirt race in the same year.
Next up for Lava Man was an attempt to repeat in the Hollywood Gold Cup on July 8. Only California-bred Hall of Famer Native Diver had ever repeated in the Gold Cup, in 1965-66-67. Lava Man raced out of a detention barn because O'Neil had been penalized after another horse had an excess of total carbon dioxide in a post race drug test in May. Lava Man stumbled badly at the start of the race and settled farther off the pace than he generally preferred. Nevertheless, he took the lead in mid-stretch and won by a short nose over longshot Ace Blue, who was carrying 10 pounds fewer than Lava Man. Lava Man had now won the Gold Cup by both the biggest (in 2005) and smallest (in 2006) margins in the race history.
Lava Man became the first horse since Triple Crown Winner Affirmed in 1979 to win the Santa Anita Handicap and Hollywood Gold Cup in the same year. He also became the first horse to win the Whittingham and the Gold Cup in the same year since Exceller in 1978. Lava Man earned his third straight Beyer Speed Figure of 108 in the race. Daily Racing Form columnist Dick Jerardi wrote, "[N]early 27 months after his first visit to Hollywood Park Racetrack[finishing last at 57-1 in the Snow Chief Stakes], Lava Man was 3-5 in the Grade 1 Hollywood Gold Cup. This is about as close to Seabiscuit as this sport has seen since Seabiscuit."
On August 26, Lava Man won the Grade 1 Pacific Classic Stakes over a strong field of equal-weighted thoroughbreds including Giacomo, Perfect Drift, Good Reward, Super Frolic, and Magnum. By virtue of this win, he became the first horse ever to take the Grade 1 Santa Anita Handicap, the Grade 1 Hollywood Gold Cup, and the Grade 1 Pacific Classic Stakes in the same calendar year. The feat has since been matched by Game On Dude in 2013 and Accelerate in 2018. "It's incredible when you think about all the great horsemen and great horses that have run in this state", said O'Neil. In October, Lava Man won his seventh straight race, the $500,000 Goodwood Breeders' Cup Handicap, while carrying 126 lbs., 10 more lbs. than runner-up Brother Derek.
He was touted by many racing observers as a possible 2006 Horse of the Year candidate if he could beat favored Bernardini outside California in the Breeders' Cup Classic at Churchill Downs in Kentucky on November 4. However, he was never a factor in the Classic, finishing seventh after a troubled trip, well behind Bernardini and the winner, Invasor, who came from Argentina by way of Uruguay and Dubai. "I'm a little disappointed with the result, but I'm proud of how he ran and how he tried," said O'Neill.
Despite his Breeders' Cup Classic loss, Lava Man's likeness was inserted into a snowglobe given to paid admissions at Hollywood Park Racetrack in December 2006.
With seven wins (four of them Grade I) in eight starts, Lava Man was named the 2006 California-bred Horse of the Year, Champion older horse and Champion turf horse. He earned a 127 rating in the 2006 World Thoroughbred Racehorse Rankings.
2007
Lava Man's first start of 2007 was the $500,000 Sunshine Millions Turf at Santa Anita Park on January 27. Racing wide most of the way, he pulled away in the stretch to win by two lengths. On March 3, Lava Man earned back-to-back victories in the Santa Anita Handicap, a feat previously only accomplished by John Henry and Milwaukee Brew. In this race, he carried the topweight of 124 pounds and beat Molengao, Boboman, and 2007 Sunshine Millions Classic winner McCann's Mojave in front of 43,024 fans. He became the only horse to win two Santa Anita Handicaps and two Hollywood Gold Cups. "These are the moments we all live and work for", said O'Neill. "He's truly a champion."
Three weeks after this win, he was shipped to Dubai to compete in the $5,000,000 Dubai Duty Free Stakes over approximately 1 miles on the turf. As was his characteristic when traveling outside of California, Lava Man did not fare well. He finished last of 16 horses after he had the lead 3 furlongs from the finish line. Lava Man's career record outside California was 5 losses in all 5 races and finishing off the board in each. On returning home, O'Neill said, "I think it's reasonable to say we won't be leaving California again... We'll let him tell us how he is through the feed tub and play it by ear."
On June 11, Lava Man returned to the California race circuit with a second-place finish in the Charles Whittingham Memorial Handicap, won by After Market in the excellent time of 1:58.77, just off the course record. His connections were pleased at the result after the layoff, especially considering Lava Man six pounds more than the winner.
On June 30, Lava Man won his third consecutive Hollywood Gold Cup, beating A.P. Xcellent by a nose after dueling down the stretch. Lava Man's third consecutive Gold Cup matched Native Diver's three-peat of 1965–1967 and set a new course record for 1 miles on the new Hollywood Park "Cushion Track" synthetic dirt surface. "He's done so much and every time he does it, you're like, 'Wow, that's crazy,' and then he does something more," said co-owner Jason Wood. "So here we sit, three-peat of the Gold Cup." With his win on cushion track, Lava Man became the first horse to win Grade 1 races on three different surfaces: conventional dirt, synthetic dirt and turf.
After his Gold Cup win, Steve Haskin of the Blood-Horse contemplated Lava Man's failure to win outside of the state of California and called upon his owners to make another attempt at the Breeders' Cup. Haskin wrote: "Sure, it could backfire, but it’s not as if Lava Man’s reputation is going to suffer if it did. He’ll still be the king of California. He’ll still be a racing treasure. He’ll still be a legend. In short, he’ll still be Lava Man. And that’s enough in anyone’s lifetime." On July 15, 2007, Lava Man was named "Horse of the Meet" for the Hollywood Park Spring/Summer Meet for the third consecutive year.
On July 23, 2007, Lava Man's long-time groom, Noe Garcia, suffered serious injuries in an automobile accident just outside the Del Mar Racetrack, where Lava Man was stabled in preparation for the Pacific Classic Stakes. The accident left Garcia without his left arm. O'Neill said, "He's lucky to be alive and he's got a lot to live for. He's got a job with this stable forever." Some of his connections felt that the absence of Garcia contributed to Lava Man's subsequent loss of form. "Horses have sensitivity, feelings, and heart. He could have been feeling the loss, and the change in routine," said assistant trainer Mora.
On August 19, Lava Man was sent-off as the 6-5 favorite in the Pacific Classic Stakes but did not take well to Del Mar's new Polytrack racing surface and finished a well-beaten sixth. He was then pointed to the October 7 Oak Tree Mile Stakes at Santa Anita's Oak Tree meet in hopes that the shorter distance and firmer turf might benefit him. The gelding placed sixth and last, and jockey Corey Nakatani said, "There was no energy level there at all. We were sitting in a real good spot right behind the leaders, and then I can normally push the horse outside, but he just had no fight today. I don't know what the deal was."
Lava Man then went off as the favorite in the California Cup Classic at Santa Anita Park on November 3. The gelding broke well and assumed a stalking position. However, in mid stretch he again ran out of steam and placed 6th. Veterinarians at Alamo Pintado Equine Medical Center in Santa Barbara, CA, were unable to identify anything physically wrong with the horse, and O'Neill sent Lava Man to NexStar farm in Temecula, CA, for a planned several-month vacation from racing. Lava Man was also featured in an hour-plus DVD Biography offered at Hollywood Park Racetrack in December 2007 as a fundraiser for Garcia. The biography was narrated by Jim Forbes of VH1 Behind the Music fame, and was later incorporated into the TVG Racing Network's biography series Legends. He was named Champion Older Horse by the CTBA.
Later career and retirements
Lava Man was again examined at the Alamo Pintado Equine Medical Center before returning to Hollywood Park on January 26, 2008. O'Neill ran Lava Man at Khaled Stakes on April 28, where he finished third. Lava Man went on to run competitively in the $300,000 Charles Whittingham Handicap at Hollywood Park on June 7, 2008, placing third, a neck behind the winner. O'Neill deemed the three-week timetable between the Whittingham and the Hollywood Gold Cup to be too short of a rest for Lava Man to make an attempt to win the race for the fourth consecutive time. The horse then started in the Grade I Eddie Read Handicap at Del Mar Racetrack on July 20, 2008, finishing sixth. Subsequent x-rays, performed at the Alamo Pintado Equine Medical Center, revealed that the gelding's front ankles showed marked changes from x-rays taken earlier in the year. Based on the veterinarian's assessment and the gelding's performance in the Eddie Read, Lava Man was retired on July 30, 2008, after having made 46 starts.
The original plan was to retire the horse to Old Friends Equine. However, Lava Man was restless away from the racetrack so was sent back to Alamo Pintado in hopes that his physical problems could be repaired sufficiently to allow him to be used as a riding horse. Dr. Doug Herthel used stem cell therapy, which proved so successful that his connections considered a return to the racetrack.
On September 23, 2009, after Lava Man ran an official 3 furlong workout in 36 seconds flat at Hollywood Park (tied for the fastest time of the 24 horses that ran at that distance), O'Neill announced that the gelding was back in training and preparing for a comeback only if he could compete at a Grade 1 level. Lava Man's only comeback start was in the San Gabriel Handicap (Gr. IIT) at Santa Anita Park on December 27, 2009, where he finished last. It was announced on January 5, 2010, that Lava Man was retired for good. "He came out of the race sound and he is a strong and sturdy horse, but we don’t want to tarnish his reputation," said Kenly. "It was his first race in a year and half and I’m sure he would improve in his next race, but I think he has lost a step. It was disappointing for all of us because he was training unbelievably."
In May 2010, O'Neill said that the horse was his stable pony and that he had become accustomed to his new role. On May 5, 2012, Lava Man served as lead pony for three-year-old colt I'll Have Another in the post parade for both the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes, races which I'll Have Another subsequently won. "He's great with the young horses and happy as he can be," said O’Neill in 2015. "He's been a great asset for the team, taking the babies to and from the track."
Lava Man underwent colic surgery in July 2018. He recovered and returned to O'Neill's barn but had a second bout of colic in July 2022. On October 19, O'Neill announced that Lava Man would make his final appearance as a stable pony when leading Hot Rod Charlie to the post at the 2022 Breeders' Cup Classic. He will then be retired to Old Friends Equine. O'Neill noted, "At Team O'Neill we are extremely grateful for the 18 years we had to race and work alongside Lava Man. He can never be replaced, and we will never look to replace him."
Legacy
Lava Man won 7 Grade 1 races, ranking him as the all-time leader among California-breds. He scored nine triple digit Beyer Speed Figures during his career and set two course records. His earnings of nearly $5.2 million place him third on the list of leading California-bred earners, behind Best Pal ($5,668,245) and Tiznow ($6,427,830). He and Game on Dude are the only horses to win the signature race at each of Southern California's major thoroughbred racetracks in one year, and he equalled Native Diver's record of winning three consecutive Hollywood Gold Cups. Lava Man was the first horse in a generation to win a Grade 1 race on dirt and turf in the same year, and he is the only horse to win a North American Grade 1 race on dirt, turf, and an artificial racing surface. He is the all-time leading earner among claimers and is arguably the greatest claim in racing history.
Lava Man made an appearance at the Thoroughbred Classic Horse Show held at the Rancho Mission Viejo Riding Park in order to demonstrate the versatility of retired racehorses. Handled by Sommer Smith of NexStar Ranch, he won all three classes in which he was entered – War Horse, War Horse Showmanship and Spirit of a Winner.
On April 20, 2015, Lava Man's induction into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame was announced. The horse's formal induction took place during ceremonies on August 7, 2015 in Saratoga Springs, NY. "I didn’t think he’d get in the Hall of Fame," said Kenly. "He never did much outside of California. What an honor." O'Neill said, "He's family to me and to everyone connected with him. You are lucky if you get a horse like this once in a lifetime."
Pedigree
See also
Repeat winners of horse races
References
2001 racehorse births
Racehorses bred in California
Racehorses trained in the United States
Horse racing track record setters
American Grade 1 Stakes winners
Thoroughbred family 8-k
United States Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame inductees
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zacarias%20Moussaoui
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Zacarias Moussaoui
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Zacarias Moussaoui (, ; born 30 May 1968) is a French member of al-Qaeda who pleaded guilty in U.S. federal court to conspiring to kill citizens of the United States as part of the 9/11 attacks. He is serving life imprisonment without the possibility of parole at the Federal ADX Supermax prison in Florence, Colorado. Moussaoui is the only person ever convicted in U.S. court in connection with the 11 September attacks.
Overview
On 16 August 2001, Moussaoui was arrested in Minnesota by the FBI and charged with an immigration violation. He aroused suspicion while taking flight training courses in Eagan, Minnesota.
On 11 December 2001, Moussaoui was indicted by a federal grand jury in United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia on six felony charges: conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism transcending national boundaries, conspiracy to commit aircraft piracy, conspiracy to destroy aircraft, conspiracy to use weapons of mass destruction, conspiracy to murder United States employees, and conspiracy to destroy property.
Moussaoui was alleged by federal prosecutors to have been a replacement for the "first" 20th hijacker, possibly Ramzi bin al-Shibh. Bin al-Shibh and Zakariyah Essabar were denied visas. However, prosecutors in Moussaoui's drawn-out trial in the US had difficulty directly connecting him to the 19 participants.
Moussaoui's trial was seen in some circles as a barometer of the ability and willingness of the United States to give a fair hearing to terrorism suspects. Others objected to the degree to which the court and especially Judge Leonie Brinkema tolerated the bizarre and threatening courtroom behavior of Moussaoui. Moussaoui expressed contempt for the trial and court by introducing legal motions deriding Judge Brinkema, surprised onlookers by electing to represent himself in court, and rankled federal prosecutors by requesting the presence of captured al-Qaeda members as witnesses in his case.
During the trial, Moussaoui initially stated that he was not involved in the 11 September attacks, but that he was planning an attack of his own. Some al-Qaeda members reportedly corroborated Moussaoui's statement to an extent, saying that he was involved in a plot other than 11 September, but prosecutors believed that his story had no merit. On 3 April 2006, Moussaoui was found to be eligible for the death penalty. Before leaving the courtroom, he was reported to have shouted, "You will never get my blood. God curse you all!"
On 3 May 2006, a jury decided against the death penalty for Moussaoui. The next day, he was sentenced to life in prison without parole. As he was led out of the courtroom, Moussaoui clapped his hands and said, "America, you lost ... I won." Judge Brinkema responded by telling him that he would "die with a whimper" and "never get a chance to speak again". Three jurors decided Moussaoui had only limited knowledge of the 11 September plot, and three described his role in the attacks as minor, if he had any role at all.
Moussaoui is currently incarcerated in ADX Florence, Colorado.
Personal history
Childhood
Aicha el-Wafi, Moussaoui's mother, was 14 when she was married to a man that she did not previously know, in Morocco. Five years later, Moussaoui's parents moved to France, where he was born. After enduring domestic violence, his mother left his father Omar while her four children were still young. She raised her children on a cleaner's wages. There was no religious education within the family. Witnesses testified at Moussaui's trial that, as first-generation immigrants from Morocco, the family frequently faced racism in their new country. From 1982, Moussaoui, his brother and sisters, were brought up in a bungalow on the edge of the town of Narbonne. His mother has said that she believes two 'wounding' incidents in his French adolescence contributed to the formation of an extremist sensibility: the first the day that his school careers adviser pushed him towards minor, technical studies, with "the clear implication that he was only an Arab and would need nothing more," and the second the day that the father of his teenage sweetheart warned him off because he was an Arab. "Don't think that you will ever get your feet under my table," the man said. "
According to his brother, Abd Samad Moussaoui, Zacarias loved to play handball:
For Zacarias [his brother wrote in the Guardian], handball quickly became more than a sport—it was his passion. He was brilliant. Everyone recognized it—his trainers, his team-mates, even his opponents. For Zacarias, the future was all mapped out. He would study and play sports.
Militant training
Moussaoui has been known by other names, reportedly including Abu Khaled al Sahrawi and Shaquil while he was in Oklahoma. He holds a master's degree in International Business from South Bank University in London, having enrolled in 1993 and graduated in 1995. He attended, amongst others, the Brixton Mosque, where he may have met Richard Reid, the future shoe bomber. He was proselytised by groups such as al-Muhajiroun ("the Emigrants"), who leafleted people attending moderate mosques such as that in Brixton. It is possible that he had connections with members of the Finsbury Park mosque, where the extremist Abu Hamza al-Masri taught.
French authorities began monitoring Moussaoui in 1996 when they observed him with Islamic extremists in London. In 1998, he attended the Khalden training camp in Afghanistan, allegedly returning the next year as well. In September 2000, he visited Malaysia and stayed in a condominium owned by Yazid Sufaat who, in October 2000, signed letters identifying Moussaoui as a representative of his company. Two of the 11 September hijackers lived in the same condominium in January 2000. Jemaah Islamiah leader Riduan Ismauddin sent Sufaat to provide Moussaoui with and travel documents in Malaysia in October.
Flight training
From 26 February to 29 May 2001, Moussaoui attended flight training courses at University of Oklahoma Flight School in Norman, Oklahoma. Despite 57 hours of flying lessons, he failed and left without ever having flown solo. This school was also visited by Mohamed Atta and Marwan al-Shehhi, who piloted planes into the north and south towers of the World Trade Center.
During his time in Norman, Moussaoui had a roommate named Hussein al-Attas. On 11 August 2001, Hussein al-Attas drove Moussaoui to Minnesota from Oklahoma. Hussein al-Attas said that he and Moussaoui planned to take a trip to New York City in late August/early September 2001. In 2002, al-Attas admitted that he lied to the FBI to conceal
Moussaoui's name, extremist jihadi and anti-American beliefs, and his efforts to radicalize al-Attas;
his (al-Attas's) own radical tendencies; and
the names of other Middle Easterners who were taking flight lessons in Oklahoma.
Moussaoui allegedly received US$14,000 in wire transfers from bin al-Shibh, originating from Düsseldorf and Hamburg, Germany, in early August. This money could have helped him pay for flight training he took about two weeks later at Pan-Am International Flight Academy in Eagan, Minnesota. On August 13, Moussaoui paid US$6,800 with US$100 bills to receive training in a 747-400 simulator. The simulator that Pan-Am uses is operated by Northwest Aerospace Training Corporation (NATCO), a training facility affiliated with Northwest Airlines. Moussaoui was reportedly considered as a replacement for Ziad Jarrah, who at one point threatened to withdraw from the scheme because of tensions amongst the plotters. Plans to include Moussaoui were never completed because the al-Qaeda hierarchy allegedly had doubts about his reliability.
Clarence Prevost, the flight instructor assigned to Moussaoui, began to have suspicions about his student. His behavior largely resembled that of other seemingly wealthy men who had come to the center in the past to receive jumbo jet training despite the fact that they would likely never use it, but some characteristics were unusual. Prevost said later that in pre-simulator instruction, Moussaoui would ask questions that had the right jargon but were otherwise nonsensical. Moussaoui read through the 747 training manuals, but had a lack of understanding of the plane's systems. Prevost was confused as to why Moussaoui would seek simulator time if he lacked basic plane knowledge. After some convincing, his supervisors contacted the FBI, who came to meet with him. (Despite later reports, Moussaoui did not skip the training for takeoff and landing).
Capture
On 16 August 2001, Moussaoui was arrested by Harry Samit of the FBI and INS agents in Minnesota and charged with an immigration violation. Materials itemized when he was arrested included a laptop computer, two knives, flight manuals pertaining to Boeing's 747 aircraft, a flight simulator computer program, fighting gloves and shin guards, and a computer disk with information about crop dusting.
Some agents worried that his flight training had violent intentions, so the Minnesota bureau tried to get permission (sending over 70 emails in a week) to search his laptop, but they were turned down. FBI agent Coleen Rowley made an explicit request for permission to search Moussaoui's personal rooms. This request was first denied by her superior, Deputy General Counsel Marion "Spike" Bowman, and later rejected based upon FISA regulations (amended after 9/11 by the USA Patriot Act). Several further search attempts similarly failed.
Ahmed Ressam, the captured al-Qaeda Millennium Bomber, was at the time sharing information with the US authorities, in an effort to gain leniency in his sentencing. One person whom he was not asked about until after 9/11, but whom he was able to identify when asked as having trained with him at al-Qaeda's Khalden Camp in Afghanistan, was Moussaoui. The 9/11 Commission Report opined that had Ressam been asked about Moussaoui, he would have broken the FBI's logjam. Had that happened, the Report opined, the U.S. might conceivably have disrupted or derailed the 9/11 attacks altogether.
Court proceedings
On 11 December 2001, Moussaoui was indicted by a federal grand jury in United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia on six felony charges: conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism transcending national boundaries, conspiracy to commit aircraft piracy, conspiracy to destroy aircraft, conspiracy to use weapons of mass destruction, conspiracy to murder United States employees, and conspiracy to destroy property. The indictment of Zacarias Moussaoui named as unindicted co-conspirators Ramzi Bin al-Shibh and Mustafa al-Hawsawi, among others, for their role in the attack "to murder thousands of innocent people in New York, Virginia and Pennsylvania".
On 2 January 2002, Moussaoui refused to enter any plea to the charges and so Judge Leonie Brinkema entered pleas of not guilty. A hearing was held on 22 April 2002, to determine his right to self-representation, for by then Moussaoui had declined the assistance of his court-appointed attorneys, and asked to defend himself. At another hearing on 13 June 2002, Brinkema deemed him competent to defend himself and allowed the case to move forward. However, Moussaoui later requested the occasional assistance of attorneys to help him with technical issues.
Moussaoui admitted his involvement with al-Qaeda, but claimed he was not involved in the 9/11 attacks. Rather, he claimed that he was preparing for a separate attack. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed had earlier told investigators that Moussaoui met with him prior to 11 September, but that he, Mohammed, chose not to use him. No evidence directly linking Moussaoui to the 9/11 attacks has yet been released.
The trial highlighted a tension in the United States between the judiciary and national security. Moussaoui made requests for access to confidential documents and the right to call captive al-Qaeda members as witnesses, notably bin al-Shibh, Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, and Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi. Both requests were claimed by prosecutors to be potential threats to national security. Brinkema denied the motion to access confidential documents, although Moussaoui was permitted to use several al-Qaeda prisoners as witnesses.
Brinkema put the death penalty "off limits" on 2 October 2003, in reply to government defiance of her order to provide access to Moussaoui's witnesses. The Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the Brinkema ruling, holding that the U.S. government could use summaries of interviews/interrogations of these witnesses. On 21 March 2005, the United States Supreme Court, without comment, declined to hear Moussaoui's pre-trial appeal of the Fourth Circuit's decision, returning the case to Brinkema.
On 22 April 2005, in one of the court sessions near the end of that phase of the proceedings, Moussaoui surprised the court by unexpectedly pleading guilty to all charges, while at the same time denying having any intention to produce a massacre like 9/11. He said that it was not his conspiracy, and that he intended to free Sheikh Omar Abdel-Rahman. According to Moussaoui, his master plan was to hijack a Boeing 747-400, since the plane is one of a few that could reach Afghanistan from the U.S. without any intermediate stops.
On 6 February 2006, Moussaoui shouted "I am al-Qaeda. They do not represent me; they are Americans," referring to his attorneys while being escorted from the courtroom in front of 120 potential jurors.
In March 2006, during the Moussaoui trial, several premises made headlines, including FBI agents stating that the bureau was aware, years before the attacks in 2001, that al-Qaeda planned to use planes to destroy important buildings, and Brinkema's decision to consider dismissal of the death penalty. However, days later, under significant media attention, Brinkema decided not to dismiss the case, and instead ruled that witnesses could not testify and the government would be allowed to continue to seek the death sentence against him.
On 27 March 2006, Moussaoui testified that he and "shoe bomber" Richard Reid had planned to crash a hijacked airplane into the White House in the 11 September attacks. No direct connection between Moussaoui and Reid had ever before been alleged, and this testimony contradicted earlier testimony by Moussaoui that he had been intended for an operation after 11 September. When asked why he had previously lied, he stated that "You're allowed to lie for jihad. You're allowed any technique to defeat your enemy." There has been commentary in the mainstream media that Moussaoui's preference to die as an identified 9/11 plotter rather than receive a life sentence as a member of an unrealized scheme throws doubt on his self-admitted connection to 9/11.
Court statements
Moussaoui refused legal representation for years; he entered confusing, insulting, and parallel court pleadings. His pleadings, statements, and behavior included the following:
2 January 2002: Moussaoui stated, "In the name of Allah, I do not have anything to plea, and I enter no plea."
22 April 2002: Moussaoui tried to fire his court-appointed lawyers. Judge Brinkema took the request under advisement; on 13 June 2002, she ordered that he had the right to defend himself, and a search began for a Muslim lawyer. Moussaoui cited several surahs of the Qur'an—including Al-i-imran 3:118, Al-anfal 8:36, Al-anfal 8:45, Al-i-Imran 3:175 and Al-An-am 6:162—to the judge as justification for firing his lawyers, proof of the government's and judge's corruption, confirmation of his innocence, and assurance that he was taking the best possible course of defense. He then prayed to Allah for the return of Al-Andalus (Spain and Portugal) and the deliverance of Ceuta, Melilla, India and Kashmir to the Muslims. He also prayed for the destruction of several nations—including Israel (and the Jewish people as a whole), Russia, Canada, UK, Australia, and the U.S.—and for the liberation of Palestine, Chechnya, and Afghanistan. The Court ordered a psychiatric evaluation in response.
7 June 2002: A court-appointed psychiatrist declared Moussaoui sufficiently competent for trial.
11 June 2002: Moussaoui filed a motion, titled Motion for pre-contempt of Leonie Brinkema order to declare Zacarias Moussaoui crazy, which insisted on his competence to stand trial. In it, he said he had tried "to get the help of the European Court of Justice and Parliaments". He then offered a psychological analysis of Judge Brinkema:
Mental Status Enumeration: Axis 1; Acute symptoms of Islamophobia with complex of gender inferiority.
Diagnostic Impressions: Legal pathological killer instinct with egoboasting dementia to become supreme.
Conclusion and Recommendations: Immediate psychiatric hospitalization to specialist unit (propose unit UBL treatment center ... )
18 July 2002: Moussaoui entered a guilty plea, stating, "I have knowledge and I participated in al-Qaeda. I am a member of al-Qaeda ... I pledge bayat to Osama bin Laden." The Court rejected the guilty plea as unconsidered and ordered Moussaoui to rethink his plea.
24 July 2002: Moussaoui's roommate from Oklahoma flight school, 24-year-old Hussein al-Attas, pleaded guilty to seven counts of making false statements, including the following:
The truth is that on several occasions, during the short time I knew him (Moussaoui) had expressed a general desire to participate in jihad, so my statement to the contrary was false ... When the agents asked if I (also) knew his real name, I lied and said I did not.
Al-Attas stated that he told the FBI he was going to Pakistan to seek medical assistance for a sick relative in Saudi Arabia, but admitted, "The real reason was (Moussaoui) had convinced me to go to speak to Islamic scholars and others who hold the belief that Islamic religion favors participation in jihad."
Furthermore, al-Attas admitted to lying about his plans to go with Moussaoui to New York City in late August, 2001. He also confessed that he lied about some of Moussaoui's classmates at an Oklahoma flight school.
28 July 2002: Moussaoui pleaded guilty to four of six counts of conspiracy. He denied charges of conspiracy to murder United States employees and destroy property.
Today, I truthfully will enter on some of the charges, not all, a plea of guilty ... It should not be misunderstood that I endorse the entire indictment. There is enough factual basis for me to plead guilty in a truthful manner.
The Court rejected the guilty plea as too informal and reappointed his counsel. Moussaoui's response to this order to work with court-appointed counsel was, "It is most disgusting."
22 April 2003: Moussaoui filed a pleading with the header shown below. In the pleading, Judge Brinkema is referred to as "Death Judge Leonie".
In the Name of Allah; Censured by the United Sodom of America
4/19/2003; Case No. 01455A; 17 S 1423
Slave of Allah, Zacharias Moussaoui vs.
Slave of Satan, John Ashcroft
18 July 2003: Moussaoui filed two pleadings. The first was titled Wanted for WTC Bankruptcy and offered an accounting of "WTC profit and loss" of "Loss: 3000 sons of evil. Profit: 19 slaves of Allah." That document had the following header:
In the Name of Allah; Censured by the United Satan of America
Slave of Allah, Zacharias Moussaoui vs.
Slave of Satan, Bush and Ashcroft
The second pleading was titled No Pig Man Role in Moussaoui Deliverance Scenario and stated "To be seen in all God Fearing World Theatre Cinema. Deadline for 3000+ hotseat tickets (please contact United Booking Limited)."
21 March 2006: In response to al-Atta's testimony, Moussaoui commented, "God Bless Mohammed Atta."
6 May 2006: In an affidavit filed by his attorneys after the trial, Moussaoui stated,
Additional case filings are posted online.
Trial and sentencing
Moussaoui, charged with conspiring to hijack planes and crash them into the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, was in jail in Minnesota when the Sept. 11 attacks unfolded. In seeking a death sentence, prosecutors were required to prove that he "intentionally participated in an act ... and the victim died as a direct result of the act". Moussaoui admitted he knew about the attacks and did nothing to stop them.
Having entered a guilty plea, Moussaoui was eligible for the death penalty. Germany said it would not release evidence against Moussaoui unless the U.S. promised not to seek death as punishment. On 27 April, 2005, French Justice Minister Dominique Perben said, "When France gave elements of information about Mr Moussaoui to the American justice, I obtained a written engagement of the United States not to use these elements to require or execute the death penalty."
On 14 March 2006, Brinkema ruled that the prosecution could continue to seek the death penalty against Moussaoui, but could not use key witnesses coached by government lawyer Carla Martin. On 3 April 2006, the jury in his case decided that Moussaoui was eligible for the death penalty.
At Moussaoui's sentencing trial, FBI agent Greg Jones testified that, prior to the attacks, he urged his supervisor, Michael Maltbie, "to prevent Zacarias Moussaoui from flying a plane into the World Trade Center". Maltbie had refused to act on 70 requests from another agent, Harry Samit, to obtain a warrant to search Moussaoui's computer.
On 3 May 2006, the jury reached a verdict: that Moussaoui be sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole. Moussaoui was sentenced to six consecutive life terms on 4 May, as Judge Brinkema expressed her belief that the sentence was an appropriate one, inasmuch as it would deprive Moussaoui of "martyrdom in a great big bang of glory" and of the "chance to speak again", after Moussaoui entered the courtroom proclaiming his victory and asserting that the United States would "never get Osama bin Laden". As he was leaving the courtroom, Moussaoui said, "America, you lost and I won," and clapped his hands twice. In fact, a single juror had saved Moussaoui from the foreman of the 12-person federal jury told The Washington Post that the panel voted 11–1, 10–2 and 10–2 in favor of the death penalty on the three charges for which Moussaoui was eligible for execution. A unanimous vote on any one of the three terrorism charges was required to return a death sentence.
On 8 May 2006, Moussaoui filed papers with the federal court in Alexandria, Virginia requesting to withdraw his guilty plea, stating that his earlier claim of participation in the 11 September plot was a "complete fabrication". He said that he was "extremely surprised" that he was not sentenced to death. "I now see that it is possible that I can receive a fair trial even with Americans as jurors," he said. However, federal sentencing rules forbid pleas to be withdrawn after a sentence has already been executed, and Moussaoui had already waived his rights to appeal.
On 13 May 2006, Moussaoui was moved from his holding cell in Alexandria, Virginia, and transported via JPATS to the supermax United States Penitentiary Administrative Maximum Facility, located near Florence, Colorado. The facility—considered the most secure federal penitentiary—is called the "Alcatraz of the Rockies". He has the Federal Bureau of Prisons number 51427-054.
On 31 July 2006, the 1,202 exhibits presented during the case of United States v. Zacarias Moussaoui were posted online, marking the first time the exhibits of a criminal case in U.S. courts were so published.
On 20 November 2007, Judge Brinkema publicly stated that the US government had provided incorrect information about evidence in the Moussaoui trial and that due to those actions, she was considering ordering a new trial in a related terrorism case, that of Ali al-Timimi, a Virginia Muslim cleric. Brinkema said that she could no longer trust the CIA and other government agencies on how they represent classified evidence in cases regarding terrorism after Moussaoui case prosecutors admitted that the CIA had assured her that no videotapes or audiotapes existed of interrogations of certain high-profile terrorism detainees, but later, in a letter made public 13 November, two such videotapes and one audio tape were made known. According to his testimony, the citizen had training in accounting and organized the Al Qaeda's finances.
Osama bin Laden's alleged response
On 23 May 2006, an audio recording attributed to Osama bin Laden said in translation that Moussaoui "had no connection at all with 11 Septembe... I am the one in charge of the 19 brothers and I never assigned brother Zacarias to be with them in that mission ... Since Zacarias Moussaoui was still learning to fly, he wasn't number 20 in the group, as your government claimed". The voice alleged to be bin Laden also suggested that Moussaoui's confession was "void" as it was a result of pressures applied during his incarceration.
Civil action 2015
Civil action is being taken by relatives of 9/11 victims, insurers and others against the Saudi Arabian government. In the course of this Zacarias Moussaoui has stated on oath and wrote to Judge George B. Daniels that Saudi royal family members helped finance the 11 September attacks and al-Qaeda. Prince Turki bin Faisal Al Saud, Prince Bandar Bin Sultan and Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal, of the Saudi royal family were specifically mentioned as Al-Qaeda donors—but the project's major patron was Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, who in January 2015 became Saudi Arabia's king. Moussaoui's testimony provides new details of the extent and nature of that support in the pre-9/11 period. Judge Leonie M. Brinkema declared "Moussaoui is completely competent", called him "an extremely intelligent man" and added: "He has actually a better understanding of the legal system than some lawyers I've seen in court".
The former senators Bob Graham of Florida and Bob Kerrey of Nebraska and the former Navy secretary John Lehman believed the Saudi role in the 9/11 plot had never been adequately examined and they demanded the release of 28 pages of the congressional report that explored Saudi connections. Both the administrations of George W. Bush and Barack Obama had refused to declassify the 28 pages on grounds of "national security", but as Graham argued, the opposite was true; the real "threat to national security is non-disclosure": The Saudis know what they did and the U.S. knows what they did, and when the U.S. government takes a position of passivity, or actively shuts down inquiry, that sends a message to the Saudis. "They have continued, maybe accelerated their support for the most extreme form of Islam known as Wahhabism" he stated, arguing that both al Qaeda and Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant are "a creation of Saudi Arabia". On 7 January 2015, Graham, Congressmen Walter Jones and Stephen F. Lynch, and members of the 9/11 families including Terry Strada, national co-chair of the ″9/11 Families and Survivors United for Justice Against Terrorism″, held a press conference on Capitol Hill announcing the reintroduction of the resolution calling for the declassification of the 28 pages. Graham said that those pages "point a very strong finger at Saudi Arabia as the principal financier" of the 9/11 hijackers: "This may seem stale to some but it's as current as the headlines we see today," referring to the terrorist attack on a satirical newspaper Charlie Hebdo in Paris. In 2016 a partially redacted form of the pages were declassified by the Obama administration.
Reward
On 24 January 2008, Clarence Prevost, the flight instructor who led authorities to Moussaoui, received a $5 million reward from the U.S. government. The payment was questioned by agent Coleen Rowley and Senators Amy Klobuchar and Norm Coleman, among others, on the basis that two other flight instructors had made the initial calls to the FBI.
See also
Nick Berg
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, believed to be a principal architect of the 11 September plot
Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh
Richard Reid
Mohamed Atta, Lead hijacker of 9/11 terrorists, died in the attacks
Ramzi bin al-Shibh, roommate of Atta, imprisoned under similar conditions as Khalid Sheikh Mohammed (believed to be in Guantanamo Bay)
Trials related to the 11 September attacks
Notes
References
Moussaoui, Abd Samad. Zacarias My Brother ().
Moussaoui pleads guilty to role in 9/11 attacks. Guardian Unlimited/Associated Press (April 22, 2005).
"Moussaoui formally sentenced, still defiant". Associated Press, MSNBC.com.
"Moussaoui scorns 9/11 victims" Al Jazeera (April 14, 2006)]
Novak, Viveca. "How the Moussaoui Case Crumbled" Time (October 27, 2003).
Special Verdict Form for Phase II Official jury ballot (PDF)
Timeline: The Zacarias Moussaoui Case. CNN.com.
Donahue, Katherine C. 2007. Slave of Allah: Zacarias Moussaoui vs. The USA. London: Pluto Press. ()
External links
Trial of Zacarias Moussaoui
documents from The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press
Looking for Trouble (Time magazine)
1968 births
Living people
21st-century French criminals
People from Saint-Jean-de-Luz
French Islamists
French people of Moroccan descent
Alumni of London South Bank University
Inmates of ADX Florence
French al-Qaeda members
People convicted on terrorism charges
People imprisoned on charges of terrorism
French prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by the United States federal government
French people imprisoned abroad
People associated with the September 11 attacks
American people of Moroccan descent
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20in%20Darfur
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War in Darfur
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The War in Darfur, also nicknamed the Land Cruiser War, was a major armed conflict in the Darfur region of Sudan that began in February 2003 when the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) rebel groups began fighting against the government of Sudan, which they accused of oppressing Darfur's non-Arab population. The government responded to attacks by carrying out a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Darfur's non-Arabs. This resulted in the death of hundreds of thousands of civilians and the indictment of Sudan's president, Omar al-Bashir, for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity by the International Criminal Court.
One side of the conflict is mainly composed of the Sudanese military, police, and the Janjaweed, a Sudanese militia group whose members are mostly recruited among Arabized indigenous Africans and a small number of Bedouin of the northern Rizeigat; the majority of other Arab groups in Darfur remained uninvolved.
The other side is made up of rebel groups, notably the SLM/A and the JEM, recruited primarily from the non-Arab Muslim Fur, Zaghawa, and Masalit ethnic groups. The African Union and the United Nations also have a joint peacekeeping mission in the region, named UNAMID. Although the Sudanese government publicly denies that it supported the Janjaweed, evidence supports claims that it provided financial assistance and weapons and coordinated joint attacks, many against civilians. Estimates of the number of human casualties range up to several hundred thousand dead, from either combat or starvation and disease. Mass displacements and coercive migrations forced millions into refugee camps or across the border, creating a humanitarian crisis. U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell described the situation as a genocide or acts of genocide.
The Sudanese government and the JEM signed a ceasefire agreement in February 2010, with a tentative agreement to pursue peace. The JEM has the most to gain from the talks and could see semi-autonomy much like South Sudan. However, talks were disrupted by accusations that the Sudanese army launched raids and air strikes against a village, violating the Tolu agreement. The JEM, the largest rebel group in Darfur, vowed to boycott negotiations.
The August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration, signed by military and civilian representatives during the Sudanese Revolution, requires that a peace process leading to a peace agreement be made in Darfur and other regions of armed conflict in Sudan within the first six months of the 39-month transition period to democratic civilian government.
A comprehensive peace agreement was signed on 31 August 2020 between the Sudanese authorities and several rebel factions to end armed hostilities.
Origins of the conflict
Darfur, Arabic for "the home of the Fur", was not a traditional part of the states organized along the upper Nile valley but instead organized as an independent sultanate in the 14th century. Owing to the migration of the Banu Hilal tribe in the 11th century AD, the peoples of the Nile valley became heavily Arabicized while the hinterlands remained closer to native Sudanese cultures. It was first annexed to Egyptian Sudan in 1875 and then surrendered by its governor Slatin Pasha to the Mahdist State in 1883. Following the Anglo-Egyptian victory in the Mahdist War, Sultan Ali Dinar was reinstated as a British client before being deposed by a 1916 expedition after he began supporting the Ottoman Empire amid the First World War. Subsequently, Darfur remained a part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the independent Republic of the Sudan.
There are several different explanations for the origins of the conflict that started in 2003. One explanation involves the land disputes between semi-nomadic livestock herders and those who practice sedentary agriculture. Water access has also been identified as a major source of the conflict. The Darfur crisis is also related to the First and Second Sudanese Civil Wars, between the Arab-dominated government and the Christian and animist black southerners. Yet another origin is conflict between the Islamist, Khartoum-based national government and two rebel groups based in Darfur: the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and the Justice and Equality Movement.
Allegations of apartheid
In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs. Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of "deftly manipulat[ing] Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing.
American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing racism against black citizens. According to Ayittey, "In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid." Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid.
Alan Dershowitz claimed Sudan was an example of Apartheid. Former Canadian Minister of Justice Irwin Cotler echoed the accusation.
Timeline
Beginning
Authors Julie Flint and Alex de Waal date the beginning of the rebellion to 21 July 2001, when a group of Zaghawa and Fur met in Abu Gamra and swore oaths on the Quran (Nearly all of Darfur's residents are Muslim, including the Janjaweed, as well as the government leaders in Khartoum.) to work together to defend against government-sponsored attacks on their villages. The rebels' first military action was a successful attack on an army garrison on 25 February 2002. The government had been aware of a unified rebel movement since an attack on the Golo police station in June, 2002. Flint and de Waal place the start of the Darfur Genocide on 26 February 2003, when a group calling itself the Darfur Liberation Front (DLF) publicly claimed responsibility for an attack on Golo, the headquarters of Jebel Marra District. By this point several rebel atacks had been carried out against police stations, army outposts and military convoys and the government engaged in a massive air and land assault on the rebel stronghold in the Marrah Mountains.
On 25 March 2003, the rebels seized the garrison town of Tine along the Chadian border, seizing large quantities of supplies and arms. Despite a threat by President Omar al-Bashir to "unleash" the army, the military had little in reserve. The army was already deployed in both the south, where the Second Sudanese Civil War was drawing to an end, and the east, where rebels sponsored by Eritrea were threatening a newly constructed pipeline from the central oilfields to Port Sudan. The rebel guerilla tactic of hit-and-run raids proved almost impossible for the army – untrained in desert operations – to counter. However, its aerial bombardment of rebel positions on the mountain was devastating.
At 5:30 am on 25 April 2003, the Darfur genocide arose when the Sudan Liberation Movement and the JEM, which is the largest rebel group in Darfur, entered Al-Fashir, the capital city of North Darfur and attacked the sleeping garrison. In the next four hours, four Antonov bombers and helicopter gunships (according to the government; seven according to the rebels) were destroyed on the ground, 75 soldiers, pilots and technicians were killed and 32 were captured, including the commander of the air base, a Major General. The success of the raid was unprecedented in Sudan; in the twenty years of the war in the south, the rebel Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) had never before carried out such an operation.
The Al-Fashir raid was a turning point, both militarily and psychologically. The armed forces had been humiliated by the raid, placing the government in a difficult strategic situation. The incompetent armed forces needed to be retrained and redeployed amid concerns about the loyalty of the many Darfurian non-commissioned officers and soldiers. Responsibility for prosecuting the war was given to Sudanese military intelligence. Nevertheless, in the middle months of 2003, rebels won 34 of 38 engagements. In May, the SLA destroyed a battalion at Kutum, killing 500 and taking 300 prisoners; in mid-July, 250 were killed in a second attack on Tine. The SLA began to infiltrate farther east, threatening to extend the war into Kordofan.
Given that the army was consistently losing, the war effort switched to emphasize three elements: military intelligence, the air force and the Janjaweed. The latter were armed Baggara herders whom the government had used to suppress a Masalit uprising from 1986 to 1999. The Janjaweed became the center of the new counter-insurgency strategy. Though the government consistently denied supporting them, military resources were poured into Darfur and the Janjaweed were outfitted as a paramilitary force, complete with communication equipment and some artillery. The military planners were aware of the probable consequences of such a strategy: similar methods undertaken in the Nuba Mountains and around the southern oil fields during the 1990s had resulted in massive human rights violations and forced displacements.
2004–2005
In 2004, Chad brokered negotiations in N'Djamena, leading to the April 8 Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement between the Sudanese government, the JEM, and the SLA. One group that did not participate in the April cease-fire talks or agreement was the National Movement for Reform and Development, who had split from the JEM in April. Janjaweed and rebel attacks continued despite the ceasefire, and the African Union (AU) formed a Ceasefire Commission (CFC) to monitor its observance.
In August, the African Union sent 150 Rwandan troops to protect the ceasefire monitors. However, it soon became apparent that 150 troops would not be enough, and they were subsequently joined by 150 Nigerian troops.
On 18 September, the United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 1564 declaring that the Sudanese government had not met its commitments and expressing concern at helicopter attacks and assaults by the Janjaweed. It welcomed the intention of the African Union to enhance its monitoring mission and urged all member states to support such efforts.
During April, 2005, after the Sudanese government signed a ceasefire agreement with Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) which led to the end of the Second Sudanese Civil War, the African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) force was increased by 600 troops and 80 military observers. In July, the force was increased by about 3,300 (with a budget of 220 million dollars). In April, 2005, AMIS's forces were increased to about 7,000.
The scale of the crisis led to warnings of an imminent disaster, with United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan warning about the risk of genocide. The scale of the Janjaweed campaign led to comparisons with the Rwandan genocide, a parallel denied by the Sudanese government. Independent observers noted that the tactics, which included dismemberment and killing of noncombatants, including young children and infants, were more akin to the ethnic cleansing used in the Yugoslav wars and warned that the region's remoteness meant that hundreds of thousands of people were effectively cut off from aid. The Brussels-based International Crisis Group had reported in May 2004 that over 350,000 people could potentially die as a result of starvation and disease.
On 10 July 2005, SPLA leader John Garang was sworn in as Sudan's vice-president. However, on 30 July, Garang died in a helicopter crash. Despite improved security, talks between the various rebels in the Darfur region progressed slowly.
An attack on the Chadian town of Adré near the Sudanese border led to the death of 300 rebels in December. Sudan was blamed for the attack, which was the second in the region in three days. Escalating tensions led the government of Chad to declare its hostility toward Sudan and to call for Chadians to mobilise against the "common enemy" (see Chad-Sudan conflict).
2006
On 5 May 2006, the Sudanese government signed the Darfur Peace Agreement along with the faction of the SLA led by Minni Minnawi. However, the agreement was rejected by the smaller JEM and a rival faction of the SLA led by Abdul Wahid al Nur. The accord was orchestrated by chief negotiator Salim Ahmed Salim (working on behalf of the African Union), U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Robert B. Zoellick, AU representatives and other foreign officials operating in Abuja, Nigeria.
The 115-page agreement included agreements on national and state power-sharing, demilitarization of the Janjaweed and other militias, an integration of Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) and JEM troops into the Sudanese Armed Forces and police, a system of federal wealth-sharing for the promotion of Darfurian economic interests, a referendum on the future status of Darfur and measures to promote the flow of humanitarian aid.
Representatives of the African Union, Nigeria, Libya, the United States, the United Kingdom, the United Nations, the European Union, the Arab League, Egypt, Canada, Norway and the Netherlands served as witnesses.
Renewed fighting began in July and August 2006, and international aid organizations considered leaving due to attacks against their personnel. Annan called for 18,000 international peacekeepers in Darfur to replace the 7,000-man AMIS force. In one incident at Kalma, seven women, who ventured out of a refugee camp to gather firewood, were gang-raped, beaten and robbed by the Janjaweed. When they had finished, the attackers stripped them naked and jeered at them as they fled.
In a private meeting on 18 August, Hédi Annabi, Assistant Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations, warned that Sudan appeared to be preparing for a major military offensive. The warning came a day after UN Commission on Human Rights special investigator Sima Samar stated that Sudan's efforts remained poor despite the May Agreement. On 19 August, Sudan reiterated its opposition to replacing AMIS with a UN force, resulting in the US issuing a "threat" to Sudan over the "potential consequences".
On 25 August, Sudan rejected attending a United Nations Security Council (UNSC) meeting to explain its plan to send 10,000 Sudanese soldiers to Darfur instead of the proposed 20,000 UN peacekeeping force. The Security Council announced it would hold the meeting despite Sudan's absence. Also on 24 August, the International Rescue Committee reported that hundreds of women were raped and sexually assaulted around the Kalma refugee camp during the previous several weeks and that the Janjaweed were reportedly using rape to cause women to be humiliated and ostracised by their own communities. On 25 August, the head of the U.S. State Department's Bureau of African Affairs, Assistant Secretary Jendayi Frazer, warned that the region faced a security crisis unless the UN peacekeeping force deployed.
On 26 August, two days before the UNSC meeting and Frazer was due to arrive in Khartoum, Paul Salopek, a U.S. National Geographic Magazine journalist, appeared in court in Darfur facing charges of espionage; he had crossed into the country illegally from Chad, circumventing the Sudanese government's official restrictions on foreign journalists. He was later released after direct negotiation with President al-Bashir. This came a month after Tomo Križnar, a Slovenian presidential envoy, was sentenced to two years in prison for spying.
Proposed UN peacekeeping force
On 31 August 2006, the UNSC approved a resolution to send a new peacekeeping force of 17,300 to the region. Sudan expressed strong opposition to the resolution. On 1 September, African Union officials reported that Sudan had launched a major offensive in Darfur, killing more than 20 civilians and displacing over 1,000. On 5 September, Sudan asked the existing AU force to leave by the end of the month, adding that "they have no right to transfer this assignment to the United Nations or any other party. This right rests with the government of Sudan." On 4 September, in a move not viewed as surprising, Chad's president Idriss Déby voiced support for the UN peacekeeping force. The AU, whose mandate expired on 30 September 2006, confirmed that the AMIS would leave. The next day, however, a senior US State Department official told reporters that the AU force might remain past the deadline.
Autumn
On 8 September, António Guterres, head of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, said Darfur faced a "humanitarian catastrophe". On 12 September, Sudan's European Union envoy Pekka Haavisto claimed that the Sudanese army was "bombing civilians in Darfur". A World Food Programme official reported that food aid had been blocked from reaching at least 355,000 people. Annan said, "the tragedy in Darfur has reached a critical moment. It merits this council's closest attention and urgent action." On 14 September, the leader of the Sudan Liberation Movement, Minni Minnawi, stated that he did not object to the UN peacekeeping force, rejecting the Sudanese government's view that such a deployment would be an act of Western invasion. Minnawi claimed that AMIS "can do nothing because the AU mandate is very limited". Khartoum remained opposed to UN involvement, with al-Bashir depicting it as a colonial plan and stating that "we do not want Sudan to turn into another Iraq."
On 2 October the AU announced that it would extend its presence until 31 December 2006. Two hundred UN troops were sent to reinforce the AU force. On 6 October, the UNSC voted to extend the mandate of the United Nations Mission in Sudan until 30 April 2007. On 9 October, the Food and Agriculture Organization listed Darfur as the most pressing food emergency out of the forty countries listed on its Crop Prospects and Food Situation report. On 10 October, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Louise Arbour, claimed that the Sudanese government had prior knowledge of attacks by Janjaweed militias in Buram, South Darfur the month before, in which hundreds of civilians were killed.
On 12 October, Nigerian Foreign Minister Joy Ogwu arrived in Darfur for a two-day visit. She urged the Sudanese government to accept the UN proposal. Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo spoke against "stand[ing] by and see[ing] genocide taking place in Darfur." On 13 October, US President George W. Bush imposed further sanctions against those deemed complicit in the atrocities under the Darfur Peace and Accountability Act of 2006. The measures were said to strengthen existing sanctions by prohibiting US citizens from engaging in oil-related transactions with Sudan (although US companies had been prohibited from doing business with Sudan since 1997), freezing the assets of complicit parties and denying them entry to the US.
The lack of funding and equipment for the AU mission meant that the work of aid workers in Darfur was severely limited by fighting. Some warned that the humanitarian situation could deteriorate to levels seen in 2003 and 2004, when UN officials called Darfur the world's worst humanitarian crisis.
On 22 October, the Government of Sudan told UN envoy Jan Pronk to leave the country within three days. Pronk, the senior UN official in the country, had been heavily criticized by the Sudanese army after he posted a description of several recent military defeats in Darfur to his personal blog. On 1 November, the US announced that it would formulate an international plan which it hoped the Sudanese government would find more palatable. On 9 November, senior Sudanese presidential advisor Nafie Ali Nafie told reporters that his government was prepared to start unconditional talks with the National Redemption Front (NRF) rebel alliance, but noted he saw little use for a new peace agreement. The NRF, which had rejected the May Agreement and sought a new peace agreement, did not comment.
In late 2006, Darfur Arabs started their own rebel group, the Popular Forces Troops, and announced on 6 December that they had repulsed an assault by the Sudanese army at Kas-Zallingi the previous day. They were the latest of numerous Darfur Arab groups to oppose the government since 2003, some of which had signed political accords with rebel movements.
The same period saw an example of a tribe-based split within the Arab forces, when relations between the farming Terjem and nomadic, camel-herding tribes became tense. Terjem leaders accused the Mahria of kidnapping a Terjem boy, while Mahria leaders said the Terjem had been stealing their animals. Ali Mahamoud Mohammed, the wali, or governor, of South Darfur, said the fighting began in December when the Mahria drove their camels south in a seasonal migration, trampling through Terjem territory near the Bulbul River. Fighting resumed in July 2007.
Proposed compromise UN force and Sudanese offensive
On 17 November reports of a potential deal to place a "compromise peacekeeping force" in Darfur were announced, but would later appear to have been rejected by Sudan. The UN claimed on 18 November that Sudan had agreed to the deployment of UN peacekeepers. Sudan's Foreign Minister Lam Akol stated that "there should be no talk about a mixed force" and that the UN's role should be restricted to technical support. Also on 18 November, the AU reported that Sudanese military and Sudanese-backed militias had launched a ground and air operation in the region that resulted in about 70 civilian deaths. The AU stated that this "was a flagrant violation of security agreements".
On 25 November a spokesperson for UN High Commissioner for Human Rights accused the Sudanese government of having committed "a deliberate and unprovoked attack" against civilians in Sirba on 11 November, which claimed the lives of at least 30 people. The Commissioner's statement maintained that "contrary to the government's claim, it appears that the Sudanese Armed Forces launched a deliberate and unprovoked attack on civilians and their property in Sirba," and that this also involved "extensive and wanton destruction and looting of civilian property".
2007
According to the Save Darfur Coalition, New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson and al-Bashir agreed to a cease-fire whereby the Sudanese "government and rebel groups will cease hostilities for a period of 60 days while they work towards a lasting peace." In addition, the Save Darfur press release stated that the agreement "included a number of concessions to improve humanitarian aid and media access to Darfur." Despite the formality of a ceasefire there were further media reports of killings and other violence. On 15 April 2007, African Union peacekeepers were targeted and killed. The New York Times reported that "a confidential United Nations report says the government of Sudan is flying arms and heavy military equipment into Darfur in violation of Security Council resolutions and painting Sudanese military planes white to disguise them as United Nations or African Union aircraft."
On 28 February Sudan's humanitarian affairs minister, Ahmed Haroun, and Janjaweed militia leader, Ali Kushayb, were charged by the International Criminal Court with 51 counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity. Ahmed Haroun said he "did not feel guilty", his conscience was clear, and that he was ready to defend himself.
On 31 March Janjaweed militiamen killed up to 400 people in the eastern border region of Chad near Sudan. The border villages of Tiero and Marena were encircled and then fired upon. The women were robbed and the men shot according to the UNHCR. Many of those who survived the initial attack, ended up dying due to exhaustion and dehydration, often while fleeing. On 14 April 2007, more attacks were reported by the UNHCR in Tiero and Marena.
On 18 April President Bush gave a speech at the US Holocaust Memorial Museum criticizing the Sudanese government and threatened further sanctions if the situation did not improve.
Al-Bashir and President of Chad, Idriss Déby signed a peace agreement on 3 May 2007 aimed at reducing tension between their countries. The accord was brokered by Saudi Arabia. It asserted that neither country would harbor, train or fund armed movements opposed to the other. Reuters reported that "Deby's fears that Nouri's UFDD may have been receiving Saudi as well as Sudanese support could have pushed him to sign the Saudi-mediated pact with Bashir". Colin Thomas-Jensen, an expert on Chad and Darfur at the International Crisis Group think-tank expressed doubts as to whether "this new deal will lead to any genuine thaw in relations or improvement in the security situation". Chadian rebel Union of Forces for Democracy and Development (UFDD) which had fought a hit-and-run war against Déby's forces in eastern Chad since 2006, stated that the Saudi-backed peace deal would not stop its military campaign.
Oxfam announced on 17 June that it would permanently pull out of Gereida, the largest refugee camp, which had a population of over 130,000. The agency cited inaction by local authorities from the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM), which controls the region, in addressing security concerns and violence against aid workers. An employee of the NGO Action by Churches Together was murdered in June in West Darfur. Vehicle hijackings also made them consider leaving.
BBC News reported that a huge underground lake had been found. This find could eliminate the competition for water resources.
France and Britain announced they would push for a UN resolution to dispatch African Union and United Nations peacekeepers to Darfur and would push for an immediate cease-fire in Darfur and are prepared to provide "substantial" economic aid "as soon as a cease-fire makes it possible".
A 14 July 2007 article noted that in the past two months up to 75,000 Arabs from Chad and Niger had crossed into Darfur. Most have been relocated by Sudanese government to former villages of displaced non-Arab people.
A hybrid UN/AU force was finally approved on 31 July with the unanimously approved United Nations Security Council Resolution 1769. UNAMID was to take over from AMIS by 31 December at the latest, and had an initial mandate up to 31 July 2008.
On 31 July, Mahria gunmen surrounded mourners at the funeral of an important Terjem sheik and killed 60 with rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) and belt-fed machine guns.
Between 3 August and 5 August a conference was held in Arusha to unite the rebel groups to streamline the subsequent peace negotiations with the government. Most senior rebel leaders attended, with the notable exception of Abdul Wahid al Nur, who headed a rather small splinter group of the SLA/M that he had initially founded in 2003, was considered to be the representatives of a large part of the displaced Fur people. His absence was damaging to the peace talks. International officials stated that there is "no John Garang in Darfur", referring to the leader of the negotiating team of South Sudan, who was universally accepted by the various South Sudanese rebel groups.
The participants were Gamali Galaleiddine, Khalil Abdalla Adam, Salah Abu Surra, Khamis Abdallah Abakar, Ahmed Abdelshafi, Abdalla Yahya, Khalil Ibrahim (of the Justice and Equality Movement) and Ahmed Ibrahim Ali Diraige. Closed-door meetings between the AU-UN and rebel leaders, as well as among rebel leaders took place. Eight more participants arrived on 4 August (including Jar el-Neby, Salah Adam Isaac and Suleiman Marajan), while the SLM Unity faction boycotted the talks because the Sudanese government had threatened to arrest Suleiman Jamous if he left the hospital. The rebel leaders aimed to unify their positions and demands, which included compensation for the victims and autonomy for Darfur. They eventually reached agreement on joint demands, including power and wealth sharing, security, land and humanitarian issues.
In the months through August, Arab tribes that had worked together in the Janjaweed militia began falling out among themselves, and further splintered. Thousands of Terjem and Mahria gunmen traveled hundreds of miles to fight in the strategic Bulbul river valley. Farther south, Habanniya and Salamat tribes clashed. The fighting did not result in as many deaths as in 2003 and 2004. United Nations officials said the groups might be trying to seize land before peacekeepers arrived.
On 18 September, the JEM stated that if the peace talks with Khartoum should fail, they would step up their demands from self-determination to independence.
On 30 September, the rebels overran an AMIS base, killing at least 12 peacekeepers in "the heaviest loss of life and biggest attack on the African Mission" during a raid at the end of Ramadan season.
Peace talks started on 27 October in Sirte, Libya. The following groups attended:
Justice and Equality Movement splinters:
Justice and Equality Movement–Collective Leadership, led by Bahr Idriss Abu Garda
Justice and Equality Movement–Azraq, led by Idriss Ibrahim Azraq
National Movement for Reform and Development, led by Khalil Abdullah
Revolutionary Democratic Forces Front, led by Salah Abu Surrah
United Revolutionary Force Front, led by Alhadi Agabeldour
Sudan Liberation Movement–G19, led by Khamees Abdullah
Sudan Federal Democratic Alliance, led by Ahmed Ibrahim Diraige
The following groups did not attend:
Justice and Equality Movement, led by Khalil Ibrahim; they object to the presence of rebel groups they say had no constituency and no place at the table.
Sudan Liberation Movement (Abdel Wahed), led by Abdel Wahed Mohamed el-Nur; the group has few forces, but its leader is highly respected; refused to attend until a force was deployed to stem the Darfur violence.
Sudan Liberation Movement–Unity, originally led by Abdallah Yehya, includes many other prominent figures (Sherif Harir, Abu Bakr Kadu, Ahmed Kubur); the group with the largest number of rebel fighters; object for the same reason as the JEM.
Ahmed Abdel Shafi, a notable rebel enjoying strong support from the Fur tribe.
Faced with a boycott from the most important rebel factions, the talks were rebranded as an "advanced consultation phase", with official talks likely to start in November or December.
On 15 November, nine rebel groups – six SLM factions, the Democratic Popular Front, the Sudanese Revolutionary Front and the Justice and Equality Movement–Field Revolutionary Command – signed a Charter of Unification and agreed to operate under the name of SLM/A henceforth. On 30 November it was announced that Darfur's rebel movements had united into two large groups and were now ready to negotiate in an orderly manner with the government.
2008
On 20 February, rebels and humanitarian workers reported that a fresh government/militia offensive had trapped thousands of refugees along the Chadian border. As of 21 February, the total dead in Darfur stood at 450,000 with an estimated 3,245,000 people displaced.
On 10 May 2008 Sudanese government soldiers and Darfur rebels clashed in the city of Omdurman, opposite the capital of Khartoum, over the control of a military headquarters. They also raided a police base from which they stole police vehicles. A Sudanese police spokesperson said that the leader of the assailants, Mohamed Saleh Garbo, and his intelligence chief, Mohamed Nur Al-Deen, were killed in the clash.
Witnesses said that heavy gunfire could be heard in the west of Sudan's capital. Sudanese troops backed by tanks, artillery, and helicopter gunships were immediately deployed to Omdurman, and fighting raged for several hours. After seizing the strategic military airbase at Wadi-Sayedna, the Sudanese soldiers eventually defeated the rebels. A JEM force headed to the Al-Ingaz bridge to cross the White Nile into Khartoum. By late afternoon, Sudanese TV claimed that the rebels had been "completely repulsed", while showing live images of burnt vehicles and corpses on the streets. The government imposed a curfew in Khartoum from 5 pm to 6 am, while aid agencies told their workers in the capital to stay indoors.
Some 93 soldiers and 13 policemen were killed along with 30 civilians in the attack on Khartoum and Omdurman. Sudanese forces confirmed that they found the bodies of 90 rebels and had spotted dozens more strewn outside the city limits. While Sudanese authorities claimed that up to 400 rebels could have been killed, the rebels stated that they lost 45 fighters dead or wounded. Sudanese authorities also claimed to have destroyed 40 rebel vehicles and captured 17.
2009
General Martin Agwai, head of the joint African Union-United Nations mission in Darfur, said the war was over in the region, although low-level disputes remained. There was still "[b]anditry, localised issues, people trying to resolve issues over water and land at a local level. But real war as such, I think we are over that," he said.
2010 to 2012
In December 2010, representatives of the Liberation and Justice Movement, an umbrella organisation of ten rebel groups formed in February 2010, started a fresh round of talks with the Sudanese Government in Doha. A new rebel group, the Sudanese Alliance Resistance Forces in Darfur was formed and JEM planned further talks. Talks ended on 19 December with agreement only on basic principles; these included a regional authority and a referendum on autonomy. The possibility of a Darfuri Vice-President was discussed.
In January 2011, the leader of the Liberation and Justice Movement, Dr. Tijani Sese, stated that the movement had accepted the core proposals of the Darfur peace document as proposed by the mediators in Doha. The proposals included a $300,000,000 compensation package for victims of atrocities in Darfur and special courts to conduct trials of persons accused of human rights violations. Proposals for a new Darfur Regional Authority were included. This authority would have an executive council of 18 ministers and would remain in place for five years. The current three Darfur states and state governments would continue to exist during this period. In February, the Sudanese Government rejected the idea of a single region headed by a vice-president from the region.
On 29 January, the LJM and JEM leaders issued a joint statement affirming their commitment to the Doha negotiations and intention to attend the Doha forum on 5 February. The Sudanese government postponed decision to attend the forum due to beliefs that an internal peace process without the involvement of rebel groups might be possible. Later in February, the Sudanese Government agreed to return to Doha with a view to complete a new peace agreement by the end of that month. On 25 February, both LJM and JEM announced that they had rejected the peace document proposed by the mediators in Doha. The main sticking points were the issues of a Darfuri vice-president and compensation for victims. The Sudanese government did not comment on the peace document.
On 9 March, it was announced that two more states would be established in Darfur: Central Darfur around Zalingei and Eastern Darfur around Ed Daein. The rebel groups protested and stated that this was a bid to further divide Darfur's influence.
Advising both the LJM and JEM during the Doha peace negotiations was the Public International Law & Policy Group (PILPG). Led by Dr. Paul Williams and Matthew T. Simpson, PILPG's team provided legal support.
In June, a new Darfur Peace Agreement (2011) was proposed by the Doha mediators. This agreement was to supersede the Abuja Agreement of 2005 and when signed, would halt preparations for a Darfur status referendum. The proposed document included provisions for a Darfuri Vice-President and an administrative structure that included three states and a strategic regional authority, the Darfur Regional Authority. The agreement was signed by the Government of Sudan and the Liberation and Justice Movement on 14 July 2011.
Little progress occurred after September 2012 and the situation slowly worsened and violence was escalating. The population of displaced Sudanese in IDP camps also increased.
2013
A donors conference in Doha pledged US$3.6 billion to help rebuild Darfur. The conference was criticised in the region that the Sudan Liberation Army (Minni Minnawi) rebels had taken. According to the group's Hussein Minnawi, Ashma village and another town close to the South Darfur capital of Nyala were taken by the SLA.
On 27 April, following weeks of fighting, a coalition that included SLA and JEM said that they had taken Um Rawaba in North Kordofan, outside Darfur, and that they were headed for Khartoum to topple the president. The head of an SLA faction, Abdel Wahid Mohammed al-Nur, called it "a significant shift in the war". An estimated 300,000 were displaced by violence from January through May.
In North Darfur, the Rezeigat tribe and the Beni Hussein group signed a peace deal during July after an eruption of violence between the two groups killed hundreds. Later in July, the Misseriya and Salamat Arab tribes announced a ceasefire after battles killed over 200 people. The UN security counsel also announced a review of its UNAMID mission.
During the first week of August, the Maalia claimed the Rezeigat had killed five members of their tribe in the southeastern region of Adila. They responded by seizing 400 Rizeigat cattle on 6 August. Community leaders intervened to prevent escalation. When the Maalia failed to return the cattle, violence broke out on 10 August. The Rezeigat attacked and reportedly destroyed a Maaliya compound. In the battle, 77 Maaliya and 36 Rezeigat were killed, and another 200 people were injured. Both sides said Land Cruiser vehicles were used in the battle. The Maaliya accused the Rezeigat of attacking and burning villages while employing "heavy weaponry". On 11 August, the fighting spread to several other areas in southeastern Darfur. The violence reportedly arose over a land dispute.
2014
On 19 March, peacekeepers said they had received recent reports of villages that were attacked and burned after the UN expressed concern over the increasing number of internally displaced persons. UNAMID said that the attacks were in Hashaba, about 100 kilometers north-west of the city Al-Fashir, the state capital of North Darfur.
In November, local media reported that 200 women and girls had been raped by Sudanese soldiers in Tabit. Sudan denied it and did not permit the UN (who said their first inquiry was inconclusive "in part due to the heavy presence of military and police") to make another inquiry. An investigation by Human Rights Watch (HRW) released in February said 221 were raped by government soldiers in "a mass rape that could constitute crimes against humanity". Witnesses reported three separate operations were carried out in one and a half days. Property was looted, men arrested, residents beaten and women and girls raped. Most of the town's population are Fur people. It had been controlled by rebel forces previously but HRW found no evidence that the rebel fighters were in or close to the village when it was attacked.
3,300 villages were destroyed in 2014 in attacks on civilians according to the UN Panel of Experts. Government forces or those aligned with them were behind most attacks. There were more than 400,000 attacks during the first ten months of the year. The report said that it was "highly probable that civilian communities were targeted as a result of their actual or perceived affiliations with armed opposition groups" and that "such attacks were carried out with impunity".
2015
2016
In September 2016, the Sudanese government reportedly launched chemical weapon attacks on civilian populations in Darfur, killing at least 250 people; the majority of the victims were children. It is believed that the munitions contained mustard gas or other blister agents.
2017
2018
Reports from UNAMID and the African Center for Justice and Peace Studies suggest that low-level violence continued in Darfur through early 2018, with Sudanese government forces attacking communities in the Jebel Marra area. As UNAMID forces began to be drawn down with an eye to exiting Darfur, there were competing views on the levels of unrest in the region: UN officials pointed to a significant reduction in the scale and distribution of violence in Darfur, while other NGOS such as HRW highlighted persistent pockets of unrest.
In 2018, Darfur was bombed and peace was signed; see 2019.
2019
The August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration, signed by military and civilian representatives during the 2018–19 Sudanese Revolution, requires that a peace agreement be made in Darfur and other regions of armed conflict in Sudan within the first six months of the 39-month transition period to democratic civilian government.
In December 2019, The Guardian reported that irrigation projects built around community-based weirs are enabling "green shoots of peace" to appear, helping to end this conflict. This project was conducted with funding from the European Union and was overseen by the United Nations Environmental Program.
2020
Janjaweed militia leader Ali Kushayb was arrested in the Central African Republic on 9 June 2020, thirteen years after he was charged by the International Criminal Court with 51 crimes against humanity and war crimes.
Three mass shootings took place in Darfur in July 2020.
On 31 August 2020, a peace deal was signed in Juba, South Sudan, between the Sovereignty Council of Sudan and several rebel groups, including the Sudan Revolutionary Front (SRF), Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM), Justice and Equality Movement, Transitional Revolutionary Council, and Sudan People's Liberation Movement-North (SPLM–N).
Under the terms of the agreement, the factions that signed will be entitled to three seats on the sovereignty council, a total of five ministers in the transitional cabinet and a quarter of seats in the transitional legislature. At a regional level, signatories will be entitled between 30 and 40% of the seats on transitional legislatures of their home states or regions.
Notably absent were rebel factions led by Abdul Wahid al Nur and Abdelaziz al-Hilu who refused to be part of the agreement. On 3 October 2020, the SRF, SPLM–N led by Malik Agar and SLM led by Minni Minnawi signed another peace deal with the Sudanese government, with the absence of both al Nur and al-Hilu. However, the deal included terms to integrate rebels into the security forces, and to grant them political representation and economic and land rights, in addition to a 10-year plan to invest $750 million to develop southern and western regions, and to guarantee the return for displaced people.
In December, Sudan started to deploy troops to South Darfur "in large numbers", following recent tribal violence between the Masalit and Fula.
The United Nations and African Union peacekeeping mission (UNAMID) ended its mission on 31 December, with a complete withdrawal scheduled for 30 June. There are currently some 4,000 troops, 480 police advisers, 1,631 police, 483 international civilian staff, and 945 national civilian staff in the region.
2021
Fighting between Masalit people and Arab nomads in Al Geneina District, West Darfur, left 84 dead and 160 wounded, including soldiers, on 16 January. This was two weeks after the United Nations withdrew its peacekeepers from the region after 13 years. Based on a statement from the Darfur Bar Association, the fresh violence initiated after a member of an Arab tribe was stabbed by another member of the Masalit tribe. Following the unrest, a high profile delegation authorized by Sudanese Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok was sent to the region in order to assess the situation.
Separately, clashes were also reported to have erupted in the eastern part of Sudan on Thursday and Friday between two ethnic groups, the Beni Amer and Nuba at Port Sudan.
On 17 January, a curfew was put in place by the Sudanese authorities, including a state of emergency in Sudan's West Darfur region.
As of 18 January, the death toll was reported to have reached at least 129 people, including women and children, since the beginning of the clashes between the Arabs and non-Arabs in West Darfur on Friday, according to the ABC News.
However, the United Nations has urged the Sudanese government to see to the de-escalation of the violence in West Darfur and safeguard civilian lives.
On 20 January, the residence of the provincial Governor of West Darfur Mohammed Abdalla al-Douma, was under an attempted attack by unidentified gunmen. Security forces managed to repel the attack without any reports of casualties or destruction of properties. Meanwhile, reports from local media suggested that during the assassination attempt, several blasts were heard all over the state.
On 24 January, the UN refugee agency revealed that since the initial outbreak of tribal clashes in Darfur earlier this January, at least 250 people have lost their lives. Three humanitarian workers were also among those who were killed, the agency added. Also, more than 100,000 people are believed to have been displaced, fleeing into neighboring Chad, with about 3,500 of them being mostly women and children.
On 28 March, Al-Hilu, leader of SPLA-North, signed a peace agreement with the Sudanese government in Juba, South Sudan, which would guarantee freedom of religion in a civil, democratic Sudan that would also have a single unified army to protect national security.
On 5 April, fresh tribal clashes erupted in West Darfur's El Geneina, which led to the death of at least 40 people, the United Nations revealed. During the three days of clashes, at least 58 people were also said to have been injured, according to the VOA News. Later in the evening, Sudan's defense council declared a state of emergency and also deployed troops to the troubled region of West Darfur state.
As of 6 April, the West Darfur State Doctors' Committee reported that the death toll had reached 50, with 132 others injured, according to the Middle East Online. According to the UN, reports suggest that there has been the destruction of humanitarian facilities, civilian lives, including women and children, during the violence in the region. Also, the decision to declare a state of emergency in the region was applauded by the UN envoy for Sudan, Volker Perthes and he urged the government to ensure the protection of humanitarian organizations, so as to provide services to the victims of the violence.
On 7 April, 37 more deaths were recorded by the Sudanese doctors' committee in West Darfur, increasing the total death toll to 87, according to Al Jazeera.
On 8 April, the governor of the West Darfur state, Mohamed Abdallah Douma stated in a news conference that at least 132 people had been killed during the days of unrest in the state. However, the Western Darfur State Doctors Committee has placed the death toll to be at least 125 during the sixth day of tribal clashes consecutively, with 208 others wounded, according to CNN.
The UN has called on the authorities to ensure that citizens are protected and that an immediate investigation of the clashes is launched. They also maintained that all the perpetrators of the violence must be held responsible, in order to attain justice for those affected during the clashes, including immediate deployment of security forces to the region.
On 12 April, following several days of violence in West Darfur that led to the death of at least 144 people, the leader of Sudan reportedly visited the region, according to ABC News. Meanwhile, the head of the ruling sovereign council, Gen. Abdel-Fattah Burhan, including high-ranking security and military officials, also visited the provincial capital of West Darfur, Genena, where they held separate talks with the Arab Rizeigat and the non-Arab Masalit tribes. After the visit made by the Khartoum delegation, the Dar Masalit Displaced People expressed their refusal to accept the result of the mediation headed by El Burhan. They blamed the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces for the unrest in the region.
On 14 April, a statement released by the U.N. refugee agency confirmed that the violence in the capital of West Darfur, El Geneina had stopped, based on reports which suggested that there haven't been any shootings for the past four days. The days of deadly tribal clashes have compelled at least 1,860 people to flee into the neighboring Chad, the agency added. Most of the refugees are believed to be women, children, and the elderly. Babar Baloch, a spokesman for the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) maintained that the refugees arriving revealed that their homes and properties were being destroyed.
On 28 April, clashes reportedly erupted during a sit-in protest in South Darfur's Bielel between security forces and protesters. In an attempt by the Sudanese security forces to forcefully disperse the protesters, one woman was said to have been killed while leaving at least eight others wounded. Tear gas was said to have been used to disperse the crowd by a joint force from both the army and the police, including the firing of live rounds.
Meanwhile, at the secretariat of the state government in Nyala, protesters gathered in front of the building to protest against an attack on their village, Gassat Enjemet, which left three people dead and others wounded.
On 5 May, thousands of displaced people affected by the heavy clashes in El Geneina, have requested that they want to go back to their homes. They made the request due to the awful living conditions in their shelters, the acting governor of West Darfur, Mohamed Zakaria revealed.
On 29 May, a group of armed men reportedly opened fire in a market in West Darfur's Foro Baranga. As a result of the shooting, one person was said to have been killed, leaving five others seriously wounded. Angry protests erupted following the attack, with protesters setting many shops ablaze and also blocking all main roads leading to the town. According to Al Jazeera, some people threatened the doctors at the hospital to attend to their wounded patients and leave other patients.
On 5 June, clashes between the Arab Taisha and ethnic African Fallata tribes in South Darfur's Um Dafuq claimed the lives of at least 36 people, with 37 others wounded. An aid worker who spoke on the condition of anonymity revealed that the clash erupted as a result of a land dispute between the two conflicting parties. Subsequently, a certain state of calm was said to have been attained, following the deployment of more troops to the South Darfur's Um Dafuk.
Janjaweed's participation
The well-armed Janjaweed quickly gained an advantage over rebel factions. By the spring of 2004, several thousand people – mostly from the non-Arab population – had been killed and as many as a million more had been driven from their homes, causing a major humanitarian crisis. The crisis took on an international dimension when over 100,000 refugees poured into neighboring Chad, pursued by militiamen who clashed with Chadian government forces along the border. More than 70 militiamen and 10 Chadian soldiers were killed in one gun battle in April. A United Nations observer team reported that non-Arab villages were singled out, while Arab villages were left untouched:
The 23 Fur villages in the Shattaya Administrative Unit have been completely depopulated, looted and burnt to the ground (the team observed several such sites driving through the area for two days). Meanwhile, dotted alongside these charred locations are unharmed, populated and functioning Arab settlements. In some locations, the distance between a destroyed Fur village and an Arab village is less than 500 meters.
A 2011 study examined 1,000 interviews with black African participants who fled from 22 village clusters to various refugee camps in 2003 and 2004. The study found: 1) the frequency of hearing racial epithets during an attack was 70% higher when it was led by the Janjaweed alone compared to official police forces; it was 80% higher when the Janjaweed and the Sudanese Government attacked together; 2) the risk of displacement was nearly 110% higher during a joint attack compared to when the police or Janjaweed acted alone, and 85% higher when Janjaweed forces attacked alone compared to when the attack was only perpetrated by government forces; 3) attacks on food and water supplies made it 129% more likely for inhabitants to be displaced compared to attacks that involved house burnings or killings; 4) perpetrators knew and took "special advantage" of the susceptibility of Darfur residents to attacks focused on basic resources. This vulnerability came against the backdrop of increased regional desertification.
Rape of women and young girls
Immediately after the Janjaweed entered the conflict, the rape of women and young girls, often by multiple militiamen and often throughout entire nights, began to be reported at a staggering rate. Children as young as 2 years old were reported victims, while mothers were assaulted in front of their children. Young women were attacked so violently that they were unable to walk following the attack.
Non-Arab people were reportedly raped by Janjaweed militiamen as a result of the Sudanese government's goal of completely eliminating the presence of black Africans and non-Arabs from Darfur. The Washington Post Foreign Service interviewed verified victims of the rapes and recorded that Arabic terms such as "abid" and "zurga" were used, which mean slave and black. One victim, Sawelah Suliman, was told by her assailant, "Black girl, you are too dark. You are like a dog. We want to make a light baby." In an 88-page report, victims from Darfur have also accused the Rapid Support Forces of rape and assault as recently as 2015.
Mortality estimates
Multiple casualty estimates have been published since the war began, ranging from roughly 10,000 civilians (Sudan government) to hundreds of thousands.
In September 2004, 18 months after the conflict began, the World Health Organization estimated that there had been 50,000 deaths in Darfur, mostly due to starvation. An updated estimate published the following month put the number of deaths for the 6-month period from March to October 2004 due to starvation and disease at 70,000; These figures were criticized because they only considered short periods and did not include deaths from violence. A more recent British Parliamentary Report estimated that over 300,000 people had died and others have published even higher death toll estimates.
In March 2005, the UN's Emergency Relief Coordinator Jan Egeland estimated that 10,000 people were dying each month, excluding deaths due to ethnic violence. An estimated 2.7 million people had at that time been displaced from their homes, mostly seeking refuge in camps in Darfur's major towns. Two hundred thousand had fled to neighboring Chad. Reports of violent deaths compiled by the UN indicate between 6,000 and 7,000 fatalities from 2004 to 2007.
In May 2005, the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) of the School of Public Health of the Université catholique de Louvain in Brussels, Belgium published an analysis of mortality in Darfur. Their estimate stated that from September 2003 to January 2005, between 98,000 and 181,000 persons died in Darfur, including 63,000 to 146,000 excess deaths.
In August 2010, Eric Reeves argued that total mortality from all violent causes, direct and indirect, at that point in the conflict, exceeded 500,000. His analysis took account of all previous mortality data and studies, including that by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disaster.
The UN disclosed on 22 April 2008 that it might have underestimated the Darfur death toll by nearly 50%.
In July 2009, The Christian Science Monitor published an op-ed stating that many of the published mortality rates have been misleading because they include a large number of people who had died of disease and malnutrition, as well as those who died from direct violence.
In January 2010, the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters published an article in a special issue of The Lancet. The article, entitled "Patterns of mortality rates in Darfur conflict", estimated with 95% confidence that the excess number of deaths is between 178,258 and 461,520 (with a mean of 298,271), with 80% of these due to disease.
International response
International attention to the Darfur genocide largely began with reports by Amnesty International in July 2003 and the International Crisis Group in December 2003. However, widespread media coverage did not start until the outgoing United Nations Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator for Sudan, Mukesh Kapila, called Darfur the "world's greatest humanitarian crisis" in March 2004. Organizations such as STAND: A Student Anti-Genocide Coalition, later under the umbrella of Genocide Intervention Network, and the Save Darfur Coalition emerged and became particularly active in the areas of engaging the United States Congress and President on the issue and pushing for divestment, initially launched by Adam Sterling under the auspices of the Sudan Divestment Task Force.
In May 2009 the Mandate Darfur was canceled because the "Sudanese government is obstructing the safe passage of Darfurian delegates from Sudan." The Mandate was a conference that would have brought together 300 representatives from different regions of Darfur's civil society. The conference planned was to be held in Addis Ababa sometime in early May.
International Criminal Court
In March 2005, the UN Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, but without mentioning specific crimes. Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution.
In April 2007, the Judges of the International Criminal Court issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, Ahmed Haroun, and a Janjaweed leader, Ali Kushayb, for crimes against humanity and war crimes. The Sudan Government said that the ICC had no jurisdiction to try Sudanese citizens and that it would not surrender the two men.
On 14 July 2008, the Prosecutor filed ten charges of war crimes against Sudan's incumbent President Omar al-Bashir, including three counts of genocide, five of crimes against humanity and two of murder. The Prosecutor claimed that Mr. al-Bashir "masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity. Leaders from three Darfur tribes sued ICC prosecutor Luis Moreno Ocampo for libel, defamation, and igniting hatred and tribalism.
After an arrest warrant was issued for the Sudanese president in March 2009, the Prosecutor appealed to add genocide charges. However, the Pre-Trial Chamber found that there was no reasonable ground to support the contention that he had a specific intent to commit genocide (dolus specialis), which is an intention to destroy, in whole or in part, a protected group. The definition adopted by the Pre-Trial Chamber is the definition of the Genocide Convention, the Rome Statute, and some ICTY cases. On 3 February 2010 the Appeals Chamber of the ICC found that the Pre-Trial Chamber had applied "an erroneous standard of proof when evaluating the evidence submitted by the Prosecutor" and that the Prosecutor's application for a warrant of arrest on the genocide charges should be sent back to the Pre-Trial Chamber to review based on the correct legal standard. In July 2010, al-Bashir was charged with three counts of genocide in Darfur by the International Criminal Court for orchestrating the Darfur genocide.
Al-Bashir was the first incumbent head of state charged with crimes under the Rome Statute. He rejected the charges and said, "Whoever has visited Darfur, met officials and discovered their ethnicities and tribes ... will know that all of these things are lies."
It is expected that al-Bashir will not face trial in The Hague until he is apprehended in a nation which accepts ICC jurisdiction, as Sudan is not a party to the Rome Statute, which it signed but did not ratify. Payam Akhavan, a professor of international law at McGill University in Montreal and a former war crimes prosecutor, says although he may not go to trial, "He will effectively be in prison within the Sudan itself...Al-Bashir now is not going to be able to leave the Sudan without facing arrest." The Prosecutor warned that authorities could arrest the President if he enters international airspace. The Sudanese government has announced that the Presidential plane would be accompanied by jet fighters. However, the Arab League announced solidarity with al-Bashir. Since the warrant, he has visited Qatar and Egypt. The African Union also condemned the charges.
Some analysts think that the ICC indictment is counterproductive and harms the peace process. Only days after the ICC indictment, al-Bashir expelled 13 international aid organizations from Darfur and disbanded three domestic aid organizations. In the aftermath of the expulsions, conditions in the displaced camps deteriorated. Previous ICC indictments, such as the arrest warrants of the LRA leadership in the ongoing war in northern Uganda, were also accused of harming peace processes by criminalizing one side of a war.
Foreign governments which supported the Sudanese government
Al-Bashir requested assistance from non-western countries after the West, led by America, imposed sanctions on his government . He said, "From the first day, our policy was clear: To look eastward, toward China, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, and even Korea and Japan, even if the Western influence upon some [of these] countries is strong. We believe that the Chinese expansion was natural because it filled the space left by Western governments, the United States, and international funding agencies. The success of the Sudanese experiment in dealing with China without political conditions or pressures encouraged other African countries to look toward China."
In 2007, Amnesty International issued a report accusing China and Russia of supplying arms, ammunition and related equipment to Sudan, some of which the government may have transferred to Darfur in violation of a UN arms embargo. The report claims that Sudan imported 10–20 combat aircraft from China in the early-mid-2000s, including three A-5 Fantan fighters that have been sighted in Darfur. The report provides evidence that the Sudan Air Force conducted indiscriminate aerial bombings of villages in Darfur and eastern Chad using ground attack fighters and repurposed Antonov transport planes. However, it does not specify whether the ground attack fighters in question are those purchased from China in the early-mid-2000s, and the Antonovs' origin remains unclear. The report also lists seven Soviet- or Russian-made Mi-24 Hind gunships that had been deployed to Darfur, though without specifying which country sold them to Sudan, or when. While noting that Russia sold arms worth tens of millions of dollars to Sudan in 2005 alone, the report does not specifically identify any weapons sold to Sudan by Russia after the outbreak of the Darfur conflict or after the imposition of the UNSC ban on arms transfers to Darfur, and it does not provide any evidence that any such weapons were deployed to Darfur.
The NGO Human Rights First claimed that over 90% of the light weapons currently being imported by Sudan and used in the conflict are from China. Human rights advocates and opponents of the Sudanese government portray China's role in providing weapons and aircraft as a cynical attempt to obtain oil, just as colonial powers once supplied African chieftains with the military means to maintain control as they extracted natural resources. According to China's critics, China threatened to use its veto on the U.N. Security Council to protect Khartoum from sanctions and was able to water down every resolution on Darfur in order to protect its interests. Accusations of the supply of weapons from China, which were then transferred to Darfur by the Sudanese government in violation of the UN arms embargo, continued in 2010.
Sarah Wykes, a senior campaigner at Global Witness, an NGO that campaigns for better natural resource governance, says: "Sudan has purchased about $100m in arms from China and has used these weapons against civilians in Darfur."
According to the report Following the Thread: Arms and Ammunition Tracing in Sudan and South Sudan, released in May 2014 by the Swiss research group Small Arms Survey, "Over the period 2001–12, Khartoum's reports to UN Comtrade reveal significant fluctuation in annual conventional arms imports. The majority of the Sudanese government's total self-reported imports of small arms and light weapons, their ammunition, and 'conventional weapons' over the period originated in China (58 per cent), followed by Iran (13 per cent), St. Vincent and the Grenadines (9 per cent), and Ukraine (8 per cent)." The report found that Chinese weapons were pervasive among most parties to the Sudanese conflicts, including the war in Darfur, but identified few if any weapons of Russian origin. (The section "Chinese weapons and ammunition" receives 20 pages in the report, whereas the only mention of Russian arms is to be found in the sentence "the majority of...mines [in South Sudan] have been of Chinese and Soviet/Russian origin.").
China and Russia denied the accusation by stating that they had not broken any UN sanctions. China has a close relationship with Sudan and increased its military co-operation with the government in early 2007. Because of Sudan's plentiful supply of oil, China considers good relations with Sudan to be a strategic necessity. China has direct commercial interests in Sudan's oil. China's state-owned company CNPC controls between 60 and 70 percent of Sudan's total oil production. Additionally, it owns the largest single share (40 percent) of Sudan's national oil company, Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. China consistently opposed economic and non-military sanctions on Sudan.
In March 2007, threats to boycott the Olympic games were made by French presidential candidate François Bayrou, in an effort to stop China's support. Sudan divestment efforts concentrated on PetroChina, the national petroleum company with extensive investments in Sudan.
Criticism of the international response
Gérard Prunier, a scholar specializing in African conflicts, argued that the world's most powerful countries have limited themselves to expressing concern and demand for the United Nations to take action. The UN, lacking initiative and will, initially left the African Union to deploy a token force without a mandate to protect civilians.
On 16 October 2006, Minority Rights Group (MRG) published a critical report, challenging that the UN and the great powers could have prevented the crisis and that few lessons appeared to have been drawn from the Rwandan genocide. MRG's executive director, Mark Lattimer, stated that: "this level of crisis, the killings, rape and displacement could have been foreseen and avoided ... Darfur would just not be in this situation had the UN systems got its act together after Rwanda: their action was too little too late." On 20 October 120 genocide survivors of The Holocaust, and the Cambodian and Rwandan genocides, backed by six aid agencies, submitted an open letter to the European Union, calling on them to do more, proposing a UN peacekeeping force as "the only viable option".
Coverage by the media
Watchers of the Sky, a 2014 documentary by Edet Belzberg, interviews former journalist and United States Ambassador to the United Nations Samantha Power about the war in Darfur. Also featured is Luis Moreno Ocampo, former ICC jurist and lead prosecutor on the ICC investigation in Darfur. The Brutality of the militias, the violence which was used by the armed forces, the corruption and the human rights abuses were also shown on ER television series (e.g. episodes 12x19, 12x20), as well as in the 2007 documentaries They Turned Our Desert Into Fire and The Devil Came on Horseback.
See also
Banu Hilal
Bibliography of the Darfur conflict
Breidjing Camp
Chadian Civil War (2005–10)
Command responsibility
Darfur genocide
First Sudanese Civil War
History of Darfur
History of Sudan
Human rights in Sudan
Genocides in history
Genocide of indigenous peoples
List of civil wars
List of conflicts in Africa
List of ethnic cleansing campaigns
List of famines
List of ongoing armed conflicts
List of wars 2003–present
List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll
Lost Boys of Sudan
Second Sudanese Civil War
Slavery in Sudan
Team Darfur
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Photographer's Account – "The Cost of Silence: A Traveling Exhibition"
2000s conflicts
2000s in Sudan
2010s conflicts
2010s in Sudan
Civil wars of the 21st century
Ethnicity-based civil wars
Responsibility to protect
Proxy wars
Genocides in Africa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia
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Wikipedia
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Wikipedia is a free-content online encyclopedia written and maintained by a community of volunteers, collectively known as Wikipedians, through open collaboration and using a wiki-based editing system called MediaWiki. Wikipedia is the largest and most-read reference work in history, and has consistently been one of the 10 most popular websites. Founded by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger on January 15, 2001, it is hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation, an American nonprofit organization.
Initially only available in English, editions in other languages were quickly developed. Wikipedia's editions when combined, comprise more than articles, attracting around 2billion unique device visits per month and more than 15 million edits per month (about 5.8edits per second on average) .
Wikipedia has been praised for its enablement of the democratization of knowledge, extent of coverage, unique structure, and culture. It has been criticized for exhibiting systemic bias, particularly gender bias against women and geographical bias against the Global South. While the reliability of Wikipedia was frequently criticized in the 2000s, it has improved over time, receiving greater praise in the late 2010s and early 2020s, having become an important fact-checking site. It has been censored by some national governments, ranging from specific pages to the entire site. Articles on breaking news are often accessed as sources of frequently updated information about those events.
History
Nupedia
Various collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before the start of Wikipedia, but with limited success. Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. It was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis, a web portal company. Its main figures were Bomis CEO Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. Nupedia was initially licensed under its own Nupedia Open Content License, but before Wikipedia was founded, Nupedia switched to the GNU Free Documentation License at the urging of Richard Stallman. Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, while Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. On January 10, 2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia.
Launch and growth
The domains wikipedia.com (later redirecting to wikipedia.org) and wikipedia.org were registered on January 12, 2001, and January 13, 2001, respectively. Wikipedia was launched on January 15, 2001 as a single English-language edition at www.wikipedia.com, and announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list. The name originated from a blend of the words wiki and encyclopedia. Its integral policy of "neutral point-of-view" was codified in its first few months. Otherwise, there were initially relatively few rules, and it operated independently of Nupedia. Bomis originally intended it as a business for profit.
Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. Language editions were created beginning in March 2001, with a total of 161 in use by the end of 2004. Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers were taken down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia passed the mark of two million articles on September 9, 2007, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, surpassing the Yongle Encyclopedia made during the Ming dynasty in 1408, which had held the record for almost 600 years.
Citing fears of commercial advertising and lack of control, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create in February 2002. Wales then announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and changed Wikipedia's domain from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org.
Though the English Wikipedia reached three million articles in August 2009, the growth of the edition, in terms of the numbers of new articles and of editors, appears to have peaked around early 2007. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006; by 2013 that average was roughly 800. A team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to the project's increasing exclusivity and resistance to change. Others suggest that the growth is flattening naturally because articles that could be called "low-hanging fruit"—topics that clearly merit an article—have already been created and built up extensively.
In November 2009, a researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, Spain found that the English Wikipedia had lost 49,000 editors during the first three months of 2009; in comparison, it lost only 4,900 editors during the same period in 2008. The Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend. Wales disputed these claims in 2009, denying the decline and questioning the study's methodology. Two years later, in 2011, he acknowledged a slight decline, noting a decrease from "a little more than 36,000 writers" in June 2010 to 35,800 in June 2011. In the same interview, he also claimed the number of editors was "stable and sustainable". A 2013 MIT Technology Review article, "The Decline of Wikipedia", questioned this claim, revealing that since 2007, Wikipedia had lost a third of its volunteer editors, and that those remaining had focused increasingly on minutiae. In July 2012, The Atlantic reported that the number of administrators was also in decline. In the November 25, 2013, issue of New York magazine, Katherine Ward stated, "Wikipedia, the sixth-most-used website, is facing an internal crisis."
The number of active English Wikipedia editors has since remained steady after a long period of decline.
Milestones
In January 2007, Wikipedia first became one of the ten most popular websites in the United States, according to Comscore Networks. With 42.9 million unique visitors, it was ranked #9, surpassing The New York Times (#10) and Apple (#11). This marked a significant increase over January 2006, when Wikipedia ranked 33rd, with around 18.3 million unique visitors. In 2014, it received eight billion page views every month. On February 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month, "according to the ratings firm comScore". , it ranked 6th in popularity, according to Similarweb. Loveland and Reagle argue that, in process, Wikipedia follows a long tradition of historical encyclopedias that have accumulated improvements piecemeal through "stigmergic accumulation".
On January 18, 2012, the English Wikipedia participated in a series of coordinated protests against two proposed laws in the United States Congress—the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the PROTECT IP Act (PIPA)—by blacking out its pages for 24 hours. More than 162 million people viewed the blackout explanation page that temporarily replaced its content.
In January 2013, 274301 Wikipedia, an asteroid, was named after Wikipedia; in October 2014, Wikipedia was honored with the Wikipedia Monument; and, in July 2015, 106 of the 7,473 700-page volumes of Wikipedia became available as Print Wikipedia. In April 2019, an Israeli lunar lander, Beresheet, crash landed on the surface of the Moon carrying a copy of nearly all of the English Wikipedia engraved on thin nickel plates; experts say the plates likely survived the crash. In June 2019, scientists reported that all 16 GB of article text from the English Wikipedia had been encoded into synthetic DNA.
On January 20, 2014, Subodh Varma reporting for The Economic Times indicated that not only had Wikipedia's growth stalled, it "had lost nearly ten percent of its page views last year. There was a decline of about two billion between December 2012 and December 2013. Its most popular versions are leading the slide: page-views of the English Wikipedia declined by twelve percent, those of German version slid by 17 percent and the Japanese version lost nine percent." Varma added, "While Wikipedia's managers think that this could be due to errors in counting, other experts feel that Google's Knowledge Graphs project launched last year may be gobbling up Wikipedia users." When contacted on this matter, Clay Shirky, associate professor at New York University and fellow at Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society said that he suspected much of the page-view decline was due to Knowledge Graphs, stating, "If you can get your question answered from the search page, you don't need to click [any further]." By the end of December 2016, Wikipedia was ranked the fifth most popular website globally.
As of January 2023, 55,791 English Wikipedia articles have been cited 92,300 times in scholarly journals, from which cloud computing was the most cited page.
On January 18, 2023, Wikipedia debuted a new website redesign, called "Vector 2022". It featured a redesigned menu bar, moving the table of contents to the left as a sidebar, and numerous changes in the locations of buttons like the language selection tool. The update initially received backlash, most notably when editors of the Swahili Wikipedia unanimously voted to revert the changes.
Openness
Unlike traditional encyclopedias, Wikipedia follows the procrastination principle regarding the security of its content, meaning that it waits until a problem arises to fix it.
Restrictions
Due to Wikipedia's increasing popularity, some editions, including the English version, have introduced editing restrictions for certain cases. For instance, on the English Wikipedia and some other language editions, only registered users may create a new article. On the English Wikipedia, among others, particularly controversial, sensitive, or vandalism-prone pages have been protected to varying degrees. A frequently vandalized article can be "semi-protected" or "extended confirmed protected", meaning that only "autoconfirmed" or "extended confirmed" editors can modify it. A particularly contentious article may be locked so that only administrators can make changes. A 2021 article in the Columbia Journalism Review identified Wikipedia's page-protection policies as "perhaps the most important" means at its disposal to "regulate its market of ideas".
In certain cases, all editors are allowed to submit modifications, but review is required for some editors, depending on certain conditions. For example, the German Wikipedia maintains "stable versions" of articles which have passed certain reviews. Following protracted trials and community discussion, the English Wikipedia introduced the "pending changes" system in December 2012. Under this system, new and unregistered users' edits to certain controversial or vandalism-prone articles are reviewed by established users before they are published.
Review of changes
Although changes are not systematically reviewed, Wikipedia's software provides tools allowing anyone to review changes made by others. Each article's History page links to each revision. On most articles, anyone can view the latest changes and undo others' revisions by clicking a link on the article's History page. Registered users may maintain a "watchlist" of articles that interest them so they can be notified of changes. "New pages patrol" is a process where newly created articles are checked for obvious problems.
In 2003, economics PhD student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in a wiki created a catalyst for collaborative development, and that features such as allowing easy access to past versions of a page favored "creative construction" over "creative destruction".
Vandalism
Any change that deliberately compromises Wikipedia's integrity is considered vandalism. The most common and obvious types of vandalism include additions of obscenities and crude humor; it can also include advertising and other types of spam. Sometimes editors commit vandalism by removing content or entirely blanking a given page. Less common types of vandalism, such as the deliberate addition of plausible but false information, can be more difficult to detect. Vandals can introduce irrelevant formatting, modify page semantics such as the page's title or categorization, manipulate the article's underlying code, or use images disruptively.
Obvious vandalism is generally easy to remove from Wikipedia articles; the median time to detect and fix it is a few minutes. However, some vandalism takes much longer to detect and repair.
In the Seigenthaler biography incident, an anonymous editor introduced false information into the biography of American political figure John Seigenthaler in May 2005, falsely presenting him as a suspect in the assassination of John F. Kennedy. It remained uncorrected for four months. Seigenthaler, the founding editorial director of USA Today and founder of the Freedom Forum First Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University, called Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales and asked whether he had any way of knowing who contributed the misinformation. Wales said he did not, although the perpetrator was eventually traced. After the incident, Seigenthaler described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool". The incident led to policy changes at Wikipedia for tightening up the verifiability of biographical articles of living people.
Edit warring
Wikipedians often have disputes regarding content, which may result in repeated competing changes to an article, known as "edit warring". It is widely seen as a resource-consuming scenario where no useful knowledge is added, and criticized as creating a competitive and conflict-based editing culture associated with traditional masculine gender roles.
Taha Yasseri of the University of Oxford examined editing conflicts and their resolution in a 2013 study. Yasseri contended that simple reverts or "undo" operations were not the most significant measure of counterproductive work behavior at Wikipedia. He relied instead on "mutually reverting edit pairs", where one editor reverts the edit of another editor who then, in sequence, returns to revert the first editor. The results were tabulated for several language versions of Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia's three largest conflict rates belonged to the articles George W. Bush, anarchism, and Muhammad. By comparison, for the German Wikipedia, the three largest conflict rates at the time of the study were for the articles covering Croatia, Scientology, and 9/11 conspiracy theories.
Policies and content
Content in Wikipedia is subject to the laws (in particular, copyright laws) of the United States and of the US state of Virginia, where the majority of Wikipedia's servers are located. By using the site, one agrees to the Wikimedia Foundation Terms of Use and Privacy Policy; some of the main rules are that contributors are legally responsible for their edits and contributions, that they should follow the policies that govern each of the independent project editions, and they may not engage in activities, whether legal or illegal, that may be harmful to other users. In addition to the terms, the Foundation has developed policies, described as the "official policies of the Wikimedia Foundation".
The fundamental principles of the Wikipedia community are embodied in the "Five pillars", while the detailed editorial principles are expressed in numerous policies and guidelines intended to appropriately shape content. The five pillars are:
Wikipedia is an encyclopedia
Wikipedia is written from a neutral point of view
Wikipedia is free content that anyone can use, edit, and distribute
Wikipedia's editors should treat each other with respect and civility
Wikipedia has no firm rules
The rules developed by the community are stored in wiki form, and Wikipedia editors write and revise the website's policies and guidelines in accordance with community consensus. Editors can enforce the rules by deleting or modifying non-compliant material. Originally, rules on the non-English editions of Wikipedia were based on a translation of the rules for the English Wikipedia. They have since diverged to some extent.
The two most commonly used namespaces across all editions of Wikipedia are: The article namespace (which are the articles of the encyclopedia) and the category namespace (which are a collection of pages such as articles). In addition, there have been various books and reading list that are composed completely of articles and categories of a certain Wikipedia.
Content policies and guidelines
According to the rules on the English Wikipedia community, each entry in Wikipedia must be about a topic that is encyclopedic and is not a dictionary entry or dictionary-style. A topic should also meet Wikipedia's standards of "notability", which generally means that the topic must have been covered in mainstream media or major academic journal sources that are independent of the article's subject. Further, Wikipedia intends to convey only knowledge that is already established and recognized. It must not present original research. A claim that is likely to be challenged requires a reference to a reliable source, as do all quotations. Among Wikipedia editors, this is often phrased as "verifiability, not truth" to express the idea that the readers, not the encyclopedia, are ultimately responsible for checking the truthfulness of the articles and making their own interpretations. This can at times lead to the removal of information that, though valid, is not properly sourced. Finally, Wikipedia must not take sides.
Governance
Wikipedia's initial anarchy integrated democratic and hierarchical elements over time. An article is not considered to be owned by its creator or any other editor, nor by the subject of the article.
Administrators
Editors in good standing in the community can request extra user rights, granting them the technical ability to perform certain special actions. In particular, editors can choose to run for "adminship", which includes the ability to delete pages or prevent them from being changed in cases of severe vandalism or editorial disputes. Administrators are not supposed to enjoy any special privilege in decision-making; instead, their powers are mostly limited to making edits that have project-wide effects and thus are disallowed to ordinary editors, and to implement restrictions intended to prevent disruptive editors from making unproductive edits.
By 2012, fewer editors were becoming administrators compared to Wikipedia's earlier years, in part because the process of vetting potential administrators had become more rigorous. In 2022, there was a particularly contentious request for adminship over the candidate's anti-Trump views; ultimately, they were granted adminship.
Dispute resolution
Over time, Wikipedia has developed a semiformal dispute resolution process. To determine community consensus, editors can raise issues at appropriate community forums, seek outside input through third opinion requests, or initiate a more general community discussion known as a "request for comment".
Wikipedia encourages local resolutions of conflicts, which Jemielniak argues is quite unique in organization studies, though there has been some recent interest in consensus building in the field. Joseph Reagle and Sue Gardner argue that the approaches to consensus building are similar to those used by Quakers. A difference from Quaker meetings is the absence of a facilitator in the presence of disagreement, a role played by the clerk in Quaker meetings.
Arbitration Committee
The Arbitration Committee presides over the ultimate dispute resolution process. Although disputes usually arise from a disagreement between two opposing views on how an article should read, the Arbitration Committee explicitly refuses to directly rule on the specific view that should be adopted. Statistical analyses suggest that the committee ignores the content of disputes and rather focuses on the way disputes are conducted, functioning not so much to resolve disputes and make peace between conflicting editors, but to weed out problematic editors while allowing potentially productive editors back in to participate. Therefore, the committee does not dictate the content of articles, although it sometimes condemns content changes when it deems the new content violates Wikipedia policies (for example, if the new content is considered biased). Commonly used solutions include cautions and probations (used in 63% of cases) and banning editors from articles (43%), subject matters (23%), or Wikipedia (16%). Complete bans from Wikipedia are generally limited to instances of impersonation and anti-social behavior. When conduct is not impersonation or anti-social, but rather edit warring and other violations of editing policies, solutions tend to be limited to warnings.
Community
Each article and each user of Wikipedia has an associated and dedicated "talk" page. These form the primary communication channel for editors to discuss, coordinate and debate.
Wikipedia's community has been described as cultlike, although not always with entirely negative connotations. Its preference for cohesiveness, even if it requires compromise that includes disregard of credentials, has been referred to as "anti-elitism".
Wikipedia does not require that its editors and contributors provide identification. As Wikipedia grew, "Who writes Wikipedia?" became one of the questions frequently asked there. Jimmy Wales once argued that only "a community ... a dedicated group of a few hundred volunteers" makes the bulk of contributions to Wikipedia and that the project is therefore "much like any traditional organization". In 2008, a Slate magazine article reported that: "According to researchers in Palo Alto, one percent of Wikipedia users are responsible for about half of the site's edits." This method of evaluating contributions was later disputed by Aaron Swartz, who noted that several articles he sampled had large portions of their content (measured by number of characters) contributed by users with low edit counts.
The English Wikipedia has articles, registered editors, and active editors. An editor is considered active if they have made one or more edits in the past 30 days.
Editors who fail to comply with Wikipedia cultural rituals, such as signing talk page comments, may implicitly signal that they are Wikipedia outsiders, increasing the odds that Wikipedia insiders may target or discount their contributions. Becoming a Wikipedia insider involves non-trivial costs: the contributor is expected to learn Wikipedia-specific technological codes, submit to a sometimes convoluted dispute resolution process, and learn a "baffling culture rich with in-jokes and insider references". Editors who do not log in are in some sense "second-class citizens" on Wikipedia, as "participants are accredited by members of the wiki community, who have a vested interest in preserving the quality of the work product, on the basis of their ongoing participation", but the contribution histories of anonymous unregistered editors recognized only by their IP addresses cannot be attributed to a particular editor with certainty.
Studies
A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that "anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia ... are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site". Jimmy Wales stated in 2009 that "[I]t turns out over 50% of all the edits are done by just 0.7% of the users... 524 people... And in fact, the most active 2%, which is 1400 people, have done 73.4% of all the edits." However, Business Insider editor and journalist Henry Blodget showed in 2009 that in a random sample of articles, most Wikipedia content (measured by the amount of contributed text that survives to the latest sampled edit) is created by "outsiders", while most editing and formatting is done by "insiders".
A 2008 study found that Wikipedians were less agreeable, open, and conscientious than others, although a later commentary pointed out serious flaws, including that the data showed higher openness and that the differences with the control group and the samples were small. According to a 2009 study, there is "evidence of growing resistance from the Wikipedia community to new content".
Diversity
Several studies have shown that most Wikipedia contributors are male. Notably, the results of a Wikimedia Foundation survey in 2008 showed that only 13 percent of Wikipedia editors were female. Because of this, universities throughout the United States tried to encourage women to become Wikipedia contributors. Similarly, many of these universities, including Yale and Brown, gave college credit to students who create or edit an article relating to women in science or technology. Andrew Lih, a professor and scientist, said that the reason he thought the number of male contributors outnumbered the number of females so greatly was because identifying as a woman may expose oneself to "ugly, intimidating behavior". Data has shown that Africans are underrepresented among Wikipedia editors.
Language editions
There are currently language editions of Wikipedia (also called language versions, or simply Wikipedias). As of , the six largest, in order of article count, are the , , , , , and Wikipedias. The and -largest Wikipedias owe their position to the article-creating bot Lsjbot, which had created about half the articles on the Swedish Wikipedia, and most of the articles in the Cebuano and Waray Wikipedias. The latter are both languages of the Philippines.
In addition to the top six, twelve other Wikipedias have more than a million articles each (, , , , , , , , , , and ), seven more have over 500,000 articles (, , , , , and ), 44 more have over 100,000, and 82 more have over 10,000. The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over million articles. the English Wikipedia receives 48% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages. The top 10 editions represent approximately 85% of the total traffic.
Since Wikipedia is based on the Web and therefore worldwide, contributors to the same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences (e.g. colour versus color) or points of view.
Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view", they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use.
Jimmy Wales has described Wikipedia as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language". Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all its projects (Wikipedia and others). For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia, and it maintains a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, and mathematics. It is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might be available only in English, even when they meet the notability criteria of other language Wikipedia projects.
Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions, in part because those editions do not allow fully automated translation of articles. Articles available in more than one language may offer "interwiki links", which link to the counterpart articles in other editions.
A study published by PLOS One in 2012 also estimated the share of contributions to different editions of Wikipedia from different regions of the world. It reported that the proportion of the edits made from North America was 51% for the English Wikipedia, and 25% for the simple English Wikipedia.
English Wikipedia editor numbers
On March 1, 2014, The Economist, in an article titled "The Future of Wikipedia", cited a trend analysis concerning data published by the Wikimedia Foundation stating that "the number of editors for the English-language version has fallen by a third in seven years." The attrition rate for active editors in English Wikipedia was cited by The Economist as substantially in contrast to statistics for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia). The Economist reported that the number of contributors with an average of five or more edits per month was relatively constant since 2008 for Wikipedia in other languages at approximately 42,000 editors within narrow seasonal variances of about 2,000 editors up or down. The number of active editors in English Wikipedia, by sharp comparison, was cited as peaking in 2007 at approximately 50,000 and dropping to 30,000 by the start of 2014.
In contrast, the trend analysis for Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) shows success in retaining active editors on a renewable and sustained basis, with their numbers remaining relatively constant at approximately 42,000. No comment was made concerning which of the differentiated edit policy standards from Wikipedia in other languages (non-English Wikipedia) would provide a possible alternative to English Wikipedia for effectively improving substantial editor attrition rates on the English-language Wikipedia.
Reception
Various Wikipedians have criticized Wikipedia's large and growing regulation, which includes more than fifty policies and nearly 150,000 words
Critics have stated that Wikipedia exhibits systemic bias. In 2010, columnist and journalist Edwin Black described Wikipedia as being a mixture of "truth, half-truth, and some falsehoods". Articles in The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Journal of Academic Librarianship have criticized Wikipedia's "Undue Weight" policy, concluding that Wikipedia explicitly is not designed to provide correct information about a subject, but rather focus on all the major viewpoints on the subject, give less attention to minor ones, and creates omissions that can lead to false beliefs based on incomplete information.
Journalists Oliver Kamm and Edwin Black alleged (in 2010 and 2011 respectively) that articles are dominated by the loudest and most persistent voices, usually by a group with an "ax to grind" on the topic. A 2008 article in Education Next Journal concluded that as a resource about controversial topics, Wikipedia is subject to manipulation and spin.
In 2020, Omer Benjakob and Stephen Harrison noted that "Media coverage of Wikipedia has radically shifted over the past two decades: once cast as an intellectual frivolity, it is now lauded as the 'last bastion of shared reality' online."
Multiple news networks and pundits have accused Wikipedia of being ideologically biased. In February 2021, Fox News accused Wikipedia of whitewashing communism and socialism and having too much "leftist bias". Wikipedia co-founder Sanger said that Wikipedia has become a "propaganda" for the left-leaning "establishment" and warned the site can no longer be trusted. In 2022, libertarian John Stossel opined that Wikipedia, a site he financially supported at one time, appeared to have gradually taken a significant turn in bias to the political left, specifically on political topics.
Accuracy of content
Articles for traditional encyclopedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica are written by experts, lending such encyclopedias a reputation for accuracy. However, a peer review in 2005 of forty-two scientific entries on both Wikipedia and Encyclopædia Britannica by the science journal Nature found few differences in accuracy, and concluded that "the average science entry in Wikipedia contained around four inaccuracies; Britannica, about three." Joseph Reagle suggested that while the study reflects "a topical strength of Wikipedia contributors" in science articles, "Wikipedia may not have fared so well using a random sampling of articles or on humanities subjects." Others raised similar critiques. The findings by Nature were disputed by Encyclopædia Britannica, and in response, Nature gave a rebuttal of the points raised by Britannica. In addition to the point-for-point disagreement between these two parties, others have examined the sample size and selection method used in the Nature effort, and suggested a "flawed study design" (in Natures manual selection of articles, in part or in whole, for comparison), absence of statistical analysis (e.g., of reported confidence intervals), and a lack of study "statistical power" (i.e., owing to small sample size, 42 or 4× 101 articles compared, vs >105 and >106 set sizes for Britannica and the English Wikipedia, respectively).
As a consequence of the open structure, Wikipedia "makes no guarantee of validity" of its content, since no one is ultimately responsible for any claims appearing in it. Concerns have been raised by PC World in 2009 regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity, the insertion of false information, vandalism, and similar problems.
Economist Tyler Cowen wrote: "If I had to guess whether Wikipedia or the median refereed journal article on economics was more likely to be true after a not so long think I would opt for Wikipedia." He comments that some traditional sources of non-fiction suffer from systemic biases, and novel results, in his opinion, are over-reported in journal articles as well as relevant information being omitted from news reports. However, he also cautions that errors are frequently found on Internet sites and that academics and experts must be vigilant in correcting them. Amy Bruckman has argued that, due to the number of reviewers, "the content of a popular Wikipedia page is actually the most reliable form of information ever created". In September 2022, The Sydney Morning Herald journalist Liam Mannix noted that, "There's no reason to expect Wikipedia to be accurate... And yet it [is]." Mannix further discussed the multiple studies that have proved Wikipedia to be generally as reliable as Encyclopedia Britannica, summarizing that, "...turning our back on such an extraordinary resource is... well, a little petty."
Critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for most of the information makes it unreliable. Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia may be reliable, but that the reliability of any given article is not clear. Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclopædia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia. Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales has claimed that Wikipedia has largely avoided the problem of "fake news" because the Wikipedia community regularly debates the quality of sources in articles.
Wikipedia's open structure inherently makes it an easy target for Internet trolls, spammers, and various forms of paid advocacy seen as counterproductive to the maintenance of a neutral and verifiable online encyclopedia.
In response to paid advocacy editing and undisclosed editing issues, Wikipedia was reported in an article in The Wall Street Journal to have strengthened its rules and laws against undisclosed editing. The article stated that: "Beginning Monday [from the date of the article, June 16, 2014], changes in Wikipedia's terms of use will require anyone paid to edit articles to disclose that arrangement. Katherine Maher, the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation's chief communications officer, said the changes address a sentiment among volunteer editors that, 'we're not an advertising service; we're an encyclopedia. These issues, among others, had been parodied since the first decade of Wikipedia, notably by Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report.
Legal Research in a Nutshell (2011), cites Wikipedia as a "general source" that "can be a real boon" in "coming up to speed in the law governing a situation" and, "while not authoritative, can provide basic facts as well as leads to more in-depth resources".
Discouragement in education
Some university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work, preferring primary sources; some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations. Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate to use as citable sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative. Wales once (2006 or earlier) said he receives about ten emails weekly from students saying they got failing grades on papers because they cited Wikipedia; he told the students they got what they deserved. "For God's sake, you're in college; don't cite the encyclopedia", he said.
In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that a few of the professors at Harvard University were including Wikipedia articles in their syllabi, although without realizing the articles might change. In June 2007, Michael Gorman, former president of the American Library Association, condemned Wikipedia, along with Google, stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are "the intellectual equivalent of a dietitian who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything".
A 2020 research study published in Studies in Higher Education argued that Wikipedia could be applied in the higher education "flipped classroom", an educational model where students learn before coming to class and apply it in classroom activities. The experimental group was instructed to learn before class and get immediate feedback before going in (the flipped classroom model), while the control group was given direct instructions in class (the conventional classroom model). The groups were then instructed to collaboratively develop Wikipedia entries, which would be graded in quality after the study. The results showed that the experimental group yielded more Wikipedia entries and received higher grades in quality. The study concluded that learning with Wikipedia in flipped classrooms was more effective than in conventional classrooms, demonstrating Wikipedia could be used as an educational tool in higher education.
Medical information
On March 5, 2014, Julie Beck writing for The Atlantic magazine in an article titled "Doctors' #1 Source for Healthcare Information: Wikipedia", stated that "Fifty percent of physicians look up conditions on the (Wikipedia) site, and some are editing articles themselves to improve the quality of available information." Beck continued to detail in this article new programs of Amin Azzam at the University of San Francisco to offer medical school courses to medical students for learning to edit and improve Wikipedia articles on health-related issues, as well as internal quality control programs within Wikipedia organized by James Heilman to improve a group of 200 health-related articles of central medical importance up to Wikipedia's highest standard of articles using its Featured Article and Good Article peer-review evaluation process. In a May 7, 2014, follow-up article in The Atlantic titled "Can Wikipedia Ever Be a Definitive Medical Text?", Julie Beck quotes WikiProject Medicine's James Heilman as stating: "Just because a reference is peer-reviewed doesn't mean it's a high-quality reference." Beck added that: "Wikipedia has its own peer review process before articles can be classified as 'good' or 'featured'. Heilman, who has participated in that process before, says 'less than one percent' of Wikipedia's medical articles have passed."
Coverage of topics and systemic bias
Wikipedia seeks to create a summary of all human knowledge in the form of an online encyclopedia, with each topic covered encyclopedically in one article. Since it has terabytes of disk space, it can have far more topics than can be covered by any printed encyclopedia. The exact degree and manner of coverage on Wikipedia is under constant review by its editors, and disagreements are not uncommon (see deletionism and inclusionism). Wikipedia contains materials that some people may find objectionable, offensive, or pornographic. The "Wikipedia is not censored" policy has sometimes proved controversial: in 2008, Wikipedia rejected an online petition against the inclusion of images of Muhammad in the English edition of its Muhammad article, citing this policy. The presence of politically, religiously, and pornographically sensitive materials in Wikipedia has led to the censorship of Wikipedia by national authorities in China and Pakistan, amongst other countries.
A 2008 study conducted by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University and Palo Alto Research Center gave a distribution of topics as well as growth (from July 2006 to January 2008) in each field:
Culture and Arts: 30% (210%)
Biographies and persons: 15% (97%)
Geography and places: 14% (52%)
Society and social sciences: 12% (83%)
History and events: 11% (143%)
Natural and Physical Sciences: 9% (213%)
Technology and Applied Science: 4% (−6%)
Religions and belief systems: 2% (38%)
Health: 2% (42%)
Mathematics and logic: 1% (146%)
Thought and Philosophy: 1% (160%)
These numbers refer only to the number of articles: it is possible for one topic to contain a large number of short articles and another to contain a small number of large ones. Through its "Wikipedia Loves Libraries" program, Wikipedia has partnered with major public libraries such as the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts to expand its coverage of underrepresented subjects and articles.
A 2011 study conducted by researchers at the University of Minnesota indicated that male and female editors focus on different coverage topics. There was a greater concentration of females in the "people and arts" category, while males focus more on "geography and science".
Coverage of topics and bias
Research conducted by Mark Graham of the Oxford Internet Institute in 2009 indicated that the geographic distribution of article topics is highly uneven, Africa being the most underrepresented. Across 30 language editions of Wikipedia, historical articles and sections are generally Eurocentric and focused on recent events.
An editorial in The Guardian in 2014 claimed that more effort went into providing references for a list of female porn actors than a list of women writers. Data has also shown that Africa-related material often faces omission; a knowledge gap that a July 2018 Wikimedia conference in Cape Town sought to address.
Systemic biases
Academic studies of Wikipedia have consistently shown that Wikipedia systematically over-represents a point of view (POV) belonging to a particular demographic described as the "average Wikipedian", who is an educated, technically inclined, English speaking white male, aged 15–49 from a developed Christian country in the northern hemisphere. This POV is over-represented in relation to all existing POVs. This systemic bias in editor demographic results in cultural bias, gender bias, and geographical bias on Wikipedia. There are two broad types of bias, which are implicit (when a topic is omitted) and explicit (when a certain POV is over-represented in an article or by references).
Interdisciplinary scholarly assessments of Wikipedia articles have found that while articles are typically accurate and free of misinformation, they are also typically incomplete and fail to present all perspectives with a neutral point of view. In 2011, Wales claimed that the unevenness of coverage is a reflection of the demography of the editors, citing for example "biographies of famous women through history and issues surrounding early childcare". The October 22, 2013, essay by Tom Simonite in MIT's Technology Review titled "The Decline of Wikipedia" discussed the effect of systemic bias and policy creep on the downward trend in the number of editors.
Explicit content
Wikipedia has been criticized for allowing information about graphic content. Articles depicting what some critics have called objectionable content (such as feces, cadaver, human penis, vulva, and nudity) contain graphic pictures and detailed information easily available to anyone with access to the internet, including children.
The site also includes sexual content such as images and videos of masturbation and ejaculation, illustrations of zoophilia, and photos from hardcore pornographic films in its articles. It also has non-sexual photographs of nude children.
The Wikipedia article about Virgin Killer—a 1976 album from the German rock band Scorpions—features a picture of the album's original cover, which depicts a naked prepubescent girl. The original release cover caused controversy and was replaced in some countries. In December 2008, access to the Wikipedia article Virgin Killer was blocked for four days by most Internet service providers in the United Kingdom after the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) decided the album cover was a potentially illegal indecent image and added the article's URL to a "blacklist" it supplies to British internet service providers.
In April 2010, Sanger wrote a letter to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, outlining his concerns that two categories of images on Wikimedia Commons contained child pornography, and were in violation of US federal obscenity law. Sanger later clarified that the images, which were related to pedophilia and one about lolicon, were not of real children, but said that they constituted "obscene visual representations of the sexual abuse of children", under the PROTECT Act of 2003. That law bans photographic child pornography and cartoon images and drawings of children that are obscene under American law. Sanger also expressed concerns about access to the images on Wikipedia in schools. Wikimedia Foundation spokesman Jay Walsh strongly rejected Sanger's accusation, saying that Wikipedia did not have "material we would deem to be illegal. If we did, we would remove it." Following the complaint by Sanger, Wales deleted sexual images without consulting the community. After some editors who volunteered to maintain the site argued that the decision to delete had been made hastily, Wales voluntarily gave up some of the powers he had held up to that time as part of his co-founder status. He wrote in a message to the Wikimedia Foundation mailing-list that this action was "in the interest of encouraging this discussion to be about real philosophical/content issues, rather than be about me and how quickly I acted". Critics, including Wikipediocracy, noticed that many of the pornographic images deleted from Wikipedia since 2010 have reappeared.
Privacy
One privacy concern in the case of Wikipedia is the right of a private citizen to remain a "private citizen" rather than a "public figure" in the eyes of the law. It is a battle between the right to be anonymous in cyberspace and the right to be anonymous in real life. The Wikimedia Foundation's privacy policy states, "we believe that you shouldn't have to provide personal information to participate in the free knowledge movement", and states that "personal information" may be shared "For legal reasons", "To Protect You, Ourselves & Others", or "To Understand & Experiment".
In January 2006, a German court ordered the German Wikipedia shut down within Germany because it stated the full name of Boris Floricic, aka "Tron", a deceased hacker. On February 9, 2006, the injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland was overturned, with the court rejecting the notion that Tron's right to privacy or that of his parents was being violated.
Wikipedia has a "" that uses Znuny, a free and open-source software fork of OTRS to handle queries without having to reveal the identities of the involved parties. This is used, for example, in confirming the permission for using individual images and other media in the project.
In late April 2023, Wikimedia Foundation announced that Wikipedia will not submit to any age verifications that may be required by the Online Safety Bill. Rebecca MacKinnon of the Wikimedia Foundation said that such checks would run counter to the website's commitment to minimal data collection on its contributors and readers.
Sexism
Wikipedia was described in 2015 as harboring a battleground culture of sexism and harassment. The perceived tolerance of abusive language was a reason put forth in 2013 for the gender gap in Wikipedia editorship. Edit-a-thons have been held to encourage female editors and increase the coverage of women's topics.
In May 2018, a Wikipedia editor rejected a submitted article about Donna Strickland due to lack of coverage in the media. Five months later, Strickland won a Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics", becoming the third woman to ever receive the award. Prior to winning the award, Strickland's only mention on Wikipedia was in the article about her collaborator and co-winner of the award Gérard Mourou. Her exclusion from Wikipedia led to accusations of sexism, but Corinne Purtill writing for Quartz argued that "it's also a pointed lesson in the hazards of gender bias in media, and of the broader consequences of underrepresentation." Purtill attributes the issue to the gender bias in media coverage.
A comprehensive 2008 survey, published in 2016, by Julia B. Bear of Stony Brook University's College of Business and Benjamin Collier of Carnegie Mellon University found significant gender differences in confidence in expertise, discomfort with editing, and response to critical feedback. "Women reported less confidence in their expertise, expressed greater discomfort with editing (which typically involves conflict), and reported more negative responses to critical feedback compared to men."
Operation
Wikimedia Foundation and affiliate movements
Wikipedia is hosted and funded by the Wikimedia Foundation, a non-profit organization which also operates Wikipedia-related projects such as Wiktionary and Wikibooks. The foundation relies on public contributions and grants to fund its mission. The foundation's 2020 Internal Revenue Service Form 990 shows revenue of $124.6 million and expenses of almost $112.2 million, with assets of about $191.2 million and liabilities of almost $11 million.
In May 2014, Wikimedia Foundation named Lila Tretikov as its second executive director, taking over for Sue Gardner. The Wall Street Journal reported on May 1, 2014, that Tretikov's information technology background from her years at University of California offers Wikipedia an opportunity to develop in more concentrated directions guided by her often repeated position statement that, "Information, like air, wants to be free." The same Wall Street Journal article reported these directions of development according to an interview with spokesman Jay Walsh of Wikimedia, who "said Tretikov would address that issue (paid advocacy) as a priority. 'We are really pushing toward more transparency... We are reinforcing that paid advocacy is not welcome.' Initiatives to involve greater diversity of contributors, better mobile support of Wikipedia, new geo-location tools to find local content more easily, and more tools for users in the second and third world are also priorities", Walsh said.
Following the departure of Tretikov from Wikipedia due to issues concerning the use of the "superprotection" feature which some language versions of Wikipedia have adopted, Katherine Maher became the third executive director of the Wikimedia Foundation in June 2016. Maher stated that one of her priorities would be the issue of editor harassment endemic to Wikipedia as identified by the Wikipedia board in December. She said to Bloomberg Businessweek regarding the harassment issue that: "It establishes a sense within the community that this is a priority... [and that correction requires that] it has to be more than words."
Maher served as executive director until April 2021. Maryana Iskander was named the incoming CEO in September 2021, and took over that role in January 2022. She stated that one of her focuses would be increasing diversity in the Wikimedia community.
Wikipedia is also supported by many organizations and groups that are affiliated with the Wikimedia Foundation but independently-run, called Wikimedia movement affiliates. These include Wikimedia chapters (which are national or sub-national organizations, such as Wikimedia Deutschland and Wikimédia France), thematic organizations (such as Amical Wikimedia for the Catalan language community), and user groups. These affiliates participate in the promotion, development, and funding of Wikipedia.
Software operations and support
The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki, a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database system. The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language, variables, a transclusion system for templates, and URL redirection. MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL) and it is used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske. The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker.
Several MediaWiki extensions are installed to extend the functionality of the MediaWiki software.
In April 2005, a Lucene extension was added to MediaWiki's built-in search and Wikipedia switched from MySQL to Lucene for searching. Lucene was later replaced by CirrusSearch which is based on Elasticsearch.
In July 2013, after extensive beta testing, a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get) extension, VisualEditor, was opened to public use. It was met with much rejection and criticism, and was described as "slow and buggy". The feature was changed from opt-out to opt-in afterward.
Automated editing
Computer programs called bots have often been used to perform simple and repetitive tasks, such as correcting common misspellings and stylistic issues, or to start articles such as geography entries in a standard format from statistical data. One controversial contributor, Sverker Johansson, created articles with his bot Lsjbot, which was reported to create up to 10,000 articles on the Swedish Wikipedia on certain days. Additionally, there are bots designed to automatically notify editors when they make common editing errors (such as unmatched quotes or unmatched parentheses). Edits falsely identified by bots as the work of a banned editor can be restored by other editors. An anti-vandal bot is programmed to detect and revert vandalism quickly. Bots are able to indicate edits from particular accounts or IP address ranges, as occurred at the time of the shooting down of the MH17 jet incident in July 2014 when it was reported that edits were made via IPs controlled by the Russian government. Bots on Wikipedia must be approved before activation.
According to Andrew Lih, the current expansion of Wikipedia to millions of articles would be difficult to envision without the use of such bots.
Hardware operations and support
page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Varnish caching servers and back-end layer caching is done by Apache Traffic Server. Requests that cannot be served from the Varnish cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass them to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses.
Wikipedia currently runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers running the Debian operating system. caching clusters are located in Amsterdam, San Francisco, Singapore, and Marseille. By January 22, 2013, Wikipedia had migrated its primary data center to an Equinix facility in Ashburn, Virginia. In 2017, Wikipedia installed a caching cluster in an Equinix facility in Singapore, the first of its kind in Asia. In 2022, a caching data center was opened in Marseille, France.
Internal research and operational development
Following growing amounts of incoming donations in 2013 exceeding seven digits, the Foundation has reached a threshold of assets which qualify its consideration under the principles of industrial organization economics to indicate the need for the re-investment of donations into the internal research and development of the Foundation. Two projects of such internal research and development have been the creation of a Visual Editor and the "Thank" tab in the edit history, which were developed to improve issues of editor attrition. The estimates for reinvestment by industrial organizations into internal research and development was studied by Adam Jaffe, who recorded that the range of 4% to 25% annually was to be recommended, with high-end technology requiring the higher level of support for internal reinvestment. At the 2013 level of contributions for Wikimedia presently documented as 45 million dollars, the computed budget level recommended by Jaffe for reinvestment into internal research and development is between 1.8 million and 11.3 million dollars annually. In 2019, the level of contributions were reported by the Wikimedia Foundation as being at $120 million annually, updating the Jaffe estimates for the higher level of support to between $3.08 million and $19.2 million annually.
Internal news publications
Multiple Wikimedia projects have internal news publications. Wikimedia's online newspaper The Signpost was founded in 2005 by Michael Snow, a Wikipedia administrator who would join the Wikimedia Foundation's board of trustees in 2008. The publication covers news and events from the English Wikipedia, the Wikimedia Foundation, and Wikipedia's sister projects. Other past and present community news publications on English Wikipedia include the Wikiworld webcomic, the Wikipedia Weekly podcast, and newsletters of specific WikiProjects like The Bugle from WikiProject Military History and the monthly newsletter from The Guild of Copy Editors. There are also several publications from the Wikimedia Foundation and multilingual publications such as Wikimedia Diff and This Month in Education.
The Wikipedia Library
The Wikipedia Library is a resource for Wikipedia editors which provides free access to a wide range of digital publications, so that they can consult and cite these while editing the encyclopedia. Over 60 publishers have partnered with The Wikipedia Library to provide access to their resources: when ICE Publishing joined in 2020, a spokesman said "By enabling free access to our content for Wikipedia editors, we hope to further the research community's resources – creating and updating Wikipedia entries on civil engineering which are read by thousands of monthly readers."
Access to content
Content licensing
When the project was started in 2001, all text in Wikipedia was covered by the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. The GFDL was created for software manuals that come with free software programs licensed under the GPL. This made it a poor choice for a general reference work: for example, the GFDL requires the reprints of materials from Wikipedia to come with a full copy of the GFDL text. In December 2002, the Creative Commons license was released; it was specifically designed for creative works in general, not just for software manuals. The Wikipedia project sought the switch to the Creative Commons. Because the GFDL and Creative Commons were incompatible, in November 2008, following the request of the project, the Free Software Foundation (FSF) released a new version of the GFDL designed specifically to allow Wikipedia to relicense its content to CC BY-SA by August 1, 2009. In April 2009, Wikipedia and its sister projects held a community-wide referendum which decided the switch in June 2009.
The handling of media files (e.g. image files) varies across language editions. Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine, while the others have opted not to, in part because of the lack of fair use doctrines in their home countries (e.g. in Japanese copyright law). Media files covered by free content licenses (e.g. Creative Commons' CC BY-SA) are shared across language editions via Wikimedia Commons repository, a project operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikipedia's accommodation of varying international copyright laws regarding images has led some to observe that its photographic coverage of topics lags behind the quality of the encyclopedic text.
The Wikimedia Foundation is not a licensor of content on Wikipedia or its related projects but merely a hosting service for contributors to and licensors of Wikipedia, a position which was successfully defended in 2004 in a court in France.
Methods of access
Because Wikipedia content is distributed under an open license, anyone can reuse or re-distribute it at no charge. The content of Wikipedia has been published in many forms, both online and offline, outside the Wikipedia website.
Thousands of "mirror sites" exist that republish content from Wikipedia; two prominent ones that also include content from other reference sources are Reference.com and Answers.com. Another example is Wapedia, which began to display Wikipedia content in a mobile-device-friendly format before Wikipedia itself did. Some web search engines make special use of Wikipedia content when displaying search results: examples include Microsoft Bing (via technology gained from Powerset) and DuckDuckGo.
Collections of Wikipedia articles have been published on optical discs. An English version released in 2006 contained about 2,000 articles. The Polish-language version from 2006 contains nearly 240,000 articles, the German-language version from 2007/2008 contains over 620,000 articles, and the Spanish-language version from 2011 contains 886,000 articles. Additionally, "Wikipedia for Schools", the Wikipedia series of CDs / DVDs produced by Wikipedia and SOS Children, is a free selection from Wikipedia designed for education towards children eight to seventeen.
There have been efforts to put a select subset of Wikipedia's articles into printed book form. Since 2009, tens of thousands of print-on-demand books that reproduced English, German, Russian, and French Wikipedia articles have been produced by the American company Books LLC and by three Mauritian subsidiaries of the German publisher VDM.
The website DBpedia, begun in 2007, extracts data from the infoboxes and category declarations of the English-language Wikipedia. Wikimedia has created the Wikidata project with a similar objective of storing the basic facts from each page of Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation projects and make it available in a queryable semantic format, RDF. it has over 101 million items. WikiReader is a dedicated reader device that contains an offline copy of Wikipedia, which was launched by OpenMoko and first released in 2009.
Obtaining the full contents of Wikipedia for reuse presents challenges, since direct cloning via a web crawler is discouraged. Wikipedia publishes "dumps" of its contents, but these are text-only; there is no dump available of Wikipedia's images. Wikimedia Enterprise is a for-profit solution to this.
Several languages of Wikipedia also maintain a reference desk, where volunteers answer questions from the general public. According to a study by Pnina Shachaf in the Journal of Documentation, the quality of the Wikipedia reference desk is comparable to a standard library reference desk, with an accuracy of 55 percent.
Mobile access
Wikipedia's original medium was for users to read and edit content using any standard web browser through a fixed Internet connection. Although Wikipedia content has been accessible through the mobile web since July 2013, The New York Times on February 9, 2014, quoted Erik Möller, deputy director of the Wikimedia Foundation, stating that the transition of internet traffic from desktops to mobile devices was significant and a cause for concern and worry. The article in The New York Times reported the comparison statistics for mobile edits stating that, "Only 20 percent of the readership of the English-language Wikipedia comes via mobile devices, a figure substantially lower than the percentage of mobile traffic for other media sites, many of which approach 50 percent. And the shift to mobile editing has lagged even more." The New York Times reports that Möller has assigned "a team of 10 software developers focused on mobile", out of a total of approximately 200 employees working at the Wikimedia Foundation. One principal concern cited by The New York Times for the "worry" is for Wikipedia to effectively address attrition issues with the number of editors which the online encyclopedia attracts to edit and maintain its content in a mobile access environment.
Bloomberg Businessweek reported in July 2014 that Google's Android mobile apps have dominated the largest share of global smartphone shipments for 2013, with 78.6% of market share over their next closest competitor in iOS with 15.2% of the market. At the time of the appointment of new Wikimedia Foundation executive Lila Tretikov, Wikimedia representatives made a technical announcement concerning the number of mobile access systems in the market seeking access to Wikipedia. Soon after, the representatives stated that Wikimedia would be applying an all-inclusive approach to accommodate as many mobile access systems as possible in its efforts for expanding general mobile access, including BlackBerry and the Windows Phone system, making market share a secondary issue. The Android app for Wikipedia was released on July 23, 2014, to over 500,000 installs and generally positive reviews, scoring over four of a possible five in a poll of approximately 200,000 users downloading from Google. The version for iOS was released on April 3, 2013, to similar reviews.
Access to Wikipedia from mobile phones was possible as early as 2004, through the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), via the Wapedia service. In June 2007, Wikipedia launched en.mobile.wikipedia.org, an official website for wireless devices. In 2009, a newer mobile service was officially released, located at en.m.wikipedia.org, which caters to more advanced mobile devices such as the iPhone, Android-based devices, or WebOS-based devices. Several other methods of mobile access to Wikipedia have emerged since. Many devices and applications optimize or enhance the display of Wikipedia content for mobile devices, while some also incorporate additional features such as use of Wikipedia metadata like geoinformation.
Wikipedia Zero was an initiative of the Wikimedia Foundation to expand the reach of the encyclopedia to the developing countries by partnering with mobile operators to allow free access. It was discontinued in February 2018 due to lack of participation from mobile operators.
Andrew Lih and Andrew Brown both maintain editing Wikipedia with smartphones is difficult and this discourages new potential contributors. Lih states that the number of Wikipedia editors has been declining after several years, and Tom Simonite of MIT Technology Review claims the bureaucratic structure and rules are a factor in this. Simonite alleges some Wikipedians use the labyrinthine rules and guidelines to dominate others and those editors have a vested interest in keeping the status quo. Lih alleges there is a serious disagreement among existing contributors on how to resolve this. Lih fears for Wikipedia's long-term future while Brown fears problems with Wikipedia will remain and rival encyclopedias will not replace it.
Chinese access
Access to the Chinese Wikipedia has been blocked in mainland China since May 2015. This was done after Wikipedia started to use HTTPS encryption, which made selective censorship more difficult.
Copycats
Russians have developed clones called Runiversalis and Ruwiki.
Iranians have created a new website called wikisa.org.
Cultural influence
Trusted source to combat fake news
In 2017–18, after a barrage of false news reports, both Facebook and YouTube announced they would rely on Wikipedia to help their users evaluate reports and reject false news. Noam Cohen, writing in The Washington Post states, "YouTube's reliance on Wikipedia to set the record straight builds on the thinking of another fact-challenged platform, the Facebook social network, which announced last year that Wikipedia would help its users root out 'fake news'."
Readership
In February 2014, The New York Times reported that Wikipedia was ranked fifth globally among all websites, stating "With 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors a month,... Wikipedia trails just Yahoo, Facebook, Microsoft and Google, the largest with 1.2 billion unique visitors." However, its ranking dropped to 13th globally by June 2020 due mostly to a rise in popularity of Chinese websites for online shopping. The website has since recovered its ranking as of April 2022.
In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles, Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001. The number of readers of Wikipedia worldwide reached 365 million at the end of 2009. The Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia. In 2011, Business Insider gave Wikipedia a valuation of $4 billion if it ran advertisements.
According to "Wikipedia Readership Survey 2011", the average age of Wikipedia readers is 36, with a rough parity between genders. Almost half of Wikipedia readers visit the site more than five times a month, and a similar number of readers specifically look for Wikipedia in search engine results. About 47 percent of Wikipedia readers do not realize that Wikipedia is a non-profit organization.
Wikipedia attracts around 2 billion unique devices monthly, with the English Wikipedia receiving 10 billion pageviews each month.
COVID-19 pandemic
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Wikipedia's coverage of the pandemic and fight against misinformation received international media attention, and brought an increase in Wikipedia readership overall. Noam Cohen wrote in Wired that Wikipedia's effort to combat misinformation related to the pandemic was different from other major websites, opining, "Unless Twitter, Facebook and the others can learn to address misinformation more effectively, Wikipedia will remain the last best place on the Internet." In October 2020, the World Health Organization announced they were freely licensing its infographics and other materials on Wikimedia projects. There were nearly 7,000 COVID-19 related Wikipedia articles across 188 different Wikipedias,
Cultural significance
Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases. The Parliament of Canada's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act. The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the US federal courts and the World Intellectual Property Organization—though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case. Content appearing on Wikipedia has also been cited as a source and referenced in some US intelligence agency reports. In December 2008, the scientific journal RNA Biology launched a new section for descriptions of families of RNA molecules and requires authors who contribute to the section to also submit a draft article on the RNA family for publication in Wikipedia.
Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism, often without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia.
In 2006, Time magazine recognized Wikipedia's participation (along with YouTube, Reddit, MySpace, and Facebook) in the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people worldwide. On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia had become a focal point in the 2008 US election campaign, saying: "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day." An October 2007 Reuters article, titled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability.
One of the first times Wikipedia was involved in a governmental affair was on September 28, 2007, when Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the minister of cultural resources and activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama. He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website", to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues.
A working group led by Peter Stone (formed as a part of the Stanford-based project One Hundred Year Study on Artificial Intelligence) in its report called Wikipedia "the best-known example of crowdsourcing... that far exceeds traditionally-compiled information sources, such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, in scale and depth".
In a 2017 opinion piece for Wired, Hossein Derakhshan describes Wikipedia as "one of the last remaining pillars of the open and decentralized web" and contrasted its existence as a text-based source of knowledge with social media and social networking services, the latter having "since colonized the web for television's values". For Derakhshan, Wikipedia's goal as an encyclopedia represents the Age of Enlightenment tradition of rationality triumphing over emotions, a trend which he considers "endangered" due to the "gradual shift from a typographic culture to a photographic one, which in turn mean[s] a shift from rationality to emotions, exposition to entertainment". Rather than "" (), social networks have led to a culture of "dare not to care to know". This is while Wikipedia faces "a more concerning problem" than funding, namely "a flattening growth rate in the number of contributors to the website". Consequently, the challenge for Wikipedia and those who use it is to "save Wikipedia and its promise of a free and open collection of all human knowledge amid the conquest of new and old television—how to collect and preserve knowledge when nobody cares to know."
Awards
Wikipedia has won many awards, receiving its first two major awards in May 2004. The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (£6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category.
In 2007, readers of brandchannel.com voted Wikipedia as the fourth-highest brand ranking, receiving 15 percent of the votes in answer to the question "Which brand had the most impact on our lives in 2006?"
In September 2008, Wikipedia received Quadriga A Mission of Enlightenment award of Werkstatt Deutschland along with Boris Tadić, Eckart Höfling, and Peter Gabriel. The award was presented to Wales by David Weinberger.
In 2015, Wikipedia was awarded both the annual Erasmus Prize, which recognizes exceptional contributions to culture, society or social sciences, and the Spanish Princess of Asturias Award on International Cooperation. Speaking at the Asturian Parliament in Oviedo, the city that hosts the awards ceremony, Jimmy Wales praised the work of the Asturian Wikipedia users.
Satire
Many parodies target Wikipedia's openness and susceptibility to inserted inaccuracies, with characters vandalizing or modifying the online encyclopedia project's articles.
Comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term wikiality, meaning "together we can create a reality that we all agree on—the reality we just agreed on". Another example can be found in "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence", a July 2006 front-page article in The Onion, as well as the 2010 The Onion article "'L.A. Law' Wikipedia Page Viewed 874 Times Today".
In an April 2007 episode of the American television comedy The Office, office manager (Michael Scott) is shown relying on a hypothetical Wikipedia article for information on negotiation tactics to assist him in negotiating lesser pay for an employee. Viewers of the show tried to add the episode's mention of the page as a section of the actual Wikipedia article on negotiation, but this effort was prevented by other users on the article's talk page.
"My Number One Doctor", a 2007 episode of the television show Scrubs, played on the perception that Wikipedia is an unreliable reference tool with a scene in which Perry Cox reacts to a patient who says that a Wikipedia article indicates that the raw food diet reverses the effects of bone cancer by retorting that the same editor who wrote that article also wrote the Battlestar Galactica episode guide.
In 2008, the comedy website CollegeHumor produced a video sketch named "Professor Wikipedia", in which the fictitious Professor Wikipedia instructs a class with a medley of unverifiable and occasionally absurd statements.
The Dilbert comic strip from May 8, 2009, features a character supporting an improbable claim by saying "Give me ten minutes and then check Wikipedia."
In July 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a comedy series called Bigipedia, which was set on a website which was a parody of Wikipedia. Some of the sketches were directly inspired by Wikipedia and its articles.
On August 23, 2013, the New Yorker website published a cartoon with this caption: "Dammit, Manning, have you considered the pronoun war that this is going to start on your Wikipedia page?" The cartoon referred to Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning), an American activist, politician, and former United States Army soldier who had recently come out as a trans woman.
In December 2015, John Julius Norwich stated, in a letter published in The Times newspaper, that as a historian he resorted to Wikipedia "at least a dozen times a day", and had never yet caught it out. He described it as "a work of reference as useful as any in existence", with so wide a range that it is almost impossible to find a person, place, or thing that it has left uncovered and that he could never have written his last two books without it.
Sister projectsWikimedia
Wikipedia has spawned several sister projects, which are also wikis run by the Wikimedia Foundation. These other Wikimedia projects include Wiktionary, a dictionary project launched in December 2002, Wikiquote, a collection of quotations created a week after Wikimedia launched, Wikibooks, a collection of collaboratively written free textbooks and annotated texts, Wikimedia Commons, a site devoted to free-knowledge multimedia, Wikinews, for collaborative journalism, and Wikiversity, a project for the creation of free learning materials and the provision of online learning activities. Another sister project of Wikipedia, Wikispecies, is a catalogue of all species, but is not open for public editing. In 2012, Wikivoyage, an editable travel guide, and Wikidata, an editable knowledge base, launched.
Publishing
The most obvious economic effect of Wikipedia has been the death of commercial encyclopedias, especially printed versions like Encyclopædia Britannica, which were unable to compete with a product that is essentially free. Nicholas Carr's 2005 essay "The amorality of Web 2.0" criticizes websites with user-generated content (like Wikipedia) for possibly leading to professional (and, in his view, superior) content producers' going out of business, because "free trumps quality all the time". Carr wrote, "Implicit in the ecstatic visions of Web 2.0 is the hegemony of the amateur. I for one can't imagine anything more frightening." Others dispute the notion that Wikipedia, or similar efforts, will entirely displace traditional publications. Chris Anderson, the former editor-in-chief of Wired, wrote in Nature that the "wisdom of crowds" approach of Wikipedia will not displace top scientific journals with rigorous peer review processes.
Wikipedia's influence on the biography publishing business has been a concern for some. Book publishing data tracker Nielsen BookScan stated in 2013 that biography sales were dropping "far more sharply". Kathryn Hughes, professor of life writing at the University of East Anglia and author of two biographies wrote, "The worry is that, if you can get all that information from Wikipedia, what's left for biography?"
Research use
Wikipedia has been widely used as a corpus for linguistic research in computational linguistics, information retrieval and natural language processing. In particular, it commonly serves as a target knowledge base for the entity linking problem, which is then called "wikification", and to the related problem of word-sense disambiguation. Methods similar to wikification can in turn be used to find "missing" links in Wikipedia.
In 2015, French researchers José Lages of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon and Dima Shepelyansky of Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse published a global university ranking based on Wikipedia scholarly citations. They used PageRank, CheiRank and similar algorithms "followed by the number of appearances in the 24 different language editions of Wikipedia (descending order) and the century in which they were founded (ascending order)". The study was updated in 2019.
A 2017 MIT study suggests that words used on Wikipedia articles end up in scientific publications.
Studies related to Wikipedia have been using machine learning and artificial intelligence to support various operations. One of the most important areas is the automatic detection of vandalism and data quality assessment in Wikipedia.
In February 2022, civil servants from the UK's Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities were found to have used Wikipedia for research in the drafting of the Levelling Up White Paper after journalists at The Independent noted that parts of the document had been lifted directly from Wikipedia articles on Constantinople and the list of largest cities throughout history.
Related projects
Several interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project, which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from more than a million contributors in the UK, and covered the geography, art, and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project were emulated on a website until 2008.
Several free-content, collaborative encyclopedias were created around the same period as Wikipedia (e.g. Everything2), with many later being merged into the project (e.g. GNE). One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2, which was created by Douglas Adams in 1999. The h2g2 encyclopedia is relatively lighthearted, focusing on articles which are both witty and informative.
Subsequent collaborative knowledge websites have drawn inspiration from Wikipedia. Others use more traditional peer review, such as Encyclopedia of Life and the online wiki encyclopedias Scholarpedia and Citizendium. The latter was started by Sanger in an attempt to create a reliable alternative to Wikipedia.
See also
Democratization of knowledge
Interpedia, an early proposal for a collaborative Internet encyclopedia
List of online encyclopedias
List of Wikipedia controversies
List of wikis
Network effect
Outline of Wikipediaguide to the subject of Wikipedia presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics; for an outline of the contents of Wikipedia, see Portal:Contents/Outlines
QRpediamultilingual, mobile interface to Wikipedia
Wikipedia Review
Notes
References
Further reading
Academic studies
(A blog post by the author.)
(Open access)
Rosenzweig, Roy. Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past. (Originally published in The Journal of American History 93.1 (June 2006): 117–146.)
Books
(Substantial criticisms of Wikipedia and other web 2.0 projects.)
Listen to:
The NPR interview with A. Keen, Weekend Edition Saturday, June 16, 2007.
(See book review by Baker, as listed hereafter.)
Book review–related articles
Baker, Nicholson. "The Charms of Wikipedia". The New York Review of Books, March 20, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008. (Book rev. of The Missing Manual, by John Broughton, as listed previously.)
Crovitz, L. Gordon. "Wikipedia's Old-Fashioned Revolution: The online encyclopedia is fast becoming the best." (Originally published in Wall Street Journal onlineApril 6, 2009.)
Postrel, Virginia, "Who Killed Wikipedia? : A hardened corps of volunteer editors is the only force protecting Wikipedia. They might also be killing it", Pacific Standard, November/December 2014 issue.
Other media coverage
"Wikipedia probe into paid-for 'sockpuppet' entries", BBC News, October 21, 2013.
"The Decline of Wikipedia" , MIT Technology Review, October 22, 2013
"Edits to Wikipedia pages on Bell, Garner, Diallo traced to 1Police Plaza" (March 2015), Capital
Angola's Wikipedia Pirates Are Exposing Problems (March 2016), Motherboard
Full Measure with Sharyl Attkisson, April 17, 2016. (Includes video.)
The Great Book of Knowledge, Part 1: A Wiki is a Kind of Bus, Ideas, with Paul Kennedy, CBC Radio One, originally broadcast January 15, 2014. The webpage includes a link to the archived audio program (also found here). The radio documentary discusses Wikipedia's history, development, and its place within the broader scope of the trend to democratized knowledge. It also includes interviews with several key Wikipedia staff and contributors, including Kat Walsh and Sue Gardner (audio, 53:58, Flash required).
"So Is Wikipedia Cracking Up?" The Independent, February 3, 2009.
Wikipedia's Year-End List Shows What the Internet Needed to Know in 2019. Alyse Stanley, December 27, 2019, Gizmodo.
External links
– multilingual portal (contains links to all language editions)
Wikipedia topic page at The New York Times
Video of TED talk by Jimmy Wales on the birth of Wikipedia
Online encyclopedias
Social information processing
Wikimedia projects
Multilingual websites
Creative Commons-licensed websites
Free-content websites
2001 establishments in the United States
Internet properties established in 2001
Jimmy Wales
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dracula%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29
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Dracula (Marvel Comics)
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Dracula is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He is based on the vampire Count Dracula from the novel of the same name by author Bram Stoker. After the initial run of the series The Tomb of Dracula, the character has been depicted primarily as an antagonist to superheroes in the Marvel Universe.
The character appeared in the film Blade: Trinity (2004), primarily portrayed by Dominic Purcell in his normal form and Brian Steele in his "Beast" form.
Publication history
The Marvel Comics version of Dracula was created by Gerry Conway and Gene Colan in The Tomb of Dracula #1 (April 1972), co-written by Marv Wolfman. A different version of Dracula had previously appeared in the Atlas Comics (Marvel's predecessor company) publication Suspense #7 ("Dracula Lives!" by unknown writer/artist, March 1951).
Traditionally, the Comics Code Authority prevented Marvel from publishing vampire comics. This was revised in early 1971, when comics were allowed to publish characters and beings from established literary works. Later that year, Morbius the Living Vampire appeared in The Amazing Spider-Man for the first time, and Dracula followed in his own title some months later. The character starred in the comic, which ended with issue #70 in 1979. This version of Dracula also starred in Dracula Lives!, a black-and-white horror comic magazine series published by Marvel from 1973 to 1975. Running concurrently with The Tomb of Dracula, the continuities of the two titles occasionally overlapped, with storylines weaving between the two.
The Tomb of Dracula initially kept its distance from the rest of the company's properties. Marv Wolfman said, "To me, the horror books were outside the Marvel Universe. It was a hard enough problem creating mood, tension, and suspense in a comic book, which is all still pictures. But to then have to worry about superheroes or supervillains at the same time — I didn't feel that would work." But the potential for a sales-boosting crossover eventually became too tempting, and Dracula appeared in the first issue of Giant-Size Spider-Man (July 1974). Marvel also produced a comics adaptation of the Dracula novel that was published in Marvel Classic Comics #9 (1977).
Although Dracula (and all other vampires) were eventually destroyed by the mystical "Montesi Formula" in the pages of Doctor Strange, the vampire lord was revived. Marvel published a four-issue Tomb of Dracula miniseries, reuniting Wolfman and Colan, under its Epic Comics imprint in 1991, and revived Dracula and his foes in the short-lived Nightstalkers and Blade series in the 1990s. Dracula later took the title role in the miniseries Dracula: Lord of the Undead.
X-Men: Apocalypse vs. Dracula featured Dracula battling the X-Men antagonist Apocalypse in Victorian London.
The character returned in the Captain Britain and MI13 storyline "Vampire State", with Doctor Doom.
He was the main subject of the 2010 X-Men storyline "Curse of the Mutants", written by Victor Gischler. By this time, Dracula no longer adopts the dress and mannerisms of a Victorian era nobleman, rather as something reminiscent of a medieval warlord. He wears a form of body armor and a cape with ragged ends. He has long blonde hair maintained in a ponytail and inhuman features such as red eyes, elongated canines, and retractable claws at the tips of his fingers and pointed ears.
Fictional character biography
Historical
Born Vlad Dracula in 1430 in Schassburg, Transylvania (now Sighişoara, Romania), he was the second son of a Transylvanian nobleman. He was named prince of Transylvania and voivode (prince) of Wallachia and became ruler while still a child. Over the next several years, he struggled against the Ottoman Turks, losing and regaining his throne. Through an arranged marriage to a Hungarian noblewoman, Zofia, he sired his daughter, Lilith. He sent his wife and daughter away and later married a woman named Maria, with whom he had a son named Vlad Tepelus. He had a son with his third wife Domini, who was named Janus.
In 1459, Dracula was mortally wounded by the Turkish warlord Turac, who brought Dracula to a gypsy named Lianda to be healed. However, Lianda was a vampire, and in revenge for his persecution of the gypsies, transformed Dracula into a vampire as well. Turac raped and killed Dracula's wife Maria, and in revenge Dracula slew Turac, making him a vampire as well. Dracula gave his son Vlad Tepelus to gypsies to raise.
Dracula defeated the vampire Nimrod the First in battle, and thus succeeded him as ruler of Earth's vampires. Soon afterwards, he enhanced his own blood with that of Varnae, giving him greater powers than any other vampire. In 1471, Dracula abdicated his princehood.
In the 19th century, he faced opposition from Abraham van Helsing and Jonathan Harker in England, the exploits of which were recorded in the 1897 novel by Bram Stoker, Dracula. When the humans destroyed Dracula, his remains were placed in his coffin, concealed within a cave blocked by an enormous boulder. Frankenstein's Monster was later tricked into unsealing the cave and opening the coffin, thus freeing Dracula. In later years, he also came in conflict with Cagliostro and Solomon Kane. Just before World War I, he was responsible for transforming Lord John Falsworth into Baron Blood.
The Tomb of Dracula
In the later half of the 20th century, Dracula was once more returned from death by Clifton Graves, and subsequently came into conflict with Quincy Harker and Rachel van Helsing,
After bringing the Cult of the Darkhold under his control, Dracula began to seek the power of the dark book to remove his vampiric weaknesses and make himself truly immortal. However, in his quest he was repeatedly foiled by the X-Men, the now-vampiric Rachel van Helsing and Lilith, Thor, Doctor Strange, Hannibal King and the Avengers.
Dracula had one apparent post-mortem appearance when the Grandmaster summoned him and a number of other deceased heroes and villains to challenge the Avengers.
Dracula's return (1994 – present)
Dracula eventually returned when the effect of the Montesi Formula was negated and HYDRA created a clone from Dracula's DNA to serve as their vampiric superweapon, only for the vampire to escape their control.
In the 21st century, Dracula assembled an army of vampires in a sanctuary on the Moon and planned to conquer the United Kingdom, with other supernatural villains Lilith (a different entity from his daughter), Captain Fate, and Baron Blood. He first contacted Doctor Doom to agree to a non-aggression pact with him, and by association the Cabal, in order to be unopposed in his conquest. Once he'd secured this, he launched a pre-emptive strike on MI-13's superheroes, launching specially-bred vampires at the Earth like missiles.
It was also shown he still possessed contempt and bigotry towards Muslims, and intended to exterminate them once he had secured Great Britain; as part of his attack, he went to the parents of Faiza Hussain, attacking her mother and taking her father (along with Killpower, an MI-13 agent sent to protect the family) hostage. British vampire hero Spitfire, meanwhile, was abducted and forcibly turned into a minion. MI-13 were manipulated into exposing the whereabouts of Quincy Harker's remains, magically treated to prevent vampires from entering the U.K. without invitation, so Dracula could destroy them. Once that was done, with the help of Fate, he launched a series of warships towards Earth.
However, unknown to Dracula, Pete Wisdom had tricked him into destroying fake remains and Spitfire had been faking her mind control while channeling information to MI-13. In order to stop Dracula from finding out the remains were fake, he was briefly trapped in a demonic "Dream Corridor" which saw him live out his fantasies of victory (ending with him standing in a conquered House of Commons while holding the Speaker's mace); as well as giving MI-13 some intelligence on his plans, it stopped him from sending in advance teams. Once he escaped, there were a series of attacks to keep him occupied until the warships entered British airspace without invitation, wiping out the bulk of his forces.
In the final battle, he was pursued to his fortress and prevented from escaping by the Black Knight and Faiza Hussain, wielder of the sword Excalibur. While Dracula was able to seriously wound the Black Knight, he was slain with a single blow from Excalibur, leaving Britain victorious.
In a 2010 X-Men storyline "Curse of the Mutants", Dracula has been killed by his son Xarus, but is resurrected by the X-Men in hopes that he would join them against Xarus. However, Dracula declines and leaves shortly after. Dracula reasserts himself as Lord of the Vampires, granting amnesty to those who sided with Xarus. When Xarus tries to attack Dracula, he rips off Xarus' head. Although he contemplated attacking the X-Men, Cyclops reminded him that they had had custody of his body for 17 hours before the head was reattached, suggesting that they had included a 'contingency plan' in Dracula similar to the plan that they had used to infiltrate Xarus' forces by temporarily shutting down Wolverine's healing factor so that he could be turned and then returned to normal. Although Dracula suspected that Cyclops was bluffing, he complimented Cyclops's style and allowed them to depart, even returning the now-vampire Jubilee to the X-Men.
During the "Fear Itself" storyline, Dracula is informed of the arrival of the Hulk (in the form of Nul: Breaker of Worlds) by one of his followers when Nul lands in the Carpathian foothills following his fight with Thor and ends up taking down some vampires. It is revealed that he has the mysterious Raizo Kodo and his legion of vampires called "the Forgiven" locked up in his dungeon. Dracula frees the Forgiven, who worked to slow Nul's progress. Dracula then prepares the vampires for his last stand. As the Forgiven continue to stall Nul, Dracula prepares his vampire armies for battle when Nul gets closer. In the end, Nul is defeated when Inka uses a vampire-mesmerizing spell to take the form of Betty Ross, causing the Hulk to break free of the hammer's magic and revert to normal.
In "Dracula's Gauntlet", Dracula hired Deadpool to retrieve his fiancé, a succubus queen named Shiklah. On the way, she falls in love with him instead and, during the extended trip, her brothers are killed by Dracula to secure the kingdom of Monster Metropolis as his own. This causes Shiklah to deny him the throne by marrying Deadpool, driving Dracula into a rage not because of the power and kingdom he lost, but because he was cuckolded by "an escaped mental patient". After a fight in which he is stabbed with Deadpool's severed hand, poisoned by the mercenary's blood and his army mostly wiped out, Dracula flees into hiding, leaving Shiklah as Queen of the Monsters.
Possibly a little over a year later, there is trouble in his ex-fiancé's marriage. Shiklah has had enough of the humans and started a war to annex New York. Deadpool comes to Dracula for help in stopping her, threatening him with a wooden stake. Dracula cannot remember Shiklah's name at first, until Deadpool angrily reminds him. He states that he hates Deadpool, who replies that Dracula hates himself more, which actually makes him Shiklah's type. Once they return to New York, Dracula is able to gain control of the vampires in Shiklah's army to fight against her monsters. However, the second he meets Shiklah, he proposes to her — wanting to merge their kingdoms and rule with the humans at their feet. Deadpool angrily curses Dracula. Dracula and Shiklah are married by Mephisto, while an angry Deadpool and a confused Spider-Man are tied up and made to watch. Dracula and Shiklah share a kiss, and she thanks him for giving her the wedding she always wanted — with chaos and fire burning.
They head off to tell their followers of their union. However, Shiklah's monsters tell her that they do not wish to be ruled by a monarch any longer. Shiklah is shocked that her subjects want her run off, and Deadpool shows up to tell her that she cannot marry Dracula. He argues that the entire reason they married was because he was saving her from Dracula, reminding her that Dracula killed her brothers. Shiklah shrugs it off, and tells Deadpool that he would have done the same if he knew them. She then attacks him, telling him that he cannot tell her who she can impetuously marry. After one last tryst and talk with Deadpool, Shiklah emerges and tells Dracula to let their subjects rule themselves, stating that she does not want to rule by force. Dracula eventually relents, stating that he was retired anyway before Deadpool dragged him into this fight. He leaves with Shiklah, who wants to see more of the world. Shiklah wrote Deadpool a note, stating she was off for some stake-play with Dracula.
Dracula returns to his castle in Romania without Shiklah, and somehow begins summoning all vampires in the world to him, including Jubilee. Old Man Logan tracks Jubilee to Dracula's castle, where it is revealed that she is under the vampire's control. Dracula bites Old Man Logan, but his healing factor is able to resist vampirism. Jubilee eventually breaks free from Dracula's influence, allowing Old Man Logan to decapitate Dracula. Dracula's head is given to a Sentinel that then throws it into the Sun.
Dracula is shown to have both men and women as consorts.
Powers and abilities
Dracula gained the powers of a vampire from his transformation into a vampire by the bite of the vampiress Lianda, and gained additional power by Varnae. Dracula possesses far greater powers than most vampires. He is superhumanly strong (to the point of standing toe-to-toe and defeating Colossus in single combat), and also possesses superhuman speed, stamina, reflexes, and transvection. He is immune to aging, conventional disease, sickness and most forms of injury. He cannot be killed or permanently injured by conventional means.
He is unaffected by most assaults and, due to his healing factor, can rapidly regenerate damaged tissue. Dracula can manipulate the minds of others, and command animals, such as rats, bats, and wolves, to his will. With limited exceptions, he may control other vampires. He has the ability to mentally control victims he has bitten, and can temporarily hypnotize anyone with his gaze.
He is capable of shapeshifting into a bat – either normal or human size – or a wolf while retaining his intelligence and into a fog or mist – partially or fully – and has the ability of weather control, such as summoning electrical storms. Like some vampires in other works of fiction, Dracula does not cast a reflection in mirrors and his image cannot be captured on film. His powers have been greatly amplified and his weaknesses circumvented by magical sources, such as the spells of the Darkholders.
Dracula has a dependence on the ingestion of fresh blood to sustain his existence, and an inability to endure direct sunlight. He falls into a comatose state during daylight hours and must spend much time in contact with his native soil. He has vulnerabilities to garlic (which can both repel him and prevent him from changing form), silver and wood (both of which can cause severe pain, the latter to a lesser extent unless it penetrates his heart) and the presence of religious symbols (wielded by one who believes in their spiritual meaning), and can be killed either by beheading or by a wooden stake or blade made of silver driven through his heart. He can also be destroyed by the spell in the Darkhold known as the Montesi Formula (named after Brother Montesi, the late monk who both discovered it and first realized what it was).
Dracula is a skilled hand-to-hand combatant and swordsman with centuries of experience, specializing in 15th-century warfare and militaristic strategy. He has a gifted intellect, and studied under tutors in his youth in Transylvania.
Reception
Critical reception
Marc Buxton of Den of Geek called Dracula "Marvel’s greatest classic monster," writing, "Somehow, Marvel made Dracula into a classic anti-hero that captured the atmosphere and pathos of Bram novel and the Universal Horror classic. Somehow, Marvel also managed to weave in some super hero craziness as well with Dracula serving as the sometime hero in a book that featured one of the richest supporting casts of any comic of the 1970s. So many characters on our list, Lilith, Blade, and Hannibal King to name but a few, got their starts in Tomb of Dracula. But it was Vlad the Impaler himself that outshined them all with his evil brand of nobility."
Accolades
In 2015, Den of Geek ranked Dracula 3rd in their "Marvel’s 31 Best Monsters" list.
In 2019, CBR.com ranked Dracula 1st in their "Top 10 Marvel And DC Vampires" list.
In 2020, CBR.com ranked Dracula 10th in their "Dracula: The 5 Best Versions In Comics (& 5 Vampires Even More Terrifying)" list.
In 2021, Screen Rant included Dracula in their "Marvel: 10 Most Powerful Vampires" list.
In 2022, CBR.com ranked Dracula 2nd in their "10 Most Important Marvel Vampires" list, 5th in their "Marvel's 10 Scariest Monsters" list, and 6th in their "Scariest Comic Book Vampires" list.
Other versions
In the mid-1970s, Roy Thomas and Dick Giordano created a serialized adaptation of the original Bram Stoker novel, published in 10- to 12-page installments in the short-lived series Dracula Lives!.
Following the cancellation of Dracula Lives!, an additional installment of their adaptation appeared in Marvel Preview #8 ("The Legion of Monsters"), for a total of 76 pages comprising roughly one-third of the novel. After a 30-year hiatus, Marvel commissioned Thomas and Giordano to finish the adaptation, and ran the reprinted and new material as the four-issue miniseries Stoker's Dracula (Oct. 2004 – May 2005). The entire adaptation was collected by Marvel Illustrated in 2010.
In the Ultimate Marvel Universe, Vlad III Dracula is the brother of the vampire known as Morbius the Living Vampire and a direct ancestor of Doctor Doom.
In Mutant X, Dracula succeeded in transforming Storm into a vampire. After Dracula's defeat, he was imprisoned in the Vault, contained in a coffin. The Marauders broke Dracula free. Dracula went on a killing spree, until being killed by Storm.
In other media
Television
Dracula appears in the Spider-Woman episode "Dracula's Revenge".
Dracula appears in the Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends episode "The Transylvania Connection", voiced by Stan Jones.
Dracula appears in The Super Hero Squad Show episode "This Man-Thing, This Monster! (Six Against Infinity, Part 3)", voiced by Dave Boat. He attacks a local town with N'Kantu, the Living Mummy's army of mummies before the latter kidnaps Werewolf by Night's girlfriend Ellen. In response, Werewolf by Night, the Man-Thing, and an alternate universe-displaced Iron Man join forces to save her, defeating Dracula in the process.
Dracula appears in Avengers Assemble, voiced by Corey Burton. In the first season, he joins the Red Skull's Cabal until the latter betrays them.
Dracula appears in the Ultimate Spider-Man two-part episode "Blade and the Howling Commandos", voiced again by Corey Burton.
Dracula appears in the Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. episode "Days of Future Smash, Part 3: Dracula", voiced again by Corey Burton.
Film
Dracula appears in Dracula: Sovereign of the Damned, voiced by Kenji Utsumi in Japanese and Tom Wyner in English.
Dracula appears in Blade: Trinity, primarily portrayed by Dominic Purcell, and in his "Beast" form by Brian Steele. He also takes the forms of Dr. Edgar Vance (John Michael Higgins), Abraham Whistler (Kris Kristofferson), and Blade (Wesley Snipes). Though the character has little resemblance to the comic book version, this version is the original progenitor of "Hominus Nocturna" and has gone by many names, currently assuming the name Drake. Drake was "born" as the "perfect" vampire, though his true origins are unknown. He is also capable of limited shapeshifting due to a particularly malleable bone structure, which allows him to assume the appearance of others so long as they are of similar size and shape to him and transform into a demonic form called "the Beast", and possesses perfect immunity to sunlight. After spending three centuries in self-imposed exile, Drake is brought back by modern vampires led by Danica Talos in the hope that he will allow them to free them of their weakness to sunlight. However, Blade and Abigail Whistler kill Drake with a "plague arrow" that combines with the vampire's "pure" vampire blood to release an airborne contagion capable of destroying all vampires in the world. Out of respect for Blade's victory over him, Drake transforms himself into a duplicate of the former so Blade can escape police manhunt. In an extended ending, Drake awakes in Blade's form and attacks the police.
Video games
Dracula appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online, voiced again by Dave Boat.
Dracula appears as a group boss in Marvel Avengers Alliance.
Dracula appears as an unlockable playable character in Marvel Avengers Academy.
References
External links
Dracula at Marvel.com
Blade (comics) characters
Characters created by Gene Colan
Characters created by Gerry Conway
Comics based on Dracula
Comics characters introduced in 1951
Comics characters introduced in 1972
Fictional bisexual men
Fictional characters who can manipulate darkness or shadows
Fictional characters with fog or smoke abilities
Fictional characters with weather abilities
Fictional hypnotists and indoctrinators
Fictional princes
Fictional Romanian people
Fictional swordfighters in comics
Marvel Comics characters who are shapeshifters
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Marvel Comics characters with immortality
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics film characters
Marvel Comics LGBT supervillains
Marvel Comics male supervillains
Marvel Comics telepaths
Marvel Comics vampires
Supervillains with their own comic book titles
Vampire supervillains
Villains in animated television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace%20journalism
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Peace journalism
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Peace journalism is a style and theory of reporting that aims to treat stories about war and conflict with balance, in contrast to war journalism, which peace journalism advocates say display a bias toward violence. The theory proposes practical methods for correcting biases in stories appearing in the mainstream and alternative media, and suggests ways for journalists to work with other media professionals, audiences, and organizations in conflict.
This concept was proposed by Johan Galtung. Other terms for this broad definition of peace journalism include conflict solution journalism, conflict sensitive journalism, constructive conflict coverage, and reporting the world.
War journalism is journalism about conflict that has a value bias towards violence and violent groups. This usually leads audiences to overvalue violent responses to conflict and ignore non-violent alternatives. This is understood to be the result of well documented news reporting conventions. These conventions focus only on physical effects of conflict (for example ignoring psychological impacts) and elite positions (which may or may not represent the actual parties and their goals). It is also biased toward reporting only the differences between parties, (rather than similarities, previous agreements, and progress on common issues) the here and now (ignoring causes and outcomes), and zero sums (assuming that one side's needs can only be met by the other side's compromise or defeat).
Peace journalism aims to correct for these biases. Its operational definition is "to allow opportunities for society at large to consider and value non-violent responses to conflict". This involves picking up calls for, and articulations of, non-violence policies from whatever quarter, and allowing them into the public sphere.
Origins
Peace journalism follows a long history of news publication, originating in non-sectarian Christian peace movements and societies of the early 19th century, which published periodicals. Sectarian organizations also created publications focused on peace as part of their proselytizing in the 19th century, as did utopian communities of the period. From the 20th century, a prominent example of sectarian journalism focused on peace was Dorothy Day's Catholic Worker.
Besides being an element in the histories of pacifism and the social movement press, peace journalism is a set of journalism practices that emerged in the 1970s. Norwegian sociologist, peace researcher and practitioner Johan Galtung proposed the idea of peace journalism for journalists to follow to show how a value bias towards violence can be avoided when covering war and conflict. Christian organizations such as The World Council of Churches and The World Association for Christian Communication also practice peace journalism.
Peace journalism aims to shed light on structural and cultural causes of violence, as they impact upon the lives of people in a conflict arena as part of the explanation for violence. It aims to frame conflicts as consisting of many parties and pursuing many goals rather than a simple dichotomy. An explicit aim of peace journalism is to promote peace initiatives from whatever quarter and to allow the reader to distinguish between stated positions and real goals.
Relation to war journalism
Peace journalism came about through research arguing that typical conflict reporting is unethical. Research and practice in peace journalism outlines a number of reasons for the existence and dominance of war journalism in conflict news.
Vested interests of war journalism
Firstly, the notion that media elites always act to preserve their favored status quo, and their own commercial and political interests, is given relatively little weight. Shared characteristics of the socio-economic class, which heavily influences the production of journalism, are important. For example, their shared ideological pressures, perceptions, attitudes, and values form the basis of a "dominant reading" of facts that are selected to appear in news. These can then act to fix and naturalize meaning and hide the actual creation of meaning.
However, even in the presence of powerful elite media interests against war, war journalism often dominates conflict discourse. Jake Lynch and Annabel McGoldrick show examples from Britain, Ireland, Georgia, and Iraq, where war journalism dominated coverage despite key influential media interests against war.
Journalistic objectivity
Therefore, not only political and economic, but also social and cultural factors have contributed to the dominance of war journalism in conflict reporting. With the growth of mass media, especially from the 19th century, news advertising became the most important source of media revenue.
Whole audiences needed to be engaged across communities and regions to maximize advertising revenue. This led to "Journalistic objectivity as an industry standard ... a set of conventions allowing the news to be presented as all things to all people". And in modern journalism, especially with the emergence of 24 hour news cycles, speed is of the essence in responding to breaking stories. It is not possible for reporters to decide "from first principals" every time how they will report each and every story that presents itself. It follows that convention governs much of journalism.
The rise of journalistic objectivity was part of a larger movement within western academia toworads empirical "just report the facts" epistemology and research. By the 1980s it was focused on the philosophical ideal of objectivity. Mindich argues that journalistic objectivity should be distinguished from scientific objectivity. For example, the experimental sciences use:
Inter-laboratory replication;
Random assignment of subjects to conditions;
Efforts to ensure that human subjects and experimenters are ignorant of the expectations (hypotheses) of the research: to avoid the observer-expectancy effect
The subject-expectancy effect;
Anonymous peer review, a form of peer review, to promote open and systematic exploration of meaning without subjective, political bias;
Careful analysis to ensure that research subjects are adequately representative of the general population, that is not overly atypical when compared to the average population.
While it is arguable whether these experimental science safe guards provide true objectivity, in the absence of these safeguards, journalism around conflict relies on three conventions to maintain its own form of objectivity (also see journalistic objectivity), and is therefore distinct from scientific objectivity.
War journalism conventions
Firstly, to sell audiences to advertisers, reporting must appeal to as broad an audience as possible and therefore focuses on facts that are the least controversial. Conflict processes are often controversial, so coverage of them risks alienating potential consumers, who may be sensitive to the exposure of structural or cultural predisposing factors.
Secondly, a bias in favor of official sources means that, while it may appear uncontroversial, as there is only one official representative for the government on any given issue and since only the official government is usually allowed to wield legal, sanctioned force within its territory
coverage will tend to privilege violent responses to conflict over non-violent, social-psychological, context-informed responses.
Journalists Annabel McGoldrick and Jake Lynch argue that non-critical reporting of official sources is often rewarded by those sources. Through "information transactions", these same official sources allow uncritical journalists privileged access to information in the future.
Thirdly and lastly, 'dualism' biasses journalistic objectivity towards violence: "A decision to tell a story in that [bipolar] way can slip past, unnoticed, without drawing attention to itself because of its close resemblance, in shape and structure, to so much of the story-telling we already take for granted".
Gatekeeping in war journalism
These conventions also form "gates" by which gatekeepers in journalism include or exclude various aspects of reality in final publication.
In this way, proponents of peace journalism argue that in the media meaning occurs according to: "a set of rules and relations established before the reality or the experience under discussion actually occurred". In war journalism the objectivity conventions serve this purpose, but are shadowy and unacknowledged. Gatekeeping is therefore likely to be secretive and haphazard. It may distort, and also fix, meaning in conflict coverage and obfuscate the production of meaning.
Peace journalism evaluative criteria might be applied to show how conventional conflict reporting is biased in favor of violence and violent groups. An example is the coverage leading up to the September 2009 meeting between Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas, and US President Barack Obama.
Reporting was highly reactive and focused on the visible effects of the conflict, such as announcements and public disagreements between official spokespeople that appeared to disrupt peace efforts.
Coverage was oriented to elites with little mention of non-official peace efforts by individuals and groups such as the Hand in Hand network of schools, the Israeli/Palestinian The Parents Circle Families Forum, Peace Now, Breaking the Silence, Physicians for Human Rights, Machsom Watch, and Checkpoint Watch, Hanan Ashrawi (non-violent activist for human rights, founder of the Palestinian Initiative for the Promotion of Global Dialogue and Democracy, and member of the Palestinian Legislative Council).
Also ignored were programmes that promote cultural exchange, for example (the Israeli-Palestinian Aussie Rules football team The Peace Team), see here for official 2011 team details) which played in the 2008 and 2011 AFL International Cups. Another is the current programme of Palestinian children's visits to the Old Yishuv Court Museum in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem. Events demonstrating non-violent responses to the conflict were also ignored, an example being the March 12, 2011, Conference on Civil Disobedience in the West Bank marking the centenary of International Women's Day.
Projects working for peace among Arabs and Israelis lists further organizations working for peace in the region, whose activities are generally excluded from news on the Conflict.
Reporting leading up to the September 2009 meeting between Netanyahu, Abbas and Obama focused almost solely on highly divisive issues, such as Israeli illegal settlements in the West Bank and Jerusalem, and the diplomatic/official status of Jerusalem. Coverage was also oriented towards differences, with a focus on the here and now. Potential benefits in physical, economic, and social security of peaceful relations were ignored, and "progress" towards peace was portrayed as having to come with one or more parties compromising and surrendering their positions on key issues, which is of course a zero sum orientation. Coverage generally ignored the background or context of positions. Positions were presented as unchangeable on any peaceful settlement, rather than the public "face" of unmet needs that often drive violent conflicts. Because of distrust between parties these needs are often not honestly expressed publicly.
Peace journalism argues that the objectivity conventions are likely to have important and consistent effects that distort the way audiences understand a conflict.
In war journalism, violence is typically presented as only its own cause, ignoring the possibility of structural or psychological causes. Since violence is assumed to have no cause or explanation (such as the deprived needs of parties), conventional conflict reporting may leave viewers to conclude that the only "natural" or reasonable response to violence is more violence. That "more violence—'the only language they understand'—is an appropriate remedy", and that non-violent responses are irrelevant or 'unrealistic'.
This focus on only physical violent behavior is an example of what leading Conflict Analyst and Peace Researcher, Johan Galtung identifies as a major flaw in responses to inter-communal conflict: the "Conservative Fallacy".
This bias towards prioritizing violent actors with coverage is then expected by violent groups, through what is called a Feedback Loop. Parties to a conflict often try to use the media to advance their position, rather than being passive subjects, unaware of being observed, as assumed in sciences where humans are not the subjects. Journalist, and journalism Associate Professor, Jake Lynch notes that "it is not the influence of news on public opinion as such, but assumptions by parties to conflict about its likely or possible influence, that condition their behaviour".
In this way war journalism is an example of the role of power in representation and of the media trying to fix meaning, in this case about violence and its causes, for "it to become naturalized so that is the only meaning it can possibly carry ... where you cannot see that anybody ever produced it."
War journalism is understood as reporting on conflict in a way which imposes an artificially confined closed space, and closed time, with causes and exits existing only in the conflict arena. Peace journalism can then be understood as journalism that avoids this outside imposition, which more objectively assesses the possibility of conflicts taking place in open space, and open time with any number of causes and exits.
Effects of war journalism
The Salvadoran Civil War, largely a peasant revolution, took place 1980–1992. The USA supported the right-wing government. During the war 75,000 people were killed, 8,000 more went missing and another million exiled. On 17 March 1980, the village of Ingenio Colima was attacked by paramilitaries who murdered all its occupants. At the time, the country's media gave a biased account of what took place. The intention today – in the face of open hostility from today's political leaders is to investigate and clarify what happened and to contribute to a national process of truth and reconciliation.
The emotional effects of war journalism also make it more difficult for audiences to be aware of this biased presentation of conflict. War journalism takes advantage of the emotional "high" humans can get from fear through evolutionary psychological mechanisms. In a similar way, war journalism appeals to "lower order" needs for security and belonging.
The prefrontal cortex, governing working memory, rational attentive functioning, and complex thought is inhibited by activation of the brain's fear centre, the limbic system.
Audiences are thus deprived of cognitive resources with which to recognize the role of fear in encouraging war journalism consumption. This cognitive deprivation also further fixes meaning and increases the role of "automatically activated attitudes" which according to cognitive psychology: "guide attention toward attitude-consistent information, provide a template with which to interpret ambiguous information, and ... guide behaviour in a relatively spontaneous fashion".
Therefore viewers are primed to pay more attention to future information, which is consistent with the automatically activated attitudes formed by war journalism. Research into the ever present framing in the media supports this conclusion: "Certainly people can recall their own facts, forge linkages not made explicitly in the text, or retrieve from memory a causal explanation or cure that is completely absent from the text. In essence, this is just what professors encourage their students to do habitually. But Zaller (1992), Kahneman and Tversky (1984), and Iyengar (1991), among others, suggest that on most matters of social or political interest, people are not generally so well-informed and cognitively active, and that framing therefore heavily influences their responses to communications".
Research shows that war journalism can have negative emotional impacts on audience members. These include feelings of hopelessness and powerlessness, compounded by increased anxiety, mood disturbance, sadness and a sense of disconnection with physical and social environments. Research by Galtung and Ruge (1965) finds negativity bias in foreign news. This has also been confirmed more recently by Nohrstedt and Ottosen (2008).
This can affect reactions towards the conflict itself, and an audience's general psychological wellbeing, which biasses their view of the world as excessively chaotic and may cause serious anxiety and emotional difficulties, and a sense of disempowerment and disconnection.
Vicarious trauma can increase these negative effects, where "even 'normal', intelligent, educated individuals can become highly suggestible towards violent acts in formerly unexpected contexts".
These negative emotional states may discourage audience members from criticism and challenge of the biased information presented through war journalism. These public concerns may appear to be "someone else's problem" and best left to "experts", who alone have the necessary knowledge, time, and emotional endurance. These negative emotional responses may also discourage creative engagement with the conflict and conflict parties. This is especially troubling considering the critical role of creativity in conflict resolution and peacebuilding.
Feedback loop
Peace journalism analysis suggests that typical news on conflict, with its value bias towards violence and violent groups, has important effects on the parties to conflict. Firstly, peace journalism proponents argue that the bias in favour of publicity for violence and violent actors, "plays into" the interests of violent actors to intimidate and disrupt the peace process. This is an example of a positive feedback loop between war and war journalism: "it is not the influence of news on public opinion as such, but assumptions by parties to conflict about its likely or possible influence, that condition their behaviour". This bias also weakens and punishes, with less publicity, non-violent groups affected by a conflict, for their lack of violence. Nohrstedt and Ottosen (2002) note:
"if traditional media themselves are unable to transmit alternative perspectives and voice the danger is that those ... that feel marginalised will turn to terror in order to make a difference in the media agenda".
The most visible actions of a group, of which one is not a member, are often considered representative of that group's behaviour (an effect called the "availability heuristic"). Therefore war journalism's over-selection of violent, as opposed to non-violent, responses to conflict may actually foster a misperception of excessive threat between parties. This is then generally exaggerated by other inter-group social-cognitive biases within war journalism. These include biases towards: seeing an outgroup as more homogeneous (with less internal variety) than it really is, ignoring the variety of attitudes towards the conflict; seeing ambiguous situations, or negative group behavior, as playing out internal, and stable, group characteristics rather than external, and variable, circumstances, favourable ingroup/outgroup comparison to increase collective self esteem; and members of groups who perceive themselves to be under threat to be more pressured internally to conform with and reinforce dominant group norms; premature and immediate resistance to ideas on positive responses to violence offered by members of outgroups.
Louis Kriesberg, a sociologist at Syracuse University, and expert on conflict resolution points out that: "conventional thinking among partisans in a fight generally attributes destructive persistence in a conflict to the enemy's character, asserting that the enemy is aggressive by nature, has evil leaders, or adheres to a hostile ideology". And Professor of World Religions, Diplomacy and Conflict Resolution, Marc Gopin, agrees with the importance of psychological factors in escalating conflict: "being hated normally generates deep injury and corresponding anger in most recipients is what I call a "conflict dance" of action/reaction".
A peace journalism perspective also highlights another effect of typical conflict journalism on the groups engaged in a conflict: war journalism's common focus on the human drama and tragedy of violence. Hamber and Lewis (1997) note war journalism "often involves painting doomsday scenarios of victims who are irreparably damaged and for whom there appears to be no solution and no future". This creates an increased impediment for the victims of unreported crimes. And the positive experiences of those who have embarked upon a process of recovery is often ignored in war journalism. For example in Israel/Palestine, victims of suicide bombing, house demolition, land and house theft, are often portrayed as defenceless, disempowered victims with no prospect of healing or positive response to their predicament.
Effective non-violent bridge building between communities such as the Hand in Hand Arab/Jewish school network in Israel, are routinely ignored in war journalism coverage. Non-violent initiatives illustrate what can be possible through peaceful responses to conflict but this information is artificially "filtered out" through the coverage biases of war journalism. Parties are therefore presented with a biassed picture of the entire conflict, favouring violent responses to the conflict. Parties are led to believe that that violence is the only way their needs can be met, thereby reinforcing and escalating cycles of dangerous retaliation between groups. Peace journalism would also charge that this pattern of conventional conflict reporting submerges the emotional cost of violent conflict and therefore makes the psychological aspects of cycles of revenge subtle, and so more difficult to prevent.
All of this missed information could represent a crucial movement away from violence, as the only option for threatened groups towards peace. But only if they are not hidden by journalistic assumptions that they are irrelevant, and should not be reported. This is of special concern, given that the collective trauma suffered by a population, and the fear that this generates, can lead to a reduced capacity for decision making and action.
Peace journalism as a response to war journalism
In response to war journalism's value bias in favour of violence, peace journalism promises two key benefits: for those concerned with objectivity in journalism, it aims to avoid and counteract the persistent bias of valuing violence and violent parties. Secondly, as all journalism must in some way appeal to the values of their audiences, for those who value the promotion of peace and social justice over violence, it provides a practical methodology.
The 'fixation of meaning' in war journalism is often hidden by the "scattered opposition facts" that often occur in its coverage. However these do not actually allow for "challenging a dominant frame" of pro-violence: 'Framing' researcher Entman recommends:
"If educated to understand the difference between including scattered oppositional facts, and challenging a dominant frame, journalists might be better equipped to construct news that makes equally salient—equally accessible to the average, inattentive, and marginally informed audience—two or more interpretations of problems."
Decisions
Peace journalism is anchored in conflict analysis and peace research "to map out solid ground beneath our feet; to declare, in advance, that we intend to use it, to assign meanings and draw distinctions." Decisions, on which of the almost infinite stories and facts to report, can be made openly and systematically. Lynch (2008) shows how these two disciplines are important anchors for conflict journalism in that they employ the academic rigor of the social sciences including: "openness about – and prepared to justify – starting assumptions for both observation and interpretation; and peer review. Built into social science, moreover, is an allowance for the participant-observer effect – as soon as you start to observe something, you cannot avoid changing it."
As such peace journalism considers the effect it has on audiences and parties with regard to its own objectivity. Lynch and Galtung (2010) elaborate on how this operates in conflict journalism: "'It is an important distinction in this context because journalism itself may be part of the extended pattern of conflictual relationships, in which parties and their shared relations find themselves embedded – if only by bringing an audience to the ringside. Tillett comments: "In some situations, individuals (or groups) will 'fight to the death' (even when obviously losing all that they claim to be seeking) to avoid being seen to 'back down' or 'lose face'" (1999, p. 29). In a conflict, he continues, "the presence of an audience generally makes it more likely that the protagonists will want to be seen to win, and that they will be less prepared to resolve than to fight". Schattschneider argues that spectators are "an integral part of the situation for, as likely as not, the audience determines the outcome of the fight" (1960, p. 2)."
Inter-group violence
Conflict analysis provides guidance on mapping the hopes, needs, and fears of all parties to a conflict, including outwardly impartial third parties; and acknowledges the potential role of creativity, rather than assuming as war journalism does, that the positions of elites, power gradients and the struggle for power are the most important determinants of a conflict.
These can then be assessed empirically in the conflict, and its potential resolution, rather than being ignored from the outset by journalists, as often is the case in war journalism. Therefore the importance in peace journalism of being willing to consider conflict as "open in space and time, with causes and exits anywhere". Lynch and Galtung (2010) present an important example of this in the case of North and South Korea, indicating that journalists should not ignore the grassroots people that endure this conflict, and that comparisons and input from the reunified Germany may be helpful, as could consideration and dialogue with East Asia. The aim here is not to impose definite answers. Conflict Analysis and Peace Research often elicit useful perspectives from those involved in the conflict. Empirical questions can then be put forward, and tested by investigative journalism.
These processes demonstrate that conflict is not static and intractable. These insights challenge the psychological tendencies of war journalism noted above to present negative outgroup behaviour as the result of stable group characteristics. Indeed the non-linear cycle of violence outlined by Elworthy and Rogers (2002), proposes that the key stage to prevent a cycle of revenge, is before the anger becomes bitterness. And peace journalism can allow for the consideration that "bitterness can be thought of as anger + memory ... storing away trauma in a 'trauma bank' and, eventually, withdrawing it as 'glory' through further violence".
Through reporting, which does not routinely ignore causes and non-linear cycles of violence, peace journalism can help expand the cognitive and emotional space for peace initiatives that contribute peacebuilding.
A positive feedback loop between the media and peace processes could then support the creation and continuation of peaceful process-structures . This would involve demonstrating a pattern of coverage that leads present and potential peace actors to predict that their efforts will be reported by journalists to "create opportunities for society at large to consider and value non-violent responses to conflict". This in turn could reduce negative inter-group social-psychological tendencies. This may be particularly important for projects such as the examples in Israel/Palestine of the 'Hand in Hand' network of schools, 'Peace Now', 'Breaking the Silence', 'Physicians for Human Rights', 'Machsom Watch' and 'Checkpoint Watch', which as mainly grassroots initiatives, are generally more fragile than mid level or upper level peace activities.
Examples
As a pedagogical practice, peace journalism training often uses pairs of war journalism and peace journalism reports to illustrate how the same story can be reported in either style, and that there is the potential to produce peace journalism within the time and travel constraints of mainstream journalism.
For a peace journalism/war journalism pair on conflict in the Philippines see Peace Journalism in the Philippines. The transcripts of this report pair, along with an outline of a course in peace journalism can be viewed at A course in peace journalism.
For a pair of reports covering Israel/Palestine plus a link to practical tips for avoiding journalism that is biased towards violence and violent actors, see The Middle East—War Journalism and Peace Journalism The documentary News from the Holy Land also contains another pair of reports on the Israel/Palestine conflict.
The free Reporting the World publication contains pairs of peace journalism/war journalism news reports on Macedonia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Iraq, and Indonesia.
The Cairo based Center for Intercultural Dialogue and Translation (CIDT) seeks to build
bridges of understanding between the Arab and Western world through analysis of the
news from these regions. To Be an Effective Advocate for Peace, Media Distortions Must Be Addressed analyses situations where conflict reporting has contributed to the actual worsening of conflict.
An example from the Hindustan Times, showing how peace journalism can also operate through awards and commendations publicising and supporting the work of non-violence and cooperative conflict resolution: Afghan, Palestinian win UN award in honour of Gandhi.
Peace journalism can also take the form of the public dissemination of research on the successful conditions for non-violent conflict resolution and negotiation such as: Unequal Partners Can't Negotiate by Paul Duffill, writing for New Matilda.
For an example in Australia see this report on the protests of the 2009 US and Australian military exercises, Talisman Sabre.
TED talk by Julia Bacha on the danger of news about conflict only covering violent actors, excluding non-violent programmes Julia Bacha: Pay attention to nonviolence.
Budrus documentary film, telling the true story of the successful non-violent struggle of the people of the village Bubrus in the West Bank of Palestine.
Arab revolutions and the power of nonviolent action by Stephen Zunes, writing for the National Catholic Reporter.
Anne Applebaum argues in this piece for the Washington Post that though it is tempting to lump all the recent revolutions in the Middle East and North Africa into a single "Arab revolution," or "Arab Spring" the differences between them may turn out to be more important than their similarities: In the Arab world, it's 1848 - not 1989.
This report from Michelle Shephard Somalia's Al Qaeda: A chance for Shabab to negotiate? is an example of a partial PJ piece, where some elements of PJ are present. The piece does not assume there are only two parties, and does not assume parties' goals exactly match reported positions, and explores contradictory goals within a single official party. It also reports on peaceful responses to conflict. This report however is generally closed in space and time: with little exploration of the reasons behind the conflict between warring groups (including considering the conduct of the weak national government), or whether parties other than Al Queda/Al Shabab have used violence, and assumes that causes and sources of solutions are restricted to within Somalia itself. The report also does not explore non-elite efforts at peace, even though Somalis rally against al-Qaeda allies suggests that there is local support for peace efforts.
Positive feedback loops are a useful reference point here for conceptualising the various entry points for peace journalism in the wider phenomenology of news. Peace journalism has been applied in training and dialogue with journalists in a variety of settings. However peace journalism has also been applied in a number of other sectors.
These interventions are extremely varied and, in addition to the examples noted above, include international NGO work with local partners and networks in areas of conflict, the promotion of communication rights, participatory processes, community-based communication approaches for development, and social change and peacebuilding (for example see Current Projects-Communication for Social Change & World Association for Christian Communication programmes and further reading sections below) and work with organisations who may themselves become sources for peace journalism. Government and inter-governmental approaches have also facilitated peace journalism in preventing media manipulation and promoting people centered media in post-conflict societies and through the United Nations. Likewise upper level editors and media organisation managers have participated in peace journalism workshops and seminars.
Criticism
Peace journalism has aroused a number of debates and criticisms from scholars and journalists.
Objectivity
Some opponents characterise peace journalism as "activist" new writing that, while being socially engaged to promote peace, is unlike mainstream objective, or balanced, news coverage that seeks to remain impartial or above the fray.
This raises the important question: how objective and impartial is peace journalism? From a peace journalism perspective the claim "we just report the facts" must include the facts of how and according to what principles these facts came to meet the reporter, and how the finished coverage came to meet the facts. The Press Institute of India's conflict reporting guidelines point out: "Factual accuracy in a single story is no substitute for the total truth. A single story, which is factually accurate can nonetheless be misleading".
As such peace journalism is generally more objective, with its inclusion of implications for international law, positive developments in both elite peacemaking and capacity building, and non-elite perspectives and peacebuilding initiatives. This objectivity, unconstrained by Objectivity Conventions, highlights the truth-orientation of peace journalism: to "expose untruths on all sides".
In doing so peace journalism aims to de-naturalise meaning by highlighting the creation of war journalism dominated meaning in conflict. Indeed Hall (1997) recommends that the unfixing of meaning: "is often a struggle to increase the diversity of things which subjects can be of the possibility of identities which people have not seen represented before ... you have to intervene in exactly that powerful exchange between image and its psychic meaning ... with which we invest images [and] expose and deconstruct the work of representation which the stereotype is doing".
Many international negotiation experts and peace practitioners state that non-violent confrontation and the equalisation of power is needed before effective negotiation and dialogue between parties can take place. Through reporting on grassroots and local voices for peace, the power of these voices is increased, as they become "reality checkers" for often contradictory statements from elite representatives involved in violence. Through this non-violent "ideational confrontation", audiences and parties to conflict may be more able to negotiate their own meaning, outside of fixed elite narratives. Thus "mounting anomalies may expose contradictions, and herald a paradigm shift" as local pro-peace perspectives previously consigned to a zone of "deviance" become "legitimate controversy".
Prior to the presidential election of 2009 in Afghanistan, the counter-insurgency approach advocated by US commander General McCrystal contained elements of relationship building to a degree that is unusual among military approaches in Afghanistan. In the lead up to the Presidential election in Afghanistan in mid 2009, an unusual example of this relationship-sensitive approach to counter-insurgency was applied by US troops in the Nawa district, of Helmand province. However, the overwhelming majority of attention that Nawa district received in 2009, the year that this new strategy was first applied, was on reports of violence there, principally in early-to-mid July, during intensified military operations. For example in 2009, seven out of ten articles in the 'Washington Post online', tagged under the key word "Nawa", focussed almost exclusively on violence and US combat operations in the region, with similar ratios appearing in online coverage from the Guardian, the Independent, and the New York Times. In fact, relationship building has succeeded, in contrast to violent methods, in winning "hearts and minds" in Nawa, Afghanistan, but also on a larger scale in Iraq. The US military's promotion of these methods as successful may of course be a less than "objective" evaluation. However the military's promotion of relationship building as a legitimate tactic to attempt in addressing violence does contribute to the normative strength of non-violence responses to conflict. In acknowledging the importance of (at least being seen to) build cooperative relationships with local populations (over simply violently suppressing disagreement to military policy) the legitimacy of these non-violent responses to violence conflict is reinforced. And indeed researchers also note the importance of relationship building for 'vertical and horizontal integration' in peacebuilding to support the sustainability of institutional reform and in promoting 'peace with justice' and respect for human rights.
Peace journalism aims to retain the role of observer in reporting conflict, rather than functioning like war journalism, which intervenes in conflict to increase the influence of violent actors and violent actions. Peace journalism, by presenting local perspectives which contradict violence-exacerbating war journalism, may help to expose these violent groups' attempts to fix and naturalise meaning and to take advantage of this meaning to promote their violence. Exploration of new types of relationships between Afghan locals and the international community contradicts assertions made at the time, with the support of war journalism, by insurgents and the US government, that the negative effects of foreign occupation could only be ended with their violent expulsion, or that 40,000 more combat troops were the most critical component for sustainable peace in Afghanistan.
Explaining violence seen as justification of violence
This criticism can be represented by neo-conservative proponent Richard Perle, that one must "decontextualise terror ... any attempt to discuss the roots of terrorism is an attempt to justify it. It simply needs to be fought and destroyed". While this may be a common response to journalism which advocates context, it is also an example of many of the social-cognitive inter-group biases noted above, and exemplifies what social psychologist Phillip Zimbardo (of the Stanford Prison Experiments) calls a Fundamental Attribution Error: "the tendency to explain observed behaviour by reference to dispositions, while ignoring or minimizing the impact of situational variables".
The notion of human needs driving violence and being significantly effected by violence (borrowed from Conflict Analysis and Peace Research) and insight into the stratified nature of reality (borrowed from Critical Realism), highlights why an explanation of violence is not the same thing as a justification for it.
Critical realism in the social sciences claims that reality consists of a number of levels or strata. Each stratum deals with larger and more complex phenomena than the ones below it. These strata might begin from physical mechanisms at the most basic level, followed by chemical mechanisms, then biological, followed by psychological and finally social structures. Activity at each lower stratum contributes to, but can never fully describe, the new mechanisms that develop in higher strata, in a process called emergence. For example, competing theories of sub-atomic structure at the physical level influence but cannot fully explain the outcome of the reaction 2Na+2HCl = 2NaCl + H2 (at the chemical level). Likewise, the individual psychologies of a landlord and tenant cannot fully explain their relationship in the social stratum, which is also influenced by other processes that operate at the social stratum, including laws and culture.
Structural and cultural explanations for violence generally deal with the social stratum: that is relationships between people and groups. An explanation of this violence is not the same as ignoring the role of individual choice and psychology: the violence that emerges at the social level is the result of a complex interaction of influences from lower strata (individual choices and psychology) and structures which exist primarily at the social stratum (such as laws and culture). So to give cultural or structural explanations of violence is not the same as saying that these social influences override the role the individual choice (which is located in a lower stratum and therefore occurs under different conditions).
Take the case where an individual's anger (brought on from previous trauma) becomes bitterness, which is followed by their own violent acts, following Elworthy and Rogers (2002) cycle of violence noted above. An individual has still made a choice to deprive the victim of their violence of their human needs (probably safety and security) even though their own human needs have also been violated earlier. The point is not that they must be seen as either a innocent victim or an evil perpetrator. The practical point is the prevention of violence, and the healing of all those whose needs have been violated.
This approach does not assume that the best solution for stopping individual violence necessarily exists at the level where an individual makes a choice to act violently (which happens at the psychological level). In some cases punishment or imprisonment may be necessary. However Conflict Analysis and Peace Research suggest that, given the failure of the psychological, medical and social sciences (including education) to eliminate the persistent rates of psychotic tendencies in human groups (psychologists estimate that on average 3 percent of any population have psychotic tendencies), a more promising approach may to look at what social, economic, cultural conditions and what inter-group relations enable individuals such as Hitler, Osama Bin Laden, Stalin and Pol Pot, to realise their desire for mass violence.
Conflict analysis and peace research does not primarily focus on understanding the individual psychology of these individuals (at the psychological stratum), but on how these individuals may be prevented from taking up a position in society where they are able to direct inter-communal violence (at the social stratum).
Indeed in peace journalism the role of individual agency is given a lot of importance. For example journalists are encouraged, in peace journalism workshops, to work peace journalism into the existing media structures. And peace journalism urges journalists to investigate the possibility that, even in violent situations, there are always voices for peace, and to search these voices out, when reporting what the Objectivity Conventions might ignore from the outset. Likewise the role of individual choice is not ignored in Conflict Analysis and Peace Research, and leading scholar-practitioner, John Paul Lederach notes that:
"I have not experienced any situation in conflict, no matter how protracted or severe, from Central America to the Philippines to the Horn of Africa, where there have not been people who had a vision for peace, emerging often from their own experience of pain. Far too often, however, these same people people are overlooked and disempowered either because they do not represent 'official' power, whether on the side of government [or] of the various militias, or because they are written off as biased and too personally affected by the conflict".
Structure versus agency
Hanitzsche (2007) argues that "the failures of corporate journalism cannot be overcome by an individualistic and voluntaristic conceptualization of news making. To have any impact on the ways news is being made, and the critical discussion thereof, the advocates of peace journalism must address the structural constraints of news production ... a peaceful culture is the precondition of peace journalism."
Structure is a key concern in peace journalism, along with the influence of structure on content pluralism in news. And a number of projects that apply peace journalism (some of which are outlined above) demonstrate that peace journalism activism is not limited to journalists themselves. Indeed, conflict media content analyses are important educational resources for audiences, NGOs and journalists, to show how deficiencies in content can be used to campaign for more structural pluralism.
These varied approaches demonstrate that inroads have been, and are still being made, in peace journalism activism in the areas Hackett (2006) identifies as necessary to address challenges of structure and to "make peace journalism possible": reforming journalism from within, and also creating alternative media organisations, and intervening in the broader fields in which journalism find itself.
Audiences
Hanitszche (2007) criticises peace journalism, noting that media users are often "fragmented and active audiences instead of a passive mass ... leading to a selective use of supplied products". Likewise Devereux (2003) notes that media audiences "may have different expectations of media genres" and Turnbull (2002) argues that in media research a serious problem is just to limit and define audiences and therefore relevant media practices. Indeed Hall (1997) notes that the meaning of media messages changes "as you move from one person to another, one group to another, one part of society to another." And Lynch (2008) points out, drawing from Hall (1980) that "the meanings of media messages are made, at least partly, at the point of reception, in a process influenced chiefly by the socio-economic position of the reader or viewer." As such Hall (1980) notes that in a negotiated or oppositional manner, meaning often:
"contains a mixture of adaptive and oppositional elements: it acknowledges the legitimacy of the hegemonic definitions to make the grand significations (abstract), while, at a more restricted, situational (situated) level, it makes its own ground rules - it operates with exceptions to the rule. It accords the privileged position to the dominant definitions of events while reserving the right to make a more negotiated application to 'local conditions'".And indeed for many peace journalists it is the visibility of 'local conditions' that allows for oppositional and negotiated meaning. Lynch (2008)argues that "for audiences to produce oppositional or negotiated readings of media messages assumes they have enough directly relevant personal and social experience against which to measure them", This is often not the case with international conflict. Indeed Hall's(1980) own example of the negotiation of meaning is the case of an industrial factory worker, willing to challenge official justifications in the media for an Industrial Relations Bill limiting his or her right to strike.
Peace journalism analysis shows that the facts absent in audiences' understanding of conflict, can closely mirror those neglected in war journalism. A notable example is Philo and colleagues' research into media coverage of the Israel/Palestine conflict in the UK media. With mainstream media neglecting the Palestinian narrative that Palestinian refugees lost their land and homes when Israel was established, audiences exhibited consistent ignorance about the basic facts of the conflict (for example where the bulk of refugees came from) and tended to perceive Palestinians as "starting the violence" and therefore Israeli authorities as forced to "respond" violently to prevent or contain this action, which has no possible rationale and therefore no potential non-violent resolution. Indeed five years earlier, when reporting results of the study, Philo (2004) noted that: "This pattern of reporting clearly influenced how some viewers understood the conflict ... The gaps in public knowledge closely parallel those in the news. The Palestinian perspective, that they have lost their land and are living under occupation, was effectively absent. It is perhaps not surprising that some viewers believed that they were simply being aggressive and trying to take land from the Israelis". This omission of the Palestinian perspective was so serious that Helen Boaden, Head of News at the BBC, concluded in an internal email: "we fail to give enough context and history to this highly charged story and that we neglect the Palestinian narrative ... In our response, we've tried to come up with practical ways to remedy our weaknesses". The Israeli–Palestinian conflict has also been the focus of research by Yifat Mor and colleagues, who examined how social media (namely Facebook) can be a tool to promote dialogue between both parties.
This is an important illustration of the consistent effect of war journalism across general audiences: "the pattern of misunderstanding almost exactly matching ... missing elements from the story habitually presented in the mainstream media". General media audiences as a group are conceptualised within the Feedback Loop of cause and effect.
Approaches
Two peace practitioner scholars, John Paul Lederach and Johan Galtung present two quite different models for conflict resolution and peace building. Lederach (1995) presents an "Elictive Model" which is aims "primarily at discovery, creation, and solidification of models that emerge from the resources present in a particular setting and respond to needs in that context" and to not impose third party knowledge from trainer to participant. This approach was applied in a dialogue in 2003 entitled "Reporting the[sic?] Iraq: what went right? What went wrong?". Included were Heads of News from the BBC and CNN, the editor of the Guardian, and several senior reporters who had also been reporting the war from Iraq. Drawing on "the resources in the room" recommendations for the coverage of conflict included:
Do not report a 'line' from an official source without obtaining and citing independent evidence as to its reliability.
Acknowledge that the important job of testing arguments is best done if they are juxtaposed with, and weighed against, alternative, countervailing arguments.
All newsrooms genuinely interested in offering a service to the public must think long and hard about 'conduit' journalism and, in particular, whether their political correspondents are being used in this way.
Galtung's TRANSCEND approach in contrast, focuses on the role a third party to "unstick" violent conflicts and stimulate creativity. This is done by probing deeply into the nature of parties' goals, expanding the spectrum of acceptable solutions, and opening up cognitive space for fresh potentialities not conceived of by conflict parties. "In one-on-one conversation-style dialogues, the task is to stimulate creativity, develop new perspectives, and make the conflict parties 'ready for the table'".
Lynch (2008) recounts a notable example of this approach during a peace journalism forum of Middle Eastern journalists, in Amman, in 1999. Discussions often devolved into national groups blaming the journalists of the other countries for not confronting their governments' lack of movement towards peace. Galtung himself challenged the participants to: "imagine a future Middle East they wanted to see, and start to think aloud, in cross-national groups, about how they might play a part in bringing it about".
A Galtungian perspective, as a foundation for much of peace journalism, insists that "the journalist focus on root causes of conflict such as poverty or prior abuse, and not merely focus on events associated with violent political encounters". Through this approach peace journalism could act to "disembed" seemingly immutable official positions from the greater context of a conflict by exploring background to a conflict, challenging propaganda, and making visible official and local initiatives for peaceful conflict resolution.
These two approaches differ not only in the "how" of Conflict Resolution but the "who". Lederach generally outlines a "middling out" approach where "the level with the greatest potential for establishing an infrastructure that can sustain the peacebuilding process over the long term appears to be the middle range". He argues that grassroots approaches are generally the more fragile since their participants are often concerned with day to day issues of survival. Upper level approaches assume a high level of integration between elites and grassroots: that peace agreements reached there "are relevant to and capable of practical implementation at the local level" Galtung on the other hand argues that upper level leaders often actually feel excluded from facilitated peace processes, with the modern focus on grassroots and civil society initiatives. The root of conflict is incompatible goals, pursued by parties which result in violent attitudes and behavior. It follows that "people are more able to discuss a root problem when they sense a solution somewhere. A glimmer of light at the end of a tunnel makes it considerably more easy[sic] to admit that we are in a tunnel". In Galtung's work, the most accessible way to influence these goals had been to work with those who officially defined them and led policy—the upper level leaders.
The importance of accurate and complete Conflict Analysis for a given conflict highlights how these two approaches can be complementary. Practical Conflict Analysis is often aimed at identifying the easiest "peace levers" to pull, within a conflict to "unstick" violent inter-group relations. This contrasts with intervening in a conflict with pre-set ideas of how a resolution will be found, and with which specific level or group to begin working.
Therefore Conflict Analysis may indicate which "entry points" offer the most promising chance to transform the relations between parties. And from this it will follow which approach, or combination of approaches, are likely to work from that entry point (whether it be at the grassroots, mid level or upper level or a combination). This integrative approach is summed up by peace practitioner and researcher Wendy Lambourne: "to rely on only one theoretical approach in peace practice risks being culturally blind".
Similar approaches
Sometimes also called conflict solution journalism, conflict sensitive journalism, and constructive conflict coverage. A similar approach is also found in preventive journalism, which extends the principles to social, economic, environmental or institutional problems. Peace journalism is one of several approaches and movements in journalism history, including advocacy journalism, development communication journalism, the new journalism, and public or civic journalism, which reject the universal or hegemonic claims to neutrality of professional journalism in the developed West.
See also
Alfred Hermann Friedthe first explicit peace journalist
Antimilitarism
Anti-war movement
Conflict analysis
Conflict resolution
Conscientious objector
Draft evasion
Freedom of the press
Journalistic interventionism
Make love, not war
Nonkilling
Non-violence
Nonviolent resistance
Objectivity (journalism)
Peace and conflict studies
Swords to ploughshares
War resister
References
External links
Activism by type
Alternative journalism
journalism
journalism
Propaganda techniques
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmeline%20B.%20Wells
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Emmeline B. Wells
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Emmeline Blanche Woodward Harris Whitney Wells (February 29, 1828 – April 25, 1921) was an American journalist, editor, poet, women's rights advocate, and diarist. She served as the fifth Relief Society General President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1910 until her death. She represented the state of Utah at both the National and American Women's Suffrage conventions and was president of the Utah Woman's Suffrage Association. She was the editor of the Woman's Exponent for 37 years. She was a plural wife to Newel K. Whitney, then Daniel H. Wells.
Biography
Early life
Emmeline Blanche Woodward was born on February 29, 1828, in Petersham, Massachusetts. She was the seventh child of David and Diadama Hare Woodward. Her father died when she was four years old. She would later claim that her widowed mother inspired her to be a women’s rights advocate. When her mother got remarried to Samuel Clark Jr., the Woodward family moved to North New Salem, Massachusetts. There, Emmeline spent ten years of her childhood. Religion heavily influenced her first years of life; her family attended the local village church per New England tradition. As a child, she wrote poems and stories, which she shared with her friends. She often enjoyed being in nature. Woodward was very intelligent and began studying in public school until she enrolled in the New Salem Academy. She graduated from the Academy at the age of fourteen.
The revivalist movement disrupted New Salem’s previous religious unity, and Woodward’s community was split among different denominations. Following her mother, siblings, and a few friends, Woodward joined the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints on March 1, 1842. After her baptism, she returned to the Academy and continued her schooling; she did not attend church meetings for her first year of membership. When she applied to become a teacher, discrimination against her new faith proved to be a challenge. Nevertheless, she persevered and taught school briefly in Orange, Massachusetts, before her first marriage at the age of fifteen.
Marriages
She married 15-year-old James Harris, also a new church member, on July 19, 1843, in Vernon, Vermont. This marriage proved to be difficult for the young Emmeline; her mother-in-law disapproved of her, and she was unprepared for married life. Later, she wrote that she had been too emotional to make such an important decision and regretted marrying at such a young age. Life for Emmeline (now Harris) only became more difficult when she, along with the Harris family and a group of other New England Latter-day Saints, left for the Mormon settlement of Nauvoo, Illinois, in 1844. After a time, her mother- and father-in-law left the church and Nauvoo, so she and James were left alone. She gave birth to a son, Eugene Henri, on September 1, 1844. Unfortunately, Harris had been sick with "ague" during her pregnancy, and at six weeks old, her infant son became sick as well and did not survive. In addition to battling her own illness and the sorrow of losing her son, Emmeline said goodbye to her husband, who left to find work in St. Louis. He asked her to leave Nauvoo to live with his parents once more, but she refused. James Harris died as a sailor in the Indian Ocean and never returned to his wife.
The young Emmeline Harris returned to teaching. Through his children's attending her school, Harris met and later married Newel K. Whitney on February 24, 1845, under the Mormon practice of plural marriage. Emmeline Whitney admired her new husband and felt much safer as his wife. She left Nauvoo in 1846 and, along with the large Whitney family, left Winter Quarters, Nebraska, for Utah Territory in 1848. They traveled with the Heber C. Kimball company at the invitation of then-church president Brigham Young. During the journey, Whitney grew close to her sister-wives. She became friends with the "first wife" Elizabeth Ann Whitney in particular. During the journey west, Wells began recording her life experiences in the first of what would become 47 journals. She was pregnant when the company reached the Salt Lake Valley on October 8, 1848. Her first daughter, Isabel "Belle" Whitney, was born in the back of the same wagon that had carried her mother across the country; Emmeline later recounted, "our poor wagons and tents were the only homes we had." After a Whitney family home was constructed, her second daughter, Melvina Whitney, was born on August 18, 1850. Unfortunately, this good news was followed in short order by her second husband's unexpected death. Emmeline Whitney deeply mourned his passing. By age 22, she had been widowed twice. Shortly before his death, Newel Whitney had told her that she would prove to be "a tremendous influence in the building of the kingdom in the west."
Newel Whitney's death in 1850 prompted her to begin teaching school once more, as a means of providing for her daughters. She remained primarily responsible for financially supporting herself for the rest of her life. She then approached Daniel H. Wells, a friend of her late husband's and a prominent civic leader, about marriage. In 1852, she became his seventh wife. Their early marriage was distant, as Daniel Wells was heavily involved in civic and church duties and had six other families. Emmeline Wells lived separately from his other wives. She had another daughter in 1853, Emma "Emmie" Wells. When the Utah War broke out in 1857, Emmeline moved south to Provo. There, she continued to teach school. In 1859, she gave birth to her fourth daughter, Elizabeth Ann Wells, who she named after Elizabeth Ann Whitney. Her fifth daughter, Louise Martha "Louie" Wells, was then born in 1862. Thus, she and Daniel Wells had a total of three children together. Though the early years of their relationship had been difficult, the two became fond and loving companions later in life. Wells did not regret or doubt her participation in polygamy. Daniel Wells died on March 24, 1891. By the end of her life, Emmeline Wells had been widowed three times. Once her children were grown, Wells devoted herself to writing.
Contributions
Woman's Exponent
"The aim of the paper has always been to assist those who needed assistance in any or every line. ... We love women and would ever strive to uplift and help them to attain their ideals."From a young age, Emmeline Wells had been writing poetry and short stories; but her career truly blossomed with the editorials she wrote for the Woman's Exponent. Established in 1872, the periodical published news about women in the LDS church along with articles advocating for women's educational, economic, and voting rights. The Exponent became part of a nationwide network of feminist journalism, exposing Wells's voice beyond Utah. She wrote many articles about women's rights, particularly the right to run for office and the right to vote. Under the pseudonym "Blanche Beechwood," she published 40 articles arguing fervently for suffrage, societal reform, and religious freedom. Wells became the Exponent's associate editor on May 1, 1875, when Cornelia H. Horne ended her term as business manager. Following Lula Greene Richards, Wells was the second and last senior editor of the periodical from 1877 to 1914. She also assumed responsibility as its publisher, business manager, and owner. As editor, she became known for her executive talents and her superb memory. She continued to publish her own essays and poems, changing her pseudonym to "Aunt Em." In response to a special request from church president Brigham Young, she wrote and compiled the life stories of many Latter-day Saint women for publication in the Exponent. Her different writing selections over the years balance feminist and romantic views, as well as her religious beliefs. The Exponent served as a space for LDS women to express their views, including those of polygamy. Near the end of her tenure as editor, Wells enlisted the help of her daughter Annie Wells Cannon as assistant editor. After her failed request to have the Exponent become the Relief Society's official publication, the suffragist periodical closed in February 1914 with Wells's last editorial titled "Heartfelt Farewell."
Wells continued to write numerous short stories and poems, many of which were published. Between 1889 and 1890, she published her autobiography, entitled "Hephzibah," disguised in the form of a novel featuring protagonist "Hepsie." The 28-chapter work was published little by little in the Exponent. She later compiled her poetry into a single volume, Musings and Memories; it was so well received that she published a second edition in 1915. Musings and Memories contained 130 of Wells's poems, the majority discussing nature, friendship, or faith. She also wrote a book of short stories. In 1912, Wells became the first Utah woman to receive an honorary degree, in literature, awarded her by Brigham Young University.
Women's suffrage and politics
"I believe in women, especially thinking women."When women were enfranchised in Utah in 1870, Wells was among the first to vote in local elections. In 1871, women's rights activists Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony visited Utah during their tour of the western United States. Wells attended their conference and was inspired by their messages, especially as she reflected on her mother's life and her own limitations relative to self-sufficiency. She wished for greater freedom and independence for her five daughters. Feminist writer Margaret Fuller also inspired Wells. She became an early advocate of women's rights, writing under the name "Blanche Beechwood" for the Woman's Exponent. She did not adhere to or believe in the usual role of the submissive Victorian woman. Through her anonymous submissions, she expressed her frustration with society's views of the roles of a wife. She wrote 43 essays for the Exponent and became its editor in 1877. In addition to reporting news of the Relief Society, she used the publication to support women's suffrage, as well as educational and economic opportunities for women. She was in frequent contact with women's rights leaders and other pro-suffrage editors around the nation. The publication Woman's Words brought her writing to the east coast. In order to inspire her readers to advocate for change, she wrote 57 articles arguing for more independence for women.
In 1879, Wells was appointed as a Utah representative to a suffrage convention in Washington, D.C. by national feminist leaders Stanton and Anthony. She and Zina P. Young Card were "the first official representatives of LDS women to a national women's conference." In Washington, Wells spoke against anti-polygamy legislation, especially when it threatened to disenfranchise Utah women. She and Card met with President Rutherford B. Hayes and first lady Lucy Hayes to present their case. President Hayes thanked them for sharing their perspective with him, and requested that they write down what they'd shared with him on the subject so that he could reference their words later. When President Hayes later pressed forward with anti-polygamy legislation, Wells expressed her dismay in her December 1879 editorial in the Exponent. She and Card also addressed the House Judiciary Committee and the Senate Judiciary Committee on the matter while in Washington. The two were ridiculed for attending the convention, but Stanton defended their right to be there. In addition to these national efforts, Wells was a delegate to the 1882 Utah State Constitutional Convention, where she served on the committee on education and the committee on schedule and elections. Wells joined the National Council of Women of the United States in 1891.
As early as in 1879, Wells advocated that women be granted the right to hold office in Utah Territory. In 1878, she turned down a nomination for Salt Lake County Treasurer from the People's Party because women were not eligible to hold office in the territory. In 1879, Wells, along with Sarah M. Kimball, urged Governor George Emery to support women holding office, which he declined. In 1880, she was the leading force involved in convincing Charles W. Penrose to introduce legislation to grant women the ability to hold office. She wrote that her wish to be a political representative was "not an aggressive act on the part of women but a progressive one which will remove the discrimination that exists among equal citizens."
For 30 years, Wells linked LDS women with national suffrage organizations. She gathered signatures from women in Utah to appeal to Washington, D.C. for a constitutional amendment that would grant women the right to vote. She also remained lifelong friends with Stanton and Anthony as she represented Utah in the national battle for suffrage. For nearly thirty years she represented Utah women in the National Woman Suffrage Association and the National and International Councils of Women. In 1893, Wells was elected president of the Utah Territorial Women's Suffrage Association. As such, she represented the National Council at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago as a speaker, session conductor, and exhibit organizer. She also traveled to Atlanta in 1895 to represent Utah at the annual NAWSA conference. Wells was also involved in the ultimately successful effort to restore suffrage to Utah women in the 1896 Utah state constitution. In 1899, she was invited by the International Council of Women to speak in London as a representative of the United States. A year before her death, Wells was able to see the passing of the 19th Amendment.
Wells served as the chairwoman of the Utah Woman's Republican League; and, after Utah gained statehood, she did run for election. In a much-publicized election, the 66-year-old Wells stood as one of several "at large" Republican candidates for state senator from Salt Lake County. Martha Hughes Cannon, a physician and former employee at the Woman's Exponent, was one of five Democrats running for the office. On November 3, 1896, Cannon defeated the field and became the first woman ever elected as a state senator in the United States.
Church service
Much of her involvement in women's rights movements, she felt, had been inspired by her involvement in the LDS Church's women's organization, the Relief Society. For many years, Wells served as its corresponding secretary, and as such was responsible for planning its 1892 jubilee celebration.
Wells then served as Relief Society General Secretary for twenty years to presidents Eliza R. Snow, Zina D. H. Young, and Bathsheba W. Smith. She led the Relief Society into involvement with the National and International Councils of Women.
In her youth in Nauvoo, Wells briefly knew Joseph Smith, founder of the church. She eventually became one of the last people living to have met Joseph Smith in person. In 1905, as Relief Society Secretary, she wrote the following to the young women of the church:
Wells was appointed by Brigham Young in 1876 to head a church-based grain-saving program, and managed the church-wide program until the beginning of World War I. She placed advertisements for it in the Exponent. In 1919, Wells received a personal visit in her Salt Lake City home from U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, who presented her with a commendation for selling the collected wheat to the government for the war effort. Under her leadership, 200,000 bushels had been saved for this time of shortage.
Wells was called as the Relief Society's general president in 1910 at the age of 82. She served for eleven years, administering service issues related to the world war and dealing with issues relating to growth and administrative expansion. She sought to lead the organization as Joseph Smith had originally organized it. In her capacity as Relief Society General President, Wells unveiled the Seagull Monument at Temple Square in Salt Lake City in 1913. To her sorrow, the Relief Society Board declined to continue their support of the Woman's Exponent, and the publication closed in 1914.
Death and legacy
Towards the end of her life, Wells's birthday celebrations were community events. Poor health led her to be released in 1921, at the age of 93. Wells died later that year on April 25, 1921 and was buried at the Salt Lake City Cemetery. Her first counselor Clarissa S. Williams succeeded her as Relief Society general president. Her funeral was held in the Salt Lake Tabernacle, making her the second woman ever to receive that honor. Flags on church-owned properties were flown at half mast to honor her.
During her life, Wells met with a total of three US presidents.
Wells authored the text of the Latter-day Saint hymn "Our Mountain Home So Dear", which is hymn number 33 in the church's 1985 English-language hymnal.
A bust of Wells, inscribed "A Fine Soul Who Served Us", is found in the rotunda of the Utah State Capitol. The bust was funded through the efforts of women's groups in Utah, including the feminist community, LDS women's groups, and women's groups from other church organizations and was made posthumously as a tribute to Wells. She is the only woman to receive this honor.
Publications
Articles
Poetry
See also
List of General Presidencies of the Relief Society
References
Further reading
Crocheron, Augusta Joyce. Representative Women of Deseret. 1884.
Jenson, Andrew. Latter-day Saints Biographical Encyclopedia, vol. 2., 1914.
Madsen, Carol Cornwall (Editor). Battle for the Ballot: Essays on Woman Suffrage in Utah. Utah State University Press, Logan, Utah, 1997. .
Madsen, Carol Cornwall. Emmeline B. Wells: The Public Years 1870–1920. Deseret Book Company, Salt Lake City, Utah, 2005. .
Scott, Patricia Lyn and Linda Thatcher, editors. Women in Utah History: Paradigm or Paradox? Utah State University Press, Logan, Utah, 2005. .
Wells, Emmeline B. Journals. Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.
Whitney, Orson F. History of Utah, vol. 4. 1904.
External links
Emmeline B. Wells diaries, Brigham Young University, Harold B. Lee Library, L. Tom Perry Special Collections
Emmeline B. Wells collection, Brigham Young University, Harold B. Lee Library, L. Tom Perry Special Collections
Emmeline B. Wells letter, Brigham Young University, Harold B. Lee Library, L. Tom Perry Special Collections
Emmeline B. Wells and Annie Wells Cannon papers, Brigham Young University, Harold B. Lee Library, L. Tom Perry Special Collections
Emmeline Blanch Wells, Suffrage in Utah: Biographies, Women of the West, Autry National Center
Emmeline B. Wells (statue), Utah State Capitol: Capitol Art, Capitol Preservation Board, UtahStateCapitol.Utah.gov
1828 births
1921 deaths
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American women politicians
19th-century American women writers
19th-century American writers
Activists from Utah
American Latter Day Saint hymnwriters
American Latter Day Saint writers
American diarists
American leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
American newspaper journalists
American women hymnwriters
American women journalists
American women poets
American women's rights activists
Burials at Salt Lake City Cemetery
Converts to Mormonism
Editors of Latter Day Saint publications
General Presidents of the Relief Society
Latter Day Saint poets
Latter Day Saints from Illinois
Latter Day Saints from Massachusetts
Latter Day Saints from Utah
Mormon feminists
Mormon pioneers
People from Petersham, Massachusetts
Poets from Utah
Utah Republicans
Women's suffrage in Utah
Women diarists
Harold B. Lee Library-related 19th century articles
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5043782
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liang%20Wenbo
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Liang Wenbo
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Liang Wenbo (; born 5 March 1987) is a Chinese former professional snooker player who is permanently banned from competition. During his career, Liang won one ranking title at the 2016 English Open, twice won the World Cup for China in 2011 and 2017 with teammate Ding Junhui, and reached one Triple Crown final at the 2015 UK Championship, which he lost to Neil Robertson. He made three maximum breaks in professional competition and achieved a career high of 11th in the snooker world rankings.
In April 2022, the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association suspended him for four months after he was convicted of domestic assault. It suspended him again in October 2022 as part of a match-fixing investigation involving ten Chinese players. In January 2023, Liang was charged with fixing matches, approaching players to fix matches, seeking to obstruct the investigation, and failing to cooperate with the investigation. After the charges were heard by an independent disciplinary tribunal, the WPBSA announced in June 2023 that Liang had received a lifetime ban from the sport.
Career
Amateur years
As an amateur, Liang's major feats were as follows:
2003 IBSF World Snooker Championship, men's division, quarter-finalist
2004 IBSF World Snooker Championship, under-21 division, semi-finalist
2005 International Open Series, under-21 division, no. 4 runner-up
Liang built on the positive start to his snooker career, winning an individual silver medal and a team gold medal at the 2006 Asian Games.
2004/2005
Liang began his professional career during the 2004–05 snooker season playing on the Challenge Tour, which is the tier below the World Snooker Association Main Tour. He finished a mediocre 104th out of 168 competitors, having only accumulated 2150 points.
2005/2006
Liang received a wildcard nomination to the Main Tour despite not qualifying directly; this was because he won the 2005 IBSF World Under-21 Championship, and also because not all of the players that were eligible for the Main Tour took their places. In his first ranking tournament, the Grand Prix, he lost in the first qualifying round to Rory McLeod 2–5. He fared better in the next ranking event, the UK Championship, where he almost whitewashed Alfred Burden in the first qualifying round 9–1, but subsequently lost in the second qualifying round to Marcus Campbell by the narrowest of margins, 8–9.
Liang qualified for his first ranking event at the Welsh Open, beating Sean Storey, Jamie Burnett and Rory McLeod to reach the main draw. He defeated Nigel Bond in the first round 5–0, but his run was halted when he lost to Graeme Dott 3–5.
At the Malta Cup, however, he lost in the first qualifying round to Paul Davies 3–5. At the China Open, he beat David McDonnell and Matthew Couch before losing against Adrian Gunnell 3–5 in the third qualifying round. He ended the season falling at the first hurdle at the World Championship, losing to Joe Delaney 5–10 in the first qualifying round. Liang ended his debut season on the professional tour ranked 78th, a position that would not guarantee a place in the following season's tour; however, he had finished inside the top 8 of the one-year ranking list, which qualified him for a place on the main tour for the next season.
2006/2007
During the 2006–07 season, Liang reached at least the second round of qualifying in every ranking event. At the Northern Ireland Trophy, he beat Robert Stephen 5–0 before falling to David Gilbert 0–5 in qualifying. However, at the Grand Prix, Liang came top of his qualifying group, above more experienced players such as Gerard Greene and Barry Pinches. He finished fourth in his group at the round-robin stage, and although he did not progress to the next round, he did beat former world champion and world number one Stephen Hendry 3–0. At the UK Championship, he lost in the second round of qualifying to Jamie Burnett 7–9. In the following ranking event, the Malta Cup, he lost to Joe Jogia 3–5, again in the second round of qualifying. He qualified for the Welsh Open, his third ranking tournament, by beating Dene O'Kane, Joe Jogia and Mark Davis. He met Nigel Bond again in the last 48, this time losing only 3–5.
At the China Open, he continued his run of reaching the second round of qualifying in every ranking tournament, and beat Robert Stephen before losing to Finland's Robin Hull. At the World Championship, he beat Jeff Cundy before losing to Mike Dunn. After a modest season, he improved on his tour ranking by finishing in 66th place, just outside the top 64; and he topped the one year ranking list to ensure his place on the WSA Tour for next season.
2007/2008
Liang started the season by almost qualifying for the Shanghai Masters, however Nigel Bond beat him 5–3 in the last qualifying round, preventing him from appearing at his home tournament. At the Grand Prix, he could not repeat the success of last season and failed to qualify, finishing third on frame difference. He had more luck at the next tournament, the Northern Ireland Trophy, where he won through the qualifying rounds, beating Fraser Patrick, Joe Delaney and Rory McLeod on the way. He faced Gerard Greene in the last 48, but lost 2–5. He had less success at the UK Championship, losing in the second qualifying round to David Roe 2–9. He also failed to qualify for the Welsh Open, when he was dispatched in the last qualifying round by Andrew Norman 2–5. He fell at the first hurdle at his other home tournament, the China Open, losing in the first qualifying round to Steve Mifsud, who at the end of this season was ranked 54 places below Liang.
At the World Championship, Liang was the third Chinese player to qualify for the main draw, defeating Ben Woollaston, Rod Lawler, David Gilbert and Ian McCulloch in the qualifying rounds. He met Ken Doherty in the first round of the championship, and defeated him 10–5. Before the start of this match, he accidentally entered the arena at the same time as the match officials and had to hurry back; he subsequently received a warm ovation when he entered the arena for a second time after being introduced by MC Rob Walker. For every session thereafter, Walker introduced him as "Should he stay or should he go... Liang Wenbo", despite the rhyme occurring due to a mispronunciation of his name ("bo" is pronounced "bwor" in Chinese).
Liang faced Northern Ireland's Joe Swail in the last 16 of the tournament. In a humorous incident, Liang fluked a red after scattering the balls, but failed to notice and went back to his seat. To the amusement of the spectators, Swail pointed out the mistake and the referee called Liang back to the table. In the 23rd frame, with a 12–10 lead, Liang prematurely celebrated winning the match after potting "match ball", only to then lose the frame due to a snooker; Swail came back to level the match at 12–12. In the final frame, Liang made early breaks of 34 and 30. He missed the final yellow but snookered Swail, leaving the cue ball in the jaws of the pocket. Liang followed up with a safety shot but Swail snookered him behind the blue; Liang failed to hit the yellow ball so Swail had the white replaced. In his second attempt, Liang hit the yellow directly and went on to win the frame 74–34, and thus the match, 13–12.
The incident in the last frame proved controversial as the referee replaced the cue ball in the wrong position, giving Liang a better sight of the yellow. At the time, Swail nodded his assent to the referee, but he complained in a post-match interview that Liang had behaved unprofessionally by not pointing out the referee's error. Commentators countered that Swail should have queried the placement of the ball before Liang took his shot, and that, given the tension of the situation, Liang could be forgiven for not thinking clearly.
Liang faced eventual champion Ronnie O'Sullivan in the quarter-final, taking the first two frames with a break of 80 in the first, but O'Sullivan had levelled the match 4–4 by the end of the first session. O'Sullivan eased ahead in the second session and eventually won the match 13–7. Liang's run to the quarter-finals of the World Championship gained him 5000 ranking points, boosting his final ranking to No. 40 in the world. This guaranteed that he would only have to win two qualifying matches to enter the main draw of the ranking tournaments the following season.
2008/2009
Liang began the new season by qualifying for the last 48 of the Northern Ireland Trophy. He then beat Steve Davis and Peter Ebdon to reach the last 16, where he lost to John Higgins 1–5. This result lifted him to a provisional career high of 26 in the world. He reached the main draw of the Grand Prix by winning two qualifying matches, but then succumbed to Ronnie O'Sullivan in the first round of the main draw. He then made a 147 and three other centuries (including two total clearances of 139) in a 5–1 victory over Martin Gould in the third qualifying round of the Bahrain Championship. However, he failed to qualify for the main draw, losing 2–5 to Michael Judge.
For the two Chinese events on this season's tour, Liang's two qualifying matches were held over until the venue stages. At the 2008 Shanghai Masters, he defeated Atthasit Mahitthi and Mark Allen to reach the main draw, but lost to Ryan Day 0–5 in the first round. Ironically, his second qualifying match for the Welsh Open was held over to ensure that his Welsh opponent Dominic Dale played at the main venue in Newport.
Liang ended the season at the World Championship, after defeating Dave Harold 10–3 in the last qualifying round. He lost in the first round of the main draw 8–10 against Ding Junhui.
2009/2010
In July 2009, Liang won his first professional title, the Beijing International Challenge, beating world No. 2 Stephen Maguire 7–6 in the final. He made a further breakthrough in August when he reached the final of the Shanghai Masters, becoming only the second Chinese player, and the fourth Asian man, to reach a ranking final. He ultimately finished runner-up to Ronnie O'Sullivan.
Liang qualified for the Grand Prix but was defeated 2–5 by Peter Ebdon in the first round, winning the first two frames and losing the last five in succession. Prior to this meeting, he had played Ebdon twice, winning 5–1 and 5–0. He reached the quarter-finals of the UK Championship after defeating Ryan Day 9–3, and Mark King 9–2. He went on to lose 2–9 to John Higgins in the quarter-finals. He failed to qualify for the Welsh Open and the China Open, as he lost 3–5 against Michael Judge and 2–5 against Andrew Higginson respectively.
Liang qualified for the World Championships by defeating Rod Lawler 10–2. He was drawn against Ronnie O'Sullivan, but lost 7–10. After the quarter-finals of the event, it was clear that Liang would be ranked as number 16 the following season, the only new player entering the top 16 that season.
2010/2011
Liang began the season at the Wuxi Classic, where he lost in the first round 2–5 against Marco Fu. He participated at the Beijing International Challenge to defend his first professional title, but lost in the semi-finals 4–6 against eventual winner Tian Pengfei. Liang failed to qualify for the World Open, as he lost 1–3 against Andrew Higginson and lost his first round match at the Shanghai Masters 3–5 against Matthew Stevens. Having started the season inside the top 16, his results were not sufficient to maintain that position and he slipped out of the top 16. After this, he lost his qualifying matches in the five ranking tournaments.
Liang also participated at the Players Tour Championship, his best performance coming at the third European event, where he reached the final, but lost 0–4 against Marcus Campbell. After 12 out of 12 events, he was ranked 14th in the Players Tour Championship Order of Merit. He lost his first round match at the Finals 1–4 against Ricky Walden.
2011/2012
Liang and Ding Junhui represented China at the World Cup and they won in the final 4–2 against the Northern Ireland team. During his match against Matthew Stevens in the first round of Australian Goldfields Open, Liang had a chance to make his second maximum break in his career, but he snookered himself on the yellow ball, and the break ended at 120. He won the match 5–4 to reach the second round, where he lost 4–5 against Ken Doherty. He also qualified for the Shanghai Masters, but lost in the first round 1–5 against Neil Robertson. After this, he was unable to qualify for the next two ranking events, as he lost 2–6 against Michael White at the UK Championship, and 3–5 against Liu Chuang at the German Masters.
In December 2011, Liang joined Romford-based snooker Academy and management team Grove Leisure.
He beat David Gilbert and Rory McLeod, both 4–1, to reach the first round of the Welsh Open, where he faced John Higgins and was this time on the wrong end of a 4–1 scoreline. He narrowly missed out on a place in the World Open as he was defeated 5–4 by Mark King in the final round of qualifying. He also lost in qualifying for the China Open to the eventual winner of the event Peter Ebdon 0–5.
Liang played in eleven of the twelve minor-ranking PTC events throughout the season, with a best finish in Event 10, where he lost in the quarter-finals to Dominic Dale. He also reached the last 16 in two other events to finish 38th in the PTC Order of Merit, outside of the top 24 who qualified for the Finals.
He qualified for the World Championship by defeating Marcus Campbell 10–9. He had led the match 8–2 and 9–5 before Campbell took it to 9–9, at which point the match was suspended to allow players on the other tables to begin their sessions. Liang subsequently won the decider with a 72 break and played defending champion Higgins again in the first round. He was involved in another final-frame decider, but was this time on the losing end as he bowed out of the tournament on the opening day, 9–10. He finished the season ranked world number 37.
2012/2013
Liang lost in qualifying for both the Wuxi Classic and the Shanghai Masters to Rod Lawler. He reached the venue stage of the Australian Goldfields Open by beating Thanawat Thirapongpaiboon, but lost 3–5 in the first round against Matthew Stevens. Liang beat Anthony McGill and Andrew Higginson to qualify for the UK Championship, where he saw a 4–3 lead in the first round against Barry Hawkins turn into a 4–6 defeat. Liang failed to qualify for the next two events, but won two matches to enter the main draw of both the Welsh Open and the China Open. In Wales he lost 2–4 to local favourite Stevens in the first round, and in his homeland of China he beat Lu Ning 5–1 in the wildcard round, before losing 3–5 to Stuart Bingham in the first round. Liang had a very consistent season in the Players Tour Championship series as he advanced to, but not past, the last 16 in five of the ten events. This saw him placed 27th on the PTC Order of Merit, one spot short of making the Finals. Liang's season ended when he was beaten 6–10 by Mark Davis in the final round of World Championship Qualifying. His end-of-year ranking was world number 32.
2013/2014
In July 2013, Liang reached the final of the World Games but lost in the gold medal match 0–3 to Aditya Mehta. He had an excellent season in the Asian Tour events by reaching the semi-finals of the Zhangjiagang Open where he was defeated 1–4 by Michael Holt and at the Zhengzhou Open, where Liang won his first individual title on the World Snooker Tour. He beat Anthony McGill 4–3 in the semi-finals before whitewashing Lü Haotian 4–0 to claim the £10,000 first prize. In the full ranking events, Liang won five successive frames against defending world champion Ronnie O'Sullivan in the second round of the International Championship to triumph 6–4 which marked his first ever success over his opponent having lost in all four previous attempts. He then thrashed Mark Davis 6–1 to reach the quarter-finals of a ranking event for the first time in four years, where he lost 3–6 against Graeme Dott. Liang reached the last 16 of both the German Masters and Welsh Open, losing 2–5 to Mark Davis and 2–4 to Barry Hawkins, respectively. A second final on the Asian Tour followed at the Dongguan Open where Stuart Bingham made four breaks above 50 to defeat him 4–1, but Liang still topped the Order of Merit to qualify for the Finals. There, he was beaten 2–4 by Yu Delu and Liang was defeated 7–10 by Martin Gould in the final round of World Championship qualifying.
2014/2015
Liang overcame Jamie Burnett 5–1 in the first round of the 2014 Wuxi Classic, and then inflicted the first defeat on Mark Selby since he won the World Championship, beating him 5–3. In the last 16, Liang was knocked out 2–5 by Joe Perry. He lost 3–5 against Robert Milkins in the opening round of the Australian Goldfields Open, and in the wildcard round of the Shanghai Masters 1–5 to Yan Bingtao. He failed to get past the last 64 of the next two ranking events, but won two matches to reach the German Masters, where he eliminated Li Hang 5–1 in the first round. He reached the quarter-finals by coming back from 3–4 down against Stuart Bingham to win 5–4 on the final pink. He repeated this form when he edged Ryan Day 5–4 to play in his second career ranking event semi-final, where he took four frames in a row to hold a narrow 4–3 advantage over Shaun Murphy, before losing three successive frames in a 4–6 defeat. Liang did not drop a single frame in seeing off Cao Xinlong and Gerard Greene at the Welsh Open, but was then the victim of a whitewash by John Higgins in the third round. At the inaugural World Grand Prix, he lost 3–4 to Graeme Dott in the second round. In the final round of World Championship qualifying, he lost the last three frames against compatriot Zhang Anda to be narrowly defeated 9–10.
2015/2016
Liang was heavily beaten 2–8 by Thepchaiya Un-Nooh in the final of the 2015 Six-red World Championship. In the third round of the UK Championship, he took advantage of a collapse from Judd Trump to win 6–4 after trailing 1–4. He then saw off Tom Ford 6–5, after which Ford accused Liang of "boring him off the table" with slow play. Liang responded by opening his quarter-final match against Marco Fu with three centuries and hung on to edge it 6–5, then came from 2–4 behind to reach the final by beating David Grace 6–4. It was the first final in the history of the event to feature two players from outside the United Kingdom; Liang lost the match 5–10 to eventual UK champion Neil Robertson. A week later, he progressed to the semi-finals of the Gibraltar Open, but was whitewashed 0–4 by Fu.
Liang's UK final helped him break back into the top 16 in the world rankings to make his debut at the Masters, where he was knocked out 4–6 by John Higgins in the opening round. He was whitewashed 0–4 by Shaun Murphy in the quarter-finals of the World Grand Prix. After winning three matches to qualify for the World Championship, Liang lost 8–10 to Judd Trump after an earlier 7–3 lead.
2016/2017
In the first round of the Shanghai Masters, Liang was narrowly beaten 5–4 by Ronnie O'Sullivan. He won five matches at the English Open, which included a 4–3 second round victory over Shaun Murphy, to reach the semi-finals. From 3–4 down, Liang made breaks of 134 and 138 and Stuart Bingham made a 116 to lock the score at 5–5. Liang took the decider and then ended Judd Trump's 14-match winning streak in the final to win his maiden ranking title 9–6. He became the second player from mainland China to win a ranking event and thanked O'Sullivan (with whom he practises daily) for his help. The win also gave him entry to his first Champion of Champions where he lost 0–4 in the opening round to Mark Selby.
In the Scottish Open, Liang reached the quarter-finals, where he lost to Yu Delu 4–5. In the Masters, he missed the final black, which would have seen him eliminate O'Sullivan 6–4 in the opening round of the Masters, instead going on to lose 5–6. A 4–0 thrashing of Dominic Dale and a pair of 4–3 victories over Mark Allen and Joe Perry moved Liang into the semi-finals of the World Grand Prix, where he was defeated 1–6 by Barry Hawkins. In the second round of the World Championship, Liang trailed Ding Junhui 2–6 after the first session and 7–9 after the second. He then won a trio of frames to take the lead in the match for the first time and would have been 12–11 ahead, one frame away from reaching the quarter-finals for the second time, but instead lost 12–13. After the event, his end-of-season ranking rose to 11, which was a career-high.
2017/2018
Though Liang had a decent campaign this season, he was unable to reach the same height as previous season. In his first round match against Ronnie O'Sullivan at the Masters. In a best -of-11 match, Liang led 5-4 up and only needed the final black in the 10th frame to guarantee his place in the quarter final; however, he missed the relatively easy black, and subsequently lost the frame and eventually the match. In his match against Rod Lawler in the World Championship Qualifying round, Liang made a 147 in the 10th frame, the third 147 in his career. But interestingly, he also had a chance to make another 147 in the 12th frame, but he missed the tricky final black.
2018/2019
Liang had a somewhat of a down season in the 2018/19 campaign. His best results came in the European Masters, China Open, and China Championship, in which he advanced to the third round. Liang only earned a total of 78,500 ranking points, which was 141,100 points shy from his best season in 2016/2017.
2019/2020
This season Liang saw some improvement in this form. His best result came in the UK Championship, in which he defeated Dominic Dale, David Grace, Eden Sharav, and Li Hang, before losing to the eventual champion Ding Junhui in the quarter final. Liang also reached the quarter final of the Gibraltar Open, losing 4–1 to Judd Trump.
Legal and disciplinary issues
Domestic assault conviction and suspension
In the early hours of 20 July 2021, Liang was captured on CCTV repeatedly punching and kicking a woman during an argument in Sheffield city centre. The victim also made an emergency call, during which she was reported to be screaming in distress. After pleading guilty to domestic assault at Sheffield Magistrates' Court on 9 February 2022, Liang was sentenced on 1 April 2022 to a 12-month community order plus a £1,380 fine. Sheffield Heeley MP Louise Haigh called the outcome "a shockingly pathetic sentence for such a violent and appalling assault" and called for Liang to be barred from the upcoming 2022 World Snooker Championship.
On 2 April 2022, the day after Liang's sentencing, the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA) suspended him from professional competition with immediate effect, making him ineligible to compete in the World Championship qualifiers, which began on 4 April. The WPBSA held a disciplinary hearing on 26 May 2022, where Liang accepted he had breached WPBSA Members' Rules and his contract with World Snooker Limited by engaging in behaviour unbecoming of a sportsperson and by bringing the sport into disrepute. The WPBSA suspended him from 2 April until 1 August 2022 and ordered him to pay £1,000 towards the costs of the hearing. Liang returned to competition at the 2022 British Open qualifiers.
Match-fixing investigation and permanent ban from snooker
The WPBSA suspended Liang again on 27 October 2022, and later disclosed that it was investigating him for match-fixing. Nine other Chinese players were subsequently suspended as part of the same investigation, one of whom, Chang Binyu, alleged on the Chinese social networking site Weibo that Liang had threatened him before his match against Jamie Jones at the 2022 British Open, ordering him to lose the match by a specific scoreline. In January 2023, the WPBSA formally charged Liang with “being concerned in fixing matches and approaching players to fix matches on the World Snooker Tour, seeking to obstruct the investigation and failing to cooperate with the WPBSA investigation”.
Following an independent disciplinary tribunal, Liang was found guilty of fixing or conspiring to fix the results of five matches in total, and of inducing players to fix the results of nine matches. He was also found guilty of betting on matches, threatening players, destroying evidence, and not cooperating with the investigation. He received a lifetime ban from the sport and was ordered to pay £43,000 in costs.
Personal life
Liang is married to Chen Xuejiao; they have one child.
In 2020, prior to the World Grand Prix, Liang had pledged to donate any money he would receive at the tournament to the Huizhou Red Cross in response to the coronavirus outbreak in China.
Performance and rankings timeline
Career finals
Ranking finals: 3 (1 title)
Minor-ranking finals: 3 (1 title)
Non-ranking finals: 5 (1 title)
Pro-am finals: 2
Team finals: 4 (2 titles)
Amateur finals: 1 (1 title)
References
External links
1987 births
Living people
Chinese snooker players
People from Suihua
Sportspeople from Heilongjiang
Asian Games medalists in cue sports
Asian Games gold medalists for China
Asian Games silver medalists for China
Medalists at the 2006 Asian Games
Medalists at the 2010 Asian Games
Cue sports players at the 2006 Asian Games
Cue sports players at the 2010 Asian Games
World Games silver medalists
Competitors at the 2013 World Games
21st-century Chinese people
Sportspeople banned for life
Match fixers
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5044002
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Army%20Regimental%20System
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U.S. Army Regimental System
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The United States Army Regimental System (USARS) is an organizational and classification system used by the United States Army. It was established in 1981 to replace the Combat Arms Regimental System (CARS) to provide each soldier with continuous identification with a single regiment, and to increase a soldier's probability of serving recurring assignments with his or her regiment. The USARS was intended to enhance combat effectiveness by providing the opportunity for a regimental affiliation, thus obtaining some of the benefits of the traditional regimental system.
Overview
USARS was developed to include the active Army (all combat, combat support (CS), combat service support (CSS), and special branches as well as appropriate training battalions) and the reserve components (the Army National Guard and the Army Reserve).
It was developed to offer the opportunity for long-term identification with a regiment or corps, provide the potential for recurring assignments within a regiment or corps, provide the opportunity to further emphasize the history, customs, and traditions of the regiment or corps, and provide regiments that are structured as one or more continental United States (CONUS) units of like type linked with one or more units of like type outside the continental United States (OCONUS), or one or more units of like type located exclusively in either CONUS or OCONUS, including one or more training battalions or tactical armored cavalry or ranger regiments.
USARS is also designed to provide for CS, CSS, and special branches to operate on a “whole branch” concept as a corps or special branch, carrying on the activities and traditions of a regiment, offer regimental affiliation to allow soldiers the opportunity for continuous identification with a combat arms regiment, a corps, or special branch throughout their careers. USARS provides (through regimental affiliation) different opportunities for soldiers, depending upon which combat arms regiment they choose to be affiliated with or whether they affiliate with a CS or CSS corps or special branch. In addition, the regimental affiliation process allows combat arms soldiers to select the regiment of choice (soldiers can change their affiliation at any time); provides that CS, CSS, and special branch soldiers will automatically be affiliated with their corps or special branch; specifies that all soldiers will belong to a regiment or corps; permits no limit to the number of soldiers who can be affiliated with a regiment or corps; and provides that DA civilians can automatically be affiliated with a regiment or corps by direction of the regiment or corps commander.
Combat arms
Concept
Combat arms is a rescinded doctrinal term, though colloquially it includes air defense artillery, armor, aviation, field artillery, infantry, and special forces regiments. Combat arms soldiers may affiliate with any of the combat arms regiments consistent with their primary military occupational specialty (PMOS), specialty code, special qualification identifiers (SQI), or additional skill identifiers (ASI). Soldiers will have greater opportunities to serve recurring assignments in their regiments if regiments are chosen that have battalions in both CONUS and OCONUS locations. Since there is no ceiling on the number of soldiers who can affiliate with a particular regiment, the potential for recurring assignments to regiments is diminished where the number of affiliated soldiers exceeds the requirements.
Affiliation policy
Quoting from Chapter 3–2, page 7 of Army Regulation 600-82, U.S. Army Regimental System
(note: Currently the regulation for The U.S. Army Regimental System is Army Regulation 870-21):
a. USARS regiments offered to active Army and USAR soldiers for affiliation are listed [below].
(1) All active Army soldiers are required to affiliate with a regiment. Although affiliation is mandatory, the choice of regiment is left up to the individual. Officers who are single-tracked in a Functional Area will affiliate with a regiment associated with their basic combat arms branch. Functional Area officers who have no basic branch will submit request for regimental affiliation using procedures outlined below. Regimental affiliation is based on the Army branch associated with a soldier’s PMOS or specialty. AR 670–1 contains a listing of all PMOS and corresponding branches for each. Army recruiters who have been assigned the SQI“4” will affiliate with a regiment associated with their PMOS. Recruiters or retention noncommissioned officers (NCOs) will be affiliated with The Adjutant General Corps. Regimental affiliation may be changed at any time; however, the regimental selection must be associated with the soldier’s PMOS or specialty.
(2) All combat arms officers and soldiers will affiliate with a regiment upon arrival at their first unit of assignment. These Soldiers will be affiliated with their regiment of assignment unless they voluntarily select another. Combat arms officers and soldiers whose initial Army assignment is not to a regimental unit may defer selection until they are so assigned.
(3) Enlisted soldiers may elect the Regiment of Choice Reenlistment Option under AR 601–280.
(4) Soldiers who deliberately terminate airborne status after affiliating with an airborne regiment will change their affiliation to a non-airborne regiment at the time of their termination. Those who are terminated for medical reasons may retain their regimental affiliation with an airborne regiment if they desire; however, such affiliation will be ceremonial and will not affect subsequent assignments.
(5) Regimental affiliation will be a primary assignment consideration for officers and enlisted soldiers. To the maximum extent possible, soldiers who are regimentally affiliated will be assigned to their regimental units. No assignment guarantees will be made, as Army requirements and soldier professional development needs must be met; however, it is incumbent upon commanders and the personnel community to make every effort to ensure that requisitions are submitted for and filled with affiliated regimental Soldiers and that soldiers are subsequently assigned within their regiments. (See AR 614–100, and AR 614–185 for officers, and AR 614–200 for enlisted soldiers).
b. Specific procedures for affiliation are below. These procedures permit affiliation and change of affiliation to be administered at the local Personnel Service Center (PSC) level.
c. Active Army soldiers who are accessioned into the USAR will retain their regimental affiliation unless they elect to change their affiliation, which may be done at any time.
Combat arms regiments
Note: There are currently 177 USARS regiments, with only 47 consisting of units at multiple locations. Some of the regimental battalions are assigned to brigade combat teams in multiple divisions. Only 27 of these regiments meet the USARS "Conus/Oconus goal."
Additionally, the term "Regiment" was not officially appended to a USARS regiment's official name/designation (and was not used under CARS) until 2005.
Artillery regiments
Air defense artillery regiments
1st Air Defense Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 94th Army Air and Missile Defense Command, Kadena Air Base Japan
2nd Battalion, 35th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Osan Air Base, Korea
2nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment
Battery A, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas
Battery B, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas
3rd Battalion, 31st Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
3rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment
4th Battalion, 31st Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
4th Air Defense Artillery Regiment
Battery A, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas
3rd Battalion, 108th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
5th Air Defense Artillery Regiment
4th Battalion, 69th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas
5th Battalion, 31st Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
6th Air Defense Artillery Regiment (Training Regiment)
2nd Battalion, 30th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
3rd Battalion, 30th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
7th Air Defense Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 108th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
5th Battalion, 10th Army Air & Missile Defense Command, Germany
43rd Air Defense Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas
2nd Battalion, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas
3rd Battalion, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas
44th Air Defense Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 69th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas
2nd Battalion, 108th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Campbell, Kentucky
52nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment
5th Battalion, 11th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas
6th Battalion, 35th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Osan Air Base, Korea
56th Air Defense Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion (ADA Officer Training), 30th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
62nd Air Defense Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 69th Air Defense Artillery Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas
Field artillery regiments
1st Field Artillery Regiment
4th Battalion, 3rd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
2nd Field Artillery Regiment
2nd Battalion, 428th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
3rd Field Artillery Regiment
2nd Battalion, 1st ABCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
5th Battalion, 17th Field Artillery Brigade, I Corps, Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington
4th Field Artillery Regiment
5th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
6th Field Artillery Regiment
3rd Battalion, 1st BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
7th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
3rd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Schofield Barracks, Hawaii
8th Field Artillery Regiment
2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Fort Wainwright, Alaska
9th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
10th Field Artillery Regiment
11th Field Artillery Regiment
2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Schofield Barracks, Hawaii
12th Field Artillery Regiment
2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
13th Field Artillery Regiment
3rd Battalion, 75th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
14th Field Artillery Regiment
15th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, South Korea
2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
16th Field Artillery Regiment
3rd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
17th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 75th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
3rd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington
18th Field Artillery Regiment
2nd Battalion, 75th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
19th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 434th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
20th Field Artillery Regiment
2nd Battalion, 41st Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas
21st Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 41st Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas
22nd Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 434th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
25th Field Artillery Regiment
5th Battalion, 3rd BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Polk, Louisiana
26th Field Artillery Regiment
Battery A (Target Acquisition), 41st Field Artillery Brigade, III Corps, Fort Hood, Texas
Battery B (Target Acquisition), 212th Field Artillery Brigade, III Corps, Fort Bliss, Texas
Battery C (Target Acquisition), 75th Field Artillery Brigade, III Corps, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
Battery D (Target Acquisition), 18th Field Artillery Brigade, XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
Battery F (Target Acquisition), 17th Field Artillery Brigade, I Corps, Fort Lewis, Washington
27th Field Artillery Regiment
3rd Battalion, 18th Field Artillery Brigade, XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
4th Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
29th Field Artillery Regiment
2nd Battalion, 4th BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
3rd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
30th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 428th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
32nd Field Artillery Regiment
2nd Battalion, 4th BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
37th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 3rd BCT (Styker), 2nd Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington
6th Battalion, 210th Field Artillery Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, South Korea
38th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 210th Field Artillery Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, South Korea
40th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 434th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
41st Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
42nd Field Artillery Regiment
4th Battalion, 1st BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Carson, Colorado
76th Field Artillery Regiment
77th Field Artillery Regiment
2nd Battalion, 4th BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
78th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 428th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
79th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 434th Field Artillery Brigade, Fort Sill, Oklahoma
82nd Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
2nd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
3rd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
84th Field Artillery Regiment
94th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 17th Field Artillery Brigade, I Corps, Joint Base Lewis-Mcchord, Washington
194th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 34th Infantry Division, Fort Dodge, Iowa
319th Field Artillery Regiment (Airborne)
1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
3rd Battalion, 1st BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
4th Battalion, 173rd ABCT, Grafenwoehr, Germany
320th Field Artillery Regiment (Air Assault)
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
3rd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
321st Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion (Airborne), 18th Field Artillery Brigade, XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
3rd Battalion, 18th Field Artillery Brigade, XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
333rd Field Artillery Regiment
Battery F (Target Acquisition), 210th Field Artillery Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, South Korea
377th Field Artillery Regiment
1st Battalion, 17th Field Artillery Brigade, I Corps, Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington
2nd Battalion (Airborne), 4th BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Fort Richardson, Alaska
Armored and cavalry regiments
Armored regiments
34th Armored Regiment
2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
35th Armored Regiment
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
37th Armored Regiment
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
63rd Armored Regiment
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
64th Armored Regiment
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
66th Armored Regiment
1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
3rd Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
67th Armored Regiment
1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
3rd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
68th Armored Regiment
1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
Company A, 4th Battalion, 1st BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty
69th Armored Regiment
2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Benning, Georgia
3rd Battalion, 1st BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
70th Armored Regiment
2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
4th Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
72nd Armored Regiment
No active Battalions
77th Armored Regiment
1st Battalion, 4th BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
81st Armored Regiment (Training Regiment)
1st Battalion, 194th Armored Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
3rd Battalion, 199th Infantry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
Cavalry regiments
1st Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Armored), 2nd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
2nd Squadron (Stryker), 1st BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
3rd Squadron (Deactivated), last assigned to 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
4th Squadron (Inactive), United States Military Academy, West Point, New York
5th Squadron (Stryker), 1st BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Fort Wainwright, Alaska
6th Squadron (Armored), 1st ABCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
7th Squadron (Deactivated), last assigned to 194th Armored Brigade, Fort Knox, Kentucky
8th Squadron (Stryker), 2nd BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington
2nd Cavalry Regiment (Stryker Brigade Combat Team)
1st Squadron (Stryker), 2nd Cavalry Regiment, Vilseck, Germany
2nd Squadron (Stryker), 2nd Cavalry Regiment, Vilseck, Germany
3rd Squadron (Stryker), 2nd Cavalry Regiment, Vilseck, Germany
4th Squadron (Stryker), 2nd Cavalry Regiment, Vilseck, Germany
Field Artillery Squadron, 2nd Cavalry Regiment, Vilseck, Germany
Engineer Squadron, 2nd Cavalry Regiment, Grafenwoehr, Germany
Support Squadron, 2nd Cavalry Regiment, Vilseck, Germany
3rd Cavalry Regiment (Stryker Brigade Combat Team)
1st Squadron (Stryker), 3rd Cavalry Regiment, Fort Hood, Texas
2nd Squadron (Stryker), 3rd Cavalry Regiment, Fort Hood, Texas
3rd Squadron (Stryker), 3rd Cavalry Regiment, Fort Hood, Texas
4th Squadron (Stryker), 3rd Cavalry Regiment, Fort Hood, Texas
Field Artillery Squadron, 3rd Cavalry Regiment, Fort Hood, Texas
Engineer Squadron, 3rd Cavalry regiment, Fort Hood, Texas
Support Squadron, 3rd Cavalry Regiment, Fort Hood, Texas
4th Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Armored), 1st BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
3rd Squadron (Light), 3rd BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Schofield Barracks, Hawaii
5th Squadron (Armored), 2nd BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
5th Cavalry Regiment
1st Battalion (Combined Arms), 2nd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
2nd Battalion (Combined Arms), 1st BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
6th Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
2nd Squadron, Combat Aviation Brigade, 25th Infantry Division, Wheeler Army Air Field, Hawaii
3rd Squadron, 1AD Combat Aviation Brigade, Fort Bliss, TX
4th Squadron, 16th Combat Aviation Brigade, Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington
6th Squadron, Combat Aviation Brigade, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
7th Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Armored), 1st BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
2nd Battalion (Combined Arms), 3rd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
5th Squadron (Armored), 1st BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
8th Cavalry Regiment
1st Battalion (Combined Arms), 2nd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
2nd Battalion (Combined Arms), 1st BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
3rd Battalion (Combined Arms), 3rd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
6th Squadron (Armored), 2nd BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
9th Cavalry Regiment
1st Battalion (Combined Arms), 2nd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
4th Squadron (Armored), 2nd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
6th Squadron (Armored), 3rd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
10th Cavalry Regiment
2nd Squadron (Stryker), 1st BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
4th Squadron (Armored), 3rd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
11th Armored Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (OPFOR), Fort Irwin, California
2nd Squadron (OPFOR), Fort Irwin, California
Regimental Support Squadron, Fort Irwin, California
12th Cavalry Regiment
1st Battalion (Combined Arms), 3rd BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
2nd Battalion (Combined Arms), 1st BCT, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
13th Cavalry Regiment
2nd Squadron (Armored), 3rd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
14th Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Stryker), 3rd BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington
2nd Squadron (Light), 2nd BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Schofield Barracks, Hawaii
15th Cavalry Regiment (Training Regiment)
2nd Squadron(OSUT), 194th Armored Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
5th Squadron(OSUT), 194th Armored Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
16th Cavalry Regiment (Training Regiment)
1st Squadron, 316th Cavalry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
2nd Squadron, 316th Cavalry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
3rd Squadron, 316th Cavalry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
17th Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron, Combat Aviation Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
2nd Squadron, Combat Aviation Brigade, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
3rd Squadron, Combat Aviation Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
5th Squadron, Combat Aviation Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, Camp Humphreys, South Korea.
6th Squadron, Combat Aviation Brigade, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
7th Squadron, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
32nd Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Light), 1st BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
33rd Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Light), 3rd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
38th Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Light), 1st Security Force Assistance Brigade, Fort Benning, GA
40th Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Light), 4th BCT (Airborne), 25th Infantry Division, Fort Richardson, Alaska
61st Cavalry Regiment
3rd Squadron (Light), 2nd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
71st Cavalry Regiment
3rd Squadron (Light), 1st BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
73rd Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Light), 2nd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
3rd Squadron (Light), 1st BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
5th Squadron (Light), 3rd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
75th Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Light), 2nd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
89th Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Light), 2nd BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
3rd Squadron (Light), 3rd BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Polk, Louisiana
91st Cavalry Regiment
1st Squadron (Light), 173rd BCT (Airborne), Grafenwoehr, Germany
Aviation regiments
1st Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
2nd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
3rd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
2nd Aviation Regiment
2nd Battalion (Assault), Combat Aviation Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, K-16 Air Base, Seongnam, South Korea
3rd Battalion (General Support), Combat Aviation Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, Camp Humphreys, Pyeongtaek, South Korea
4th Battalion (Attack), Combat Aviation Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, Camp Humphreys, Pyeongtaek, South Korea
3rd Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, 12th Combat Aviation Brigade, Katterbach Army Airfield, Germany
2nd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
4th Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
4th Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
2nd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
3rd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
4th Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
10th Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
2nd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
3rd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
11th Aviation Regiment (Training)
1st Battalion, 110th Aviation Brigade, Fort Rucker, Alabama
13th Aviation Regiment (Training)
1st Battalion, 1st Aviation Brigade, Fort Rucker, Alabama
2nd Battalion, 1st Aviation Brigade, Fort Rucker, Alabama
14th Aviation Regiment (Training Regiment)
1st Battalion, 110th Aviation Brigade, Fort Rucker, Alabama
25th Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, 16th Combat Aviation Brigade, Fort Wainwright, Alaska
2nd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 25th Infantry Division, Wheeler Field, Hawaii
3rd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 25th Infantry Division, Wheeler Field, Hawaii
52nd Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, 16th Combat Aviation Brigade, Fort Wainwright, Alaska
2nd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 2d Infantry Division, Camp Humphreys, South Korea
6th Battalion, 11th Aviation Command, Los Alamitos, California
Company G, 12th Combat Aviation Brigade, U.S. Army Europe, Germany
58th Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, Fort Rucker, Alabama
82nd Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
2nd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
3rd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
101st Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, 101st Combat Aviation Brigade, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
5th Battalion, 101st Combat Aviation Brigade, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
6th Battalion, 101st Combat Aviation Brigade, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
145th Aviation Regiment (Training)
1st Battalion, 1st Aviation Brigade, Fort Rucker, Alabama
158th Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, 11th Aviation Command, Conroe, Texas
7th Battalion, 244th Aviation Brigade, Fort Hood, Texas (USAR)
Company I, Fort Hood, Texas
159th Aviation Regiment
5th Battalion, 244th Aviation Brigade, Fort Eustis, Virginia
160th Aviation Regiment (Special Operations) (160th SOAR)
1st Battalion, Fort Campbell, Kentucky
2nd Battalion, Fort Campbell, Kentucky
3rd Battalion, Hunter Army Airfield, Georgia
4th Battalion, Fort Lewis, Washington
210th Aviation Regiment (Training)
1st Battalion, 128th Aviation Brigade, Fort Rucker, Alabama
2nd Battalion, 128th Aviation Brigade, Fort Rucker, Alabama
212th Aviation Regiment (Training)
1st Battalion, 110th Aviation Brigade, Fort Rucker, Alabama
214th Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, 12th Combat Aviation Brigade, Katterbach Army Airfield, Germany
222nd Aviation Regiment (Training)
1st Battalion, 128th Aviation Brigade, Joint Base Eustis-Langley, Virginia
223rd Aviation Regiment (Training)
1st Battalion, 110th Aviation Brigade, Fort Rucker, Alabama
227th Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
2nd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
3rd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
4th Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division, Fort Hood, Texas
228th Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, Joint Task Force Bravo, Soto Cano Air Base, Honduras
2nd Battalion, 244th Aviation Brigade, Horsham, Pennsylvania (USAR)
229th Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, 16th Combat Aviation Brigade (United States), Fort Lewis, Washington
8th Battalion, 11th Theater Aviation Command (United States), Fort Knox, Kentucky
501st Aviation Regiment
1st Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Armored Division (United States), Ft. Bliss, Texas
2nd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Armored Division (United States), Ft. Bliss, Texas
3rd Battalion, Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Armored Division (United States), Ft. Bliss, Texas
Infantry regiments
Light, Stryker and mechanized infantry
1st Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion (Garrison), United States Military Academy, West Point, New York
2nd Battalion (Stryker), 2nd BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington
2nd Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion (Light), 3rd BCT, 10th Mountain Division, Fort Polk, Louisiana
3rd Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion (Ceremonial), Military District of Washington, Fort Myer, Virginia
2nd Battalion (Stryker), 3rd BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington
4th Battalion (Ceremonial), Military District of Washington, Fort Myer, Virginia
4th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion (OPFOR), Joint Multinational Training Center, Seventh U.S. Army, Hohenfels, Germany
2nd Battalion (Light), 3rd BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Polk, Louisiana
5th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion (Stryker), 1st BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Fort Wainwright, Alaska
2nd Battalion (Combined Arms), 3rd BCT Brigade, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
6th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion (Combined Arms), 2nd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
7th Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion (Combined Arms), 1st BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
8th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion (Combined Arms), 3rd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
9th Infantry Regiment
4th Battalion (Stryker), 1st BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
10th Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
2nd Battalion, 3rd Chemical Brigade, Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri
3rd Battalion, 3rd Chemical Brigade, Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri
4th Battalion, 171st Infantry Brigade, Fort Jackson, South Carolina
11th Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
2nd Battalion, 199th Infantry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
3rd Battalion, 199th Infantry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
12th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion (Light), 2nd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
2nd Battalion (Light), 2nd BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
13th Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
1st Battalion, 193rd Infantry Brigade, Fort Jackson, South Carolina
2nd Battalion, 193rd Infantry Brigade, Fort Jackson, South Carolina
3rd Battalion, 193rd Infantry Brigade, Fort Jackson, South Carolina
14th Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion (Light), 2nd BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
15th Infantry Regiment
3rd Battalion (Combined Arms), 2nd BCT, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Benning, Georgia
16th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion (Combined Arms), 1st BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
17th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion (Stryker), 2nd BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington
4th Battalion (Stryker), 1st BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
18th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion (Combined Arms), 2nd BCT, 1st Infantry Division, Fort Riley, Kansas
19th Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
1st Battalion, 198th Infantry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
2nd Battalion, 198th Infantry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
20th Infantry Regiment
5th Battalion (Stryker), 1st BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington
21st Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion (Light), 2nd BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Schofield Barracks, Hawaii
3rd Battalion (Stryker), 1st BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Fort Wainwright, Alaska
22nd Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion (Light), 1st BCT, 10th Mountain Division, Fort Drum, New York
23rd Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington
2nd Battalion, 4th BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington
4th Battalion, 2nd BCT, 2nd Infantry Division, Fort Lewis, Washington
24th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Fort Wainwright, Alaska
27th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Schofield Barracks, Hawaii
2nd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Schofield Barracks, Hawaii
28th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, Task Force, 3rd Infantry Division, Fort Stewart, Georgia
29th Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
1st Battalion, 199th Infantry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
30th Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Polk, Louisiana
31st Infantry Regiment
4th Battalion, 2nd BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
32nd Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
34th Infantry Regiment(Training Regiment)
1st Battalion, 165th Infantry Brigade, Fort Jackson, South Carolina
3rd Battalion, 165th Infantry Brigade, Fort Jackson, South Carolina
35th Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Schofield Barracks, Hawaii
36th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
38th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 4th Infantry Division, Fort Carson, Colorado
39th Infantry Regiment (United States) (Training Regiment)
2nd Battalion, 165th Infantry Brigade, Fort Jackson, South Carolina
41st Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
3rd Battalion, 1st BCT, 1st Armored Division, Fort Bliss, Texas
46th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 198th Infantry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
47th Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
2nd Battalion, 198th Infantry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
48th Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
1st Battalion, 3rd Chemical Brigade, Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri
2nd Battalion, 3rd Chemical Brigade, Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri
50th Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
1st Battalion, 198th Infantry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
51st Infantry Regiment
52nd Infantry Regiment
54th Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
2nd Battalion, 198th Infantry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
58th Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
2nd Battalion, 198th Infantry Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
60th Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
2nd Battalion, 193rd Infantry Brigade, Fort Jackson, South Carolina
3rd Battalion, 193rd Infantry Brigade, Fort Jackson, South Carolina
61st Infantry Regiment (Training Regiment)
1st Battalion, 165th Infantry Brigade, Fort Jackson, South Carolina
87th Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry), Fort Drum, New York
133rd Infantry Regiment
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 34th Infantry Division, Waterloo, Iowa
Airborne and air assault infantry regiments
26th Infantry Regiment (Air Assault)
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
187th Infantry Regiment (Air Assault)
1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
3rd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
188th Infantry Regiment (Airborne)(Inactive)
325th Infantry Regiment (Airborne)
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
327th Infantry Regiment (Air Assault)
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
501st Infantry Regiment (Airborne)
1st Battalion, 4th BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Fort Richardson, Alaska
2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
502nd Infantry Regiment (Air Assault)
1st Battalion, 2nd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
503rd Infantry Regiment (Airborne)
1st Battalion, 173rd ABCT, Vicenza, Italy
2nd Battalion, 173rd ABCT, Vicenza, Italy
504th Infantry Regiment (Airborne)
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
2nd Battalion, 1st BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
505th Infantry Regiment (Airborne)
1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
2nd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
506th Infantry Regiment (Air Assault)
1st Battalion, 1st BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
2nd Battalion, 3rd BCT, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), Fort Campbell, Kentucky
507th Infantry Regiment (Airborne)(Training Regiment)
1st Battalion, Airborne and Ranger Training Brigade, Fort Benning, Georgia
508th Infantry Regiment (Airborne)
1st Battalion, 3rd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
2nd Battalion, 2nd BCT, 82nd Airborne Division, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
509th Infantry Regiment (Airborne)
1st Battalion, JRTC, Fort Polk, Louisiana (Operates as an Opposing Force for training)
3rd Battalion, 4th BCT, 25th Infantry Division, Fort Richardson, Alaska
511th Infantry Regiment (Airborne)(Inactive)
Ranger infantry
75th Ranger Regiment
1st Battalion, Hunter Army Airfield, Georgia
2nd Battalion, Fort Lewis, Washington
3rd Battalion, Fort Benning, Georgia
Special Troops Battalion, Fort Benning, Georgia
Special forces
1st Special Forces Command (Airborne)
1st Special Forces Group (Airborne)
1st Battalion, Okinawa, Japan
2nd Battalion, Fort Lewis, Washington
3rd Battalion, Fort Lewis, Washington
4th Battalion, Fort Lewis, Washington
Support Battalion, Fort Lewis, Washington
3rd Special Forces Group (Airborne)
1st Battalion, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
2nd Battalion, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
3rd Battalion, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
4th Battalion, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
Support Battalion, Fort Liberty, North Carolina
5th Special Forces Group (Airborne)
1st Battalion, Fort Campbell, Kentucky
2nd Battalion, Fort Campbell, Kentucky
3rd Battalion, Fort Campbell, Kentucky
4th Battalion, Fort Campbell, Kentucky
Support Battalion, Fort Campbell, Kentucky
7th Special Forces Group (Airborne)
1st Battalion, Eglin AFB, Florida
2nd Battalion, Eglin AFB, Florida
3rd Battalion, Eglin AFB, Florida
4th Battalion, Eglin AFB, Florida
Support Battalion, Eglin AFB, Florida
10th Special Forces Group (Airborne)
1st Battalion, Stuttgart, Germany
2nd Battalion, Fort Carson, Colorado
3rd Battalion, Fort Carson, Colorado
4th Battalion, Fort Carson, Colorado
Support Battalion, Fort Carson, Colorado
19th Special Forces Group (Airborne) (Army National Guard)
1st Battalion (WAARNG, UTARNG)
2nd Battalion (OHARNG, RIARNG, WVARNG)
5th Battalion (COARNG)
20th Special Forces Group (Airborne) (Army National Guard)
1st Battalion (ALARNG, MAARNG)
2nd Battalion (ILARNG, MDARNG, MSARNG)
3rd Battalion (FLARNG, NCARNG)
Combat support (CS), combat service support (CSS), and special branches
Concept
The CS, CSS, and special branch regimental plans fully integrate into the USARS under the "whole branch" concept. It is the responsibility of all proponents to incorporate within their corps, the intent and spirit of the regimental system to provide soldiers the opportunity for affiliation.
While this initiative mandates a uniform approach to regimental affiliation throughout the Army, it is a system that has no tradition within the Army and duplicates the sense of affiliation that CS, CSS, and special branch soldiers already had for their branch (Ordnance, Signal Corps, etc.)
Branches
Combat support
Combat service support
Special
References
Army Regulation 600-82, U.S. Army Regimental System, 5 June 1990. Accessed 23 October 2016.
Regiments of the United States Army
United States Army organization
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5044085
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia%20Camprub%C3%AD
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Zenobia Camprubí
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Zenobia Camprubí Aymar (31 August 1887 – 25 October 1956) was a Spanish-born writer and poet; she was also a noted translator of the works of Rabindranath Tagore.
She was born in Malgrat de Mar (province of Barcelona, Catalonia) to a Puerto Rican mother and a Spanish father.
She later lived in the United States, studied at Columbia University, and spent the duration of the Spanish Civil War (18 July 1936 – 1 April 1939) writing her Diario ("Diary") in Cuba. Her brother, José Camprubí, was owner and publisher of La Prensa, New York's most important Spanish-language daily newspaper, from 1918 to 1942.
She eventually became a professor at the University of Maryland before her death from ovarian cancer, aged 69, in San Juan, Puerto Rico, two days after her husband Juan Ramón Jiménez received the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Early life
On August 31, 1887, Zenobia Salustiana Edith Camprubí y Aymar was born in Calle del Mar 87, in Malgrat de Mar (Barcelona) in a wealthy Spanish-Puerto Rican family. She was registered with the names of Zenobia, Salustiana, and Edith.
Zenobia Camprubí Aymar was the daughter of Isabel Aymar Lucca and Raimundo Camprubí Escudero. Her maternal grandfather, Augusto Aymar, was a well-off American merchant and her grandmother was a member of a family of Corsicans, settled in Puerto Rico.
Both her mother and grandmother had studied in the best schools in the United States and had many family ties in the United States. Her father, Raimundo Camprubí, was an engineer of roads, canals and ports, and, belonged to a Catalan military family. Zenobia's parents married in Puerto Rico in 1879, where he had traveled to work for the construction of a highway between Ponce and Coamo. The couple had four children José (1879), Raimundo, Zenobia (1887) and Augusto (1890).
During the first two years of her life, when summer time arrived, the Camprubí family moved to ‘La Quinta’ in Malgrat to enjoy the pleasant Mediterranean climate in the summer season.
In the winter of 1890, her brother Augusto Camprubí Aymar was born in Barcelona. This would be the last year that Zenobia and her family enjoy the holidays in Malgrat, perhaps because of changes of post that her father had.
At the age of nine she traveled to the United States for the first time with her brother José and her mother. The reason was to enter his older brother in a high school in preparation for his subsequent entry into Harvard (Cambridge) and settle a matter of inheritance, due to the fact that her grandmother had died in 1895. After the appearance of Zenobia's health problems, the family was forced to move their residence to the municipality of Sarriá, Spain a year later. In this place, Zenobia met Maria Muntadas de Capará, with whom she eventually established a great friendship.
In 1900, Zenobia founded a partnership, together with her friend Maria Muntadas, that was called "Las Abejas Industriosas" ("The working bees"). By that time she had not yet reached thirteen years of age, but she was already showing a spirit of restlessness and organization.
In 1901, her father, Mr. Raimundo Camprubí, was assigned to Tarragona as Head of Public Works. Zenobia travelled with her mother and younger brother Augusto to Switzerland in search of a remedy for a rare ear and eye disease that her brother had suffered after diphtheria.
In March of the same year, the New York youth magazine St. Nicholas published a short story of Zenobia called A Narrow Escape. Also published was her autobiographical work Malgrat, inspired by her stay in the coastal town. Zenobia's father was then transferred to Valencia. During their stay in this city, the family lived on Calle Navelos 14. Zenobia wrote and published several literary works, among them, "The Garret I have known". Zenobia took care of the operation of the family house in Valencia because her mother left for a season with her family in Barcelona. She received a literary award consisting of a Gold Badge from St. Nicholas Illustrated Magazine for Boys and Girls for her work "When Grandmother went to school".
As a result of a marriage separation, Isabel Aymar (mother of Zenobia) and Zenobia, her daughter, moved to live in the United States in 1905. They settled in Newburgh, New York, where many family members and family friends lived. The trip began with a visit to Canada in September, accompanied by her maternal uncle José, and her brother Raimundo. They went to Québec, where her aunt Lillian was awaiting them.
During these years, her life in the United States was totally different from the Spanish one. She travelled through Washington, Boston and New York. She attended dances, meetings, lunches, teas and all kinds of social events. Meanwhile, she continued reading and studying – Latin, literature, music, European and American history – writing, attending cultural events, preparing for the future, taking care of her education. She began to be courted by a lawyer, friend of the family, Henry Shattuck.
In 1908, Zenobia enrolled in the Teacher's College of the University of Columbia (New York) to study English literature and composition.
After the marriage's reconciliation, Mrs. Isabel Aymar returned to Spain in 1909 in the company of Zenobia and her cousin Hannah. They called her "the Little American", since she began her university studies in Columbia; she attended cultural activities and women's clubs. She came into contact with American feminism, traveled alone, read the Spanish and English classics and followed a course on literature.
They settled in La Rábida (Huelva) where Mr. Raimundo Camprubí was the chief engineer of the port of Huelva. In a room of the house where they settled, Zenobia improvised a school to teach a group of nineteen children of the surroundings.
In 1910, Zenobia's father was transferred to Madrid. The family residence was set in Paseo de la Castellana.
On the return from a short trip to Switzerland in March 1911, Zenobia and her mother went through Barcelona and visited Malgrat. This was the first time that Zenobia returned to her native house, which she found "sad and dark". In October, the third trip of Zenobia to the United States took place on the occasion of the birth of the first daughter of her brother José, Inés. The idea of exporting crafts, embroidery and books to North America arose.
In the first months of the year 1912, Zenobia returned to Madrid, she continued to publish articles in American magazines. She took advantage of all that Madrid offered and got involved in cultural and intellectual projects. There, she was related primarily concerned with Americans, she was distressed because she could not move freely alone until she met Susan Huntington, who ran the Instituto Internacional de Señoritas, where foreigners were staying, attending the summer courses they organized.
Juan Ramón Jiménez
In 1913, Zenobia kept an epistolary relationship with her North American suitor Henry Shattuck, who came to Spain in May to discuss details about a possible marriage. Through a letter, the relation split up, though they remained friends.
She attended many conferences, but she could only do so if she was accompanied by an American couple, the Bynes. This couple organized parties and in them, she heard about a fierce and strange poet hosted in the Residencia de Estudiantes, who complained about the noise but stuck his ear to the wall when he heard Zenobia's laugh, whom he didn't know yet. Zenobia met Juan Ramón Jiménez in 1913, in a conference imparted by Bartolomé Cossío, celebrated in the Residence where he worked.
In 1914, Zenobia translated some verses from The Crescent Moon by Tagore, including a prologue-poem by Juan Ramón. In June she visited Ávila and Segovia. By the end of the year, there were some disagreements between Juan Ramón and Zenobia. They couldn't deliver the translated La Luna Nueva by Tagore on time for its publication, and to compensate this problem they published the children edition of Platero y yo.
In December, Zenobia and her mother boarded in Cádiz on their way to New York, to avoid the relationship of her daughter with the poet. But, on 12 February 1916, the Jiménezes arrived in New York and on 2 March Zenobia and he married in the Catholic Church St. Stephen of New York. They traveled around the United States: Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington... On June 7 they boarded the ship "Montevideo", accompanied by Mrs. Isabel Aymar, destination Spain. After landing in Cádiz they arrived in Sevilla, where they spent a couple of days, on their way to La Palma del Condado, where they were expected by Juan Ramón's relatives, who wanted to meet his wife at last. On 1 July they arrived in Madrid.
In 1917, Zenobia translated and published El Jardinero ("The Gardener"), El Cartero del Rey ("The Post Office"), Pájaros perdidos ("Stray Birds") and La Cosecha ("The Harvest") by Tagore. Jiménez added a prologue-poem to them. Also in collaboration with Juan Ramón, she translated El Asceta ("The Ascetic"), El rey y la reina ("King and Queen"), Malini, Ofrenda Lírica ("Gitanjali"), Las Piedras Hambrientas ("The Hungry Stones") and Ciclo de Primavera ("Cycle of Spring"), all of them by Tagore.
Both Camprubí and Jiménez used a simplified Spanish orthography different from the RAE standard.
Like Katherine Bourland, María de Maeztu and Rafaela Ortega y Gasset, Zenobia founded in Madrid La Enfermera a Domicilio ("The Home Nurse") in 1918, an association whose purpose was taking care of ill children and adults from working families, providing them with food and medication and taking them to dispensaries and to prestigious doctors who attended them for free. In addition, she took control of a small business that compensated for the economical problems of the couple. She calmed her husband's mood, encouraging his quill and sorting out problems as important as abandoning Spain with dignity after the outbreak of the Civil War in Spain.
On 6 April 1920, the play El Cartero del Rey by Tagore was premiered, translated and adapted to theatres by Zenobia. There were three functions in several days. She made a partnership with her friend Inés Muñoz to continue with the labor of exportation of handicraft, embroidery, ceramic and books to America. They had already received and managed her brother José's products. In October, beside María Goyri de Menéndez Pidal and María de Maeztu, she founded the Comité para la Concesión de Becas a Mujeres Españolas en el Extranjero ("Committee for the Granting of Scholarships to Spanish Women Abroad"). She was its secretary since its foundation until 1936. Then, the idea of another business came up: sublet apartments that she would furnish. Her relatives and North American friends used to ask her to look for an apartment with certain characteristics to stay in Madrid, something that wasn't easy, so she decided to do it herself. Juan Ramón and Zenobia moved to 8, Lista St. in 1921. The representation of John M. Synge's play, Jinetes hacia el mar ("Riders to the Sea") and Zenobia's version and translation of La hermana mayor ("Elder Sister"), by Tagore was made in the Athenaeum of Madrid. In 1922, she did a short trip to Catalonia and Baleares with her friend Inés Muñoz. In Barcelona she would visit her paternal uncle José Camprubí and her childhood friends.
On 15 March 1924, her father died in Madrid, at the age of 78. By the end of June and starting of July, Zenobia and Juan Ramón, invited by Federico García Lorca and his family, enjoyed their holidays in Granada; this was not the first time she traveled to this city. In August they spent some days in Moguer and in October they traveled again to around Andalucía, across Málaga, Córdoba, Sevilla and Moguer.
In 1926, the Lyceum Club Femenino Español was founded in Madrid, one of the first women associations created in Spain. Zenobia would be the secretary while María de Maeztu was the president. She developed an important labour impacting noticeably in the cultural scene in those times. In summer, the couple travelled through Spain, they went all over the North West area of the peninsula: Soria, Logroño, Pamplona, San Sebastián, Bilbao, Santander, Asturias, Santiago de Compostela, Vigo and León. In 1928, the "Arte Popular Español" was inaugurated in Madrid, dedicated to the selling of Spanish handicraft. She decorated the Parador Nacional Sierra de Gredos. On 18 August Mrs. Isabel Aymar died.
On July 1929, the couple traveled to Salamanca where they met Miguel de Unamuno and Zenobia's older brother, José. Her family came to Spain to visit the expositions of Barcelona and Seville and they would also visit Moguer. In August, they travelled to Southern France and visited Fuenterrabía, Irún, Hendaye, Biarritz, Bayonne, Pau and Tarbes, and settled in Lourdes. In mid-August 1930, her sister-in-law Ethel and her niece Leontine accompanied Zenobia and Juan Ramón to Vigo to board towards New York. From Vigo, the couple went to Barcelona to visit Zenobia's friends.
In 1931, Zenobia detected a tumour and she decided not to submit herself to a surgery. She received the X-ray treatment to avoid the growth. The sculptor Marga Gil Roësset sculpted a Zenobia bust.
Zenobia worked in 1935 as decorator of the hotel Paradero de Ifach, in Calpe (Alicante) and progressively stopped subletting apartments, since it was not profitable anymore.
Exile
In the early days of the civil war, Juan Ramón and Zenobia collaborated with the protection of minors in the care and accommodation of children orphaned by the war: they welcomed twelve children from 4 to 8 years of age, in a flat at Velazquez Street.
On 22 August 1936, they left Spain. Four days later they boarded in Cherbourg in the 'Aquitaine' liner bound for New York and the couple began a journey in which they visited Cuba, United States, Buenos Aires and Puerto Rico, where Zenobia worked as a teacher at the University of Puerto Rico.
In 1937 and 1938 the Jiménez-Camprubí couple was located in Cuba and lived in the Hotel Vedado in Havana. They developed a series of social and cultural activities, as well as taking part in a political act of support on the Spanish Republican faction. They continued taking care of Spanish orphan children and fundraising through subscriptions in the press of New York newspapers and other publication. Zenobia also worked as a volunteer in women's prisons and donated her clothes.
In January 1939, they moved to Coral Gables, Florida. At the end of the Civil War, the flat that Zenobia and Juan Ramón had in Madrid that survived during all the conflict had been robbed: books, documents and other personal items were taken.
In January of the following year, when Juan Ramón taught his first formal lecture at the University of Miami, Zenobia simultaneously read an English version translated by her.
In 1942 her older brother, José Camprubí, died of a heart attack.
In 1943 Zenobia and Juan Ramón moved to Washington and, in January of the next year, the University of Maryland wanted Zenobia to teach Spanish to a group of soldiers. After that, they decided to hire her as a teacher in the Department of history and European culture too.
In 1945 they moved to live in Riverdale, because she was given a permanent job. Two years later, they bought a house where she and Juan Ramón Jiménez taught classes.
In 1948 the couple travelled around Argentina and Uruguay. The trip was extended more than three months so the poet could give 12 more lectures. Neither Juan Ramón nor Zenobia imagined the massive and warm reception they would receive there.
In 1950, they traveled during November and December to Puerto Rico due to the nervous breakdowns of Juan Ramón.
In 1951, he had to get a cancer operation in Boston. In 1954, he had to have another operation in Puerto Rico, because he didn't want to go to the United States. Zenobia not only left behind an interesting life, but also the possibility of receiving a good treatment for her own health problem. Zenobia signed a contract with the University of Puerto Rico to translate scientific brochures for a year. She started her classes at the University of Río Piedras. At the end of the year, she was operated on for cervical cancer in the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston.
In February 1952 she recovered and returned to Puerto Rico. She continued her work at the University. On 18 August, Zenobia completed the Puerto Rico oath as an American citizen, thus she got dual citizenship.
At the beginning of 1953, her brother Augusto suffered cancer and spent a season with her and Juan Ramón in Puerto Rico before returning to the United States where he would die at the end of March. Zenobia completed her cancer treatment.
Final Years
In 1954, Zenobia stopped working at the University because of medical advice. The American magazine published an autobiographical entitled Juan Ramón and I.
In 1956, the cancer reappeared and in April Zenobia started a treatment that gave her serious burns. In the month of June, she flew to Boston for another operation, but the doctors told her not to have the operation and gave her only a few months to live.
Zenobia died on 28 October 1956, in Puerto Rico, three days after her spouse received the Nobel Prize for literature.
Juan Ramón Jiménez survived two more years, and today, their remains are buried in Moguer.
Legacy
In 1955, and at their behest, the University of Puerto Rico established a research room for the couple which would concentrate on their personal library and on modern Hispanic literature. The research room now also covers publications about the couple and contains an approximate total of 105,699 volumes and documents. It bears the name of Zenobia and Juan Ramón Jiménez to this day.
The House of Culture Zenobia and Juan Ramón was created in Moguer.
See also
List of Latin American writers
List of Puerto Rican writers
List of Puerto Ricans
Puerto Rican literature
Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States
Puerto Rican poetry
References
Zenobia Camprubí profile
Biografía de Zenobia Camprubí
Zenobia Camprubí
External links
1887 births
1956 deaths
People from Maresme
Spanish translators
English–Spanish translators
Spanish feminists
Exiles of the Spanish Civil War in the United States
Puerto Rican poets
Spanish people of Puerto Rican descent
Puerto Rican people of Catalan descent
Deaths from ovarian cancer
Deaths from cancer in Puerto Rico
Women writers from Catalonia
Spanish women poets
20th-century Spanish poets
20th-century translators
20th-century American women writers
Puerto Rican women writers
Translators of Rabindranath Tagore
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel%20Brand
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Joel Brand
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Joel Brand (; 25 April 1906 – 13 July 1964) was a member of the Budapest Aid and Rescue Committee (Va'adat ha-Ezra ve-ha-Hatzala be-Budapest or Va'ada), an underground Zionist group in Budapest, Hungary, that smuggled Jews out of German-occupied Europe to the relative safety of Hungary, during the Holocaust. When Germany invaded Hungary in March 1944, Brand became known for his efforts to save the Jewish community from deportation to the Auschwitz concentration camp in occupied Poland and the gas chambers there.
In April 1944 Brand was approached by SS-Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann, head of the German Reich Security Head Office department IV B4 (Jewish affairs), who had arrived in Budapest to organize the deportations. Eichmann proposed that Brand broker a deal between the SS and the United States or Britain, in which the Nazis would exchange one million Jews for 10,000 trucks for the Eastern front and large quantities of tea and other goods. It was the most ambitious of a series of proposals between the SS and Jewish leaders. Eichmann called it "Blut gegen Waren" ("blood for goods").
Nothing came of the idea, which The Times of London called one of the most loathsome stories of the war. Historians have suggested that the SS, including its commander, Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, intended the negotiations as cover for peace talks with the Western Allies that would have excluded the Soviet Union and perhaps even Adolf Hitler. Whatever its purpose, the proposal was thwarted by the British government. They arrested Brand in Aleppo (then under British control), where he had gone to propose Eichmann's offer to the Jewish Agency, and put an end to it by leaking details to the media.
The failure of the proposal, and the wider issue of why the Allies were unable to save the 437,000 Hungarian Jews deported to Auschwitz between May and July 1944, became the subject of bitter debate for many years. In 1961 Life magazine called Brand "a man who lives in the shadows with a broken heart". He told an interviewer shortly before his death in 1964: "An accident of life placed the fate of one million human beings on my shoulders. I eat and sleep and think only of them."
Background
Early life
One of seven children, Brand was born to a Jewish family in Naszód, Transylvania, Austria-Hungary (today Năsăud, Romania). His father was the founder of the Budapest telephone company, and his paternal grandfather, also Joel Brand, had owned the post office in Munkács (now Mukacheve, Ukraine).
The family moved to Erfurt in Germany when Brand was four. When he was 19 he went to stay with an uncle in New York, then worked his way across the United States, washing dishes and working on roads and in mines. He joined the Communist Party, worked for the Comintern as a sailor, and sailed to Hawaii, the Philippines, South America, China, and Japan.
In or around 1930 Brand returned to Erfurt, where he worked for another telephone company his father had founded and became a functionary with the Thuringian KPD (Communist Party of Germany). He was still living in Germany when Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor on 30 January 1933, and on 27 February that year he was arrested, as a communist, just before the Reichstag fire. Released in 1934, he moved to Budapest, Hungary, where he worked again for his father's company. He joined the Poale Zion, a Marxist-Zionist party, became a vice-president of the Budapest Palestine Office, which organized Jewish emigration to Palestine, and sat on the governing body of the Jewish National Fund.
Aid and Rescue Committee
In 1935 Brand married Haynalka "Hansi" Hartmann and together they opened a knitwear and glove factory on Rozsa Street, Budapest, which after a few years had a staff of over 100. The couple had met as members of a hachscharah, a group of Jews preparing to move to Palestine to work on a kibbutz, but Brand's plans changed when his mother and three sisters fled to Budapest from Germany and he had to support them.
Brand's involvement in smuggling Jews into Hungary began in July 1941, when Hansi Brand's sister and brother-in-law, Lajos Stern, were caught up in the Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre. Because of the situation in Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland, 15,000–35,000 Jews had fled to Hungary, registering with the National Central Alien Control Office. The Hungarian government expelled 18,000 of this group to German-occupied Ukraine, where on 27–28 August 1941, the SS and Ukrainian collaborators shot 14,000–16,000 of them. About 2,000 survived. Brand paid a Hungarian counter-espionage officer to bring his wife's relatives back safely. The Hungarian Interior Minister was reportedly shocked when he learned about the massacre, and the deportations were halted.
Through the Poale Zion party, the Brands joined other Zionists engaged in rescue work, including Rezső Kasztner, a lawyer and journalist from Kolozsvár (Cluj, Transylvania), and Ottó Komoly, an engineer. In January 1943 the group set up the Aid and Rescue Committee, known as the Va'adat Ha-Ezrah ve'Hatzalah or Va'ada, with Komoly as chair. Other members included Andreas Biss (Brand's cousin), Samuel Springmann (a Polish jeweller whose family were in the Łódź ghetto), Sandor Offenbach, Dr. Miklos Schweiziger, Moshe Krausz, Eugen Frankel, and Ernő Szilágyi from the Hashomer Hatzair party. The Va'ada raised money, forged documents, maintained contacts with intelligence agencies, and ran safe houses. Brand testified during Adolf Eichmann's trial that, between 1941 and the German invasion of Hungary in March 1944, he and the committee had helped 22,000–25,000 Jews reach Hungary.
Oskar Schindler became one of the committee's contacts, smuggling letters and money into the Kraków ghetto on their behalf. During a visit by Schindler to Budapest in November 1943, they learned that Schindler had been bribing Nazi officers to let him bring Jewish refugees into his factory in Poland, which he ran as a safe haven. This further encouraged the committee, after the invasion of Hungary, to try negotiating with the SS.
March–May 1944
Invasion of Hungary
When the Germans invaded Hungary on Sunday, 19 March 1944, they were accompanied by a Sonderkommando led by SS-Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann, head of the Reich Security Head Office department IV B4 (Jewish affairs). Eichmann's arrival in Budapest signalled the Germans' intention to "solve" Hungary's Jewish question. Following Hungary's annexation in 1941 of parts of Romania, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia, there were 725,000 Jews in the country, as well as over 60,000 Jewish converts to Christianity and others the Nazis counted as Jews, according to Yehuda Bauer. Most were liberal Jews and fully assimilated, nearly 30 percent were Orthodox, and a small minority were Zionists.
Randolph Braham writes that Jews were viewed with suspicion in Hungary as advocates for democracy, liberalism, socialism and communism. Restrictions had been in place before the invasion, including a prohibition on marrying Christians; according to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the Hungarian Parliament passed 22 antisemitic laws between May 1938 and March 1944. The Jewish leadership in Hungary was aware of the mass murder of Jews in occupied Europe, but the rest of the Jewish community was not, in Braham's view; he writes that the leadership's failure to inform the community and to plan for Hungary's occupation is "one of the great tragedies of the era".
After the invasion, the Hungarian government began isolating Jews from the rest of the community. From 5 April 1944 Jews over the age of six had to wear a yellow badge. Jews were forbidden from using telephones, owning cars or radios, travelling or moving home, and had to declare the value of their property. Jewish civil servants, journalists and lawyers were sacked, and non-Jews could not work in Jewish households. Books by Jews or Christians with Jewish heritage were removed from libraries, and Jewish authors could no longer be published.
Meeting with Wisliceny
On the day of the invasion, Kasztner and Szilágyi hid in the apartment of Andreas Biss, a chemical engineer, in Semsey Street, Budapest. They were later joined by Komoly and his wife, and the Brands and their two children. Wanting to establish contact with the Germans, the committee offered a go-between $20,000 to arrange a meeting with SS Hauptsturmführer Dieter Wisliceny, one of Eichmann's assistants.
David Crowe writes that the SS had become an economic force in its own right by 1944, as a result its plundering of Jewish businesses and its ownership of factories relying on slave labour from concentration camps. Jewish rescue workers had made several attempts to exploit SS corruption. In Bratislava, Slovakia, Gisi Fleischmann and Orthodox Rabbi Michael Dov Weissmandl, leaders of the Working Group (a group within the Slovakian Jewish Council that served as the equivalent of the Aid and Rescue Committee), had paid Dieter Wisliceny c. $50,000 in 1942 to suspend the deportation to Poland of Jews from Slovakia. According to Bauer, only two transports left for Poland after Wisliceny was paid, and the Working Group believed their bribe had succeeded.
In fact, the deportations had been halted for other reasons: Slovakian officials had been bribed; many Jews were protected by government documents showing they were, for example, essential workers; and there had been an intervention from the Vatican in June 1942. Encouraged by their apparent success, Fleischmann and Weissmandl devised a more ambitious proposal in November 1942. Known as the Europa Plan or Grossplan, the aim was to bribe the SS with money from Jews overseas, primarily the United States, to stop the deportation of all Jews to Poland. Nothing came of the proposal, reportedly because Heinrich Himmler intervened to stop it in August 1943.
The Aid and Rescue Committee decided to ask Wisliceny whether the SS were, as Kasztner wrote in a later report, "prepared to negotiate with the illegal Jewish rescue committee on an economic basis about the moderation of the anti-Jewish measures". Brand and Kasztner met Wisliceny on 5 April 1944. They told him they were in a position to continue Fleischmann's negotiations and could offer $2 million, with a down payment of $200,000. They asked that there be no deportations, mass executions or pogroms in Hungary, no ghettos or camps, and that Jews who held immigration certificates for Palestine (issued by the British mandatory government) be allowed to leave. Wisliceny accepted the $200,000, but indicated that $2 million might not be enough. He said there would be no deportations and no harm to the Jewish community while negotiations continued, and arranged for Aid and Rescue Committee exemptions from anti-Jewish laws to allow its members to travel and use cars and telephones.
First meeting with Eichmann
Following the contact with Wisliceny, Brand received a message on 25 April that Eichmann wanted to see him. Brand was told to wait in the Opera Café and from there was driven by the SS to Eichmann's headquarters at the Hotel Majestic. SS Untersturmbannführer Kurt Becher, an emissary of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, was also at the meeting. Brand wrote that Eichmann wore a "well-cut" uniform and had eyes he would never forget: "Steely blue, hard and sharp, they seemed to bore through you. ... It was only later that I noticed his small face with its thin lips and sharp nose." In a tone that Brand compared to the "clatter of a machine gun", Eichmann offered to sell him one million Jews, not for money, but for goods from overseas:
I have already made investigations about you and your people and I have verified your ability to make a deal. Now then, I am prepared to sell you one million Jews ... Goods for blood – blood for goods. You can take them from any country you like, wherever you can find them – Hungary, Poland, the Ostmark, from Theresienstadt, from Auschwitz, wherever you like.
Eichmann said he would discuss the proposal with Berlin, and that in the meantime Brand should decide what kinds of goods he was in a position to offer. When Brand asked how the committee was supposed to obtain these goods, Eichmann suggested that Brand open negotiations with the Allies overseas; Eichmann said he would arrange a travel permit. Another member of the Va'ada had a Jewish Agency contact in Istanbul, so Brand suggested he would travel there. He testified years later that on leaving the hotel he felt like a "stark madman".
Further meetings
Eichmann sent for Brand again a few days later. Eichmann was accompanied this time by Gerhard Clages, also known as Otto Klages, chief of Himmler's Sicherheitsdienst (security service) in Budapest. Clages' presence meant that three of Himmler's senior officers – Eichmann, Becher and Clages – had involved themselves with the Brand proposal. Clages handed Brand $50,000 and 270,000 Swiss francs that the Germans had intercepted, sent to the Aid and Rescue Committee by rescue workers in Switzerland via the Swedish Embassy in Budapest.
Eichmann told Brand that he wanted 10,000 new trucks for the Waffen-SS to use on the Eastern front or for civilian purposes, as well as 200 tons of tea, 800 tons of coffee, 2,000,000 cases of soap, and a quantity of tungsten and other materials. If Brand returned from Istanbul with confirmation that the Allies had accepted the proposal, Eichmann said he would release 10 percent of the one million. The deal would proceed with 100,000 Jews released for every 1,000 trucks.
May–October 1944
Mass deportations begin
It remains unclear whether Eichmann told Brand to return to Budapest by a particular date. According to Bauer, Brand said at various points that he was given one, two or three weeks or was advised that he could "take [his] time". Hansi Brand testified during Eichmann's trial in 1961 that she and her children had to remain in Budapest, effectively as hostages. Brand and Eichmann met again, for the last time on 15 May, the day the mass deportations to Auschwitz began. Between then and 9 July 1944, around 437,000 Jews, almost the entire Jewish population of the Hungarian countryside, were deported to Auschwitz on 147 trains. Most were gassed on arrival.
Brand leaves for Istanbul
Brand secured a letter of recommendation for the Jewish Agency from the Hungarian Jewish Council. He was told he would be travelling with Bandi Grosz (real name, Andor Gross), a Hungarian who had worked for Hungarian and German military intelligence; Grosz would travel to Istanbul as the director of a Hungarian transport company. The SS drove the men from Budapest to Vienna on 17 May, where they stayed the night in a hotel reserved for the SS. Grosz later testified that Brand's mission had been a cover for his own. He said he had been told by Clages to arrange a meeting in a neutral country between senior German and American officers, or British if necessary, to broker peace between the German Sicherheitsdienst and the Western Allies.
Meeting with Jewish Agency
In Vienna, Brand was given a German passport in the name of Eugen Band. He cabled the Jewish Agency in Istanbul to say he was on his way, and arrived by German diplomatic plane on 19 May. Paul Rose writes that Brand had no idea at this point that the deportations to Auschwitz had already begun.
Brand had been told by the Jewish Agency by return cable that "Chaim" would meet him in Istanbul. Convinced of the importance of his mission, he believed this was Chaim Weizmann, president of the World Zionist Organization, later the first president of Israel. In fact the man who had arranged to meet him was Chaim Barlas, head of the Istanbul group of Zionist emissaries. Furthermore, not only was Barlas not there, but there was no entry visa waiting for Brand, and he was threatened with arrest and deportation. Brand saw this as the first betrayal by the Jewish Agency. Bauer argues that Brand, then and later, failed to grasp that the Jewish Agency was powerless. That his passport was in the name of Eugen Band would have been enough to cause the confusion.
The visa situation was sorted out by Bandi Grosz and the men were taken to a hotel, where they met the Jewish Agency delegates. Brand was furious that no one sufficiently senior was available to negotiate a deal. The Jewish Agency agreed to arrange for Moshe Sharett, head of its political department and later second prime minister of Israel, to travel to Istanbul to meet him. Brand passed them a plan of Auschwitz (probably from the Vrba-Wetzler report) and demanded that the gas chambers, crematoria and railway lines be bombed. The discussions left him discouraged and depressed. He wrote that the delegates lacked any sense of urgency and were focused more on internal politics and Jewish emigration to Palestine, rather than the slaughter in Europe: "[They] were undoubtedly worthy men ... But they lacked any awareness of how critical was the period of history in which they were living. They had not looked death in the face day after day, as we had in Budapest ..."
Interim agreement
Ladislaus Löb writes that proposals and counter-proposals flew between Istanbul, London and Washington. The Jewish Agency and Brand wanted the Allies to string the Germans along in the hope of slowing the deportations. The Agency gave Brand a document, dated 29 May 1944, that offered $400,000 for every 1,000 Jewish emigrants to Palestine, one million Swiss francs per 10,000 Jewish emigrants to neutral countries such as Spain, and 10,000 Swiss francs a month if the deportations were to stop. If the SS would allow the Allies to supply food, clothes and medicine to the Jews in concentration camps, the Nazis would be supplied with the same. Rose writes that the agreement was intended only to give Brand something to take back to Budapest.
Brand cabled his wife on 29 and 31 May to tell her (and thereby Eichmann) about the agreement, but there was no response. Rezső Kasztner and Hansi Brand had been held in Budapest between 27 May and 1 June by the Hungarian Arrow Cross. They received the telegrams when they were released, but Eichmann refused to halt the deportations.
Arrested by British
In Istanbul, Brand was told that Moshe Sharett was unable to obtain a visa for Turkey. The Jewish Agency asked Brand to meet Sharett instead in Aleppo on the Syrian-Turkish border. He was reluctant; the area was under British control and he was afraid they would want to question him, but the Agency told him it would be safe and he left by train with two of its delegates.
While on the train, Brand was approached by two representatives of Zeev Jabotinsky's Hatzohar (Revisionist Zionist) party and the World Agudath Israel Orthodox religious party. They told him the British were going to arrest him in Aleppo: "Die Engländer sind in dieser Frage nicht unsere Verbündeten"("the British are not our allies in this matter"). As soon as he arrived at the Aleppo train station on 7 June, he was stopped by a British man in plain clothes and pushed into a Jeep that was waiting with its engine running.
The British drove him to a villa, where for four days they tried to stop Moshe Sharett from meeting him. Sharett "fought a battle of telephones and cables," Bauer writes, and on 11 June he and the Jewish Agency intelligence group were finally introduced to Brand. The discussion lasted several hours. Sharett wrote in a report of 27 June: "I must have looked a little incredulous, for he said: 'Please believe me: they have killed six million Jews; there are only two million left alive.'" At the end of the meeting, Sharett broke the news that the British were insisting Brand not return to Budapest. Brand became hysterical.
Proposal rejected
Brand was taken to Cairo, where he was questioned by the British for weeks. On 22 June 1944 he was interviewed by Ira Hirschmann of the American War Refugee Board; Hirschmann wrote a positive report about Brand, but his influence was limited. Brand went on hunger strike for 17 days in protest at his detention.
The British, Americans and Soviets discussed the proposal. British Foreign Secretary (later Prime Minister) Anthony Eden wrote a memo on 26 June outlining the options. The British were convinced they were dealing with a Himmler trick, that Grosz was a double agent, and that Brand's mission was a "smokescreen" for the Germans to broker a peace deal without the Soviet Union. If the deal had gone ahead and large numbers of Jews had been released in central Europe, Allied airborne and possibly land-based military operations might have had to stop. Bauer believes the British feared this was Himmler's motive—to turn the Jews into human shields—because it would have allowed the Germans to devote their forces to fighting the Red Army.
The Americans were more open to negotiating. A rift developed between them and the British who, Bauer writes, were worried about large-scale Jewish immigration to Palestine, then under British control. Eden did suggest a counter-proposal on 1 July, but it was reduced, Bauer writes, to a ridiculous minimum. He told the American government that the British would allow Brand to return to Budapest with a message for Eichmann suggesting that 1,500 Jewish children be given safe passage to Switzerland; 5,000 from Bulgaria and Romania be allowed to leave for Palestine; and that Germany guarantee safe conduct for ships carrying Jewish refugees. He did not say what he would offer in return.
On 11 July Prime Minister Winston Churchill put an end to the idea when he told Eden that the murder of the Jews was "probably the greatest and most horrible crime ever committed", and that there should be "no negotiations of any kind on this subject". Of Brand's mission he wrote: "The project which has been put forward through a very doubtful channel seems itself also to be of the most nondescript character. I would not take it seriously." The Cabinet Committee on Refugees decided on 13 July to "totally ignore the combined Brandt–Gestapo approach".
Leak to media
The British leaked details of Eichmann's proposal to the media. According to Michael Fleming, the BBC was the first to report it, which means, he writes, "it seems that the PWE [Political Warfare Executive] (and hence the Foreign Office) released the information". On 19 July 1944—the day before the 20 July plot, the attempted assassination of Adolf Hitler—the New York Herald Tribune (dateline London, 18 July) reported that two Hungarian government emissaries in Turkey had proposed that Hungarian Jews be given safe passage in exchange for British and American pharmaceuticals and transport for the Germans. On 20 July The Times called it "one of the most loathsome" stories of the war, an attempt to "blackmail, deceive and split" the Allies, and a "new level of fantasy and self-deception".
The mass deportation of Hungarian Jews had already stopped by the time of the leak. Following publication in mid-June of parts of the Vrba-Wetzler report, which described in detail the use of gas chambers inside Auschwitz, the Jewish Agency in Geneva had cabled London asking that Hungarian ministers be held personally responsible for the killings. The cable was intercepted and passed to Hungarian regent Miklós Horthy, who on 7 July 1944 ordered an end to the deportations. The British released Brand on 5 October 1944. Brand said they would not allow him to return to Hungary and forced him to travel to Palestine. Bauer disputes this; in his view, Brand was simply afraid of returning to Budapest, convinced the Germans would murder him.
Himmler's involvement
Germany's Foreign Minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop, had apparently known nothing about the proposal. He cabled Brigadeführer Edmund Veesenmayer of the SS on 20 July 1944 to ask about it, and was told on 22 July that Brand and Grosz had been sent to Turkey on the orders of Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS. Eichmann himself said during interrogation after the war that the order had come from Himmler, as did SS officer Kurt Becher: "Himmler said to me: 'Take whatever you can from the Jews. Promise them whatever you want. What we will keep is another matter.'"
According to Bauer, the "clumsiness of the approach has been a wonderment to all observers". Bauer argues that Eichmann wanted to murder Jews, not sell them, but was forced instead to act as Himmler's reluctant messenger. On the day Brand left Germany for Istanbul in May 1944, Eichmann was in Auschwitz checking that it was ready for the trainloads of Jews about to arrive from Hungary. The camp's commander, Obersturmbannführer Rudolf Höss, said it would be difficult to process such large numbers, whereupon Eichmann ordered that new arrivals be gassed immediately rather than going through "selection". This does not suggest that he was going to halt the killing until Brand returned from Istanbul.
In Bauer's view, the presence at one of the meetings of Gerhard Clages of the SS signals that Himmler was interested in secret peace talks. Brand and Grosz arrived in Istanbul just two months before the attempted assassination of Adolf Hitler on 20 July 1944. Himmler knew that attempts might be made on Hitler's life, although not where and when. He may have wanted to broker for peace in case Hitler did not survive, using low-level agents for plausible deniability; in the event that Hitler did survive, Bauer argues, Himmler would be able to offer him a peace deal with the West that excluded the Soviet Union. Brand himself came to believe that the proposal had been designed to drive a wedge between the Allies. Two months before his death in 1964, at the trial in Germany of Eichmann's deputies and , he said he had "made a terrible mistake in passing this on to the British. It is now clear to me that Himmler sought to sow suspicion among the Allies as a preparation for his much desired Nazi-Western coalition against Moscow."
Kasztner train
Brand's failure to return to Budapest was a disaster for the Aid and Rescue Committee. On 27 May Hansi Brand, who at some point during this period had become Kasztner's lover, was arrested and beaten by the Hungarian Arrow Cross. Kasztner wrote that on 9 June Eichmann told him: "If I do not receive a positive reply within three days, I shall operate the mill at Auschwitz" ("die Muehle laufen lasse"). During his trial in Jerusalem in 1961, Eichmann denied having said this to Kastner. He told the court that he did not have the authority to stop or start what was happening in Auschwitz, or to change the deal. The order from Berlin had said: "Deportations will continue in the meanwhile and will not be stopped until Joel Brand returns with a statement to the effect that these matters have been accepted by the Jewish organizations abroad." Hansi Brand told Claude Lanzman in 1979:
We ... [lived] between fear and despair and hope. And that formed itself into such a heap of stuff, that I can't really describe it – how it was and what it was. Every evening, we went to pieces and during the night, we tried to build ourselves up again, so we could go into the street ... and look like human beings again ... And [it] was like being in a windmill; it turned and moved.
Bauer argues that the Aid and Rescue committee made the mistake of almost adopting the antisemitic belief in unlimited Jewish power, that Jewish leaders could move around freely and persuade the Allies to act, and that American Jews had easy access to money and goods. The committee had similar trust in the Allies, but the latter were preparing for the invasion of Normandy, which began on 6 June 1944. "At that crucial moment," writes Bauer, "to antagonize the Soviets because of some hare-brained Gestapo plan to ransom Jews was totally out of the question."
Despite the setbacks, Kasztner, Hansi Brand and the rest of the committee secured the release of around 1,684 Jews, including 273 children, who were allowed to leave Budapest for Switzerland by train on 30 June 1944. The committee paid SS officer Kurt Becher $1000 per person in foreign currency, shares, jewellery and gold, raised from the wealthier passengers to cover the cost of the rest. After an unexplained detour to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, the passengers arrived in Switzerland in two batches in August and December that year. Joel Brand's mother, sister and niece were on the train, as were 10 members of Kasztner's family and 388 people from the Kolozsvár ghetto in his home town. Kastner's relationship with these passengers led to the criticism that his negotiations with Becher had focused on saving people he knew, an allegation that led to his assassination in 1957.
Later life
Move to Israel
Bauer concludes that Brand was a courageous man who had passionately wanted to help the Jewish people, but his life was plagued after the mission by suspicion, including from other members of the Aid and Rescue Committee, because of his failure to return to Budapest. After the British released him, he joined the Stern Gang, who were fighting to remove the British from Palestine. He and Hansi Brand lived for the rest of their lives in Israel, at first moving to the Givat Brenner kibbutz, then to Tel Aviv, with their two sons.
Testimony
Brand offered testimony about the blood-for-goods proposal during several trials. In 1954 he testified at the controversial libel trial in Jerusalem of Malchiel Gruenwald, who was sued by the Israeli government on behalf of Rezső Kasztner. Gruenwald was a Hungarian Holocaust survivor who had moved to Israel after the war. In a self-published pamphlet in 1952 he accused Kasztner, by then an Israeli civil servant, of having collaborated with the Nazis by dealing with Eichmann. Brand testified for Kasztner, but instead of defending him took the opportunity to accuse the Jewish Agency, whose officials became the first Israeli government, of having helped the British scupper the blood-for-goods proposal.
After a trial that lasted 18 months, the judge concluded that, by negotiating with Eichmann, failing to warn the many to save the few on the Kasztner train, and writing an affidavit after the war for Kurt Becher, Kasztner had "sold his soul to the devil". It was because of Kasztner's support for Becher that the Americans decided not to prosecute Becher at Nuremberg. Kasztner also wrote affidavits for SS officers Hans Jüttner, Dieter Wisliceny and Hermann Krumey.
The judge said that Kasztner's failure to do more to warn the community that they were being sent to the gas chambers, not resettled, had helped Eichmann maintain order, and that the Kasztner train had been a payoff. Tom Segev called the ruling "one of the most heartless in the history of Israel, perhaps the most heartless ever". The Supreme Court of Israel overturned most of the verdict in January 1958, ruling that the lower court had "erred seriously", but Kasztner was assassinated in 1957 as a result of the earlier judgment.
Eichmann and Frankfurt trials
Brand's book was published in Israel in 1956 as Bi-sheliḥut nidonim la mavet and in German in 1956 as Die Geschichte von Joel Brand. It appeared in English in 1958 as Advocate for the Dead: The Story of Joel Brand by Alex Weissberg, and was serialized in March and April that year by The Observer, which called it "the strangest story to come out of the war".
Joel and Hansi Brand both testified in 1961 during the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem. Eichmann said he had chosen Brand because he had seemed like an "honest, idealistic man". That year Life magazine called Brand "a man who lives in the shadows with a broken heart". In May 1964 he testified in Frankfurt against two of Eichmann's assistants, SS-Obersturmbannführer Hermann Krumey and SS-Hauptsturmführer Otto Hunsche.
Death
Brand died of a heart attack, aged 58, during a visit to Germany in July 1964. He told an interviewer shortly before his death: "An accident of life placed the fate of one million human beings on my shoulders. I eat and sleep and think only of them." Over 800 mourners attended his funeral in Tel Aviv, including Colonel Arieh Baz on behalf of Israel's President Zalman Shazar, and Teddy Kollek, director-general of the prime minister's office, on behalf of Prime Minister Levi Eshkol. The eulogy was delivered by Gideon Hausner, the attorney general who prosecuted Adolf Eichmann.
Sources
Notes
Citations
Works cited
First published as Die Geschichte von Joel Brand, 1956; also published as Desperate Mission: Joel Brand's Story.
Further reading
Video
Geva, Sharon (March 2010). "Testifying Before Men, Testifying Before a Woman: The Case of Hansi Brand". Akko: The Holocaust Studies Program of Western Galilee College.
Books, articles
Biss, Andreas (1966). Der Stopp des Endlösung: Kampf gegen Himmler und Eichmann in Budapest. Stuttgart: Seewald.
Biss, Andreas (March 1979). "Andreas Biss antwortet Yehuda Bauer". Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte. 27(1), pp. 162–166.
Brand, Joel (1956). Bi-Shelihut nidonim la-mavet ("A Mission on Behalf of the Sentenced to Death"). Tel Aviv: Ayanot.
Elon, Amos (1981). Timetable: The Story of Joel Brand. London: Hutchinson.
Kastner, Rezső (2014) [December 1946]. The Kasztner Report: The Report of the Budapest Jewish Rescue Committee, 1942–1945. Jerusalem: Yad Vashem.
Kastner, Rezső (13 September 1945). "Affidavit", courtesy of the Holocaust Education & Archive Research Team.
"Israel: Jews for Trucks". Time, 9 June 1961.
1906 births
1964 deaths
Blood for goods
Communist Party of Germany politicians
Hungarian emigrants to Mandatory Palestine
Hungarian Jews
Hungarian people of World War II
Jews from Mandatory Palestine
Jewish socialists
Kastner train
People from Năsăud
Romanian Jews
The Holocaust in Hungary
Burials at Nahalat Yitzhak Cemetery
People who rescued Jews during the Holocaust
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal%20immigration%20to%20the%20United%20States
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Illegal immigration to the United States
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Foreign nationals (aliens) can violate US immigration laws by entering the United States unlawfully or lawfully entering but then remaining after the expiration of their visas, parole, TPS, etc. Illegal immigration has been a matter of intense debate in the United States since the 1980s.
The illegal immigrant population of the United States peaked by 2007, when it was at 12.2 million and 4% of the total U.S. population. Estimates in 2016 put the number of unauthorized immigrants at 10.7 million, representing 3.3% of the total U.S. population. Since the Great Recession, more illegal immigrants have left the United States than entered it, and illegal border crossings were at the lowest in decades until 2021, when a record of 1.7 million people were caught trying to cross the southern border illegally. Since 2007, visa overstays have accounted for a larger share of the growth in the illegal immigrant population than illegal border crossings, which have declined considerably from 2000 to 2018. In 2012, 52% of unauthorized immigrants were from Mexico, 15% from Central America, 12% from Asia, 6% from South America, 5% from the Caribbean, and another 5% from Europe and Canada. As of 2016, approximately two-thirds of unauthorized adult immigrants had lived in the U.S. for at least a decade.
Opponents of illegal immigration argue that people who enter the United States illegally are criminals, as well as social and economic burdens on law-abiding natives. Opponents also argue that illegal immigrants who enter the United States illegally should be deported instead of being awarded with U.S. citizenship and social services. Some argue that illegal immigrants should instead enter the United States lawfully through legal immigration.
Research shows that illegal immigrants increase the size of the U.S. economy, contribute to economic growth, enhance the welfare of natives, contribute more in tax revenue than they collect, reduce American firms' incentives to offshore jobs and import foreign-produced goods, and benefit consumers by reducing the prices of goods and services. Economists estimate that legalization of the illegal immigrant population would increase the immigrants' earnings and consumption considerably, and increase U.S. gross domestic product. There is scholarly consensus that illegal immigrants commit less crime than natives. Sanctuary cities—which adopt policies designed to avoid prosecuting people solely for being in the country illegally—have no statistically meaningful impact on crime. Research suggests that immigration enforcement has no impact on crime rates.
Definitions
The categories of foreign-born people in the United States are:
U.S. citizens born outside the United States who are naturalized or citizens by adoption
Foreign-born non-citizens with current status to reside and/or work in the U.S. (documented)
Foreign-born non-citizens without current status to reside and/or work in the U.S. (illegal)
Foreign-born non-citizens who are prohibited from entry (illegal and also inadmissible)
The latter two constitute illegal immigrants: as they have no legal documentation to entitle them to be in the U.S., they are also referred to as undocumented immigrants or undocumented Americans.
Non-citizen residents can be or become illegal in one of four ways: by unauthorized entry, by failure of the employer to pay worker documentation fees, by staying beyond the expiration date of a visa or other authorization, or by violating the terms of legal entry.
History
Rigorous immigration controls were first enacted with the Page Act of 1875, banning Chinese women, and the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, expanded to all Chinese immigrants.
Supreme Court decisions
Since the late 19th century, various Supreme Court rulings established the Constitutional rights of illegal immigrants. In Yick Wo v. Hopkins (1886), the court ruled that under the Fourteenth Amendment, all people, regardless of "race, of color, or of nationality" have the right to due process and equal protection under the law. A similar ruling of Wong Wing v. U.S. (1896) stated that all persons within the territory of the United States are afforded equal protections under the Fifth Amendment and Sixth Amendment.
A 1904 court decision defined any alien as lacking Constitutional rights when not within the United States.
Legislation
The Naturalization Act of 1906, required immigrants to learn English in order to become citizens. The Immigration Act of 1917 defined aliens with a long list of undesirables, including most Asians. The U.S. had otherwise nearly open borders until the early 20th century, with only 1% rejected from 1890 to 1924, usually because they failed the mental or health exam. While immigration laws during those years were loose, laws limiting naturalization to those of "white" and "African" meant many other immigrants had difficulty acquiring citizenship. These regulations immediately created problems of interpretation – the contentious question of who was and was not "white" vexed even the officials charged with enforcing the law and led to significant criticism. The Union of American Hebrew Congregations noted that under the standing interpretation that Turks, Syrians, Palestinians and Jews were not white, "even Jesus of Nazareth himself" would be excluded from citizenship. As a result, judges and immigration officials often admitted and naturalized technically ineligible people as a form of protest against the laws.
The Immigration Act of 1924 established visa requirements and enacted quotas for immigrants from specific countries, especially with low quotas for Southern and Eastern Europeans,. It especially affected Italians and Jews. It also prohibited virtually all Asians from immigrating to America.
By 1940, administrative and legislative action had loosened racial restrictions on naturalization of immigrants, including a ruling that Mexicans were considered white for immigration and naturalization purposes, and a law permitting the naturalization of "descendants of races indigenous to the Western Hemisphere." The quotas were eased in the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952.
The decisive opening came in 1965, a year after the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination based on race or national origin. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished the quota system. The 1965 Act also established several new limits to which immigrants would be admissible for permanent residence in the United States. A 1990 act increased the annual immigrant limit to 675,000 per year.
In 1996, Congress debated two immigration bills - one focused on limiting legal immigration, and another focused on illegal immigration. The legal immigration reform bills failed to pass, while the illegal immigration bill was passed in the form of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996. President Bill Clinton signed the Act into law and it became effective on April 1, 1997. The key components of the Act included increasing the number of border agents, increasing penalties on those who assisted illegal immigrants into the United States, creating a 10-year re-entry ban on those who had been deported after living in the U.S. illegally for over one year, and expanding the list of crimes that any immigrant (regardless of legal status) could be deported for.
Border controls
As early as 1904, mounted border watchmen were employed by the U.S. Immigration Service to prevent illegal southern border crossings. Texas Rangers were also often employed along the Texas border with Mexico.
Increased border militarization in the United States had the unintended consequence of increasing illegal immigration to the United States, as temporary undocumented immigrants who entered the United States seasonally for work opted to stay permanently in the United States and bring their families once it became harder to move across the border regularly. The U.S. Border Patrol was also officially created in 1924, with its duties in 1925 broadened to include guarding the sea coast. Illegal entry into the United States became a particular problem during Prohibition, when bootleggers and smugglers would illegally enter the country to transport alcohol.
The debate over illegal immigration has continued amongst the fear of potential terrorist attacks in the wake of the September 11 attacks in 2001 and the lack of an effective Mexico–United States barrier. President Donald Trump enacted a travel ban from seven Muslim-majority countries, which was struck down as unconstitutional and replaced by a narrower version drafted by the Justice Department, which Trump described as "watered down, politically correct" and which was subsequently upheld by the Supreme Court. During his successful election campaign, Trump promised to make Mexico pay for a new border wall. , Mexican government has refused to do so. The federal government entered a partial shutdown from December 22, 2018, to January 25, 2019 in a standoff over Trump's demand for $5.7 billion in funding for the wall.
Profile and demographics
In 2012, an estimated 14 million people live in families in which the head of household or the spouse is in the United States without authorization. Illegal immigrants arriving recently before 2012 tend to be better educated than those who have been in the country a decade or more. A quarter of all immigrants who have arrived in recently before 2012 have at least some college education. Nonetheless, illegal immigrants as a group tend to be less educated than other sections of the U.S. population: 49 percent haven't completed high school, compared with 9 percent of native-born Americans and 25 percent of legal immigrants.
Illegal immigrants work in many sectors of the U.S. economy. Illegal immigrants have lower incomes than both legal immigrants and native-born Americans, but earnings do increase somewhat the longer an individual is in the country.
Breakdown by state
, the following data table shows a spread of distribution of locations where illegal immigrants reside by state.
Population
From 2005 to 2009, the number of people entering the U.S. illegally every year declined from a yearly average of 850,000 in the early 2000s to 300,000 in 2009, according to the Pew Hispanic Center. The most recent estimates put the number of unauthorized immigrants at 11 million in 2015, representing 3.4% of the total U.S. population. The population of unauthorized immigrants peaked in 2007, when it was estimated at 12.2 million and 4% of the total U.S. population. As of 2014, unauthorized immigrant adults had lived in the U.S. for a median of 13.6 years, with approximately two-thirds having lived in the U.S. for at least a decade. Pew Research estimated in 2017 that there were over seven million illegal immigrants in the U.S. workforce.
Narrowing the discussion to only Mexican nationals, a 2015 study performed by demographers of the University of Texas at San Antonio and the University of New Hampshire found that immigration from Mexico; both legal and illegal, peaked in 2003 and that from the period between 2003 and 2007 to the period of 2008 to 2012, immigration from Mexico decreased 57%. The dean of the College of Public Policy of the University of Texas at San Antonio, Rogelio Saenz, states that lower birth rates and the growing economy in Mexico slowed emigration, creating more jobs for Mexicans. Saenz also states that Mexican immigrants are no longer coming to find jobs but to flee from violence, noting that the majority of those escaping crime "are far more likely to be naturalized U.S. citizens".
According to a 2017 National Bureau of Economic Research paper, "The number of undocumented immigrants has declined in absolute terms, while the overall population of low-skilled, foreign-born workers has remained stable. ... because major source countries for U.S. immigration are now seeing and will continue to see weak growth of the labor supply relative to the United States, future immigration rates of young, low-skilled workers appear unlikely to rebound, whether or not U.S. immigration policies tighten further."
Children
The Pew Hispanic Center determined that according to an analysis of Census Bureau data about 8 percent of children born in the United States in 2008—about 340,000—were offspring of illegal immigrants. (The report classifies a child as offspring of illegal immigrants if either parent is unauthorized.) In total, 4 million U.S.-born children of illegal immigrant parents resided in this country in 2009. These infants are, according to the longstanding administrative interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, United States citizens from birth. Congress has never legislated, nor the Supreme Court specifically ruled on whether babies born to visiting foreign nationals are eligible for automatic U.S. Citizenship. These children are sometimes referred to as anchor babies because of the belief that the mother gave birth in the United States as a way to anchor their family in the U.S. The provisions of the 1996 immigration law mean that an undocumented parent of a citizen child who entered the country without permission ("illegal entry") would need to leave the United States and wait a number of years before they would be able to apply for a visa to return to the U.S. or gain legal residency on the basis of family reunification, while undocumented parents who legally entered the United States (for example overstaying a visa) can in some cases be sponsored by their adult citizen child for legal residency without necessarily having to leave the country. Additionally, households headed by an undocumented parent are not eligible for many public assistance programs (ex. not eligible for TANF or temporary cash assistance to families with children in extreme poverty, "Obamacare" subsidies for health insurance or expanded Medicaid to working-age low-income adults, public housing, Section 8 housing voucher program) regardless of whether their child is a United States citizen or not, with some exceptions (Medicaid/SCHIP for the U.S. citizen child, SNAP/"foodstamps" on behalf of a U.S. citizen child, the temporarily expanded child-tax credit in 2021–2022, as well as some state and city programs specifically designed to include undocumented residents and their families)
Organized migrant caravans
For several years, Pueblo Sin Fronteras, which means "People Without Borders" has organized an annual part-protest, part-mass migration march, from Honduras, through Mexico, to the United States border, where asylum in the United States is requested. In April 2018, the annual "Stations of the Cross Caravan" saw 1,000 Central Americans trying to reach the United States, prompting President Trump to deem it a threat to national security and announce plans to send the national guard to protect the U.S. border. In October 2018, a second caravan of the year left the city of San Pedro Sula the day after U.S. vice-president, Mike Pence, urged the presidents of Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala to persuade their citizens to stay home.
2011–2016 surge in unaccompanied minors from Central America
Over the period 2011–2016, U.S. Border Patrol apprehended 178,825 unaccompanied minors from El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala. The provisions of the William Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008, which specifies safe repatriation of unaccompanied children (other than those trafficked for sex or forced labor) from countries which do not have a common border with the United States, such as the nations of Central America other than Mexico, made expeditious deportation of the large number of children from Central America who came to the United States in 2014 difficult and expensive, prompting a call by President Barack Obama for an emergency appropriation of $4 billion and resulting in discussions by the Department of Justice and Congress of how to interpret or revise the law in order to expedite handling large numbers of children under the act.
A 2016 study found that Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), which allows unauthorized immigrants who migrated to the United States before their 16th birthday and prior to June 2007 to temporarily stay, did not significantly impact the number of apprehensions of unaccompanied minors from Central America. Rather, the study stated, "the 2008 Williams Wilberforce Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act, along with violence in the originating countries and economic conditions in both the countries of origin and the United States, emerge as some of the key determinants of the recent surge in unaccompanied minors apprehended along the southwest U.S.-Mexico border." According to a 2015 report by the Government Accountability Office, the primary drivers of the surge "were crime and lack of economic opportunity at home. Other reasons included education concerns, desire to rejoin family and aggressive recruiting by smugglers." A 2017 Center for Global Development study stated that violence was the primary driver behind the surge in unaccompanied Central American minors to the United States: an additional 10 homicides in Central America made 6 unaccompanied children flee to the U.S. The widespread promulgation of false "permiso" rumors by human smugglers, as well as migrant perception of the Obama administration's immigration policies, also played a part in the increase.
2018 family separation policy
In April 2018, then-attorney general of the Trump administration Jeff Sessions announced a family separation policy regarding migrants crossing the U.S. southern border without a visa. Migrants and accompanying family members who had entered the country who were alleged to have entered illegally and were apprehended or turned themselves in to Border Control agents were charged with criminal entry. If these family units had children, they were separated, with adults placed in detention centers to await immigration proceedings and the children in separate facilities or with a relative already in the U.S. There was widespread condemnation of this policy including that of notable evangelical Christian leaders such as Franklin Graham.
Countries of origin
According to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, the countries of origin for the largest numbers of illegal immigrants are as follows (latest of 2017):
According to the Migration Policy Institute, Mexicans represented 53% of the illegal immigrant population. The next largest percentages were from Asia (16%), El Salvador (6%), and Guatemala (5%).
The Urban Institute also estimates "between 65,000 and 75,000 Canadians currently live illegally in the United States."
Trends
In 2017, illegal border crossing arrests hit a 46-year low, and were down 25% from the previous year. NPR stated that immigrants may be less likely to attempt to enter the U.S. illegally because of President Trump's stance on illegal immigration. The majority of illegal immigrants come from Mexico. Studies have shown that 40 million foreign born residents live in the U.S. 11.7 million of that population is illegal. During the 1950s, there were 45,000 documented immigrants from Central America. In the 1960s, this number more than doubled to 100,000. In the decade after, it increased to 134,000. In 2019, after being threatened with punitive tariffs, Mexico agreed to a deal with the U.S. to better stem the flow of migrants passing through the country to enter the U.S. In September 2019, Mexican foreign minister Marcelo Ebrard stated that immigration to the U.S. through Mexico has decreased significantly, and that this trend is "irreversible. ... It is something that we think will be permanent."
Illegal entry
There are an estimated half million illegal entries into the United States each year. The Pew Hispanic Center estimated that 6–7 million immigrants came to the United States via illegal entry (the rest entering via legal visas allowing a limited stay, but then not leaving when their visa period ended). Illegal border crossings have declined considerably from 2000, when 71,000–220,000 migrants were apprehended each month, to 2018 when 20,000–40,000 migrants were apprehended.
A common means of border crossing is to hire people smugglers to help them across the border. Those operating on the U.S.-Mexico border are known informally as coyotajes (coyotes), and are often part of extensive criminal networks throughout Mexico. Criminal gangs smuggling illegal immigrants from China are known as snakeheads, and charge as much as U.S.$70,000 per person, which immigrants often promise to pay with money they hope to earn in the United States.
Visa overstay
A tourist or traveler is considered a "visa overstay" once he or she remains in the United States after the time of admission has expired. The time of admission varies greatly from traveler to traveler depending on the visa class into which they were admitted. According to Pew, between 4 and 5.5 million foreigners entered the United States with a legal visa, accounting for between 33 and 48% of the total unauthorized migrant population. Visa overstays tend to be somewhat more educated and better off financially than those who entered the country illegally. In most instances, overstaying a visa is a civil "wrong" and not necessarily a crime, though the person is still subject to deportation for unlawful presence.
To help track visa overstayers the U.S.-VISIT (United States Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology) program collects and retains biographic, travel, and biometric information, such as photographs and fingerprints, of foreign nationals seeking entry into the United States. It also requires electronic readable passports containing this information.
Visa overstayers mostly enter with tourist or business visas. In 1994, more than half of illegal immigrants were Visa overstayers whereas in 2006, about 45% of illegal immigrants were Visa overstayers.
Those who leave the United States after overstaying their visa for more than 180 days but less than one year, leave and then attempt to apply for readmission will face a three-year ban which will not allow them to re-enter the U.S. for that period. Those who leave the United States after overstaying their visa for a period of one year or longer, leave and then attempt to apply for readmission will face a ten-year ban.
Border Crossing Card violation
A smaller number of illegal immigrants entered the United States legally using the Border Crossing Card, a card that authorizes border crossings into the U.S. for a set amount of time. Border Crossing Card entry accounts for the vast majority of all registered non-immigrant entry into the United States—148 million out of 179 million total—but there is little hard data as to how much of the illegal immigrant population entered in this way. The Pew Hispanic Center estimates the number at around 250,000–500,000.
In the workforce
Illegal immigrants within the workforce are extremely vulnerable due to their status. Being illegal makes these individuals susceptible to exploitation by employers as they are more willing to work through bad conditions and low income jobs—consequently making themselves vulnerable to abuse. Most illegal migrants end up being hired by U.S. employers who exploit the low-wage market produced through immigration. Typical jobs include: janitorial services, clothing production, and household work.
Many illegal Latin American immigrants are inclined to the labor market because of the constraints they have with their job opportunities. This consequently forms an informal sector within the labor market. As a result, this attachment formulates an ethnic identity for this sector.
Congress passed the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) in 1996. This prevented federal, state, and local public benefits from flowing to illegal immigrants. It also required federal and state agencies to disclose if someone was illegal. Additionally, PRWORA prohibited states from giving professional licenses to those illegal. Though PRWORA prevents public benefits from flowing to illegal immigrants, there are exceptions. Illegal immigrants are still entitled to medical assistance, immunizations, disaster relief, and k-12 education. Despite this, federal law still requires local and state governments to deny benefits to those illegal. The implementation of PRWORA demonstrated the shift towards personal responsibility over "public dependency." There were about eight million illegally present workers in the United States in 2010. These workers were 5% of America's workforce.
Causes
There are however numerous incentives which draw foreigners to the U.S. Most illegal immigrants who come to America come for better opportunities for employment, a greater degree of freedom, avoidance of political oppression, freedom from violence, famine, and family reunification.
International polls by the Gallup organization from 2013 to 2016 in 156 foreign countries found that about 147 million adults would, if they could, move to the U.S., making it the most-desired destination country for potential migrants worldwide, followed by Germany and Canada.
Causes by region
In general, illegal immigrants from Mexico and Central America come to the US as they flee from insecurity and violence in their own country (i.e. forced recruitment in gangs). or in search for better economic opportunities. However, it sometimes also occurs due to political oppression. From Asia, they come for economic reasons but some come involuntarily as sex slaves or indentured servants. From Sub-Saharan Africa, the majority come for economic activities. From Eastern Europe, they primarily come for economic activities and to rejoin family already in the United States. Like other regions, there are also some who come involuntarily as part of the sex industry.
Economic incentives
Economic reasons are one motivation for people to illegally immigrate to the United States. United States employers hire illegal immigrants at wages substantially higher than they could earn in their native countries. A study of illegal immigrants from Mexico in the 1978 harvest season in Oregon showed that they earned six times what they could have earned in Mexico, and even after deducting the costs of the seasonal migration and the additional expense of living in the United States, their net U.S. earnings were three times their Mexican alternative. In the 1960s and early 70s, Mexico's high fertility rate caused a large increase in population. While Mexican population growth has slowed, the large numbers of people born in the 1960s and 70s are now of working age looking for jobs.
According to Judith Gans of the University of Arizona, United States employers are pushed to hire illegal immigrants for three main reasons:
Global economic change. Global economic change is one cause for illegal immigration because information and transportation technologies now foster internationalized production, distribution and consumption, and labor. This has encouraged many countries to open their economies to outside investment, then increasing the number of low-skilled workers participating in global labor markets and making low-skilled labor markets all more competitive. This and the fact that developed countries have shifted from manufacturing to knowledge-based economies, have realigned economic activity around the world. Labor has become more international as individuals immigrate seeking work, despite governmental attempts to control this migration. Because the United States education system creates relatively few people who either lack a high school diploma or who hold PhDs, there is a shortage of workers needed to fulfill seasonal low-skilled jobs as well as certain high-skilled jobs. To fill these gaps, the United States immigration system attempts to compensate for these shortages by providing for temporary immigration by farm workers and seasonal low-skilled workers, and for permanent immigration by high-skilled workers.
A lack of legal immigration channels.
The ineffectiveness of current employer sanctions for illegal hiring. This allows immigrants who are in the country illegally to easily find jobs. There are three reasons for this ineffectiveness—the absence of reliable mechanisms for verifying employment eligibility, inadequate funding of interior immigration enforcement, and the absence of political will due to labor needs to the United States economy. For example, it is unlawful to knowingly hire an illegal immigrant, but according to Judith Gans, there are no reliable mechanisms in place for employers to verify that the immigrants' papers are authentic.
Another reason for the large numbers of illegal immigrants present in the United States is the termination of the bracero program. This bi-national program between the U.S. and Mexico existed from 1942 to 1964 to supply qualified Mexican laborers as guest workers to harvest fruits and vegetables in the United States. During World War II, the program benefited the U.S. war effort by replacing citizens' labor in agriculture to serve as soldiers overseas. The program was designed to provide legal flows of qualified laborers to the U.S. Many Mexicans deemed unqualified for the program nonetheless immigrated illegally to the United States to work. In doing that they broke both U.S. and Mexican law. Many workers that took advantage of the program became illegal residents, as they still had incentives to stay in the U.S. despite the fact that they were breaking the law. Although the bracero program had ended, the period still saw a massive spike in migrant population in the U.S.
Channels for legal immigration
The United States immigration system provides channels for legal, permanent economic immigration, especially for high-skilled workers. For low-skilled workers, temporary or seasonal legal immigration is easier to acquire. The United States immigration system rests on three pillars: family reunification, provision of scarce labor (as in agricultural and specific high-skilled worker sectors), and protecting American workers from competition with foreign workers. The current system sets an overall limit of 675,000 permanent immigrants each year; this limit does not apply to spouses, unmarried minor children or parents of U.S. citizens. Outside of this number for permanent immigrants, 480,000 visas are allotted for those under the family-preference rules and 140,000 are allocated for employment-related preferences. The current system and low number of visas available make it difficult for low-skilled workers to legally and permanently enter the country to work, so illegal entry becomes the way immigrants respond to the lure of jobs with higher wages than what they would be able to find in their current country.
Family reunification
According to demographer Jeffery Passel of the Pew Hispanic Center, the flow of Mexicans to the U.S. has produced a "network effect"—furthering immigration as Mexicans moved to join relatives already in the U.S.
Further incentives
Lower costs of transportation, communication and information has facilitated illegal immigration. Mexican nationals, in particular, have a very low financial cost of immigration and can easily cross the border. Even if it requires more than one attempt, they have a very low probability of being detected and then deported once they have entered the country.
Controversies
Mexican federal and state government assistance
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security and some advocacy groups have criticized a program of the government of the state of Yucatán and that of a federal Mexican agency directed to Mexicans migrating to and residing in the United States. They state that the assistance includes advice on how to get across the U.S. border illegally, where to find healthcare, enroll their children in public schools, and send money to Mexico. The Mexican federal government also issues identity cards to Mexicans living outside of Mexico.
In 2005, the government of Yucatán produced a handbook and DVD about the risks and implications of crossing the U.S.-Mexico border. The guide told immigrants where to find health care, how to get their kids into U.S. schools, and how to send money home. Officials in Yucatán said the guide is a necessity to save lives, but some American groups accused the government of encouraging illegal immigration.
In 2005, the Mexican government was criticized for distributing a comic book which offers tips to illegal emigrants to the United States. That comic book recommends to illegal immigrants, once they have safely crossed the border, "Don't call attention to yourself. ... Avoid loud parties. ... Don't become involved in fights." The Mexican government defends the guide as an attempt to save lives. "It's kind of like illegal immigration for dummies," said the executive director of the Center for Immigration Studies in Washington, Mark Krikorian. "Promoting safe illegal immigration is not the same as arguing against it". The comic book does state on its last page that the Mexican Government does not promote illegal crossing at all and only encourages visits to the U.S. with all required documentation.
U.S. Marines scandal
In 2020, 24 U.S. Marines were discharged after an investigation over their alleged involvement in drug crimes and a human smuggling operation along the U.S. – Mexico border. The investigation began when U.S. Border Patrol agents arrested two marines for transporting three illegal Mexican immigrants on July 3, 2019. A few weeks later 16 marines and a U.S. Navy sailor were arrested on base during a battalion formation on July 25, 2019. The last arrest occurred on December 2, 2019, when a marine was caught transporting two illegal Chinese immigrants near the border. The ring leader of the human smuggling operation was identify as Francisco Saul Rojas-Hernandez. Some of the marines in court said Francisco Saul Rojas-Hernandez would pay them $1,000 per person that they helped transport. 8 marines plead guilty, however some of the marines had their charges dropped after a judge said that the arrest of the 16 marines in front of a battalion formation was a violation of their rights. The U.S. Marine Corps still took administrative or judicial action against the 24 marines involved. According to 1st Lieutenant Cameron Edinburgh, one marine received a general discharge under honorable conditions, at least one marine received a dishonorable discharge, two received bad conduct discharges, and 19 received other than honorable discharges. The Navy sailor was also removed from service with a bad conduct discharge.
Legal issues
Aliens can be classified as unlawfully present for one of three reasons: entering without authorization or inspection, staying beyond the authorized period after legal entry, or violating the terms of legal entry.
Improper entry
Section 1325 in Title 8 of the United States Code, "Improper entry of alien", provides for a fine, imprisonment, or both for any non-citizen who:
Section "1325(a) is a regulatory offense, and thus knowledge of alienage is not an element." The maximum prison term is 6 months for the first offense with a misdemeanor and 2 years for any subsequent offense with a felony. In addition to the above criminal fines and penalties, civil fines may also be imposed. Sections 1325(a) and 1326(a), however, do "not apply to an alien whom the Attorney General admits to the United States under section 1157 of this title."
Visa overstay
Unlike illegal entry (which is a criminal offense in the United States), it is not a criminal offense for an alien to enter the United States legally and then overstay his or her visa. A visa overstay is a civil violation dealt with through proceedings in immigration court. A 2006 Pew Hispanic Center study showed that some 45% of unauthorized migrants entered the U.S. legally and then remained in the U.S. without authorization following the expiration of their visa. A person who overstays a visa is subject only to the civil penalties of deportation or removal and restrictions for future applications for another U.S. visa; under provisions of Section 212 of the Immigration and Nationality Act, as amended by 1996 legislation, an alien who "voluntarily departs the United States after being unlawfully present for more than 180 consecutive days but less than 1 year" is subject to a three-year bar to readmission to the United States, and an alien who "departs (voluntarily or involuntarily) the United States after being unlawfully present for 1 consecutive year or more" is subject to a ten-year bar to readmission to the United States.
Since 2007, visa overstays have accounted for a larger share of the growth in the illegal immigrant population than illegal border crossings. In 2019, a Center for Migration Studies of New York study found that for the seventh consecutive year, the number of visa overstays significantly surpassed the number of unauthorized border crossings; "from 2016-2017, people who overstayed their visas accounted for 62 percent of the newly undocumented, while 38 percent had crossed a border illegally." Some visa overstays occur unwittingly or inadvertently. In other cases, visa-holders enter the United States without the intention to do so, but ultimately decide to do so due to extenuating circumstances, such as dangers in their home countries.
Federal versus state role
The federal government has primary responsibility for immigration enforcement in the United States.
In April 2010, Arizona passed SB 1070, at the time the broadest and strictest anti-illegal immigration bill in the United States. and was challenged by the Department of Justice as encroaching on powers reserved by the United States Constitution to the Federal Government. In July 2010, a federal district court issued a preliminary injunction affecting the most controversial parts of the law, including the section that required police officers to check a person's immigration status after a person had been involved in another act or situation which resulted in police activity. The case came to the Supreme Court of the United States in Arizona v. United States (2012). The Court unanimously sustained the law's central and most controversial requirement, requiring state law enforcement officials "to determine the immigration status of anyone they stop or arrest if they have reason to suspect that the individual might be in the country illegally"—a clause called the "show me your papers" provision by opponents. The Court, however, indicated that future legal challenges to the provision could still be pursued based on, for example, allegations of racial profiling in the use of the clause. The Court also struck down as unconstitutional, by a 5–3 vote, provisions of the Arizona law making it a criminal offense for illegal immigrants to work or seek employment and permitting police to make warrantless arrests if they had probable cause to believe that the arrestee had done an act that would render him or her deportable under federal law"; and struck down as unconstitutional, by a 6–2 vote, a clause of the Arizona law that made it a state crime for immigrants to fail to register with the federal government.
In 2016, Arizona reached a settlement with a number of immigrants rights organizations, including the National Immigration Law Center, overturning the part of the law providing for police to demand papers from persons they suspected of being illegally present in the United States. The practice had led to racial profiling of Latinos and other minorities. The Los Angeles Times reported that the settlement "pulls the last set of teeth from what was once the nation's most fearsome immigration law."
Employment
Illegal immigrants are generally not allowed to receive state or local public benefits, which includes professional licenses. However, in 2013 the California State Legislature passed laws allowing illegal immigrants to obtain professional licenses. On February 1, 2014. Sergio C. Garcia became the first illegal immigrant to be admitted to the State Bar of California since 2008, when applicants were first required to list citizenship status on bar applications.
E-Verify
E-Verify is a United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) website that allows businesses to determine the eligibility of their employees, both U.S. and foreign citizens, to work in the United States. No federal law mandates use of E-Verify.
Research shows that E-Verify harms the labor market outcomes of illegal immigrants and improves the labor market outcomes of Mexican legal immigrants and U.S.-born Hispanics, but has no impact on labor market outcomes for non-Hispanic white Americans. A 2016 study suggests that E-Verify reduces the number of illegal immigrants in states that have mandated use of E-Verify for all employers, and further notes that the program may deter illegal immigration to the United States in general.
Apprehension
Federal law enforcement agencies, specifically U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), the United States Border Patrol (U.S.BP), and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), enforce the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (INA), and to some extent, the United States Armed Forces, state and local law enforcement agencies, and civilians and civilian groups guard the border.
At workplace
Before 2007, immigration authorities alerted employers of mismatches between reported employees' Social Security cards and the actual names of the card holders. In September 2007, a federal judge halted this practice of alerting employers of card mismatches.
At times illegal hiring has not been prosecuted aggressively: between 1999 and 2003, according to The Washington Post, "work-site enforcement operations were scaled back 95 percent by the Immigration and Naturalization Service. Major employers of illegal immigrants have included:
Wal-Mart: In 2005, Wal-Mart agreed to pay $11 million to settle a federal investigation that found hundreds of illegal immigrants were hired by Wal-Mart's cleaning contractors.
Swift & Co.: In December 2006, in the largest such crackdown in American history, U.S. federal immigration authorities raided Swift & Co. meat-processing plants in six U.S. states, arresting about 1,300 illegal immigrant employees.
Tyson Foods: This company was accused of actively importing illegal labor for its chicken packing plants; at trial, however, the jury acquitted the company after evidence was presented that Tyson went beyond mandated government requirements in demanding documentation for its employees.
Gebbers Farms: In December 2009, U.S. immigration authorities forced this Brewster, Washington, farm known for its fruit orchards to fire more than 500 illegal workers, mostly immigrants from Mexico. Some were working with false social security cards and other false identification.
Detention
About 31,000 people who are not U.S. citizens are held in immigration detention on any given day, including children, in over 200 detention centers, jails, and prisons nationwide. The United States government held more than 300,000 people in immigration detention in 2007 while deciding whether to deport them.
Deportation
Deportations of immigrants, which are also referred to as removals, may be issued when immigrants are found to be in violation of U.S. immigration laws. Deportations may be imposed on a person who is neither native-born nor a naturalized citizen of the United States.
Deportation proceedings are also referred to as removal proceedings and are typically initiated by the Department of Homeland Security. The United States issues deportations for various reasons which include security, protection of resources, and protection of jobs.
Deportations from the United States increased by more than 60 percent from 2003 to 2008, with Mexicans accounting for nearly two-thirds of those deported. Under the Obama administration, deportations have increased to record levels beyond the level reached by the George W. Bush administration with a projected 400,000 deportations in 2010, 10 percent above the deportation rate of 2008 and 25 percent above 2007. Fiscal year 2011 saw 396,906 deportations, the largest number in the history of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement; of those, about 55% had been convicted of crimes or misdemeanors, including: 44,653 convicted of drug-related crimes, 35,927 convicted of driving under the influence, 5,848 convicted of sexual offenses, and 1,119 convicted of homicide.
By the end of 2012, as many people had been deported during the first four years of the Obama presidency as were deported during the eight-year presidency of George W. Bush; the number of deportations under Obama totalled 2.5 million by the end of 2015.
The AEDPA and IIRIRA Acts of 1996
Two major pieces of legislation passed in 1996 had a significant effect on illegal immigration and deportations in the United States: the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (AEDPA) and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA). These were introduced following the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, both of which were terrorist attacks that claimed American lives. These two acts changed the way criminal cases of lawful permanent residents were handled, resulting in increased deportations from the United States. Before the 1996 deportation laws, there were two steps that lawful permanent noncitizen residents who were convicted of crimes went through. The first step determined whether or not the person was deportable. The second step determined if that person should or shouldn't be deported. Before the 1996 deportation laws, the second step prevented many permanent residents from being deported by allowing for their cases to be reviewed in full before issuing deportations. External factors were taken into consideration such as the effect deportation would have on a person's family members and a person's connections with their country of origin. Under this system permanent residents were able to be relieved of deportation if their situation deemed it unnecessary. The 1996 laws however issued many deportations under the first step, without going through the second step, resulting in a great increase in deportations.
One significant change that resulted from the new laws was the definition of the term aggravated felony. Being convicted of a crime that is categorized as an aggravated felony results in mandatory detention and deportation. The new definition of aggravated felony includes crimes such as shoplifting, which would be a misdemeanor in many states. The new laws have categorized a much wider range of crimes as aggravated felonies. The effect of this has been a large increase in permanent residents facing mandatory deportation from the United States without the opportunity to plea for relief. The 1996 deportation laws have received a lot of criticism for their curtailing of residents' rights.
The USA Patriot Act
The USA Patriot Act was passed seven weeks after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The purpose of the act was to give the government more power to act upon suspicion of terrorist activity. The new governmental powers granted by this act included a significant expansion of the conditions in which illegal immigrants could be deported based on suspicion of terrorist activity. The act gave the government the power to deport individuals based not only on plots or acts of terrorism, but on affiliations with certain organizations. The Secretary of State designated specific organizations foreign terrorist organizations before the USA Patriot Act was implemented. Organizations on this list were deemed dangerous because they were actively involved in terrorist activity. The Patriot Act created a type of organization called designated organizations. The Secretary of State and Attorney General were given the power to designate any organization that supported terrorist activity on any level. The act also allows for deportation based on involvement in undesignated organizations that were deemed suspicious.
Under the USA Patriot Act the Attorney General was granted the power to "certify" illegal immigrants that pose a threat to national security. Once an illegal immigrant is certified they must be taken into custody and face mandatory detention which will result in a criminal charge or release. The Patriot Act has been criticized for violating the Fifth Amendment right to due process. Under the Patriot Act, an illegal immigrant is not granted the opportunity for a hearing before given certification.
Complications of birthright citizen children and illegal immigrant parents
Complications in deportation efforts ensue when parents are illegal immigrants, but their children are birthright citizens. Federal appellate courts have upheld the refusal by the Immigration and Naturalization Service to stay the deportation of illegal immigrants merely on the grounds that they have U.S.-citizen, minor children. As of 2005, there were some 3.1 million United States citizen children living in families in which the head of the family or a spouse was unauthorized; at least 13,000 children had one or both parents deported in the years 2005–2007.
DREAM Act
The DREAM Act (acronym for Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors) was an American legislative proposal for a multi-phase process for illegal immigrants in the United States that would first grant conditional residency and upon meeting further qualifications, permanent residency. The bill was first introduced in the Senate on August 1, 2001, and has since been reintroduced several times but did not pass. It was intended to stop the deportation of people who had arrived as children and had grown up in the U.S. The Act would give lawful permanent residency under certain conditions which include: good moral character, enrollment in a secondary or post-secondary education program, and having lived in the United States at least 5 years. Those in opposition of the DREAM Act believe that it encourages illegal immigration.
Although the DREAM Act has not been enacted by federal legislation, a number of its provisions were implemented by a memorandum issued by Janet Napolitano of the Department of Homeland Security during the Obama administration. To be eligible for Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), one must show that they were under 31 years of age ; that they came to the United States before their 16th birthday; that they have continuously resided in the United States from June 15, 2007, until the present; that they were physically present in the United States on June 15, 2012, and at the time they applied for DACA; that they were not authorized to be in the United States on June 15, 2012; that they are currently in school, have graduated or obtained a certificate of completion from high school, have obtained a general education development (GED) certificate, or are an honorably discharged veteran of the Coast Guard or Armed Forces of the United States; and that they have not been convicted of a felony, significant misdemeanor, three or more other misdemeanors, and do not otherwise pose a threat to national security or public safety.
Deportation trends
There have been two major periods of mass deportations in U.S. history. In the Mexican Repatriation of the 1930s, through mass deportations and forced migration, an estimated 500,000 Mexicans and Mexican Americans were deported or coerced into emigrating, in what Mae Ngai, an immigration historian at the University of Chicago, has described as "a racial removal program". The majority of those removed were U.S. citizens. Rep. Luis Gutierrez, D-Ill., cosponsor of a U.S. House Bill that calls for a commission to study the "deportation and coerced emigration" of U.S. citizens and legal residents, has expressed concerns that history could repeat itself, and that should illegal immigration be made into a felony, this could prompt a "massive deportation of U.S. citizens".
In Operation Wetback in 1954, the United States and the Mexican governments cooperated to deport illegal immigrant Mexicans in the U.S. to Mexico. This cooperation was part of more harmonious Mexico–United States relations starting in World War II. Joint border policing operations were established in the 1940s when the Bracero Program (1942–1964) brought qualified Mexicans to the U.S. as guest workers. Many Mexicans who did not qualify for the program migrated illegally. According to Mexican law, Mexican workers needed authorization to accept employment in the U.S. As Mexico industrialized post-World War II in what was called the Mexican Miracle, Mexico wanted to preserve "one of its greatest natural resources, a cheap and flexible labor supply." Some illegal immigrants, in some cases along with their U.S. born children (who are citizens according to U.S. law), fearful of potential violence as police swarmed through Mexican American barrios throughout the southeastern states, stopping "Mexican-looking" citizens on the street and asking for identification, fled to Mexico.
In 1986, President Ronald Reagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act that gave amnesty to 3 million illegal immigrants in the country.
A direct effect of the deportation laws of 1996 and the Patriot Act has been a dramatic increase in deportations. Prior to these acts deportations had remained at about an average of 20,000 per year. Between 1990 and 1995 deportations had increased to about an average of 40,000 a year. From 1996 to 2005 the yearly average had increased to over 180,000. In the year 2005 the number of deportations reached 208,521 with less than half being deported under criminal grounds. According to a June 2013 report published by the Washington Office on Latin America, dangerous deportation practices are on the rise and pose a serious threat to the safety of the migrants being deported. These practices include repatriating migrants to border cities with high levels of drug-related violence and criminal activity, night deportations (approximately 1 in 5 migrants reports being deported between the hours of 10pm and 5am), and "lateral repatriations", or the practice of moving migrants from the region where they were detained to areas hundreds of miles away. These practices increase the risk of gangs and organized criminal groups preying upon the newly arrived migrants.
In 2013, deportation prioritization guidance used by Immigration and Customs enforcement, was extended to Customs and Border Protection, under the Obama Administration's prosecutorial discretion plan.
Under the Obama administration, removals peaked in fiscal year (FY) 2012, when 409,849 persons were removed (about 55% of whom had a criminal conviction, with some additional number with a pending criminal charge). and FY 2013, when 438,421 persons were removed. Deportations thereafter declined while still remaining high: there were 414,481 deportations in FY 2014, 235,413 deportations in FY 2015, 240,255 deportations in FY 2016. Under the Trump administration, deportations rose but remained lower than the Obama-era peaks. There were 226,119 deportations in fiscal year 2017, and 256,085 deportations in FY 2018.
A study in 2005 by the Center for American Progress, a liberal think tank, estimated that the cost of forcibly removing most of the nation's illegal immigrants (then estimated to be about 10 million) would be $41 billion a year, more than the entire annual budget of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. The study estimated that the cost over five years would be between $206 billion to $230 billion, depending on how many departed voluntarily. A 2017 study published in the Journal on Migration and Human Security found that a mass-deportation program would create immense social and economic costs, including a cumulative GDP reduction of $4.7 trillion over a decade; damage to the U.S. housing market (because an estimated 1.2 million mortgages are held by households that include one or more illegal immigrants); and a 47% drop in the median household income for the U.S.'s estimated 3.3 million "mixed-status" households (household that include at least one illegal immigrant and at least one U.S. citizen), which would result in a major increase in poverty.
Military involvement
In 1995, the United States Congress considered an exemption from the Posse Comitatus Act, which generally prohibits direct participation of U.S. soldiers and airmen (and sailors and marines by policy of the Department of the Navy) in domestic law enforcement activities, such as search, seizure, and arrests.
In 1997, marines shot and killed 18-year-old U.S. citizen Esequiel Hernández Jr while on a mission to interdict smuggling and illegal immigration near the border community of Redford, Texas. The marines observed the high school student from concealment while he was tending his family's goats in the vicinity of their ranch. At one point, Hernandez raised his .22-caliber rifle and fired shots in the direction of the concealed soldiers. He was subsequently tracked for 20 minutes then shot and killed. In reference to the incident, military lawyer Craig T. Trebilcock argues, "the fact that armed military troops were placed in a position with the mere possibility that they would have to use force to subdue civilian criminal activity reflects a significant policy shift by the executive branch away from the posse comitatus doctrine." The killing of Hernandez led to a congressional review and an end to a nine-year-old policy of the military aiding the Border Patrol.
After the September 11 attacks in 2001, the United States again considered placing soldiers along the U.S.–Mexico border as a security measure. In May 2006, President George W. Bush announced plans to use the National Guard to strengthen enforcement of the U.S.-Mexico Border from illegal immigrants, emphasizing that Guard units "will not be involved in direct law enforcement activities".
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) called on the President not to deploy troops to deter illegal immigrants, and stated that a "deployment of National Guard troops violates the spirit of the Posse Comitatus Act". According to the State of the Union address in January 2007, more than 6,000 National Guard members had been sent to the border to supplement the Border Patrol, costing in excess of $750 million.
Sanctuary cities
Several U.S. cities have instructed their own law enforcement personnel and civilian employees not to notify the federal government when they become aware of illegal immigrants living within their jurisdiction.
There is no official definition of "sanctuary city". Cities which have been referred to as "sanctuary cities" by various politicians include Washington, D.C.; New York City; Los Angeles; Chicago; San Francisco; San Diego; Austin; Salt Lake City; Dallas; Detroit; Honolulu; Houston; Jersey City; Minneapolis; Miami; Newark; Denver; Aurora, Colorado; Baltimore; Seattle; Portland, Oregon; Portland, Maine; and Senath, Missouri, have become "sanctuary cities", having adopted ordinances refraining from stopping or questioning individuals for the sole purpose of determining their immigration status. Most of these ordinances are in place at the state and county, not city, level. These policies do not prevent the local authorities from investigating crimes committed by illegal immigrants. In 2020, armed federal officers from CBP were to be sent to sanctuary cities across the country to perform routine immigration arrests.
Attacks on immigrants
According to a 2006 report by the Anti-Defamation League, white supremacists and other extremists were engaging in a growing number of assaults against legal and illegal immigrants and those perceived to be immigrants. including assault on migrants from Latin America.
Community-based involvement
The No More Deaths organization offers food, water, and medical aid to migrants crossing the desert regions of the American Southwest in an effort to reduce the increasing number of deaths along the border.
In 2014, 'Dreamer Moms' began protesting, hoping that President Obama will grant them legal status. On November 12, 2014, there was a hunger strike near the White House undertaken by the group Dreamer Moms. On November 21, 2014, Obama provided 5 million illegal immigrants legal status because he said that mass deportation "would be both impossible and contrary to our character." However, this decision was challenged in court during the Trump administration and then overturned.
Other organizations and initiatives offer support to populations of illegal immigrants within the United States, such as Kichwa Hatari, a radio station in New York City that translates information from Spanish into the Kichwa language for broadcast to Ecuadorian illegal immigrants.
Economic impact
Illegal immigrants increase the size of the U.S. economy and contribute to economic growth. Illegal immigrants contribute to lower prices of U.S.-produced goods and services, which benefits consumers.
Economists estimate that legalization of the current unauthorized immigrant population would increase the immigrants' earnings and consumption considerably. A 2016 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that "legalization would increase the economic contribution of the unauthorized population by about 20%, to 3.6% of private-sector GDP." Legalization is also likely to reduce untaxed labor in the informal economy. A 2016 study found that Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), which allows unauthorized immigrants who migrated to the United States as minors to temporarily stay, increases labor force participation, decreases the unemployment rate and increases the income for DACA-eligible immigrants. The study estimated that DACA moved 50,000 to 75,000 unauthorized immigrants into employment. Another 2016 study found that DACA-eligible households were 38% less likely than non-eligible unauthorized immigrant households to live in poverty.
A 2017 study in the Journal of Public Economics found that more intense immigration enforcement increased the likelihood that U.S.-born children with illegal immigrant parents would live in poverty.
Native welfare
A number of studies have shown that illegal immigration increases the welfare of natives. A 2015 study found that " increasing deportation rates and tightening border control weakens low-skilled labor markets, increasing unemployment of native low-skilled workers. Legalization, instead, decreases the unemployment rate of low-skilled natives and increases income per native." A study by economist Giovanni Peri concluded that between 1990 and 2004, immigrant workers raised the wages of native born workers in general by 4%, while more recent immigrants suppressed wages of previous immigrants.
In a 2017 literature review by the National Academy of Sciences, they explain the positive impact of illegal immigrants on natives in the following way:
The entry of new workers through migration increases the likelihood of filling a vacant position quickly and thus reduces the net cost of posting new offers. The fact that immigrants in each skill category earn less than natives reinforces this effect. Though immigrants compete with natives for these additional jobs, the overall number of new positions employers choose to create is larger than the number of additional entrants to the labor market. The effect is to lower the unemployment rate and to strengthen the bargaining position of workers.
According to Georgetown University economist Anna Maria Mayda and University of California, Davis economist Giovanni Peri, "deportation of undocumented immigrants not only threatens the day-to-day life of several million people, it also undermines the economic viability of entire sectors of the U.S. economy." Research shows that illegal immigrants complement and extend middle- and high-skilled American workers, making it possible for those sectors to employ more Americans. Without access to illegal immigrants, U.S. firms would be incentivized to offshore jobs and import foreign-produced goods. Several highly competitive sectors that depend disproportionately on illegal immigrant labor, such as agriculture, would dramatically shrink and sectors, such as hospitality and food services, would see higher prices for consumers. Regions and cities that have large illegal populations are also likely to see harms to the local economy were the illegal immigrant population removed. While Mayda and Peri note that some low-skilled American workers would see marginal gains, it is likely that the effects on net job creation and wages would be negative for the U.S. as a whole.
A 2002 study of the effects of illegal immigration and border enforcement on wages in border communities from 1990 to 1997 found little impact of border enforcement on wages in U.S. border cities, and concluded that their findings were consistent with two hypotheses, "border enforcement has a minimal impact on illegal immigration, and illegal immigration from Mexico has a minimal impact on wages in U.S. border cities".
A 2021 study in the American Economic Journal found that illegal immigrants had beneficial effects on the employment and wages of American natives. Stricter immigration enforcement adversely affected employment and wages of American natives.
According to University of California, San Diego economist Gordon H. Hanson, "there is little evidence that legal immigration is economically preferable to illegal immigration. In fact, illegal immigration responds to market forces in ways that legal immigration does not. Illegal migrants tend to arrive in larger numbers when the U.S. economy is booming (relative to Mexico and the Central American countries that are the source of most illegal immigration to the United States) and move to regions where job growth is strong. Legal immigration, in contrast, is subject to arbitrary selection criteria and bureaucratic delays, which tend to disassociate legal inflows from U.S. labor-market conditions. Over the last half-century, there appears to be little or no response of legal immigration to the U.S. unemployment rate."
Fiscal effects
Illegal immigrants are not eligible for most federally-funded safety net programs, and pay more in taxes than similar low-income groups because they are not eligible for the federal earned income tax credit. Illegal immigrants are barred from receiving benefits from Medicare, non-emergency Medicaid, or the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP), and the Medicare program; they also cannot participate in health insurance marketplaces and are not eligible to receive insurance subsidies under the Affordable Care Act. Illegal immigrants contribute up to $12 billion annually to the Social Security Trust Fund, but are not eligible to receive any Social Security benefits. Unless the illegal immigrants transition to legal status, they will not collect these benefits. According to a 2007 literature review by the Congressional Budget Office, "Over the past two decades, most efforts to estimate the fiscal impact of immigration in the United States have concluded that, in aggregate and over the long term, tax revenues of all types generated by immigrants—both legal and unauthorized—exceed the cost of the services they use."
While the aggregate fiscal effects are beneficial to the United States, unauthorized immigration has small but net negative fiscal effects on state and local governments. According to the 2017 National Academy of Science report on immigration, one reason for the adverse fiscal impact on state and local governments is that "the federal government reimburses state and local entities a fraction of costs to incarcerate criminal aliens, the remaining costs are borne by local governments."
A paper in the peer-reviewed journal Tax Lawyer from the American Bar Association concluded that illegal immigrants contribute more in taxes than they cost in social services.
A 2016 study found that, over the period 2000–2011, illegal immigrants contributed $2.2 to $3.8 billion more to the Medicare Trust Fund "than they withdrew annually (a total surplus of $35.1 billion). Had unauthorized immigrants neither contributed to nor withdrawn from the Trust Fund during those 11 years, it would become insolvent in 2029—1 year earlier than currently predicted."
Mortgages
Around 2005, an increasing number of banks saw illegal immigrants as an untapped resource for growing their own revenue stream and contended that providing illegal immigrants with mortgages would help revitalize local communities, with many community banks providing home loans for illegal immigrants. At the time, critics complained that this practice would reward and encourage illegal immigration, as well as contribute to an increase in predatory lending practices. One banking consultant said that banks which were planning to offer mortgages to illegal immigrants were counting on the fact that immigration enforcement was very lax, with deportation unlikely for anyone who had not committed a crime.
Crime and law enforcement
Relationship between illegal immigration and crime
Illegal immigrants are less likely to commit crimes than native-born citizens in the United States. Multiple studies have found that illegal immigration to the United States did not increase violent crime. A 2016 study found no link between illegal immigrant populations and violent crime, although there is a small but significant association between illegal immigrants and drug-related crime. A 2017 study found that "Increased undocumented immigration was significantly associated with reductions in drug arrests, drug overdose deaths, and DUI arrests, net of other factors." A 2017 study found that California's extension of driving licenses to unauthorized immigrants "did not increase the total number of accidents or the occurrence of fatal accidents, but it did reduce the likelihood of hit and run accidents, thereby improving traffic safety and reducing costs for California drivers ... providing unauthorized immigrants with access to driver's licenses can create positive externalities for the communities in which they live." A 2018 study in the American Economic Journal: Economic Policy found that by restricting the employment opportunities for unauthorized immigrants, the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA) likely caused an increase in crime. A 2018 PLOS One study estimated that the illegal immigrant population in the United States was 22 million (approximately twice as large as the estimate derived from U.S. Census Bureau figures); an author of the study notes that this has implications for the relationship between illegal immigration and crime suggesting the correlation is lower than previously estimated: "You have the same number of crimes but now spread over twice as many people as was believed before, which right away means that the crime rate among illegal immigrants is essentially half whatever was previously believed." A 2019 analysis found no evidence that illegal immigration increased crime. A 2020 study found little evidence of a relationship between unauthorized immigration and terrorism.
Impact of immigration enforcement
Research suggests immigration enforcement deters unauthorized immigration but has no impact on crime rates. Immigration enforcement is costly and may divert resources from other forms of law enforcement. Tougher immigration enforcement has been associated with greater migrant deaths, as migrants take riskier routes and use the services of smugglers. Tough border enforcement may also encourage unauthorized immigrants to settle in the United States, rather than regularly travel across the border where they may be captured. Immigration enforcement programs have been shown to lower employment and wages among unauthorized immigrants, while increasing their participation in the informal economy.
Research finds that Secure Communities, an immigration enforcement program which led to a quarter of a million of detentions, had no observable impact on the crime rate. A 2015 study found that the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act, which legalized almost 3 million immigrants, led to "decreases in crime of 3–5 percent, primarily due to decline in property crimes, equivalent to 120,000–180,000 fewer violent and property crimes committed each year due to legalization".
A 2017 review study of the existing literature noted that the existing studies had found that sanctuary cities—which adopt policies designed to avoid prosecuting people solely for being an illegal immigrant—either have no impact on crime or that they lower the crime rate. A second 2017 study in the journal Urban Affairs Review found that sanctuary policy itself has no statistically meaningful effect on crime. The findings of the study were misinterpreted by Attorney General Jeff Sessions in a July 2017 speech when he claimed that the study showed that sanctuary cities were more prone to crime than cities without sanctuary policies. A third study in the journal Justice Quarterly found evidence that the adoption of sanctuary policies reduced the robbery rate but had no impact on the homicide rate except in cities with larger Mexican illegal immigrant populations which had lower rates of homicide. Two studies have found that local cooperation with ICE adversely affect public safety by reducing local reporting of crime by Latino communities.
According to a study by Tom K. Wong, associate professor of political science at the University of California, San Diego, published by the Center for American Progress, a progressive think tank: "Crime is statistically significantly lower in sanctuary counties compared to nonsanctuary counties. Moreover, economies are stronger in sanctuary counties—from higher median household income, less poverty, and less reliance on public assistance to higher labor force participation, higher employment-to-population ratios, and lower unemployment." The study also concluded that sanctuary cities build trust between local law enforcement and the community, which enhances public safety overall. The study evaluated sanctuary and non-sanctuary cities while controlling for differences in population, the foreign-born percentage of the population, and the percentage of the population that is Latino."
A 2018 study found no evidence that apprehensions of illegal immigrants in districts in the United States reduced crime rates.
After the Obama administration reduced federal immigration enforcement, Democratic counties reduced their immigration enforcement more than Republican counties; a paper by a University of Pennsylvania PhD candidate found "that Democratic counties with higher non-citizen population shares saw greater increases in clearance rates, a measure of policing efficiency, with no increase in crime rates. The results indicate that reducing immigration enforcement did not increase crime and rather led to an increase in policing efficiency, either because it allowed police to focus efforts on solving more serious crimes or because it elicited greater cooperation of non-citizens with police." A 2003 paper by two Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas economists found "that while the volume of illegal immigration is not related to changes in property-related crime, there is a significant positive correlation with the incidence of violent crime. This is most likely due to extensive smuggling activity along the border. Border enforcement meanwhile is significantly negatively related to crime rates. The bad news is that the deterrent effect of the border patrol diminishes over this time period, and the net impact of more enforcement on border crime since the late 1990s is zero."
According to Cornell University economist Francine Blau and University of California at Berkeley economist Gretchen Donehower, the existing "evidence does not suggest that ... stepping up enforcement of existing immigration laws would generate savings to existing taxpayers." By complicating circular migration and temporary work by migrants, and by incentivizing migrants to settle permanently in the U.S., the 2017 National Academy of Sciences report on immigration notes that "it is certainly possible that additional costs have been created to the economy by the increased border enforcement, beyond the narrow costs of the programs themselves in the federal budget."
Document fraud
Illegal immigrants sometimes use Social Security numbers belonging to others in order to obtain fake work documentation. In 2009, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in the case of Flores-Figueroa v. United States that illegal immigrants cannot be prosecuted for identity theft if they use "made-up" Social Security numbers that they do not know belong to someone else; to be guilty of identity theft with regard to social security numbers, they must know that the social security numbers that they use belong to others.
Education
An estimated 65,000 undocumented youth graduate from high school every year but only 5 to 10 percent go on to college. Research shows that policies regarding tuition and admissions procedures, impact students the most. As of October 2015, twenty states had given undocumented students' in-state resident tuition (ISRT) while five states had completely prohibited their enrollment. Although states grant undocumented students resident tuition, federal laws do not award undocumented immigrants financial aid. Without financial aid, students cannot afford higher education, making it difficult for this community to attain social mobility.
In 1982, Plyler vs Doe granted all students, regardless of status, the right to a public K-12 education. The ruling found that denying undocumented students access to public education outweighed the effects of not educating them, however states continued implementing policies that challenged the Supreme Court decision. In 1994, California implemented Proposition 187, prohibiting undocumented students from enrolling in schools and required educators to report students who they suspected were undocumented. Likewise, the state of Alabama in 2011, requiring administrators to report the status of recently enrolled students; which resulted in a 13% dropout rate that year.
Organizations such as the American Federation of Teachers have created guides for educators of immigrant and refugee students, urging schools to build policies that provide these students with protection from policies that would criminalize them. In 2014, Operation Border Guardians targeted undocumented immigrants who had come to the United States as minors and recently turned 18 or were 16 with a criminal history. Federal immigration judges sent out court orders to apprehend students that were not currently appealing their cases. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) was detaining students on their way to school. When undocumented students turn eighteen, their youth status no longer protects them from immigration policies such as deportation. The National Education Association (NEA) and the National School Board Association (NSBA) in 2009, created guidelines for educators working with undocumented students, informing school personnel about their students' rights concerning immigration legislation as it transpires in the community. The American Federation of Teachers created a guideline specifically speaking to concern regarding deportation.
A case study conducted on Aurora Elementary examined how school personnel quickly developed boundaries to ensure the safety of their students when ICE appeared in the community. The study evaluated how educators' established school policies with limited knowledge regarding policies. In the study, 14 staff members of Aurora spoke about the fear it created in the community. The school was placed on an unofficial lockdown, and no one was to leave campus unless given permission. Days following the event, parents stopped sending their children to school. After speaking to the district's legal department, they informed her that they would not be able to do anything in their part, but that she could call families and inform them about the ICE raids. She worked with school personnel to create school policies that protected the students when immigration legislation transpired in the community. Further, aligning school policies with district goals to ensure that undocumented students' education is protected.
Studies have shown that undocumented immigrants are wary of disclosing their immigration status to counselors, teachers and mentors. In other words, undocumented students sometimes did not disclose their status to the very individuals that could help them find pathways to higher education.
Harm to non-citizens without legal status
There are significant dangers associated with illegal immigration including potential death when crossing the border. Since the 1994 implementation of an immigration-control effort called Operation Gatekeeper, immigrants have attempted to cross the border in more dangerous locations. Those crossing the border come unprepared, without food, water, proper clothing, or protection from the elements or dangerous animals; sometimes the immigrants are abandoned by those smuggling them. Deaths also occur while resisting arrest. In May 2010, the National Human Rights Commission in Mexico accused Border Patrol agents of tasering illegal immigrant Anastasio Hernández-Rojas to death. Media reports that Hernández-Rojas started a physical altercation with patrol agents and later autopsy findings concluded that the suspect had trace amounts of methamphetamine in his blood levels which contributed to his death. The foreign ministry in Mexico City has demanded an explanation from San Diego and federal authorities, according to Tijuana newspapers. According to the U.S. Border Patrol, there were 987 assaults on Border Patrol agents in 2007 and there were a total of 12 people killed by agents in 2007 and 2008.
According to the Washington Office on Latin America's Border Fact Check site, Border Patrol rarely investigates allegations of abuse against migrants, and advocacy organizations say, "even serious incidents such as the shootings of migrants result in administrative, not criminal, investigations and sanctions."
Health
A 2017 Science study found that Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), which allows unauthorized immigrants who migrated to the United States as minors to temporarily stay, led to improved mental health outcomes for the children of DACA-eligible mothers. A 2017 Lancet Public Health study reported found that DACA-eligible individuals had better mental health outcomes as a result of their DACA-eligibility. Stringent immigration enforcement has been linked to worse mental health among illegal immigrants.
Illegal immigrants, particularly those living in parts of the US with more restrictive policies, are less likely to access health services. If they do see a health care provider, they are less likely to be able to comply with their recommendations. Additionally, illegal immigrants have higher rates of depressive symptoms than legal immigrants. More restrictive policies also negatively impact the likelihood that a pregnant immigrant will receive prenatal care. In contrast, a 2017 study found that extending Medicaid to illegal immigrants led to improvements in infant health and reductions in infant mortality. A quasi-experimental study found that after the Postville raid in Iowa in 2008, newborns were 24% more likely to be underweight at birth compared to the year before, adjusting for maternal risk factors and country of origin.
Exploitation by employers
Many Mexican immigrants have been trafficked by either their smugglers or the employers after they have gotten to the United States. According to research at San Diego State University, approximately 6% of illegal Mexican immigrants were trafficked by their smugglers while entering the United States and 28% were trafficked by their employers after entering the United States. Trafficking rates were particularly high in the construction and cleaning industries. They also determined that 55% of illegal Mexican immigrants were abused or exploited by either their smugglers or employers.
Indian, Russian, Thai, Vietnamese and Chinese women have been reportedly brought to the United States under false pretenses. "As many as 50,000 people are illicitly trafficked into the United States annually, according to a 1999 CIA study. Once here, they're forced to work as prostitutes, sweatshop laborers, farmhands, and servants in private homes." U.S. authorities call it "a modern form of slavery". Many Latina women have been lured under false pretenses to illegally come to the United States and are instead forced to work as prostitutes catering to the immigrant population. Non-citizen customers without proper documentation that have been detained in prostitution stings are generally deported.
Death
Many Central American migrants are abducted or killed during their journey. A 2015 estimate suggested that as many as 120,000 migrants had disappeared within Mexico during the previous ten years. Thousands are killed or maimed riding the roofs of cargo trains in Mexico.
Death by exposure to the elements—leading to hypothermia, dehydration, heat stroke, drowning, and suffocation—has been reported in the deserts, particularly during the hot summer season. Also, people may die or be injured when they attempt to avoid law enforcement, for example, in high speed pursuits.
Workplace injury
Recent studies have found that illegal immigration status is perceived by Latino immigrant workers as a barrier to safety at work.
Criticisms of ICE Detention
With deportation as a tool of the U.S. government against illegal immigrants, practices by immigration authorities have drawn the ire of the public and activists—about detention facilities and deportations. In the act of detaining non-citizens, ICE has come under scrutiny for its practices of separating families. In addition, ICE has been wrongfully assessing ages of unaccompanied children. The Department of Homeland Security rely on dental radiograph tests to ascertain the ages of those in custody. But these tests only determine an age range, often encompassing both minor and adult ages, resulting in many minors being placed in adult prisons. "This American Life" has reported on one wrongfully detained migrant arriving from Cambodia to meet her finance, who's dental tests said she was a minor. She was wrongfully held ICE tests to determine ages of detained migrants have proven at best faulty—and at worst unscientific.
Additionally, activists and immigrant advocates have criticized the role of private prison companies in dealing with the detention of illegal immigrants. Reports have detailed people in ICE custody being forced to work for nothing or a dollar-a-day cooking, doing laundry, and other essential tasks for these prisons. In late December 2017, the U.S. Civil Rights Commission called on Congress and the Department of Homeland Security to investigate abusive labor practices of these private prisons, including other reports saying detainees had been paid less than a dollar a day in the facilities "Voluntary Work Program." In the report, the Commission specifically cited private prisons as a main concern, given the financial benefit of low-paid labor being used to "maximize profits."
Celebrities
Celebrities who perform their normal paid duties may suddenly find themselves working illegally if they travel to the United States. (See .) This has become especially common with the increase in Internet celebrities. Because they are doing something many do without pay and are traveling with no more equipment than many travelers do every day, they may not be aware that they are breaking the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA).
Cultural references
A number of films and at least one novel tell stories based on the infamous voyage of the Golden Venture, a ship carrying would-be illegal immigrants from China that ran aground in New York Harbor in 1993.
Commercial films
The 1996 film Deadly Voyage treats the perils endured by would-be immigrants attempting to enter the United States illegally.
Documentary films
How Democracy Works Now: Twelve Stories is a 12-part documentary film series that examines the American political system through the lens of immigration reform from 2001 to 2007, from filmmaking team Shari Robertson and Michael Camerini. Several films in the series contain a large focus on the issue of illegal immigration in the U.S. and feature advocates from both sides of the debate. Since the debut of the first five films, the series has become an important resource for advocates, policymakers and educators.
The series premiered on HBO with the broadcast debut of The Senator's Bargain on March 24, 2010. A directors' cut of The Senator's Bargain was featured in the 2010 Human Rights Watch Film Festival at Lincoln Center, with the theatrical title Story 12: Last Best Chance. That film featured Edward Kennedy's efforts to pass the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007. The second story in the 12-part series, Mountains and Clouds, opened the festival in the same year.
The films document the attempt to pass comprehensive immigration reform during the years from 2001 to 2007, and present a behind-the-scenes story of the success (and failure) of many bills from that period with an effect on illegal immigration including:
The DREAM Act
REAL ID Act
Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007
Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act
Marking Up The Dream, Story Six in the How Democracy Works Now series, focuses on the heated 2003 markup in The Senate Judiciary Committee, contrasting optimistic supporters who viewed The DREAM Act as a small bi-partisan bill that would help children, with opponents who saw the legislation as thinly veiled amnesty. Also presented in the film are the rallies and demonstrations from illegal immigrant students who would benefit from the DREAM Act. The film opens with demonstration by some illegal high-school students as they stage a mock graduation ceremony on the U.S. Capitol lawn.
See also
Amnesty
Angel Families
Canada–United States border
Coyotaje
Deportation and removal from the United States
Driver's licenses for illegal immigrants in the United States
History of laws concerning immigration and naturalization in the United States
Human trafficking
Human trafficking in Canada
Human trafficking in Mexico
Illegal immigrant population of the United States
Illegal immigration to Canada
Illegal immigration to Mexico
Illegal immigration to Russia
Immigration
Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Immigration reduction in the United States
Immigration reform
Immigration to the United States
Inequality within immigrant families (United States)
List of detention sites in the United States (migration-related sites)
Mexican migration
Mexico–United States border
Nativism (politics)
Office of Victims of Immigration Crime Engagement
Open borders
Opposition to immigration
United States Border Patrol
United States Customs and Border Protection
References
Footnotes
Citations
Further reading
Barkan, Elliott R. "Return of the Nativists? California Public Opinion and Immigration in the 1980s and 1990s". Social Science History 2003 27(2): 229–283. online
Borjas, G.J. 1994. "The economics of immigration." Journal of Economic Literature (32):1667–717.
Brimelow, Peter; Alien Nation (1996)
Chacón, Jennifer M. "Criminal Law & Migration Control: Recent History & Future Possibilities." Daedalus 151#1 (2022), pp. 121–34. online
Cull, Nicholas J. and Carrasco, Davíd, ed. Alambrista and the US-Mexico Border: Film, Music, and Stories of Undocumented Immigrants U. of New Mexico Press, 2004. 225 pp.
De La Torre, Miguel A., Trails of Hope and Terror: Testimonies on Immigration. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Press, 2009.
Dowling, Julie A., and Jonathan Xavier Inda, eds. Governing Immigration Through Crime: A Reader. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013.
Gratton, Brian, and Emily Merchant. "Immigration, Repatriation, and Deportation: The Mexican-Origin Population in the United States, 1920–1950." International Migration Revie 47#3 2013, pp. 944–75. online.
Gravelle, Timothy B. "Politics, time, space, and attitudes toward US–Mexico border security." Political Geography 65 (2018): 107–116. online
Hirota, Hidetaka. Expelling the Poor: Atlantic Seaboard States and the Nineteenth-Century Origins of American Immigration Policy ( Oxford University Press, 2017).
Hopkins, Daniel J. "Politicized Places: Explaining Where and When Immigrants Provoke Local Opposition." American Political Science Review 104#1 (2010), pp. 40–60. online
Inda, Jonathan Xavier. Targeting Immigrants: Government, Technology, and Ethics. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2006.
Kalhan, Anil, Rethinking Immigration Detention, 110 Columbia Law Review Sidebar 42, 2010
Kalhan, Anil, Immigration Policing and Federalism Through the Lens of Technology, Surveillance, and Privacy, 74 Ohio State Law Journal 1105, 2013
Magaña, Lisa, Straddling the Border: Immigration Policy and the INS (2003)
Ngai, Mae M. Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (2004).
Payan, Tony. The Three U.S.-Mexico Border Wars: Drugs, Immigration, and Homeland Security (2nd ed. 2016). excerpt
Weintraub, Sidney. The illegal alien from Mexico : policy choices for an intractable issue (1980) online
Vicino, Thomas J. Suburban Crossroads: The Fight for Local Control of Immigration Policy. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013.
Historiography and memory
Kamphoefner, Walter D. "What's New About the New Immigration? A Historian's Perspective over Two Centuries." Studia Migracyjne-Przegląd Polonijny 45.3 (173) (2019). online
External links
Federation of American Scientists: Border Security: Fences Along the U.S. International Border (a report of the Congressional Research Service issued on January 13, 2005)
Latin American Immigrations Effects on U.S. Relations from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
University of California, San Diego: Center for Comparative Immigration Studies
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 8, Aliens and Nationality
United States Code, Title 8, Aliens and Nationality
Pew Hispanic Center: The State of American Public Opinion on Immigration in Spring 2006: A Review of Major Surveys
Death at U.S.-Mexico border reflects immigration tensions Guardian Co UK
En Tren de la Muerte – Dallas Observer
Immigration Offenders in the Federal Justice System Bureau of Justice Statistics
"Let's change the conversation on immigration", Pulitzer Prize winner Jose Antonio Vargas discusses "coming out" as an illegal immigrant
"The immigration law is inevitable" Eco Latino Magazine.
Articles containing video clips
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Cornish diaspora
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The Cornish diaspora () consists of Cornish people and their descendants who emigrated from Cornwall, United Kingdom. The diaspora is found within the United Kingdom, and in countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, Mexico, Panama, South Africa, the Samoas and Brazil.
Background
Cornish emigration was caused by a number of factors, mainly economic, notably a lack of work in the 18th and 19th centuries. During this period many Cornish people or "Cousin Jacks", as they were known, migrated to other parts of the world in search of a better life. Many skilled miners sought the opportunity to find work abroad, as a consequence of the decline of the tin and copper mining industries in Cornwall. It is estimated that 250,000 Cornish migrated abroad between 1861 and 1901.
The Cornish economy profited from the work abroad. Some men sent back "home pay", with which they tried to help keep their families out of the workhouse. As well as their mining skills, the Cornish emigrants carried their culture and way of life with them when they travelled. They formed tight-knit communities, and maintained some contact with the people and/or the customs of their homeland. Wrestling competitions took place in the new settlements, Cornish Methodist chapels were constructed. Pasties and saffron cakes became known to many natives of Australia, the Caribbean, and the United States. In areas where there are no mines, this may be due to Cornish seamen among the crews of British Royal Navy vessels. In some locations, the playing of brass bands and the singing of Cornish carols shows an example of Cornish culture's influence.
Rugby union was played overseas by the Cornish miners, this helped develop the game in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Teams from these nations have returned the compliment, and have played in Cornwall (New Zealand 1905, 1924, Australia 1908, South Africa 1906, 1912 and the Māori in 1926).
Specific locations
Today, in many native Anglophone and some Hispanic countries, some of the descendants of these original migrants celebrate their Cornish ancestry. This is evidenced by the existence of both Cornish societies and Cornish festivals in these countries, as well as a growing overseas interest in the Cornish language. Many of those with Cornish ancestry are now reviving their heritage and a plethora of Cornish family history and genealogy groups exist.
Australia
Today the most famous area of Cornish culture, called 'Australia's Little Cornwall', is the area in South Australia known as the Copper Triangle. This mining area in the northern Yorke Peninsula, including the principal towns of Moonta, Kadina and Wallaroo, was a significant source of prosperity for colonial South Australia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In its heyday Moonta was South Australia's second largest town after Adelaide and was predominately settled by Cornish miners and their families. Today Moonta is most famous for its traditional Cornish pasties and its Cornish style mine engine houses. Many descendants of these Cornish families still live in the Copper Triangle and are intensely proud of their Cornish heritage. Many of the original miners' cottages made from wattle and daub still stand and are still lived in by local residents, and many streets and houses have Cornish names. In Moonta today, the Kernewek Lowender (Cornish for "Cornish happiness") is the largest Cornish festival in the world and attracts more than 40,000 visitors each event.
The South Australian town of Burra also has Cornish connections. Burra began with the discovery of copper in 1845, by shepherds Thomas Pickett and William Streair. A number of townships soon developed - the South Australian Mining Association town of Kooringa, plus Redruth (Cornish) Aberdeen (Scottish) Llywchwr (Welsh) and Hampton (English). This former copper mining town is listed on the National Estate Register and also declared a State Heritage Area. The great Burra Jinker holds pride of place in Market Square. It was once pulled by some 40 bullocks, four abreast. Straining to the vivid exhortations of six bullock drivers under the leadership of William Woollacott, they hauled the massive jinker for three months, on a 100-mile journey from Adelaide. In April 2001 the Jinker was included in the BankSA Heritage Icons List.
An example of the extent of the Cornish diaspora are the miners who worked at the Geraldine mine in Western Australia and had an influence on the nearby town of Northampton. Their produce was shipped out of Port Gregory, Western Australia in small vessels like the tramp steamer SS Xantho and then transhipped to the port of Geraldton where it was loaded onto wool ships bound for England as a form of 'paying ballast'.
Two of Australia's prime ministers are known to have Cornish ancestry. Robert Menzies was partially Cornish, while Bob Hawke was entirely of Cornish descent. In addition, at least six Premiers of South Australia have been of Cornish origin. Ruse, New South Wales was named after James Ruse, known as Australia's first farmer, who had been transported from Cornwall.
Brazil
Cornish miners played a major role in gold mining in imperial Brazil.
The Gongo Soco gold mine, operated by the Imperial Brazilian Mining Association of Cornwall using skilled Cornish miners, produced over of gold between 1826 and 1856.
Of particular note was Cornish miner Thomas Bawden (Scorrier, 1814-Mariana, Brazil, 1886), who had migrated to Brazil as a young man to make his fortune, and who on June 1, 1859 bought, for a very modest price, the gold ore exploring rights of "Mina da Passagem" (in Mariana, the first city and first capital of Minas Gerais Province), then believed to be practically exhausted, from the estate of then recently deceased mineralogy pioneer Baron von Eschwege (Wilhelm Ludwig Freiherr von Eschwege, a German engineer who had been charged by the King, D. João VI, to survey Brazilian mineral resources and establish ways of exploitation. See Eschwege's book: Pluto Brasiliensis). After more than four years managing the enterprise, Bawden, now a successful businessman, sold the whole of it, for a remarkably high price, to the newly constituted single-purpose business "Anglo-Brazilian Gold Mining Company", managed by the experienced Thomas Treloar (Sithney, 1814-London, 1880), who also came from Cornwall. The company received, in 1867, the official visit of Sir Richard Francis Burton, former Africa and Middle East explorer, then acting as consul to Brazil within the British diplomatic service. Consul Burton, a renowned linguist and intellectual as well, described (in the book Explorations of the Highlands of Brazil, 1869) how he had found there a large Cornish community, whose church services included hymns sung in the Cornish language, and had witnessed their eccentric rite of "Baptism for the dead", based on the apostle Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians 15:29. The "Anglo-Brazilian" project turned out to be a success and, using newly developed Cornish gold extraction engineering technologies, the "Mina da Passagem" eventually kept producing large amounts of gold for around ninety years more.
Canada
The oldest and largest area of settlement from the West Country in Canada is that of the northern shore of Newfoundland, also known as the French Shore, due to competing fishing rights. The Cornish made up a significant part of this population, which is noticeable in the local dialect to this day. There are also significant populations of Cornish descent in other areas of Atlantic Canada, in particular, Prince Edward Island. In the first half of the 19th century Padstow was a significant port of embarcation for Cornish emigrants bound for Canada. During the mid-19th century, ships carrying timber from Canada (particularly Quebec City) arrived at Padstow and offered cheap travel to passengers wishing to emigrate. Among the ships that sailed were the barques Clio, Belle and Voluna; and the brig Dalusia. In Ontario, Oshawa and the surrounding Ontario County were the settling grounds of a large number of 19th century Cornish immigrants during the Cornish emigration which considerably reduced Cornwall's population, although these were largely agricultural workers, rather than miners. There were also major Cornish settlements in the Prairie provinces, and on Vancouver Island.
Cornish ethnicity is recognised on the Canadian census, and in 2006 1,550 Canadians listed their ethnic origin as Cornish.
The name of Cornwall, Ontario however does not indicate settlement by Cornish people since it was named after one of the Dukes of Cornwall (its flag and coat of arms are therefore based on elements from the Duchy of Cornwall).
Mexico
In the State of Hidalgo in central Mexico a local speciality originates from the Cornish pasty, called pastes which was introduced by miners and workers from Cornwall who were contracted in the silver mining towns of Mineral del Monte and Pachuca. The majority of migrants to this region came from what we now term the Cornish "central mining district" of Camborne and Redruth. Mineral del Monte's steep streets, stairways and small squares are lined with low buildings and many houses with high sloping roofs and chimneys which indicate a Cornish influence. It was the Cornish who first introduced football to Pachuca and indeed Mexico, as well as other popular sports such as Rugby union, Tennis, Cricket, and Polo, while Mexican remittances helped to build the Wesleyan Chapel in Redruth the 1820s. The twin silver mining settlements of Pachuca and Real del Monte are being marketed in 2007 as 'Mexico's Little Cornwall' by the Mexican Embassy in London and represent the first attempt by the Spanish speaking part of the Cornish diaspora to establish formal links with Cornwall. The Mexican Embassy in London is also trying to establish a town twinning arrangement with Cornwall. In 2008 thirty members of the Cornish Mexican Cultural Society travelled to Mexico to try and re-trace the path of their ancestors who set off from Cornwall to start a new life in Mexico.
New Zealand
During the 1870s and 1880s, New Zealand had an immigrant drive spearheaded by Sir Julius Vogel of the New Zealand Government. At that time Vogel recognised that the young colony needed labourers, farmers and domestic servants to "bring the country in". Vogel initiated the Vogel Immigration Scheme (1871–1888) in which any New Zealand resident could nominate any British resident to immigrate to New Zealand for free if they qualified under the criteria. The criteria were for fit, healthy, young people with primarily labouring, farming or domestic servant skills. The recruiters were told to focus on Cornish and Scots who were known for their hard work ethic and were therefore deemed particularly ideal for colonial life. As the timing coincided with the downturn of the Cornish tin market, a large number of Cornish took up the offer. Many Cornish went to Auckland, Wellington, or Lyttelton (Christchurch), New Zealand. Many Scots went to Dunedin, New Zealand. Peak immigration under the scheme occurred between 1872 and 1874. Records of those who emigrated under the scheme still exist and can be searched at most large New Zealand public libraries.
Thomas (born 1888) and Annie (born 1887) Bennett were two who made the journey from Cornwall to Aotearoa New Zealand. They settled in Morrinsville in the Waikato region. One of their daughters, Gladys, married Reg Pedley. Gladys and Reg moved to the Manawatu to a life of mostly dairy farming. Their eight offspring continue to celebrate their Cornish roots to this day. Thomas and Annie are interred together in the Piako Cemetery in Morrinsville, Waikato.
Pitcairn Islands and Norfolk Island
One of the nine mutineers who arrived on the Pitcairn Islands in 1790, Matthew Quintal, was a Cornish man. He was one of the only mutineers to have children before his death, being partially responsible for the island continuing to have a population after the deaths of all the original arrivals on . Consequently, due to the island's small and often intermingling population, which has experienced very little change in several hundred years, most of its inhabitants partially descend from him to this day. Due to a number of inhabitants of Pitcairn being moved to Norfolk Island in later years, a significant number of his descendants carrying Cornish ancestry live here too.
South Africa
During the gold rush period on the Witwatersrand many Cornishmen went to the then South African Republic (also known as the Transvaal) in order to seek their fortune. In fact, the pioneering of the Rand gold reef was largely down to the hardrock mining expertise that Cornishmen brought with them from their native country, where tin and copper had been obtained from granite for many centuries. By the end of the 19th century the sheer numbers of Cornish miners on the Rand, sending up to £1 million a year back to Cornwall, even caused friction with the Kruger government which resented the wealth these "uitlanders" were sending home. The Kruger government's decision to tax these so-called uitlanders without any kind of legislative representation was one of the many reasons behind the outbreak of the Second Boer War. "Cousin Jack", as the Cornishman was known, also brought a strong rugby tradition, the Cornish pasty and a few other elements of Cornish culture to South Africa that can still be found today. Indeed, there is an area known as New Redruth in Johannesburg and one area of Soweto bears a Cornish language name, Baragwanath. Later Cornish migration to South Africa could be viewed as part of a more general trend of emigration from the British Isles and is thus harder to gauge. The prevalence of Cornish surnames, e.g. Tregowning, amongst people of all races, especially in the Cape of Good Hope, is further testimony to the Cornish contribution to South Africa.
United Kingdom
Cornish people have also moved to a number of other parts of England and the rest of the United Kingdom. Close to the Cornish county border with Devon is the naval city of Plymouth which has had an influx of Cornish people since time immemorial and, during the rise of Devonport Dockyard, was a main source of income for many of the Cornish. Historically the surname Cornish/Cornishe/Cornyshe was given to a Cornish person who had left Cornwall and this surname can be found throughout the British Isles. Today there are significant Cornish populations in Plymouth, Bristol and the capital, London, which is also home to London Cornish RFC. Within Great Britain, Cornish families were attracted from Cornwall to North East England—-particularly on Teesside, East Cleveland—-to partake in ironstone and alum mining (see:Ironstone mining in Cleveland and North Yorkshire), as a means to earn wealth by using their mining skill. This has resulted in a concentration of Cornish names on and around Teesside that persists into the 21st century. Other areas settled by Cornish miners were Roose in Cumbria and parts of south Wales. In addition Cornish farming families took advantage of cheap agricultural land to relocate to north west Essex, specifically the Great Dunmow area, where the surrounding villages of Stebbing and Lindsell boast descendants with Cornish surnames such as Lanyon, Menhinick and Trembath.
United States
There are estimated to be close to 2 million people of Cornish descent in the US. Cornish culture continues to have an influence in the Copper Country located in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, the Driftless Area of southwestern Wisconsin and the Iron Ranges of northern Michigan and Minnesota, as well as in the major copper mining district of Butte, Montana. In Grass Valley, California, the tradition of singing Cornish carols lives on and one local historian of the area says the songs have become “the identity of the town”. Some of the members of today’s Cornish Carol Choir are in fact descendants of the original Cornish gold miners. Statues and monuments in many towns pay tribute to the influence of the Cornish on their development. Some inhabitants of Tangier Island, Virginia, a former Cornish fishing settlement, have a Cornish accent that traces back to the Cornish settlers who settled there in 1686.
See also
:Category:People of Cornish descent
List of topics related to Cornwall
Culture of Cornwall
Culture of Minnesota
History of Cornwall
Celtic nations
Mining in Cornwall
Camborne School of Mines
References
External links
BBC The Cornish Diaspora - I’m alright Jack
The Cornish Transnational Communities Project
Kernewek Lowender - The world's largest Cornish festival
Cornish Miners and the Witwatersrand Gold Mines in S.Africa. 1890-1904
Overseas Cornish Associations
UK Cornish Associations
The Cornish in Latin America
Cornish American Heritage Society - Cornwall on the Web
New Zealand emigration
Cornwall: Emigration & Immigration; Genuki
Cornish Connection of Lower Michigan
History of Cornwall
European diasporas
es:Fútbol en México#Historia
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2002 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 2002 in the United Kingdom. This year was the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II.
Incumbents
Monarch – Queen Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – Tony Blair (Labour)
Parliament – 53rd
Events
January
1 January – Ford unveils their all-new Fiesta supermini which is due on sale in March, but the new model will not be produced in Dagenham, instead, it will be produced in Ford's other European plants in Germany and Spain.
5 January - Television debut of the Mr. Bean animated series on ITV.
7 January – It is announced that a record of 2,450,000 new cars were sold during 2001, breaking the previous record set in 1989. The Ford Focus was Britain's best-selling car for the third year in a row.
14 January – The foot and mouth crisis is declared over after eleven months.
25 January – Detectives investigating the murder of an unknown boy, called "Adam", whose torso was found in the Thames last year, announce that he may have been the victim of a so-called muti ritual killing.
February
8–24 February – Great Britain competes at the Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States, and wins 1 gold and 1 bronze medal.
9 February – Princess Margaret, the Queen's younger sister, dies after suffering a stroke aged 71.
14 February – 2002 Ogmore by-election: The Labour Party candidate Huw Irranca-Davies holds the seat held by Sir Ray Powell until his death
15 February – The funeral of Princess Margaret takes place at St. George's Chapel, Windsor.
18 February – Thoburn v Sunderland City Council decided.
19 February – Ford ends 90 years of British car production with the loss of more than 2,000 jobs after the last Fiesta was made at their factory in Dagenham, ahead of the launch of a new generation model in the Spring. However, the plant will be retained for the production of engines and gearboxes and Ford will continue to make commercial vehicles at their plant in Southampton.
20 February – Andrew Aston, a 29-year-old Birmingham cocaine addict, is sentenced to 26 concurrent terms of Life imprisonment – officially the longest prison sentence imposed on any criminal in England and Wales – for murdering two elderly people in robberies and attacking 24 others.
27 February – Ryanair Flight 296 catches fire at London Stansted Airport.
March
March – Vauxhall unveils a new generation of its Vectra family car which is due on sale in the Summer.
1 March – Singer Doreen Waddell dies aged 36 after fleeing a supermarket in Shoreham-by-Sea before being struck down and killed by three vehicles.
11 March – BBC 6 Music, the first new BBC Radio station in decades, is launched.
21 March – 13-year-old Amanda Dowler goes missing on her way home from school in Surrey.
22 March – A woman known as "Miss B", who was left quadriplegic last year as a result of a burst blood vessel in her neck, is granted the right to die by the High Court.
29 March – Coal mining in Scotland which has a history stretching back more than 800 years, comes to an end with the closure of Longannet coal mine in Fife after it floods and the owners go into liquidation, putting more than 500 people out of work.
30 March – Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, dies aged 101 at Royal Lodge, Windsor.
April
April – Nursing and Midwifery Council takes over the registration function for nurses.
4 April – Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother's funeral procession in London from the Chapel Royal at St James's Palace to Westminster Hall to lie in state.
9 April – The funeral of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother takes place at Westminster Abbey, London. She is buried beside her husband and daughter at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.
23 April – A badly decomposed female body is found in the River Thames; and is feared to be that of Amanda Dowler.
24 April – The body found in the River Thames is identified as that of 73-year-old Mrs. Maisie Thomas, who was last seen alive near her home in Shepperton just over a year ago and whose death is not believed to be suspicious.
25 April – Two 16-year-old twin brothers are cleared of murdering 10-year-old Damilola Taylor, who was stabbed to death in South London 17 months earlier.
29 April – As part of her Golden Jubilee celebrations, the Queen dines at 10 Downing Street with the five living former prime ministers who have served under her; Tony Blair, John Major, Margaret Thatcher, James Callaghan and Edward Heath. She is also joined by several relatives of deceased former Prime Ministers, including Clarissa Eden, widow of Prime Minister Anthony Eden.
May
1 May – Airdrieonians, of the Scottish Football League Division One, go into liquidation with debts of £3,000,000. They are the first Scottish senior side to go out of business for 35 years.
4 May – Arsenal win the FA Cup with a 2–0 win over London rivals Chelsea in the cup final.
8 May – Arsenal win their second double in five seasons (and the third in their history) after a 1–0 away win over defending champions Manchester United.
10 May
Potters Bar rail crash in Hertfordshire kills seven people.
£5million-rated striker Marlon King, of Gillingham F.C., is jailed for 18 months after being found guilty of handling a stolen car worth £32,000.
24 May – Falkirk Wheel boat lift opens in Scotland, also marking the reopening of the Union Canal for leisure traffic.
27 May – Former leader of the Liberal Democrats Paddy Ashdown appointed as the international community's High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina.
28 May – Stephen Byers resigns as Secretary of State for Transport.
June
2 June – The England national football team's World Cup campaign, hosted jointly by Japan and South Korea, begins with a 1–1 draw against Sweden.
3 June – The "Party in the Palace" takes place at Buckingham Palace, London for The Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations.
4 June – The Queen and The Duke of Edinburgh ride in the gold state coach from Buckingham Palace to St Paul's Cathedral for a special service marking the Queen's 50 years on the throne. In New York City, the Empire State Building is lit purple in her honour.
7 June – England beat Argentina 1–0 in their second World Cup group game, with the only goal of the game being scored by captain David Beckham.
10 June – The first direct electronic communication experiment between the nervous systems of two humans is carried out by Kevin Warwick in the University of Reading.
12 June – England qualify for the knockout stages of the World Cup despite only managing a goalless draw against Nigeria.
15 June – England beat Denmark 3–0 in the World Cup second round and reach the quarter-finals for the first time since 1990. Ironically, the far-right British National Party had declared their support for all-white Denmark before the World Cup due to the England team featuring black players.
21 June – England's hopes of winning the World Cup are ended by a 2–1 defeat to Brazil in the quarter-finals.
25 June – Jason Gifford (27) is shot dead by armed police in Aylesbury after brandishing a shotgun and a machete in a residential street.
July
July – London City Hall is opened on the south bank of the River Thames, designed by Norman Foster.
1 July – Rochdale Canal, crossing the Pennines, reopened throughout for leisure traffic.
3 July – Decapitation of a statue of Margaret Thatcher: a man decapitates a statue of the former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher on display at the Guildhall Art Gallery in London.
5 July – The Imperial War Museum North in Manchester, designed by Daniel Libeskind, opens.
8 July – John Taylor, a 46-year-old postman from Bramley in Leeds, is sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of 16-year-old Leanne Tiernan. Leanne was last seen alive in Leeds City Centre on 26 November 2000 and her body was found in the Yorkshire countryside nine months later. Police believed that Taylor may have been responsible for other unsolved sex attacks and murders in the Yorkshire area, and the trial judge has warned Taylor to expect to spend the rest of his life in prison.
9 July – Clydebank F.C. of the Scottish Football League Second Division become defunct after a takeover by the owners of the new Airdrie United club, who take their place in the Scottish league and continue the tradition of senior football in the town of Airdrie following the recent demise of Airdrieonians, whose stadium they will play at.
12 July – Ribble Link waterway opened for leisure traffic.
13 July – Baltic Centre for Contemporary Art opens in the converted Baltic Flour Mill at Gateshead.
22 July – Rio Ferdinand becomes the most expensive player in English football when he completes his £29,100,000 transfer from Leeds United to Manchester United.
23 July
Rowan Williams, Archbishop of Wales, elected to be the successor of George Carey as Archbishop of Canterbury.
Leicester City F.C. move into their new 32,000-seat Walker's Stadium, named under a sponsorship deal with Walker's Crisps, after 111 years at Filbert Street. It is officially opened by former England striker Gary Lineker, who was born locally and started his playing career with the club.
25 July – The Commonwealth Games, hosted by Manchester are opened by HM The Queen. The event also marks the opening of the City of Manchester Stadium, which will host the games. It will be partly remodelled after the games are over to become home of Manchester City F.C. from August 2003.
30 July – Heavy rain overnight results in the floods in Glasgow.
August
2 August – 2002 Barrow-in-Furness legionellosis outbreak: First fatality in an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease in Barrow-in-Furness which results in seven deaths and 172 cases throughout the month, ranking it as the worst in the UK's history and fifth-worst worldwide.
4 August – 10-year-old girls Holly Wells and Jessica Chapman go missing in Soham, Cambridgeshire.
5 August – Police and volunteers in the Soham area begin the search for Holly Wells and Jessica Chapman.
7 August – Police investigating the case of the two missing Soham girls seize a white van in nearby Wentworth and admit they are now looking at the case as a possible abduction.
12 August – A possible sighting of Holly Wells and Jessica Chapman is reported by a local taxi driver who claims to have seen the driver of a green car struggling with two children and driving recklessly along the A142 into Newmarket on the evening the girls went missing.
13 August – Two mounds of disturbed earth are found at Warren Hill, near Newmarket, in the same area where screams were reported on the night that Holly Wells and Jessica Chapman went missing. It is initially feared that the mounds of earth were the graves of the two girls, but a police examination fails to uncover any link to the girls.
16 August – Ian Huntley, caretaker of Soham Village College, and his girlfriend Maxine Carr, are questioned in connection with the disappearance of Holly Wells and Jessica Chapman, but are released after seven hours in custody.
17 August – Following the recovery of items of major interest to the police investigation, Ian Huntley and Maxine Carr are arrested again on suspicion of murder, as police admit for the first time that they fear the missing girls are now dead. Several hours later, two "severely decomposed and partially skeletonised" bodies are found in the Lakenheath area; they have not been identified but police say that they are likely to be those of the two missing girls.
21 August – Ian Huntley, detained under the Mental Health Act, is charged with the murders of Holly Wells and Jessica Chapman. His girlfriend Maxine Carr is charged with perverting the course of justice. Both are remanded in custody. Meanwhile, police confirm that the two bodies found at Lakenheath are those of the two girls.
September
20 September – Police confirm that human remains found in woodland in north Hampshire are those of Milly Dowler, who went missing in Surrey six months ago. A murder investigation is launched.
22 September – An earthquake in Dudley is felt throughout England and Wales.
October
1 October – The main provisions of National Health Service Reform and Health Care Professions Act (of 25 June) come into force in England, including renaming and merger of existing NHS regional health authorities to form 28 new strategic health authorities, and introduction of primary care trusts to be responsible for the supervision of family health care functions.
9 October – A judge decides that Ian Huntley is fit to face prosecution for the Soham Murders.
14 October – The Northern Ireland Assembly is suspended following allegations of spying in "Stormontgate".
23 October – Estelle Morris resigns as Secretary of State for Education, explaining that she did not feel up to the job.
25 October – Memorial service held at St Paul's Cathedral for the victims of the Bali bombing, which killed 26 British nationals.
November
1 November – Diana, Princess of Wales' former butler, Paul Burrell, is cleared of stealing from the late princess' estate after it was revealed that he had told The Queen that he was keeping some of her possessions.
13 November – 2002-2003 UK firefighter dispute begins.
15 November – Moors murderer Myra Hindley dies in West Suffolk Hospital at the age of 60 after being hospitalised with a heart attack. She was in the 37th year of her life sentence and had spent the last decade attempting to gain parole, having been told by no less than four Home Secretaries that she would have to spend the rest of her life in prison, having previously increased her minimum term from 25 to 30 years during the 1980s, and then to a whole life tariff in 1990. Media sources report that the Home Office will soon be stripped of its power to set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners, and Hindley had been widely expected to gain parole in the near future as a result.
20 November
German anatomist Gunther von Hagens conducts a public autopsy in a London theatre; the first in Britain in more than 170 years.
40 years after the first James Bond film was made, the twentieth film is released in British cinemas as Pierce Brosnan bows out as Bond in Die Another Day after four films in seven years.
23 November – The Miss World beauty competition is held in London after rioting in the Nigerian capital Lagos prevented it from being hosted there.
24 November – Home Secretary David Blunkett rules that four convicted child murderers should spend at least 50 years in prison before being considered for parole. This ruling means that Roy Whiting, Howard Hughes, Timothy Morss and Brett Tyler are likely to remain behind bars until at least the ages of 92, 80, 79 and 81 respectively.
26 November – Politicians in England and Wales lose their power to set minimum terms on life sentence prisoners after the European Court of Human Rights and the High Court both rule in favour of a legal challenge by convicted double murderer Anthony Anderson. Anderson had been sentenced to life imprisonment in 1988 and the trial judge recommended that he should serve a minimum of 15 years before being considered for parole, but the Home Secretary later decided on a 20-year minimum term.
30 November – Girl band Girls Aloud are formed from the five female contestants who win the ITV talent show Popstars: The Rivals.
December
10 December
Sydney Brenner and John E. Sulston win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly with H. Robert Horvitz "for their discoveries concerning 'genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death'".
Cherie Blair apologises for the embarrassment she caused in buying flats with the help of convicted fraudster Peter Foster.
12 December – The latest MORI poll puts Labour four points ahead of the Conservatives on 37%, while the Liberal Democrats are enjoying a new boost in popularity with a 24% approval rating.
15 December – On the Record, the BBC's flagship political programme, finishes after fourteen years on air.
19 December
Shaied Nazir, Ahmed Ali Awan and Sarfraz Ali all convicted of the racist murder of Ross Parker in Peterborough.
Stuart Campbell, a 44-year-old builder from Grays in Essex, is found guilty of murdering his 15-year-old niece Danielle Jones 18 months ago. Danielle's body has never been found. It is then revealed that Campbell, who is sentenced to life imprisonment, has a string of previous convictions including keeping an underage girl at his home without lawful authority in 1989.
22 December – Sound of the Underground, Girls Aloud's debut single, is the UK's Christmas number one.
Undated
Appz Magazine is founded.
BedZED (Beddington Zero Energy Development), the country's first large-scale zero energy housing development, of 99 homes in Beddington, London, designed by Bill Dunster, is completed.
The mobile network BT Cellnet changes its name to O2.
Over 50% of the UK population (well over 30,000,000 people) now have internet access.
Car sales in Britain reach a record level for the second year running, now exceeding 2,500,000 for the first time ever. The Ford Focus is Britain's best-selling car for the fourth year in a row with more than 150,000 sold and Ford retains its lead of the manufacturers for British sales which it has held since 1975. They have a total of four model ranges among Britain's top 10 selling cars for the first time since 1989. Vauxhall, Peugeot, Renault and Volkswagen also enjoy strong sales.
Moneyhelpline price comparison service company is founded in Kent.
Nip & Tuck, a DJ and producer collaboration release their first dance production.
Thornton's Bookshop closes, Oxford's oldest bookshop.
Publications
Iain Banks' novel Dead Air.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels Night Watch which wins the Prometheus Award.
Ben Schott's compendium Schott's Original Miscellany.
Births
2 January – Jonjo Heuerman, charity fundraiser
18 January – Samuel Joslin, actor (The Impossible, Paddington)
31 January – Jensen Weir, English footballer
1 February – Connor Smith, Scottish footballer (Hearts)
11 February – Barry Baggley, Northern Irish footballer (Fleetwood Town)
23 February – Emilia Jones, English actress
10 March – Noni Madueke, English footballer
16 March – Isabelle Allen, English actress
27 March – Ty Tennant, English actor
4 April – Damian Hurley, actor and model
18 April – Maya Le Tissier, footballer (Brighton & Hove Albion)
4 May – Joe Gelhardt, footballer (Wigan Athletic)
6 May – Cole Palmer, footballer
10 May – Haydon Roberts, footballer (Brighton & Hove Albion)
14 May – Lady Margarita Armstrong-Jones, member of the British Royal Family, daughter of David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon and Serena Armstrong-Jones, Countess of Snowdon.
31 May – Nathan Wood, footballer (Middlesbrough)
26 July – Morgan Rogers, footballer (West Bromwich Albion)
30 July – Finn Ecrepont, Scottish footballer (Ayr United)
4 August – Kieron Williamson, watercolourist
8 August – Katie Robinson, footballer (Bristol City)
17 August – Chloe Hawthorn, actress
21 September – Isabella Blake-Thomas, actor
1 October – Milo Parker, child actor (Mr. Holmes, The Durrells, Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children)
2 October – Luke Matheson, footballer (Rochdale)
10 October – James Trafford, footballer
6 November – Mya-Lecia Naylor, actress, model and singer (died 2019)
13 November – Emma Raducanu, Canadian-born tennis player
2 December – Eden Cheng, diver
Approximate date – Jack Topping, chorister
Deaths
January
6 January – Marian Wenzel, art historian (born 1932)
7 January – Geoffrey Crossley, racing driver (born 1921)
8 January
M. S. Bartlett, statistician (born 1910)
Charles "Nish" Bruce, soldier and author (born 1956)
David McWilliams, Northern Irish singer-songwriter (born 1945)
10 January – Cedric Smith, statistician (born 1917)
12 January
Bernard Bennett, snooker player (born 1931)
Stanley Unwin, actor and comedian (born 1911, South Africa)
14 January – Michael Young, Baron Young of Dartington, sociologist who coined the term "meritocracy" (born 1915)
15 January – Jeremy Hawk, actor (born 1918)
16 January – Robert Hanbury Brown, astronomer (born 1916, India)
17 January
Peter Adamson, actor (born 1930)
Queenie Leonard, actress (born 1905)
19 January – Jeff Astle, footballer (born 1942)
21 January – Marjorie Lewty, writer (born 1906)
22 January – Eric de Maré, architectural photographer (born 1910)
26 January – Dorothy Carrington, writer (born 1910)
27 January – John James, racing driver (born 1914)
29 January
R. M. Hare, moral philosopher (born 1919)
Stratford Johns, actor (born 1925, South Africa)
James Marjoribanks, diplomat (born 1911)
February
2 February – Robin Medforth-Mills, professor and former husband of Princess Elena of Romania (born 1942)
6 February – Max Perutz, molecular biologist (born 1914, Austria-Hungary)
7 February
Jack Fairman, racing driver (born 1913)
Tony Pond, rally driver (born 1945)
8 February – Bob Wooler, disc jockey (born 1926)
9 February – Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, sister of the Queen (born 1930)
10 February – John Erickson, historian (born 1929)
11 February – Barry Foster, actor (heart attack) (born 1931)
13 February – Sidney Weighell, footballer and trade unionist (born 1922)
14 February – Mick Tucker, rock drummer (Sweet) (born 1947)
16 February
Sidney De Haan, businessman, founder of Saga (born 1919)
Sir Walter Winterbottom, footballer and football manager (born 1913)
17 February – Anthony Benjamin, painter, sculptor and printmaker (born 1931)
21 February
A. L. Barker, writer (born 1918)
John Thaw, actor (born 1942)
22 February – Raymond Firth, anthropologist (born 1901, New Zealand)
25 February – Claire Davenport, actress (born 1933)
27 February – Spike Milligan, comedian, writer and poet (born 1918, India)
March
1 March
John Challens, scientist and civil servant (born 1915)
Doreen Waddell, singer (Soul II Soul) (car accident) (born 1965)
3 March – Roy Porter, historian (born 1946)
4 March
Eric Flynn, actor and singer (born 1939)
Prunella Ransome, actress (born 1943)
5 March
Frances Macdonald, artist (born 1914)
Harry Wingfield, illustrator (Ladybird Books) (born 1910)
6 March – Donald Wilson, screenwriter and television producer (born 1910)
7 March – Geoff Charles, Welsh photojournalist (born 1909)
9 March – Hamish Henderson, Scottish poet (born 1919)
16 March – Sir Marcus Fox, Conservative politician (born 1927)
23 March – James Culliford, actor (born 1927)
25 March – Kenneth Wolstenholme, sports commentator (born 1920)
27 March – Dudley Moore, comedian and actor (born 1935)
28 March – F. N. Souza, artist (born 1924, India)
30 March – Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, consort of George VI and mother of Elizabeth II (born 1900)
31 March – Barry Took, comedian, writer and broadcast presenter (born 1928)
April
6 April – Margaret Wingfield, Liberal politician (born 1912)
8 April – Sir Nigel Bagnall, field marshal and former Chief of the General Staff (born 1927)
12 April – Henry van Straubenzee, Army lieutenant-colonel and cricketer (born 1914, South Africa)
14 April – Sir Michael Kerr, judge (born 1921, Germany)
15 April
Dave King, actor and comedian (born 1929)
Will Reed, composer (born 1910)
16 April – Billy Ayre, football coach, manager and former player (born 1952)
17 April – James Copeland, actor (born 1918)
18 April – Cy Laurie, musician (born 1926)
21 April – Terry Walsh, actor and stuntman (born 1939)
25 April – Michael Bryant, actor (born 1928)
27 April – Arthur Owen, racing driver (born 1915)
28 April
Sir Peter Parker, businessman (British Railways Board) (born 1924)
Gerd Sommerhoff, neuroscientist (born 1915)
May
1 May – John Nathan-Turner, screenwriter and producer (born 1947)
2 May – Olive Cook, writer and artist (born 1912)
3 May – Barbara Castle, Baroness Castle of Blackburn, Labour politician (born 1910)
4 May – John Hasted, physicist and folk musician (born 1921)
7 May
Sir Bernard Burrows, diplomat (born 1910)
Sir Ewart Jones, chemist (born 1911)
10 May – Austen Kark, television executive (killed in the Potters Bar rail crash) (born 1926)
11 May – Diane Pretty, right-to-die campaigner (born 1958)
12 May – Richard Chorley, geographer (born 1927)
14 May – Sir Laurence Sinclair, air marshal (born 1908)
15 May – Bryan Pringle, actor (born 1935)
17 May – James Chichester-Clark, Northern Irish politician (born 1923)
18 May – Davey Boy Smith, professional wrestler (born 1962)
19 May – Raymond Durgnat, film critic (born 1932)
21 May – Roy Paul, footballer (born 1920)
25 May – Pat Coombs, actress (born 1926)
27 May
Marjorie Ogilvie Anderson, Scottish historian (born 1909)
Barbara Hamilton, 14th Baroness Dudley, British noblewoman (born 1907)
June
7 June – Rodney Hilton, historian (born 1916)
11 June – Peter John Stephens, children's author (born 1912)
14 June – George William Coventry, 11th Earl of Coventry, peer (born 1934)
17 June – Louis George Alexander, teacher and author (born 1932)
18 June – Michael Coulson, lawyer and politician (born 1927)
19 June – William Summers, former Crown Jeweller (born 1930)
24 June – Miles Fitzalan-Howard, 17th Duke of Norfolk, peer and Army general (born 1915)
25 June
Henry Thomas Davies, lifeboatman (born 1914)
Douglas Hugh Everett, chemist (born 1916)
27 June – John Entwistle, bassist (The Who) (born 1944)
July
4 July
Winnifred Quick, English-American survivor of the sinking of the RMS Titanic (born 1904)
Jake Saunders, banker (born 1917)
7 July – Ray Wood, footballer (Manchester United) (born 1931)
9 July
Gerald Campion, actor (born 1921)
Madron Seligman, Conservative politician (born 1918)
Kenneth Snowman, jeweller (born 1919)
14 July – Michael Stern, educator (car accident) (born 1922)
15 July
Charles R. Burton, explorer (born 1942)
Gavin Muir, actor (born 1951)
17 July – Clare Fell, archaeologist (born 1912)
18 July – Victor Emery, physicist and academic (born 1933)
19 July – Frank Taylor, sports journalist (born 1920)
21 July
John Cunningham, Royal Air Force officer in World War II (born 1917)
Gus Dudgeon, record producer (car accident) (born 1942)
Peter Elstob, World War II soldier and military historian (born 1915)
23 July – Arnold Weinstock, Baron Weinstock, businessman (born 1924)
24 July – Maurice Denham, actor (born 1909)
25 July – Angus Montagu, 12th Duke of Manchester, peer (born 1938)
26 July
Tony Anholt, actor (born 1941)
Pat Douthwaite, artist (born 1934)
28 July – Archer John Porter Martin, chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1910)
29 July – Peter Bayliss, actor (born 1922)
August
1 August – Geoffrey Paulson Townsend, architect (born 1911)
4 August – Carmen Silvera, actress (born 1922)
5 August – Winifred Watson, writer (born 1906)
6 August
Jim Crawford, racing driver (born 1948)
John Fage, historian (born 1921)
7 August – Molly Harrison, museum curator (born 1909)
9 August
George Alfred Barnard, statistician (born 1915)
Paul Samson, guitarist (born 1953)
11 August – Richard Wood, Baron Holderness, Conservative politician (born 1920)
12 August
John Rennie, diplomat (born 1917)
Dame Marjorie Williamson, educator and university administrator (born 1913)
14 August – Peter R. Hunt, film editor (born 1925)
17 August – Tony Zemaitis, guitar maker (born 1935)
18 August – Edward Crew, Royal Air Force officer in World War II (born 1917)
20 August – John Willett, translator (born 1917)
21 August – Jimmy Deane, revolutionary socialist (born 1921)
23 August – Stafford Beer, theorist and author (born 1926)
29 August – Lance Macklin, racing driver (born 1919)
31 August – George Porter, Baron Porter of Luddenham, chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1920)
September
1 September – Peter Ramsden, rugby league player (born 1934)
2 September – Robert Wilson, astrophysicist (born 1927)
3 September – Len Wilkinson, cricketer (Lancashire) (born 1916)
5 September – William Cooper, novelist (born 1910)
6 September
Michael Argyle, psychologist (born 1925)
Peter Donaldson, economist (born 1934)
Janet Young, Baroness Young, Conservative politician, first woman Leader of the House of Lords (born 1926)
7 September
Katrin Cartlidge, actress (born 1961)
Michael Elphick, actor (born 1946)
8 September – Ken Ashton, journalist and trade union leader (born 1925)
12 September – Neil Shields, politician and businessman (born 1919)
13 September – Sir Douglas Black, physician (born 1913)
14 September – Frederic Bennett, lawyer, journalist and politician (born 1918)
16 September – Archibald Hall, convicted serial killer (born 1924)
20 September – Joan Littlewood, theatre director (born 1914)
23 September – Vernon Corea, broadcaster (born 1927)
29 September – Bob Cobbing, poet (born 1920)
30 September – Ewart Oakeshott, illustrator (born 1916)
October
4 October
Fram Farrington, scientific officer (born 1908)
Barbara Fawkes, nurse (born 1914)
5 October
Sir Reginald Hibbert, diplomat (born 1922)
Morag Hood, actress (born 1942)
6 October – Nick Whitehead, Olympic sprinter (1960) (born 1933)
8 October – Phyllis Calvert, actress (born 1915)
10 October – Lady Marguerite Tangye, debutante and actress (born 1913)
12 October
Sir Desmond Fitzpatrick, Army general (born 1912)
Mick Shoebottom, rugby league player (born 1944)
14 October
Grace Hamblin, secretary to Sir Winston and Lady Clementine Churchill (born 1908)
Jack Lee, film director (born 1913)
17 October – Pattie Coldwell, television presenter (born 1952)
18 October – Sir Cecil Blacker, Army general (born 1916)
22 October – Robert Nixon, cartoonist (born 1939)
23 October – Elizabeth Pakenham, Countess of Longford, historian and wife of Frank Pakenham, 7th Earl of Longford (born 1906)
25 October – Ian Russell, 13th Duke of Bedford, peer (born 1917)
28 October – Thomas Patrick Russell, judge (born 1926)
31 October
Sir Napier Crookenden, Army general (born 1915)
Audrey Hylton-Foster, Baroness Hylton-Foster, peer (born 1908)
November
1 November – Sir Charles Wilson, political scientist (born 1909)
2 November
Robert Haslam, industrialist (born 1923)
Charles Sheffield, author and physicist (born 1935)
3 November
Lonnie Donegan, musician (King of Skiffle) (born 1931)
Sir John Habakkuk, economic historian (born 1915)
Sir Rex Roe, air marshal (born 1925)
7 November
Charles Hambro, Baron Hambro, banker and political fundraiser (born 1930)
Dilys Hamlett, actress (born 1928)
8 November
Dorothy Mackie Low, novelist (born 1916)
Christopher Parsons, film-maker (born 1932)
12 November – David Francis Clyde, physician (born 1925)
13 November – Frederick Valentine Atkinson, mathematician, discoverer of Atkinson's theorem (born 1916)
15 November
W. J. Burley, crime writer (born 1914)
Myra Hindley, convicted Moors murderer (born 1942)
16 November
Sir George Gardiner, Conservative politician (born 1935)
Frank Smithies, mathematician (born 1912)
20 November – George Guest, organist and choirmaster (born 1924)
22 November – Iain Hook, aid worker (murdered in Palestine) (born 1948)
25 November
David Drummond, 8th Earl of Perth, peer (born 1907)
Karel Reisz, film-maker (born 1926, Czechoslovakia)
27 November – Stanley Black, composer and bandleader (born 1913)
29 November – John Justin, actor (born 1917)
30 November – Bill Sparks, Royal Marine Commando in World War II (born 1922)
December
2 December
Derek Robinson, physicist (born 1941)
David Whiffen, physicist (born 1922)
5 December – Ann Welch, glider pilot (born 1917)
7 December – Clare Deniz, jazz pianist (born 1911)
10 December
Steve Llewellyn, rugby union player (born 1924)
Ian MacNaughton, television producer (Monty Python) (born 1925)
11 December – Arthur Metcalfe, racing cyclist (born 1938)
13 December – Ronald Butt, journalist (born 1920)
17 December
Colin Clark, film-maker (born 1932)
Frank Jordan, Chief Constable of Kent (born 1930)
18 December – Bert Millichip, chairman of The Football Association (born 1914)
19 December
Arthur Rowley, footballer (Leicester City, Shrewsbury Town) (born 1926)
Roger Webb, musician and composer (born 1934)
20 December – Joanne Campbell, actress (born 1964)
22 December – Joe Strummer, punk rock musician (The Clash) (born 1952)
23 December – Anthony Besch, opera and theatre director (born 1924)
24 December – Jake Thackray, singer-songwriter (born 1938)
29 December – Paul Hawkins, Conservative politician (born 1912)
30 December – Mary Wesley, novelist (born 1912)
See also
2002 in British music
2002 in British television
List of British films of 2002
References
Years of the 21st century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-Bag%20%28Prison%20Break%29
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T-Bag (Prison Break)
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Theodore "T-Bag" Bagwell is a fictional character from the American television series Prison Break. Played by Robert Knepper, he is part of the main group of characters in the series and is part of the Fox River Eight. After guest-starring in the series' second episode, "Allen", the actor became one of the regular cast members.
The character was introduced into the series as a fellow prisoner of the protagonist, Michael Scofield (played by Wentworth Miller), at Fox River State Penitentiary. As the leader of a white supremacist group, T-Bag is the most villainous member of the Fox River Eight. In the second season, the character's storyline veers from the main plot as a separate subplot. As the series progresses, more of the background story of the character is revealed.
The character has appeared in A&E's Breakout Kings, portrayed by Knepper.
Appearances
Bagwell appears in every episode of the first season except the series pilot, episode 4 "Cute Poison" and episode 5 "English, Fitz or Percy". He does not appear in three episodes of the second season: "Scan", "Disconnect" and "The Message". Bagwell appears in every episode in seasons three and four.
A younger version of the character, played by Michael Gohlke, appeared in one episode via a flashback sequence in "Bad Blood".
Season 1
Theodore "T-Bag" Bagwell is the leader of the Aryan gang inside Fox River. A racist and a pedophile, he is detested by most other inmates, such as John Abruzzi (Peter Stormare) and Benjamin Miles "C-Note" Franklin (Rockmond Dunbar), but his status within the Alliance for Purity protects him from attacks. Upon the arrival of Michael Scofield (Wentworth Miller) at Fox River, Bagwell wants to ensnare him as his sex slave, but is unsuccessful. During a race riot in episode "Allen", his cellmate and lover is fatally wounded. Believing Scofield was responsible, Bagwell seeks revenge but is stopped by Abruzzi, who has his goons assault him, sending him to the infirmary after which the character is absent for two episodes. When he returns in the episode "Riots, Drills and the Devil", Bagwell instigates a full-scale riot, during which he accidentally learns of the escape attempt and threatens to tell the other inmates if Michael and the others do not include him; the others have no choice but to agree. At the end of the riot, Bagwell defies the orders of Michael and Abruzzi and murders a guard that could expose the escape. He later frames his friend and fellow Aryan gang member Trokey for the murder. Following this, Bagwell becomes a fully-fledged member of the escape team in the episode "The Old Head", blackmailing them to include him.
Bagwell is initially an endless source of friction on the escape team, testing the others' patience with racist taunts, and is a constant strain on Michael's conscience. Throughout the season, T-Bag is shown as having a sexual interest in other inmates, and coerces his new cellmate Seth into a sexual relationship. After Seth hangs himself, Bagwell moves on to harass newly arrived inmate Tweener, who had alienated himself among Fox River's prison population. Michael, who was feeling guilty about Seth's death, finally confronts Bagwell with a crowbar to the knee and tells him to leave Tweener alone. In the following episodes, friction continues to increase between Bagwell and the other members of the escape team. When the group discovers that they have one too many for a successful escape, Abruzzi gives Bagwell an ultimatum in the episode "Odd Man Out": back out of the escape or die. Bagwell also learns that his cousin James Bagwell and his son had been killed and is deeply upset. Knowing that Abruzzi was behind it, Bagwell seeks revenge, and slashes Abruzzi's throat with a razor blade in a failed attempt to kill him. Bagwell is among six inmates included in the first unsuccessful escape attempt in the episode "End of the Tunnel".
Bagwell is more loyal to the team in the season's later episodes, contributing to keep the escape tunnel hidden and engaging in reluctant relations with a transvestite inmate to further the escape plan. In the episode "Bluff" his skills at rigging a deck of cards also help the team. Upon learning in "The Key" that Abruzzi has returned to the prison, Bagwell is frightened and makes a second attempt on Abruzzi's life but is stopped by C-Note, who reminds him that Abruzzi is providing their transportation. Abruzzi claims to have forgiven Bagwell, but the characters keep a wary eye on each other for the rest of the season. In the final episode of the season, Bagwell escapes from Fox River along with Michael, Abruzzi, C-Note, Tweener, and three other inmates. In order to ensure his safety, he handcuffs himself to Michael, knowing that it will keep Abruzzi from killing him. Abruzzi gets his revenge when he cuts off Bagwell's cuffed hand with an axe, seriously wounding him and leaving him for dead. Despite this, Bagwell survives and eludes capture. His last scene of the season features the character staggering through the woods with his severed hand tucked into his armpit.
Season 2
Bagwell has his hand reattached by a veterinary surgeon named Dr. Marvin Gudat, whom he murders afterwards. Bagwell then bleaches his hair to change his appearance, and begins his four episode long journey to Utah, to locate the money Charles Westmoreland had hidden there. In the fifth, sixth and seventh episodes, he rejoins part of the main cast as the group of five fugitives dig for Westmoreland's five million dollars under a garage. Bagwell tricks the other fugitives, stealing all the money, and sets out to find Susan Hollander, the woman who betrayed him. From the eighth episode onwards, Bagwell's storyline separates from the main plot, which concerns the protagonists escaping and later deciding to solve the conspiracy. In the following episode, "Unearthed", Bagwell arrives at Hollander's house, which has been vacated and is for sale. He is captured at the house by Brad Bellick (Wade Williams) and Roy Geary (Matt DeCaro) after hiding the five million dollars in a locker at a bus station. The next episode follows Bellick and Geary's torture of Bagwell as they try to discover where he has hidden the money. During the torture, the key to the locker that Bagwell had hidden in his sock falls out. The three men scuffle to retrieve it. Bagwell grabs the key and swallows it. Bellick and Geary tie Bagwell to a toilet in the house and shove Copenhagen tobacco in his mouth, along with laxatives. Bagwell passes the key, which has the location information on it. They clean it up, and use plastic handcuffs to attach his wrist to a radiator. Bagwell escapes from the cuff in "Bolshoi Booze" by re-severing his hand. Geary betrays Bellick and takes the money to an upscale hotel. Bagwell, having placed a tracking device in the bag, tracks it down and kills Geary by smashing his head with a champagne bottle. Before leaving with the money, Bagwell frames Bellick for Geary's murder, by placing Bellick's credit card receipt in Geary's dead, bloody hand. In the "fall finale" episode "The Killing Box" the last episode to air for 2006 in the United States, Bagwell sees a Vietnam war vet in a bar, who has a prosthetic hand. It's implied that Bagwell killed the man, as in his next scene of the episode, Bagwell is in possession of the prosthetic hand. He then takes advantage of a postal worker with his wily charms to gain access to Susan Hollander's new address. The postal worker genuinely likes Bagwell, until she recognizes him from a Wanted poster on the wall. Ever the survivalist, Bagwell eliminates her.
Bagwell eventually locates Susan, which served as one of the episode's cliffhangers. In his next two appearances of the season, he holds Susan and her children hostage in their home in Ness City, Kansas. He takes them to his childhood home in Alabama in "Bad Blood", where he reveals that they are his "salvation" and that he wants to become part of their family. He also explains that he is incapable of having children, presumably because of the nature of his own conception, and that the Bagwell bloodline will die with him. Throughout the episode he is haunted by flashbacks of his childhood, including the sexual abuse he received from his father. Susan rebuffs him, however, saying that she is not able to love him. Bagwell is heartbroken by her rejection and finally leaves them, calling the police to release them from his home. Beginning from the eighteenth episode, the next part of Bagwell's storyline concerns his decision to travel to Thailand. After taking the identity from a therapist he deliberately kills, Bagwell buys a ticket to Bangkok and boards a stop-over flight from Chicago, which coincidentally is the same plane Bellick is flying on. Bagwell recognizes Bellick at Mexico City International Airport in the episode "Sweet Caroline" and is forced to hide, consequently losing his money in the luggage carousel. He then grapples with a security guard in an attempt to retrieve the money, but fails to overpower him or retrieve the money. He runs away to avoid being captured. Later, security footage of him fleeing is transmitted on a Mexican news station.
After narrowly avoiding Sucre and Bellick in the episode "Panama", Bagwell travels to Panama; there he murders a prostitute. During an unseen encounter, Bagwell is coerced by Agent Kim into aiding the company's plot to capture Lincoln and Michael, who are also in Panama. Kim's plot fails in the following episode, "Fin Del Camino", however, and T-Bag finds himself being chased by Bellick, Sucre, and Michael. He escapes Bellick by shooting him in the leg, but is captured soon after by Sucre and Michael. Bagwell escapes once again by stabbing Sucre in the chest with a screwdriver but is followed by Michael to an abandoned house. After Michael refuses Bagwell's truce (feeling responsible for everyone Bagwell has killed since escaping from prison), the two fight. Michael ultimately apprehends Bagwell by viciously impaling his remaining hand to the floor and leaving him for the Panamanian police. He then is transferred to a Panamanian cell, where Bellick is also imprisoned. In his last appearance of the season, Bagwell is seen screaming in a Panamanian jail, a man from the Company leaving him imprisoned for "getting caught". Bagwell is the fifth member of the Fox River Eight to be taken down by the authorities, and the second member not to die upon interception (the first being C-Note).
Season 3
Imprisoned in Sona along with Michael, Bellick, and Mahone, Bagwell is once again able to charm his way to an easier prison life than most, ingratiating himself to Lechero, a drug lord who is the most powerful man inside. Michael soon blackmails Bagwell about his pedophilic past, in order to gain access to Lechero's cell phone. Bagwell gets Michael the cellphone, but when it is put back Lechero notices that it had been moved. In order to deflect suspicion, Bagwell gets Lechero to question the loyalty of his right-hand man, Sammy, who has been openly hostile to Bagwell. Lechero is successfully manipulated into enlisting Bagwell as his personal spy, increasing Bagwell's position in the prison hierarchy.
Bagwell then gains the trust of Lechero's head drug smuggler and dealer, Nieves, only to then kill him by suffocating him with a plastic bag. He also covers up his murder by making it look like a drug overdose, and as a result replaces Nieves on Lechero's crew in the prison. He also protects Sister Mary Francis when the guards enter Sona, developing a liking for her in the process. When she steals Lechero's money, he diverts blame from her on to him and is punished for it by Lechero.
Later, when James Whistler is accused of murder and set to be killed, Bagwell attempts to 'help' Michael by asking him to frame his rival Sammy for the murder but Michael refuses to go through with it. When Michael and Whistler are caught trying to escape Sona twice, T-Bag becomes suspicious and figures out that Michael is trying to escape. He blackmails his way onto the team but, along with Bellick and Lechero, is tricked by Michael and captured to allow the others to escape.
After the escape, he is tortured until he says Fernando Sucre knows everything that happened about the escape. He finds the bird book that Whistler dropped and puts it into his pocket. He then is taken back to Sona and forms an ambitious plan to kill Lechero. He tricks Lechero into supplying $50,000 for an "escape" and then smothers him in front of a shocked Bellick. T-Bag then goes to the masses and hands out part of the $50,000 to all the cons. He begins the chant "all cons are equal" and ingratiates himself with everybody, leaving T-Bag as the new ruler of Sona.
Season 4
T-Bag's character is once again central to the plot, as he holds Whistler's bird book. As mentioned by Lincoln in the premiere episode, a riot in Sona led to T-Bag, Sucre, and Bellick escaping between the third and the fourth season. Much of T-Bag's character arc in this season is devoted to exploring the friction between his discovered yearning for legitimacy and his desire to seek revenge on Michael for leaving him behind in earlier seasons. After crossing the border, T-Bag begins to uncover the clues in the bird book and finds documents conjured up by Whistler to portray Cole Pfeiffer, a top salesman at a corporation called GATE. This forces T-Bag's character to become critical to the plot. T-Bag's storyline is initially separated from the other main characters, and he spends most of his screen time attempting to carry on his charade as the top salesman for the Gate Corporation, while spending most of his time trying to decipher the contents of Whistler's bird book. Eventually, another sales manager exposes him as a fraud, and he quickly flees the building before being arrested. This begins his involvement with the main plotline. In the next episode, he is taken captive by former Company operative Gretchen Morgan, who interrogates him for his role in obtaining Scylla, The company's little black book. T-Bag learns that the bird book is a means to this end, and that there are people prepared to pay large sums of money for Scylla. For the next few episodes, T-Bag and Gretchen form a partnership, and while she murders the co-worker that exposed T-Bag, he takes Trishanne, the secretary from Gate Corporation, hostage to lure Michael to him and forces him at gunpoint to decipher the clues in Whistler's bird book. They eventually discover the book contains blueprints to the Gate Corporation building, including a path to where Scylla can be decrypted. While forcing Michael at gunpoint into the secret compartment, Bagwell is surprised by Mahone, who along with Michael, captures him. T-Bag is freed in the next episode at the urging of Gretchen, and Michael and his team reluctantly accept him as an ally, as T-Bag's access to Gate is valuable to the plan.
In the following episodes, T-Bag appears mainly in scenes at Gate, where he continues to play a salesman. It is established that, together with Gretchen, he is planning on double crossing Michael and his team after they steal Scylla, in order to sell it to a Chinese crime syndicate for 125 million dollars. By the episode "Quiet Riot", it becomes apparent that Gretchen is clearly the more ruthless and devoted to the plan, while T-Bag begins to grow increasingly attached to his new life and his dialogue shows that he wishes that he actually was Cole Pfeiffer rather than Theodore Bagwell. Because of this, the character often shows a softer side in this part of the season. For instance after he learns about the death of Bellick, T-Bag seems to be somewhat upset, despite the nature of their relationship in past seasons. However, he is still shown as intent on exacting revenge on Michael. T-Bag and Gretchen are waiting in T-Bag's office with machine guns in "Selfless" prepared to ambush the Scylla team when they return. When T-Bag's boss Mr. White spots Gretchen's gun under the table, she takes the entire company hostage. Seeing his chance at a new life at Gate being destroyed forever, T-Bag reluctantly helps her take the GATE employees hostage, but in the same episode T-Bag is arrested by Trishanne (who is actually an under-cover federal agent sent by Homeland Security agent Don Self). At the end of the episode, Michael's team is successful in getting Scylla and hands it over to Self who, in the episode's twist ending, betrays everyone and steals Scylla. After Self murders Trishanne, he forces T-Bag to help him track down Gretchen by giving him the home address of her sister Rita and daughter Emily, whom T-Bag holds hostage while Gretchen and Self find a new buyer for Scylla. In the episode "Just Business", T-Bag continues to mourn the loss of his new life. When a bible salesman asks to come in, T-Bag believes him to be a Company agent and takes him hostage. After saying he wanted to be Cole Pffeifer and not Theodore Bagwell, he is about to kill the man when Rita tells him not to, saying that he has a chance for a new life. So he lets Rita and Emily go and unties the man, only to be knocked unconscious, proving that the man was a Company agent.
In the final third of the season, T-Bag is forced by The company to work with Lincoln, Gretchen, and Self to get Scylla back by tracking down the buyer. The team is later joined by Mahone. When Gretchen is shot in a fire-fight with the buyer's underlings, T-Bag's character shows lingering hints of his softer side as he implores the others to spare Gretchen's life. Still holding onto his desire for legitimacy, however, T-Bag continues to work with the rest of the team in the next few episodes, but also spies on the rest of them, and in several episodes reports back to The company's leader, General Krantz, with secret information that he has overheard. It is revealed in "VS" and "SOB" that T-Bag hopes to be rewarded for his efforts by becoming a fully fledged Company operative with his own office and desk. As the plot unfolds, he begins to grow back into his old ruthless persona. After the general arrives in Miami in "SOB", T-Bag starts working more directly with him and his minions. Attempting to impress the general and give him leverage against Michael, T-Bag tracks down Michael's girlfriend Sara Tancredi and holds her captive in "Cowboys and Indians". Still bent on revenge on Michael, T-Bag decides to rape Sara in "Rate of Exchange", but is knocked unconscious by Michael, who rescues Sara. After Michael hands over Scylla to Paul Kellerman, he gives them the option of letting T-Bag be exonerated with the rest of them or not. In the end, Sara, Michael, Lincoln, Sucre, Mahone and C-Note vote to have him taken back to prison. In the character's final appearance in the series epilogue of the series finale, set 4 years after the main events of the show, T-Bag is revealed to be back at Fox River. He is seen overhearing an inmate speaking of the captivity of negativity (a term used by GATE). He sees the inmate was reading a book from GATE and he warns the inmate, telling him he does not ever want to see that book again and the inmate replies, referring to T-Bag as sir. He is last seen whistling to a boy to hold his pocket. T-Bag looks up at the sky, once again the king of prison. He is the only member of the Fox River Eight to be in prison when the series ended.
The Final Break
During the movie Prison Break: The Final Break, it shows T-Bag was taken back to jail, in a neighboring prison to Sara. In the prison T-Bag continues to help the General, even though the General claims poverty when asked to pay for contraband T-Bag gets him. The General contacts Gretchen and offers her $100,000 to kill Sara.
Michael comes up with a plan to parachute into the prison and rescue Sara. Lincoln offers T-Bag $5,000 to light a fire and set off the fire alarm at 7:00pm the night of the escape. T-Bag demands $100,000, and suggests they can get it by robbing the General of the money he has to pay the bounty on Sara. T-Bag did this to settle grudges with the General, including the General's refusal to pay T-Bag for favors in jail. T-Bag provides Lincoln with the name and phone number of Joe Daniels, (Richmond Arquette) the General's agent. Lincoln agrees to steal the money and put it in T-Bag's account by 7:00. Lincoln and Sucre then steal the $100,000 from Daniels. When T-Bag finds out that the transfer did not take place by 7:00 as promised, he angrily reveals the plot to the warden, and tells her that he was instructed to set off the fire alarm. Special Agent Wheatley responds by demanding the fire alarm and other systems that would cover other noises be turned off. This turned out to be part of Michael's plan knowing T-Bag would talk to the warden. Due to aiding in Sara's escape, T-Bag is put into solitary confinement.
Breakout Kings
In the Breakout Kings episode "The Bag Man", T-Bag again breaks out of prison to get revenge on the orderlies who wronged his mother. He escapes by stabbing a guard to death with his prosthetic hand, which he has sharpened to a point, while being escorted to the hospital for a replacement. T-Bag is eventually caught and briefly interviewed by Dr. Lloyd Lowery, who wants to find some clue as to the reasoning behind T-Bag's actions. Lloyd concludes the interview by saying, "Some machines come out of the factory broken. You're a broken machine." Once he is left alone in the interrogation room, Bagwell quietly agrees.
Season 5
T-Bag returns in the revival season, set seven years after the events of The Final Break. He begins the season still incarcerated at Fox River, but is soon released due to an unknown benefactor. While receiving his possessions back, he receives an envelope that contains a picture of Michael, apparently alive in Ogygia Prison in Yemen. T-Bag contacts Lincoln in Chicago, where he reveals the photo. Lincoln understandably doesn't trust T-Bag, but keeps the photo nonetheless. T-Bag is soon contacted by a doctor who offers him a procedure that would equip him with a robotic hand. T-Bag is skeptical at first, but agrees to undergo the process. After the procedure, he threatens the doctor and demands to know who set it up, and the doctor reveals a man known only as "Outis", Michael's alias in Yemen.
After a one episode absence, T-Bag returns in "The Liar". He tracks down Sara and he reveals he knows about Michael's activities as Kaniel Outis. He warns Sara of mercenaries tracking her, though Sara rebuffs him. After escaping the mercenaries' attempt on her life, she learns her phone was hacked via her own fingerprint, and suspects Paul Kellerman. Sara contacts T-Bag and asks him to set up a meeting with Kellerman to find out what he knows, to which T-Bag accepts.
Bagwell tracks Kellerman to his home and holds him at gunpoint, believing him to be the villainous Poseidon, a rogue CIA operative who is looking to do away with Michael for good and sent his agents after Sara. Kellerman explains he is not Poseidon, but was looking into his operation, known as 21 Void. Before he can finish explaining, Kellerman is killed by Poseidon's mercenaries Van Gogh and A&W, but T-Bag escapes. He later tracks the mercenaries to Virginia in Kellerman's car, where he witnesses them meeting with Jacob, Sara's new husband. T-Bag relays this information to Sara.
After a three-episode absence, T-Bag returns in the penultimate episode of the season, reading a letter from Michael that concludes with a warning that in exchange for his freedom, T-Bag "must take a life." T-Bag drives to Lake Michigan, where he leaves a remorseful message to God on his phone. He then confronts David "Whip" Martin, Michael's right-hand man during his CIA exploits, and reveals that though he thought himself infertile, Michael discovered that he is Whip's father.
In the season finale, Michael reveals he contacted T-Bag as he knew Poseidon, revealed to be Jacob, wouldn't monitor their communications due to Michael's hatred for T-Bag. Michael tells T-Bag he wants him to kill Jacob to ensure everyone can get a happy life even though it means T-Bag will go back to prison. Despite David's objections, T-Bag consents, feeling that some people need to die. T-Bag aids Michael in his plan to frame Jacob, but it goes awry when A&W kills David. An enraged T-Bag snaps A&W's neck and is sent back to Fox River for her murder. There, thanks to Michael, he ends up with Jacob as his cellmate. As the Fox River inmates cheer him on, T-Bag brutally assaults Jacob.
Characteristics
Despite being despised by the other convicts for his heinous crimes and affiliation with the Alliance for Purity, T-Bag is quite eloquent and many women find him charismatic and charming. Knepper comments that, "T-Bag's not crazy. He knows exactly what he's doing. He's not going to make himself stupid." In a separate interview, Knepper says, "I never play him like a stereotypical racist or redneck. He's actually quite cunning and smart." He likens the character to "Truman Capote without a degree."
As an adult, T-Bag starts committing more serious crimes, such as battery, assault, attempted murder, murder, rape, and kidnapping. It is also insinuated that he is a pedophile, and it is implied once in passing that he is also a necrophiliac. The character's sexual appetite ranges from in general, young men and women, adolescents, and children. The character once seduced a transgender woman within the prison at the behest of Sucre so as to obtain a pair of female undergarments necessary for a ruse; yet previously mocked the individual, stating 'I may be social, but that's the boundary line even I won't cross.' When asked about the character's sexuality, Knepper stated, "We're not passing judgment. We're not trying to get these people off the hook. T-Bag's not a homosexual. He's a raw animal. He'd [sleep with] anything."
Knepper said of fans of the series, "Around episode 6 or 7, I got so many letters from people saying, 'When I first started watching this show, I absolutely hated you and I wanted you dead. Now I still want you dead, but I'm starting to feel for you.' I think there's something in my eyes, a childlike thing in there. There's still an innocence. There's still a bit of hope."
During season four T-Bag starts showing disillusionment with his actions, even saying that he wishes that he could have been Cole Pfeiffer, respected salesman and person. He shows reluctance to undertake disturbing tasks. He shows emotion and is upset after receiving the news of Bellick's death. He does not want to take GATE hostage and reacts emotionally when Gretchen kills Gregory White, his employer and only true friend. He demonstrated authentic reluctance to kill Gretchen's family or the Bible Salesman/Company Agent. He eventually offers to even release him, at great risk to his personal freedom and lets Gretchen's family go. In the fall finale, T-Bag is the main party against Lincoln killing Gretchen, citing her being a mother as a reason, which can be seen as significant as she had tried to kill him not more than a few days earlier.
During press for the revival season, Knepper himself stated that he doesn't like talking about the heinous crimes for which T-Bag was initially imprisoned.
Reception
T-Bag is described by TV Guides Maya Schechter as "one of the creepiest characters on television" and is mentioned by Entertainment Weekly as one of "TV's best villains".
Production details
Silas Weir Mitchell, who was cast in the role of Charles "Haywire" Patoshik, originally auditioned for the role of T-Bag. Mitchell impressed the production crew enough with his performance, they created the character of Haywire for him.
References
External links
[http://www.ew.com/ew/gallery/0,,__20008040_4,00.html Criminal Minds: Robert Knepper as Prison Break'''s Theodore "T-BAG" Bagwell] at Entertainment Weekly''
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Acts%20of%20the%20New%20Zealand%20Parliament%20%281840%E2%80%931890%29
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List of Acts of the New Zealand Parliament (1840–1890)
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The first Enactment of the New Zealand parliament (General Assembly), created by the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, was the English Laws Act 1854 which established the applicability of all English laws in effect 14 January 1840, to New Zealand. The New Zealand Constitution Act 1846 was never implemented and was suspended.
This is a list of Acts of the New Zealand Parliament for the period up to and including part of the first year of the Liberal Government of New Zealand.
1840s
1841
County Courts Act
Courts of Requests Act
Customs Act Amended: 1844/46/1914/20/21/22/23/24/26/27/29/59/65/67/68/70/71/72/73/76/81/82/85/86/87/88/89/90/91/92/94/95/96
Distillation Act Amended: 1918/58/59/61/86 Repealed: 1844
Juries Act Amended: 1844/1951/57/59/60/61/62/63/66/67/68/74/75/76/79/82/85/94/2000/01
Land Registration Act Amended: 1852
Local and Personal Ordinances Act
New South Wales Act 4 Vict No 7 Repealed Act
New South Wales Laws Adopted Act
New Zealand Banking Company Act
Police Magistrates Act
Sessions Courts Act
Supreme Court Act Amended: 1846/48/66
1842
Auctioneers Act Amended: 1844/1910/15/57/64/77
Cattle Trespass Act Amended: 1844 Repealed: 1846
Churches and Chapels Act
Conveyancing Act Amended: 1844
Copyright Act Amended: 1924/67/71/85/86/89/90/96/97/99/2005
Harbours Act Amended: 1844/1908/10/12/13/14/21/22/25/33/48/52/56/57/59/61/62/63/64/65/66/67/68/69/70/71/74/75/77/80/81/83/88/89/90/93/94
Land Claims Act Amended: 1844
Licensing Act Amended: 1844/51/54/1910/14/18/20/33/48/49/52/53/55/56/57/58/59/60/61/63/74/80/81
Marriage Validation Act
Municipal Corporations Act Amended: 1902/03/06/10/13/14/15/21/23/28/38/48/50/51/53/56/57/58/59/60/61/62/63/64/66/68/69/70/71/72/74/75/76/77
New South Wales Laws Repealed Act
Postage Act
Raupo Houses Act
Summary Proceedings Act Amended: 1844/1961/63/64/67/68/69/70/73/74/75/76/78/79/80/81/82/85/86/87/89/91/92/93/94/95/96/98/99/2000/03/04/06
1844
Appropriation Act
Debentures Act
Dog Nuisance Act
German Settlers Naturalization Act
Imprisonment for Debt Act
Land Claimants Estates Act
Native Exemption Act
Native Trust Act
Property Rate Act Repealed: 1845
Supreme Court Rules Act
Union Bank of Australia Act
Unsworn Testimony Act
Plus 9 Acts amended and 1 Act repealed.
1845
Arms Importation Act
Crown Grants Act Amended: 1867/70/1955/65/72/79
English Acts Act
Fines for Assaults Act
Militia Act
Naturalization Act
New Munster Ordinances Act
Public Roads and Works Act
Supplementary Appropriation Act
Plus 1 Act repealed.
1846
Arms Act Amended: 1921/30/34/62/64/66/68/71/74/76/85/87/89/92/99/2000
Constabulary Act
Coroners Act Amended: 1908/20/30/45/54/56/59/70/76/96/2003/04
Destitute Persons Act Amended: 1915/26/30/51/53/55/63
Fees on Crown Grants Act
Lunatics Act
Native Land Purchase Act
Prisons Act Amended: 1912/19
Resident Magistrates Courts Act
Sessions of the Peace Act
Sheriffs Office Act
Weights and Measures Act Amended: 1904/22/33/68/69/71/72/76/77/80/91/99/2000/01/05
Plus 3 Acts amended and 2 Acts repealed.
1847
Debentures Security Act
Education Act Amended: 1908/10/12/13/15/19/20/21/24/26/32/36/38/47/48/49/50/52/53/54/55/57/58/59/60/61/62/63/64/65/66/67/68/69/70/71/72/74/75/76/77/78/79/81/82/83/85/86/87/89/90/91/92/93/94/96/98/99/2000/06/07
Fencing Act Amended: 1922/53/55/79
Footpaths Act
Gunpowder Act
Impounding Act Amended: 1908/63/68/80
Indemnity Act
Marriage Act Amended: 1851/1912/15/19/20/26/27/29/33/46/51/59/66/70/76/78/82/85/86/91/93/94/99/2005
Native Force Act
Paper Currency Act Amended: 1851
Registration Act (New Zealand)
Sales of Spirits to Natives Act
Savings Banks Act
Slaughter-Houses Act
Thomas Walker Nene's Annuity Act
1848
Provincial Councils Act
Plus 1 Act amended
1849
Constabulary Force Act
Country Roads Act
Crown Lands Act Amended: 1851
Crown Titles Act
Empowering Act
Entire Animal Act
Medical Practitioners Act Amended: 1924/49/51/54/57/62/64/67/70/72/73/77/78/79/80/82/83/86/87/94/99
Pensions Act Amended: 1914/24/25/32/36/37
Scab Act
Summary Ejectment Act
Town Roads and Streets Act
1850s
1851
Bank Charters Act Amended: 1853
Building and Land Societies Act Amended: 1865/69
Census Act
Debtors Writ of Arrest Act
Duties of Customs Act
Interpretation Act Amended: 2005
Land Fund Appropriation Act
Municipal Elective Franchise Act
New Zealand Company's Land Claimants Act
Plus 6 Acts amended
1853
Supreme Court Practitioners Act
1854
Dower Act
Law Practitioners Act Amended: 1913/15/20/21/29/30/35/52/53/57/61/62/63/64/65/67/68/69/70/74/75/76/81/85/87/88/91/93/94/95/99
Nelson Trust Funds Act Amended: 1856/63
Powers of Attorney Act
Provincial Waste Lands Act
Public Reserves Act Amended: 1862
Secondary Punishment Act
Waste Lands Act
Plus 2 Acts amended
1856
Auckland Hospital and Grammar School Reserves Act
Bank Paper Currency Act
Bills of Sale Registration Act Amended: 1862
Counties Act Amended: 1908/10/13/15/19/21/25/27/29/31/34/49/52/54/55/56/57/58/59/60/61/62/63/64/65/66/67/68/69/70/71/72/74/75/76/77
Customs Duties Act Amended: 1900/09
Friendly Societies Act Amended: 1911/14/15/22/48/49/53/54/57/59/61/62/63/64/68/70/72/73/75/77
Governor's Salary Act
Land Claims Settlement Act
Land Orders and Scrip Act
Local Posts Act
Magistrates Indemnity Act
Nelson Wesleyan Chapel Sale Act
New Zealand Colonial Bank of Issue Winding-Up Act
New Zealand Debenture Act
New Zealand Loan Act
New Zealand Native Reserves Act
Privileges Act
Provincial Laws Act
Public Offices Act
Religious Charitable and Educational Trusts Act
Resident Magistrates' Courts Extension of Jurisdiction Act
Scotch Law Practitioners Act
Superintendents Deputy Act
Supreme Court Procedure Act
The Provincial Councils Powers Act
Plus 6 Acts amended
1858
Absent Debtors Act
Absent Defendants Act
Appropriation Act 1858 No 1 Act
Appropriation Act 1858 No 2 Act
Auckland Improvement Act Amended: 1875
Auckland Reserves Act
Auckland Roman Catholic Endowments Sales Act
Audit Act
Australasian Creditors Act
Bankers' Draft Act
Bankers' Returns Act
Bay of Islands Settlement Act
Bishop of New Zealand's Trusts Act
Boundaries of Provinces Act
Canterbury Association Land Orders Act
Civil List Act Amended: 1915/36/54/55/57/61/64/65/70/71/72/73/75/77/83/85/87
Civil Service Superannuation Act
Corrupt Practices Prevention Act Amended: 1895
Crown Costs Act
Crown Grants Correction Act
Definition of Districts Act
Disqualification Act
District Courts Act Amended: 1979/80/81/82/83/85/86/87/88/89/91/92/94/95/96/98/99/2001/02/03/04/05/06/07
Election Petitions Act
Electoral Districts Act
English Laws Act
Execution of Criminals Act
Foreign Seamen's Act
Gaolers Act
Gold Duty Act Amended: 1909/12
Gold Fields Act
Highways and Watercourses Diversion Act
Interpretation 001 Act
Interpretation 002 Act
Justices of the Peace Act 1858 Amended: 1908/10/12/23/26/46/48/52/55/2007
Land Claims Settlement Extension Act
Land Revenue Appropriation Act
Martin's Annuity Act
Merchant Shipping Act
Native Circuit Courts Act Amended: 1862
Native Districts Regulation Act Amended: 1862
Native Schools Act
Native Territorial Rights Act
Nelson College Act Amended: 1954
Nelson College Trust Act
New Provinces Act
Ordinary Revenue Act
Pensioner Villages Sale of Reserves Act
Petty Sessions Act
Post Office Act Amended: 1960/61/62/63/64/65/66/67/68/69/70/71/72/73/74/75/77/78/80/81/82/83/85
Provincial Elections Act
Provincial Lawsuits Act
Provincial Reserved Bills Act
Public Debt Apportionment Act
Qualification of Electors Act
Registration of Electors Act
Regulation of Elections Act Amended: 1863
Resident Magistrates' Courts Act
Sheriffs Act
Special Partnerships Act
Supreme Court Judges Act
Surplus Revenues Act
The Elections Writs Act
The Law Practitioners' Act
The Province of Taranaki Act
Unstamped Instruments Act
Wool and Oil Securities Act
Plus 5 Acts amended
1860s
1860
Anderson Pipe Patent Act
Auckland Harbour Debenture Act
Auckland Waterworks Act
Barristers and Solicitors Admission Act
Foreign Seamen Act
Fraudulent Trustees Act
Half-caste Disability Removal Act
Joint Stock Companies Act Amended: 1869
Land for compensation Nelson and Marlborough Act
Land Registry Act Amended: 1861
Loan Expenditure Confirmation Act
Lyttelton and Christchurch Railway Act
Married Women's Property Protection Act
Miners' Franchise Act
Native Council Act
Naval and Military Settlers Act
Nelson and Marlborough Public Debt Apportionment Act
Nelson Rowan Catholic Endowments Sale Act
Nelson Wesleyan Schoolmaster's Land Sale Act
Official Documents Evidence Act
Patents Act 1860 Amended: 1972/76/92/94/96/99/2002
Private Bills Evidence Act
Public Domains Act
Purchas and Ninnis Flax Patent Act
Real Estate Administration Act
Remission of Penalties Act
Representation Act
Summary Proceedings Improvement Act
Taranaki Settlers' Relief Act
The Indemnity Act
Trade and Commerce Act
Wellington Hawke's Bay and Taranaki Land Regulations Act
Plus 7 Acts amended
1861
Advances to Agents Act
Arms Act Continuance Act
Auckland Immigration Certificate Act
Auckland Representation Act
Balneavis Remission Act
Bank of New South Wales Act Amended: 1951
Bank of New Zealand Act Amended: 1986/89
Canterbury and Otago Boundary Act
Canterbury and Otago Boundary Act No 2 Act
Commissioners Powers Act
Diseased Cattle Act
Dun Mountain Railway Act
Hawke's Bay Naval and Military Settlers Act
Intestate Natives Succession Act
Lost Land Orders Act
Naval and Military Settlers' Malborough Act
Official Administrators Act
Otago and Southland Public Debt Apportionment Act
Parliamentary Costs Taxation Act
Pensioners Claims Act
Picton Railway Act
Protection of certain Animals Act
Provincial Audit Act
Standing Orders for Private Bills Act
Survey Correction Act
Plus 16 Acts amended
1862
Birds Protection Act
Colonial Defence Force Act
Commencement of Acts Act
Court of Appeal Act
Crown Grants No 1 Act
Debtors and Creditors Act
Marine Boards Act
Military Supplies Customs Act
Miner's Representation Act
Native Lands Act
Native Purposes Appropriation Act
Panama Route Act
Resident Magistrates' Jurisdiction Extension Act
Steam Navigation Act
Summary Procedure on Bills Act
The Crown Grants Act No 2 1862 Act
The Delegations Continuance Act
The Sale for Non-payment for Rates Act
Trustees' Relief Act
Plus 13 Acts amended
1863
Auckland And Drury Railway Act
Bank of Otago Limited Act
Bluff Harbour and Invercargill Railway and Extension Act
Enquiry into Wrecks Act
Foreign Offenders Apprehension Act
Lands Clauses Consolidation Act
Loan Appropriation Act
Nelson College Trust Lands Act
Nelson Waste Lands Act
New Zealand Settlements Act Amended: 1865
Otago Waste Lands No 1 Act
Otago Waste Lands No 2 Act
Provincial Compulsory Land Taking Act
Provincial Councils Powers Extension Act
Southland Waste Lands Act Amended: 1867
Stewart's Island Annexation Act
Superintendents Incorporation Act
Suppression of Rebellion Act
Tikokino Reserve Act
Vaccination Act
Wellington and Hawke's Bay Naval and Military Settlers Act
Wellington Patent Slip Act
Plus 14 Acts amended and 1 Act repealed.
1864
Albert Hall Act
Bank of Auckland Act
Canterbury Great Northern Railway Act
Canterbury Great Southern Railway Act
Canterbury Waste Lands Act
Coupons Act
Dunedin Water Works Act
New Customs Duties Act
Panama Mail Service Act
Public Works Lands Act
The Arms Act Continuance Act
The Fourth Session of the Third Parliament of New Zealand Act
The Rate of Interest Act
The Registration of Deeds Validation Act Otago 1864 Act
The Wild Birds' Protection Act
Plus 6 Acts amended
1865
Bailors of Sheep and Cattle Protection Act
British Companies Act
Comptroller's Act
Crown Lands Nelson Leasing Act
Duck's Nest Dam Act
Electric Telegraph Act
Hawke's Bay Military and Colonial Defence Corps Settlement Act
Injuries by Dogs Act
Intestate Estates Act Amended: 1870
Leases and Sales of Settled Estates Act
Lincoln Road Mill Dam Act
Loan Allocation Act
Lost Licenses and Leases Act
Maori Funds Investment Act
Master and Apprentice Act Amended: 1920/24
Mining Companies Limited Liability Act
Native Commission Act
Native Rights Act
New Plymouth Exchanges Commission Act Amended: 1866
Otago Municipal Corporations Empowering Act
Otago Public Offices Site Trusts Act
Outlying Districts Police Act
Picton and Blenheim Railway Act
Post Office Savings Banks Act Amended: 1869
Protection of Certain Animals Act
Railway Offences Act
Southland Provincial Debt Act
The Armitage Pension Act
The Commencement of Acts Act
The Howard's Pension Act
The Legislative Council Quorum Act
The Mayne Pension Act
The New Provinces Act
The Nixon Pension Act
The Prisoners' Removal Act
The Private Estates Bills Act
The Provincial Constabulary Act
The Provincial Corporations Act
The Provincial Lawsuits Act Declaratory Act
The Provisional Jury List Act
The Taranaki Naval and Military Settlers' Act
The Volunteers' Land Act
The West Coast Gold Field Provincial Representation Act
Volunteer Force Act
Wellington Hospital Reserves Act
Wellington Supreme Court House Site Act
Plus 17 Acts amended
1866
Adulteration of Food Act
Aliens Act Amended: 1957/65/67
Attorney-General's Act
Auckland Waste Lands Act Amended: 1862/63
Carriers Act Amended: 1962
Civil Service Act Amended: 1861/1908
Criminal Law Procedure Act
Crown Debts Act
Crown Lands Sales Extortion Prevention Act
Customs Tariff Act
District Courts Jurisdiction Extension Act
Duty on Bonded Warehouses Act
East Coast Land Titles Investigation Act
Friendly Natives' Contracts Confirmation Act
Indictable Offences Trials Act
Innkeepers' Liability Act
Justices Protection Act
Loan Expenditure Indemnity Act
Marine Act
Military Pensions Act Amended: 1903
Nelson Cobden and Westport Railway Land Act
Offences Against the Person Act
Otago Southern Trunk Railway Act Amended: 1867
Otago Waste Lands Act
Oyster Fisheries Act
Presbyterian Church of Otago Lands Act
Sale of Poisons Act Amended: 1900
Stamp Duties Act Amended: 1908/09/10/13/24/25/26/27/31/52/53/55/56/57/58/60/61/63/64/65/66/67/68
The Affirmations in lieu of Oaths in Criminal Proceedings Act
The Appropriation Act
The Gold Fields Members Qualification Act
The Loan Appropriation Act
The Newcastle Crown Grants Validation Act
The Privileges Act
The Superintendents' Election Disallowance Signification Act
The Supreme Court Judges Act
The Treasury Bills Act
The Williams Compensation Act
Trade Marks Act Amended: 1972/76/85/87/90/94/96/99/2003/05
Treasury Bills Regulation Act
Vagrant Act
Wellington Land Purchase Loan Sanction Act
Wellington Loan Sanction Act
Plus 22 Acts amended and 2 Acts repealed.
1867
Accessories Act
Appeals from Justices Act
Armed Constabulary Act
Auckland and Drury Railway Act
Auckland and Onehunga Native Hostelries Act
Bankruptcy Act Amended: 1927/55/56/60
Bills of Sale Act
British-Australasian Mail Services Act
Coinage Offences Act
Confiscated Lands Act
County of Westland Act Amended: 1869
Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Act Amended: 1912/13/19/20/21/30/53/58
Execution of Judgments against Real Estate Act
Forgery Act
Governor's Delegations Act
Introduction of Convicts Prevention Act
John Jones Land Claims Settlement Act
Land Claims Arbitration Act
Larceny Act
Malicious Injuries to Property Act
Maori Real Estate Management Act
Maori Representation Act
Marlborough Waste Lands Act
Naval and Victualling Stores Act
Neglected and Criminal Children Act
New Zealand Institute Act Amended: 1920/30
Offences against the Person Act
Old Metal and Marine Store Dealers Act
Presbyterian Church Land Sale Act
Private Estates Bills Act
Protection of Animals Act
Provident and Industrial Societies Act
Public Buildings Reserves Act
Public Debts Act
Public Offenders Disqualification Act
Public Revenues Act Amended: 1912/13/14/15/52/56/57/58/60/62/63/64/65/66/67/68/69/70/71/72/73/74/75/76
Public Stores Act
Salmon and Trout Act
Supplementary Electoral Rolls Revision Act
Surplus Revenue Adjustment Act
Taranaki Naval and Military Settlers Act
Tauranga District Lands Act
The Auckland Waste Lands Act
The Bartley Pension Act
The Canterbury Public Reserves Act
The Commissioners Powers Act
The Consolidated Loan Act
The Diseased Sheep Fines Appropriation Act
The Governor's Salary Act
The Hokitika Greymouth and Okarita Town Lands Act
The Imprest Supply Act
The Legislative Officers Salaries Act
The Otago Gold Fields Judicial Officers Act
The Provincial Acts Validation Act
The Resident Magistrates' Act
Timaru and Gladstone Board of Works Act Amended: 1870
Wairarapa Racecourse Exchange Act
Waste Lands Boards Appeal Act
Westland Representation Act Amended: 1868
Plus 23 Acts amended and 2 Acts repealed.
1868
Bishop of New Zealand Trusts Act
Canterbury and Westland Public Debt Apportionment Act
Canterbury Rivers Act
Colonial Forces Courts-Martial Act
Companies Act Amended: 1902/10/19/20/21/22/23/28/52/59/60/63/64/65/66/67/69/70/71/73/75/76/77/78/80/81/82/83/85/86/87/88/89/90/93/98/99/2004/06/07
Confiscated Land Revenue Appropriation Act
Consolidated Loan Provincial Charges Act
Courts of Law Trust Moneys Act
Deeds Registration Act Amended: 1863
Distress and Replevin Act Amended: 1913/36/50/67/2004
East Coast Act
Electric Telegraph Reserves Release Act
Escheat Act
Gold Mining Claims Drainage Act
Government House Site Act
Green and Spencer Land Claims Act
Hawke's Bay and Marlborough Rivers Act
Immigration Act Amended: 1965/66/68/69/76/77/78/79/80/88/89/90/91/92/93/96/99/2002/03/04/06
Mortgages of Stock Registration Act
Nelson and Cobden Railway Act
Ngaitahu Reference Validation Act
Otago Education Reserves Abandonment Act
Otago Surveys Correction Act
Printers and Newspapers Registration Act
Provincial Acts Validation Act Continuance Act
Provincial Appropriations Validation Act
Public Debts Sinking Funds Act
Public Domains Acts Extension Act
Resident Magistrates Act
Russell Military Grant Act
The Bridges and Ferries Act
The Conveyancing Charges Act
The Interest on Money Act
The Marlborough Reserve Leasing Act
The Mete Kingi Paetahi Election Act
The Otago Road Boards Endowment Act
The Pawnbrokers Act
The Public Houses Act
The Treason-Felony Act
The Trigonometrical Stations and Survey Marks Act
Treasury Bills Act
University Endowment Act
Wellington and Hawke's Bay Public Debt Apportionment Act
Williamson Compensation Act
Plus 20 Acts amended
1869
Acclimatization Society of Southland Grant Act
Auckland Gold Fields Proclamations Validation Act
Bailments of Stock and Chattels Registration Act
Botanic Garden Act
Canterbury Temporary Mining Reserves Act
Commissioners of Crown Lands Act
Consolidated Loan Application Act
Contagious Diseases Act
Crown Bonds and Securities Act
Dangerous Goods Act Amended: 1963/64/67/75/78/79/83/89
Delivery of Goods and Lien for Freight Act
Disturbed Districts Act
Gaolers and Prisoners Act
Gold Fields Officers' Salaries Act
Government Annuities Act 1869
Greymouth Quays Act
Medical Practitioners' Registration Act
Merchant Shipping Acts Adoption Act
Military Contribution Act
New Zealand Commissioners Act
New Zealand Cross Endowment Act
New Zealand Law Society's Act
Oamaru Town Reserves Management Act
Otago Hundreds Regulation Act
Otago Settlements Act
Provincial Acts Validation Continuance Act
Public Libraries Act
Public Payments without Probate Act
Railways Act
Restriction on Marine Re-assurance Removal Act
Shortland Beach Act
The Hugo Max Bucholz Naturalization Act
The Nelson Marriages Act
The Poverty Bay Grants Act
The Provincial Councils Legislation Appeal Act
The Wellington and Hawke's Bay Public Debt Apportionment Acts Exte Act
Trustees' Powers Delegation Act
Walsh and Others Pension Act
Whiteley Pension Act
Plus 26 Acts amended
1870s
1870
Agricultural Produce Lien Act
Christchurch Gas Act Amended: 1971
Colonial Reciprocity Act
Deceased Persons Estates Act
Defence and other Purposes Loan Act
Deputy Superintendent of Wellington Act
District Courts Criminal Jurisdiction Extension Act
Fire Inspectors Act
Gisborne Land Act
Gold Duties Act
Government Officers Guarantee Act
Government Summary Prosecutions Act
Green Land Claims Settlement Act
Harbour Boards Act
Hawke's Bay Crown Lands Sale Act
Hawke's Bay Renewal of Licenses Act
Immigration and Public Works Act
Immigration and Public Works Loan Act
Kaiapoi Native Industrial School Grant Act
Land Transfer Act Amended: 1902/13/25/39/50/58/59/60/61/63/66/72/82/85/86/91/93/94/95/97/2005
Limited Liability Companies Winding-up Act
Marlborough Sale of Reserves Act
Merchant Ships Officers Examination Act
Meredith and Others Pension Act
Mohaka and Waikare District Act
Native Lands Frauds Prevention Act
New Zealand and Australian Submarine Telegraph Act
New Zealand Government Insurance and Annuities Act
New Zealand University Act Amended: 1912/14/15/19/23/26/28/29/30/50/53/54/56/57/58/59/60
Otago and Southland Union Act
Outlying Districts Sale of Spirits Act
Partition Act
Payments to Provinces Act
Punishment of High Treason Act
Qualifications of Electors Act
Resident Magistrates Evidence Act
Richmond Land Sales Act
Sale for Non-Payment of Rates Act
Sales by Mortgagees Act
South Sea Islands Drawbacks Act
Temporary Loan Act
The Aliens Act
The Canterbury Gauge Act
The Johnston Land Grant Act
The Provincial Reserved Bills Act
The Treasury Bills Extended Currency Act
The Wellington and Hawke's Bay Public Debt Apportionment Act Exten Act
Turner's Land Grant Act
Unincorporated Boards Suits Act
Vexatious Indictments Act
Wairarapa Town Lands Management Act
Wairau Valley Road Act
Wellington Gas Company Act
Wellington Waste Lands Act Amended: 1865
Westland Waste Lands Act
Plus 27 Acts amended
1871
Appeals from Provincial Rating Act
Auckland Burial-Ground Act
Auckland Gas Company Act Amended: 1963/68/69
Auckland Harbour Docks Act
Auckland Military Reserves Act
Auckland Mineral Leases Act
Bakers and Millers Act
Bishops in New Zealand Trusts Act
Branigan Allowance Act
Carrington Land Grant Act
Charitable Funds Appropriation Act
Church Lands Building Leases Act
City of Christchurch Loan Act
City of Dunedin Borrowing Act
Coasting Trade Regulation Act
Contractors Debts Act
Convicts Forfeitures Act
Crown Redress Act
Dunedin and Port Chalmers Railway Act
East Coast District Land Titles Validation Act
Forest Trees Planting Encouragement Act
Gold Mines Drainage Act
Gold Mining Districts Act
Highway Boards Act
Invercargill Public Gardens Reserves Alienation Act
Kukutai Grant Validation Act
Lundon and Whitaker Claims Act
Masterton and Greytown Lands Management Act
Native Districts Road Boards Act
Naturalization Act 1870 Fees Act
Nelson City Gas Act
Nelson City Loan Act
Otago Supreme Court Offices Act
Prisoners Maintenance Expenses Act
Sharebrokers Act Amended: 1952/57/67/81/88/94/96
Taranaki Education Reserves Act
The Juries Act
The Otago Settlements Act
Wellington City Reserves Act
Wellington Debts Act
Wellington Education Reserves Act
Wellington Reclaimed Land Act
Wellington Special Settlements Act
Wellington Waterworks Act
Plus 27 Acts amended
1872
Auckland Mechanics Institute Site Sale Act
Auckland Temperance Hall Site Sale Act
Borough of Wanganui Borrowing Act
Canterbury Public Domains Act
Canterbury Ratepayers' Rolls Revision Act
Church of England Lands Buildings Lease Act
Coromandal Tunnel Company Act
Drawbacks Act
Dunedin Gas and Water Works Loan Act
Government Contractors Arbitration Act
Greymouth Harbour Works Advance Validation Act
Hawke's Bay Native Lands Alienation Commission Act
Hawke's Bay Special Settlements Act
Imprest Supply Act
Limited Liability Joint Stock Companies Dissolution Act
Lyttelton Harbour Works Loan Act
Miners' Rights Extension Act
Mining Companies Act
Municipal Corporations Waterworks Act
Newmarket Reserve Disposal Act
North Dunedin Cemetery Act
North Otago District Public Works Loan Act
Oamaru Dock Trust Land Act
Otago Dock Trust Debt Act
Public Health Act Amended: 1901/02/03/04/10/15/18/19
Public Trust Office Act Amended: 1905/07/12/13/17/19/21/48/51/56/67/68/71/72/75/77/78/82/83/86/90/94
Quartz-Crushing Machines Regulation and Inspection Act
Schafer, McGuire, and Others Pension Act
Superintendents of Marlborough Election Act
Taranaki New Zealand Company's Land Claims Act
Telegraph Service of Notices Act
The Auckland Waterworks Act
The Clerk of Parliaments Act
The Gold Duties Act
The Highway Boards Empowering Act
The Nelson Special Settlements Act
The Payments to Provinces Act
The Public Revenues Act
The Tramways Act 1872 Amended: 1910/11/13/15/20/30/59/69/73/76/78/79/88
Wanganui Bridge and Wharf Act
Wanganui Hospital Act
Wardens' Courts Proceedings Validation Act
Wellington College Act
Plus 25 Acts amended
1873
Assaults on Constables Act
Auckland Supreme Court Site Act
Bank Holidays Act
Broughton Land Grant Act
Canterbury Public Library Act
Christchurch Cathedral Square Act
Employment of Females Act
General Purposes Loan Act
Governor's Salary and Allowances Act
Green Island Branch Railway Act
Harata Patene Claim Rehearing Act
Heni Tareha Matangi Grant Validation Act
Imbecile Passengers Act
Immigrants Land Act
Life Assurance Companies Act
Ministerial Residence Lease and Lowry Bay Sale Act
Native Grantees Act
Native Land Act Amended: 1912/13/14/15/16/17/18/19/20/21/22/23/24/25/26/27/28/29/30/32/36
Native Land Duties Act
Native Reserves Act Amended: 1858/62
Neglected Children's Act
New Zealand Extradition Act
Otago Hundreds Proclamations Validation Act
Promissory Oaths Act
Province of Westland Act
Queenstown Reserves Act
Railways Regulation and Inspection Act
Rangitikei-Manawatu Crown Grants Act
Resumption of Land for Mining Purposes Act
Stewart Island Grants Act Amended: 1876
Superintendents of Hawke's Bay Election Act
Telegraph Cables Subsidy Agreement Ratification Act
Thames Gas Company's Act
The Port Chalmers Waterworks Act
The Superintendent of Taranaki Empowering Act
Timber Floating Act
Township of Geraldine Act
Wanganui River Foreshore Grant Act
Washdyke and Pleasant Point Railway Act
Wellington College Loan Act
Wellington College Vote in Aid Act
Wellington Drainage and Sewerage Works Loan Act
Wellington Harbour Reserves Mortgage Release Act
Westland Loan Act
Plus 24 Acts amended
1874
Auckland Harbour Act
Borough of Thames Tramways Act
Burial-Ground Closing Act
Canterbury Marriages Act
Canterbury Water Supply Act
City of Christchurch Drainage Debentures Act
City of Dunedin Gasworks Act
Clutha River Trust Reserves Act
Colonial Bank of New Zealand Act
Constitution of the Westport Borough Proceedings Validation Act
Cromwell Waterworks Act
Dunedin Waterworks Act
Excise Duties Act
Government Insurance and Annuities Act
Harbour Works Act
Hokitika Mayors Act
Imprisonment for Debt Abolition Act
Inspection of Machinery Act Amended: 1894/1908/10/14/27/31
Invercargill Gas Loan Act
Lyttelton Gas Act
Municipal Reserves Act
Napier Harbour Board Act Amended: 1887/89/99/1912
Naval Training Schools Act
New Plymouth Exchanges Completion Act
New Zealand Forests Act
Oamaru Harbour Board Land Act
Oamaru Hospital Reserves Act
Otago Reserves Act
Otago Waste Lands Administration Act
Outlying Districts Sale of Spirits Act 1870 Orders in Council Validation Act
Poverty Bay Lands Titles Act
Provincial Fencing Laws Empowering Act
Provincial Public Works Advances Act
Real Estate Descent Act
Regulation of Mines Act
Taimaro and Waimahana Grants Act
Taranaki Iron Smelting Works Lands Act
Taranaki Waste Lands Act
The David Lewis Retiring Allowance Act
The New Plymouth Harbour Board Endowment Act
The Otago Provincial Public Works Advances Act
The Wilson Gray Pension Act
Wanganui Mayors Act
Wellington Hospital Loan Act
Wellington Land Payments Act
Wellington Mayors Act
Wellington Waterworks Loan Act
Whakataki Grants Act
Plus 29 Acts amended
1875
Abolition of Provinces Act
Anatomy Act
Anne Hood Grant Act
Auckland City Endowments and Reserves Act Amended: 2001
Auckland Harbour Foreshore Grant Act
Auckland Institute Act
Campbelltown Athenaeum Act
Christchurch District Drainage Act Amended: 1911/14/20/22/23/24/26/27/28/31/32/35/44/48/54/57/60/66/67/69/70/71/75/79/85
Chubbin Land Purchase Act
Clutha River Conservators Board Act
Clyde Waterworks Empowering Act
Commissioners of the Supreme Court Act
Davides Succession Act
Dunedin Corporation Borrowing Powers Extension and Debentures Act
Dunedin Waterworks Extension Act Repealed: 1978
Fraudulent Debtors Act
Government Apprentices Act
Greytown and Masterton Public Park and Cemetery Reserve Act
Immigration and Public Works Appropriation Act
Immigration Expenditure Indemnity Act
Invercargill Municipal Council Empowering and Waterworks Loan Act
Invercargill Public Offices Site Act
Kaitangata Railway and Coal Company Limited Empowering Act
Lodgers Franchise Act
Martin Grant Act
Moeraki Harbour Board Act
Napier Gas Company Act Amended: 1936
Napier Municipal Council Empowering and Waterworks Loan Act
Napier Swamp Nuisance Act
New River Harbour Board Land Act
New Zealand Presbyterian Church Act
New Zealand University Reserves Act
Oamaru Gasworks Act
Oamaru Town Hall and Gasworks Sites Recreation Reserves Act
Oamaru Waterworks Act
Onehunga Reserves Act
Otago Harbour Board Empowering Act
Otago University Site Exchange Act
Outram Electric Telegraph Station Reserve Act
Palmerston Waterworks Act
Plans of Towns Regulation Act
Presbyterian Church of Otago Corporation Act
Provincial Appropriations Extension Act
Public Libraries Powers Act
Queenstown Waterworks Act
Railway Companies Act
Registration of Births and Deaths Act Amended: 1892
Registration of Mining Companies Validation Act
Riddell Grant Act
Stamp Act
Stamp Fee Act
The Kakanui Harbour Board Act
The New Zealand Presbyterian Church Act
The Wellington Reclaimed Land Act
Timaru Municipal Council Waterworks Loan Act
University of Otago Site Act
Wellington Athenaeum and Mechanics Institute Incorporation Act
Wellington Rivers Act
Wellington Toll Gates Act
Westport Municipal Reserve Act
Plus 32 Acts amended
1876
Animals Importation Prohibition Act
Auckland Beach Road Grants Act
Auckland Public Buildings Act
Blueskin Athenaeum Reserve Act
Blueskin Recreation Reserve Act
Bluff Harbour Board Act
Building Societies Act Amended: 1856/1951/55/70/78/80/82/83/87/89/93/2004/07
Canterbury Educational Reserves Sale and Leasing Act
Canterbury New Brighton Bridge Act
Castlepoint Harbour Board Act
City of Wellington Loans Consolidation Act
Cromwell Racecourse Reserve Act
Diseased Sheep Act
Douglas Special Settlement Act
Dunedin Drill-shed Reserve Act
Dunedin Reserves Exchange Act
Dunedin Wharves and Quays Reserves Act
Education Boards Act
Ellesmere and Forsyth Reclamation and Akaroa Railway Trust Act
Executive Councillors Indemnity Act
Financial Arrangements Act
Foxton Harbour Board Act Amended: 1917
Hawke's Bay Rivers Act Amended: 1912/17/20/30/32/33/34/36
Hokitika Harbour Board Act
Intestate Native Succession Act
Lawrence Athenaeum and Mining Institute Reserve Act
Lawrence Recreation Reserve Act
Lyttelton Harbour Board Act
Lyttelton Public Reserves Vesting Act
Milton Athenaeum Reserve Act
Milton Municipality Extension Act
Moa Flat School Reserve Act
Napier Athenaeum and Mechanics' Institute Incorporation Act
Napier Borough Endowments Act Amended: 1999
Napier Hospital Site Act
Naseby Waterworks Act
Oamaru Harbour Board Act
Ohinemuri Gold Field Agricultural Leases Validation Act
Otago and Wellington Tolls Act
Otago Harbour Board Act
Otago Presbyterian Church Conveyance Validation Act
Otepopo Athenaeum and Public Library Reserve Act
Patea Harbour Board Act
Port Molyneux Reserves Leasing Act
Public Works Act Amended: 1901/04/05/08/09/10/11/13/14/23/24/25/27/28/35/47/48/52/53/54/55/56/58/60/61/62/63/64/65/67/70/71/72/73/74/75/76/77/82/83/87/88/91
Queenstown Commonage Reserve Management Act
Rabbit Nuisance Act Amended: 1918/20/21/35/47/49/52/53
Rating Act Amended: 1910/11/13/15/22/24/35/50/54/57/60/62/65/69/70/72/73/74/76/77/78/80/81
Regulation of Local Elections Act
Renwick Lease and Conveyance Act
Roman Catholic Lands Act
Roxburgh Reserves Act
South Dunedin and St Kilda Municipalities Validation Act
Taranaki Botanic Garden Act
Thames Harbour Board Act
Thames Water Supply Act
The Imprest Supply Act No 2 1876 Act
The Maori Representation Acts Continuance Act
Timaru Gas Act
Timaru Harbour Board Act Amended: 1906
Waimakariri Harbour Board Act
Waitahuna Athenaeum Act
Waitara Harbour Board Act
Waiuku Church of England Site Crown Grant Act
Waiuku Native Grants Act
Wanganui Harbour and River Conservators Board Act
Warehoused Goods Act
Waste Lands Administration Act
Wellington Corporate Land Act
Wellington Hospital and College Reserves Exchange Act
Wellington Reserves Act
Plus 14 Acts amended
1877
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies Act Amended: 1903/12/20/33/61/73/77/79/93
Akaroa Public Library Site Act
Auckland College and Grammar School Act
Auckland Highway Districts Validation Act
Balculutha Athenaeum Act
Bankers' Books Evidence Act
Bluff Harbour Endowment and Borrowing Act
Borough of New Plymouth Reserves Act
Cemeteries Management Act
Christchurch City Reserves Act Amended: 1929/32
Church Trust Property at Little River Exchange Act
City of Dunedin Loans Consolidation Act
Clyde Public Reserves Grant Act
Cromwell Athenaeum Reserves Act
Crown Lands Sale Act
District Railways Act Amended: 1920/88
Domicile Act
Dunedin Gaol Street Act
Dunedin Gas and Waterworks Act
Dunedin School Reserve Act
Dunedin Town Hall Site Act
Education Reserves Act Amended: 1910/11/13/14/15/24/27/31/34/48
Fine Arts Copyright Act
Fish Protection Act
Government Native Land Purchases Act
Greenwood Pension Act
Havelock Athenaeum and Mechanics' Institute Incorporation Act
Havelock Commonage Act
Himatangi Crown Grants Act
Hokanui Education Reserve Act
Hokitika Gas Company Act
Hutt County Offices Site Act
Industrial and Provident Societies Act Amended: 1919/23/52/57/64/65/67/73/77/79/81/83/93/94/2003/07
Jackson's Bay Road District Act
Kaiapoi Cemetery Act
Kaiapoi Native Reserves Act
Land Act 1877 Amended: 1950/51/52/53/54/56/58/59/60/61/62/63/64/65/67/68/70/71/72/74/75/77/79/81/82/84/98
Lawrence Athenaeum and Mining Institute Act
Lawrence Municipal Waterworks Act
Lawrence Reserves Act
Lyttelton and Heathcote Recreation Ground Act
Lyttelton Harbour Board Land Act
Lyttelton Harbour Works Compensation Act
Lyttelton Public Domain Act
Manawatu Land Orders Act
Mataura Reserve Act
Middle Island Half-Caste Crown Grants Act
Mines Act
Mount Cook Road District Act
Napier Swamp Nuisance Act Continuance Act
Nelson Gas and Waterworks Sale Act
New River Harbour Management Act
New Zealand Consolidated Stock Act
Oamaru Athenaeum and Mechanics' Institute Reserves Act
Onehunga Endowments Act
Otago Boys' and Girls High Schools Act
Otago Museum Act
Peninsula County Libraries Act
Ponsonby Highway District Act
Port Chalmers Compensation Act
Port Chalmers Mechanics' Institute Incorporation and Reserves Act
Provincial Laws Evidence Act
Public Libraries Subsidies Act
Public Reserves Sale Act
Queenstown Athenaeum Act
Sale of Food and Drugs Act Amended: 1915/24
Shipping and Seamen Act Amended: 1909/10/11/12/13/22/24/25/29/36/46/48/50/54/56/57/59/61/62/63/64/65/66/67/68/69/70/71/72/75/76/77/82/85/87/88/90/91
Slaughterhouses Act
Southland Agricultural and Pastoral Association Reserve Act
Southland Boys' and Girls' High Schools Act Amended: 1951/71
Special Contracts Confirmation Act
Tapanui Agricultural and Pastoral Exhibition Reserve Act
Taranaki County Reserves Act
Timaru and Gladstone Board of Works Property Vesting Act
Timaru Mechanics' Institute Act
Tokomairiro Farmers' Club Reserve Act
Volunteers and Others Lands Act
Waikato Hospital Reserves Exchange Act
Waikouaiti Athenaeum Land Act
Waiwera School Glebe Sale Act
Wakapuaka Telegraph Station Site Act
Wanganui Gas Company Act
Wanganui Harbour Endowment and Borrowing Act
Waste Lands Boards Continuance Act
West Harbour Mayoralty Election Validation Act
Westland and Nelson Coal Fields Administration Act Amended: 1881
Whangarei Port Act
Wyndham Recreation Reserve Act Amended: 1915/23
Plus 41 Acts amended
1878
Administration Act Amended: 1911/35/44/51/57/58/60/64/65/67/70/73/75/79/81/82/85/87/93/94/98/2001/03/05
Ashburton High School Act
Auckland Girls' High School Act
Bluff Harbour Endowment Act
Borough of Christchurch Reserves Act
Christchurch Boys High School Act
Christchurch Racecourse Reserve Act
Cruelty to Animals Act
District Law Societies Act
Foxton Reserves Act
Greymouth Racecourse Reserve Act
Hamilton Volunteer Hall Site Act
Hokitika Harbour Board Endowment Act
Inch Clutha Act
Incorporation of Campbelltown Act
Invercargill Water Works Loan Act
Land Tax Act Amended: 1977/78/81/82/83/85/86/88/89
Lyttelton Waterworks Transfer Act Amended: 1979
Malvern Water-race Transfer Act
Milford Harbour Board Act
Milton Athenaeum Endowment Act
Mount Cook Reserve Sale Act
Mount Ida Water-race Trust Act
Native Licensing Act
Nelson Harbour Board Act Amended: 1901/02
New Plymouth High School Act Amended: 1966/70
New River Harbour Endowment and Borrowing Act
Newmarket Reserve Act
Norsewood Mechanics' Institute Site Act
North Otago Benevolent Society Act
Oamaru Athenaeum and Mechanics' Institute Act
Oamaru Market Reserve Act
Ormond Military Grants Act
Otago and Southland Education Reserves Leasing Act
Otago School Commissioners Empowering Act
Otago University Act
Parnell Reserve Act
Patea Harbour Act Amended: 1919
Patumahoe Hall Site Act
Railways Construction Act
Repeals Act
Reprint of Statutes Act
Riverton Harbour Endowment and Borrowing Act
Savings Bank Profits Act
Seals Fisheries Protection Act
Sheep Act
Special Powers and Contracts Act
Taranaki County Council Loan Act
Temporary Powers Act
Thames Boys' and Girls' High School Act Amended: 1960/63
The Catlin's River Cemetery Act
Timaru Harbour Board Endowment Act
Timaru High School Act Amended: 1958
Timaru Post and Telegraph Offices Site Sale Act
Trade Union Act
Waikato Crown Lands Sale Act
Wairoa Harbour Board Act
Waitaki High School Act Amended: 1954/63
Wanganui High School Act
Wellington City Boundaries Act
Wellington College Reserves Confirmation Act
Wellington Local Boards Empowering Act
Whakatane Grants Validation Act
Whangarei High School Act Amended: 1959/66
Wyndham Cemetery Act
Plus 30 Acts amended
1879
Alexandra Corporation Reserve Act
Ashburton County Council Waterworks Act
Auckland Free Public Library Aid Act
Auckland Harbour Board Act
Auckland Improvement Commissioners' Transfer of Powers Act
Awatere Shearing Reserve Act
Christchurch Drill-shed Act
City of Auckland Loans Consolidation Act
Confiscated Lands Inquiry and Maori Prisoners' Trials Act
District Courts Proceedings Validation Act
Elections Validation Act
Intercolonial Probate Act
Kaitangata and Wangaloa Athenaeums Reserves Act
Kumara Education Reserve Act
Maori Prisoners' Trials Act
Marlborough River Districts Union Act
New River Pilot Station Reserve Act
Onehunga Water Reserves Act
Onewhero Grant Empowering Act
Oreti Bridge and Ferry Reserves Act
Otago University Reserve Leasing Act
Property Assessment Act
Property Tax Act
Queenstown Racecourse Reserve Act
Revision of Statutes Act
Riverton Drill-shed Reserve Management Act
Sites for Working-men's Clubs Act
The Bluff Harbour Foreshore Endowment Act
The Imbecile Passengers Act Extension Act
The Land-Tax Collection Act
The Oamaru Harbour Board Act
The Palmerston North Reserves Act
The Timaru Harbour Board Empowering Act
The Triennial Parliaments Act
Timaru Waterworks Act
Tobacco Act Amended: 1910
Wairarapa Racecourse Act
Waitara Harbour Board Land and Borrowing Act
Waiuku Recreation Reserve Act
Wanganui Bridge Debentures Act
Wellington Harbour Board Act
Wellington Provincial District Highway Boards Act
West Clive Public Hall Site Act
Plus 25 Acts amended and 1 Act repealed.
1880s
1880
Adulteration Prevention Act
Animals Protection Act Amended: 1903/10/20/62/64/71/78/83/87/93
Banks and Bankers Act
Beer Duty Act Amended: 1913
Bills of Exchange Procedure Act
Bluff Harbour Foreshore Leasing Act
Brands and Branding Act
Caversham Boroughs Incorporation Act
Chattel Securities Act
Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act Amended: 1950/56/64/2005
Deceased Wife's Sister Marriage Act
Dentists Act Amended: 1910/11/21/26
Diseased Cattle Proclamations Validations Act
Dog Registration Act
Execution against Real Estate Act
High School Reserves Act
Hokitika Harbour Board Loan Act
Invercargill Drill-Shed Site Act
Jackson's Bay Settlement Act
Lodgers' Goods Protection Act
Maori Prisoners Act
Maori Prisoners Detention Act
Mercantile Law Act Amended: 1922/94
Native Land Court Act
Native Schools Sites Act
Otago Road Rates Validity Act
Permanent Officers' Salaries Act
Pharmacy Act Amended: 1912/22/54/57/59/62/65/68/73/75/77/79/82/85/94/99
Proclamations Validation Act
Sydenham Borough Council Empowering Act
Taonui-Ahuaturanga Land Act
Thames Water Supply Transfer Act
Waikato Confiscated Lands Act
Wanganui Harbour and River Conservators Board Grant Act
Wellington Harbour Board and Corporation Land Act
Plus 21 Acts amended
1881
Adoption of Children Act
Akaroa High School Act
Auckland Reserves Exchange and Change of trust Act
Chatham Islands Act
Chinese Immigrants Act Amended: 1907
Crown Suits Act Amended: 1910
Customs and Excise Duties Act
Deceased Persons' Estate Duties Act
Drainage Act
Employment of Females and Others Act
Gaming and Lotteries Act Amended: 1979/80/81/82/83/87/88/89/91/92/94/96/2000
Geraldine Race-course Reserve Act
Hororata Water-race Act
Invercargill Gasworks Site Act
Native Succession Act
Otago University Reserves Vesting Act
Port Chalmers Cemetery Act
Port Chalmers Dock Trust Act
Port Chalmers Drill-Shed Act
Property-Tax Act
Railways Authorization Act
Railways Construction and Land Act Amended: 1913
Rangiora High School Act Amended: 1960/63
Roxburgh Recreation-ground Management Act
Thermal-Springs Districts Act
Timaru Harbour Board Loan Act Amended: 1937
Timaru Water-Race Reserve Act
Town Districts Act
Volunteer Act
Waimakariri Harbour Board Loan Act
Waimate and Temuka Public Schools Sites Act
Waimate Race-course Reserve Act
Waitara Harbour Board Loan Act
Wellington Queen's Wharf and Store Sales Act
West Coast Settlement Reserves Act Amended: 1913/14/15/23/48
Plus 27 Acts amended
1882
Amnesty Act
Ashburton County Council Empowering Act
Ashburton Racecourse Reserve Act
Auckland Harbour Board Empowering Act Amended: 1973
Auckland Museum Endowment Act
Auckland Railway-station Act
Auckland University College Act Amended: 1912/23/47
Bluff Harbour Foreshore Reclamation Act
Borough of Hamilton Boundaries Act
Cemeteries Act Amended: 1912/22/26/50/53/59
Criminal Law Act
Crown and Native Lands Rating Act
Customs Duties Consolidation Act
Customs Laws Consolidation Act
Dunedin Southern Market Reserve Leasing Act
Education Districts Act
Employers' Liability Act
Explosives Act Amended: 1958/62/73/75/78/83/89/2000
Gas Companies' and Consumers' Liability Act
Gisborne Harbour Board Act Amended: 1903/20
Industrial Schools Act Amended: 1909
Mining Companies Registration Validation Act
Napier High School Act Amended: 1916/60
Native Land Division Act
New Zealand Colonial Inscribed Stock Loan Act
North Island Main Trunk Railway Loan Act
North Timaru Cemetery Sale Act
Oamaru Harbour Board Loan Act
Ohoka and Eyreton Domain Board Empowering Act
Orakei Native Reserve Act
Otago Harbour Board Further Empowering Act
Patea Harbour Land Act
Portobello Road Board Enabling Act
Private and Local Bills Costs Act
Private Tramways Act Amended: 1891
Protection of Telegrams Act
Rangiora Domain Board Empowering Act
Rangipo-Murimotu Agreement Validation Act
Reserves and Endowments in Mining Districts Act
Rhodes Estate Duty Act
Road Boards Act Amended: 1914/21
Roads and Bridges Construction Act
Small Birds Nuisance Act
Te Aroha Township Act
Tea Examination Act
Thorndon Reclamation Act
Trustees, Executors and Agency Company Act
West Coast Peace Preservation Act
Plus 34 Acts amended
1883
Auckland Hospital Reserves Act
Bills of Exchange Act Amended: 1963/71/79/95/2002
Caversham, South Dunedin and St Kilda Streets Improvement Act
Charitable Gifts Duties Exemption Act
City of Auckland Additional Loan Act
Confederation and Annexation Act
Criminals Executions Act
Fugitive Offenders Jurisdiction Act
Gisborne Courts Proceedings Validation Act
Greymouth High School Act
Guardian, Trust, and Executors Company Act Amended: 1911
Hokitika High School Act
Industrial Societies Act Amended: 1926/63/87
Inspection of Machinery Extension Act
Invercargill Reserves Exchange Act
Kawhia Township Sale Act
Land Boards Inquiry Act
Massey Frauds Indemnity Act
Middle Island Half-caste Grants Act
Murihiku Native Reserves Grants Act
Native Committees Act
New River Harbour Endowments Act
Otago Dock Act
Parliamentary Witnesses Indemnity Act
Property Law Consolidation Act
South Island Native Reserves Act
St Johns College Auckland Removal Act
Taiaroa Land Act
Taumutu Native Commonage Act
Timaru Racecourse Reserve Act
Trustee Act Amended: 1901/14/24/33/35/46/55/57/60/62/68/69/74/77/82/83/86/88/2005
Waimate High School Act
Wanganui Bridge Act
Wellington College Land Act
Wellington Harbour Board Land and Reclamation Act
West Coast Peace Preservation Act 1882 Continuance Act
Westland Education District Subdivision Act
Plus 30 Acts amended
1884
Affirmations in lieu of Oaths Extension Act
Beet-root Sugar Act
Caversham Drainage Act
Chatham Islands Animals Act
City of Dunedin Leasing Powers Act
Codlin Moth Act
Consolidated Stock Act
Drainage of Mines Act
Electric Lines Act
False Notice of Birth, Marriage, and Death Act
Fisheries Conservation Act
Foreign Companies Act
Gisborne Gas Company Act
Gisborne Harbour Act Amended: 1910
Greymouth Harbour Board Act Amended: 1920/35/45/48/62
Hokitika Racecourse Reserve Act
Hokitika Steam Tug Act
Invercargill Reserves Leasing Act
Kaiapoi Domain Board Empowering Act
Kowai Domain Board Empowering Act
Life Assurance Policies Act
Married Women's Property Act Amended: 1961
Napier Harbour Board Empowering and Loan Act Amended: 1920
Native Land Alienation Restriction Act
New Zealand Government Insurance Association Act
Otago Harbour Board Loans Consolidation Act
Parliamentary Honorarium and Privileges Act
Perpetual Trustees, Estate, and Agency Company Act Amended: 1971
Police Offences Act Amended: 1901/03/04/06/13/19/24/26/35/50/51/52/53/54/55/56/58/60/65/67/69/70/74/76/79
Registration of Births Extension Act
Religious, Charitable, and Educational Trust Boards Incorporation Act
River Boards Act Amended: 1910/13/14/17/34/52/56/58/68/71/74/75/76/78/80/88
Statutes of New Zealand Private Acts Deemed to be Public Acts
Tauranga School Site Act
Thames Recreation Reserve Sale Act
Timaru Market Reserve Act
Timber-floating Act
Wellington Harbour Board Loans Consolidation and Empowering Act
West Harbour Borough Empowering Act
Westport Harbour Board Act
Workmen's Wages Act
Plus 31 Acts amended and 1 Act repealed.
1885
Auckland Railway Land Compensation Act
Auckland University College Reserves Act Amended: 1928
Borough of Invercargill Loans Consolidation Act
Canterbury and Otago Marriages Act
Christ's College, Canterbury Act
Christchurch Market Reserves Act
Christchurch Public Works Loan Validation Act
Congregational Union Incorporation Act
Costley Training Institution Act Amended: 1975/79
Customs Duties Interpretation Act
Distress Act
District Railways Purchasing Act
Dunedin Cattle-market Reserve Leasing Act
Enforcement of Judgments Act
Fisheries Encouragement Act
Gisborne High School Act Amended: 1909/56/63/66
Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act Amended: 1910/13/15/19/20/23/25/28/29/32/36/47
Local Bodies Contractors Act
Local Bodies Finance and Powers Act
Mortgage Debentures Act
Napier Harbour Board Empowering Act
New Zealand State Forests Act
Otago Harbour Board Leasing Act
Palmerston North Burgess Roll Act
Presbyterian Church Property Act Amended: 1930/61/63/70/74/96
Rabbit Nuisance Act 1882 Continuance Act
Resident Magistrates' Courts Proceeding Validation Act
St Mary's Convent Property Leases Act
Sydenham Public Works Loan Validation Act
Waimea Plains Railway Rating Act
Wellington Corporation Leaseholds Act
Wellington Public Street-closing Act
Westland and Grey Education Boards Act
Whitmore Enabling Act
Plus 35 Acts amended
1886
Administration Act Extension Act
Apportionment Act
Auckland Harbour Board Loan Act
Borough of Mornington Boundaries Act
Cathedral-site, Parnell, Leasing Act
Charitable Trusts Extension Act
City of Christchurch Municipal Offices Act
City of Dunedin Leasing Act
Civil Service Reform Act
Coal Mines Act Amended: 1950/53/59/60/61/64/68/70/71/72/74/80/82/83/85/86/87/88
Companies' Branch Registers Act
Deeds and Instruments Registration Act
Defence Act 1886 Amended: 1908/10/12/14/15/31/73/74/76/80/82/85/86/87/88/92/97/98/99/2000/01/03/04/05/07
First Offenders' Probation Act Amended: 1903
Fish Auction Act
Gisborne Public Prison Act
Government Life Insurance Act Amended: 1912/48/51/54/59/62/64/67/68/70/72/77/82
Government Loans to Local Bodies Act Amended: 1900
Hakateramea Racecourse Reserve Act
Hutt and Petone Gas Company Act
Local Bodies' Loans Act Amended: 1902/03/08/10/12/21/22/24/51/55
Lost Debentures Act
Mining Act Amended: 1910/11/13/14/15/19/20/22/24/27/31/34/35/37/41/47/48/53/60/61/62/63/65/72/73/75/78/81/85/87
Native Equitable Owners Act
Native Land Administration Act
Native Reserves' Titles Grant Empowering Act
New Zealand Bible, Tract, and Book Society Act
North Island Main Trunk Railway Loan Application Act Amended: 1891
North Timaru Cemetery Sale or Exchange Act
One-Tree Hill Reserve Act
Otago Harbour Bridge Act
Owhaoko and Kaimanawa-Oruamatua Reinvestigation of Title Act
Police Force Act Amended: 1919/24/51/52/54/55/56
Port Chalmers Fire-brigade Site Act
Property-tax Act
Public Bodies' Leaseholds Act
Public Works Appropriation Act
Railways Authorization and Management Act
Settled Land Act Amended: 1915/22
Waimate Racecourse Trustees Empowering Act
Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company's Additional Capital and Debentures Val Act
Wellington and Wanganui Education Districts Act
Wellington Harbour Board Leasing Act
Wyndham Show-ground Reserve Act
Plus 23 Acts amended
1887
Akaroa Borough Council Reserves Vesting and Reclamation Act
Australasian Naval Defence Act
Cambridge and Hastings Boroughs Act
Christchurch Drainage Board Reserves Sale and Exchange Act
Christchurch Hospital Act Amended: 1928/44/79
Government Railways Act Amended: 1910/11/12/13/19/20/21/22/24/25/27/28/31/32/36/44/50/52/53/54/55/56/57/59/61/62/63/64/67/68/71/72/73/74/76/78/80
Hammond Fencing-Claims Compensation Act
Infants Guardianship and Contracts Act
Invercargill Waterworks Reserve Act
Kermadec Islands Act
Midland Railway Contract Act
Ministers' Salaries and Allowances Act Amended: 1900
New Plymouth Borough and Harbour Board Street and Reserve Exchange Act
New Plymouth Recreation and Racecourse Reserve Act Amended: 1910/20/42
Order in Council Validation Act
Phoenix Assurance Company of London Act
Public Bodies' Powers Act
Pukekohe Borough Act
Reclamation within the Harbour of Wellington Act
Sounds County Hospital Representation Act
Tamaki West Licensing District Act
Wairarapa North County Council Empowering Act
Ward Conservation of Rights Act
Wellington College and Girls' High School Act
Wesleyan Methodist Church Property Trust Act
Westland and Grey Education Boards Act Continuance Act
Westland and Nelson Native Reserves Act
Plus 11 Acts amended
1888
New Zealand Loan Act 1887 Repeal
Auckland Harbour Improvement Act
Christchurch Rifle-range Act
Clyde Domain and Recreation-ground Grant Act
Demise of the Crown Act
Ellesmere Lake Lands Act
Invercargill Corporation Empowering Act
Kaiapoi Drill-shed Act
Local Bodies Audit Act
Local Courts Proceedings Act
MacKenzie Land Act
Mokau-Mohakatino Act
Mount Somers Road Board Empowering Act
Native Contracts and Promises Act
Naval and Military Forces Discipline Act
Naval and Military Settlers' and Volunteers' Land Act
Nelson Hospital Reserves Act
Ngaruawahia Cemetery Reserve Leasing Act
Oamaru Municipal and Education Reserves Exchange Act
Opawa Education Reserve Act
Otago Harbour Board Indemnity and Lands Vesting Act
Penalties Recovery and Remission Act
Puhoi Settlers Act
Ross Compensation Act
Volunteer Drill-sheds and Lands Act
Waikato Agricultural College Model Farm Act
Wellington Asylum, Home, Hospital, and Orphanage Reserves Act
Wellington Corporation and College Land Exchange Act
Whangarei Drill-shed Act
Plus 16 Acts amended and 1 Act repealed.
1889
Borough of Brunner Enabling Act
Canterbury Society of Arts Reserve Act
1890s
1891
Canterbury Society of Arts Reserve Act 1889 Extension
Certificates of Title Issue Empowering Act
Chattels Transfer Act Amended: 1922/23/25/31/50/52/53/61/63/67/69/70/73/74/85/90/96
Criminal Evidence Act
Educational Endowments Act
Fire and Marine Insurance Companies Act
Geraldine Public School Site Act
Hawera Borough Endowment Act
Imprest Supply No 2 Act
Imprest Supply No 3 Act
Karamu Reserve Act
Kumara Sludge-channel Act
Masterton Trust Lands Act Amended: 1930/35/80
Napier High School Board Leases Validation Act
Napier Odd Fellows Lodge Site Act
Naval and Military Settlers and Volunteers Land Act
Nelson Foreshore Reserve Act
Ngarara and Waipiro Further Investigation Act
Orimakatea Title Empowering Act
Otago Marriages Act
Patents Designs and Trade-marks Act
Poututu Jurisdiction Act
Requisitions Validation Act
Riverton Corporation Empowering Act
Selectors Lands Revaluation Act
Timaru Harbour Board Land Act
Triennial Licensing Committees Act
Waimate Public Library Act
Waimate Public Reserve Sale Act
Waimea Riverworks Act
Waipa Order in Council Validation Act
Waitohi River Bed Act
Wellington and Manawatu Railway Companys Drainage Empowering Act
Wellington City Empowering Act
Wi Pere Land Act
Plus 15 Acts amended
See also
The above list may not be current and will contain errors and omissions. For more accurate information try:
Walter Monro Wilson, The Practical Statutes of New Zealand, Auckland: Wayte and Batger 1867
* The Knowledge Basket: Legislation NZ
New Zealand Legislation Includes some Imperial and Provincial Acts. Only includes Acts currently in force, and as amended.
Legislation Direct List of statutes from 2003 to order
Early Statutes of New Zealand
Lists of Acts of the New Zealand Parliament
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20aviation%20accidents%20and%20incidents%20in%20the%20war%20in%20Afghanistan
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List of aviation accidents and incidents in the war in Afghanistan
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The following is a list aviation accidents and incidents in the war in Afghanistan. It covers helicopters , fixed-wing aircraft and UAVs.
2021
August 15: During the fall of Kabul, 22 military planes and 24 helicopters of the Afghan Air Force fled over the border to Uzbekistan over the weekend, carrying 585 Afghan personnel, an Afghan Air Force Embraer 314 crashed in Uzbekistan's Surxondaryo Region. Two pilots ejected and landed with parachutes. Initially, the Prosecutor General's office in Uzbekistan issued a statement saying that an Afghan military plane had collided mid-air with an Uzbekistan Air Force MiG-29, however it retracted the statement about the mid-air collision later. Another two helicopters and three planes from Afghanistan carrying 143 military servicemen fled over the border with Tajikistan as well.
July 29: An Afghan Army MD 500 helicopter crashed in Helmand province, Afghanistan. Both pilots survived.
July 26: An Afghan Army Mi-17 helicopter crashed in Helmand province, Afghanistan. Nobody was hurt but the helicopter was subsequently destroyed.
July 11: (2) Taliban announced the destruction of two Afghan UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters in Kunduz Airport following an infiltration attack later releasing images.
June 20: An Afghan Army Mi-17 helicopter is lost in Kharwar base, Logar province.
June 16: An Afghan Army UH-60A damaged by a hit on the ground with an SPG-9 while refueling in Ghazni at a local base.
June 8: An Afghan Army Mi-17 helicopter was lost in Jaghatu district killing three and injuring one Afghan service member. The Taliban claimed the helicopter was shot down, as well as one Afghan official. Afghan authorities began an investigation on the event.
May 10: An Afghan Army MD 500 helicopter crashed in Kandahar province injuring the occupants.
April 1: A UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter of the Afghan Air Force was shot down in Nahri Saraj District of Helmand Province. Afghan Ministry of Defense confirmed the helicopter "crash landed", and acknowledged the death of three crew members.
March 18: A Mi-17 helicopter of the Afghan Army was shot down by a local anti-taliban militia led by ethnic warlord Abdul Ghani Alipur in the Behsud district of Maidan Wardak. Nine members of the Afghan security forces died in the incident. Two days later a video appeared, showing the helicopter being hit while increasing altitude just after unloading troops and cargo. A missile hits the helicopter, clipping the tail boom, with the helicopter spinning out of control and crashing. The missile was claimed to be a "laser-guided weapon".
2020
November 11: An Afghan army helicopter, reportedly a Mi-17 crashed during takeoff in Hisarak district, Nangarhar province due to a technical failure. one crew member and one security personnel died, two others were wounded.
(2) October 14: Two Afghan army Mi-17 helicopters collided while taking off in Nawa district, Helmand province. Nine Afghan service members died.
September 26: An Afghan army MD-530F helicopter crashed in the city of Pul-e-Khumri due to a technical issue. Both pilots were killed.
July 27: A Black Hawk helicopter of the Afghan army was shot down by the Taliban using an anti-tank guided missile, while the helicopter was landing in the province of Helmand.
January 27: A United States Air Force E-11A was reported crashed in Afghanistan by US officials. The Taliban claimed it was shot down with all its occupants killed, which US officials denied. With the complete withdrawal of US forces from Afghanistan on 30 August 2021, this was the last acknowledged US fatal aviation loss of the war.
2019
November 20: A US AH-64D Apache helicopter crashed in Logar province, Afghanistan with initial reports mentioning that the rotor of the helicopter clipped a mountain ridge, ruling out enemy fire. Both crew members died in the crash. The Taliban claimed they shot it down, mentioning a different model, a Boeing CH-47 Chinook helicopter, downed in the eastern Logar province. The US denied the Taliban's claim.
October 15: An Afghan army Mi-17 crashed due to technical faults on the outskirts of Mazar-i-Sharif. At least seven Afghan military personnel were killed in the crash.
May 25: A CH-47F Chinook helicopter made a crash landing in Helmand Province, all onboard survived, but were injured. The helicopter was totally destroyed.
2018
October 30: An Afghan army helicopter, probably a Mi-17, crashed in the Farah province in bad weather in the western Farah province, killing all 25 on board, including senior officials. At the time of the crash it was reported as being the eighth Afghan military helicopter crash in 2018.
2017
October 27: A Boeing CH-47 Chinook helicopter of the 160th SOAR (A) crashed after hitting a tree after taking troops for a night raid to Kharwar District in Logar Province. One soldier died and six were injured.
mid May: An Afghan army Mi-17 was destroyed by an improvised explosive device, as it landed on a hilltop outpost in an attack similar to the one on the previous year. The video was released by the Taliban at the end of May.
2016
March 29: A USAF F-16CM fighter jet crashed just after takeoff at Bagram airbase at 20:30 local time after suffering an engine failure. The pilot ejected safely.
March 24: An Afghan army Mi-17 was destroyed by an improvised explosive device, as it landed on a hilltop outpost in the Nari district in Kunar. The video was released by the Taliban in mid April.
2015
October 11 : A Westland Puma HC Mk 2 helicopter crashed while attempting to land at the NATO Resolute Support HQ in Kabul, killing 5 of the 10 people on board. Among the casualties were two British and two US airmen, as well as a French civilian contractor.
October 2 : A C-130J operated by Dyess Air Force Base, stationed at Bagram Airfield, crashed immediately after takeoff at Jalalabad Airfield killing all 6 airmen and 5 defense contractors on board, along with two people on the ground.
2014
May 31: One US CH-53 Sea Stallion was destroyed in a hard landing, the crew survived.
May 28: One US Army crew member died when a UH-60M Black Hawk helicopter crash in southern Afghanistan. The helicopter crashed when it hit a cellphone tower in the Marouf district of Kandahar province. Thirteen crew members were injured.
April 26: Five British service members were killed when a British Westland Lynx helicopter crashed in southern Afghanistan on Saturday, the NATO-led coalition forces and the British Ministry of Defense said. The crash was probably caused by loss of situational awareness and controlled flight into terrain but the military investigation did rule out technical failure or enemy action.
January 10: Two US service members and a contractor pilot died near Bagram Air Base when a Beechcraft RC-12 Guardrail crashed.
2013
December 17: Six U.S. Army service members were killed when their UH-60 Black Hawk crashed in southern Afghanistan (near Zabul province) after damage from an improvised explosive device while in low level flight, according to U.S. and NATO officials. One person on board the aircraft was injured and survived.
September 25: An Afghan army MD-530F helicopter was destroyed by an improvised explosive device, as it landed on a hilltop outpost during a training sortie near Shindand air base. The helicopter was crewed by an Afghan student pilot and his American instructor.
June 11: A NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) helicopter made an emergency landing in southern Kandahar province of Afghanistan.
May 19: A USAF C-130J Super Hercules crashed coming from Kandahar on a medical evacuation mission. It slammed hard onto Shank's runway, smashing its right wing and outboard engine nacelle.
May 3: A US Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft of the USAF crashed in Kyrgyzstan on shortly after takeoff. The three crew members were killed in the crash.
April 29: National Airlines Flight 102 was a cargo flight operated by National Airlines between the British military base Camp Bastion in Afghanistan and Al Maktoum Airport in Dubai, with a refueling stop at Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan. On 29 April 2013, the Boeing 747-400 operating the flight crashed moments after taking off from Bagram, killing all seven people on board.
April 27: A USAF MC-12 Liberty aircraft crashed in Shahjoi district of Zabul province, about northeast of Kandahar Air Field, killing four coalition troops.
April 9: A U.S. AH-64 Apache helicopter crashed in Pachir Agam district of Nangarhar province of eastern Afghanistan killing two US soldiers.
April 3: A US F-16 fighter crashed near Bagram Airfield in eastern Afghanistan's Parwan province killing a US military pilot.
March 16: A US OH-58 Kiowa crashed in Daman District of Kandahar Province, killing one US soldier and injuring another
March 11: A Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter crashed in the Daman district of Kandahar Province killing five American soldiers.
February 7: A US OH-58 Kiowa helicopter crashed in eastern Afghanistan, but no crew members were seriously injured.
2012
October 1: A US CH-47 Chinook helicopter crashed in Zabul province in southern Afghanistan.
September 15: One C-130 Hercules was lost and six USMC VMA-211 AV-8B Harrier II fighter jets were destroyed and two damaged beyond repair while parked on the ground during an attack on Camp Bastion. This became the worst U.S. aircraft loss in one day since the Vietnam War. Two Marines of the VMA-211, one of them a Lieutenant Colonel, were killed in the attack.
September 10: Three members of the Afghan National Security Forces were killed and US CH-47 Chinook was destroyed on Bagram Airfield according to NATO officials.
September 5: A US OH-58 Kiowa crashed in Babus area Logar sitrict. Two US servicemen died in the accident.
August 29: A US Bell UH-1Y Venom of HMLA-369 helicopter crashed in Helmand province, killing two Australian soldiers.
August 27: A US CH-47 Chinook helicopter made a hard landing in the eastern province of Logar. The aircraft was heavily damaged, so the crew destroyed it before they were evacuated from the scene.
August 16: A US Army Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter went down during a firefight in Shah Wali Kot District, Khandahar province. Seven American servicemen and four Afghan nationals died in the crash.
July 18: A US Army Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter crashed in the area of the military operation southwest of Chaghcharan, injuring two troops serving with the U.S.-led military coalition according to NATO.
June 22: An Australian Army CH-47D Chinook helicopter was badly damaged after a hard landing in Kandahar province. The damaged helicopter was evacuated to the Kandahar airbase and written off.
June 21: A US helicopter crashed in Khost province in southeast Afghanistan.
June 6: A US OH-58 Kiowa crashed in Ghazni province, killing both servicemen.
May 28: A US Army AH-64 Apache crashed in Wardak Province during a routine patrol. No enemy activity was reported in the area. Both crew members were killed in the crash.
April 19: A US Army Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter was shot down in Helmand province. At least four US troops were killed after the helicopter crashed in southern Afghanistan.
March 16: A Turkish Army Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter crashed in Kabul, killing all twelve Turkish soldiers and two Afghan interpreters on board in addition to three civilians on the ground.
February 6: A US Army AH-64 Apache helicopter crashed with no casualties. A video of the incident was released six weeks later on internet.
January 19: A US CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopter crashed in southern Afghanistan, killing six Marines.
2011
September 28: A US AH-1W Supercobra helicopter crashed on take-off in Helmand province killing one Marine.
August 8: A US CH-47 helicopter made a hard landing in Paktia province. There were no fatalities.
August 6: A US CH-47 Chinook helicopter being flown by the 7th Battalion, 158th Aviation Regiment and 2nd Battalion, 135th Aviation Regiment was shot down by an RPG killing 30 American and eight Afghan soldiers. Some of the casualties were from The US Navy's SEAL Team Six
July 25: A CH-47 Chinook was shot down by an RPG near Camp Nangalam in Kunar Province. Two coalition service members were injured.
June 24: A NATO helicopter made a hard landing in Helmand.
June 15: An Afghan army Mil Mi-17 crashed in the Kunar province injuring six.
June 12: A Polish Land Forces Mil Mi-24V was destroyed after crashing at the Warrior base in Ghazni province. The loss was recorded in video.
June 10: A French Army Aérospatiale Gazelle crashed about from Bagram in the north of the country in difficult weather conditions. One person died, the pilot was seriously injured
June 5: A US OH-58 Kiowa helicopter crashed in the Sabari district of the eastern province of Khost, with the Taliban claiming to have shot the aircraft down. Two US service members were killed.
May 30: An Australian Army CH-47D Chinook helicopter crashed in Zabul Province 90 km east of Tarin Kowt. The Chinook caught fire after impact, and one of the passengers on board the aircraft later died from injuries sustained in the crash. Five other Australians on board the chopper suffered minor injuries.
May 26: A US AH-64D Longbow helicopter crashed in Paktika Province. One crew member was killed in the incident.
May 24: A NATO chopper crashed in western Afghanistan, no victims were reported.
May 24: A French Air Force Dassault Mirage 2000D crashed 100 kilometers west of Farah. Both crew members successfully ejected and were rescued.
May 15: A Canadian CH-47D Chinook turned on its side as it landed. Four Canadian soldiers were injured during a "hard landing" on a river bed in Afghanistan.
May 11: An Afghan army Mi-17 crashed in the Nuristan province after hitting a tree, injuring nine soldiers.
April 23: A US OH-58 Kiowa helicopter went down after being shot by a RPG in Kapisa province, northeast of the capital Kabul. One crew member was killed.
February 5: A French Army Eurocopter Tiger crashed in Afghanistan's eastern district of Lateh Band near the capital Kabul.
January 26: A Polish Land Forces Mil Mi-24V rolled over on its side and burned out after experiencing mechanical trouble during takeoff from a military base in Ghazni district of Ghazni province.
2010
November 28: A French Navy Dassault Rafale fighter crashed off Pakistan after its pilot parachuted to safety. The Rafale was operating from the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle, which at the time was supporting NATO operations in Afghanistan.
November 3: A French Army Aérospatiale Gazelle crashed in Nijrab province. Both pilots escaped unhurt.
October 12: A US Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter had just landed and had been off-loading when an RPG was fired into the cargo ramp. An Afghan interpreter was killed and seven ISAF servicemembers and an Afghan Border Police officer were injured.
September 21: A US Army UH-60 Blackhawk crashed in southern Afghanistan, killing 9 US soldiers. Cause of the crash was unknown but the Taliban have claimed to have shot it down. The helicopter was taking part of a Special Operations mission. One Afghan Army soldier and one US civilian were wounded.
August 19: Eight service members belonging to the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) were injured when their helicopter made a hard landing in southern Afghanistan.
August 10: A British RAF CH-47D Chinook crashed in Helmand province in southern Afghanistan. "The helicopter due to technical problems crashed in Gereshk district at 04:00 a.m. local time, as a result one soldier sustained injury," spokesman for provincial administration Daud Ahmadi told Xinhua. Meanwhile, a NATO source with press department in southern region confirmed the incident, saying it was a hard landing and all four aboard were rescued safe and sound.
August 5: A Canadian CH-47D Chinook was shot down in Kandahar Province, Afghanistan. It made a hard landing and burned out on the ground, wounding eight soldiers.
July 26: A US CH-47 Chinook helicopter crashed in Pul-e-Charkhi area east of the capital city of Kabul. Two NATO troops were killed.
July 22: A US AH-1W SuperCobra was shot down in Helmand province, killing two US servicemen.
June 23: A British RAF Mk3 Merlin made a heavy landing at a forward operating base in the Lashkar Gar area of Helmand province. No-one was seriously injured and the incident was determined to be a non-hostile event. A U.S. Marine Corps CH-53E from HMH-466 was used to recover the aircraft and transport it to Camp Bastion.
June 21: A US Army UH-60 Blackhawk crashed in northern Kandahar Province, killing three Australian Commandos and the US crew chief, and injuring another seven Australians and a US crewman.
June 9: A Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk CSAR helicopter was shot down in Helmand province, killing five American airmen.
May 21: A Westland Sea King carrying five troops was hit by an RPG and crash-landed in Nad-e Ali, Helmand Province. The five were injured but not seriously.
May 14: A US helicopter made a hard landing in Kandahar Province causing injuries to several coalition and Afghan military personnel. It was destroyed on the site by ISAF members to prevent it from falling into insurgents' hands
May 10: A US UH-60 Black Hawk made a controlled landing after being hit by enemy fire in Helmand Province. All crewmembers were safely returned to the base. The helicopter was destroyed by international forces.
April 9: A US Air Force CV-22 Osprey crashed near Qalat, Zabul Province, killing three US service members and one government contractor. This is the first combat loss of an Osprey.
March 31: A US Navy E-2 Hawkeye surveillance plane stationed with the crashed in the Arabian sea at approximately 2 p.m. local time while returning from an operational flight conducted as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. The one U.S. crew member presumed missing was declared dead and three were rescued.
March 28: A US Army UH-60 Black Hawk crashed in Zabul province in southern Afghanistan. Fourteen ISAF and Afghan service members were injured.
March 23: A Turkish Army UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter experienced technical problems as it tried to land at a base in Maidan Shar, the capital of Wardak province. It hit a hill as it was coming down and rolled over.
2009
December 11: A USAF HH-60G Pave Hawk crash landed after receiving heavy machine gun fire in an LZ and was forced to land two miles away from where they took off. The aircraft was later destroyed. The co-pilot suffered minor injuries.
December 3: A Polish Land Forces Mi-24V Hind attack helicopter was damaged after making an emergency autorotation landing immediately after taking off from Ghazni airfield in Afghanistan. The crew and passengers were not seriously injured.
October 26: A US MH-47 Chinook crashed in Badghis province, in western Afghanistan reportedly due to low visibility caused by "thick dust stirred up" during takeoff at night, killing seven US servicemen and three US Drug Enforcement Administration agents. 14 Afghan and 11 American servicemen and one US DEA agent were injured.
October 26: A USMC UH-1N helicopter collided with an AH-1W SuperCobra over southern Afghanistan, killing four US Marines and injuring two.
October 13: A US Army C-12 Huron twin-engine turboprop crashed in Nuristan province. Its remnants were discovered on October 19, with three bodies of American civilian personnel.
October 8: An Afghan National Army Air Corps Antonov An-32 S/N 354 crashed on landing in Southwestern Afghanistan.
August 30: A CH-47 Chinook(S/N ZA673) suffered a hard landing and was badly damaged in the Sangin area of Helmand province. The four crew and 15 soldiers from the 2 Rifles battlegroup were unharmed.
August 20: A British CH-47 Chinook (S/N ZA709) was shot down in the Sangin area of Helmand province. The crew survived.
July 31: A Polish Land Forces Mi-24V Hind attack helicopter was destroyed, on route to Ghazni from Kabul it was hit by heavy machine gun fire and forced to make a hard landing.
July 20: A British Royal Air Force GR4 Tornado fighter jet crashed at Kandahar air base during takeoff at 7:20 a.m. The two pilots were injured after ejecting from the aircraft.
July 18: A U.S. Air Force F-15E Strike Eagle fighter jet crashed in central Afghanistan, killing the two crew members.
July 7: A Canadian CH-146 Griffon crashed in Zabul, Afghanistan, killing three coalition soldiers.
May 22: A NATO helicopter crashed near Tarin Kowt in Uruzgan Province. One crew member was killed in the incident.
May 14: A British Harrier GR9 jet crash landed at Kandahar airfield at about 10:30am local time. The pilot suffered only minor injuries when he ejected from the aircraft. There were no other casualties.
January 17: A US CH-47 Chinook helicopter crashed in eastern Afghanistan. Small arms fire was involved. One US soldier was killed in the incident.
January 15: An Afghan army Mi-17 crashed in the Adraskan District of Herat province, killing all thirteen on board, including General Fazaludin Sayar, the regional commander in charge of the western part of Afghanistan. The government declared the crash was due to bad weather, while the Taliban claimed to have shot the helicopter down.
2008
October 27: A US helicopter was shot down in Wardak Province, with no fatalities.
October 21: A United States Navy P-3 Orion reconnaissance and intelligence aircraft overshot the runway at Bagram Air Base while landing. The aircraft caught fire and was destroyed but the only injury to the crew was one broken ankle. The aircraft was from PATWING 5 from Naval Air Station Brunswick and was assigned to CTF-57 in Afghanistan.
September 11: The pilot of a US OH-58 Kiowa, CW4 Michael Slebodnik, died of wounds after being shot in the leg while on a route recon mission in Laghman province. The co-pilot flew the undamaged aircraft to COP Najil and the pilot was flown by a UH-60 MEDEVAC to Bagram Airfield.
September 4: A British Army Air Corps Apache AH1 crashed shortly after takeoff in Helmand province. Both crew members were unhurt.
July 2: A US UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter was shot down by RPG and small arms fire south of the Afghan capital in the Logar province. The pilots were able to land the aircraft and evacuate everyone on board before it caught fire, another helicopter returned later and destroyed the wreckage with precision fire.
July 1: A US CH-46 Sea Knight suffered a mishap and was lost near the British Forward Operating Base Dwyer in Afghanistan south.
June 25: A US-led coalition forces helicopter crashed in northeastern province of Kunar in Afghanistan, causing minor injuries to two soldiers on board.
June 17: A US CH-47 Chinook helicopter crashed in Nuristan province and slid over a ravine, the damaged helicopter was subsequently destroyed by ISAF.
June 5: A US OH-58 Kiowa crashed at Kandahar Army Airfield, Afghanistan during a test flight killing the maintenance pilot and his crew chief. They were assigned to the 96th Aviation Support Battalion, 101st Combat Aviation Brigade.
2007
December 10: An Afghan army Mi-17 helicopter crashed in heavy fog about 70 kilometres southwest of Kabul, killing four soldiers.
September 25: A Spanish AS332 Super Puma helicopter suffered an accident during a Medivac mission to evacuate Afghan police wounded by a roadside bomb in the western province of Badghis, the craft was destroyed.
August 21: An Italian AB-212 helicopter crashed while attempting an emergency landing due to technical problems. Three Italian soldiers were wounded.
August 13: Two AH-64D attack helicopters were lost in Paktia province crashing in the same mountain. The crew was wounded with minor injuries.
August 10: A US CH-47 Chinook, serial number 83-24123 was badly damaged when hit the propeller of another CH-47 Chinook, the helicopter was later written off.
May 30: A US CH-47 Chinook was shot down in the upper Sangin valley, killing five American, one British and one Canadian soldiers. Until July 25, 2010, its downing was officially attributed to small arms and a rocket-propelled grenade. It became clear that it was downed by a MANPADS as the Coalition forces generally downplayed or even denied any SAM attack by Taliban insurgents.
February 18: A US CH-47 Chinook from 2–160th SOAR carrying 22 U.S. servicemen crashed in Zabul Province, killing eight and injuring fourteen.
2006
September 2: A British Nimrod MR.2 aircraft caught fire after in-flight refueling, exploded and crashed near Kandahar, killing fourteen crewmembers.
August 31: A Dutch F-16A Block 15 MLU fighter crashed near Ghazni, killing the pilot. The crash remains unexplained, investigators later suggested that a venomous spider in the cockpit could have caused the pilot to panic and lose control of the aircraft.
July 11: A US CH-47 Chinook came under fire and made an emergency landing in Helmand province, due to the damage the airframe was destroyed by an airstrike.
July 2: A US AH-64 Apache out of Kandahar air base crashed, killing one pilot, CW3 William Timothy Flanigan, and injuring the other.
May 24: A Special Forces RAF Hercules, caught fire after setting down at a landing strip outside the town of Lashkar Gah in Helmand Province. The plane was carrying the new British ambassador, in Afghanistan, Stephen Evans. No casualties were reported.
May 5: A US CH-47 Chinook helicopter crashed in the mountains of eastern Afghanistan, killing all ten U.S. soldiers on board.
April 28: A US AH-64 Apache helicopter crashed north of Qalat, Afghanistan. The pilot survived with minor injuries, while the co-pilot/gunner had his right arm amputated.
2005
(3) December 4: Three CH-47 Chinook helicopters, were lost in Afghanistan, serial number 91-00269 was destroyed by small arms fire, 50 miles north of Kandahar, Afghanistan. There were two injuries on 91–00269. other CH-47 Chinook of unknown serial number made an emergency landing in Forward Operating Base south of Tarin Kowt, Uruzgan province. The third caught fire and was destroyed.
October 31: A Dutch CH-47D Chinook helicopter, D-104, made a hard landing after losing power in cruise flight. There were several injuries and the aircraft was destroyed by Dutch troops after salvaging usable parts.
October 14: An RAF Harrier GR7A was destroyed and another was damaged in a rocket attack by Taliban forces while parked on the tarmac at Kandahar. No one was injured in the attack. The damaged Harrier was repaired at the airfield while the destroyed one was replaced by another fighter which flew out from Britain on the same evening.
October 7: A US MH-47D helicopter, serial number 89-00160 crashed in Kumar province while landing in a combat zone, the helicopter rolled over and was destroyed.
September 25: Five US soldiers were killed when a CH-47 Chinook helicopter, serial number 90-00200 was shot down in Zabul province while returning from an operation. Though initially reported as an accident, the loss was later confirmed to have been caused by hostile fire.
(2) August 16: Seventeen Spanish soldiers were killed when their Cougar AS532 helicopter crashed near Herat. A second Spanish helicopter made an emergency landing, injuring five soldiers.
July 29: A US AH-64 Apache helicopter crashed near Bagram airbase. The crew survived.
July 27: A Dutch Army CH-47 Chinook helicopter rolled and crashed during a night mission in Afghanistan.
June 28: A US CH-47 Chinook helicopter was shot down in Kunar province by Taliban commander Qari Ismail, killing all sixteen US Special Operations servicemen on board. The US military said it was shot down by a rocket-propelled grenade. The helicopter was on a rescue mission for Operation Red Wings, a team of four SEAL members pinned down by Taliban gunmen.
June 22: A U-2 spyplane crashed at Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE, returning from a mission in Afghanistan, killing the pilot.
April 6: A US CH-47 Chinook helicopter crashed in a sandstorm near Ghazni, killing all aboard (fourteen American soldiers, one marine and three civilian contractors)
2004
December 16: A US OH-58 Kiowa crashed north of Shindand, in Afghanistan's Herat province, injuring its two pilots.
October 20: A HH-60 Pave Hawk N87-26014 crashed during a med-evac injuring four on board and killing one.
August 29: A Dutch AH-64D Longbow, designation Q-20, crashed near Kabul, slightly injuring one crew member.
August 12: A UH-60 Black Hawk crashed in Khost province, killing one soldier and injuring fourteen.
June 28: The crew of an AH-64D Apache helicopter escaped with minor injuries after being forced to make an emergency landing north of Qalat. The aircraft caught on fire and was completely destroyed.
April 26: A CH-46 Sea Knight helicopter crashed because of loss of lift power amid a duststorm. The helicopter was later decommissioned and dismantled.
2003
November 23: A MH-53 Pave Low helicopter crashed shortly after leaving Bagram Air Base, killing five US soldiers and leaving seven wounded.
June 3: A US AH-64 Apache helicopter (N 89–0258) crashed near Urgun Paktika Province. The crew survived.
April 24: A US CH-47 Chinook helicopter (N 90–00217) crashed near Spin Boldak, the crew survived, but the remains of the helicopter were subsequently destroyed.
March 23: A HH-60 Pave Hawk Komodo 11 crashed in Afghanistan, killing six on board.
January 30: US Army UH-60L Black Hawk helicopter of the 160th SOAR (A) crashed near the Afghan capital, Kabul, killing all four crew members. The US military said the Black Hawk transport helicopter came down near Bagram air base
2002
December 21: A German CH-53 helicopter crashed in Kabul, killing seven German soldiers.
December 19: A F-16A Block 20 MLU fighter overran a runway at Bagram airbase and landed about 500 meters away in a mine field. The Danish Air Force pilot was evacuated to a US Army hospital. The F-16A was recovered, repaired and returned to service.
August 13: (2) A US AH-64 Apache helicopter crashed about 20 miles south of Kabul. The crew survived. Another helicopter, a HH-60 was also reported lost the same day.
June 12: A MC-130H Combat Talon crashed in eastern Afghanistan, killing three of the ten service members aboard.
April 11: An AH-64 Apache crash-landed outside of Kandahar.
March 18: A MH-53 Pave Low crashed during landing near Uruzgan province, three US servicemen suffered injuries. The helicopter suffered significant damage and was declared damaged beyond repair.
March 4: (2) Two CH-47 Chinook helicopters were hit by RPGs and gunfire during Operation Anaconda. Two were killed in the first helicopter, which was dropping off a SEAL team. The second Chinook came in later that day to try to rescue the crew of the first CH-47, and subsequently was shot down, killing four.
February 13: A MC-130P Shadow crashed in eastern Afghanistan. There were no casualties.
January 28: A CH-47 Chinook serial number 84-24174 crashed in eastern Afghanistan due to a brownout, injuring sixteen soldiers.
January 20: A CH-53E from HMM-361 crashed 40 miles south of Bagram air base killing two Marines on board.
January 9: A KC-130 Hercules from VMGR-352 tanker crashed into a Pakistani mountain, killing seven Americans on board.
2001
December 12: A US B-1 Lancer bomber returning from a mission over Afghanistan crashed 30 miles north of Diego Garcia. All four crew members ejected safely.
December 6: A UH-1 Iroquois crashed during takeoff Camp Rhino south of Kandahar, 2 US soldiers were slightly injured.
November 20: A UH-60 Blackhawk crashed in Afghanistan, the damaged helicopter was later destroyed in the ground by US forces.
November 2: A MH-53 crashed in Afghanistan, four servicemen were wounded in the crash. The airframe remains were later destroyed by F-14 aircraft.
October 19: A UH-60 Black Hawk crashed at Dalbandin air base in Pakistan, killing two U.S. Army rangers. The cause was a brownout from dust kicked up by the helicopter rotor.
Contract aircraft, non-military aircraft losses
September 2, 2018: A Moldavian "Valan International Cargo Charter" Mi-8MTV helicopter crashed in Mazar-i-Sharif. Two crew members and ten Afghan soldiers were killed.
May 18, 2016: An An-12 cargo plane carrying NATO troop supplies crashed on runway when it was attempting to land at Camp Dwyer, Afghanistan. Seven crew members were killed (five citizens of Azerbaijan, one citizen of Uzbekistan and one citizen of Ukraine).
April 29, 2013: National Airlines Flight 102, A Boeing Boeing 747-400BCF operated by National Air Cargo under contract for NATO forces en route to Dubai, United Arab Emirates crashed shortly after takeoff from Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan. Seven crew members were killed.
October 19, 2012: An An-12B cargo plane contracted by the U.S. military crashed at Shindand Air Base in Afghanistan and was destroyed along with 4,700 pounds of mail inbound to Afghanistan.
October 15, 2012: A Mi-8 helicopter belonging to the United Nations (UN) went down in the Yakawolang district of Bamyan province, which is located in the central region of Afghanistan. Seven UN employees, including two foreigners and five Afghan nationals, were injured in the crash.
July 4, 2012: A Mi-8 helicopter under contract for NATO forces crashed in Afghanistan while taking off on the runway of the Afghan town of Ghazni. The flight mechanic, a citizen of Russia was killed in the accident.
February 11, 2012: A Mi-8MTV-1 helicopter under contract for NATO forces crashed in southern Afghanistan and at least four people on board were killed. The aircraft, owned by the Kabul-based logistics company "Supreme Group" and crewed by four Tajik civilians, went down somewhere in the west of Zabul province.
January 16, 2012: A Bell 214 helicopter under contract for NATO forces crashed and burst in flames in Nadali district near Shora area of southern Helmand province. All three people on board were killed.
July 6, 2011: An IL-76TD cargo plane, registered 4K-AZ55, was destroyed in an accident near Bagram Air Base, Afghanistan. The plane flew into the side of a mountain at about . The aircraft belonged to "Silk Way Airlines". The transport plane carried a total of 18 tons of cargo for the NATO-led forces at Bagram Air Base. All nine crew members died in accident (three of them were citizens of Azerbaijan).
October 12, 2010: A L-100-30 Lockheed Hercules (Leased from Transafrik Registration 5X-TUC) cargo plane crashed in a fireball and plummeted into a mountain crevice near the Afghan capital. Eight crew members (six Filipinos, one Indian and one Kenyan) were killed.
July 28, 2010: An Antonov An-12 cargo plane crash-landed in Helmand Province. There were no injuries. The aircraft was destroyed.
June 4, 2010: A L-100-30 Lockheed Hercules (Leased from Transafrik Registration S9-BAT) sustained substantial damage in a landing accident at Sharana AB, Afghanistan. The airplane came to rest beside the runway. The number 4 propeller separated from the engine, and the undercarriage was pushed up into the wheel wells.
May 30, 2010: A Mi-8 contract helicopter made a hard landing in the Jaji district of Paktiya Province. A civilian on the ground was killed when he was struck by debris. Three crew members received minor injuries.
May 2, 2010: A Mi-8 helicopter (EX-40008) under contract for NATO forces in Afghanistan crashed during emergency landing at FOB Kalagush, Nuristan. Crewmembers were injured during the incident.
April 25, 2010: A Bell 214 helicopter under contract for NATO forces made an emergency landing in the Farah Province due to mechanical problems suffered during flight. No one was injured during the incident. The helicopter caught fire after the crewmembers and passengers left the helicopter. The helicopter was deemed unrecoverable due to fire damage.
March 1, 2010: An Airbus A300 cargo plane operating for DHL Airways leased from ACT Airlines, reportedly registered TC-ACB, suffered a landing mishap at Bagram Air Base. It came to rest on the left runway shoulder of Runway 03, approximately 500 ft north of Taxiway Charlie and just south of the "3000 feet remaining" distance marker. The airplane suffered a collapse of the left hand, main undercarriage.
November 23, 2009: A Mi-8 helicopter under contract for NATO forces crashed in eastern Logar province. Three Ukrainians were killed in the crash. Helicopter belonged to Air Freight Aviation (UAE).
July 19, 2009: A Mi-8 helicopter under contract for NATO forces in Afghanistan crashed at Kandahar air base, killing sixteen people and wounding five others. The helicopter belonged to Vertikal-T (Russia).
July 14, 2009: A Mi-26 helicopter was shot down in Afghanistan, killing the six Ukrainian crewmembers. The aircraft belonged to Pecotox Air, a Moldovan aviation firm.
February 14, 2008: A Kazakhstan registered (UN-76020) IL-76 operated by Asia Continental Airlines was damaged beyond repair after an engine fire in Kandahar Airport.
December 3, 2006: A Mi-26 helicopter under contract with Dyncorp, a US security company, crashed, killing eight Russian crewmembers. The helicopter belonged to Vertikal-T (Russia).
July 27, 2006: A Mi-8 helicopter operated by "Tryco" logistics company, and rented by "Fluor", crashed en route from Khost to Kabul, killing all sixteen passengers and crewmembers on board (including 2 American civilians and 2 Dutch ISAF soldiers).
April 24, 2006: An An-26 leased by the US State Department and carrying US DEA agents crashed on landing at Bost airport in Lashkar Gah, killing two young girls on the ground. The plane attempted to avoid a truck during landing. Two Ukrainian pilots died and two Ukrainians (flight engineer and other crew member) were wounded.
November 11, 2005: A Georgian registered IL-76 operated by Pakistan's Royal Airlines, on charter to carry food for coalition troops, crashed near Khak-e-Shahidan village, about northwest of Kabul, killing all eight crew members (five Russians, two Ukrainians and one Pakistani).
April 25, 2005: A Kazakhstan registered (UN-11003) Antonov An-12 cargo plane swerved off the runway at Kabul Airport. Five of the six crew members were slightly injured.
December 30, 2004: A Moldovan registered (ER-IBM) IL-76 operated by Airline Transport crashed in Kabul Airport at 03:48.
November 27, 2004: A US Registered CASA 212 contracted by the US Department of Defense to supply American forces deployed in remote areas of Afghanistan entered a box canyon and struck the 14,650-foot level of Baba Mountain, which has a peak elevation of 16,739 feet. The flight was about 25 nm north of the typical route between Bagram and Farah. All six occupants (three American crew members who were worked for "Presidential Airways" (Blackwater sister company) and three passengers) were killed.
February 22, 2004: An AB-212 helicopter crashed after coming under fire 65 kilometres south-west of the southern city of Kandahar. Pilot Mark Burdorf, 45 years old, was killed. The helicopter belonged to Pacific Helicopters (Australia).
Drone and unmanned aircraft
5 March 2021: A German IAI Heron drone is lost in Afghanistan.
16 November 2020: A German IAI Heron drone is lost in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan, with the cause of the loss likely a hacking by the Taliban.
2 September 2019: A US General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper is lost in Afghanistan.
10 April 2019: A US General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper is lost in Afghanistan.
17 March 2018: A US General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper is lost in Afghanistan.
28 October 2018: A US General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper is lost in Paktika, Afghanistan.
3 March 2017: A US undisclosed drone is lost in Afghanistan.
21 February 2016: A US General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper is lost while on landing in Afghanistan.
24 November 2015: A US General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper is lost while on landing by an operator error in Afghanistan.
18 November 2015: A US General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper is lost by an engine error in Afghanistan.
4 November 2015: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost in Kabul in Afghanistan.
31 August 2015: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost while on landing in Afghanistan.
31 August 2015: A US General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper is lost in Afghanistan.
28 June 2015: A US General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper is lost in Kandahar, Afghanistan.
7 June 2015: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost while on landing in Afghanistan.
18 May 2015: A US General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper is lost in Kandahar, Afghanistan.
1 March 2015: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost in Kandahar, Afghanistan.
17 September 2014: A US unknown drone is lost in, Afghanistan.
10 September 2014: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost by a mechanical failure in Afghanistan.
18 August 2014: A US MQ-1B Warrior is lost by an engine failure in, Afghanistan.
3 August 2014: A US MQ-1B Warrior is lost during midflight in Afghanistan.
14 July 2014: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
25 June 2014: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost by an engine failure in Jalalabad, Afghanistan.
23 June 2014: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost by an engine failure in Jalalabad, Afghanistan.
16 June 2014: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost during landing in Afghanistan.
26 April 2014: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during midflight in Afghanistan.
16 February 2014: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during taxiing in Afghanistan.
13 November 2013: A US MQ-5B Hunter is lost during takeoff in Afghanistan.
16 October 2013: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost during landing in Afghanistan.
5 October 2013: A British Elbit Hermes 450 is lost in Afghanistan.
4 October 2013: A British Elbit Hermes 450 is lost in Afghanistan.
23 September 2013: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost during midflight by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
14 August 2013: A US MQ-1B Warrior lost link during midflight by in Afghanistan.
24 July 2013: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost during landing in Afghanistan.
27 June 2013: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost by a mechanical failure during landing in Afghanistan.
5 June 2013: A United States Marine Corps Kaman K-MAX helidrone is lost in Afghanistan.
11 May 2013: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost by a mechanical failure in Afghanistan.
29 March 2013: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost by a lightning strike while in flight in Afghanistan.
2 March 2013: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost by electronic failure in Afghanistan.
14 November 2012: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost during mid-flight by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
26 October 2012: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost by a mechanic failure in Afghanistan.
11 October 2012: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost during landing by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
25 September 2012: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost during landing by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
22 August 2012: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid flight by an electronic failure in Afghanistan.
24 July 2012: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during takeoff in Afghanistan.
22 July 2012: A British Elbit Hermes 450 is lost in Afghanistan.
20 July 2012: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost during landing in Afghanistan.
11 July 2012: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost during takeoff in Afghanistan.
7 July 2012: A US MQ-1C Gray Eagle is lost during landing in Afghanistan.
14 April 2012: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid-flight by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
6 April 2012: A United States Navy MQ-8B Fire Scout is lost by an electronic failure in Afghanistan.
21 March 2012: A US MQ-1B Warrior lost link during midflight by in Afghanistan.
14 February 2012: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during landing by an electrical failure in Afghanistan.
30 January 2012: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during landing by a mechanical failure in Afghanistan.
27 December 2011: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid flight by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
December 2011: A German IAI Heron drone is lost in Afghanistan.
11 November 2011: A German IAI Heron drone is lost in Afghanistan.
2 October 2011: A British Elbit Hermes 450 drone is lost in Camp Bastion.
22 September 2011: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid flight by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
21 August 2011: A US RQ-4 Global Hawk is lost during mid flight by an electrical failure in Afghanistan.
20 August 2011: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid flight by a mechanical failure in Afghanistan.
10 July 2011: A US MQ-1B Predator lost link during flight in Afghanistan.
28 June 2011: A US MQ-1B Predator was lost during flight by bad weather in Afghanistan.
5 June 2011: A US MQ-1B Predator was lost during flight by a lightning strike in Afghanistan.
5 May 2011: A US MQ-1B Predator was lost during landing by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
1 May 2011: A US MQ-1B Predator was lost during flight by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
2 November 2010: A US MQ-5B Hunter was lost during takeoff in Afghanistan.
17 October 2010: A US MQ-5B Hunter was lost during landing in Afghanistan.
4 June 2010: An Australian IAI Heron crash landed in Afghanistan.
3 June 2010: A British Elbit Hermes 450 is lost in Afghanistan.
21 May 2010: A British Elbit Hermes 450 is lost in Afghanistan.
17 May 2010: A German IAI Heron drone is lost in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan.
17 March 2010: A German IAI Heron drone crashed into a C-160 cargo plane.
14 March 2010: A US MQ-1B Predator was lost during flight in Afghanistan.
13 February 2010: A US MQ-5B Hunter was lost during takeoff in Afghanistan.
9 February 2010: A US MQ-1B Predator was lost by unknown reasons in Afghanistan.
15 January 2010: A US MQ-1B Predator was lost by an operator error in Afghanistan.
13 December 2010: A US MQ-5B Hunter was lost during takeoff by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
20 November 2009: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid flight in Afghanistan.
14 November 2009: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid flight by a mechanical failure in Afghanistan.
3 October 2009: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid flight by a pilot error in Afghanistan.
13 September 2009: A US MQ-9 Reaper lost link during mid flight in Afghanistan.
4 September 2009: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid flight by a mechanical failure in Afghanistan.
4 June 2009: A US MQ-9 Reaper crashed during landing in Afghanistan.
2 June 2009: A British Elbit Hermes 450 is lost in Afghanistan.
13 May 2009: A US MQ-1B Predator lost link during mid flight by a mechanical failure in Afghanistan.
8 May 2009: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid flight by a mechanical failure in Afghanistan.
20 April 2009: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid flight by an electrical failure in Afghanistan.
14 March 2009: A Canadian SAGEM Sperwer drone crashed in Afghanistan.
8 February 2009: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost during mid flight by an engine failure in Afghanistan.
20 November 2008: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost in Afghanistan.
2 November 2008: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost by a drone operator error in Afghanistan.
25 October 2008: A Canadian SAGEM Sperwer drone crashed in Afghanistan.
21 October 2008: A Canadian SAGEM Sperwer drone crashed in Afghanistan.
21 June 2008: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost in Afghanistan.
13 June 2008: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost in Afghanistan.
9 April 2008: A British MQ-9 Reaper drone crashed in Afghanistan after a mechanical issue.
22 March 2008: A US Army General Atomics MQ-1 Predator is lost in Afghanistan.
28 January 2008: A US Army General Atomics MQ-1 Predator is lost in Afghanistan.
23 February 2007: A US MQ-1B Predator is lost by an engine failure during flight in Afghanistan.
2002: A German EMT Luna X-2000 drone crashed in Kabul after nearly colliding with a commercial flight.
Summary per type
Contract aircraft losses
27
UAVs or drones
96
Notes:
Summaries are calculated based on the incidents included in this article.
See also
List of combat losses of United States military aircraft since the Vietnam War
List of aviation accidents and incidents during the Iraq War
List of Soviet aircraft losses in Afghanistan
References
Coalition
Afghanistan, Coalition aircraft
Aircraft losses
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Right to education
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The right to education has been recognized as a human right in a number of international conventions, including the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights which recognizes a right to free, primary education for all, an obligation to develop secondary education accessible to all with the progressive introduction of free secondary education, as well as an obligation to develop equitable access to higher education, ideally by the progressive introduction of free higher education. In 2021, 171 states were parties to the Covenant.
In 2019, an estimated 260 million children worldwide did not have access to school education, and social inequality was a major cause.
The Human Rights Measurement Initiative measures the right to education for countries around the world, based on their level of income.
International legal basis
The right to education is reflected in article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states:
"Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children."
The right to education has been reaffirmed in the 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the 1981 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, and the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
In Africa, both the 1981 the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and the 1990 African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child recognize the right to education.
In [Europe], Article 2 of the first Protocol of 20 March 1952 to the European Convention on Human Rights states that the right to education is recognized as a human right and is understood to establish an entitlement to education. According to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the right to education includes the right to free, compulsory primary education for all, an obligation to develop secondary education accessible to all in particular by the progressive introduction of free secondary education, as well as an obligation to develop equitable access to higher education in particular by the progressive introduction of free higher education. The right to education also includes a responsibility to provide basic education for individuals who have not completed primary education. In addition to these access to education provisions, the right to education encompasses also the obligation to eliminate discrimination at all levels of the educational system, to set minimum standards, and to improve quality. The European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg has applied this norm for example in the Belgian linguistic case. Article 10 of the European Social Charter guarantees the right to vocational education.
According to Indian constitution under 86th Amendment act 2002, There is right to free and compulsory education up to 6–14 years of age.
It has been argued that "International law provides no effective protection of the right to pre-primary education." Just two global treaties explicitly reference education prior to primary school. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women requires states to ensure equality for girls "in pre-school." And in the Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, states agree that access to "public pre-school educational institutions" shall not be denied due to the parents’ or child's "irregular situation with respect to stay." Less explicitly, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities requires that "States Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all levels."
In 2022, Human Rights Watch adopted a policy calling on states to make at least one year of free and compulsory, inclusive, quality pre-primary education available and accessible for all children. In doing so they advocated making one year of pre-primary education to be included as part of the minimum core of the right to education. They further called on all states to adopt a detailed plan of action for the progressive implementation of further years of pre-primary education, within a reasonable number of years to be fixed in the plan.
Definition
Education is the access to formal institutional instructions. Generally, international instruments use the term in this sense and the right to education, as protected by international human rights instruments, refers primarily to education in a narrow sense. The 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education defines education in Article 1(2) as: "all types and levels of education, (including such) access to education, the standard and quality of education, and the conditions under which it is given."
In a wider sense education may describe "all activities by which a human group transmits to its descendants a body of knowledge and skills and a moral code which enable the group to subsist". In this sense education refers to the transmission to a subsequent generation of those skills needed to perform tasks of daily living, and further passing on the social, cultural, spiritual and philosophical values of the particular community. The wider meaning of education has been recognised in Article 1(a) of UNESCO's 1974 Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.
"the entire process of social life by means of which individuals and social groups learn to develop consciously within, and for the benefit of, the national and international communities, the whole of their personal capabilities, attitudes, aptitudes and knowledge."
The European Court of Human Rights has defined education in a narrow sense as "teaching or instructions... in particular to the transmission of knowledge and to intellectual development" and in a wider sense as "the whole process whereby, in any society, adults endeavour to transmit their beliefs, culture and other values to the young."
Assessment of fulfilment
The fulfilment of the right to education can be assessed using the 4As framework, which asserts that for education to be a meaningful right it must be available, accessible, acceptable and adaptable. The 4As framework was developed by the former UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, Katarina Tomasevski, but is not necessarily the standard used in every international human rights instrument and hence not a generic guide to how the right to education is treated under national law.
The 4As framework proposes that governments, as the prime duty-bearers, have to respect, protect and fulfil the right to education by making education available, accessible, acceptable and adaptable. The framework also places duties on other stakeholders in the education process: the child, which as the privileged subject of the right to education has the duty to comply with compulsory education requirements, the parents as the ‘first educators’, and professional educators, namely teachers.
The 4As have been further elaborated as follows:
Availability – funded by governments, education is universal, free and compulsory. There should be proper infrastructure and facilities in place with adequate books and materials for students. Buildings should meet both safety and sanitation standards, such as having clean drinking water. Active recruitment, proper training and appropriate retention methods should ensure that enough qualified staff is available at each school.
Accessibility – all children should have equal access to school services, regardless of gender, race, religion, ethnicity or socio-economic status. Efforts should be made to ensure the inclusion of marginalized groups including children of refugees, the homeless or those with disabilities; in short there should be universal access to education i.e. access to all. Children who fall into poverty should be granted the access of education because it enhances the growth of their mental and social state. There should be no forms of segregation or denial of access to any students. This includes ensuring that proper laws are in place against any child labour or exploitation to prevent children from obtaining primary or secondary education. Schools must be within a reasonable distance for children within the community, otherwise transportation should be provided to students, particularly those that might live in rural areas, to ensure ways to school are safe and convenient. Education should be affordable to all, with textbooks, supplies and uniforms provided to students at no additional costs.
Acceptability – the quality of education provided should be free of discrimination, relevant and culturally appropriate for all students. Students should not be expected to conform to any specific religious or ideological views. Methods of teaching should be objective and unbiased and material available should reflect a wide array of ideas and beliefs. Health and safety should be emphasized within schools including the elimination of any forms of corporal punishment. Professionalism of staff and teachers should be maintained.
Adaptability – educational programs should be flexible and able to adjust according to societal changes and the needs of the community. Observance of religious or cultural holidays should be respected by schools in order to accommodate students, along with providing adequate care to those students with disabilities.
A number of international NGOs and charities work to realise the right to education using a rights-based approach to development.
Historical development
In Europe, before the Enlightenment of the eighteenth and nineteenth century, education was the responsibility of parents and the church. With the French and American Revolution, education was established also as a public function. It was thought that the state, by assuming a more active role in the sphere of education, could help to make education available and accessible to all. Education had thus far been primarily available to the upper social classes and public education was perceived as a means of realising the egalitarian ideals underlining both revolutions.
However, neither the American Declaration of Independence (1776) nor the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) protected the right to education, as the liberal concepts of human rights in the nineteenth century envisaged that parents retained the primary duty for providing education to their children. It was the states obligation to ensure that parents complied with this duty, and many states enacted legislation making school attendance compulsory. Furthermore, child labour laws were enacted to limit the number of hours per day children could be employed, to ensure children would attend school. States also became involved in the legal regulation of curricula and established minimum educational standards.
In On Liberty John Stuart Mill wrote that an "education established and controlled by the State should only exist, if it exists at all, as one among many competing experiments, carried on for the purpose of example and stimulus to keep the others up to a certain standard of excellence." Liberal thinkers of the nineteenth century pointed to the dangers to too much state involvement in the sphere of education, but relied on state intervention to reduce the dominance of the church, and to protect the right to education of children against their own parents. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, educational rights were included in domestic bills of rights. The 1849 Paulskirchenverfassung, the constitution of the German Empire, strongly influenced subsequent European constitutions and devoted Article 152 to 158 of its bill of rights to education. The constitution recognised education as a function of the state, independent of the church. Remarkable at the time, the constitution proclaimed the right to free education for the poor, but the constitution did not explicitly require the state to set up educational institutions. Instead the constitution protected the rights of citizens to found and operate schools and to provide home education. The constitution also provided for freedom of science and teaching, and it guaranteed the right of everybody to choose a vocation and train for it.
The nineteenth century also saw the development of socialist theory, which held that the primary task of the state was to ensure the economic and social well-being of the community through government intervention and regulation. Socialist theory recognised that individuals had claims to basic welfare services against the state and education was viewed as one of these welfare entitlements. This was in contrast to liberal theory at the time, which regarded non-state actors as the prime providers of education. In 1917 the Mexican constitution was the first to guarantee free and secular education. Later, socialist ideals were enshrined in the 1936 Soviet Constitution, which recognize the right to education with a corresponding obligation of the state to provide such education. The constitution guaranteed free and compulsory education at all levels, a system of state scholarships and vocational training in state enterprises. Subsequently, the right to education featured strongly in the constitutions of socialist states. As a political goal, right to education was declared in F. D. Roosevelt's 1944 speech on the Second Bill of Rights.
The role of education for individuals, the society and the state
Education in all its forms (informal, non-formal, and formal) is crucial to ensure dignity of all individuals. The aims of education, as set out in the International human rights law (IHRL), are all directed to the realization of the individual’s rights and dignity. These include, among others, ensuring human dignity and the full and holistic development of the human personality; fostering physical and cognitive development; allowing for the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and talents; contributing to the realization of the full potential of the individual; enhancing self-esteem and increasing confidence; encouraging respect for human rights; shaping a person’s sense of identity and affiliation with others; enabling socialization and meaningful interaction with others; enabling a person to shape the world around them enables their participation in community life; contributing to a full and satisfying life within society; and empowering and allowing for the increased enjoyment of other human rights.
Education is also transformative for the state and society. As one of the most important mechanisms by which social groups, in particular indigenous peoples and minorities are maintained from generation to generation, passing on language, culture, identity, values, and customs, education is also one of the key ways states can ensure their economic, social, political, and cultural interests.
The main role of education within a society and the state is to:
Allow for the transmission of culture, values, identity, languages, and customs from one generation to the next;
Promote sustainable economic growth;
Foster democratic and peaceful societies;
Encourage participation and inclusion in decision-making processes;
Encourage a rich cultural life;
Help build a national identity;
Promote social justice;
Overcome persistent and entrenched challenges;
Encourage sustainable development, including respect for the environment.
Implementation
International law does not protect the right to pre-primary education and international documents generally omit references to education at this level. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the right to education, hence the right applies to all individuals, although children are considered as the main beneficiaries.
The rights to education are separated into three levels:
Primary (Elemental or Fundamental) Education. This shall be compulsory and free for any child regardless of their nationality, gender, place of birth, or any other discrimination. Upon ratifying the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights States must provide free primary education within two years.
Secondary (or Elementary, Technical and Professional in the UDHR) Education must be generally available and accessible.
At the University Level, Education should be provided according to capacity. That is, anyone who meets the necessary education standards should be able to go to university.
Both secondary and higher education shall be made accessible "by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education".
Compulsory education
The realization of the right to education on a national level may be achieved through compulsory education, or more specifically free compulsory primary education, as stated in both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
Right to education for children
The rights of all children from early childhood stem from the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The declaration proclaimed in article 1: ‘All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights’. The declaration states that human rights begin at birth and that childhood is a period demanding special care and assistance [art. 25 (2)]. The 1959 Declaration of the Rights of the Child affirmed that: ‘mankind owes to the child the best it has to give’, including education. This was amplified by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 which states that: ‘education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. [art. 13 (1)]
The World Declaration on Education for All (EFA) adopted in 1990 in Jomtien, Thailand, states in article 5 that: ‘Learning begins at birth [...] This calls for early childhood care and initial education.’ A decade later, the Dakar Framework for Action on EFA established six goals, the first of which was: ‘expanding and improving early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children.’ Protection of children of all ages from exploitation and actions that would jeopardize their health, education and well-being has also been emphasized by the International Labour Organization in Conventions No. 138 on the Minimum Age of Employment (1973) and No. 182 on the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (1999). The United Nations contributed to such endeavours by the Declaration of the Rights of the Child unanimously adopted by the General Assembly in 1959.
There are various NGO's working towards the right to education. EClickKart is one of such platforms initiated by Rohit N Shetty which states that Education is the basic right and EClickKart is working towards it.
The impact of privatization on the right to education
The privatization of education can have negative effects resulting from insufficient or inadequate monitoring and regulation by the public authorities (schools without licences, hiring of untrained teachers and absence of quality assurance), with potential risks for social cohesion and solidarity. Of particular concern: "Marginalised groups fail to enjoy the bulk of positive impacts and also bear the disproportionate burden of the negative impacts of privatisation." Furthermore, uncontrolled fees demanded by private providers could undermine universal access to education. More generally, this could have a negative impact on the enjoyment of the right to a good quality education and on the realization of equal educational opportunities. However, it can have a positive impact for some social groups, in the form of increased availability of learning opportunities, greater parental choice and a wider range of curricula.
Supplemental private tutoring, or ‘shadow education’, which represents one specific dimension of the privatization of education, is growing worldwide. Often a symptom of badly functioning school systems, private tutoring, much like other manifestations of private education, can have both positive and negative effects for learners and their teachers. On one hand, teaching can be tailored to the needs of slower learners and teachers can supplement their school salaries. On the other hand, fees for private tutoring may represent a sizeable share of household income, particularly among the poor, and can therefore create inequalities in learning opportunities. And the fact that some teachers may put more effort into private tutoring and neglect their regular duties can adversely affect the quality of teaching and learning at school. The growth of shadow education, the financial resources mobilized by individuals and families, and the concerns regarding possible teacher misconduct and corruption are leading some ministries of education to attempt to regulate the phenomenon.
Social inequality
In the year 2019, an estimated 260 million children did not have access to school education on a global scale.
Female education
In the 21st century, gender inequality is still an obstacle to universal access to education. Conservative attitudes towards the female gender role challenge women's and girls' ability to fully exercise their right to education.
Out of 750 million illiterate adults in the world, two-thirds are estimated to be women. This is due to gender inequality, misogynistic violence, as well as, marriage and pregnancy, often associated with poverty and geographic isolation.
In the second decade of 21st century, the advocacy for women's right to access education became a global movement through the activism of Malala Yousafzai, a Pakistani Nobel laureate.
COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic affected over 90% of the world's students and was responsible for the rise of social inequality in the access to education. The global recession immediate to the pandemic projected drastic consequences on education funding, causing long-lasting effects on the equal right to education.
Globally, during the pandemic, markers of gender, class, and ethnicity presented themselves as factors of vulnerability in the access to basic rights such as education and health.
In despite of E-learning historical objective walks towards the democratization of education access, depending on its quality, it can be a difficulty in the achievement of this right. Students lacking cultural capital, family support, and material conditions (including access to quality electronic equipment and internet) have had their access to education hindered by this modality of education. The return to classroom teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic generated a conflict between the right to health and the right to an education. By returning to the school before the pandemic was fully under control, students were exposed to the SARS-CoV-2. Another aspect chained by the pandemic, that also relates to the right to health, is the damage to students' mental health.
See also
Academic freedom
Economic, social and cultural rights
Education
Educational equity
Educational technology
Female education
Free education
Freedom of education
History of childhood care and education
Lifelong learning
Literacy
Open educational resources
Pedagogy
Scholarship
Universal access to education
World Education Forum
Lawsuits
Mohini Jain v. State of Karnataka (1992 AIR 1858) or (AIR 1992 SC 2100), in India.
References
Sources
External links
Right for Education in Africa
Right to Education UNESCO
UN Special Rapporteur on the right to education
Refugee Education in an International Perspective, dossier by Education Worldwide, a portal of the German Education
The Human Right to Education: Definition, Research and Annotated Bibliography Emory International Law Review, Vol. 34, No. 3, 2020.
Education policy
Education
Education rights
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Posting system
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The is a baseball player transfer system that operates between Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) and Major League Baseball (MLB). Despite the drafting of the United States – Japanese Player Contract Agreement, unveiled in 1967 to regulate NPB players moving to MLB, problems began to arise in the late 1990s. Some NPB teams lost star players without compensation, an issue highlighted when NPB stars Hideo Nomo and Alfonso Soriano left to play in MLB after using loopholes to void their existing contracts. A further problem was that NPB players had very little negotiating power if their teams decided to deal them to MLB, as when pitcher Hideki Irabu was traded to an MLB team for which he had no desire to play. In 1998, the Agreement was rewritten to address both problems; the result was dubbed the "posting system".
Under this system, when an NPB player is "posted", his NPB team notifies the MLB Commissioner, with the posting fee based on the type of contract a player signs and its value. The fee is a flat 25% of the value of a minor-league contract; for MLB contracts, the fee is based on the value of the contract that the posted player eventually signs. The player is then given 30 days to negotiate with any MLB team willing to pay the NPB team's posting fee. If the player agrees on contract terms with a team before the 30-day period has expired, the NPB team receives the posting fee from the signing MLB team as a transfer fee, and the player is free to play in MLB. If no MLB team comes to a contract agreement with the posted player, then no fee is paid, and the player's rights revert to his NPB team. The current process replaced one in which MLB held a silent auction during which MLB teams submitted sealed, uncapped bids in an attempt to win the exclusive negotiating rights with the posted player for a period of 30 days. Once the highest bidding MLB team was determined, the player could then only negotiate with that team.
Up to the end of the 2017–18 posting period, 23 NPB players had been posted using the system. Of these, 12 signed Major League contracts, four signed minor-league contracts, five were unsuccessful in attracting any MLB interest, and two could not come to a contract agreement during the 30-day negotiation period. The five highest-profile players that have been acquired by MLB teams through the posting system are Ichiro Suzuki, Daisuke Matsuzaka, Yu Darvish, Masahiro Tanaka, and Shohei Ohtani. The first three attracted high bids of $13.125 million, $51.1 million, and $51.7 million respectively. Tanaka was the first player posted under a revised procedure that was in place from 2013 to 2017; he was posted for the maximum $20 million allowed under the new rules. Ohtani was the first player posted under the current procedure; his posting fee of $20 million was grandfathered in under the previous agreement. However, since its implementation the posting system has been criticized by the media and baseball insiders from both countries.
History
The first instance of a Japanese-born player playing in Major League Baseball was in 1964, when the Nankai Hawks, an NPB team, sent three exchange prospects to the United States to gain experience in MLB's minor league system. One of the players, pitcher Masanori Murakami, was named the California League Rookie of the Year while playing for the Fresno Giants (the San Francisco Giants' Class-A team).
Giants executives were impressed with his talent and on September 1, 1964 Murakami was promoted, thus becoming the first Japanese player to play in MLB. After Murakami put up good pitching statistics as a reliever, Giants executives sought to exercise a clause in their contract with the Hawks that, they claimed, allowed them to buy up an exchange prospect's contract. NPB officials objected, stating that they had no intention of selling Murakami's contract to the Giants and telling them that Murakami was merely on loan for the 1964 season. After a two-month stalemate the Giants eventually agreed to send Murakami back to the Hawks after the 1965 season. Thus, after pitching one more season for the Giants, Murakami returned to Japan to play for the Hawks. This affair led to the 1967 United States – Japanese Player Contract Agreement, also known as the "working agreement", between MLB and NPB, which was basically a hands-off policy.
Complications
MLB and NPB officials created the posting system as a combined reaction to three cases in the 1990s, involving NPB players who moved to MLB. The first of these occurred in the winter of 1994 when pitcher Hideo Nomo, with the help of agent Don Nomura, became the second Japanese-born player to play in MLB, 30 years after Murakami. Nomo, who was not yet eligible for free agency in Japan, was advised by Nomura that the Japanese Uniform Players Contract's reserve clause limited the Kintetsu Buffaloes' control over him to Japan only. Nomo utilized this loophole by voluntarily retiring from NPB to terminate his contract with the Buffaloes, circumvent its reserve clause and play in MLB. He announced his retirement from NPB in late 1994 and signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers in February 1995, where he won the National League Rookie of the Year award. The following year, the Dodgers signed Nomo to a three-year, $4.3 million contract.
In early 1997, after months of negotiations, the San Diego Padres signed a working agreement with the Chiba Lotte Marines that gave the Padres exclusive signing rights to another Nomura client, Hideki Irabu. Although both Irabu and Nomura stated that Irabu would only sign with the New York Yankees, neither the Padres nor the Marines consulted Irabu before finalizing their deal. The Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) sided with Irabu, stating that the arrangement unfairly disregarded a player's expressed wishes. However, MLB's executive council ruled that the Padres had not violated any existing rule, and therefore legally held the rights to Irabu. Following this decision, Irabu contemplated a number of different options, including playing in NPB until he became a free agent, and taking the matter to the U.S. judicial system. By May, however, the Padres gave in and traded Irabu to the Yankees, who signed him for $12.8 million over four years.
The final incident occurred in 1998, when Alfonso Soriano was unable to leave the Hiroshima Toyo Carp due to contract restrictions. Soriano disliked the intense Japanese practice schedule, and the Carp denied him a salary increase from $45,000 (the league's minimum) to $180,000 per year. Like Nomo and Irabu, Soriano hired Nomura to help his situation. After first attempting to void Soriano's NPB contract by unsuccessfully arguing that the player was legally a minor when he signed it Nomura advised him, like Nomo, to retire from NPB and pursue a career in MLB. This prompted Carp executives to file an injunction against Soriano and send letters to MLB teams demanding that they cease all negotiations with him. NPB officials claimed that after the Nomo case they had privately amended the Player Contract to give NPB teams the right to prohibit a player from signing a new contract anywhere after voluntarily retiring. Since MLB officials were not consulted and they did not agree to any changes, MLB Commissioner Bud Selig declared that MLB would recognize Soriano as a free agent on July 13, 1998, and the Carp backed down. He signed a 5-year, $3.1 million contract with the New York Yankees the same year.
Resolution
In 1998, Orix BlueWave general manager Shigeyoshi Ino rewrote the 1967 United States – Japanese Player Contract Agreement, when he drafted the "posting system". Selig and NPB Commissioner Hiromori Kawashima signed this new agreement in December 1998. It sought to address each of the problems brought up by the Nomo, Irabu and Soriano cases, by requiring MLB teams to place "bids" for NPB players. These bids became the basis of transfer fees that are paid as compensation to NPB teams whose star players sign with MLB. NPB players are also allowed to negotiate with MLB teams over the terms of their new contracts. Through the 2013 season, the agreement was in effect on a year-to-year basis, terminable at the option of either the MLB Commissioner or the NPB Commissioner provided notice to terminate is given by June 18 of any given year. A new agreement between MLB and NPB, with significantly different rules, was announced on December 16, 2013 and took effect immediately; it continued through the 2016 MLB and NPB seasons. The agreement was extended for an additional season during negotiations for a new agreement.
The current posting agreement was reached after the 2017 MLB and NPB seasons. The agreement runs through October 31, 2021, the expiration date of MLB's current collective bargaining agreement. Not all of the provisions applied immediately—for example, the Hokkaido Nippon-Ham Fighters were allowed to set a $20 million posting fee, the maximum allowed under the previous agreement, for two-way star Shohei Ohtani, whom they posted shortly after approval of the new agreement. Since the end of the 2018 NPB and MLB seasons, posting fees have been based on the type of contract a player signs and the deal's value. For players signed to MLB contracts, the posting fee is based on the amount of guaranteed money in the initial contract:
20% of the first $25 million
17.5% of the next $25 million
15% of any amount above $50 million
For players signed to minor-league contracts, the fee is a flat 25% of the contract's value.
The system only applies to players currently under contract with a Japanese team, although players who have nine or more years of playing service with NPB are exempt. It does not apply to free agents or to amateur players who have never played in NPB. Mac Suzuki, Micheal Nakamura, Kazuhito Tadano, and Junichi Tazawa are the only Japanese players to have debuted in MLB without having played in NPB. The system does not work in reverse; it does not regulate MLB players, such as Alex Cabrera, who moved to NPB.
Process
When a player under contract with a Nippon Professional Baseball team wishes to play in Major League Baseball, he must notify his current team's management and request that they make him available for posting during the next posting period (November 1 – March 1 through the 2013 season, and November 1 – February 1 in the current agreement). The NPB team can reject this request, and the player will not be posted. However, if the team consents, the player is presented to the MLB Commissioner, who then notifies all MLB teams of the posted player.
In the original process, MLB held a four-day-long silent auction during which interested MLB teams submitted sealed bids in U.S. dollars to the Commissioner's Office. After the allotted four days passed, the Commissioner closed the bidding process and notified the posted player's NPB team of the highest bid amount but not who the bidding team was. The NPB team then had four days to either accept or reject the non-negotiable bid amount.
If the bid was rejected, the NPB team retained rights to the player. If it was accepted, the successful MLB team was granted the exclusive rights to negotiate with the player for 30 days. If the player and the MLB team agreed on contract terms before the 30-day period expired, the NPB team received the bid amount as a transfer fee within five business days. The player was then free to play for his new MLB team in the coming season. The transfer fee was not included when calculating an MLB team's total payroll, which is subject to a luxury tax when it exceeds $155 million. If the MLB team could not come to a contract agreement with the posted player, then no fee was paid and the rights to the player reverted to his NPB team. A player could request to be posted again in subsequent years, and the process would be repeated with no advantage to the club that had won the bidding the previous year.
Under the current process, the NPB team notifies the MLB Commissioner of a posting, with the posting fee determined by the value of the contract that a posted player eventually signs with an MLB organization. Once the MLB Commissioner announces the posting, the player has 30 days to sign with an MLB team. Unlike the past system, in which only the team that won the bidding process had negotiating rights, the current system allows the posted player to negotiate with any MLB team willing to pay the posting fee. As in the previous process, if the player signs with an MLB team during the negotiating window, the signing team will pay the posting fee; otherwise, his rights revert to his NPB team. Also mirroring the past system, an unsuccessfully posted player can request a posting in a later year, with the process repeated.
List of postings
Of the 64 Japanese-born players who have played in MLB, 22 have entered the league using the posting system. Since the system's creation in 1998, the 28 players that have used it have experienced a range of success. Of these 28, sixteen were immediately signed to Major League contracts and one player who drew no bids on his first posting was signed to a Major League contract on his second posting. These contracts range from $1.4 million to $155 million. Of the remaining twelve, four were signed to Minor League contracts, three were unable to reach a contract agreement and six were unsuccessful in drawing bids from any Major League clubs (one player failed to draw bids during two separate postings). The following tables outline each posting and its outcome.
Criticism
Since its implementation in late 1998 the posting system has been heavily criticized. Ichiro Suzuki's agent remarked that "the player literally gets zero advantage from [the posting system]... the Japanese teams benefit by holding the players hostage". Don Nomura called the process a "slave auction". Much of the criticism of the system stems from its forcing NPB players to negotiate their contracts solely with the MLB team that submitted the highest bid. The Japan Times columnist Marty Kuehnert believes that since no other team is allowed to submit competitive counter-offers, negotiations result in salaries below the player's market value. Kuehnert also believes the system fosters a "take-it-or-leave-it" situation; if the team and the player have not finalized contract negotiations by the end of a 30-day period, the team can make a low offer knowing that the player's only other option is to play in Japan for another year. It has been suggested that this is a violation of the Anti-Monopoly Act, a Japanese antitrust law that prohibits parties from signing an international agreement or contract that "contains such matters as constitute an unreasonable restraint of trade or unfair business practices".
The Japan Professional Baseball Players Association (JPBPA) was not consulted before the system was implemented by NPB club owners, and did not subsequently ratify it. Since its introduction JPBPA has expressed many concerns, likening the process to "human trafficking". Agreeing that the system takes unfair advantage of NPB players, the MLBPA offered to help JPBPA fight the posting system in court. However, according to one JPBPA official, the Japanese court process is too long and involved; therefore, the "problem can't be helped".
Yomiuri Giants club representative Hidetoshi Kiyotake has expressed dislike of the system, because it enables Major League Baseball to poach players from Japan. By using the posting system, he says, Japanese teams make a profit in the short term, but by allowing Japan's best players to be sold to MLB, NPB teams and Japanese baseball suffer in the longer term. When Giants pitcher Koji Uehara asked to be posted in 2005, Kiyotake denied his request, saying: "We don't recognize the posting system. I've said from the beginning that this is out of the question."
In the middle of the 2012–13 posting season, MLB approached NPB seeking to change the way MLB teams bid for the right to negotiate with NPB players. Instead of using a silent auction in which teams bid blindly, MLB would prefer its teams to participate in a traditional, open auction where the bids are known and teams can knowingly outbid each other. Such a change would likely lower the price of the transfer fees paid to NPB teams. MLB and the players' unions agree that they'd prefer to see the players receive more money for the transfer rather than the teams. The Japan Times columnist Jason Coskrey also believed that these talks provided the JPBPA an opportunity to voice their concerns about the posting system and attempt to gain more leverage for themselves during the posting process. The new agreement, as noted, was announced on December 16, 2013, with most of the changes desired by MLB and players from both leagues.
2006–07 controversy
The posting system was criticized by MLB insiders and by the U.S. media, after the controversial 2006–07 posting period. Before the posting of the period's first player, Daisuke Matsuzaka, in early November 2006, there was speculation that he might draw bids as high as $30 million—more than twice the previous record bid that Ichiro Suzuki had garnered in 2000–01. After his silent auction was closed, it was revealed that Matsuzaka had drawn a bid of $51.1 million, shocking American and Japanese baseball executives. The Boston Red Sox's winning bid was more than $11 million higher than the next largest.
With the negotiations between Matsuzaka and the Red Sox at a stalemate as the negotiation period neared its close, The Washington Post Dave Sheinin questioned both parties' intentions. Sheinin believed that the Red Sox had foreseen the contractual stalemate and had submitted a high bid simply to deny the New York Yankees an opportunity to negotiate with Matsuzaka. However, after Matsuzaka's agent Scott Boras threatened to take Matsuzaka back to NPB if his price was not met, Sheinin theorized that Boras intentionally wanted to hinder contract negotiations. ESPN The Magazine's Tim Kurkjian described the situation as "the most obvious game of chicken ever." Sheinin suggested that, should the negotiations fail, Boras could take legal action on the grounds that the requirement of MLB teams to pay large transfer fees to NPB teams artificially depressed the player's personal contract. Boras did not believe that the transfer fee should affect the player's compensation.
Despite the negotiation difficulties, the Boston Red Sox eventually signed Matsuzaka. The team paid approximately $103.1 million in total, including the transfer fee and contract, to acquire the pitcher. Kurkjian believes that with fees and contracts this high, small-market teams could not afford to compete with large-market teams for the rights to negotiate with some posted Japanese players. Kurkjian blames the posting system's use of a blind bidding system as the cause of Matsuzaka's "outrageous offer." He also postulates that Matsuzaka's high bid amount helped to inflate the bids for Kei Igawa who was posted two weeks later, perpetuating the problem further. After winning the negotiation rights to Igawa, Yankees' general manager Brian Cashman told reporters that "the posting system, clearly with what took place this winter, might not necessarily be the best system". Kurkjian claims that other MLB executives already believe that a traditional free agent structure, where the highest bidder wins, would be better than the current system. Cashman and Yankees team president Randy Levine met with NPB team officials in early 2007 to discuss the posting system, among other things. These meetings did not result in any immediate changes.
See also
Baseball in Japan
Transfer in association football
Notes
References
External links
What is a Japanese Posting System
United States – Japanese Player Contract Agreement (posting system 1998–2013): English, Japanese
Major League Baseball labor relations
Nippon Professional Baseball
History of baseball
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAAF%20unit%20identification%20aircraft%20markings
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USAAF unit identification aircraft markings
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USAAF unit identification aircraft markings, commonly called "tail markings" after their most frequent location, were numbers, letters, geometric symbols, and colors painted onto the tails (vertical stabilizer fins, rudders and horizontal surfaces), wings, or fuselages of the aircraft of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) during the Second World War.
The purpose of these markings was to serve as call signs in the Royal Air Force (RAF) radio procedures used in the UK and to provide a visual means of identification in conjunction with the call procedures, and later assembly and combat visual identification of units and aircraft. Two-letter squadron codes were used to denote a squadron; some squadron codes later consisted of a letter and a numeral. An additional single letter, known as the Radio Call Letter (RCL), was to identify the aircraft within the squadron, used phonetically in radio calls. Other areas continued to use only the RCN or simple numbering and lettering.
As the buildup of troops continued in the Europe, Africa, Middle East Campaign (EAME), the United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe (USSTAF) bomber formations grew and assembly necessitated better visual unit identification at greater distance.
To facilitate control among thousands of bombers, the USAAF devised a system of aircraft tail markings in 1943 to identify groups and wings. Both the Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces used a system of large, readily-identifiable geometric symbols combined with alphanumerics to designate groups when all USAAF bombers were painted olive drab in color. However, as unpainted ("natural metal finish") aircraft became policy at the start of 1944, the system evolved gradually to one using large areas of color in conjunction with symbols or patterns of color identifying the wing and often different colors for the group.
The Twentieth Air Force, eventually operating 20 groups and 1,000 bombers, also adopted a tail identification system overseas. The other six numbered air forces fighting in the Pacific War also used tail markings within the various air forces both as group and squadron identifiers. The patterns or themes varied; some were designated at the Air Force level, some at the Command level and others down at Group or squadron level. As in Europe, geometric shapes and colors were used as were letters, numbers and variations based on the RCN or serial number last three or four digits. Some pre-war bands and stripes were reinstated.
Eighth Air Force tail markings
The first Eighth Air Force aircraft to receive unit markings were the Spitfires of the 4th and 31st Fighter Groups training with RAF Fighter Command in September 1942. The markings were two-letter fuselage squadron codes located on one side of the national insignia and a single letter aircraft code on the other side. However sixteen squadrons of B-17s of the new VIII Bomber Command, beginning in December 1942, also received this identification system, which continued in the spring and summer of 1943 when VIII Bomber Command quadrupled in size.
However the size of the Allied air forces began to exhaust possible two-letter combinations, and made difficult the timely assembly of heavy bomber tactical formations. In June 1943 VIII Bomber Command introduced the use of a geometric symbol painted on either side of a bomber's vertical fin to denote a bombardment wing (later division) identification marking. These devices were white in color and 80 inches wide. A triangle denoted the B-17 1st Bombardment Wing (later 1st Air Division), a circle the B-24 2nd Bombardment Wing, and a square the B-17 4th Bombardment Wing (later 3rd Air Division). The B-26 medium bombers of the 3rd Bombardment Wing did not use this scheme.
Groups were identified by a letter superimposed on the symbol. At first letters were yellow in color, but after only a few had been so painted, the color was changed in July 1943 to insignia blue for easier reading. On unpainted aircraft the colors were reversed, with a white letter superimposed on a black symbol. Bombers also carried the symbol on the upper surface of the aircraft's right wingtip. Although issued group and squadron codes by the Eighth Air Force, the 93rd Combat Bomb Wing of the 3rd Bomb Division displayed neither until after the end of hostilities in Europe (noted in the table below with an asterisk). The 385th Bomb Group was shifted to the 93rd CBW in October 1944 after the wing converted from B-24 to B-17 aircraft, and it removed its fuselage and tail codes in accordance with wing policy.
8AF bombardment group letter identifiers
Markings as B-24 groups only
B-17 markings
The 100th BG's Square D is still in use in the USAF by its successor unit, the 100th Air Refueling Wing.
Color identifiers
These markings were effective within a mile of the viewer, but as the numbers of groups increased from sixteen to forty, assembly difficulties increased. The USAAF decided to discontinue further camouflage painting of its aircraft in late 1943 and these began to reach Groups in February, 1944.
The 2nd Bomb Division devised a system for its B-24s whereby the entire tail fin was painted in a color (each of its five combat wings was assigned a color) and a black or white band placed across the fin either vertically, horizontally, or diagonally to identify the group within that wing. The 93rd CBW of the 3rd Air Division, which operated B-24s from May to September 1944, also adopted a color system in June.
The first color markings for B-17s appeared in July 1944 when the 1st Combat Bomb Wing (91st, 381st, and 398th Bomb Groups) painted the empennage of their airplanes bright red. The remainder of the 1st Air Division began using color schemes in September, but each combat wing adopted a different method, depicted in the link below under "External links".
The 3rd Air Division, once converted to an all-B-17 command, followed suit in the winter of 1944-1945, employing elaborate schemes which included colored chevrons and bands on the aircraft wings that required months of labor to convert all its aircraft. Those schemes are depicted in the B-17 link below.
Fifteenth Air Force tail markings
The Fifteenth Air Force had four groups of B-17's and eleven of B-24's when it first marked its aircraft for unit identification.
B-17 markings
The B-17's of the 5th Bomb Wing used a simple symbol system on their tail fins, adopted in the fall of 1943 before becoming part of the Fifteenth Air Force (triangle for 97th BG, square 301st BG, diamond 99th BG, and circle 2nd BG). When two additional groups joined the wing in April 1944, the wing then identified its groups by a letter Y on the uppermost area of the tail fin, superimposed on the symbol previously used (in a manner similar to the system used by the Eighth) with the new 463rd BG using a cone-shaped device and the 483rd BG a five-pointed star that was displayed below the Y instead of underlying it.
First B-24 scheme
The more numerous B-24 groups used a standardized scheme for its four bomb wings. On outer tail fins, above and below the aircraft serial, two white circles were painted. In the upper circle was painted a geometric symbol in black denoting the wing, with a triangle for the 47th Bomb Wing, a square for the 55th, a diamond for the 304th, and a circle for the 49th. In practice that of the 49th, because of the type of stencil used, resembled the concentric ring bull's-eye of a target. The lower circle contained one of the numerals 1 through 4, painted in black, denoting the group.
15AF B-24 group numeral identifiers:
47th Bomb Wing (triangle):
98th BG - 1, 376th BG - 2, 449th BG - 3, 450th BG - 4
49th Bomb Wing (circle/bulls-eye):
451st BG - 1, 461st BG (second wing assignment, 1944-45) - 2
55th Bomb Wing (square):
460th BG - 1, 461st BG (first wing assignment, 1944) - 2
304th Bomb Wing (diamond):
454th BG - 1, 455th BG - 2, 456th BG - 3, 459th BG - 4
Second B-24 scheme
In June, 1944, the Fifteenth Air Force adopted a color-symbol scheme to identify its groups and wings. The 5th Bomb Wing painted the elevators and rudders of its B-17s various colors but otherwise maintained its marking scheme. The B-24 wings adopted a method by which color and symbol placement would identify its groups:
47th Bomb Wing Diagonally divided tail fins and painted the lower half in yellow and/or black, with the 98th BG using horizontal stripes, the 376th BG in black-only, the 449th BG in half-yellow half-black, and the 450th BG in vertical stripes. The former triangle-circle symbol was retained in the upper half. Late in the war the upper rear stabilizer was painted black with a longitudinal yellow band in the center except for the elevators.
49th Bomb Wing Upper half of the fin painted red, and a red symbol in the lower half; used the same scheme on the upper rear stabilizer with the red on the right side and the symbol on the left. 451st BG: circle; 461st BG: horizontal bar; 484th BG: bow-tie.
55th Bomb Wing Large black square in upper half of the fin, lower half painted black with a yellow symbol superimposed. 460th BG: ring; 464th BG: vertical bar; 465th BG: horizontal stripe; 485th BG: a saltire. The rear stabilizer generally displayed only the black square outlined in yellow until late in the war, when the entire surface was painted yellow except for the elevators.
304th Bomb Wing Large black diamond in the upper half; lower half painted to group color. The rear stabilizer was painted the group color on the left half and had a diamond on the right. 454th BG: white; 455th BG: yellow; 456th BG: red; 459th BG: black-and-yellow checkerboard.
Twentieth Air Force tail markings
For a period of six months the Twentieth Air Force operated two bomber commands, each with a different method of identifying its B-29 Superfortress groups. From April 1945 forward all twenty groups, organized into five bomb wings, were assigned to XXI Bomber Command, which standardized its markings.
XX Bomber Command
The 58th Bomb Wing had been the first to deploy, beginning combat in June 1944 with only a handful of B-29's painted in the standard olive drab camouflage. Each of its four groups employed a different method while based in the China Burma India Theater as part of XX Bomber Command. The 40th BG painted four horizontal stripes across the upper tail fin with the letter identification of the airplane below it. The 444th BG numbered its aircraft and placed it within a large blue diamond outlined in yellow on the tail fin. The 462nd BG painted its rudders but otherwise did not designate the group. The 468th painted two diagonal stripes on the rudders of its aircraft. When the wing and its groups transferred to Tinian in April 1945 the 58th Wing changed to a letter-symbol system.
XXI Bomber Command
The 73rd Bomb Wing began combat in October 1944 from Isley Field, Saipan, and marked its aircraft similarly to that of the Fifteenth Air Force 55th CBW. A letter denoting the group was painted on the upper third of the tail fin, with a square symbol in the center, and an aircraft identifier, known as the "victor number," in the lower third. Aircraft commonly used their tail identifiers as radio voice calls (call signs), i.e. Lucky Irish (serial 42-24622) of the 870th Bomb Squadron, 497th Bomb Group (lost November 24, 1944, over Tokyo) had the voice call "A Square 26".
The 313th Bomb Wing moved to North Field (Tinian), in January 1945. Its aircraft used a system identical to that of the 73rd Wing, with its symbol a triangle.
The 314th Bomb Wing was based at North Field, Guam (now Andersen Air Force Base) beginning in January 1945, with some of its groups beginning combat operations in February. In order to quickly mark its increasing numbers of aircraft, the 314th Wing painted 96-inch black boxes on the tail fins and stenciled the group identifier, either M, O, P or K in BMF 72-inch block letters. This was later infilled with a bright orange/yellow in mid summer 1945.
The 58th Bomb Wing was relocated from India to West Field, Tinian (now Tinian International Airport), in April 1945 and the 315th Wing began arriving at Northwest Field, Guam, in May. The earlier system of marking aircraft was discarded in April by both the 73rd and 313th Wings. The 73rd Wing dropped all use of symbols and marked its aircraft with the group letter only, painted in black lettering. Except for the 314th Wing, which maintained its markings throughout the war, the remaining wings of the XXI Bomber Command used symbols in black to outline group letters. The symbol outline of the 313th Wing was a circle, that of the 58th Wing a triangle, and that of the 315th Wing a diamond.
20AF group letter identifiers:
58th Bomb Wing (triangle outline symbol):
40th BG - S, 444th BG - N, 462nd BG - U, 468th BG - I
73rd Bomb Wing (square outline symbol, 10.5-foot letters):
497th BG - A, 498th BG - T, 499th BG - V, 500th BG - Z
313th Bomb Wing (circle outline symbol):
6th BG - R, 9th BG - X, 504th BG - E, 505th BG (January to March) - K, (April to September) - W
314th Bomb Wing (solid black square):
315th Bomb Wing (diamond outline):
16th BG - B, 331st BG - L, 501st BG - Y, 502nd BG - H
509th Composite Group
The 509th Composite Group, sent to Tinian to drop the atomic bomb, was assigned to the 313th Bomb Wing. Consisting of a single squadron, its tail marking was a circle outline around an arrowhead pointing forward, but while flying combat missions its fifteen B-29's used the tail markings of other groups and wings as a security measure. Richard H. Campbell, in The Silverplate Bombers, reports that XXI Bomber Command feared that Japanese survivors on Tinian were observing 509th operations, which had been quite extensive before August 1, and reporting them by clandestine radio to Tokyo.
The 509th repainted the tail identifier with those of four XXI Bomber Command groups already in combat, and altered victor numbers to avoid misidentification with actual aircraft already bearing the numbers. New victor numbers 82, 89, 90, and 91, carried the markings of the 6th Bomb Group (Circle R); victors 71, 72, 73, and 84 those of the 497th Bomb Group (large "A"); victors 77, 85, 86, and 88 those of the 444th Bomb Group (triangle N); and victors 83, 94, and 95 those of the 39th Bomb Group (square P).
Other air forces in the Pacific
Tail markings were used on all combat types: bombers, fighters, even some combat cargo and air commando observation planes. The level of command establishing markings was often at lower echelons yet patterns existed and repetitions avoided.
The four heavy bomber groups of the Fifth Air Force employed three different methods. The original two groups, the 43d and 90th Bombardment Groups, bore the red-white-and-blue-striped rudder markings of the pre-war Air Corps, but the other two groups, appearing later, did not. The 43d and 90th were differentiated from each other by their squadron markings; the 43d placed large squadron insignia on the fins, while the 90th painted the tail fins in squadron colors and superimposed a 72-inch Jolly Roger symbol, emblematic of the group's nickname, on the painted fin. The 380th Bombardment Group painted one quarter of its tail fins black for identification, with each squadron having a different quadrant. The 22d Bombardment Group, which converted from B-25 medium bombers in 1944, placed a rectangle horizontally bisecting the tail fin, with each squadron having a different color.
All three groups of the Seventh Air Force used black symbols or stripes in various configurations, without any pattern. Identification of groups could be made only by memorization of symbols assigned to squadrons and knowledge of to what groups those squadrons were assigned.
The two groups of the Thirteenth Air Force used completely different methods. The 5th Bombardment Group used the same black geometric symbols as the Twentieth Air Force, a different symbol for each squadron, placed in the upper third of the tail fin. The 307th Bombardment Group created a group symbol, a large blue circle containing a stylized "LR" (for "Long Rangers", the group nickname) in gold, and placed it on all their aircraft tails. The upper tips of the fins were painted different colors to identify its squadrons.
The two air forces in Asia, the Tenth Air Force and Fourteenth Air Force, each had only a single bomb group. The Tenth's 7th Bombardment Group used a checkerboard pattern in either black-and-white or black-and-yellow on the rudder or part of the tail fin to identify its squadrons. The 308th Bombardment Group of the Fourteenth Air Force used colored or striped rudders.
The Air Commando Groups used punctuation marks (!,?) In the CBI while in the FEAF the patterns were consistent with the Fifth Air Force style.
Fighter groups, especially of the VII FC, used colored tails with geometric patterns. Others used colored nose and tail combinations.
See also
List of USAAF squadron codes
Sources
Birdsall, Steve, Log of the Liberators: An Illustrated History of the B-24, (1973)
Bowman, Martin W., The USAAF Handbook 1939-1945 (1997), p. 66.
Freeman, Roger A., The Mighty Eighth: A History of the Units, Men and Machines of the US 8th Air Force (1970, 1993), pp. 285–286.
Campbell, Richard H., The Silverplate Bombers: A History and Registry of the Enola Gay and Other B-29s Configured to Carry Atomic Bombs (2005), p. 19.
References
External links
B-17 tail markings in color
B-24 tail markings in color
B-29 tail markings in color
Aircraft markings
Military aircraft designation systems
Military insignia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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2003 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 2003 in the United Kingdom.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – Tony Blair (Labour)
Parliament – 53rd
Events
January
January – Toyota launches an all-new Avensis to be built at TMUK.
10 January – Ian Carr, a 27-year-old banned from driving with a total of 89 previous convictions (including causing death by dangerous driving), admits causing the death by dangerous driving of a six-year-old girl in Ashington, Northumberland – a crime which sparks widespread public and media outrage across the United Kingdom.
14 January – Anti-terrorism detective Stephen Oake is murdered in Crumpsall, Manchester by Islamic terrorist Kamel Bourgass after being stabbed eight times while attempting his arrest.
25 January – Central line underground train crashes into the tunnel wall at Chancery Lane tube station in London, injuring 34 people.
29 January – Sally Clark, a 38-year-old former solicitor from Cheshire, is released from prison after the Court of Appeal clears her of murdering her two sons, who are believed to have suffered sudden infant death syndrome.
30 January – Richard Colvin Reid, the so-called "shoe bomber", is sentenced to life imprisonment by a United States court.
31 January – one of the longest prison sentences ever issued in a British court for a motoring offence is given to killer driver Ian Carr, who receives a nine-and-a-half-year sentence for causing death by dangerous driving – his second conviction for the crime in twelve years.
February
1 February – in Northern Ireland, the Protestant Ulster Defence Association Belfast leader John Gregg is killed by a loyalist faction.
15 February – in London, more than 2,000,000 people demonstrate against the Iraq War, the largest demonstration in UK history.
17 February – the London congestion charge, a fee levied on motorists travelling within designated parts of central London, comes into operation.
27 February
122 Labour MPs vote against the government in a debate over the Iraq War.
Rowan Williams enthroned as Archbishop of Canterbury.
March
12 March – Iraq disarmament crisis: UK Prime Minister Tony Blair proposes an amendment to the possible 18th U.N. resolution, which would call for Iraq to meet certain benchmarks to prove that it was disarming. The amendment is immediately rejected by France, who promises to veto any new resolution.
15 March – Comic actress Dame Thora Hird dies in a nursing home in London, aged 91, less than a year after her final appearance on BBC Radio.
18 March – Parliament votes to approve an invasion of Iraq.
20 March – 2003 Iraq war: Land troops from United Kingdom join troops from the United States, Australia and Poland in the invasion of Iraq.
22 March – Tomahawk cruise missiles fired from Royal Navy submarines take part in a massive air and missile strike on military targets in Baghdad.
End – First arrest of a British-based terrorist group linked to Al-Qaeda, in Operation CREVICE.
April
6 April – British forces capture the city of Basra during the invasion of Iraq.
8 April – Three men are convicted in relation to a Real IRA campaign that saw bombs explode in London and Birmingham in 2001. Two others have already admitted plotting to cause explosions as part of the same campaign.
9 April – Invasion of Iraq: the Battle of Baghdad, fought with British air support, concludes, ending Saddam Hussein's rule in the country after 24 years in power.
21 April – Robert Wardle is appointed Director of the Serious Fraud Office of England and Wales.
29 April – Tony Blair holds a one-day summit with Russian President Vladimir Putin. Putin mocks the United Kingdom and America's failure to locate weapons of mass destruction in Iraq.
May
3 May
2003 Scottish Parliament election: the Labour and Liberal Democrat coalition led by Jack McConnell win a majority of the seats and remain in power. The Scottish Green Party and the Scottish Socialist Party significantly increase their representation.
2003 National Assembly for Wales election: the Labour Party remain in power.
The BBC announces that the hugely popular character Den Watts will return to its soap opera EastEnders later this year, fourteen years after he was supposedly killed off.
15 May – the government suspends all flights to and from Kenya after warnings of an imminent al-Qaeda attack.
28 May – the UEFA Champions League Final at Old Trafford (home to Manchester United) with AC Milan beating Juventus in a penalty shootout following a goalless draw.
29 May – journalist Andrew Gilligan broadcasts a report on the BBC Radio 4 Today programme stating that the government claimed in its 2002 dossier that Iraq could deploy weapons of mass destruction within forty-five minutes knowing the claim to be dubious. A political storm ensues. Gilligan has interviewed weapons expert David Kelly.
June
14 June
First Minister for Children appointed, Margaret Hodge.
The first official Twenty20 cricket matches are played between the English counties in the Twenty20 Cup.
15 June – the News of the World publishes an article in which Ian Huntley is photographed in his cell at Woodhill Prison. An undercover reporter had got a job in the prison and was employed as Huntley's guard.
21 June – the novel Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is released to the public.
24 June
President Vladimir Putin becomes the first Russian head of state to make a state visit to the United Kingdom since Tsar Alexander II in 1874.
Six members of the Royal Military Police are killed, and eight other soldiers are injured, in Iraq.
26 June
The latest MORI poll puts Labour and Conservative parties on even terms at 35%.
Businessman Sir Denis Thatcher, husband of former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, dies aged 88 at the Lister Hospital in London.
July
2 July – Chelsea F.C. are bought by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich for a sum of £150,000,000 from current chairman Ken Bates, twenty-one years after he bought the club for £1.
15 July – David Kelly appears before the House of Commons Foreign Affairs Select Committee, to answer questions over the information he had given to Andrew Gilligan.
18 July – David Kelly is found dead near his home in Oxfordshire – police suspect that he committed suicide.
20 July – the BBC confirms that Dr. David Kelly, found dead from a suspected suicide two days earlier, was the main source for a controversial report that sparked a deep rift with the government.
27 July – The British-born American actor and comedian Bob Hope dies at his home in California, two months after his hundredth birthday.
30 July – Eurostar train number 3313/14 sets a new speed record at 334.7 km/h (208 mph) on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link.
August
1 August – the Hutton Inquiry into the recent death of weapons expert Dr. David Kelly, chaired by judge Lord Hutton, opens, beginning to take evidence on 11 August.
3 August – police use the taser for the first time.
10 August – Brogdale, near Faversham, enters the UK Weather Records for the highest ever recorded temperature of 38.5 °C, a record which holds until July 2019. The 2003 European heat wave makes this the United Kingdom's hottest summer for thirteen years.
September
4 September – the rebuilt Bull Ring shopping centre in Birmingham is officially opened by Sir Albert Bore.
18 September – Brent East by-election: Sarah Teather of the Liberal Democrats becomes MP for Brent East after twenty-nine years of Labour control.
29 September
Section 1 of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link, later High Speed 1, from Fawkham Junction to the Channel Tunnel is opened for passengers.
The comeback of Den Watts (played by Leslie Grantham) in EastEnders is screened, fourteen years after the character was supposedly killed off, and just over four months after the BBC confirmed that Grantham would be returning to the series.
October
24 October – supersonic aircraft Concorde makes its final commercial flights after twenty-seven years.
29 October – Iain Duncan-Smith resigns after serving just two years as Leader of the Conservative Party.
November
4 November – Channel 4's soap opera Brookside, on air since the station was launched in 1982, ends after 21 years.
6 November – 2003 Conservative Party leadership election: Michael Howard is elected unopposed as Leader of the Conservative Party, a post he will hold for two years.
8 November – Sophie, Countess of Wessex gives birth to her and Prince Edward's first child, a baby girl.
16 November – David Davis, the new Shadow Home Secretary, calls for a return of the death penalty for murderers found guilty of the most horrific murders; citing Moors murderer Ian Brady and Yorkshire Ripper Peter Sutcliffe as criminals whose crimes would meet the criteria.
18 November
United States President George W. Bush makes a state visit to London in the midst of massive protests.
Passage of the Local Government Act 2003 including the repeal in England, Northern Ireland and Wales of controversial Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988 which prevented local authorities from "promoting homosexuality". Section 28 had already been repealed in Scotland since 2000.
20 November
Several bombs explode in Istanbul, Turkey at several British targets. The Turkish head office of HSBC and the British consulate are destroyed and the British Consul-General, Roger Short is killed.
Criminal Justice Act 2003 passed.
Sexual Offences Act 2003 passed, superseding the Act of 1956 with more specific and explicit wording, also creating several new offences.
22 November – England are rugby world champions after defeating Australia 20-17 after extra time.
24 November – the High Court in Glasgow imposes a minimum sentence of 27 years for Al Ali Mohmed Al Megrahi, the Libyan convicted of bombing Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland.
25 November – Serial killer Anthony Hardy, of Camden, is jailed for life at the Old Bailey for murdering three women. The dismembered remains of two victims were found in a pub bin in December 2002.
26 November – the final Concorde flight touches down in Filton, Bristol where it is welcomed by the Duke of York.
December
9 December – the M6 Toll motorway opens, giving the United Kingdom its first toll motorway and providing a northern by-pass for the congested section of the M6 motorway through the West Midlands conurbation.
10 December
Clive Granger wins the Nobel Prize in Economics jointly with Robert F. Engle "for methods of analysing economic time series with common trends (cointegration)".
Anthony J. Leggett wins the Nobel Prize in Physics jointly with Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov and Vitaly Ginzburg "for pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors and superfluids".
Peter Mansfield wins the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly with Paul Lauterbur "for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging".
The Court of Appeal overturns two murder convictions against 40-year-old Wiltshire woman Angela Cannings, who was wrongly convicted of murdering her two baby sons in April last year. Mrs. Cannings, who has a surviving daughter, always maintained that her sons were both victims of sudden infant death syndrome.
The official inflation target measure is changed to the Consumer Price Index figure from RPIX.
12 December – Mick Jagger of The Rolling Stones receives a knighthood from the Prince of Wales (now Charles III).
16 December – the Government announces plans to build a new runway at Stansted Airport in Essex and a short-haul runway at Heathrow Airport sparking anger from environmentalist groups.
17 December – Ian Huntley is found guilty of the Soham Murders and sentenced to life imprisonment at the Old Bailey. A High Court judge will later decide on the minimum number of the years that he will have to serve before being considered for parole. His ex-girlfriend Maxine Carr is found guilty of perverting the course of justice and receives a jail term of three-and-a-half years, but she will be freed on licence (under a new identity to protect her from reprisal attacks) in May 2004 as she has already served sixteen months on remand. Home Secretary David Blunkett orders an inquiry into how the police vetting system failed to prevent Huntley from getting a job in a school after it is revealed at the end of his trial that he had been suspected in the past of crimes including underage sex, rape, indecent assault and burglary.
Undated
153,065 divorces this year.
Sales of the DVD home video format take the largest share of the UK home video market for the first time. The format, first launched in the UK in June 1998, accounts for more than 70% of home video sales this year as the VHS format's popularity falls and many new titles are not being released on it.
New car sales reach a record high this year of nearly 2,600,000, with the Ford Focus enjoying its fifth successive year as the United Kingdom's best-selling new car. BMW sales also reach a record high, with the BMW 3 Series managing well over 60,000 sales as the UK's ninth best-selling car. Sales of Vauxhall, Peugeot, Renault and Volkswagen cars remain strong as well, while Nissan also enjoys an increase in sales largely due to the popularity of its new version of the Micra.
Publications
Iain Banks' book Raw Spirit.
Mark Haddon's novel The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time.
Adrian Praetzellis' Death by Theory: A Tale of Mystery and Archaeological Theory, first in the Hannah Green book series.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels The Wee Free Men and Monstrous Regiment.
J. K. Rowling's novel Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.
Lynne Truss's punctuation guide Eats, Shoots & Leaves.
Charlotte Voake's picture book Ginger Finds a Home.
Births
26 February – Levi Colwill, footballer
2 March – Eloise Taylor, second daughter of Lady Helen Taylor and Timothy Taylor
30 March – Lara Wollington, actress
4 April – Harvey Elliott, footballer
12 May – Madeleine McCann, abductee
14 June – Yasha Asley, mathematical prodigy
29 June – Jude Bellingham, footballer
18 July – Lucy Hutchinson, actress
25 September – Alexander Aze, actor
3 October – Callum Doyle, footballer
20 October – Carney Chukwuemeka, footballer
8 November – Lady Louise Windsor, daughter of Prince Edward and Sophie (then Earl and Countess of Wessex; now Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh)
Deaths
January
1 January – Cyril Shaps, actor (born 1923)
2 January – Bill Shelton, Conservative politician (born 1929)
4 January – Yfrah Neaman, Lebanese-born violinist (born 1923)
5 January
Roy Jenkins, Labour government minister, later founder member and the first leader of the former Social Democratic Party (born 1920)
Daphne Oram, composer and musician (born 1925)
6 January
Glyn Davies, Welsh economist (born 1919)
Sir Philip Ward, Army major-general (born 1924)
8 January – Ron Goodwin, composer (born 1925)
9 January
Elizabeth Irving, actress and founder of Keep Britain Tidy (born 1904)
Peter Tinniswood, scriptwriter (born 1936)
11 January – Anthony Havelock-Allan, film producer (born 1904)
12 January
Maurice Gibb, musician and singer-songwriter (born 1949); died in the United States of America
Alan Nunn May, physicist and Soviet spy (born 1911)
13 January – Elisabeth Croft, actress (born 1907)
14 January
Monica Furlong, author and journalist (born 1930)
Stephen Oake, police officer of Greater Manchester Police (murdered on duty) (born 1962)
16 January – Chris Mead, ornithologist (born 1940)
18 January – Gavin Lyall, novelist (born 1932)
20 January – David Battley, actor (born 1935)
22 January – Peter Russell, poet (born 1921); died in Italy
26 January
Hugh Trevor-Roper, Baron Dacre of Glanton, historian (born 1914)
George Younger, 4th Viscount Younger of Leckie, politician (born 1931)
February
2 February – Jack Lauterwasser, racing cyclist (fall) (born 1904)
3 February – Trevor Morris, Welsh footballer (Cardiff City) (born 1920)
4 February – Charles McLaren, 3rd Baron Aberconway, horticulturalist and industrialist (born 1913)
6 February
Sir Peter Saunders, theatre impresario (born 1911)
Alec Stokes, physicist (born 1919)
7 February
Malcolm Roberts, singer (born 1944)
Leader Stirling, missionary surgeon (born 1906); died in Tanzania
Stephen Whittaker, actor (born 1947)
9 February
H. Douglas Keith, physicist (born 1927)
Ken McKinlay, speedway rider (born 1928)
11 February – Marc Iliffe, strongman (suicide) (born 1972)
12 February
Frederick Higginson, World War II air ace (born 1913)
Sir Brian Stanbridge, Air Force officer (born 1924)
14 February
Nick Duncombe, rugby union player (born 1982)
Dolly the Sheep, cloned sheep (born 1996)
15 February – Richard Wilberforce, Baron Wilberforce, judge (born 1907)
16 February – Philip John Gardner, World War II soldier and Victoria Cross recipient (born 1914)
18 February
Len Garrison, Jamaican-born historian and community activist (born 1943)
Keith Ross, surgeon (born 1927)
21 February – Eddie Thomson, Scottish footballer (Heart of Midlothian) (born 1947)
23 February – Christopher Hill, historian (born 1912)
27 February – John Lanchbery, composer (born 1923); died in Australia
28 February – Chris Brasher, athlete, co-founder of the London Marathon (born 1928)
March
1 March – Roger Needham, computer scientist (born 1935)
2 March
William Blezard, composer (born 1921)
Sir George Edwards, aircraft designer (born 1908)
Sir Ian Hogg, admiral (born 1911)
Malcolm Williamson, Australian-born composer, Master of the Queen's Musick (born 1931)
8 March – Adam Faith, actor and singer (born 1940)
10 March
Tom Boardman, Baron Boardman, Conservative politician and businessman (born 1919)
Lionel Frederick Dakers, organist (born 1924)
Geoffrey Kirk, classical scholar (born 1921)
Barry Sheene, motorcycle racer (born 1950)
11 March
Brian Cleeve, English-Irish author and playwright (born 1921)
Kevin Laffan, screenwriter (Emmerdale) (born 1922)
13 March – Ian Samwell, musician and singer-songwriter (born 1937)
15 March – Dame Thora Hird, comic actress (born 1911)
17 March
Alan Keith, actor and radio presenter (born 1908)
Beatrice Wright, Lady Wright, American-born politician (born 1910)
22 March – Terry Lloyd, ITN television journalist (killed in Iraq) (born 1952)
25 March
Christopher French, judge (born 1925)
Michael Kidron, cartographer and revolutionary (born 1930)
27 March – Jeremiah Duggan, student (road accident) (born 1980)
28 March – Sir Kenneth Porter, air marshal (born 1912)
29 March – Maude Storey, nurse (born 1930)
30 March – Andy Barr, Northern Irish communist and trade unionist (born 1913)
April
1 April – Richard Caddel, poet (born 1949)
4 April – Billy McPhail, Scottish footballer (born 1928)
5 April – Beti Rhys, Welsh author and bookseller (born 1908)
7 April – David Greene, television and film director (born 1921)
11 April
Cecil Howard Green, geophysicist and businessman (born 1900)
Peter Lloyd, mountaineer and engineer (born 1907)
14 April – Bob Evans, Welsh rugby union player (born 1921)
16 April
Jock Hamilton-Baillie, World War II soldier (born 1919)
Danny O'Dea, actor (born 1911)
17 April
Sir Paul Getty, American-born philanthropist and book collector (born 1932)
Graham Stuart Thomas, horticulturalist (born 1909)
Peter Cathcart Wason, psychologist (born 1924)
18 April – Edgar F. Codd, computer scientist (born 1923)
20 April – Johnny Douglas, musician and composer (born 1920)
22 April – Berkeley Smith, broadcaster (born 1918)
23 April – Guy Mountfort, advertising executive and ornithologist (born 1905)
25 April
Lynn Chadwick, sculptor (born 1914)
Dick Moore, World War II naval officer and George Cross recipient (born 1916)
26 April – Edward Max Nicholson, environmentalist (born 1904)
29 April – Angus Campbell-Gray, 22nd Lord Gray, Scottish peer (born 1931)
30 April – Jennifer d'Abo, entrepreneur (born 1945)
May
2 May
James Miller, film-maker (killed in Gaza) (born 1968)
Laurence O'Keeffe, diplomat, Ambassador to Czechoslovakia during the Velvet Revolution (born 1931)
3 May – Lucy Barfield, goddaughter of C. S. Lewis and eponym for Lucy Pevensie in The Chronicles of Narnia (born 1935)
4 May
Barbara Bailey, nun and artist (born 1910)
Arthur Oldham, composer and choirmaster (born 1926)
5 May – Philip Powell, architect (born 1921)
6 May
Colin Gunton, theologian (born 1941)
Jocelyn Herbert, stage designer (born 1917)
9 May – Sir George Grenfell-Baines, architect and town planner (born 1908)
11 May
Cecil Allan, Northern Irish footballer (Chelsea, Colchester Town) (born 1914)
Noel Redding, rock musician (The Jimi Hendrix Experience, Fat Mattress) (born 1945)
12 May
Sir Michael Richardson, investment banker (born 1925)
Don Ryder, Baron Ryder of Eaton Hastings, businessman and politician (born 1916)
Jeremy Sandford, television screenwriter (born 1930)
13 May – Theo Aronson, royal biographer (born 1929)
14 May – Dame Wendy Hiller, actress (born 1912)
15 May – Sir Desmond Dreyer, admiral (born 1910)
18 May – Peter Lasko, German-born art historian (born 1924)
23 May – Dame Diana Collins, human rights activist and wife of Canon John Collins (born 1917)
24 May – Rachel Kempson, actress and wife of Sir Michael Redgrave (born 1910)
29 May
Trevor Ford, Welsh footballer (Swansea Town, Aston Villa, Cardiff City) (born 1923)
David Jefferies, motorcycle racer (killed while training) (born 1972)
30 May – John Roberts, historian (born 1928)
June
1 June – Peter Yarranton, rugby union player and manager (born 1924)
3 June
Sir Anthony Barrowclough, lawyer and government ombudsman (born 1924)
John Jympson, film editor (born 1930)
6 June – Dave Rowberry, singer-songwriter and pianist (The Animals) (born 1940)
7 June
Trevor Goddard, actor (drug overdose) (born 1962)
Tony McAuley, Northern Irish broadcaster and musician (born 1939)
8 June – Leighton Rees, Welsh darts player (born 1940)
10 June
Bernard Williams, philosopher (born 1929)
Phil Williams, Welsh politician and scientist (born 1939)
13 June – Robin Russell, 14th Duke of Bedford, peer (born 1940)
15 June
Sir Ralph Kilner Brown, athlete and judge (born 1909)
Philip Stone, actor (born 1924)
16 June – Peter Redgrove, poet (born 1932)
17 June – Paul Hirst, sociologist and political theorist (born 1946)
18 June
Sir Kenneth Cross, World War II air commander (born 1911)
Paul Daisley, Labour politician (born 1957)
19 June
Jack Butterworth, Baron Butterworth, lawyer (born 1918)
Laura Sadler, actress (fall) (born 1980)
26 June
Marc-Vivien Foé, British-based Cameroonian footballer (born 1975); died in France while playing football for the Cameroon national football team
Sir Denis Thatcher, husband of prime minister Margaret Thatcher (born 1915)
27 June – John Stokes, Conservative politician (born 1917)
July
1 July – George Roper, comedian (born 1934)
3 July – Sir Charles Tidbury, brewing executive (born 1926)
6 July
Michael Hoban, teacher (born 1921)
Kathleen Raine, poet and critic (born 1908)
7 July – Paul Brand, doctor and surgeon (born 1914)
9 July – Valerie Gearon, actress (born 1937)
10 July
Winston Graham, novelist (born 1908)
Hartley Shawcross, chief prosecutor at the Nuremberg trials (born 1902)
11 July – Ken Whyld, chess player and chess writer (born 1926)
15 July
Judith Hare, Countess of Listowel, Hungarian-born writer and journalist (born 1903)
Alexander Walker, film critic (born 1930)
Elisabeth Welch, American-born singer (born 1904)
17 July
Pat Fillingham, test pilot for the de Havilland company (born 1914)
Dr. David Kelly, government weapons expert (born 1944); suspected suicide
20 July – Nicolas Freeling, novelist (born 1927)
22 July – Norman Lewis, travel writer (born 1908)
25 July – John Schlesinger, film director (born 1926)
27 July – Bob Hope, comedian (born 1903)
29 July – Sir Gerard Vaughan, psychiatrist and politician (born 1923)
30 July
Will Atkinson, folk musician (born 1908)
Steve Hislop, motorcycle racer (helicopter accident) (born 1962)
August
2 August – Don Estelle, actor (born 1933)
6 August – Larry Taylor, actor and stuntman (born 1918)
9 August
Jimmy Davis, English footballer (Manchester United) (car accident) (born 1982)
Ray Harford, English footballer (Exeter City, Lincoln City) and football manager (Luton Town) (born 1945)
10 August
Constance Chapman, actress (born 1912)
Cedric Price, architect and writer (born 1934)
11 August
Diana Mitford, writer, socialite and wife of Sir Oswald Mosley (born 1910)
John Shearman, art historian (born 1931)
13 August – Michael Maclagan, historian (born 1914)
18 August – Tony Jackson, singer (The Searchers) (born 1938)
20 August
Ian MacDonald, music critic (born 1948)
Brianne Murphy, cinematographer (born 1933)
Andrew Ray, actor (born 1939)
21 August
John Coplans, artist, curator and museum director (born 1920)
Fraser Noble, Scottish academic (born 1918)
Kathy Wilkes, philosopher and academic (born 1946)
24 August
Sir Wilfred Thesiger, soldier and explorer (born 1910)
Zena Walker, actress (born 1934)
Kent Walton, sports commentator (born 1917)
26 August – Clive Charles, English footballer (West Ham United, Cardiff City) (born 1951)
September
1 September
Terry Frost, artist (born 1915)
Sir John Gray, diplomat (born 1936)
2 September
George Chubb, 3rd Baron Hayter, politician and industrialist (born 1911)
Peter West, sports commentator and television presenter (born 1920)
3 September – Norman Porteous, theologian and last surviving British Army officer of World War I (born 1898)
4 September – Ben Aris, actor (born 1937)
5 September – C. H. Sisson, writer and poet (born 1914)
9 September
Thomas Allibone, physicist (born 1903)
Sir Francis Purchas, judge (born 1919)
12 September – Brian Plummer, writer and dog breeder (born 1936)
13 September – Arthur Rowe, Olympic shot putter (born 1936)
15 September – Jack Brymer, clarinettist (born 1915)
17 September
Derek Bryan, diplomat, sinologist and author (born 1910)
George Gale, cartoonist (born 1929)
19 September – Jim Thompson, Anglican prelate, Bishop of Bath and Wells (1991–2001) (born 1936)
20 September
Robert Blake, Baron Blake, historian and peer (born 1916)
Gareth Williams, Baron Williams of Mostyn, Labour politician and Leader of the House of Lords (born 1941)
22 September
Sir Allan Gilmour, Army colonel and World War II veteran (born 1916)
Hugo Young, journalist (born 1938)
24 September – Derek Prince, Biblical scholar (born 1915)
25 September – Donald Nicol, Byzantinist (born 1923)
26 September
Glyn Gilbert, Army general (born 1920)
Jonny Kennedy, sufferer of dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa (born 1966)
Robert Palmer, singer (born 1949)
David Williams, crime writer (born 1926)
October
3 October – Winifred Watkins, biochemist (born 1924)
4 October – Mary Donaldson, Baroness Donaldson of Lymington, first woman Lord Mayor of London (born 1921)
5 October – Denis Quilley, actor (born 1927)
6 October
Joe Baker, English footballer (Arsenal, Nottingham Forest) (born 1940)
Sir Antony Buck, Conservative politician (born 1928)
10 October
Max Rayne, Baron Rayne, property developer and philanthropist (born 1918)
Julia Trevelyan Oman, stage designer (born 1930)
11 October
Vivien Alcock, writer of children's books (born 1924)
Franklyn Perring, botanist (born 1927)
13 October – Anne Ziegler, soprano (born 1910)
14 October – Patrick Dalzel-Job, World War II naval commando (born 1913)
17 October – Clare Venables, theatre director (born 1943)
19 October – Sir Peter Berger, admiral, survivor of the Amethyst Incident (born 1925)
20 October – Peter Morgan, motor-car maker (Morgan Motor Company) (born 1919)
21 October – John Walter Baxter, civil engineer and designer of London's Westway (born 1917)
23 October
Tony Capstick, actor (born 1944)
Pete Chisman, cyclist (born 1940)
25 October – Noreen Branson, Communist activist (born 1910)
27 October – Elisabeth Lambert Ortiz, food writer (born 1915)
31 October – Daphne Hardy Henrion, sculptor (born 1917)
November
1 November
W. Brian Harland, geologist (born 1917)
Colin Hayes, painter (born 1919)
2 November – Christabel Bielenberg, author (born 1909)
4 November
Lotte Berk, German-born dancer and dance teacher (born 1913)
Charles Causley, poet (born 1917)
Richard Wollheim, philosopher (born 1923)
7 November – Foo Foo Lammar, drag queen (born 1937)
11 November
Robert Brown, actor (born 1921)
Harold Walker, Baron Walker of Doncaster, Labour politician (born 1927)
George Wallace, Baron Wallace of Coslany, Labour politician (born 1906)
14 November
Giles Gordon, Scottish writer and literary agent (born 1940)
Tim Vigors, World War II air ace and horse breeder (born 1921)
19 November
Gillian Barge, actress (born 1940)
Greg Ridley, rock bassist (Humble Pie) (born 1941)
20 November
Robert Addie, actor (born 1960)
Ernest Radcliffe Bond, soldier and Metropolitan Police commissioner (born 1919)
Roger Short, diplomat (terrorist attack) (born 1944)
23 November – Patricia Burke, singer and actress (born 1917)
26 November – Gordon Reid, actor (born 1939)
27 November – Marjorie Reeves, historian and educationalist (born 1905)
28 November – Ted Bates, footballer and football manager (Southampton) (born 1918)
29 November – Jesse Carver, footballer and football manager (Blackburn Rovers, Newcastle United) (born 1911)
December
1 December – Hamza Alvi, Pakistani-born sociologist and activist (born 1921)
2 December – Alan Davidson, food writer (born 1924)
3 December – David Hemmings, actor and film director (born 1941)
4 December – David Vaughan, psychedelic artist (born 1944)
5 December – Antony Rowe, rower (born 1924)
11 December – Malcolm Clarke, composer (born 1943)
15 December
Johnny Cunningham, folk musician (born 1957)
Jack Gregory, athlete (born 1923)
17 December – Alan Tilvern, actor and voice artist (born 1918)
18 December
Jack Dormand, Baron Dormand of Easington, Labour politician (born 1919)
Susan Travers, World War II nurse, only British woman to serve in the French Foreign Legion (born 1909)
19 December – Les Tremayne, actor (born 1913)
21 December – Sir Gawaine Baillie, race car driver, industrialist and stamp collector (born 1934)
22 December – Rose Hill, actress and soprano (born 1914)
23 December – John Sanders, organist and composer (born 1933)
27 December – Sir Alan Bates, actor (born 1934)
28 December – John Terraine, military historian (born 1921)
29 December
Dickie Davis, cricketer (born 1965)
Dinsdale Landen, actor (cancer) (born 1932)
Don Lawrence, comic book artist (born 1928)
Bob Monkhouse, comedian and game show host (born 1928)
See also
2003 in British music
2003 in British television
List of British films of 2003
2003 in England
References
Years of the 21st century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unisex%20public%20toilet
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Unisex public toilet
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Unisex public toilets (also referred to as gender-inclusive, gender-neutral, mixed-sex or all-gender, or without any prefix at all) are public toilets that are not separated by gender or sex.
Unisex public toilets take different forms. They may be single occupancy facilities where only one single room or enclosure is provided, or multi-user facilities which are open to all and where users may either share sinks in an open area or each have their own sink in their private cubicle, stall or room. Unisex public toilets may either replace single-sex toilets or may be an addition to single-sex toilets.
Unisex public toilets can be used by people of any sex or gender identity. Such toilet facilities can benefit transgender populations and people outside of the gender binary. Sex-separation in public toilets (also called sex segregation), as opposed to unisex toilets, is the separation of public toilets into male and female. This separation is sometimes enforced by local laws and building codes. Key differences between male and female public toilets in most western countries include the presence of urinals for men and boys, and sanitary bins for the disposal of menstrual hygiene products for women and girls. Sanitary bins may easily be included in the setup of unisex public toilets.
The historical purposes of sex-separated toilets in the United States and Europe, as well as the timing of their appearance, are disputed amongst scholars. Safety from sexual harassment and privacy were likely two main goals of sex-separation of public toilets, and factors such as morality also played roles. Paternalism and resistance to women entering the workplace might have also played a role. Some women's groups hold that unisex public toilets will be less safe for women than public toilets that are separated by sex, however some experts say that with the appropriate design interventions, these spaces can improve the safety of all users and reduce the disproportionately long wait times females face in sex-separated public washrooms.
The push for gender neutral bathrooms is driven at least in part by the transgender community to protect against harassment and violence against this population. Unisex public toilets may benefit a range of people with or without special needs (e.g. people with disabilities, the elderly, and anyone who needs the help of someone of another gender or sex), as well as parents who need to help their infant or young child with using the toilet.
Terminology
Several alternative terms are in use for unisex public toilets. Some favor all-gender toilets, gender neutral toilets, gender free toilets or all-user toilets or just toilet. The "Public Toilet Advocacy Toolkit" by the NGO Public Hygiene Lets Us Stay Human (PHLUSH) in Portland, Oregon (United States) from 2015 uses the term "all-gender". More recently, they have changed to the term "all user". However, some object to the term "gender-neutral" and similar terms, believing that neither the spaces nor the terms are truly neutral. They also object to the replacement of the word "sex" with the word "gender". Such people often express a preference for the term "mixed-sex". But whatever one calls them, these are toilets which can (in theory) be used by anybody, regardless of sex, gender identity or presentation.
The opposite of unisex toilets is referred to as either "sex-separated" or "sex-segregated" toilets, or "conventional public toilets" (since sex separation is currently mostly the norm on the global level). In the United States some scholars have used the term "sex separation".
Designs
Types
Some unisex public toilets are designed to be used by people with disabilities and have either individual or gender-neutral facilities. They can accommodate people with disabilities, elderly people who may require assistance from a carer of another gender, or other cases where public sex-segregated facilities might lead to discomfort. Toilet facilities for disabled people, especially those reliant on a wheelchair, may be either unisex or gender-specific.
Unisex public toilets are also common in cases where space is limited, such as in aircraft lavatories and passenger train toilets.
Several types can be distinguished:
Single occupancy where only one room or enclosure is provided. This room could be used by several people at once, e.g. a whole family, a carer helping a person needing help.
Multi-user facilities which are open to all and where users may either share sinks in an open area or each have their own sink in their private cubicle, stall or room.
The re-labelling of existing multi-cubicle public toilets, with no real change. This approach was taken in one area at the Barbican Centre in the UK, where some toilets became shared.
Toilets
If more than one toilet fixture is available in a unisex public toilet, the toilet seats or squatting pans are installed in enclosed cubicles in the same way as in sex-segregated toilets. To ensure visual privacy, these may be provided with floor-to-ceiling walls.
Sinks
Sinks are commonly installed in open arrangement as in sex-segregated toilets and used collectively by people of all gender. One of the key design components supporting safety in multi-user facilities is the openness and visibility of the sink area from adjacent public corridors. This design intervention allows for passive surveillance of the space by relocating the shared sink area from the private to the public realm. Alternatively, a sink can be provided in each cubicle or toilet room, e.g. where the unisex toilet is set up to be used by families and carers. The latter arrangement is more friendly to people needing to use the sink in a manner calling for a degree of privacy, or taking off items of dress typically worn in public. Examples are: emergency removal of menstrual blood stains from clothing; refreshing the upper body, face, or underarms over the sink; applying makeup; or combing and styling hair.
Urinals
The issue of urinals is creating somewhat of a conundrum for many unisex public toilet designers. In many public toilets, the widespread use of urinals for males means that there are more opportunities to meet their natural needs. There are often queues in front of the toilet rooms for females but not in front of the toilet rooms for males. While toilets are usually located in cubicles with lockable doors, urinals are usually installed freely in rows in sex-separated toilet rooms. This construction leads to a smaller space consumption and thus to more possibilities for water-efficient urination, while promoting more sanitary restroom conditions for men/boys at work/school and elsewhere.
Urinals have primarily been offered in public toilets for males with female urinals being only a niche product. Abolishing all urinals would sacrifice resource advantages and convenience for male users without improving sanitation or wait time for females. Another possibility would be to offer separate male and female urinals or unisex urinals that can be used by males and females alike, which allows increased flexibility of use. Yet this would raise the problem of arrangement. One option would be to continue to offer urinals in rows, with separation by screens. However, it is questionable whether the less private environment, compared to cubicle toilets, would be met with acceptance. Due to socio-cultural conventions, the concept of men/boys urinating with their backs visible to women/girls would possibly create awkwardness for both genders, and would currently seem strange and contrary to common morals and etiquette for many users.
There are other practical issues for females, such as women/girls needing toilet paper, having to lower their pants, and sometimes tending to their menstrual hygiene needs while going to the toilet for urination. An alternative would be to accommodate urinals for both sexes in cubicles or to continue to offer them only in public toilets for males. However, this would at least limit the above-mentioned advantages of urinals.
Urinals arranged in cubicles have rarely been installed; the advantages over conventional toilets were not obvious because the same space would still be required in the new arrangement. With all things considered, many unisex public toilet designers are now creating plans in which urinals would be constructed in an isolated section or corner of the toilet room, so that they would not be directly visible to anyone in other areas of the public toilet. This is seen by many public toilet designers as the best possible solution that would balance efficiency with modesty.
Building-related advantages
Especially where space is limited, the double design of the sanitary facilities is not possible or only possible to a limited extent. Unisex toilets are often used in many public transport systems, such as rail vehicles or airplanes.
Unisex public toilets are less problematic to use by caretakers of dependents (who include very young children, the elderly, and the mentally and physically disabled) to enter the toilet room together with their charge.
Women/girls often spend more time in toilet rooms than men/boys, both for physiological and cultural reasons. The requirement to use a cubicle rather than a urinal means that urination takes longer and sanitation is a far greater issue, often requiring more thorough hand washing. Females also make more visits to toilets. Urinary tract infections and incontinence are more common in females. Pregnancy, menstruation, breastfeeding, and diaper-changing increase usage. The elderly, who are disproportionately female, due to men dying earlier in their old age than females, make longer and more frequent toilet visits. Unisex public toilets can alleviate this problem by providing equal sanitation space for all genders, eliminating the prospect of unused cubicles in the male toilets.
Some argue that a two-tier system is also generated via what they called the "toilet apartheid" by excluding women/girls from important social networking processes in male toilets. Important agreements and decisions by men/boys are sometimes made at the urinal where females are currently excluded.
Building-related disadvantages
The consolidation of previously gender-separated toilets or the construction of new unisex toilets is sometimes resisted due to administrative and building law difficulties. Also, where public toilets are located are sometimes dictated by existing plumbing design. If the only way to build unisex public toilets is to locate them in isolated spaces a long way from people in charge of supervising the space, such a design may be objectionable on safety grounds. Some argue that laws requiring that women and men be treated the same in public toilet access is unfair. Since the 1980s, "potty parity" activists campaigned for laws requiring more female-designated public toilets than male-designated public toilets in public buildings, based on the idea that women require more time to use the toilet and thus women's toilets tend to have longer lines. California passed the first law of this kind in 1987, and as of 2009 twenty states in the US have passed similar legislation.
Locations
At private companies
Unless prohibited by law (and when required by law), private companies can provide unisex toilets.
At educational institutions
The Stonewall Centre, an LGBTQ advocacy group, says that certain people feel threatened using facilities that do not adhere to their gender identity, and that this can become an issue when students are harassed by their peers. Advocates argue that forcing trans / non-binary students to use normative gendered public toilets can stigmatize them daily by singling them out. Once again, the response of those opposing such spaces, or opposing them as the norm is safety and privacy for women.
United States
Many colleges and universities (such as Oberlin College in Ohio) have had unisex public toilets as early as 2000. Overwhelmingly, institutions that offer unisex spaces still also offer sex-separated spaces. The University of California at Los Angeles offers more than 160 unisex toilets on campus, but all are single stall. Other collegiate institutions have moved toward creating some unisex public toilets. According to a University of Massachusetts Amherst LGBTQ advocacy organization, The Stonewall Centre, there were more than 150 campuses in the US in 2014 with unisex public toilets.
In February 2016, South Dakota was the first state in the US to pass a bill that forces transgender students in public schools to use sanitation facilities that correspond with their 'chromosomes and anatomy' at birth.
The University of Oklahoma continually adds unisex toilets to their campus to accommodate students who may require use of a less excessively gendered public toilet. As of February 2014, the university had 13 unisex toilets.
There are over 150 college campuses across the US that are creating unisex public toilets. In March 2016, New York City private college Cooper Union moved to remove gender designations from campus toilets. In October 2016, University of California Berkeley converted several public toilets into unisex toilets.
In March 2017, Yelp announced that they will add a unisex public toilet finder feature on their app. Yelp was one of over 50 companies that signed an amicus curiae brief in favor of a transgender high school student Gavin Grimm who claims that his school board denied him access to the boys' toilet in school and thereby violating Title IX. HRC president Chad Griffin stated on the brief that "These companies are sending a powerful message to transgender children and their families that America's leading businesses have their backs."
United Kingdom
In 2015, unisex toilets were set to be introduced into every new school to be built in Scotland in a campaign to eradicate bullying. All future primary and secondary schools will have non-sex-separated toilets. In March 2017, the Glasgow City Council announced that toilets in school will no longer be labeled as 'girls' and 'boys' but instead be labelled as unisex to help students who may be struggling with the issue of gender identity. This will be implemented in three schools first.
In the United Kingdom, unisex public toilets are sometimes found on university campuses. In early 2013, Brighton and Hove city council introduced unisex toilets. British universities including Bradford Union, Sussex and Manchester, had already or were in the process of building unisex facilities in 2011.
Legislation and country examples
Canada
In April 2014, the Vancouver Park Board decided to install unisex toilets in public buildings, with different signs to identify them. Amongst the options discussed was the rainbow triangle (based on the pink triangle used during the Holocaust), an "all-inclusive" gender symbol, an icon representing a toilet or the phrases "washroom" or "gender-neutral washroom" placed on the entrances to the toilets. According to Global News, a Canadian online newspaper, many different regions across Canada offer unisex toilets and other gender-neutral facilities, but Vancouver was the first municipality to change building codes to require unisex toilets be built in public buildings. This movement, according to commissioner Trevor Loke, was aimed to make everyone feel welcomed and included: "We think that the recommendation of universal washrooms is a good idea [...] [w]e will be using more inclusive language based on the BC Human Rights Code." Some initiatives to make public toilets more diverse and inclusive have focused on language simply by using the phrases "toilet" or "gender-neutral toilet" in order to be inclusive of all genders and gender identities, or using specifically geared language such as "women and trans women" as opposed to just "women" (and vice versa for men and trans men).
China
Unisex toilets have appeared in China since before 2013 in Shenyang and Chengdu by 2015. In 2016, Shanghai opened its first public unisex toilet near the Zhangjiabin River in a park, in the Pudong district. Many of these toilets have opened in high-traffic areas for the convenience of all users, rather than specifically for the benefit of sexual minorities. In May 2016, a Beijing-based non-governmental organization launched an 'All Gender Toilets' campaign to bring awareness to this issue in China. This resulted in around 30 locations opening unisex public toilets.
India
In 2014, the Indian Supreme Court gave transgender people, also known as 'hijras', recognition with a third gender. This legislation included creating separate toilets for transgender people in public spaces where transgender people are often met with violence and hostility. The two-judge Supreme Court bench was led by Justice KS Radhakrishnan, who said, "The court order gives legal sanctity to the third gender. The judges said the government must make sure that they have access to medical care and other facilities like separate wards in hospitals and separate toilets". In 2017, The Union Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation sent out guidelines to the Swachh Bharat Mission decreeing that members who are part of the transgender community should be allowed to use the public toilet they are most comfortable with.
The central government has allowed transgender people to use the toilets of their choice in public and community toilets. This does not ensure safety from violence.
Japan
As of 2016, no laws were in place regarding the usage of public toilets in relation to gender identity. There may, however, be occasional signs outside public toilets to indicate that the stall is "gender free". The Tokyo city government was planning to install one unisex toilet in at least seven out of eleven of the buildings being used for the Olympic Games that were planned for 2020.
Nepal
MP Sunil Babu Pant used part of the Parliamentarian Development Fund to build the first two unisex toilets in Nepalganj, one of which is in Bageshwori Park. Starting in 2014, The Nepal Country Report, A Participatory Review and Analysis of the Legal and Social Environment for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Persons and Civil Society recommended that in schools separate toilets or unisex toilets should be built for transgender students.
Thailand
The term "kathoeys" used to describe effeminate male-bodied people, for whom schools have started opening sex-separated toilets for since 2003. After legislation passed, in 2004 a private vocational college in Chiang Mai Thailand gave 15 'kathoey' students the opportunity to use toilet facilities that were solely for them, referred to as 'pink lotus' public toilets. Alliance organizations in Thailand such as the Thai Transgender Alliance and the Transferral Association of Thailand were created to support kathoey people such as by helping create separate public toilet facilities.
United States
There are unisex toilets in some public spaces in the United States. Cooper Union of New York City, New York was the first college in the country to de-gender all of their campus bathrooms in 2015.
Despite this, transgender and gender nonconforming people are still sometimes subject to visual or verbal scrutiny; this is reinforced by the architectural design and heteronormative gendered codes of conduct that are still present within the US.
On the federal level, the US Department of Labor is in charge of workplace toilets, which means setting state guidelines through the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA Recommends that any workplace single-user toilet be made all-gender. For non-work related public toilet guidelines, the Department of Health and Human Services governs regulations. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ("EEOC") has also played a role in interpreting federal statutes and enforcing them. Two statutes relevant to public toilets are Title VII (nondiscrimination in the workplace) and Title IX (nondiscrimination in educational opportunity based on sex).
Building codes may be adopted by statute or regulation. They may require sex-separation or they may require unisex toilets. New building codes usually do not apply retroactively. Thus, building owners may choose not to update existing features because it allows them to continue following the older building codes that govern those older features. These regulations are mostly based on the precedent created by original legislation. They sometimes also work to eliminate the longer wait time females often face by creating a ratio of more female toilets than male toilets, and provide more inclusive environments for people requiring assistance in the restroom or people with children of a different gender. Various private businesses such as Target have publicly committed to maintaining all gender restrooms in stores nationwide even when not mandated by local or state ordinances.
US local ordinances
In most jurisdictions, local governments have the ability to pass ordinances, so long as they do not conflict with state law. San Francisco (California), Philadelphia (Pennsylvania), Seattle (Washington), Washington (District of Columbia), Berkeley (California), Cathedral City (California), West Hollywood (California), Austin (Texas), Cleveland (Ohio), New York City, Denver (Colorado), and the US states of Vermont, New Mexico, New York State, Illinois, and California - have passed measures mandating that single-occupancy toilets in public spaces be labeled as unisex (or gender-neutral). In 2022, California enacted legislation allowing cities to build multi-stall gender-neutral bathrooms. Additionally, the 2021 edition of the International Plumbing Code (in use by 35 states, Puerto Rico, Guam, and DC) will require the same as individual states adopt the new edition of the code.
Some examples for local or state ordinances regarding unisex public toilets (see also: bathroom bill):
The city council of Portland, Oregon passed an ordinance for "all-user restrooms" in 2015 which directed city bureaus to convert "single-user gender-specific restrooms" into "all-user restrooms" within six months.
On May 11, 2018, Vermont Governor Phil Scott signed a bill requiring all single-user public toilets to be unisex, effective July 1, 2018.
On September 29, 2022, California became the first state to allow cities to require multi-stall unisex restrooms in buildings which are either newly constructed or undergoing extensive renovation. This law was supported by the City Council of West Hollywood, California, which passed an ordinance to that effect on December 7, 2022.
The Human Rights Campaign, an LGBTQ advocacy group, recommends that employers grant access, and use, to public toilets according to an employee's "full time gender presentation", and provides a list of recommendations on achieving this.
History of sex-separated toilets
There are competing theories regarding how and why public toilets (or "bathrooms" in the United States) first became separated by sex in the United States and Europe.
Western sex-separation as a modern development
Public toilets, part of the sanitation system of ancient Rome, were shared by many demographics. These latrines housed long benches with holes accommodating multiple simultaneous users. There was no privacy between users, as using the facilities was considered a social activity. This communal multi-seater typology continued until the 1800s.
By the Middle Ages, public toilets became uncommon. People had the legal right and social custom to urinate and defecate wherever they pleased.
Sociologist Dara Blumenthal notes changing bodily habits, attitudes, and practices regarding hygiene starting in the 16th century, which eventually led to a resurgence of public toilets in the 19th century. Civility increasingly required the removal of waste product from contact with others. New instruction manuals, schoolbooks, and court regulations dictated what was appropriate. Some scholars argue that with increasingly strict prohibitions on bodily display and the emergence of a rigid ideology of gender, visual privacy and spatial separation of the sexes were introduced into public toilet design. They say that it was not until the Victorian era, starting in Great Britain, that sex separation began in public toilets.
The earliest known example of a western sex-separated public toilet was a temporary installation that occurred in 1739 at a Parisian ball. This involved chamber boxes in separate rooms with attendants guiding visitors to the appropriate location. According to sociologist and author Sheila Cavanagh, this was seen by the guests as "sort of a novelty - something eccentric and fun." She argues that this was done to accentuate sexual difference, and project that difference onto public space.
George Jennings, the sanitary engineer, introduced public toilets, which he called "monkey closets", to the Crystal Palace for The Great Exhibition of 1851. They included separate amenities for men and women, and were the first flush toilet facilities to introduce sex-separation to the activity. London's first public toilet facility opened the next year with only provisions for men, although other facilities opened for women at other venues.
Some scholars say the practice of maintaining separate toilets coincides with early 19th century moral ideology regarding the appropriate role and place for women in society. According to historian Terry Kogan, this constructed women as "inherently vulnerable and in need of protection" and men as "inherently predatory." This sexist view was put forward as a "scientific" fact, to curb the emergent women's rights movement. Legislators and policymakers acted on protecting "weaker" women by limiting their work hours, requiring rest periods during the day, and prohibiting certain jobs. This also included architectural solutions to "protect" women such as separate toilet facilities with "fainting" couches.
In the United States, Massachusetts was the first state to pass a law mandating sex-separated toilet facilities in 1887. It was titled "An Act To Secure Proper Sanitary Provisions in Factories and Workshops". The act called for suitable and separate toilets for women in the workplace. By 1920, this was mandated in 43 states. This development is believed to be a reflection of women entering the workforce.
Under another view, offered by W. Burlette Carter, sex-separation has long been the standard in the U.S. and Great Britain and most of the world where women's well-being was valued. She argues that when people used chamber pots, sex-separation could be achieved by placing the pot in a separated space. In single-use privies and similar spaces, that separation was achieved by allowing only one "sex" to use the space at a time. In multi-use spaces, it was achieved either through the same means or by separate spaces for the sexes. Very likely, the primary reasons for establishing these sex-separated spaces were safety and privacy for women and children. Concerns over undesired pregnancy and procreation were additional considerations. Some of these were related to concerns about rape or about moral views about how and when women should become pregnant (e.g., objections to premarital sex). Evidence also suggest that, in earlier centuries, when people sought to create unisex spaces for those who wanted or needed them, authorities resisted.
Carter argues that toilet separation by sex preceded 1739, and that in fact sex separated toilets have been a feature in multi-use spaces since their beginnings. Prior to the 1887 Massachusetts statute, across the United States and Europe at least, sex-separation was the norm already. For example, Massachusetts had statewide regulations that required sex-separation in particular venues such as schools before 1887. The earliest written reference to sex-separation in the United States may be from 1786. A traveler described bathers using a public spring called Healing Springs, in South Carolina. The bathers would hang Aprons from a tree to mark when the women were bathing and used Hats to mark when the men were bathing. Within the culture of that time, this practice was tantamount to hanging "women" and "men" signs. Furthermore, ancient evidence, including art-work, confirms widespread use of sex-separation (or sex segregation), especially in multi-use spaces - therefore not limiting the concept to public toilets. The exceptions were where the spaces were intended for amorous purposes by opposite sex couples, where safety was considered not to be at risk, or where women were not valued by society.
Primary rationales of sex-separation
One theory argues there were four primary rationales for sex-segregated toilets as detailed by state statutes and related literature in the nineteenth century: sanitation, women's privacy, the protection of women's bodies, which were seen as weaker, and to protect social morality especially as it pertained to the nineteenth century ideology of separate spheres. Subsequently, other states in the US created similar laws, often by amending existing protective labor legislation. Forty-three states had passed similar legislation by 1920. Others argue that safety and privacy were the two main goals of sex-separation (although factors such as morality also played roles). In New York in 1886, for example, factory inspectors asked for separate toilets out of concerns of women who came to them complaining of sexual harassment. Others argued for complete space separation citing the pressure on women to engage in sexual behavior to keep their jobs. Authorities who cared about these issues were trying to respond to those concerns by mandating separation. Indeed, these laws were likely among the first anti-sexual harassment laws in the nation. Many victims in the workplace were afraid to press charges for fear of losing work.
Some scholars have tied toilet sex-separation to segregation based on race discrimination in the US. Advocates of this view argue that these approaches share a theme in which a warning is issued against the looming threats: violence and sexual assaults would increase. Some political activists have drawn on the commonality between public toilets being segregated formerly by race and still by sex. On the other hand, while all discrimination has commonalities, the sex-separation within racial groups, even going back to slavery, suggests that the parallel regarding toilets is historically flawed. For example, slave ships were usually separated by sex. This fact suggests that racial segregation in public toilets and sex separation in them may not be as comparable as some suggest.
In prior cases where restrooms were separated by race as well as gender, white women have traditionally been given more amenities because they were white. This denial was a sign of discrimination against others based on race and/or poverty, and not automatically a sign of society assigning a lesser value to women in general. Men also experienced different treatment, not based on class, but based on race, with black men having less favorable facilities. There is evidence that when sexual minorities sought to create safe spaces that reimagined sex and gender lines their efforts were resisted.
Society and culture
Developing countries
In both developed and developing countries, many of the organizations active in water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) provision have asserted that separate toilets for boys and girls at school are very important to make girls feel comfortable and safe using the sanitation facilities at schools. For example, in 2018, UNESCO stated that single-sex toilets are needed to overcome girls' barriers to education. This concern could potentially apply to boys as well, especially if open urinals are maintained. As an alternative, some argue that unisex school toilets could be provided at schools in addition to facilities that are separated by gender (which is often the case already in the case of toilets for people with disabilities).
WaterAid is researching options of appropriate unisex public toilets in developing countries. In 2017, they stated that those kinds of gender-neutral/mixed-sex toilets, where people can access all toilets irrespective of their gender, is not recommended in contexts where it may increase the risk of violence against women or transgender people, or where it is deemed culturally inappropriate. Many women, especially those who have been victims of sexual abuse in the past, have asserted the right to continue using all-female toilets to minimize the risk of any kind of sexual harassment in public toilets.
Some activists favor 'third gender' public toilets which would only be used by transgender people. The degree of agreement or disagreement on such issues is difficult to gauge. However, this is still being debated. Some advocates argue that it would reinforce stigma and result in people being banned from accessing the toilets of the gender they identify with. It has been argued that in some African countries where transgender people are being prosecuted, this option would likely bring no benefit at all to them.
In the case of India, it has been found that designing transgender-inclusive sanitation is more than just a technical issue: It requires a deeper examination of the role of caste, gender, and age within the transgender community. Using a toilet that explicitly broadcasts a transgender person's identity to others may not be desirable to all transgender persons.
Transgender and gender nonconforming people
Advocates argue that public toilets and sanitation facilities have historically not met the needs of the LGBTI communities. They maintain that this is an issue with respect to the human right to water and sanitation and also from the perspective of the Sustainable Development Goal 6, which aim for universal access to sanitation and their vision of gender equality. All-gender public toilets are intended to ensure that toilets are fully accessible to all members of society.
Transgender and gender non-conforming persons are at a high risk of violence without access to gender-neutral bathrooms (see: trans bashing). They are often be subject to embarrassment, harassment, even assault or arrest, by others offended by the presence of a person they interpret as being of a different sex than themselves. It has been argued that walking into a toilet separated by sex requires people to self-separate and that some transgender people report being challenged on what public toilet they choose to use and subsequently "do their best to forego use of public toilets altogether". Providing unisex toilets can eliminate discrimination and harassment for people who may be perceived to be in the "wrong" toilet.
A 2015 study by the National Center for Transgender Equality found that 59% of transgender American avoided using public facilities for fear of confrontation. This landmark study, which included 27,715 respondents, found that 24% of respondents had their presence in the restroom questioned, 12% had experienced verbal harassment, physical assault, or sexual assault when attempting to use the restroom, and 9% were denied access entirely. Several studies have found that preventing transgender people from using public toilets has negative mental health impacts, leading to a higher risk of suicide. Without gender-neutral facilities, many people are unable to fulfill a basic need.
Hate crimes have taken place following transgender people using a bathroom. Alexa Negrón Luciano of Puerto Rico was shot and killed just hours after being reported to police for using a women's bathroom. Hate speech and gun shots can be heard in a video of the killing, causing investigators to treat this incident as motivated by transphobia. There are several news reports of transgender people being denied access, being forced to leave after appearing to have used the "wrong" bathroom, being made to use a bathroom that does not align with their identity, getting harassed, getting beaten, and getting arrested.
In the early twenty-first century, with increased coverage of the transgender community, there have been some initiatives calling for unisex public toilets, instead of only male and female ones, to better accommodate genderqueer individuals. Sex-separation of public toilets began gaining traction as a controversial issue in US politics in 2010. This has become an increasingly contentious issue, as shown in the battles over North Carolina's 2016 Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act, among other bathroom bills. Several groups and organizations, whether in person or online, exist in order to combat attitudes and bills that oppose transgender individuals. For instance, the Transgender Law Center's "Peeing in Peace" is a pamphlet that serves as a resource guide full of information on harassment, safe public toilet campaigns and legal information.
While transgender public toilet usage has been labelled by many as a moral panic, the ongoing discourse continues to have significant impacts on this group.
Criticism
Some opponents of unisex public toilets argue that eliminating sex-separation entirely or identifying unisex spaces as the norm is not inclusive to women. They believe that women and children are more likely to be harassed and sexually assaulted there compared to sex-segregated public toilets. Safety in public toilets remains a serious issue for women. The recording of women in private spaces without their consent is also an issue.
Supporters of single-sex toilets point to the specific needs of women, such as menstrual hygiene, and argue that these require sex-segregation in public toilets, for reasons of personal comfort and privacy, and argue that this is especially true for teenage girls. Other concerns include that unisex toilets may be avoided by women, leading to both discomfort to women and wasting funds. Supporters of sex-segregated toilets argue that both males and females may feel "awkward" having to share a toilet with the opposite sex. A publication in 2018 argued that the scholarship on the history of sex-separation is flawed and places too much emphasis on the negative sides of sex separation in public toilets for women, ignoring aspects of safety for women from sexual harassment. It says these false narratives should be corrected and there is also a need for more innovative solutions.
Some women's groups, have opposed making unisex toilets the norm, based on safety concerns for most women and a need for safe spaces. Groups like WomansPlaceUK have led a charge to secure "safe" spaces for women, arguing that sexual harassment dangers would be increased for women. They assert that they affirm the existence of transgender people and their right to protection but that women's rights, as they see them, must also be recognized. In this respect, debate has centred around UK proposals to amend the Gender Recognition Act to change the process of obtaining a Gender Recognition Certificate to one of self-identification. Supporters of unisex spaces and access by self-declaration have rejected these claims. In the UK, trans people have for years been legally able to use the facilities that accord with their gender identity.
Statistics show no reports of transgender people attacking women. There has been no link between trans-inclusive policies and bathroom safety. A study conducted by the UCLA School of Law's Williams Institute found no significant change in the number of crimes since the passage of various laws that enable transgender public toilet usage. However, the primary issue at stake with communal unisex restrooms is not about the presence of transgender people but about the discomfort and lack of safety that women and girls could experience in having to share these restrooms with cisgender males.
Some religious groups have opposed unisex public toilets on the basis of morality. In 2017, a conservative Christian faith group leader in Texas has compared the introduction of unisex toilets with the abolition of Bible reading in state schools. However, there is energy for and against new bathroom bills by various groups of Christians.
In Germany, a member of the German right-wing party Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) regards the unisex toilet as a danger for German women and relates it to sexual assaults by "criminal foreigners".
Protests and opposition
Backlash has sometimes occurred when unisex public toilets have been implemented without wide public embrace. After backlash, and complaints from women, the Barbican Centre in the UK was required to reconsider its original design. They later issued a statement promising that, in addition to unisex public toilets, they would keep sex-separated toilets as well. In Los Angeles in 2016, there were violent clashes between supporters and opponents of toilets. Students, who attended the school with unisex toilets, confronted the adult protestors who had been outside the school with signs and horns. In Germany in 2018, the newly installed unisex toilets at Bielefeld University have repeatedly been vandalized. In Toronto, also in 2018, people complained about a unisex washrooms in a mall. In May 2021, The Daily Telegraph reported that Robert Jenrick, the communities secretary, was planning to ban unisex toilets in public buildings in order to "maintain safeguards that protect women". In the UK, the group Resisters plastered stickers all over the UK to protest what they called the confiscation of women's spaces. The stickers were in the shape of a penis and stated, "Women Don't Have Penises." A number of local women's groups referred to the behaviour as insulting to transgender persons and hate speech.
See also
Bathroom bill - legislation about public toilets in the United States
Female urination device
Gender apartheid
Human right to water and sanitation
Potty parity
Sanitation
References
External links
Directory of gender neutral toilets
Searchable database of accessible restroom locations
Queens University – Gender Neutral Washroom Policy
Canoe.ca – UWO opens transgendered washrooms
Canada.com – A revo-loo-tion on the UBC campus
Bathrooms
Building codes
Caregiving
Gender equality
Public toilets
Restrooms in the United States
Sex segregation
Transgender law
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Wild%20Swan%20%28D62%29
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HMS Wild Swan (D62)
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HMS Wild Swan was an Admiralty modified W-class destroyer built for the Royal Navy. She was one of four destroyers ordered in 1918 from Swan Hunter and Wigham Richardson, Wallsend-on-Tyne under the 14th Order for Destroyers of the Emergency War Program of 1917–18. She was the second Royal Navy ship to carry the name, after the sloop in 1876. Like her sisters, she was completed too late to see action in the First World War.
Construction and design
Wild Swan was one of seven Modified W-class destroyers that were completed after World War I, out of an original order for 38 ships issued in April 1918. She was built by Swan Hunter at Wallsend on Tyne, being laid down in July 1918, launched on 17 May 1919 and completed on 14 November 1919.
Wild Swan was long overall and between perpendiculars, with a beam of and a draught of between and depending on load. Displacement was standard and deep load. Three oil-fed Yarrow boilers raising steam at fed Brown-Curtis geared steam turbines which developed , driving two screws for a maximum designed speed of . The ship carried of oil giving a range of at .
She shipped four 4.7 in (120 mm) BL guns on four single center-line mounts. These were disposed as two forward and two aft in super imposed firing positions. Anti-aircraft armament consisted of two 2-pounder "pom-pom" autocannon. Six 21-inch torpedo tubes were fitted in two triple mounts on the center-line. She had a crew of 134 officers and other ranks.
Pre-war service
On commissioning, the ship joined the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla, Atlantic Fleet, based at Port Edgar on the Firth of Forth and from March to July 1920, operated in the Baltic. She remained with the 3rd Flotilla when the Royal Navy's Destroyer Flotillas were reorganised from large flotillas of 16 destroyers and a leader to smaller units of eight ships and a leader in 1921. The 3rd Destroyer Flotilla, including Wild Swan, transferred from the Atlantic Fleet to the Mediterranean Fleet in September 1922 as a result of the Chanak Crisis, a war scare between Britain and Turkey towards the end of the Greco-Turkish War. The 3rd Flotilla assisted in the evacuation of Greeks from Turkish territory after the end of the year, escorting transports carrying Greek troops. On 24–25 December 1923, she took part in the unsuccessful hunt for the French airship Dixmunde, searching the Gulf of Gabès, although Dixmunde had in fact been destroyed in an explosion off Sicily on 21 December. Wild Swan had her boilers retubed at Sheerness dockyard in June–July 1926. As a result of the outbreak of the Chinese Civil War the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla was despatched from the Mediterranean to China in order to protect British interests, arriving at Hong Kong on 15 October 1926. Wild Swan was based at Jiujiang on the Yangtze river from January to June 1927, and on 26 March Wild Swan and the river gunboat intercepted the British steamer Kiangwo which had been seized by Chinese Nationalist troops to ferry troops up the Yangtze. After negotiation, the Nationalists released the vessel, paying compensation to the ship's owners. The Flotilla re-assembled at Hong Kong on 1 May 1928 to prepare to return to home waters, but departure was delayed by the Jinan incident, a clash between Chinese Nationalist and Japanese troops, with the Flotilla not leaving until 8 July.
The 3rd Flotilla was re-equipped with A-class destroyers in 1930, and Wild Swan was placed in reserve. She was re-commissioned in 1931, joining the 8th Destroyer Flotilla on the China Station. Wild Swan transferred to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla based at Singapore in December 1934. The flotilla transferred to the Mediterranean during the Abyssinian crisis. The outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936 saw Wild Swan at Gibraltar and on 23 July she was patrolling in the Straits of Gibraltar when she was near missed by bombs dropped by Nationalist bombers, which resulted in Wild Swan firing back at the aircraft. Between 25 and 28 July she took part in the evacuation of civilians from Huelva, and then returned to the United Kingdom, reaching Spithead on 31 July. Wild Swan then joined the Local Defence Flotilla at Portsmouth, taking part in the Coronation Fleet Review for King George VI on 20 May 1937.
On 23 August 1937, Wild Swan was paid off into reserve, and remained in reserve at Portsmouth into 1939. She underwent a long refit at Chatham in late 1939 to update her equipment, including the fitting of anti-submarine detection equipment (ASDIC). This refit and consequent trials did not complete until December 1939.
Second World War
Early operations
After her refit, Wild Swan was allocated to the 18th Destroyer Flotilla; however, in January 1940 she participated in trials on degaussing equipment, attached to the torpedo school, . On 25 February 1940, Wild Swan joined the 18th Flotilla and commenced operations. On 4 March, Wild Swan and sister ship were dispatched from Plymouth to join the sloop in the search for a German U-boat that a merchant ship had reported sighting west of the Scilly Isles. Leith attacked a possible contact on that day, with Wild Swan joining in during the attacks on 5 March. Although depth charges brought up an oil slick, it was concluded that the contact was a false alarm, and the ships had been attacking a pre-existing wreck. On 11 March, the German submarine torpedoed the Dutch tanker and Wild Swan, and the leader were sent to investigate. Wild Swan rescued Eulotas crew before Broke scuttled the remains of the tanker. Wild Swan continued with convoy escort duties and investigating reports of U-boats through the rest of March and into April 1940.
Holland, Boulogne and Dunkirk
On 18 April, Wild Swan transferred to the 19th Destroyer Flotilla based at Dover. On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. Part of Britain's response was "Operation XD", with four destroyers (Wild Swan, , and ) embarking demolition teams in order to destroy key facilities at Dutch ports before they could be captured by the Germans. Wild Swan was tasked with landing its party at the Hook of Holland, arriving there on the afternoon of 10 May. She shelled German paratroops in a wood to the east of Hook of Holland on 11 May. She received damage to her starboard propeller while alongside at the Hook of Holland, and on 12 May was near missed by bombs from a German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bomber which damaged the ship's condensers, before rescuing survivors from the passenger ship , which had been sunk by German dive bombers. Wild Swan returned to Dover on 13 May, and went into dock to repair her damaged propeller and condensers.
On 21 May, Wild Swan was ordered to Boulogne, threatened by advancing German troops, picking up 150 British civilians and ferrying them back to Dover. On 22 May she crossed the Channel to Dunkirk to carry out escort operations, but was diverted to Boulogne to carry out shore bombardment operations against advancing German troops along with the British destroyers and and the French destroyers , , , , , , , and . They were attacked by German bombers, and Wild Swan was near missed by a German bomb, with splinters killing three men and seriously wounding another. On 23 May, Wild Swan took a demolition party to Dunkirk, and returned to Dover that afternoon with 155 military and civilians rescued from Dunkirk. She then returned to Boulogne, where the situation had deteriorated severely, in order to take place in an evacuation of as many British troops as possible. Wild Swan entered Boulogne harbour at 20:25 hrs, shortly after and had left and was followed in by the destroyers and . As Venetia entered the harbour, she was shelled heavily by a German-manned shore battery and German tanks in an attempt to sink the ship in the entrance to the harbour and trap the remaining two ships. While Venetia was hit seven times, Venomous and Wild Swan managed to return fire with their 4.7 inch guns, suppressing the German shelling, so that Venetia could escape while Wild Swan and Venomous embarked troops (403 aboard Wild Swan and 500 aboard Venomous) before the two ships rejoined Venetia and returned to Dover. On 26 May Operation Dynamo, the evacuation of the BEF from Dunkirk started. Wild Swan escorted the ferry Maid of Orleans, carrying drinking water for the trapped troops and the transport Canterbury to Dunkirk on 26 May, picking up General Ralph Eastwood and his staff before returning to Dover. She was then ordered to Portsmouth for a short refit, where her boilers were cleaned and the aft set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 12-pounder (i.e. 3-inch (76-mm)) anti-aircraft gun, and two extra depth charge throwers fitted.
Channel and North Sea operations
After the refit, on 8 June, Wild Swan rejoined the 19th Destroyer Flotilla. On 17 June, Wild Swan landed a demolition party at St Malo, calling in at Jersey on the way there, where she requisitioned seven small merchant ships to take place in the evacuation of troops from St Malo, part of Operation Cycle. The 19th Flotilla was then based at Harwich, escorting convoys in the North Sea, and carrying out anti-invasion patrols, together with offensive strikes against enemy shipping. On 30 July, Wild Swan was carrying out an anti-invasion patrol with Whitshed and when Whitshed struck a mine. Wild Swan towed Whitshed stern first back to Harwich. On the night of 10/11 September, Wild Swan, and carried out an offensive sweep off the Belgian coast, attacking several barges and trawlers that were being used as escorts, sinking at least one of the barges and two trawlers. On the night of 13/14 September Wild Swan and Venomous again struck against German coastal shipping off Boulogne, engaging several German trawlers, before breaking off the engagement when coming under fire from German coastal artillery. On 16 September, Wild Swan collided with the destroyer , sustaining minor damage to the ship's bow.
Later in September, Wild Swan was allocated to Operation Lucid, a plan to convert old oil tankers as Fire ships and use them to attack invasion barges in French ports. Wild Swan was part of the escort force on the first attempt to carry out Lucid, on the night of 25/26 September, where and were to be sacrificed, but this was abandoned because of unsuitable weather conditions and the poor condition of the fire ships. A second attempt on 2 October was cancelled due to poor weather. A third attempt was made on the night of 4/5 October, with War Nizam and Mytilus being sent against Calais and Oakfield against Boulogne. Wild Swan again formed part of the escort covering force, but unsuitable weather conditions again caused cancellation.
Atlantic escort
On 30 October, Wild Swan was transferred to the 7th Escort Group based at Liverpool. One early escort mission with the 7th Escort Group was Convoy HX83, which Wild Swan joined on 4 November. On the night of 4/5 November, the German U-boat , commanded by Otto Kretschmer, fresh from sinking the Armed Merchant Cruisers and , attacked the convoy, firing torpedoes from outside the convoy, with the torpedoes passing between Wild Swan and the destroyer , patrolling on the East side of the Convoy, and sinking the tanker . Neither Wild Swan or Beagle spotted U-99, and despite seeing an explosion, did not realise that the attack had come from their side of the convoy. The crews of Wild Swan and Beagle, both new to North Atlantic convoy operations, were criticised for keeping a poor lookout.
On 23 December, Wild Swan was departing Liverpool in company with the destroyer when Warwick set off an acoustic mine, and was badly damaged, with the engine room flooded and the ship settling low in the water. Wild Swan towed Warwick back to Liverpool, allowing the damaged ship to be repaired. On 9 January Wild Swan was detached from Convoy OB270 to search for the survivors of the cargo ship which had been sunk by a German Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor long-range bomber the previous day. Wild Swan and the Armed Merchant Cruiser rescued the survivors later that same day. Despite being short of fuel, Wild Swan was then ordered to search for the steamer , which had been torpedoed and sunk by , with Wild Swan and Esperance Bay rescuing Bassanos survivors. On 29 January, Wild Swan was returning to Liverpool when she encountered the steamer , which had struck a mine earlier that day and had been abandoned by her crew. The steamer remained afloat, and Wild Swan recovered Westmorelands crew, put them back aboard the steamer and assisted in the recovery of the stricken vessel, with Wild Swans crew later being awarded £600 for taking part in the salvage of the ship.
Wild Swan continued escort operations in the North Atlantic until March 1941, when she underwent a much-needed refit at the Royal Albert Dock in London. The ship's machinery was overhauled extensively, and Type 286 surface search radar fitted. The dockyard was heavily bombed on 19 April and Wild Swan was slightly damaged by German bombs, with near misses causing leaking oil tanks
Africa and Gibraltar
After completing her refit on 26 April, Wild Swan joined the 1st Destroyer Flotilla based at Portsmouth. A shortage of escorts off West Africa resulted in Wild Swan being ordered to transfer to Freetown, Sierra Leone. Before she was due to sail for Africa, the sinking of the British battlecruiser by the in the Battle of the Denmark Strait, resulted in Wild Swan, together with and being ordered to stand by at Plymouth, ready to be sent to intercept the German Battleship or to escort the battleships and (there was a chance that fuel shortages could force the Battleships' destroyer escort to turn back, leaving them unprotected against submarine attack). Bismarck was sunk on the night of 26/27 May without the need for the three elderly destroyers to intervene, but late on 27 May, the three destroyers were instead ordered to go to the aid of the Ocean boarding vessel , which had been set on fire by German bombers off Cape Cornwall, near Land's End. Wild Swan picked up twenty survivors from Registan, although four of them died. The three destroyers joined the escort to the Cape-bound convoy WS-8X on 1 June 1941, being detached from the convoy on 3 June and reaching Gibraltar on 6 June. The three destroyers took part in escort duties during the rendezvous of the aircraft carriers and prior to Operation Tracer, but Wild Swan returned to Gibraltar on 10 June. The three destroyers set out for West Africa on 13 June, sailing for Freetown via Bathurst, and arriving at Freetown on 18 June.
Wild Swan carried out escort operations from Freetown through the rest of June and July, but by then the pressure off West Africa had reduced, and Wild Swan was ordered to Gibraltar, reaching there on 10 August. The ship soon began a regular pattern of escorting the Gibraltar to Britain HG convoys as far as fuel would last, this beginning with Convoy HG.70, where the strong escort managed to repel a series of attacks by enemy submarines, so that the only loss was one freighter sunk by bombing.
Loss
On 16 June 1942, Wild Swan was in the Western Approaches as part of the escort for convoy HG84. She was detached for refuelling, and happened to be passing through a group of Spanish trawlers, when a squadron of 12 German Junkers Ju 88 bombers mistook these vessels as the convoy and attacked them. Wild Swan replied vigorously, claiming six German aircraft shot down. She was, however, already seriously damaged by four near-misses, she lost steering control and collided with one of the Spanish trawlers, which sank almost immediately. She rescued 11 survivors from the trawler, but Wild Swan also sank (at ). The British reported that three of the trawlers were also sunk by bombs.
A searching RAF Short Sunderland flying boat found the group of small boats and dinghies the next day, and survivors of both vessels were subsequently rescued, but 31 British seamen died through exposure. According to a Ministry of Defence historical document: 17 June 1942 "Picked up 10 officers and 123 ratings, five of whom seriously injured, from Wild Swan, (sunk after damaged by air attack and collision with Spanish trawler in Bay of Biscay) and 11 men from Spanish trawler." The survivors were landed at Milford Haven.
The Wild Swan's commander, Claude Sclater, was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for the action.
Notes
Citations
References
(Appendices omitted from the print edition at hughsebagmontefiore.com. Retrieved 21 May 2016.)
1919 ships
Maritime incidents in June 1942
Ships sunk in collisions
Shipwrecks in the Bay of Biscay
V and W-class destroyers of the Royal Navy
World War II destroyers of the United Kingdom
World War II shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean
Ships sunk by German aircraft
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Quakers in Europe
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The Quaker movement began in England in the 17th Century. Small Quaker groups were planted in various places across Europe during this early period (For instance, see the Stephen Crisp article). Quakers in Europe outside Britain and Ireland are not now very numerous although new groups have started in the former Soviet Union and satellite countries. By far the largest national grouping of Quakers in Europe is in Britain.
History
Belgium and Luxembourg
Quaker Meetings are held in Brussels and Luxembourg, with occasional meetings in Antwerp and Ghent. The first Meeting for Business was held in Brussels in March 1975.
Quaker Council for European Affairs
The Quaker Council for European Affairs (QCEA) is an international not-for-profit organisation which seeks to promote the values and political concerns of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) at the European level. It undertakes research and advocacy in the fields of peacebuilding and human rights policy, notably in relation to the European Union and the Council of Europe. Founded in 1979 by Quakers who worked in the European institutions, it is based in Brussels, Belgium, and is registered under Belgian law.
Quaker House Brussels
Quaker House, located on the Square Ambiorix, Brussels, was acquired shortly after QCEA’s foundation. Quaker House Brussels serves as the main Meeting House for Quakers in Belgium and Luxembourg. The building itself, built in the 1890s by the architect Georges Hobé, is a well-preserved example of art nouveau architecture and has protected heritage status.
Britain
There were 23,860 Quakers in Britain in 2015. There are 70 Area Meetings in Britain and 470 Local Meetings.
The vast majority of British Quakers attend Meetings of unprogrammed worship.
Well-known British Quakers: See: List of British Quakers
Denmark
Finland
France
Well-known French Quakers include: Ferdinand Barlow, Stephen Grellet and Jeanne Henriette Louis
Germany
Well-known German Quakers include: Elisabeth Abegg, Annot, John William Gerard de Brahm, Hans Einstein, Carl Hermann, John Theodore Merz, Marcello Pirani, and Gerhart von Schulze-Gavernitz.
Hungary
Ireland
Well-known Irish Quakers
Italy
Well-known Italian Quakers include: Pier Cesare Bori
Netherlands
Seventeenth century
Quakers first arrived in the Netherlands in 1655 when the nephew of William Ames and Margaret Fell, William Caton, took up residence in Amsterdam. The Netherlands were seen by Quakers as a refuge from persecution in England and they perceived themselves to have affinities with the Dutch Collegiants and Mennonites who had sought sanctuary in the country. However, Quakers still encountered persecution similar to that from which they had hoped to escape in England. This did not prevent the start of preaching tours however, and in 1661, Ames and Caton visited the County Palatine of the Rhine and met with Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine at Heidelberg.
William Penn, the Quaker founder of Pennsylvania, had a maternal connection to the Netherlands and visited in 1671. He returned in 1677 with George Fox and Robert Barclay and at Walta Castle, their religious community at Wieuwerd in Friesland, he unsuccessfully tried to convert the similarly-minded Labadists to Quakerism. The men also journeyed on the Rhine to Frankfurt, accompanied by the Amsterdam Quaker Jan Claus who was their translator. His brother, Jacob Claus, had Quaker books translated and published in Dutch and he later produced a map of Philadelphia.
Eighteenth century
The attraction of a life free from persecution in the New World led to a gradual Dutch Quaker migration. English Quakers in Rotterdam were permitted to transport people and cargo by ship to English colonies without restriction and throughout the 18th century many Dutch Quakers emigrated to Pennsylvania. There were an estimated 500 Quaker families in Amsterdam in 1710, but by 1797 there were only seven Quakers left in the city. Isabella Maria Gouda (1745–1832), a granddaughter of Jan Claus, took care of the meeting house on Keizersgracht, but was evicted shortly afterwards.
The Quaker presence disappeared from Dutch life by the early 1800s until its re-emergence the 1920s, with Netherlands Yearly Meeting established in 1931.
Well-known Dutch Quakers include: Kees Boeke, Jan Claus, Jan de Hartog, and William Sewel.
Norway
There is a vibrant history of Quakerism in Norway. Unlike in many other European countries Quaker communities survived migration and persecution for over three hundred years. Norway Yearly Meeting holds meetings in Bergen, Bø in Telemark, Kristiansand, Farsun, Mandal, Oslo, Stavanger, and Trondheim.
Early beginnings
Quakers first visited Norway in the 1650s when Quaker faith was still in its infancy. British Quakers record a ship stranded in Bergen in 1666 which was deporting Quakers to British colonies. Laurence Fullove, one of the Quakers aboard the ship reports that tracts were handed out to curious citizens of Bergen. That same year, in 1666, the first Quaker tract in Danish and Norwegian was published: John Higgin's The Lord's Message to All Persons who confess their faith in God.
Nineteenth century
The Society of Friends in Norway started in 1814, with the highest concentration of Quakers living in and around Stavanger. In 1819, Quakers Knut and Anne Halvorsen had their marriage recognised and were allowed to reside in Norway. Other named Quakers were allowed to live in the Stavanger area by the Norwegian Royal Decrees of 1826 and 1828, on the condition that they reported births, deaths, and marriages to the authorities and did not proselytise. During this time two Quakers, Elias Tastad and Knut Halvorsen, were prosecuted for burying their deceased family members in un-consecrated soil. During the 1825 mass migration of Norwegians to America, the numbers of Norwegian Quakers in the country diminished by a third.
In 1846, the Society of Friends became the first officially registered and legal religious society outside the state church of Norway. It was not until 1956 that other groups (the Methodists and Lammers society) were registered in a similar way. Throughout the 1840s, Norwegian Quakers were subject to the Act Relating to Dissenters (1845), which was intended to keep dissenting groups in small, isolated pockets of Norwegian society. Despite this, Quakerism continued to spread, and new meeting houses were built in Kvinesdal, Sauda, Roldal, Skjold, and Tromsø during the 1840s. Still a relatively small population, Quakers numbered 473 in the 1865 census.
During the latter half of the nineteenth century, Quakers were very active in the Norwegian peace movement, which threatened their status as an organisation. After the Napoleonic wars, Norway maintained conscription, and a number of Norwegian Quakers were punished for conscientious objection. One of the first recorded Norwegian Quaker conscientious objectors, Soren Olsen, was lashed for three days in 1848. In a wider act of objection, in 1898 the clerk of Stavanger meeting refused to submit the names of Quaker conscripts to the local authorities.
In 1898, the Norwegian Society of Friends became a private religious organisation, which meant that the organisation was no longer subject to the act on dissenters. The society accepted new members and was able to continue to carry out funerals and marriages.
Twentieth century
In 1909, a group of Norwegian Friends attended London Yearly Meeting and in 1920, several Norwegian Friends attended the first worldwide conference of Friends. The peace testimonies prompted a new movement of collections and campaigning in Norway, which has continued to the present day. In 1937, Ole Olden established the periodical Kvekeren which was issued across Scandinavian countries.
During World War II a number of Norwegian Quakers, including Olden and Lund, were imprisoned by the occupying German forces for resistance work. Lund was active in the Norwegian underground movement protecting Norwegian Jews and refugees and in 1947 she became the first member of the Oslo Worship Group to become a Quaker. Olden was later nominated for the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize. Lindgrov School was established by Norwegian Friends in 1959, contributing ideas to national policies concerning training and work as aspects of care for people with learning disabilities. In 1975, a Monthly Meeting was established in Kristiansand.
Notable Quakers
Well-known Norwegian Quakers include Elise M. Boulding, Asbjørn Kloster, and Sigrid Helliesen Lund.
Russia
There are weekly Quaker meetings in Moscow and meetings by arrangement in St Petersburg.
The history of Quakerism in Russia is long and diverse, with multiple references and obscure connections to British Quakerism throughout Russian history.
First Quakerism and Persecution
The first Quaker connection to Russia came in 1656 when British Quaker George Fox sent an epistle to the Tsar of Muscovy Aleksei Mikhailovich. In 1697, Peter the Great visited England as part of the Grand Embassy where he was presented with Barclay's Apology and other Quaker works. Peter met with William Penn and attended meetings for worship whilst in England. Despite these initial connections, during the latter seventeenth century in Russia, the name "Quaker" was one of a number of pejorative terms for religious individuals who challenged earthly powers in the name of personal experience of the divine. Records show that Quakers were prosecuted in Russia as early as 1689. Throughout the eighteenth century, religious dissenters called "Quaker maidens" were exiled to Siberia for their beliefs. In 1779, the Ecclesiastical Dictionary listed "Quakers" as "nothing else but crowds of deranged people and enthusiasts who are possessed".
Further formal Quaker contact with Russia came in the 1760s, when Empress Catherine II sought a physician to inoculate herself and her son against smallpox. Catherine sought the Quaker physician Thomas Dimsdale, who was subsequently recalled to Russia to inoculate Catherine's grandsons.
Nineteenth century
When Tsar Alexander I visited England in 1814 as one of the victors over Napoleonic France; the Quakers sought out the ruler as they had Peter I. Alexander's evangelical faith was not dissimilar to that of then-contemporary Friends: he "received them warmly, prayed with them, 'fully assented' to their peace testimony, and attended meetings for worship". He also invited Friends to visit his Empire, and subsequently welcomed Quaker visitors, notably William Allen, who worked in Russia to promote education and prison reform, and travelled among the many dissenting religious groups of Southern Russia. In 1817, the Russian government wished to drain marshlands near St Petersburg, and Alexander sent a request for a suitable specialist to the Society of Friends in Britain. Quakers Daniel Wheeler and his family responded to this call; they spent some thirty years reclaiming land near St Petersburg and introducing modern farming techniques. Daniel's wife Jane Wheeler died in Russia in 1832, and her daughter in 1837. In recognition of the Wheelers' services the Imperial government granted them in perpetuity the land in which the dead had been buried: the Quaker burial ground still exists at Shushary, close to the city.
In 1854, British Friends sent a mission to Emperor Nicholas I seeking, unsuccessfully, to avert the Crimean War. Later they worked with the great novelist and pacifist Leo Tolstoy and his followers. Tolstoy's daughter-in-law became a member of the Society.
An important facet of Quaker involvement with Russia which began at this time was war and famine relief, first carried out in the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland in the 1850s. This became a major area of work, and British and American Friends gave considerable help during the Volga famine of the 1890s.
Nineteenth century culture
The image of the Pietist "good Quaker" lingered in the Russian cultural imagination well into the nineteenth century and became especially noticeable in the second half of the reign of Alexander I, when the emperor was increasingly involved in mysticism. The view of the "good Quaker" marked a religious awakening, fully manifested in Russian Martinism, it found increased development in the 1820s.
Onegin, the protagonist of Alexander Pushkin's 1823 novel Eugene Onegin refers to the Quakers as one of a multitude of social guises he may adopt:
'Has he grown tame at last, and mellow? / Or does he follow his old bent / And as of yore play the odd fellow? / Pray whom now does he represent? / Would he be Melmoth or Childe Harold, / Or as a Quaker go appareled, / A bigot seem – a patriot – / A cosmopolitan – or what?'
Nikolai Leskov had an English Quaker aunt, who raised him until he was sixteen. Academics have remarked that Leskov's later adoption of Russian Orthodoxy was marked by a distinct rationalist ethics which can be attributed to his early Quakerism.
Twentieth century
During and after World War I, the revolutions and the Russian Civil War, Quakers worked with refugees and other victims of harvest failures, wars, and relocations to create feeding centres, hospitals, orphanages, schools, and cottage industries. Perhaps the best-known example of Quaker relief work in Russia was Friends' participation in the international response to the famine of 1921. In that year alone, British and American Friends fed 212,000 people.
The small Quaker office set up in Moscow in connection with these activities managed to maintain cooperation with the new Soviet authorities in the field of health through the 1920s, and survived until 1931. It became the last representative of any Western religious organisation in Moscow as Stalin tightened his grip on the Soviet Union.
A remarkable pictorial record survives from this period in the sketches made in 1923 by Richard Kilbey of Wells-next-the Sea Meeting, when he and his brother Ernest were relief workers in South-Eastern Russia, in the town of Buzuluk. One sketch shows the Quaker team arriving back on a sledge at the house headquarters of the Quaker unit. Across the road was a malaria clinic in a building showing the marks of recent fighting between Red and White units in the Civil War.
Under Stalin, Friends were able to make formal visits to the Soviet Union in 1930, 1948 and 1949; otherwise contacts were limited to a few unusual and energetic individuals. After World War II, from 1950 onwards, the British Friends' East-West Committee and the American Friends' Service Committee tried to expand links, with some success, especially under Khrushchev. With the advent of Perestroika contact became easier.
The present Moscow Monthly Meeting grew out of a small local group which began to meet in Moscow in the manner of Friends in the late 1980s. In 1983, Russian historian Tatiana Pavlova had come into contact with British Quakers. Over the next few years, occasional visits and meetings for worship gradually developed into a worship group initially hosted in Tatiana's apartment. After the fall of the Soviet Union the meeting outgrew her home; it moved to the basement of a Russian Orthodox church, later to a school, to the premises of Friends House Moscow, and eventually to larger and more public quarters. It is now the largest Quaker group in Russia.
The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the great hardships suffered by the Russian people in the 1990s offered new challenges to Western Friends. Moscow Representatives of Quaker Peace and Service (Britain) were re-appointed in 1991, and in 1992 Pacific Yearly Meeting (USA) asked representatives to consider the Russian relationship. A few years later, Friends from Alaska Yearly Meeting began pastoral visits to their ethnic brothers and sisters in eastern Siberia, and American Friends participated in the material aid programme of the ecumenical Alaskan Friends of Chukotka. Friends House Moscow opened on 1 January 1996.
Well-known Russian Quakers include: Nikolai Leskov and Tatiana Pavlova (Historian at the Russian Academy of Sciences).
Sweden
As in all Scandinavian countries, there were Quaker settlements in Sweden from the 1660s well into the 1800s. Small groups of Friends are known to have existed in Sweden in the 19th century under the care of Norway Yearly Meeting. However, they were prohibited by the Swedish government and the Lutheran State Church during the nineteenth century. Sweden Yearly Meeting arose spontaneously from a small worship group which met during World War I. In 1937, a number of Swedish Quakers (including Emilia Norlind) formed Sweden Yearly Meeting, which was recognised by the government as an independent religious society outside the State Church. Since 1956, Swedish Friends have had their own Meetinghouse in Stockholm called Kväkargården. About seventy kilometres from Stockholm, Svartbäcken is used for general meetings for business, retreats and children's summer camps. Samfundsrådet, a general meeting for business, meets twice a year to carry on business between yearly meetings.
Well-known Swedish Quakers include Emilia Norlind, Per Sundberg (sv), and Gunnar Sundberg (sv).
Switzerland
Swiss Quakers hold a Monthly Meeting in Geneva, and there are records of Quaker meetings in Zurich, Basel, Bern, Biel/Bienne, Neuchâtel, Lausanne, Montreux and Romanshorn.
Quaker meetings in Switzerland began with individuals who discovered a close affinity to the spiritual quest and ideals of Quakers. They met through their involvement in peace and reconciliation, conscientious objection and service, and, not least, in the Civil Service Movement founded by Pierre Cérésole in the early 1920s. A number of them had been to the Quaker centre at Woodbrooke, in Birmingham, and were subsequently accepted as individual members of London Yearly Meeting. Swiss Quakers held their first annual meeting in Bern in 1934, and continued meeting annually under the umbrella of London Yearly Meeting on whose authority they depended for the admission of new members. In 1938 they acquired the right to admit their own members, and in November 1939 they were recognised as a Regional Meeting. An independent Switzerland Yearly Meeting came into being in 1947.
Well-known Swiss Quakers include: Pierre Ceresole, Adolphe Ferriere, Edmond Privat, Elisabeth Rotten, and Theophilus Waldmeier.
Pan-European Quaker Organisation
Cross-continental organisation has been central to the spread and establishment of Quakerism. The early Quakers were prolific in communication and dissemination of Quaker material, which led to a significant number of European countries having some kind of Quaker presence in the seventeenth century, even if small in number.
In 1693 William Penn wrote an essay entitled Towards the Present and Future Peace of Europe by the Establishment of a European Diet, Parliament or Estate. In this early tract, Penn wrote:
Peace in Europe may be maintained by forming a Sovereign Parliament of the European states to collectively decide disputes and unite as one strength in enforcing decisions.
All of the European states including Russia and Turkey should be included in the Diet with votes equivalent to the value of their territory.
States will still maintain their sovereignty over their internal affairs.
Bloodshed would be prevented, and towns and property not destroyed.
There must be a sovereign impartial authority to settle disputes which is greater than the parties in conflict.
Travel between the states would be free and easy, and personal friendships could develop between peoples of different countries.
Princes would not have to marry for political and diplomatic reasons but could establish unions based on sincere love.
Since Penn's early attempts at proselytism for a pan-European organisation, (one of the earliest advocates for a unified Europe) numerous Quaker organisations were created to bring Quakers across Europe together.
In 1920, the first Worldwide Conference of Quakers was held in London, with 936 delegates in attendance from across the world. Subsequently, three organisations were established which continue to involve European Quakers to a great extent:
Quaker United Nations Office in Geneva and New York (c. 1920)
Friends World Committee for Consultation (1937)
Quaker Council for European Affairs (1979)
See also
Britain Yearly Meeting
Yearly Meeting
Quaker Council for European Affairs
Quaker United Nations Office
References
External links
Friends World Committee for Consultation – Europe & Middle East section
Quaker groups in Europe with a web presence:
Belgium and Luxemburg
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany and Quaekerhilfe service organisation
Hungary
Ireland including Northern Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Russia
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom excluding Northern Ireland
Europe & Middle East Young Friends
Annual Report of FWCC/EMES for 2005
Quaker Council for European Affairs: Brussels-based lobbying body: "The Quaker Council for European Affairs (QCEA) was founded in 1979 to promote the values of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in the European context. Our purpose is to express a Quaker vision in matters of peace, human rights, and economic justice."
Europe
Protestantism in Europe
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Zombie walk
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A zombie walk is an organized public gathering of people who dress up in zombie costumes. Participants usually meet in an urban center and make their way around the city streets and public spaces (or a series of taverns in the case of a zombie pub crawl) in an orderly fashion. Zombie walks can be organized simply for entertainment or with a purpose, such as setting a world record or promoting a charitable cause. Originating in North America during the 2000s, zombie walks have occurred throughout the world.
Format
Zombie walks are relatively common in large cities, especially in North America. Some have been established as annual traditions, though others are organized as spontaneous flash mob events or performance art. The complexity and purpose of zombie walks varies. As an advanced technique to heighten interest and realism, some zombie mobs will "eat" victims to create new zombies, in sight of onlookers. Some participants occasionally dress up as soldiers who are called in to contain the outbreak, or survivors who are trying to defend themselves from the onslaught of the zombie horde. Some events are staged as spoof political rallies organized "to raise awareness of zombie rights", with participants carrying placards. Some zombie walks have also been staged as "hunger marches" with the intent of raising awareness of world hunger and collecting items for food banks.
History
Gencon 2000
The earliest zombie walk styled event on record was put together rather last-minute at the Gen Con gaming convention in Milwaukee in August 2000. The event was created to poke good-natured fun at the Vampire: The Masquerade LARPers that were taking over large portions of the convention, and disrupt their games. Michael Yates, Mark Stafford, Jacob Skowronek and several others organized the event with roughly 60 participants. The event was later recorded in the book 40 Years of Gencon with photos and recollections from the organizers. While it was rumored that the organizers were arrested and thrown out of the convention for their flash mob of zombies, they were simply questioned by security before being told to disband.
Annual Trash Film Orgy film festival
Another early zombie walk was held in Sacramento, California on August 19, 2001.
The event, billed as "The Zombie Parade", was the idea of Bryna Lovig, who suggested it to the organizers of Trash Film Orgy as a way to promote their annual midnight film festival. It was held again on July 27, 2002, and has since become an annual event, drawing over 1,000 participants in 2012.
The event was traditionally held as the kick off to the six-week film festival at Sacramento's historic Crest Theatre until 2014 when the theatre's general manager of 28 years, Laura "Sid" Garcia-Heberger, could not reach a lease renewal agreement with the building owners.
Despite the film festival's change of venue, TFO continues the walk as part of a free all-ages event, the "Carnival of the Dead", which includes food trucks from local vendors, make up stations, live bands, contests, games, and a projected movie in the park at the end of the night. The streets in downtown Sacramento comprising the walk's route are shut down by the city in order to safely accommodate the large numbers of participants.
Toronto and Sherbrooke walk
The first gathering specifically billed as a "Zombie Walk" occurred in October 2003 in Toronto, organized by local horror movie fan Thea Munster and with only seven participants. A "zombie demonstration" occurred in Sherbrooke, Quebec, on November 1, 2003, organized by a local grassroots organization, with 60 participants walking on a one kilometer course downtown. Another zombie march was organized the next year by the same group in Sherbrooke, with nearly 200 participants. In subsequent years, the Toronto Zombie Walk has grown tremendously in size, with the 2014 event playing host to more than 15,000 participants. The Zombie Walk has spread to Vancouver, creating the zombie walk tradition in that city. On August 27, 2005, over 400 participants proceeded through Vancouver's Pacific Centre mall, travelled on the SkyTrain (referred to for the event as the "SkyBrain" or the "BrainTrain"), and continued 35 blocks to Mountain View Cemetery.
Gaining popularity
The mid to late 2000s saw an exponential gain in popularity for zombie walks, due largely to the success of zombie films at the time, such as the Resident Evil movies, 28 Days Later, Zack Snyder's Dawn of the Dead, Shaun of the Dead, George A. Romero's Land of the Dead, and Zombieland. Documentation of zombie walks consequently began to appear more often in mainstream news media and blogs. Zombie walks soon spread across North America and to cities around the globe, such as Mar del Plata, Argentina. Rio de Janeiro had its first zombie walk on November 2, 2007 (Day of the Dead) and the event has become annual since then.
On October 29, 2006, nearly 900 "zombie walkers" gathered at the Monroeville Mall outside of Pittsburgh, which served as the set of George A. Romero's classic zombie film Dawn of the Dead, to participate in Pittsburgh's first annual Walk of the Dead. In addition to setting a Guinness World Record, the event was a benefit for the Greater Pittsburgh Community Food Bank. Pittsburgh's zombie walk has since grown into an annual horror festival called Zombie Fest and organized by The It's Alive Show, a local Pittsburgh late night horror and science fiction television program. The Pittsburgh festival plays host to the annual Walk of the Dead as well as a zombie ball, costume contest, concerts, and celebrity guest appearances, and also serves as the headquarters of The It's Alive Show's World Zombie Day, a world hunger charity event.
Zombie walks are also a regular occurrence at ZomBcon, "the world's first zombie convention" which takes place every October in Seattle. Apart from zombie walks, ZomBcon also features panel discussions with zombie authors, actors and artists, workshops, film screenings, and other activities for zombie fans. ZomBcon also organizes Seattle's annual Red, White and Dead zombie walk every July.
World records
The first zombie walk world record was set on October 29, 2006 at Monroeville Mall outside of Pittsburgh, during the city's first annual Walk of the Dead. Guinness World Records certified that 894 people participated in the walk. The second zombie walk at Monroeville Mall during the 2007 Zombie Fest was also verified by Guinness World Records as the largest gathering of zombies to date, with 1,028 participants.
The 2007 Toronto Zombie Walk drew a crowd of over 1,100 zombies, a number confirmed by Toronto Police Services. At the time, this was the largest zombie walk on record. A zombie march in Brisbane on May 25, 2008 set an unofficial record of over 1,500 participants, according to media reports. On June 21, 2008, a zombie march took place in Chicago with over 1,550 zombies estimated, setting a new unofficial record.
On October 31, 2008, a zombie walk took place in the Old Market Square of Nottingham, England, with 1,227 attendees. The event was organized by GameCity, and the zombies did dances to zombie-related songs such as "Thriller", "Disturbia", and "Ghostbusters", and featured a performance from American singer Jonathan Coulton. The event achieved a new official Guinness World Record for largest zombie walk. In June 2009, Pittsburgh zombie fans won back the Guinness World Record after Guinness verified that the Zombie Fest 'Walk of the Dead' at Monroeville Mall on October 26, 2008, had 1,341 participating walkers.
On July 3, 2009, a zombie walk organized by Fremont Outdoor Movies in Seattle beat all previous zombie walk records. Guinness World Records officially recorded 3,894 zombies at the Red, White and Dead zombie event, though local news claimed 4277 participants. In October 2009, Guinness World Records officially recorded and approved a new record for the largest gathering of zombies. The record was set at the Big Chill Festival in Ledbury, England, on August 6, 2009. There were 4,026 zombie mob participants.
On October 25, 2009, the biggest recorded gathering of zombies in the Southern Hemisphere occurred in Brisbane, with over 5,000 participants reportedly in attendance as reported by the Queensland Police. The walk was also a charity event helping to raise awareness and money for the Brain Foundation of Australia. On October 30, 2009, zombie walkers in Grand Rapids, Michigan attempted a second run at the zombie mob world record. An estimated 8,000 participants braved rainy weather to gather in Calder Plaza outside of Grand Rapids City and County buildings. The event was coordinated by Rob Bliss, organizer of Grand Rapids's first zombie walk. Volunteers collected signatures from the crowd, though the record is currently unverified by Guinness. Organizers of the fifth annual Denver Zombie Crawl in Denver counted more than 7,300 zombie walkers in the event. This is considered to be a low figure, as up to one third of the total participants did not walk through the counter. The crawl took place on October 23, 2010, in downtown Denver at the 16th Street Mall. On October 24, 2010, a reported 10,000-strong zombie walk took place in Brisbane. As with previous years, the event raised money for the Brain Foundation of Australia.
Guinness officially recognized a new record for the world's largest gathering of zombies on October 30, 2010, at the third annual New Jersey Zombie Walk on the Asbury Park Boardwalk in Asbury Park. Guinness recorded 4,093 zombies at the event, though organizers, police, and fire officials estimate more than 5,000 zombies were in attendance.
In July 2011, more cities would attempt to break this world record. On July 2, 2011, Seattle attempted to take back the record at the 3rd annual Fremont Red, White and Dead Zombie Walk hosted by Fremont Outdoor Movies. The zombie count according to Fremont organizers was 4,522 in attendance with estimations of over 4,800–5,000 after the official stop point for counting zombies. Representatives from Guinness did not attend the event. On July 23, 2011, the Dublin Zombie Walk in Dublin had an estimated 8,000 zombies in attendance, but confirmation is still pending from Guinness World Records.
October 2011 also saw multiple attempts to break the New Jersey world record. Over 7,000 zombies are believed to have attended the 9th Annual Toronto Zombie Walk on October 22. Both the annual Denver Zombie Crawl on October 22 and the annual Brisbane Zombie Walk on October 23 claim to have had over 12,000 zombie participants. On October 29, the city of Long Beach, California, set out to break the world record as part of its fourth annual zombie walk, produced by community organizations Long Beach Cinematheque and Mondo Celluloid, and partnered with Michael Jackson-inspired flash mob "Thrill the World", who set out to break a world record of their own with the world's biggest "Thriller" flash mob. By night's end, an estimated 14,000 participants had taken over the entirety of the downtown area, breaking local business sales records and all but shutting down traffic for hours. In November 2011, Mexico City counted 9,806 for their large zombie gathering.
The zombie walk of October 20, 2012 in Santiago, Chile had more than 12,000 zombies walking in the city, though no Guinness record was broken. On October 28, 2012, Buenos Aires gathered 25,000 zombies.
The zombie walk occurring November 2012, in the Twin Cities (Minneapolis–Saint Paul) holds the current world record for zombie gathering, recognized by Guinness at a count of 8,027 at Midway Stadium in Saint Paul on October 13, 2012. Estimates of the entire Twin Cities crawl put the zombie event upwards of 30,000 zombie participates, surpassing any other gathering of its kind, official or not.
In 2013, the Asbury Park event reclaimed the world record with 9,592 zombies. In October 19, 2013 an estimated 15,000 Chileans took to the streets of Santiago to take part in the city's fourth annual Zombie Walk. The zombies limped two kilometres along the Alameda, one of the main thoroughfares in the Chilean capital.
Charity events
Charity work continues to be a common component of zombie walks across the planet. Community service organizations such as Zombie Squad have used zombie walks as demonstrations to raise funds and awareness for local and global issues, such as world hunger.
Both world record walks at Pittsburgh's Zombie Fest have included food drives. In 2008, The It's Alive Show initiated World Zombie Day. The It's Alive Show encouraged cities all over the globe to celebrate World Zombie Day by holding zombie walks to raise awareness of global hunger. The first World Zombie Day took place October 26, 2008, the same day as Pittsburgh's Zombie Fest, when more than 30 cities worldwide took part. Food drives for local hunger-related charities took place at each participating city's zombie walk. Pittsburgh's walk alone brought in more than one ton of food to benefit the Greater Pittsburgh Community Food Bank. The second World Zombie Day took place October 11, 2009, with even more participation from cities all over the world.
October 21, 2012 saw over 12,000 participants march through the city of Brisbane. With a new music festival format added to the event, Brisbane Zombie Walk raised $55,000 for the Brain Foundation of Australia, making them the most successful zombie charity event in the world. In 2011, the Brisbane Zombie Walk made over $25,000 for the Brain Foundation.
Pub crawl variant
Some zombie walks incorporate pub crawling, during which participants visit multiple bars over the course of the walk. The first large-scale zombie pub crawl was held in Minneapolis on October 15, 2005. The crawl consisted of roughly 150 participants in zombie costumes moving from bar to bar in the city's Northeast district. The Minneapolis "Zombie Pub Crawl" has since become an annual event and attendance has grown exponentially. It has been held in Downtown Minneapolis since 2015.
Similar large-scale zombie-themed pub crawls have developed in New Orleans, Providence, Rhode Island, Reno, Houston, Eau Claire, Chicago, Winona, and Philadelphia. Philadelphia's zombie pub crawl is held on Easter Sunday in celebration of Jesus, "the world's most famous zombie". Zombie pub crawls are now a regular occurrence in cities all over the world. The New York City Zombie Crawl has involved attendees walk all over Manhattan and drink at different pubs. In 2007, the Viking Hats group organized a Halloween zombie walk in London that ended at the Tate London. London's Zombie Pub Crawl has become an annual Halloween weekend event. Winona Zombie Crawl started out in 2006 as a publicly unadvertised event where zombies showed up at bars, unexpectedly, to simulate an actual zombie apocalypse.
In 2007, zombies used bicycles to travel around town in the initial Ride of the Living Dead event in Kenosha, Wisconsin. An offshoot of the non-zombie summer Handlebars and Bars bicycle pub crawl, this event began with about 40 riders in its debut, and has since grown exponentially. In 2014, the event attracted over 400 zombie bicyclists and featured indie-rock bands from the Milwaukee-Chicago corridor as entertainment throughout the day.
Incidents
In 2006, a young woman in Bloomington, Indiana reported to police that a group of "zombies" attacked her car by covering the vehicle in "purple goo"; the zombies in question turned out to be participants in a small, local zombie walk, and several arrests were made. At the 2006 Vancouver Zombie Walk, an incident occurred in which two impatient drivers attempted to drive their cars through a crowd of zombies headed down Robson Street: this resulted in some severe injuries among the zombies, but no damage to the vehicles. Another incident involved a pair of zombies using a brick to shatter the window of a man's car; both zombies were arrested.
In 2010, the annual Zombie Shuffle in Melbourne saw the largest attendance in its five-year history, but some locals complained of the mess that the zombie "gore" left behind, as well as the walk's disruption of a play for preschoolers. In 2011 and 2012, participants in the Minneapolis Zombie Pub Crawl broke store windows and caused other damage to the area in which the event was held. Many residents see the event as disruptive to the life of the neighborhood. In 2012, a Russian zombie walk in support of Pussy Riot in Omsk, Siberia was banned by the local government.
In October 2015, a shooting occurred at the ZombiCon in Fort Myers, Florida. 1 person was killed and 5 others were wounded. Lawsuits led to cancellation of the event the next year.
List of past events
Beach of the Dead (2007–2012) held annually in Brighton, East Sussex, England
Asheville Zombie Walk (2006–2016), held annually in Asheville, North Carolina.
See also
Cacophony Society
Cosplay
Happening
List of public house topics
References
External links
Death By Zombie, a listing of zombie walks
Zombiewalk.com, a zombie walk community
Crawl of the Dead, a zombie event community
Zombie events directory
A seminar of the University of Amsterdam dealing with this subject
Beach of the Dead, Photo Gallery
Culture jamming
Walking
Walk
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard%20Dean
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Howard Dean
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Howard Brush Dean III (born November 17, 1948) is an American physician, author, consultant, and retired politician who served as the 79th governor of Vermont from 1991 to 2003 and chair of the Democratic National Committee (DNC) from 2005 to 2009. Dean was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic nomination in the 2004 presidential election. Later, his implementation of the fifty-state strategy as head of the DNC is credited with the Democratic victories in the 2006 and 2008 elections. Afterward, he became a political commentator and consultant to McKenna Long & Aldridge, a law and lobbying firm.
Before entering politics, Dean earned his medical degree from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in 1978. Dean served as a member of the Vermont House of Representatives from 1983 to 1986 and as Lieutenant Governor of Vermont from 1987 to 1991. Both were part-time positions that enabled him to continue practicing medicine. In 1991, Dean became governor of Vermont when Richard A. Snelling died in office. Dean was subsequently elected to five two-year terms, serving from 1991 to 2003, making him the second longest-serving governor in Vermont history, after Thomas Chittenden (1778–1789 and 1790–1797). Dean served as chairman of the National Governors Association from 1994 to 1995; during his term, Vermont paid off much of its public debt and had a balanced budget 11 times, lowering income taxes twice. Dean also oversaw the expansion of the "Dr. Dynasaur" program, which ensures universal health care for children and pregnant women in the state. He is a noted staunch supporter of universal health care.
Dean denounced the 2003 invasion of Iraq and called on Democrats to oppose the Bush administration. In the 2004 election, initially seen as a long-shot candidate, Dean pioneered Internet-based fundraising and grassroots organizing, which is centered on mass appeal to small donors which is more cost efficient than the more expensive contacting of fewer potential larger donors, and promotes active participatory democracy among the general public. As a result of his unconventional strategy, he became the top fundraiser and front runner for the Democratic Party presidential nomination. Dean had a disappointing third-place finish in the Iowa caucus, and his campaign suffered after negative reactions in the media to a hoarse "Yeah" that he shouted after enumerating states that he hoped to win and ending up losing the nomination to Senator John Kerry of Massachusetts. In 2004, Dean founded Democracy for America, a progressive political action committee. He was later elected chairman of the Democratic National Committee in February 2005. As chairman of the party, Dean created and employed the 50 State Strategy that attempted to make Democrats competitive in normally conservative states often dismissed in the past as "solid red". The success of the strategy became apparent during the 2006 midterm elections, where Democrats took back control of the House and Senate, winning Senate seats from normally Republican states such as Missouri and Montana. In the 2008 election, the Democrats increased their House and Senate majorities, while Barack Obama used the 50 state strategy as the backbone of his successful presidential candidacy.
Dean was named chairman emeritus of the DNC upon his retirement in January 2009. Since retiring from the DNC chairman position, Dean has held neither elected office nor an official position in the Democratic Party and, , was working for global law firm Dentons as part of the firm's public policy and regulation practice. In 2013, Dean expressed interest in running for the presidency in 2016, but instead supported former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton's run for president.
Early life and education
Childhood
Dean was born in East Hampton, New York, to Andrée Belden (née Maitland), an art appraiser, and Howard Brush Dean Jr., an executive in the financial industry.
Dean is the eldest of four brothers, including Jim Dean, Chair of Democracy for America, and Charles Dean, who was captured by the Pathet Lao and executed by the North Vietnamese while traveling through Southeast Asia in 1974.
Howard's father worked at the stock brokerage firm of Dean Witter. The family was quite wealthy, Republican, and belonged to the exclusive Maidstone Golf Club in East Hampton. As a child, he spent much of his time growing up in East Hampton; the family built a house on Hook Pond there in the mid-1950s. While in New York, the family had a three-bedroom apartment on the Upper East Side along Park Avenue.
Howard attended the Browning School in Manhattan until he was 13, and then went to St. George's School, a preparatory school in Middletown, Rhode Island.
In September 1966, he attended Felsted School, UK, for one school year after winning an English Speaking Union scholarship.
UPI quoted one of Dean's friends in his youth as saying, "By Hamptons standards, the Deans were not rich. No safaris in Africa or chalets in Switzerland. Howard's father went to work every day. He didn't own a company, or have a father or grandfather who founded one, as mine did." Peggy Noonan wrote in the Wall Street Journal that:
he doesn't seem like a WASP. I know it's not nice to deal in stereotypes, but there seems very little Thurston Howell, III, or George Bush, the elder, for that matter, in Mr. Dean. ... He seems unpolished, doesn't hide his aggression, is proudly pugnacious. He doesn't look or act the part of the WASP ... It will be harder for Republicans to tag Mr. Dean as Son of the Maidstone Club than it was for Democrats to tag Bush One as Heir to Greenwich Country Day. He just doesn't act the part.
Yale University
Dean graduated from Yale University with a Bachelor of Arts in political science in 1971. As a freshman, he requested specifically to room with an African American. The university housing office complied, and Dean roomed with two Southern black students and one white student from Pennsylvania. One of Dean's roommates was Ralph Dawson, the son of a sheet metal worker in Charleston, South Carolina, and today a New York City labor lawyer. Dawson said of Dean:
Though eventually eligible to be drafted into the military, he received a medical deferment because of an unfused vertebra. In response to Tim Russert asking on Meet the Press whether Dean could have served in the military had he not mentioned his back condition during his draft physical, Dean replied "I guess that's probably true. I mean, I was in no hurry to get into the military." He briefly tried a career as a stockbroker before deciding on a career in medicine, completing pre-medicine classes at Columbia University. In 1974, Dean's younger brother Charlie, who had been traveling through southeast Asia at the time, was captured and killed by Laotian guerrillas, a tragedy widely reported to have an enormous influence in Dean's life; for many years he has worn his brother's belt nearly every day as a memento.
Vermont medical practice
Dean received his medical degree from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University in 1978 and began a medical residency at the University of Vermont.
Vermont political career
In 1980, Dean spearheaded a grassroots campaign to stop a condominium development on Lake Champlain, instead favoring the construction of a bicycle trail. The effort succeeded and helped launch his political career. That same year, he was also a volunteer for Jimmy Carter's re-election campaign. In 1980, he was a Carter delegate at the Democratic National Convention. In 1981 he was elected chairman of the Chittenden County Democratic Committee. He served in this position until resigning in May 1984.
In 1982, he was elected to the Vermont House of Representatives; he was reelected in 1984 and became assistant minority leader. He was elected Lieutenant Governor in 1986 and reelected in 1988 and 1990. All were part-time positions, and Dean continued to practice medicine alongside his wife until he became governor.
On August 13, 1991, Dean was examining a patient when he received word that governor Richard A. Snelling had died of sudden cardiac arrest. Dean assumed the office, which he called the "greatest job in Vermont." He was subsequently elected to five two-year terms in his own right, making him the longest-serving governor in the state's history. From 1994 to 1995, Dean was the chairman of the National Governors Association.
Dean was faced with an economic recession and a $60 million budget deficit. He bucked many in his own party to immediately push for a balanced budget, an act which marked the beginning of a record of fiscal restraint. During his tenure as governor, the state paid off much of its debt, balanced its budget eleven times, raised its bond rating, and lowered income taxes twice. Robert Dreyfuss wrote that as a fiscal conservative:
Dean also focused on health care issues, most notably through the "Dr. Dynasaur" program, which ensures near-universal health coverage for children and pregnant women in the state; the uninsured rate in Vermont fell from 10.8 percent in 1993 to 8.4 percent in 2000 under his watch. Child abuse and teen pregnancy rates were cut roughly in half.
The first decision of his career to draw significant national attention came in 2000, after the Vermont Supreme Court, in Baker v. State, ruled that the state's marriage laws unconstitutionally excluded same-sex couples and ordered that the state legislature either allow gays and lesbians to marry or create a parallel status. Facing calls to amend the state constitution to prohibit either option, Dean chose to support the latter one, and signed the nation's first civil unions legislation into law, spurring a short-lived "Take Back Vermont" movement which helped Republicans gain control of the State House.
Dean was criticized during his 2004 presidential campaign for another decision related to civil unions. Shortly before leaving office, he had some of his Vermont papers sealed for at least the next decade, a time frame longer than most outgoing governors use, stating that he was protecting the privacy of many gay supporters who sent him personal letters about the issue. On the campaign trail, he demanded that Vice President Dick Cheney release his energy committee papers. Many people, including Democratic Senator and failed 2004 presidential candidate Joe Lieberman of Connecticut, who left the party after losing his primary for re-election in 2006, accused Dean of hypocrisy. Judicial Watch filed a lawsuit to force the papers be opened before the seal expired but lost.
2004 presidential candidacy
Dean began his bid for president as a "long shot" candidate. ABC News ranked him eighth out of 12 in a list of potential presidential contenders in May 2002. In March 2003 he gave a speech strongly critical of the Democratic leadership at the California State Democratic Convention that attracted the attention of grassroots party activists and set the tone and the agenda of his candidacy. It began with the line: "What I want to know is what in the world so many Democrats are doing supporting the President's unilateral intervention in Iraq?"
That summer, his campaign was featured as the cover article in The New Republic and in the following months he received expanded media attention. His campaign slowly gained steam, and by autumn of 2003, Dean had become the apparent frontrunner for the Democratic nomination, performing strongly in most polls and outpacing his rivals in fundraising. This latter feat was attributed mainly to his innovative embrace of the Internet for campaigning, using Meetup.com to track supporters and encourage grassroots participation in the campaign. The majority of his donations came from individual Dean supporters, who came to be known as Deanites, or, more commonly, Deaniacs, a term coined to describe meetup participants, who passed out campaign materials supporting Dean and the broader movement. (Critics often labeled them "Deany Boppers", or "Deanie Babies", a reference to his support from young activists.) Following Dean's presidential campaign, some Deaniacs remained engaged in the political process through Democracy for America and similar locally oriented organizations.
Message and themes
Dean began his campaign by emphasizing health care and fiscal responsibility, and championing grassroots fundraising as a way to fight lobby groups. However, his opposition to the U.S. plan to invade Iraq (and his forceful criticism of Democrats in Congress who voted to authorize the use of force) quickly eclipsed other issues. By challenging the war in Iraq at a time when mainstream Democratic leaders were either neutral or cautiously supportive, Dean positioned himself to appeal to his party's activist base. Dean often quoted the late Minnesota Senator Paul Wellstone (who had recently died in a plane crash) as saying that he represented "the Democratic wing of the Democratic Party." His message resonated among frustrated Democratic primary voters who felt that their party hadn't done enough to oppose the policies of the Republicans. Thus, Dean also succeeded in differentiating himself from his primary opponents.
Dean's approach organizationally was also novel. His campaign made extensive use of the Internet, pioneering techniques that were subsequently adopted by politicians of all political persuasions. His supporters organized real-world meetings, many of them arranged through Meetup.com, participated in online forums, donated money online, canvassed for advertising ideas, and distributed political talking points. In terms of money, publicity and activism, Dean therefore quickly staked out a leadership position in the field of candidates. In this way, he was able to bypass existing party and activist infrastructure and built his own online network of supporters. In terms of traditional "ground troops", however, Dean remained at a disadvantage. Dean adopted a coffee shop strategy to visit grassroot activists in all 99 Iowa counties, but he lacked the campaign infrastructure to get voters to the polls that his opponents had.
Fundraising
In the "Invisible Primary" of raising campaign funds, Howard Dean led the Democratic pack in the early stages of the 2004 campaign. Among the candidates, he ranked first in total raised ($25.4 million as of September 30, 2003) and first in cash-on-hand ($12.4 million). However, even this performance paled next to that of George W. Bush, who by that date had raised $84.6 million for the Republican primary campaign, in which he had no strong challenger. Prior to the 2004 primary season, the Democratic record for most money raised in one quarter by a primary candidate was held by Bill Clinton in 1995, raising $10.3 million during a campaign in which he had no primary opponent. In the third quarter of 2003, the Dean campaign raised $14.8 million, shattering Clinton's record. All told, Dean's campaign raised around $50 million.
While presidential campaigns have traditionally obtained finance by tapping wealthy, established political donors, Dean's funds came largely in small donations over the Internet; the average overall donation was just under $80. This method of fundraising offered several important advantages over traditional fundraising, in addition to the inherent media interest in what was then a novelty. First, raising money on the Internet was relatively inexpensive, compared to conventional methods such as events, telemarketing, and direct mail campaigns. Secondly, as donors on average contributed far less than the legal limit ($2,000 per person), the campaign could continue to resolicit them throughout the election season.
Dean's director of grassroots fundraising, Larry Biddle, came up with the idea of the popular fundraising "bat", an image of a cartoon baseball player and bat which appeared on the site every time the campaign launched a fundraising challenge. The bat encouraged Web site visitors to contribute money immediately through their credit cards. This would lead to the bat filling up like a thermometer with the red color indicating the total funds. The site often took suggestions from the netroots on their blog. One of these suggestions led to one of the campaign's biggest accomplishments– an image of Dean eating a turkey sandwich encouraged supporters to donate $250,000 in three days to match a big-donor dinner by Vice President Dick Cheney. The online contributions from that day matched what Cheney made from his fundraiser.
In November 2003, after a much-publicized online vote among his followers, Dean became the first Democrat to forgo federal matching funds (and the spending limits that go with them) since the system was established in 1974. (John Kerry later followed his lead.) In addition to state-by-state spending limits for the primaries, the system limits a candidate to spending only $44.6 million until the Democratic National Convention in July, which sum would almost certainly run out soon after the early primary season. (George W. Bush declined federal matching funds in 2000 and did so again for the 2004 campaign.)
In a sign that the Dean campaign was starting to think beyond the primaries, they began in late 2003 to speak of a "$100 revolution" in which two million Americans would give $100 in order to compete with Bush.
Political commentators have stated that the fundraising of Barack Obama, with its emphasis on small donors and the internet, refined and built upon the model that Dean's campaign pioneered.
Endorsements
Though Dean lagged in early endorsements, he acquired many critical ones as his campaign snowballed. By the time of the Iowa caucuses, he led among commitments from superdelegates– elected officials and party officers entitled to convention votes by virtue of their positions. On November 12, 2003, he received the endorsements of the Service Employees International Union and the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees. Dean received the endorsement of former vice president and 2000 presidential candidate Al Gore, on December 9, 2003. In the following weeks Dean was endorsed by former U.S. senators Bill Bradley and Carol Moseley Braun, unsuccessful Democratic presidential candidates from the 2000 and 2004 primaries, respectively.
Other high-profile endorsers included:
Governors (and former governors) Bruce Babbitt, Lowell P. Weicker Jr., Jim McGreevey, Toney Anaya, Ann Richards
Senators (and former Senators) Tom Harkin, Fred R. Harris, Howard Metzenbaum, Jim Jeffords, Patrick Leahy
Representatives (and former Representatives) Jesse Jackson Jr., John Conyers, Major Owens, Sheila Jackson Lee
Former Baltimore Mayor (and former governor of Maryland) Martin J. O'Malley
Dean also won the backing of lesser-known political figures, such as former Indiana State Senator and 1984 gubernatorial nominee Wayne Townsend.
Timothy Kraft, a New Mexico political consultant who had been Jimmy Carter's 1980 campaign manager, came to Vermont to campaign for Dean.
Several celebrities from the entertainment industry endorsed him: Joan Jett, Martin Sheen, Rob Reiner, Susan Sarandon, Paul Newman, Robin Williams, and Joseph Gordon-Levitt.
Response
Many pundits blamed such endorsements for the campaign's eventual collapse. In particular, Al Gore's early endorsement of Dean weeks before the first primary of the election cycle was severely criticized by eight Democratic contenders particularly since he did not endorse his former running mate, Joe Lieberman. Gore supported Dean over Lieberman due to their differing opinions on Iraq which began to develop around 2002 (Lieberman supported the war and Gore did not). When Dean's campaign failed, some blamed Gore's early endorsement.
Iowa Caucus setback and the "Dean Scream" media gaffe
On January 19, 2004, Dean's rivals John Kerry and John Edwards pushed him into a third-place finish in the 2004 Iowa Democratic caucuses, representing the first votes cast in primary season. Dean's loud outburst in his public address that night was widely rebroadcast and portrayed as a media gaffe that ended his campaign.
According to a Newsday editorial written by Verne Gay, some members of the television audience criticized the speech as loud, peculiar, and unpresidential. In particular, this quote from the speech was aired repeatedly in the days following the caucus:
Senator Harkin was on stage with Dean, holding his suit jacket. This final "Yeah!" with its unusual tone that Dean later said was due to the cracking of his hoarse voice, has become known in American political jargon as the "Dean Scream" or the "I Have a Scream" speech. Comedians and late-night comedy show hosts such as Dave Chappelle and Conan O'Brien satirized, mocked, and popularized the sound bite, beginning a media onslaught that many believe contributed immensely to his poor showing in the subsequent races.
Dean conceded that the speech did not project the best image, jokingly referring to it as a "crazy, red-faced rant" on the Late Show with David Letterman. In an interview later that week with Diane Sawyer, he said he was "a little sheepish ... but I'm not apologetic." Sawyer and many others in the national broadcast news media later expressed some regret about overplaying the story. CNN issued a public apology and admitted in a statement that they might have "overplayed" the incident. The incessant replaying of the "Dean Scream" by the press became a debate on the topic of whether Dean was the victim of media bias. The scream scene was shown an estimated 633 times by cable and broadcast news networks in just four days following the incident, a number that does not include talk shows and local news broadcasts. Some in the audience that day reported that they were unaware of the "scream" until they saw it on TV. Dean said after the general election in 2004, that his microphone only picked up his voice and did not also capture the loud cheering he received from the audience as a result of the speech. On January 27, Dean finished second to Kerry in the New Hampshire primary. As late as one week before the first votes were cast in Iowa's caucuses, Dean had enjoyed a 30% lead in New Hampshire opinion polls; accordingly, this loss represented another major setback to his campaign.
Iowa and New Hampshire were the first in a string of losses for the Dean campaign, culminating in a third place showing in the Wisconsin primary on February 17. Two days before the Wisconsin primary, campaign advisor Steve Grossman announced through an article written by The New York Times Dean campaign correspondent Jodi Wilgoren that he would offer his services to any of the other major candidates "should Dean not win in Wisconsin." This scoop further undermined Dean's campaign. Grossman later issued a public apology. The next day, Dean announced that his candidacy had "come to an end", though he continued to urge people to vote for him, so that Dean delegates would be selected for the convention and could influence the party platform. He later won the Vermont primary on Super Tuesday, March 2. This latter victory, a surprise even to Dean, was due in part to the lack of a serious anti-Kerry candidate in Vermont (John Edwards had declined to put his name on the state's ballot, expecting Dean to win in a landslide), and in part to a television ad produced, funded, and aired in Vermont by grassroots Dean supporters.
Impact
The New York Observer attributed Barack Obama's success in the 2008 presidential election to his perfection of the Internet organizing model that Dean pioneered.
On October 11, 2007, it was reported that Leonardo DiCaprio and George Clooney were in early talks about making a "political thriller" based on Howard Dean's 2004 campaign, tentatively titled Farragut North. The movie, finally titled The Ides of March, was released on October 7, 2011. It is based on the play Farragut North, which was named after the Washington Metro station located in the center of the lobbyist district. The play was written by Beau Willimon, a staffer on the Dean campaign. The main character is based on a former press secretary for the Dean campaign.
In November 2008, a documentary film about Dean and his campaign, Dean and Me, was released and shown at several film festivals around the country.
Post-campaign and Democracy for America
Following Dean's withdrawal after the Wisconsin primary, he pledged to support the eventual Democratic nominee. He remained neutral until John Kerry became the presumptive nominee. Dean endorsed Kerry on March 25, 2004, in a speech at The George Washington University in Washington, D.C.
On March 18, 2004, Dean founded the group Democracy for America. This group was created to house the large, Internet-based organization Dean created for his presidential campaign. Its goal is to help like-minded candidates get elected to local, state, and federal offices. It has endorsed several sets of twelve candidates known as the Dean Dozen. Dean turned over control of the organization to his brother, Jim Dean, when he became Chairman of the Democratic National Committee.
Dean strongly urged his supporters to support Kerry as opposed to Ralph Nader, arguing that a vote for Nader would only help to re-elect President George W. Bush because he believed that most who vote for Nader are likely to have voted for Kerry if Ralph Nader was not running. Dean argued that Nader would be more effective if he lobbied on election law reform issues during his campaign. Dean supported several election law reform issues such as campaign finance reform, and Instant Runoff Voting.
DNC Chairmanship
Dean was elected Chairman of the Democratic National Committee (DNC) on February 12, 2005, after all his opponents dropped out of the race when it became apparent Dean had the votes to become Chair. Those opponents included former Congressman Martin Frost, former Denver Mayor Wellington Webb, former Congressman and 9/11 Commissioner Tim Roemer, and strategists Donnie Fowler, David Leland, and Simon Rosenberg.
Many prominent Democrats opposed Dean's campaign; House Leader Nancy Pelosi and Senate Leader Harry Reid are rumored to be among them. Dean satisfied his critics by promising to focus on fundraising and campaigning as DNC Chair and avoid policy statements. He was succeeded by Tim Kaine, who at the time of his election was the governor of Virginia, in 2009.
Dean ran for the position a second time in 2016. Two days after Hillary Clinton's defeat in the 2016 presidential election, he announced that he would again seek the chairmanship. There were other contenders at the time who had been endorsed by Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont, and Senate Minority Leader-elect Chuck Schumer of New York. On December 2, 2016, Dean withdrew his candidacy.
During his 2005-9 tenure, he promoted a "fifty-state strategy" and developed innovative fund-raising strategies.
Fifty-state strategy
After Dean became Chairman of the DNC, he pledged to bring reform to the Party. Rather than focusing just on swing states, Dean proposed what has come to be known as the 50-State Strategy, the goal of which was for the Democratic Party to be committed to winning elections at every level in every region of the country, with Democrats organized in every single voting precinct. State party chairs lauded Dean for raising money directly for the individual state parties.
Dean's strategy used a post-Watergate model taken from the Republicans of the mid-seventies. Working at the local, state and national level, the GOP built the party from the ground up. Dean's plan was to seed the local level with young and committed candidates, building them into state candidates in future races. Dean traveled extensively throughout the country with the plan, including places like Utah, Mississippi, and Texas, states in which Republicans had dominated the political landscape. Many establishment Democrats were at least initially dubious about the strategy's worth—political consultant and former Bill Clinton advisor, Paul Begala, suggested that Dean's plan was "just hiring a bunch of staff people to wander around Utah and Mississippi and pick their nose." Further changes were made in attempting to make the stated platform of the Democratic Party more coherent and compact. Overhauling the website, the official platform of the 2004 campaign, which was largely criticized as avoiding key issues and being the product of party insiders, was replaced with a simplified, though comprehensive categorizing of positions on a wide range of issues.
Dean's strategy arguably paid off in a historic victory as the Democrats took over control of the House of Representatives and the Senate in the 2006 mid-term elections. While it is likely this is also attributable to the shortcomings of the Republican Party in their dealings with the Iraq War and the scandals that occurred shortly before the election, Dean's emphasis on connecting with socially conservative, economic moderates in Republican-dominated states appears to have made some impact. Indeed, Democratic candidates won elections in such red states as Kansas, Indiana, and Montana. And while former Clinton strategist James Carville criticized Dean's efforts, saying more seats could have been won with the traditional plan of piling money solely into close races, the results and the strategy were met with tremendous approval by the party's executive committee in its December 2006 meeting. While he was chairman of the DCCC, Rahm Emanuel was known to have had disagreements over election strategy with Dean; Emanuel believed a more tactical approach, focusing attention on key districts, was necessary to ensure victory. Emanuel himself was criticised for his failure to support some progressive candidates, as Dean advocated.
The 50-state strategy relied on the idea that building the Democratic Party is at once an incremental election by election process as well as a long-term vision in party building. Democrats cannot compete in counties in which they do not field candidates. Therefore, candidate recruitment emerged as a component element of the 50-state strategy.
To build the party, the DNC under Dean worked in partnership with state Democratic parties in bringing the resources of the DNC to bear in electoral efforts, voter registration, candidate recruitment, and other interlocking component elements of party building. Decentralization was also a core component of the party's approach. The idea was that each state party had unique needs but could improve upon its efforts through the distribution of resources from the national party.
The 50-state strategy was acknowledged by political commentators as an important factor in allowing Barack Obama to compete against John McCain in traditionally red states, during the 2008 presidential contest. In 2008, Obama won several states that had previously been considered Republican strongholds, most notably Indiana, North Carolina, and Virginia.
Fundraising strategies
Through grassroots fundraising, Howard Dean was able to raise millions more than the previous DNC Chairman at the same point after the 2000 election. The year after his election, Dean had raised the most money by any DNC Chairman in a similar post election period. This was especially apparent when the Federal Election Commission reported that the DNC had raised roughly $86.3 million in the first six months of 2005, an increase of over 50% on the amount raised during the same period of 2003. In comparison, the RNC fundraising activities represented a gain of only 2%. Additional attempts to capitalize on this trend was the introduction of "Democracy Bonds," a program under which small donors would give a set amount every month. Although it only reached over 31,000 donors by May 2006, far off-pace from the stated goal of 1 million by 2008, it nonetheless contributed to a new small-donor funding philosophy of the DNC. Dean continued to further develop online fundraising at the DNC. Just one month before Election Day 2006, he became the first to introduce the concept of a "grassroots match," where donors to the DNC pledged to match the first donation made by a new contributor. The DNC stated that the resulting flood of contributions led to 10,000 first-time donors in just a few days.
Post-DNC career
Political involvement
Potential Obama administration role
Supporters of Dean were angry that he was not given a position in the new Obama administration and not invited to the press conference at which Tim Kaine was introduced as his successor as Democratic National Committee chairman. Joe Trippi, who was Dean's presidential campaign manager in 2004, told Politico, "[Dean] was never afraid to challenge the way party establishment in Washington did business, and that doesn't win you friends in either party." Trippi further explained the apparent snub of Dean by stating, "You don't have to look any further than Rahm Emanuel." Trippi was referring to the tension between Emanuel and Dean over Dean's 50 state strategy. Sources close to Emanuel dismissed these charges.
Dean said: "I didn't do this for the spoils. I did this for the country. I'm very happy that Barack Obama is president, and I think he's picked a great Cabinet. And I'm pretty happy. I wouldn't trade my position for any other position right now. I'm going to go into the private sector, make a living making speeches, and do a lot of stuff on health care policy."
When asked about not being selected for a position in the Obama administration, Dean responded, "Obviously, it would have been great, but it's not happening and the president has the right to name his own Cabinet, so I'm not going to work in the government it looks like." When asked how he felt about not being selected, Dean replied he would "punt on that one."
After the withdrawal of Tom Daschle's nomination for the position, Dean had been touted by many for the post of Secretary of Health and Human Services. After being passed over for the post once again, Dean commented: "I was pretty clear that I would have liked to have been Secretary of HHS but it is the president's choice and he decided to go in a different direction."
UK politics
Outside the US Dean is a supporter of the Liberal Democrats party of the United Kingdom. He has close links with the party and has spoken at their party conference in the past. Since the UK began the Brexit process, he has continued to tweet his support for the party.
People's Mujahedin of Iran
After leaving office Dean emerged as a major supporter of the People's Mujahedin of Iran (Mujahedeen-e-Khalq, or MEK), calling for it to be delisted as a terrorist group by the United States, which occurred on September 21, 2012.
2016 presidential election
Dean endorsed Hillary Clinton during the 2016 presidential election instead of Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders from his home state in September 2015.
Dean questioned on Twitter whether Donald Trump's sniffing during a presidential debate was due to cocaine use, and later apologized for "using innuendo."
Private sector
In a January 2009 interview with the Associated Press, Dean indicated he would enter the private sector after 30 years in politics. Dean told the AP he would deliver speeches and share ideas about campaigns and technology with center-left political parties around the world. He became a contributor to the news network MSNBC in shows such as The Last Word with Lawrence O'Donnell. He has also guest hosted Countdown with Keith Olbermann and The Rachel Maddow Show. He is on the board of the National Democratic Institute.
Dean also serves as a Senior Presidential Fellow at Hofstra University. He has been a Senior Fellow at the Yale Jackson Institute for Global Affairs and a visiting professor at Williams College. He been a Senior Strategic Advisor and Independent Consultant for the Government Affairs practice at McKenna, Long & Aldridge. In December 2018 Dean joined the advisory board of Tilray, one of the world's largest cannabis companies. Dean is a member of the Canadian American Business Council's Advisory Board.
Personal life
In 1981, Dean married fellow doctor Judith Steinberg, whom he met in medical school, and together they began a family medical practice in Shelburne, Vermont (where she continued to use her maiden name to avoid confusion).
Religion
Although raised as an Episcopalian, Dean joined a Congregational church in 1982 after a dispute with the local Episcopal diocese over a bike trail. By his own account, he did not attend church as of the early 2000s; at one point, when asked to name his favorite book in the New Testament, he offered the Old Testament Book of Job, then corrected himself an hour later. Dean has stated he is more "spiritual" than religious. He and his Jewish wife Judith Steinberg Dean have raised their two children, Anne and Paul, in a secular education, and both children self-identify as Jews.
Electoral history
References
Further reading
Dean, Howard. Howard Dean's Prescription for Real Healthcare Reform. Chelsea Green Publishing, 2009. .
Dean, Howard. You Have the Power: How to Take Back Our Country and Restore Democracy in America. Simon & Schuster, 2004. .
Dean, Howard. Winning Back America. Simon & Schuster, 2003. .
Dunnan, Dana. Burning at the Grassroots: Inside the Dean Machine. Pagefree (vanity press), 2004. .
Trippi, Joe. The Revolution Will Not Be Televised. ReganBooks, 2004. .
Van Susteren, Dirk. Howard Dean: A Citizen's Guide to the Man Who Would Be President. Steerforth, 2003. .
External links
Professional biography of Howard Dean
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Bayad%C3%A8re
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La Bayadère
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La Bayadère ("the temple dancer") (ru. «Баядерка», Bayaderka) is a ballet, originally staged in four acts and seven tableaux by the French choreographer Marius Petipa to music by Ludwig Minkus and libretto by Sergei Khudekov. The ballet was staged for the benefit performance of the Russian Prima ballerina Ekaterina Vazem, who created the principal role of Nikiya. La Bayadère was first presented by the Imperial Ballet at the Imperial Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre in St. Petersburg, Russia, on . From the first performance the ballet was hailed by contemporary critics and audiences as one of the choreographer Petipa's masterpieces, particularly the scene of act II The Kingdom of the Shades, which is one of the most celebrated pieces in all of classical ballet.
Nearly all modern versions of La Bayadère are derived from Vladimir Ponomarev and Vakhtang Chabukiani's redacted version staged for the Kirov/Mariinsky Ballet in 1941 that has remained in the company's repertory to the present day. Outside of the Soviet Union, Natalia Makarova staged the first full-length production of La Bayadère in 1980 for American Ballet Theatre, a version that is itself derived from Ponomarev and Chabukiani's production of 1941.
Origins
La Bayadère was the creation of the dramatist Sergei Khudekov and of Marius Petipa, the renowned Premier maître de ballet of the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres. The music was composed by Ludwig Minkus, who from 1871 until 1886 held the official post of Ballet Composer to the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres.
Plot outline
Khudekov's libretto for La Bayadère (meaning The Temple Dancer or The Temple Maiden) tells the story of the bayadère Nikiya and the warrior Solor, who have sworn eternal fidelity to each other. The High Brahmin, however, is also in love with Nikiya and learns of her relationship with Solor. Moreover, the Rajah Dugmanta of Golconda has selected Solor to wed his daughter Gamzatti (or Hamsatti, as she is known in the original production), and Nikiya, unaware of this arrangement, agrees to dance at the couple's betrothal celebrations.
In his effort to have Solor killed and have Nikiya for himself, the jealous High Brahmin informs the Rajah that the warrior has already vowed eternal love to Nikiya over a sacred fire. But the High Brahmin's plan backfires when, rather than becoming angry with Solor, the Rajah decides that it is Nikiya who must die. Gamzatti, who has eavesdropped on this exchange, summons Nikiya to the palace in an attempt to bribe the bayadère into giving up her beloved. As their rivalry intensifies, Nikiya picks up a dagger in a fit of rage and attempts to kill Gamzatti, only to be stopped in the nick of time by Gamzatti's ayah. Nikiya flees in horror at what she has almost done. As did her father, Gamzatti vows that the bayadère must die.
At the betrothal celebrations Nikiya performs a somber dance while playing her veena. She is then given a basket of flowers which she believes are from Solor, and begins a frenzied and joyous dance. Little does she know that the basket is from Gamzatti, who has concealed beneath the flowers a venomous snake. The bayadère then holds the basket too close and the serpent bites her on the neck. The High Brahmin offers Nikiya an antidote to the poison, but she chooses death rather than life without her beloved Solor.
In the next scene the depressed Solor smokes opium. In his dream-like euphoria he has a vision of Nikiya's shade (or spirit) in a nirvana among the star-lit mountain peaks of the Himalayas called The Kingdom of the Shades. Here, the lovers reconcile among the shades of other bayadères. (In the original 1877 production, this scene took place in an illuminated enchanted palace in the sky.) When Solor awakes, preparations are underway for his wedding to Gamzatti.
In the temple where the wedding is to take place the shade of Nikiya haunts Solor as he dances with Gamzatti. When the High Brahmin joins the couple's hands in marriage, the gods take revenge for Nikiya's murder by destroying the temple and all of its occupants. In an apotheosis, the shades of both Nikiya and Solor are reunited in death and eternal love.
Early productions
La Bayadère was created especially for the benefit performance of Ekaterina Vazem, Prima ballerina of the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres. The role of Solor was created by the forty-three-year-old Lev Ivanov, Premier danseur of the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres, with the classical dances of the character Solor being performed by the younger Pavel Gerdt. The celebrated ballerina Maria Gorshenkova created the role of Gamzatti (or Hamsatti, as the character was known in the original production), while the role of the High Brahmin was created by Nikolai Golts. Dugmanta, the Rajah of Golconda was created by Christian Johansson, former Premier danseur of the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres and an influential teacher. The lavish décor was designed by Mikhail Bocharov for Act I-scene 1; Matvei Shishkov for Act I-scene 2 and Act II; Ivan Andreyev for Act III-scene 1 and Act IV-scene 1; Heinrich Wagner for Act III-scene 2 The Kingdom of the Shades; and Piotr Lambin for the Act IV-scene 2 Apotheosis.
Petipa spent almost six months staging La Bayadère. During rehearsals, Petipa clashed with the Prima ballerina Vazem over the matter of her entrance in the ballet's final Grand pas d'action, while also experiencing many problems with the set designers who constructed the ballet's elaborate stage effects. Petipa was also worried that his new work would play to an empty house, as the Imperial Theatre's Director Baron Karl Kister increased the ticket prices to be higher than that of the Italian Opera, which at that time were expensive. The most celebrated and enduring passage of La Bayadère was Petipa's grand vision scene known as The Kingdom of the Shades. Petipa staged this scene as a Grand pas classique, completely devoid of any dramatic action. His simple and academic choreography was to become one of his most celebrated compositions, with the Sortie des bayadères of the thirty-two member Corps de ballet of shades arguably becoming his most celebrated composition of all.
Petipa's final revival of La Bayadère was first given on for the benefit performance of the Imperial Theatre's Premier danseur Pavel Gerdt, who performed the role of Solor. The Prima ballerina Mathilde Kschessinskaya performed the role of Nikiya, and Olga Preobrajenskaya performed as Gamzatti. Among Petipa's changes for this revival was the re-setting of the scene The Kingdom of the Shades from a brightly lit castle in the sky to a dark and rocky landscape on the peaks of the Himalayas. In this scene Petipa increased the number of dancers in the corps de ballet from thirty-two to forty-eight, making the illusion of descending spirits all the more effective.
In 1894, the Imperial Ballet implemented a project to document the company's repertory in the Stepanov method of choreographic notation. Petipa's 1900 revival of La Bayadère was notated by the Imperial Ballet's régisseur Nikolai Sergeyev as rehearsals were conducted. Nearly the entire ballet was notated in detail.
In March 1903, the scene The Kingdom of the Shades was performed independently during a gala performance at Peterhof Palace in honor of a state visit from Kaiser Wilhelm II. This is the earliest occasion where the scene The Kingdom of the Shades was performed as an independently.
Vaganova's revival
On December 13, 1932 the great pedagogue of the Soviet Ballet Agrippina Vaganova presented her version of La Bayadère for the Kirov Ballet (the former Imperial Ballet). Vaganova revised the ballerina's dances for her star pupil Marina Semenova, who danced Nikiya. This included triple pirouettes sur la pointe (on the toes), and fast piqué turns en dehors. Although Vaganova's revival did not find a permanent place in the repertory, her modifications to the Ballerina's dances would become the standard.
The Kirov Ballet's revival of 1941
In 1940 the Kirov Ballet once again made plans to revive La Bayadère, this time in a staging by the Balletmaster Vladimir Ponomarev and the Premier danseur Vakhtang Chabukiani. This version would be the definitive staging of La Bayadère from which nearly every subsequent production would be based. The Ponomarev/Chabukiani revival of La Bayadère premiered on February 10, 1941 to a resounding success, with Natalia Dudinskaya as Nikiya and Vakhtang Chabukiani as Solor.
The choreography for the character of Nikiya went through a renaissance in when performed by the virtuoso ballerina Dudinskaya, whose revisions to the choreography remain the standard. Although her interpretation of the tragic Nikiya was looked on as unsuitable for the stellar ballerina, she nevertheless excelled in The Kingdom of the Shades, where Petipa's strict academic patterns prevailed. In the Variation de Nikiya (often referred to as the Scarf Duet) Ponomarev and Chabukiani changed the original staging of Petipa – originally, this variation called for Nikiya to perform her variation alone, with a long veil connected by wire to a fly-space above the stage, with the veil flying upward upon the final moments of the variation. The variation was changed so that Solor would now hold one end of the veil as Nikiya danced, departing the stage half-way through her solo offstage. Dudinskaya studded the choreography with multiple tours en arabesque, and included, for the first time, airy splits in her Grand jetés during the Entrée de Nikiya, as well as adding fast piqué turns in the Grand coda. The choreography for Solor went through a renaissance as well with the great Premier danseur Chabukiani in the role. Although the dances for the role of Solor had become far more prominent since La Bayadère had been performed in Imperial Russia, Chabukiani's revisions to the choreography would become the standard for all proceeding male dancers.
In 1977, the Kirov Ballet's 1941 Ponomarev/Chabukiani production of La Bayadère was filmed and later released onto DVD/video with Gabriella Komleva as Nikiya, Tatiana Terekhova as Gamzatti, and Rejen Abdeyev as Solor.
La Bayadère in the West
Although La Bayadère was considered a classic in Russia, the work was almost completely unknown in the west. The first western production of the scene The Kingdom of the Shades was mounted by Eugenia Feodorova at the Teatro Municipal in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It premiered on April 12, 1961 with Bertha Rosanova as Nikiya and Aldo Lotufo as Solor. But it was to be the Kirov Ballet's performance of The Kingdom of the Shades at the Palais Garnier in Paris on July 4, 1961 that roused widespread interest in this almost totally unknown ballet from the Imperial/Petipa repertory. Two years later, Rudolf Nureyev staged the scene for the Royal Ballet with Margot Fonteyn as Nikiya. Minkus's music was re-orchestrated by the Royal Opera House's composer/conductor John Lanchbery. The premiere was a resounding success, and is considered to be among the most important moments in the history of ballet.
The dance critic Arlene Croce commented on Petipa's The Kingdom of the Shades in her review of Makarova's staging of the scene in The New Yorker:
Nureyev's version of The Kingdom of the Shades was also staged by Eugen Valukin for the National Ballet of Canada, premiering on March 27, 1967. The first full-length production of La Bayadère was staged by the Balletmistress Natalie Conus for the Iranian National Ballet Company in 1972, in a production based almost entirely on the 1941 Ponomarev/Chabukiani production for the Kirov Ballet. For this production Minkus' score was orchestrated from a piano reduction by Robin Barker.
The National Ballet of Panama's debut performance was La Bayadère (1972), the principal dancers were Teresa Mann, Ginela Vazquez, Armando Villamil, Nitzia Cucalon, Raisa Gutierrez and Alejandro Lugo.
Natalia Makarova's production
In 1974 Natalia Makarova mounted The Kingdom of the Shades for American Ballet Theatre in New York City, being the first staging of any part of La Bayadère in the United States. In 1980 Makarova staged her own version of the full-length work for the company, based largely on the Ponomarev/Chabukiani version she danced during her career with the Kirov Ballet. Makarova's production premiered on May 21, 1980 at the Metropolitan Opera House, and was shown live on PBS during the Live from Lincoln Center broadcast. Makarova danced the role of Nikiya herself, but was replaced by Marianna Tcherkassky due to an injury during the first act. The principal roles included Anthony Dowell as Solor, Cynthia Harvey as Gamzatti, Alexander Minz as the High Brahmin and Victor Barbee as the Rajah. The décor was designed by Pier Luigi Samaritani, with costumes by Theoni V. Aldredge and lighting by Toshiro Ogawa. The premiere was a triumph for American Ballet Theatre, and the company has performed it consistently ever since.
In 1989, Makarova staged her version of La Bayadère for the Royal Ballet in a totally un-changed production, including copies of Samaritani's designs for the décor, and new costumes by Yolanda Sonnabend. In 1990 her production was filmed, and later shown on PBS in 1994 and later released onto DVD/Video. The cast included Altynai Asylmuratova as Nikiya, Darcey Bussell as Gamzatti and Irek Mukhamedov as Solor. Makarova has since staged her production for many companies throughout the world, including the Ballet of La Scala (who have recently filmed their production and released it onto DVD), the Australian Ballet, the Polish National Ballet, the Stanislavsky Ballet in Moscow and the Royal Swedish Ballet.
Rudolf Nureyev's production
In late 1991, Rudolf Nureyev, artistic director of the Paris Opera Ballet, began making plans for a revival of the full-length La Bayadère, to be derived from the traditional Ponomarev/Chabukiani version he danced during his career with the Kirov Ballet. Nureyev enlisted the assistance of his friend and colleague Ninel Kurgapkina, former Prima Ballerina of the Kirov Ballet, to assist in staging the work. The administration of the Paris Opéra knew that this production of La Bayadère would be Nureyev's last offering to the world, as his health was deteriorating more and more from advanced AIDS disease. Because of this, the cultural administration of the Paris Opéra gave the production an enormous budget, with even more funding coming from various private donations.
Nureyev called upon the Italian opera designer Ezio Frigerio to create the décor, and his wife, opera designer Franca Squarciapino, to create the ballet's costumes. Frigerio took inspiration from the Taj Mahal and the architecture of the Ottoman Empire, as well as drawings of the original décor used for Petipa's 1877 production – Frigerio called his designs "a dream of the Orient through Eastern-European eyes". Squarciapino's costume designs were inspired by ancient Persian and Indian paintings, with elaborate head-dresses and hats, colorful shimmering fabrics, and traditional Indian garb, with much of the materials coming from Parisian boutiques that imported directly from India.
Nureyev's production of La Bayadère was presented for the first time at the Palais Garnier (or the Paris Opéra) on October 8, 1992, with Isabelle Guérin as Nikiya, Laurent Hilaire as Solor, and Élisabeth Platel as Gamzatti (and was later filmed in 1994 and released onto DVD/video with the same cast). The theatre was filled with many of the most prominent people of the ballet world, along with throngs of newspaper and television reporters from around the world. The production was a resounding success, with Nureyev being honored with the prestigious Ordre des Arts et des Lettres from the French Minister of Culture. The premiere of Nureyev's production was a special occasion for many in the world of ballet, as only three months later he died.
The danseur Laurent Hilaire later commented on Nureyev's revival:
Sergei Vikharev's production
In 2000 the Kirov/Mariinsky Ballet began mounting a new production of Petipa's 1900 revival of La Bayadère.
The choreographer Sergei Vikharev made use of the Stepanov Choreographic Notation from the Sergeyev Collection to assist on mounting the choreography. The production included the long deleted final act, which included the lost Danse des fleurs de lotus (Dance of the Lotus Blossoms) and Petipa's original Grand Pas d'action, which up to that point had been performed during the second act in a revised edition from 1941 as staged by Vladimir Ponomarev and Vakhtang Chabukiani. In spite of the fact that the production was billed as a "reconstruction", Vikharev retained nearly all of the Soviet-era choreography.
For the majority of the 20th century Minkus's original score for La Bayadère was thought to have been lost. Unbeknownst to the company, the Mariinsky Theatre's music library had in their possession two volumes of Minkus's complete, hand-written score of 1877, as well as three manuscript rehearsal répétiteurs in arrangement for two violins, which included many notes for ballet masters and performers. Sergei Vikharev commented on the restoration of Minkus's score:
The Kirov/Mariinsky Ballet opened the 10th International Stars of the White Nights Festival with their reconstruction of La Bayadère at the Mariinsky Theatre on May 31, 2002, with Daria Pavlenko as Nikiya, Elvira Tarasova as Gamzatti, and Igor Kolb as Solor. The production received a mixed reaction from the St. Petersburg audience, which largely comprised the most prominent persons of the Russian ballet. The celebrated Ballerina of the Kirov/Mariinsky Ballet Altynai Asylmuratova was seen weeping after the performance, allegedly because of her shock at seeing the ballet presented in this way. When the company included the production on their tours, it caused a sensation around the world, particularly in New York and London. To date the Kirov/Mariinsky Ballet only perform the Vikharev production on special occasions.
Other productions
Among other notable productions is Vladimir Malakhov's staging of La Bayadère for Vienna State Opera in 1999 and for Staatsballett Berlin in 2002.
Ekaterina Vazem on the first production of 'La Bayadère'
Here is an account by Ekaterina Vazem, Soloist of His Imperial Majesty and Prima Ballerina of the St. Petersburg Imperial Theatres, on the first production of La Bayadère.
References
Sources
American Ballet Theatre. Program for Natalia Makarova's production of La Bayadère. Metropolitan Opera House, 2000.
Beaumont, Cyril. Complete Book Of Ballets.
Croce, Arlene. Review titled "Makarova's Miracle", written August 19, 1974, republished in Writing in the Dark, Dancing in 'The New Yorker''' (2000) p. 57.
Greskovic, Robert. Ballet 101.
Guest, Ivor. CD Liner Notes. Léon Minkus, arr. John Lanchbery. La Bayadère. Richard Bonynge Cond. English Chamber Orchestra. Decca 436 917-2.
Hall, Coryne. Imperial Dancer: Mathilde Kschessinska and the Romanovs.
Imperial Mariinsky Theatre. Yearbook of the Imperial Theatres 1900–1901. St. Petersburg, Russian Empire. 1901.
Kschessinskaya, Mathilde Felixovna (Princess Romanovsky-Krassinsky). Dancing in St. Petersburg – The Memoirs of Kschessinska. Trans. Arnold Haskell.
Kirov/Mariinsky Ballet. Souvenir program for the reconstruction of Petipa's 1900 revival of La Bayadère. Mariinsky Theatre, 2002.
Petipa, Marius. The Diaries of Marius Petipa. Trans. and Ed. Lynn Garafola. Published in Studies in Dance History. 3.1 (Spring 1992).
Petipa, Marius. Memuary Mariusa Petipa solista ego imperatorskogo velichestva i baletmeistera imperatorskikh teatrov (The Memoirs of Marius Petipa, Soloist of His Imperial Majesty and Ballet Master of the Imperial Theatres).
Royal Ballet. Program for Natalia Makarova's production of La Bayadère. Royal Opera House, 1990.
Stegemann, Michael. CD Liner notes. Trans. Lionel Salter. Léon Minkus. Paquita & La Bayadère. Boris Spassov Cond. Sofia National Opera Orchestra. Capriccio 10 544.
Vazem, Ekaterina Ottovna. Ekaterina Ottovna Vazem – Memoirs of a Ballerina of the St. Petersburg Imperial Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre, 1867–1884. Trans. Roland John Wiley.
Wiley, Roland John. Dances from Russia: An Introduction to the Sergeyev Collection Published in The Harvard Library Bulletin, 24.1 January 1976.
Wiley, Roland John, ed. and translator. A Century of Russian Ballet: Documents and Eyewitness Accounts 1810–1910.
Wiley, Roland John. Tchaikovsky's Ballets''.
External links
La Bayadère – Rudolf Nureyev Foundation
Why The Royal Ballet love performing La Bayadère – Royal Ballet
Ballets by Marius Petipa
Ballets by Ludwig Minkus
1877 ballet premieres
Ballets premiered at the Bolshoi Theatre, Saint Petersburg
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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2001 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 2001 in the United Kingdom.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – Tony Blair (Labour)
Parliament
52nd (until 14 May)
53rd (starting 13 June)
Events
January
5 January – A report by the Department of Health suggests that Dr Harold Shipman, convicted of 15 murders a year ago, may have killed more than 300 patients since the 1970s.
8 January
The High Court rules that the identities and whereabouts of the two killers of James Bulger are to be kept secret for the rest of their lives. Robert Thompson and Jon Venables, both now aged 18, are expected to be released from custody later this year.
Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act 2000 comes into effect, reducing the age of consent for male homosexual sexual acts to that for heterosexual and lesbian acts, sixteen (seventeen in Northern Ireland).
9 January – Sven-Göran Eriksson begins his job as manager of the England football team six months ahead of schedule, having resigned from his previous job as Lazio manager. He had signed a five-year contract with The Football Association on 30 October 2000 to succeed Kevin Keegan.
12 January – Marie Therese Kouao and Carl Manning are sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of Kouao's niece Victoria Climbié, who died in 2000 after suffering horrific abuse and neglect at the hands of the couple in their London home. Victoria (aged eight) had been living with the pair since her parents sent her to England to receive a good education.
24 January – Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Peter Mandelson resigns from the cabinet for the second time.
25 January – After briefly slipping behind the Conservatives in an opinion poll four months ago, Labour are looking all set for victory in the forthcoming general election as they score 49% in the latest MORI poll and open up a 20-point lead over their rivals.
31 January – The Scottish Court in the Netherlands convicts a Libyan and acquits another for their part in the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 which crashed in Lockerbie in 1988. Al Amin Khalifah Fhimah (aged 44) is cleared, but Abdelbaset Ali Mohamed Al Megrahi is found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment with a recommended minimum term of 20 years.
February
19 February – Foot and mouth crisis begins.
21 February – A bomb disguised as a hand-held torch explodes outside a Territorial Army barracks in Shepherd's Bush, seriously injuring a 14-year-old cadet who picked it up.
25 February – Liverpool beat Birmingham City on penalties after a 1–1 draw in the Football League Cup final – the first cup final to be played at Millennium Stadium, Cardiff, since Wembley closed for redevelopment.
28 February – A rail crash near Selby kills 10 people.
March
4 March – A car bomb explodes outside the BBC's main news centre at White City, west London, seriously injuring a London Underground worker. The Real IRA are suspected of being behind the attack.
8 March – The wreckage of Donald Campbell's speedboat Bluebird K7 is raised from the bottom of Coniston Water in Cumbria, 34 years after Campbell was killed in an attempt to break the world water speed record.
15 March – Donald Campbell's body is recovered from Lake Coniston, 34 years after he died in an attempt to break the land water speed record.
17 March – Eden Project opens to the public near St Austell, Cornwall; conceived by Tim Smit with design by Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners.
18 March – Claire Marsh (aged 18) becomes the youngest woman in Britain to be convicted of rape after pinning down a woman who was raped by a pair of teenagers in west London. She is sentenced to seven years in prison, while her accomplices (aged 15 and 18) are jailed for five years.
April
5 April – Perry Wacker, a Dutch lorry driver, is jailed for 14 years for the manslaughter of 58 Chinese illegal immigrants who were found suffocated in his lorry at Dover ferry port in June last year.
15 April – Manchester United win the FA Premier League title for the third season in succession, and the seventh time in nine seasons.
23 April
Jane Andrews, a former personal assistant to Sarah, Duchess of York, goes on trial accused of murdering her fiancé Thomas Cressman.
Manchester United pay a British record fee of £19million for Ruud van Nistelrooy, the 24-year-old PSV Eindhoven and Netherlands national football team striker who had been due to join the club last year until the transfer was put on hold by injury.
29 April – Census of population in the United Kingdom.
May
1 May – An anti-capitalist demonstration in London, part of worldwide protests, turns violent.
4 May – The government relaxes its sanctions designed to tackle the foot and mouth crisis after more than two months.
11 May – House of Commons (Removal of Clergy Disqualification) Act 2001 removes disqualifications for clergy in standing for election as members of parliament and other elected bodies.
12 May – Liverpool win the FA Cup Final when two Michael Owen goals in the final minutes of the game give them a 2–1 win over Arsenal in the final at the Millennium Stadium.
13 May – The family of Mahmood Mattan, hanged in 1952 following his wrongful conviction for the murder of Lily Volpert, are awarded £1.4m in compensation by the Home Office, the first time the family of someone wrongfully hanged in the UK have received compensation.
15 May – Medication prices fall as a result of a court ruling which puts an end to the drug industry's price-fixing policies.
16 May
Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott punches a protester who threw an egg at him in Rhyl.
Jane Andrews is sentenced to life imprisonment after being found guilty of murdering Thomas Cressman.
Liverpool win the UEFA Cup – their first European trophy for 17 years – with a 5–4 win over Spanish side Deportivo Alavés.
23 May – The first C-17 Globemaster III to serve with the Royal Air Force arrives in the UK at RAF Brize Norton in Oxfordshire
June
1 June – Official opening of Cardiff Bay Barrage.
7 June – General Election: Labour Party attains a second successive landslide election victory. Among the new entrants to parliament is 34-year-old future Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron, who retains the Witney seat in Oxfordshire for the Conservative Party. Amongst the retiring members is Edward Heath, the former Conservative Prime Minister, who at the age of eighty-four, was the oldest member of the last parliament and also its longest-serving continuous member having served since the 1950 election. This is the first election to have been held under the regulation of the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000.
8 June – William Hague announces his resignation as Conservative Party leader after four years.
17 June – Cardinal Winning, head of the Roman Catholic church in Scotland, dies of a heart attack aged seventy-six in Glasgow.
22 June – Home Secretary David Blunkett announces that Robert Thompson and Jon Venables, convicted at the age of eleven of murdering toddler James Bulger on Merseyside, are to be released on life licence later this year after the Parole Board recommended their release after eight years in custody.
25 June – A race riot breaks out in Burnley, with more than 200 White and Asian youths being involved in brawling, vandalism and arson.
29 June – The government announces plans to build a £3,000,000 fountain in memory of Diana, Princess of Wales at Hyde Park, London.
July
July – MG Rover launches a new range of MG-badged performance variants of its Rover family cars.
2 July – Barry George is sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of the television presenter Jill Dando, who was killed in Fulham, London, on 26 April 1999. George is acquitted at a retrial in 2008.
7 July – Race riots in Bradford, West Yorkshire. The riots begin after National Front members reportedly stab an Asian man outside a pub.
12 July – The British transfer record is broken for the third time in eight months when Manchester United pay Italian club Lazio £28.1million for Argentine midfielder Juan Sebastián Verón.
16 July – The Labour government suffers its first parliamentary defeat over the sacking of Gwyneth Dunwoody and Donald Anderson as chairs of select committees on transport and foreign affairs.
18 July – Philip John Smith is sentenced to life imprisonment after pleading guilty to the murders of three women in Birmingham in November last year.
19 July – Politician and novelist Jeffrey Archer is sentenced to four years in prison for perjury and perverting the course of justice.
20 July – Rioting breaks out in Brixton, London, following the fatal shooting of Derek Bennett, a 29-year-old black man, by armed police in the area. 27 people are arrested and three police officers are injured.
29 July – A victim support group condemns a reported £11,000 payout by the Criminal Injuries Compensation Authority to the parents of murdered Sarah Payne as "derisory".
August
3 August – A car bomb explodes in Uxbridge Road, near Ealing Broadway railway station, injuring seven people.
4 August – Oxford United move into their new 12,500-seat Kassam Stadium near the city's Blackbird Leys estate. Work on the stadium had started in 1996 but halted the following year due to the club's financial problems. The stadium will initially have three stands but a fourth stand could be built in the future to take the capacity to 15,000.
7 August – The government takes an unprecedented step with the £27million nationalisation of a private hospital near Harley Street in London.
10 August – Former Conservative Party MP Neil Hamilton and his wife Christine are arrested on suspicion of sexual assault.
11 August – Southampton F.C. move into their new 32,000-seat St Mary's Stadium.
16 August – Former royal butler Paul Burrell charged with the theft of items belonging to the late Diana, Princess of Wales; the prosecution subsequently collapses.
28 August – Police officer Karl Bluestone murdered his wife and two children at their home in Gravesend, Kent.
31 August – Neil and Christine Hamilton are cleared in connection with the sexual assault allegations.
September
3 September – In Belfast, Protestant loyalists begin a picket of Holy Cross, a Catholic primary school for girls. For the next 11 weeks, riot police escort the schoolchildren and their parents through hundreds of protesters, amid rioting and heightened violence.
5 September – Peter Bray completes the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in a kayak.
7 September – One million children in over 3,000 schools participate in an experiment to discover if it is possible to create earthquakes by all jumping off chairs.
10 September
Charles Ingram wins £1 million on the television game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, but the prize is cancelled after he is accused of cheating.
The Bank of Scotland and the Halifax merge to form HBOS plc.
11 September
11 September terrorist attacks: by al-Qaeda upon the United States of America. 67 UK nationals perish in the attacks, the largest loss of life from any nation other than the United States where the attacks take place.
One Canada Square, the UK's second tallest building, and the London Stock Exchange are evacuated following the attacks in the United States.
Prime Minister Tony Blair cancels a speech he was due to give to the TUC, and pledges to "stand shoulder to shoulder" with the United States.
12 September – The funeral of Donald Campbell takes place at Coniston in Cumbria, 34 years after his death.
13 September
The Queen orders the Changing of the Guard ceremony to be paused for a two-minute silence, followed by the playing of the American national anthem, in tribute to the victims of the terrorist attacks two days earlier.
British politician William Hague resigns as Leader of the Opposition and Leader of the Conservative Party. Iain Duncan Smith becomes leader of the Conservative Party after winning the leadership election.
14 September – National memorial service held at St Paul's Cathedral for the victims of the terrorist attacks.
17 September – Gateshead Millennium Bridge opens to the public.
21 September – Increased racial tensions in Peterborough, England, following the September 11 attacks result in the murder of Ross Parker by a gang of ten Muslims in a racially motivated attack.
October
6 October – The England national football team achieves automatic qualification for next summer's World Cup in Japan and South Korea with a 2–2 draw against Greece at Old Trafford, thanks to an injury time equaliser by captain David Beckham.
7 October – The United States of America's Armed-forces invade Afghanistan. Submarines of the British Royal Navy participate using Tomahawk cruise missiles.
23 October – Provisional Irish Republican Army announces that it has begun to decommission its weapons.
25 October – The British Crime Survey reveals that crime rates are at their lowest levels since 1981.
November
3 November – A car bomb explodes in Birmingham near New Street railway station. No-one is injured, and it is believed that only the device's detonator exploded.
4 November – The Police Service of Northern Ireland is established, as successor to the Royal Ulster Constabulary.
9 November – The film Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone is premièred in London.
12 November – Greek authorities hold 12 British plane-spotters on charges of spying.
22 November
At the Ipswich by-election, the Labour Party candidate Chris Mole holds the seat.
The Labour government's upturn in popularity continues as the latest MORI poll puts them 31 points ahead of the Conservatives on 56%.
24 November – The 2001 Kangaroo tour concludes with the Australia national rugby league team defeating Great Britain in the 3rd and deciding test match of the Ashes series.
December
December – The third-generation Nissan Primera P12 goes into production with Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK.
10 December
V. S. Naipaul wins the Nobel Prize in Literature "for having united perceptive narrative and incorruptible scrutiny in works that compel us to see the presence of suppressed histories".
Timothy Hunt and Paul Nurse win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly with Leland H. Hartwell "for their discoveries of key regulators of the cell cycle".
11 December – The Post Office announces that up to 30,000 postal workers could be made redundant over the next 18 months as part of a £1.2billion cost-cutting package.
12 December – Roy Whiting is found guilty at Lewes Crown Court of the murder of Sarah Payne, who was found dead near Pulborough, West Sussex, in July last year. It is then revealed that Whiting already had a conviction for abducting and molesting an eight-year-old girl in 1995. The trial judge sentences Whiting, a 42-year-old former mechanic, to life imprisonment and says that it is a rare case in which he would recommend to the appropriate authorities that life should mean life. It is only the 24th time that such a recommendation has been made in British legal history.
13 December – Lynette Lithgow, 51-year-old former BBC newsreader, is found murdered with her mother and brother at the family home in Trinidad.
21 December – The Metropolitan Police storm a cargo ship in the English Channel fearing that it might contain terrorist material.
22 December – British-born terrorist, Richard Reid, attempts to blow up American Airlines Flight 63 from Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris to Miami International Airport, using explosives hidden in his shoes.
25 December – The Queen's last surviving royal aunt, Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, celebrates her hundredth birthday.
Undated
Conservatoire for Dance and Drama, a national higher education institution, is established, the founding affiliates being the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and the London Contemporary Dance School.
The red-billed chough recolonises Cornwall after an absence of 50 years.
First osprey breed in England in recent times.
The proportion of people living in owner-occupied homes in England reaches an all-time peak of 72.5%.
A record of nearly 2.5 million new cars are sold in Britain this year, with the Ford Focus being Britain's best selling car for the third year in a row. Vauxhall maintains its second place behind Ford for sales, while Citroën, Peugeot, Renault and Volkswagen also enjoy strong sales. MG Rover sales, however, fall below 100,000.
Publications
29 October – Roger Hargreaves' children's book Mr. Cheeky celebrates the 30th anniversary of the Mr. Men series.
Ian McEwan's novel Atonement.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels Thief of Time, The Last Hero and The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents. The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents wins the Carnegie Medal.
Births
30 January – Curtis Jones, footballer
23 February – Molly Conlin, actress
24 February
Anthony Gordon, footballer
Ramona Marquez, actress
13 March – James Garner, footballer
23 April – Cleo Demetriou, actress
6 May – Gayatri Nair, pianist and vocalist
23 May – Brennan Johnson, footballer
11 June – Billy Gilmour, footballer
13 June – Olivia Broome, para powerlifter
14 June – George Martin, rugby union player
21 June – Eleanor Worthington Cox, actress
10 July – Maisie Smith, actress
16 July – Tom Taylor, actor
5 September – Bukayo Saka, footballer
6 September – Freya Allan, actress
29 September – Lauren James, footballer
1 October – Mason Greenwood, footballer
9 October – Louis Hynes, actor
21 October – Jess Park, footballer
8 November – Tilly Ramsay, television presenter
12 November – Raffey Cassidy, actress
9 December – Cameron Archer, footballer
12 December – Michael Olise, footballer
13 December – Harley Bird, actress
16 December – Sebastian Croft, actor
22 December – Lily Laight, actress
Deaths
January
1 January – Sir Michael Hanley, intelligence officer (born 1918)
2 January – George Carman, lawyer (born 1929)
5 January – G. E. M. Anscombe, analytic philosopher (born 1919)
6 January – Peter Lovell-Davis, Baron Lovell-Davis, publisher and politician (born 1924)
7 January – Charles Cameron, magician (born 1927)
8 January – Catherine Storr, children's writer, former wife of Anthony Storr (born 1913)
11 January
Denys Lasdun, architect (Royal National Theatre) (born 1914)
Lorna Sage, academic (born 1943)
Michael Williams, actor (born 1935)
14 January – Vic Wilson, racing driver (born 1931)
15 January – Leo Marks, author and Second World War cryptographer (born 1920)
16 January
C. Arnold Beevers, crystallographer (born 1908)
Auberon Waugh, author and journalist, son of Evelyn Waugh (born 1939)
18 January – Reg Prentice, Baron Prentice, politician and life peer (born 1923)
20 January – Crispin Nash-Williams, mathematician (born 1932)
25 January – Margaret Scriven, tennis player (born 1912)
27 January – Robert Alexander Rankin, Scottish mathematician (born 1915)
29 January – Julia Bodmer, geneticist (born 1934)
30 January
David Heneker, composer (born 1906)
Johnnie Johnson, pilot (born 1915)
February
1 February – Jack Milroy, comedian and actor (born 1915)
3 February
Frederick Lawton, judge (born 1911)
Gerald Suster, revisionist historian and novelist (born 1951)
5 February – Jean Denton, Baroness Denton of Wakefield, politician and racing driver (born 1935)
6 February – Sir Richard Southern, historian (born 1912)
7 February – Sir Michael Grylls, politician and father of Bear Grylls (born 1934)
8 February
Brian Nissen, actor (born 1927)
Barbara Noble, novelist (born 1907)
9 February – Reginald Marsh, actor (born 1926)
11 February – Hermione, Countess of Ranfurly, peeress and author (born 1913)
13 February – Montague Woodhouse, 5th Baron Terrington, politician (born 1917)
14 February
Alan Ross, poet (born 1922, India)
Maurice Levitas, sociologist (born 1917)
17 February – Christian O'Brien, geologist (born 1914)
18 February
Colin Cole, herald (born 1922)
Claude Davey, Welsh rugby union player (born 1908)
21 February
Ronnie Hilton, singer and radio presenter (born 1926)
John MacKay, Baron MacKay of Ardbrecknish, politician (born 1938)
23 February – Marcus Sieff, Baron Sieff of Brimpton, businessman (born 1913)
27 February – Stan Cullis, footballer and manager (born 1915)
March
1 March – Colin Webster, footballer (born 1932)
2 March – John Diamond, journalist (born 1953)
5 March – Ian McHarg, Scottish architect (born 1920)
8 March – Dame Ninette de Valois, ballerina and ballet teacher (born 1898, Ireland)
10 March
Walter Verco, herald (born 1907)
Michael Woodruff, surgeon and scientist (born 1911)
13 March
Bill Bland, optician and communist (born 1916)
Cranley Onslow, Baron Onslow of Woking, politician (born 1926)
17 March
Anthony Storr, psychiatrist and author, former husband of Catherine Storr (born 1920)
Ralph Thomas, film director (born 1915)
19 March – Norman Mitchell, actor (born 1918)
20 March – Doreen Gorsky, politician and television executive (born 1912)
21 March – Anthony Steel, actor and singer (born 1920)
23 March – Margaret Ursula Jones, archaeologist (born 1916)
24 March
N. G. L. Hammond, scholar (born 1907)
Muriel Young, television presenter (born 1923)
31 March – David Rocastle, footballer (born 1967)
April
1 April – Jean Anderson, actress (born 1907)
3 April – Michael Berry, Baron Hartwell, newspaper proprietor (born 1911)
5 April
Sir Kingsley Dunham, geologist (born 1910)
David Lloyd Owen, Army general (born 1917)
Malcolm Shepherd, 2nd Baron Shepherd, politician (born 1918)
7 April – Sir Derek Lang, Army general (born 1913)
11 April
John Harris, Baron Harris of Greenwich, journalist and politician (born 1930)
Harry Secombe, entertainer (born 1921)
13 April – Jimmy Logan, Scottish comedian, actor and theatre producer (born 1928)
16 April – Alec Stock, footballer and football manager (born 1917)
18 April – Tony Bartley, television and film executive (born 1919)
21 April – Ian Campbell, 12th Duke of Argyll, peer (born 1937)
23 April – R. A. C. Parker, historian (born 1927)
25 April – Rita Barisse, writer, journalist and translator (born 1917)
26 April – Bryon Butler, sports journalist (born 1934)
27 April – Ernie Graham, singer-songwriter (born 1946)
28 April – Paul Daneman, actor (born 1925)
29 April – Rita Hunter, opera singer (born 1933)
May
2 May – Ted Rogers, comedian (born 1935)
4 May – Rita Lawrence, pianist and singer (born 1911)
5 May – David Jamieson, Army officer and Victoria Cross recipient (born 1920)
6 May – Mike Hazlewood, singer-songwriter (born 1941)
9 May – Leslie Sands, actor (born 1921)
10 May – Frank Newby, structural engineer (born 1926)
11 May
Douglas Adams, writer, heart attack (born 1952)
Michael J. Bird, writer (born 1928)
12 May – Simon Raven, novelist (born 1927)
14 May – Eric Bradbury, comic artist (born 1921)
15 May – Bobby Murdoch, footballer (born 1944)
16 May – Brian Pendleton, guitarist (born 1944)
17 May – Enid Hattersley, Labour politician and mother of Roy Hattersley (born 1904)
18 May
Rosa Beddington, biologist (born 1956)
Stella Mary Newton, fashion designer (born 1901)
Seán Mac Stíofáin, chief-of-staff of the Provisional IRA (born 1928)
19 May
Patricia Hilliard, actress (born 1916)
John Warner, actor (born 1924)
21 May – Graham Webster, archaeologist (born 1913)
22 May – Jack Watling, actor (born 1923)
23 May – Tommy Eyre, keyboardist (born 1949)
25 May – Harold Ridley, ophthalmologist (born 1903)
28 May – Tony Ashton, rock pianist and music producer (born 1946)
31 May – Rosemary Verey, garden designer (born 1918)
June
4 June – Tod Sweeney, Army colonel (born 1919)
5 June – Dennis Gillespie, Scottish footballer (born 1936)
8 June – Don Roper, footballer (born 1922)
9 June – Ronnie Allen, footballer and manager (born 1929)
12 June – W. D. Davies, Congregationalist minister and theologian (born 1911)
16 June – Arthur Wheeler, motorcyclist (born 1916)
17 June – Thomas Winning, Archbishop of Glasgow (born 1925)
19 June
Lindsay L. Cooper, Scottish musician (born 1940)
Jerry Cornes, athlete (born 1910, British India)
David Sylvester, art critic (born 1924)
20 June
Angela Browne, actress (born 1938)
Tom Burns, sociologist (born 1913)
21 June – Vernon Sewell, film director and screenwriter (born 1903)
27 June – Joan Sims, actress (born 1930)
29 June – Mary Barnes, artist (born 1923)
30 June – Joe Fagan, footballer and manager (born 1921)
July
2 July – Jack Gwillim, character actor (born 1909)
3 July – John Marriott, philatelist (born 1922)
5 July – George Ffitch, journalist and broadcaster (born 1929)
7 July – Molly Lamont, actress (born 1910)
12 July – Johnny Wright, boxer (born 1929)
13 July – Eleanor Summerfield, actress (born 1921)
14 July – Arthur Worsley, ventriloquist (born 1920)
15 July – Tom Chantrell, illustrator (born 1916)
17 July – Kenneth Boyd Fraser, virologist and World War II hero (born 1917)
19 July
Paul Beeson, cinematographer (born 1921)
Neil Carmichael, Baron Carmichael of Kelvingrove, politician (born 1921)
22 July – Bertie Felstead, World War I soldier, last survivor of the Christmas truce of 1914 (born 1894)
26 July – Charles Rob, surgeon (born 1913)
28 July – Eric Bedford, architect (BT Tower) (born 1909)
30 July – John Walters, radio presenter and musician (born 1939)
August
2 August – Sir Edward Gardner, politician (born 1912)
3 August
Christopher Hewett, actor (born 1921)
Frank Pakenham, 7th Earl of Longford, peer, politician and social reformer (born 1905)
5 August – Aaron Flahavan, footballer (born 1975)
6 August
Kenneth MacDonald, actor (born 1950)
Dame Dorothy Tutin, actress (born 1930)
8 August
Patrick David Wall, neuroscientist (born 1925)
Paul Weatherley, botanist (born 1917)
9 August – Alec Skempton, scientist (born 1914)
11 August
Edward Thomas Hall, scientist who proved Piltdown Man was a fraud (born 1924)
Percy Stallard, racing cyclist (born 1909)
12 August
Irene Astor, Baroness Astor of Hever, peeress and philanthropist (born 1919)
Julian Pitt-Rivers, social anthropologist (born 1919)
17 August – Sir Ralph Verney, 5th Baronet, Army major and conservationist (born 1915)
18 August – Tom Watson, Scottish actor (born 1932)
19 August – Les Sealey, footballer and coach (born 1957)
20 August – Fred Hoyle, astronomer (born 1915)
21 August – Beryl Cooke, actress (born 1906)
25 August – Ken Tyrrell, British auto racing driver (born 1924)
31 August – Paul Hamlyn, Baron Hamlyn, publisher and philanthropist (born 1926)
September
1 September – Brian Moore, sports commentator (born 1932)
3 September – John Chapman, actor and screenwriter (born 1927)
4 September – Kathleen Sully, novelist (born 1910)
5 September – David Peter Lafayette Hunter, Royal Marines officer (born 1919)
7 September – Bunny Lewis, record producer and music manager (born 1918)
11 September – Henry Herbert, 7th Earl of Carnarvon, peer and racing manager to Queen Elizabeth II (born 1924)
17 September – Dickie Dodds, cricketer (born 1919)
22 September
Hilde Holger, dancer and dance teacher (born 1909, Austria-Hungary)
Gordon Reece, journalist and political strategist (born 1929)
23 September – W. S. Barrett, classical scholar (born 1914)
24 September
Peter Shore, Baron Shore of Stepney, politician (born 1924)
Arthur Wynn, civil servant and recruiter of Soviet spies (born 1910)
27 September – Helen Cherry, actress (born 1915)
28 September – R. J. Hollingdale, biographer (born 1930)
October
3 October – Jean Rankin, Scottish naturalist and courtier (born 1905)
4 October
Patsy Burt, racing driver (born 1928)
George Claydon, actor (born 1933)
7 October – Christopher Adams, wrestler (murdered in the United States) (born 1955)
12 October
Richard Buckle, ballet critic (born 1916)
Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone, politician (born 1907)
13 October – David Neil MacKenzie, linguist (born 1926)
14 October – Vernon Harrison, photographer and parapsychologist (born 1912)
15 October
Jamie Cann, politician (born 1946)
Anne Ridler, poet and editor (born 1912)
17 October – Frank Anscombe, statistician (born 1918)
18 October – Ray Lovejoy, film editor (born 1939)
21 October
Margaret Hope MacPherson, Scottish crofter and activist (born 1908)
J. H. Plumb, historian (born 1911)
23 October – Linden Travers, actress (born 1913)
24 October – Kim Gardner, musician (born 1948)
26 October
Elizabeth Jennings, poet (born 1926)
John Platts-Mills, lawyer and politician (born 1906)
Audrey Withers, magazine editor (born 1905)
31 October
Jenny Laird, actress (born 1912)
Bill Le Sage, jazz musician (born 1927)
November
5 November
Roy Boulting, film director and producer (born 1913)
Barry Horne, animal rights activist (born 1952)
Joan Marion, actress (born 1908, Australia)
6 November – Anthony Shaffer, playwright (born 1926)
8 November
Anno Birkin, poet and musician (car accident) (born 1980)
Peter Laslett, historian (born 1915)
9 November – Dorothy Dunnett, novelist (born 1923)
11 November – Sir Denis Spotswood, RAF air marshal (born 1916)
13 November – Peggy Mount, actress (born 1915)
14 November
Charlotte Coleman, actress (born 1968)
Hugh Verity, RAF pilot (born 1918)
23 November – Mary Whitehouse, campaigner against social liberalism (born 1910)
24 November – Rachel Gurney, actress (born 1920)
27 November – Jane Welsh, actress (born 1905)
28 November
Norman Lumsden, opera singer (born 1906)
William Reid, RAF pilot and Victoria Cross recipient (born 1921)
29 November – George Harrison, rock musician (The Beatles) and film producer, lung cancer (born 1943); died in the USA
December
2 December – Bruce Halford, racing driver (born 1931)
5 December – Bill Roberts, athlete (born 1912)
7 December
David Astor, newspaper publisher (born 1912)
Ray Powell, politician (born 1928)
9 December – Sir Michael Carver, Army general (born 1915)
11 December – Bert Axell, naturalist (born 1915)
12 December – Michael Torrens-Spence, Royal Navy pilot in World War II (born 1914)
16 December – Stuart Adamson, guitarist, vocalist and songwriter (born 1958)
17 December – Gerald Ashby, football referee (born 1949)
18 December
Mary Hardwick, tennis player (born 1913)
Clifford T. Ward, singer-songwriter (born 1944)
20 December
Edward Evans, actor (born 1914)
Sir Peter Horsley, RAF commander (born 1921)
23 December – Dimitri Obolensky, historian and professor (born 1918, Russia)
24 December – Gareth Williams, musician (born 1953)
26 December
Nigel Hawthorne, actor (born 1929)
George Rochester, physicist (born 1908)
27 December
Jack Beeching, poet and novelist (born 1922)
Ian Hamilton, poet, critic and magazine publisher (born 1938)
30 December
Eric Cheney, motorcycle designer (born 1924)
Dame Sheila Sherlock, physician (born 1918)
See also
2001 in British music
2001 in British television
List of British films of 2001
References
Years of the 21st century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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5050389
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced%20very-high-resolution%20radiometer
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Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer
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The Advanced Very-High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) instrument is a space-borne sensor that measures the reflectance of the Earth in five spectral bands that are relatively wide by today's standards. AVHRR instruments are or have been carried by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) family of polar orbiting platforms (POES) and European MetOp satellites. The instrument scans several channels; two are centered on the red (0.6 micrometres) and near-infrared (0.9 micrometres) regions, a third one is located around 3.5 micrometres, and another two the thermal radiation emitted by the planet, around 11 and 12 micrometres.
The first AVHRR instrument was a four-channel radiometer. The last version, AVHRR/3, first carried on NOAA-15 launched in May 1998, acquires data in six channels. The AVHRR has been succeeded by the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite, carried on the Joint Polar Satellite System spacecraft.
Operation
NOAA has at least two polar-orbiting meteorological satellites in orbit at all times, with one satellite crossing the equator in the early morning and early evening and the other crossing the equator in the afternoon and late evening. The primary sensor on board both satellites is the AVHRR instrument. Morning-satellite data are most commonly used for land studies, while data from both satellites are used for atmosphere and ocean studies. Together they provide twice-daily global coverage, and ensure that data for any region of the earth are no more than six hours old. The swath width, the width of the area on the Earth's surface that the satellite can "see", is approximately 2,500 kilometers (~1,540 mi). The satellites orbit between 833 or 870 kilometers (+/− 19 kilometers, 516–541 miles) above the surface of the Earth.
The highest ground resolution that can be obtained from the current AVHRR instruments is per pixel at the nadir.
AVHRR data have been collected continuously since 1981.
The primary purpose of these instruments is to monitor clouds and to measure the thermal emission of the Earth. These sensors have proven useful for a number of other applications, however, including the surveillance of land surfaces, ocean state, aerosols, etc. AVHRR data are particularly relevant to study climate change and environmental degradation because of the comparatively long records of data already accumulated (over 20 years). The main difficulty associated with these investigations is to properly deal with the many limitations of these instruments, especially in the early period (sensor calibration, orbital drift, limited spectral and directional sampling, etc.).
The AVHRR instrument also flies on the MetOp series of satellites. The three planned MetOp satellites are part of the EUMETSAT Polar System (EPS) run by EUMETSAT.
Calibration and validation
Remote sensing applications of the AVHRR sensor are based on validation (matchup) techniques of co-located ground observations and satellite observations. Alternatively, radiative transfer calculations are performed. There are specialized codes which allow simulation of the AVHRR observable brightness temperatures and radiances in near infrared and infrared channels.
Pre-launch calibration of visible channels (Ch. 1 and 2)
Prior to launch, the visible channels (Ch. 1 and 2) of AVHRR sensors are calibrated by the instrument manufacturer, ITT, Aerospace/Communications Division, and are traceable to NIST standards. The calibration relationship between electronic digital count response (C) of the sensor and the albedo (A) of the calibration target are linearly regressed:
A = S * C + I
where S and I are the slope and intercept (respectively) of the calibration regression [NOAA KLM]. However, the highly accurate prelaunch calibration will degrade during launch and transit to orbit as well as during the operational life of the instrument [Molling et al., 2010]. Halthore et al. [2008] note that sensor degradation is mainly caused by thermal cycling, outgassing in the filters, damage from higher energy radiation (such as ultraviolet (UV)), and condensation of outgassed gases onto sensitive surfaces.
One major design fault of AVHRR instruments is that they lack the capability to perform accurate, onboard calibrations once on orbit [NOAA KLM]. Thus, post-launch on-orbit calibration activities (known as vicarious calibration methods) must be performed to update and ensure the accuracy of retrieved radiances and the subsequent products derived from these values [Xiong et al., 2010]. Numerous studies have been performed to update the calibration coefficients and provide more accurate retrievals versus using the pre-launch calibration.
On-orbit individual/few sensor absolute calibration
Rao and Chen
Rao and Chen [1995] use the Libyan Desert as a radiometrically stable calibration target to derive relative annual degradation rates for Channels 1 and 2 for AVHRR sensors on board the NOAA -7, -9, and -11 satellites. Additionally, with an aircraft field campaign over the White Sands desert site in New Mexico, USA [See Smith et al., 1988], an absolute calibration for NOAA-9 was transferred from a well calibrated spectrometer on board a U-2 aircraft flying at an altitude of ~18 km in a congruent path with the NOAA-9 satellite above. After being corrected for the relative degradation, the absolute calibration of NOAA-9 is then passed onto NOAA −7 and −11 via a linear relationship using Libyan Desert observations that are restricted to similar viewing geometries as well as dates in the same calendar month [Rao and Chen, 1995], and any sensor degradation is corrected for by adjusting the slope (as a function of days after launch) between the albedo and digital count signal recorded [Rao and Chen, 1999].
Loeb
In another similar method using surface targets, Loeb [1997] uses spatiotemporal uniform ice surfaces in Greenland and Antarctica to produce second-order polynomial reflectance calibration curves as a function of solar zenith angle; calibrated NOAA-9 near-nadir reflectances are used to generate the curves that can then derive the calibrations for other AHVRRs in orbit (e.g. NOAA-11, -12, and -14).
It was found that the ratio of calibration coefficients derived by Loeb [1997] and Rao and Chen [1995] are independent of solar zenith angle, thus implying that the NOAA-9-derived calibration curves provide an accurate relation between the solar zenith angle and observed reflectance over Greenland and Antarctica.
Iwabuchi
Iwabuchi [2003] employed a method to calibrate NOAA-11 and -14 that uses clear-sky ocean and stratus cloud reflectance observations in a region of the NW Pacific Ocean and radiative transfer calculations of a theoretical molecular atmosphere to calibrate AVHRR Ch. 1. Using a month of clear-sky observations over the ocean, an initial minimum guess to the calibration slope is made. An iterative method is then used to achieve the optimal slope values for Ch. 1 with slope corrections adjusting for uncertainties in ocean reflectance, water vapor, ozone, and noise. Ch. 2 is then subsequently calibrated under the condition that the stratus cloud optical thickness in both channels must be the same (spectrally uniform in the visible) if their calibrations are correct [Iwabuchi, 2003].
Vermote and Saleous
A more contemporary calibration method for AVHRR uses the on-orbit calibration capabilities of the VIS/IR channels of MODIS. Vermote and Saleous [2006] present a methodology that uses MODIS to characterize the BRDF of an invariant desert site. Due to differences in the spectral bands used for the instruments' channels, spectral translation equations were derived to accurately transfer the calibration accounting for these differences. Finally, the ratio of AVHRR observed to that modeled from the MODIS observation is used to determine the sensor degradation and adjust the calibration accordingly.
Others
Methods for extending the calibration and record continuity also make use of similar calibration activities [Heidinger et al., 2010].
Long-term calibration and record continuity
In the discussion thus far, methods have been posed that can calibrate individual or are limited to a few AVHRR sensors. However, one major challenge from a climate point of view is the need for record continuity spanning 30+ years of three generations of AVHRR instruments as well as more contemporary sensors such as MODIS and VIIRS. Several artifacts may exist in the nominal AVHRR calibration, and even in updated calibrations, that cause a discontinuity in the long-term radiance record constructed from multiple satellites [Cao et al., 2008].
International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) method
Brest and Rossow [1992], and the updated methodology [Brest et al., 1997], put forth a robust method for calibration monitoring of individual sensors and normalization of all sensors to a common standard. The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) method begins with the detection of clouds and corrections for ozone, Rayleigh scatter, and seasonal variations in irradiance to produce surface reflectances. Monthly histograms of surface reflectance are then produced for various surface types, and various histogram limits are then applied as a filter to the original sensor observations and ultimately aggregated to produce a global, cloud free surface reflectance.
After filtering, the global maps are segregated into monthly mean SURFACE, two bi-weekly SURFACE, and a mean TOTAL reflectance maps. The monthly mean SURFACE reflectance maps are used to detect long-term trends in calibration. The bi-weekly SURFACE maps are compared to each other and are used to detect short-term changes in calibration.
Finally, the TOTAL maps are used to detect and assess bias in the processing methodology. The target histograms are also examined, as changes in mode reflectances and in population are likely the result of changes in calibration.
Long-term record continuity
Long-term record continuity is achieved by the normalization between two sensors. First, observations from the operational time period overlap of two sensors are processed. Next, the two global SURFACE maps are compared via a scatter plot. Additionally, observations are corrected for changes in solar zenith angle caused by orbital drift. Ultimately, a line is fit to determine the overall long-term drift in calibration, and, after a sensor is corrected for drift, normalization is performed on observations that occur during the same operational period [Brest et al., 1997].
Calibration using the moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer
Another recent method for the absolute calibration of the AHVRR record makes use of the contemporary MODIS sensor onboard NASA's TERRA and AQUA satellites. The MODIS instrument has high calibration accuracy and can track its own radiometric changes due to the inclusion of an onboard calibration system for the VIS/NIR spectral region [MCST]. The following method utilizes the high accuracy of MODIS to absolutely calibrate AVHRRs via simultaneous nadir overpasses (SNOs) of both MODIS/AVHRR and AVHRR/AVHRR satellite pairs as well as MODIS-characterized surface reflectances for a Libyan Desert target and Dome-C in Antarctica [Heidinger et al., 2010]. Ultimately, each individual calibration event available (MODIS/AVHRR SNO, Dome C, Libyan Desert, or AVHRR/AVHRR SNO) is used to provide a calibration slope time series for a given AVHRR sensor. Heidinger et al. [2010] use a second-order polynomial from a least-squares fit to determine the time series.
The first step involves using a radiative transfer model that will convert observed MODIS scenes into those that a perfectly calibrated AVHRR would see. For MODIS/AVHRR SNO occurrences, it was determined that the ratio of AVHRR to MODIS radiances in both Ch1 and Ch2 are modeled well by a second-order polynomial of the radio of MODIS reflectances in channels 17 and 18. Channels 17 and 18 are located in a spectral region (0.94mm) sensitive to atmospheric water vapor, a quantity that affects the accurate calibration of AVHRR Ch. 2. Using the Ch17 to Ch 18 ratio, an accurate guess at the total precipitable water (TPW) is obtained to further increase the accuracy of MODIS to AVHRR SNO calibrations. The Libyan Desert and Dome-C calibration sites are used when MODIS/AVHRR SNOs do not occur. Here, the AVHRR to MODIS ratio of reflectances is modeled as a third-order polynomial using the natural logarithm of TWP from the NCEP reanalysis. Using these two methods, monthly calibration slopes are generated with a linear fit forced through the origin of the adjusted MODIS reflectances versus AVHRR counts.
To extend the MODIS reference back for AVHRRs prior to the MODIS era (pre-2000), Heidinger et al. [2010] use the stable Earth targets of Dome C in Antarctica and the Libyan Desert. MODIS mean nadir reflectances over the target are determined and are plotted versus the solar zenith angle. The counts for AVHRR observations at a given solar zenith angle and corresponding MODIS reflectance, corrected for TWP, are then used to determine what AVHRR value would be provided it had the MODIS calibration. The calibration slope is now calculated.
Calibration using direct AVHRR/AVHRR SNOs
One final method used by Heidinger et al. [2010] for extending the MODIS calibration back to AVHRRs that operated outside of the MODIS era is through direct AVHRR/AVHRR SNOs. Here, the counts from AVHRRs are plotted and a regression forced through the origin calculated. This regression is used to transfer the accurate calibration of one AVHRRs reflectances to the counts of an un-calibrated AVHRR and produce appropriate calibration slopes. These AVHRR/AVHRR SNOs do not provide an absolute calibration point themselves; rather they act as anchors for the relative calibration between AVHRRs that can be used to transfer the ultimate MODIS calibration.
Next-generation system
Operational experience with the MODIS sensor onboard NASA's Terra and Aqua led to the development of AVHRR's follow-on, VIIRS. VIIRS is currently operating on board the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 satellites.
Launch and service dates
See also
Ocean temperature
References
Further reading
Brest, C.L. and W.B. Rossow. 1992. Radiometric calibration and monitoring of NOAA AVHRR data for ISCCP. International Journal of Remote Sensing. Vol. 13. pp. 235–273.
Brest, C.L. et al. 1997. Update of Radiance Calibrations for ISCCP. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology. Vol 14. pp. 1091–1109.
Cao, C. et al. 2008. Assessing the consistency of AVHRR and MODIS L1B reflectance for generating Fundamental Climate Data Records. Journal of Geophysical Research. Vol. 113. D09114. .
Halthore, R. et al. 2008. Role of Aerosol Absorption in Satellite Sensor Calibration. IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters. Vol. 5. pp. 157–161.
Heidinger, A. K. et al. 2002. Using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) to calibrate Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer reflectance channels. Journal of Geophysical Research. Vol. 107. .
Heidinger, A.K. et al. 2010. Deriving an inter-sensor consistent calibration for the AVHRR solar reflectance data record. International Journal of Remote Sensing. Vol. 31. pp. 6493–6517.
Iwabuchi, H. 2003. Calibration of the visible and near-infrared channels of NOAA-11 and NOAA-14 AVHRRs by using reflections from molecular atmosphere and stratus cloud. International Journal of Remote Sensing. Vol. 24. pp. 5367–5378.
Loeb, N.G. 1997. In-flight calibration of NOAA AVHRR visible and near-IR bands over Greenland and Antarctica. International Journal of Remote Sensing. Vol. 18. pp. 477–490.
MCST. MODIS Level 1B Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document, Version 3. Goddard Space Flight Center. Greenbelt, MD. December 2005.
Molling, C.C. et al. 2010. Calibrations for AVHRR channels 1 and 2: review and path towards consensus. International Journal of Remote Sensing. Vol. 31. pp. 6519–6540.
NOAA KLM User's Guide with NOAA-N, -N' Supplement. NOAA NESDIS NCDC. Asheville, NC. February 2009.
Rao, C.R.N. and J. Chen. 1995. Inter-satellite calibration linkages for the visible and near-infrared channels of the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer on the NOAA-7, −9, and −11 spacecraft. International Journal of Remote Sensing. Vol. 16. pp. 1931–1942.
Rao, C.R.N. and J. Chen. 1999. Revised post-launch calibration of the visible and near-infrared channels of the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer on the NOAA-14 spacecraft. International Journal of Remote Sensing. Vol. 20. pp. 3485–3491.
Smith, G.R. et al. 1988. Calibration of the Solar Channels of the NOAA-9 AVHRR Using High Altitude Aircraft Measurements. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology. Vol. 5. pp. 631–639.
Vermote, E.F. and N.Z. Saleous. 2006. Calibration of NOAA16 AVHRR over a desert site using MODIS data. Remote Sensing of Environment. Vol. 105. pp. 214–220.
Xiong, X. et al. 2010. On-Orbit Calibration and Performance of Aqua MODIS Reflective Solar Bands. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. Vol 48. pp. 535–546.
External links
What is AVHRR? at National Atlas
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer at NOAA
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer at USGS
at NASA
at NASA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Spacecraft instruments
Satellite meteorology
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5050512
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Brunete
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Battle of Brunete
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The Battle of Brunete (6–25 July 1937), fought west of Madrid, was a Republican attempt to alleviate the pressure exerted by the Nationalists on the capital and on the north during the Spanish Civil War. Although initially successful, the Republicans were forced to retreat from Brunete after Nationalist counterattacks, and suffered devastating casualties from the battle.
Prelude
After the capture of Bilbao on June 19, the Republicans devised the attack on Brunete to divert Nationalist forces from the north and allow the fleeing Republicans time to reorganize. In addition, Brunete was also chosen because it was situated on the Extremadura road and its capture would make it harder for the Nationalists to resupply their forces besieging Madrid, perhaps even forcing them to withdraw. Once Brunete had been taken, and after some reorganization, the plan was that the offensive would then in a second phase continue in the direction of Talavera de la Reina, a move that would eventually cut off the Nationalist forces outside Madrid. At the same times as the offensive on Brunete started an enveloping attack would be launched from the Carabanchel area just south of Madrid.
From a political standpoint, the offensive was chosen for Brunete to satisfy communist demands and to prove to the Russians that the Spanish possessed military initiative. In fact, Russian advisors had been pressing for an attack on Brunete since the spring of 1937. Furthermore, assistance from the Soviet Union had decreased due to the successful blockade of Republican ports by the Nationalists. Prime Minister Juan Negrín needed to convince the French Premier Camille Chautemps that the Spanish Republic was still capable of military action after the disastrous losses of Málaga and Bilbao. It was expected by the Republicans that a show of force at Brunete would persuade France to open its border for arms shipments.
The offensive was well prepared, and had been preceded both by major reorganizations of the government forces and a big influx of modern war material, mainly from the Soviet Union. Nine new brigades had been set up, and the number of heavy machine guns in the units had been increased. The commanders on the battalion level and up were often well qualified for their tasks, while the company and platoon commanders often lacked experience. The offensive was meant as a surprise attack, and the Nationalists were indeed caught unaware – despite the fact that "it had been discussed in the cafés of the Republic for three months".
The terrain where the battle was to be fought is pretty hilly, with many ridges and small creeks, but for the most part open, and thus accessible to the Republicans new Soviet tanks, which they now intended to put to their first full use.
The Combatants
Republicans
General Miaja initially commanded two Spanish Republican Army corps.
Vth Army Corps commanded by Colonel Juan Modesto with some 22,000 soldiers (among them five of the International Brigades) and 100 tanks:
11th Division, led by Enrique Líster.
35th Division, led by General Walter.
46th Division, led by El Campesino.
XVIIIth Army Corps commanded initially by Colonel Enrique Jurado and later by Segismundo Casado with some 20,000 men:
10th Division, led by Major José Maria Enciso.
15th Division, led by Colonel Janos "Gal" Galicz.
34th Division, led by Colonel Francisco Galán.
In reserve were Cipriano Mera's 14th Division, General Kléber's 45th Division, and Gustavo Duran's 69th Division. The reserve forces consisted of some 25,000 men and 40 tanks.
Nationalists
The site of the offensive was well chosen. Initially facing the Republican attack was not a continuous Nationalist line of defense but (as in many parts of Spain in the initial phase of the war) a series of outposts in the villages, all defended by small detachments able to take the terrain between the outposts under flanking fire. This part of the front was part of the Nationalist Army of the Center under the command of General Andrés Saliquet Zumeta. However, pretty soon after the battle had started the overall command was shifted to General José Enrique Varela Iglesias. The units that fought during the battle were:
The 7th Army Corps commanded by General José Varela consisted of:
71st Division, led by Colonel Ricardo Serrador Santés. It was composed chiefly of Falangists and approximately 1,000 Moroccans.
The 1st Army Corps commanded during the battle by Colonel Juan Yagüe Blanco included:
11th Division, led by General José Iruretagoyena Solchaga.
12th Division, led by General Carlos Asensio Cabanillas.
13th Division, led by General Fernando Barrón y Ortiz.
14th Division, led by Colonel Juan Yagüe Blanco.
Transferred to the front were the 150th Division led by General Sáenz de Buruaga, the 4th Brigade of Navarre led by Colonel Juan Bautista Sánchez and the 5th Brigade of Navarre led by Colonel Alonso Vega.
Republican offensive
July 6
The first attacks started already during the night of July 5/6, with Republican forces in the cover of darkness penetrating deep into the thinly held Nationalist lines. At daybreak on July 6, the Republicans bombarded the Nationalist positions using artillery and air power, plus targets in the rear, including the local Nationalist HQ at Navalcarnero. Immediately after the bombardment, the Republican 11th Division commanded by Líster advanced and encircled Brunete. The Nationalist forces there were completely taken by surprise, and it wasn't until the morning attacks started that they realised the full extent of the Republican operation. Brunete fell to the Republicans by noon.
The Nationalists placed overall command of the battle in General Varela. During the morning all available manpower was rushed into the faltering front line, these included personnel from local staffs, field hospitals and supply units, and by noon the 12th, 13th and 150th Divisions along with parts of the Condor Legion were on their way to help bolster the defense.
Later that day the Republican attacks by the 34th and the 46th Divisions on the flanks of Líster's 11th Division stalled upon meeting fierce resistance by the Nationalists and forced Líster to halt his advance south of Brunete. Attempts by the Republican forces to widen the gap by attacking towards the west was also stopped, in front of Quijorna. The assault on Quijorna was then reinforced by tanks and given the support of both artillery and air assets, but the attackers were again repulsed.
Thus far the offensive had almost exclusively been carried out by the V Army Corps. The Republican command seems to have been surprised by their initial success, and there was obviously some confusion which meant that the deployment of XVIII Army Corps was delayed. (This confusion was probably compounded by the fact that many non-communists and regular army officers were reported to be sceptical towards the whole enterprise, which probably made them over-cautious.)
The planned east-wing of the enveloping attack, from Carabanchel south of Madrid, never broke the enemy line, despite heavy artillery bombardment.
July 7
The Republican Colonel Jurado diverted the 15th Division to end the stalemate at Villanueva de la Cañada and the British Battalion of the XVth Brigade managed to clear the village of Nationalists by 7 am on July 7. The Nationalists in the nearby villages of Villanueva del Pardillo and Villafranca del Castillo continued to hold out.
To allow Gal's 15th Division to continue towards Boadilla on the Republican left flank, the 10th Division under Enciso attacked Asensio's 12th Division defending the Mocha Ridge. The Nationalist troops there were driven back and they fell back to the hills near Boadilla.
Outside Brunete the day was spent in inconclusive and incoherent fights. The bombardments in the dry landscape, that was parched by the heat, resulted in many wildfires.
The Republican insistence on reducing pockets of resistance, rather than bypassing them, gave the Nationalists time to bring up fresh reserves. On the afternoon Nationalist aircraft shifted from the Northern Front started to arrive, and they immediately went into action. Varela was also told that all attacks up north had been suspended, to allow ground units to be rushed to the Brunete sector.
July 8–9
During the night of the 7/8 July general Miaja committed his reserve, the XVIII Army Corps, in an attack towards the east, in the direction of the Guadarrama River. It was performed in the morning hours. After crossing the river the 15th Division assaulted the newly fortified positions held by the 12th Division for two days. All of the attacks were repulsed and when an attack did succeed in evicting the Nationalist defenders, a counterattack quickly eliminated the gains made by the Republicans. Meanwhile, the nationalist position at the village of Quijorna on the Republican right flank continued to hold out. The attack south of Madrid was renewed, but failed once again. Nothing more came of this part of the plan.
With the Republican attack on the right flank of Líster remaining held up at Quijorna, Modesto ordered the 35th Division to assist El Campesino's 46th Division. The original intent of the 35th Division was for it to be used in support of Líster's attack through the center. Without the 35th Division, Líster's 11th Division would be unable to advance any further. On the morning of July 9, two Republican brigades attacked at Quijorna, and, after taking heavy casualties, they were able to finally clear the village of Nationalist defenders. On the Republican left flank attacks towards Boadilla del Monte initially made progress, but even though the assaulting units were well supported by tanks, armoured cars and aircraft their losses were so high that the attacks stranded. The fighting continued though, especially on and around the so-called Mosquito ridge in front of the village.
In the first attack the Spanish Republican Air Force was very active, attacking both ground targets and rebel-held airfields. But the Republican planes were slow and obsolete, which would assure the German Legion Condor almost total control of the air as the battle would unfold.
July 10–11
On July 10 Villanueva del Pardillo was taken by the XIIth International Brigade of Durán's 69th Division, supported by tanks. Some 500 defenders with weapons, ammunition and material were captured. Villafranca del Castillo was slowly being surrounded by Enciso's 10th Division and Kléber's 45th Division. Colonel Jurado made plans for an assault on the village on July 11, but he became ill and was replaced with Colonel Casado. Citing poor morale and fatigue, Casado requested to cancel the attack, but General Miaja ordered for the attack to proceed as planned. (On this day the African American communist Oliver Law, acting commander of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, was killed whilst leading an attack on the Mosquito Ridge on the Boadilla del Monte sector.)
The Republicans were able to trap the Nationalist garrison in Villafranca del Castillo, forcing General Varela to send the 5th Brigade of Navarre to relieve the pressure. The arrival of the Navarrese tipped the balance in favor of the Nationalists as the Republicans were forced from their positions and fled back across the Guadarrama River. A Nationalist attempt to recapture Villanueva del Pardillo on July 11 failed.
The activity in the air was very high, as more and more Nationalist air units were committed to the fight. It was not uncommon to see aircraft in groups of thirty or more appear over the battlefield, and clash with equally big squadrons of opponents.
July 12–17
As large Nationalist ground and air reinforcements had arrived to the threatened front, and as the planned pincer movement from the Carabanchel area south of Madrid had failed to make any impression, the Republican offensive was clearly grinding to a halt. Some minor diversionary attacks were still performed, but on July 15 general Miaja finally ordered an end to the offensive. (Major George Nathan, a battalion commander in the XV International Brigade, was killed by bomb fragments the day after.) At this moment, the Republicans held Brunete and had cut the Extremadura road. And the offensive had indeed relieved the Nationalist pressure on the Basque country, and it had proved to friend and foe that the Republican forces were rapidly increasing in both strength and capacity. At the same time the Nationalists had prevented their forces besieging Madrid from being cut off and with reinforcements having arrived were able to prepare to counterattack.
The Republican forces had suffered big losses, not only from the actual fighting, but also due to the extreme heat, which, combined with lack of water, had incapacitated many soldiers. Many brigades had lost between 40–60% of their numbers – killed, wounded, sick and missing – and one brigade (the XIVth) is said to have lost 80% of their manpower during this week.
The exhausted Republicans dug in and waited for the Nationalist counterattack that they knew probably would come.
Nationalist counterattack
The nationalist commander general Varela planned to retake the terrain lost to the Republicans with a three-pronged attack. The main force consisted of some 20.000 men, that would attack from the west of the salient towards Quijorna. At the same time another force of some 10.000 men would strike from the east from Boadilla del Monte towards and over the Guadarrama river. Finally some 8.000 men would also attack from the south, towards Brunete itself.
July 18
The counteroffensive started early that morning with a lengthy artillery barrage over the Republican front lines, together with heavy aerial attacks by Nationalist air units. However the Nationalists made only small gains this day: the western group managed to capture some hills northwest of Quijorna, while the eastern force took some ground east of the Guadarrama. The Republican troops defended their position stubbornly. The fighting west of Quijorna was particularly fierce. There Republican units made several countercharges, trying to recapture the hills which they had lost. The fighting in the air was also unusually heavy, as both sides threw large number of aircraft into the struggle: at one time around 80 Nationalist aircraft were involved in a massive dogfight with some 60 opponents. (On this day the British poet Julian Bell was killed by bomb fragments, whilst driving an ambulance for a volunteer British Medical Unit.)
July 19–20
The three pronged attack by the Nationalists failed to achieve any substantial gains on July 19, but the next day the eastern forces, heavily supported by aerial units, managed to make some gains on the east side of the salient, close to the Guadarrama.
July 21–23
In order to stabilize the situation on the eastern side of the pocket Miaja ordered a counterattack along the Guadarrama, which led to several days of bitter fighting in the stifling heat. The terrain initially taken by the Nationalists on July 20 switched hands several times. At the same time three Republican Brigades supported by 20 tanks made a small push from Las Rozas towards the south-east. While the see-saw battle raged on the eastern flank of the salient, the Republican forces on the west side held their ground, despite heavy attacks concentrated mainly on the terrain around Quijorna. However, on July 23 the eastern forces finally made a major breakthrough, and managed to fight their way across the Guadarrama, close to the place where the small Aulencia flows into the larger river.
July 24–25
On July 24 the Nationalists started attacking from the south towards Brunete in earnest. They had managed to concentrate some 65 artillery batteries at this part of the front, against a mere 22 Republican. With this support plus bombing from the air the Nationalist breached the Republican lines south of the city. A counterattack supported by tanks had no success. On the afternoon the attackers entered Brunete, while the remnants of Líster's 11th Division retreated to positions just north of the city, clustering around the cemetery. At the same time the Nationalist east group managed to widen their breach on the Guadarrama. Miaja rushed reinforcements from Madrid, and the Republican 14th Division commanded by Cipriano Mera made yet another counterattack, but it failed, and on July 25 the defenders from the 11th Division around and on the cemetery – which included the division commander Líster himself – withdrew from their positions. After this there were no more large-scale attacks in the battle – save for some ineffectual Republican attempts to counterattacks – and the fighting petered out. Varela wanted to continue his attacks but Franco ordered them to halt so that troops could be moved north for the start of the offensive against the strategically important port of Santander. (On July 25 the German war photographer Gerda Taro was fatally wounded when the car she was riding in was hit by a Republican tank more or less out of control due to a Nationalist air attack.)
During the final days of the battle there were clear signs of the morale cracking on the Republican side, due to both exhaustion and the often terrible losses. Even among the volunteer International Brigades there were grumbling, insubordination and outright desertion.
Aftermath
At the close of the battle, the Republicans failed to cut the Extremadura road, but they still held Villanueva de la Cañada, Quijorna and Villanueva del Pardillo from the Nationalists. From this point of view, both sides were able to claim victory.
The losses of men and equipment in the battle were much heavier for the Republicans than the Nationalists. Indeed, the Republican army lost much of its indispensable equipment and so many of their best soldiers in the International Brigades that the battle can be seen as a strategic Nationalist victory.
Politically, the communists suffered a loss of prestige because the offensive failed to stop the Nationalist troops from completing the conquest of the north.
The frenetic conditions at Brunete for the Nationalists enabled the Germans to acquire favorable trade concessions because of the effectiveness of the Condor Legion. The Nationalists granted most favored nation status to Germany and acquiesced in sending raw materials to Germany as repayment for the debt incurred.
Later the battle was commemorated in the name given to Armoured Division No. 1 "Brunete", formed in the mid-1940s.
See also
List of Spanish Republican military equipment of the Spanish Civil War
List of Spanish Nationalist military equipment of the Spanish Civil War
References
Hugh Thomas: "The Spanish Civil War". New York 1961.
Jose Manuel Martinez Bande: "La ofensiva sobre Segovia y la batalla de Brunete". 1972
Manuel Aznar: "Historia Militar de la Guerra de Espana", 3 vols. 1969.
Jesus Salas Larrazabal: "Air War over Spain". London 1974.
Richard K Smith & R Carghill Hall: "Five Down No Glory – Frank G Tinker, Mercenary Ace of the Spanish Civil War". Annapolis 2011.
Notes
External links
Spartacus Educational – Battle of Brunete
www.international-brigades.org.uk
spanish-civil-war.org
Spanish short film on the Battle on YouTube
Gerda Taro and the Battle of Brunete
Spanish Civil War blog
1937 in Spain
Brunete
Battles in the Community of Madrid
Conflicts in 1937
July 1937 events
1930s in Madrid
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embroidery%20of%20India
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Embroidery of India
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Embroidery in India includes dozens of embroidery styles that vary by region and clothing styles. Designs in Indian embroidery are formed on the basis of the texture and the design of the fabric and the stitch. The dot and the alternate dot, the circle, the square, the triangle, and permutations and combinations of these constitute the design.
Photo gallery
Aari
Aari work involves a hook, plied from the top but fed by silk thread from below with the material spread out on a frame. This movement creates loops, and repeats of these lead to a line of chain stitches. The fabric is stretched on a frame and stitching is done with a long needle ending with a hook such as a crewel, tambour (a needle similar to a very fine crochet hook but with a sharp point) or Luneville work. The other hand feeds the thread from the underside, and the hook brings it up, making a chainstitch, but it is much quicker than chainstitch done in the usual way: looks like machine-made and can also be embellished with sequins and beads - which are kept on the right side, and the needle goes inside their holes before plunging below, thus securing them to the fabric.there are many types of materials used like zari threads, embellishments,sequins etc..
Aari embroidery is practiced in various regions such as in Kashmir and Kutch (Gujarat).
Banjara embroidery
Practiced by the Lambada gypsy tribes of Andhra Pradesh, Banjara embroidery is a mix of applique with mirrors and beadwork. Bright red, yellow, black and white coloured cloth is laid in bands and joined with a white criss-cross stitch. The Banjaras of Madhya Pradesh who are found in the districts of Malwa and Nimar have their own style of embroidery where designs are created according to the weave of the cloth, and the textured effect is achieved by varying colours and stitches of the geometric patterns and designs. Motifs are generally highlighted by cross-stitch.
Heer Bharat or Banni (Gujarat)
The Heer Bharat or Banni embroidery originates in Gujarat, and is practiced mainly by the Lohana community. It is done with silk floss (Heer means "silk floss") and it is famous for its vibrancy and richness in color pallets & design patterns, which include shisha (mirror) work. Bagh and phulkari embroidery of the Punjab region has influenced Heer Bharat embroidery in its use of geometrical motifs and stitchery.
Chamba Rumal (Himachal Pradesh)
It originated in Chamba kingdom of Himachal Pradesh in 17th century. This embroidery flourished in the princely hill states of Kangra, Chamba, Basholi, and other neighbouring provinces. The Chamba region has highly skilled craftsmen. Chamba embroidery has its own distinctive style, small squares or rectangles of clothe embroidered with untwisted silk threads. While untwisted silk is most common some Chamba embroidery make use of thin metal wires or metallic yarn. While the chamba rumal originated in the 17th century it reached widespread popularity in the 18th century after rulers in the Himalayan region patronized Chamba Rumal embroiderers. The original Chamba embroideries were done by women or young children, the embroideries often depicted gods or goddesses. Original Chamba embroideries were very important in marriages as the embroideries were kept as the brides dowry. Chamba embroideries often began by drawing an outline on the rectangular square of fabric, while originally embroidered by women at the height of popularity in the 18th century many male painters drew the outlines and embroidered the clothe themselves to ensure high quality work. Not long after its height of popularity in the 18th century the chamba rumal's popularity declined. The rumals began to lose their sacredness, today most rumals are made by families trying to sell them to survive, and the Chamba Rumals are not of the same quality as they were in the 17th and 18th century. While this art style has declined over the years and almost been lost, in 2009 Lalita Vakil was given the Shilp Guru award for her ability and skill in Chamba embroidery.
Chikankari (Uttar Pradesh)
The present form of chikan (meaning elegant patterns on fabric) work is associated with the city of Lucknow, in Uttar Pradesh. Chikan embroidery on silk is Lucknow's own innovation. The other chikan styles are that of Calcutta and Dacca. However, characteristic forms of stitch were developed in Lucknow: phanda and murri.
Chikan embroidery is believed to have been introduced by Nur Jahan, the wife of Jahangir. Chikan embroidery involves the use of white thread on white muslin (tanzeb), fine cotton (mulmul), or voile, fine almost sheer fabrics which showcases shadow work embroidery the best. Other colours can also be used.
The artisans usually create individual motifs or butis of animals and flowers (rose, lotus, jasmine, creepers). The designs are first printed onto the fabric not with chaulk, but with a mixture of glue and indigo.
At least 40 different stitches are documented, of which about 30 are still practiced today and include flat, raised and embossed stitches, and the open trellis-like jaali work. Some of the stitches that are used in Chikankari work include: taipchi, pechni, pashni, bakhia (ulta bakhia and sidhi bakhia), gitti, jangira, murri, phanda, jaalis etc. In English: chain stitch, buttonhole stitch, French knots and running stitch, shadow work. Another is the khatao (also called khatava or katava).
Gota (Jaipur, Rajasthan)
It is a form of appliqué in gold thread, used for women's formal attire. Small pieces of zari ribbon are applied onto the fabric with the edges sewn down to create elaborate patterns. Lengths of wider golden ribbons are stitched on the edges of the fabric to create an effect of gold zari work. Khandela in Shekhawati is famous for its manufacture. The Muslim community uses Kinari or edging, a fringed border decoration. Gota-kinari practiced mainly in Jaipur, utilising fine shapes of bird, animals, human figures which are cut and sewn on to the material.it is very famous in rajasthan as well as in many other parts of the world.
Kamal kadai (Andhra Pradesh)
Is an embroidery from native Andhra Pradesh. Woven Trellis stitch is used to make flowers and leaves and other stitches are done on fabric to complete the embroidery.
Kantha (Bengal)
Naksha is embroidery on many layers of cloth (like quilting), with running stitch. It is also known as dorukha which mean the designs/motifs are equally visible in both sides: there is no right or wrong side so both side are usable. Traditionally, worn out clothes and saris were piled together and stitched into quilts. Rural Bengali women still do this with cotton saris, the embroidery thread being taken from the sari border. It started as a method of making quilts, but the same type of embroidery can also be found on saris, salwar suits, stoles, napkins, etc. Themes include human beings, animals, flowers, geometric designs and mythological figures.
Karchobi - Rajasthan
It is a raised zari metallic thread embroidery created by sewing flat stitches on cotton padding. This technique is commonly used for bridal and formal costumes as well as for velvet coverings, tent hangings, curtains and the coverings of animal carts and temple chariots.
Kasuti or Kasuthi (Karnataka)
Kasuti (Kai=hand and Suti = weave /wrap) comes from the state of Karnataka, Kasuti is originated in Karnataka during chalukya period (6th to 12th century) and done with single thread and involves counting of each thread on the cloth. The patterns are stitched without knots, so that both sides of the cloth look alike. Stitches like Gavanti, Murgi, Negi and Menthi form intricate patterns like gopura, chariot, palanquin, lamps and conch shells, as well as peacocks and elephants, in fixed designs and patterns.
Kathi (Gujarat)
Kathi embroidery was introduced by 'Kathi' the cattle breeders, who were wanderers. This technique combines chain stitch, appliqué work and mirror-like insertions.
Kaudi (Karnataka)
Kaudi (ಕೌದಿ) is a blanket or bedspread and applique embroidery from Karnataka. Old Fabrics are cut into pieces and stitched with simple running stitch, and Gubbi Kaalu stitch.
Khneng (Meghalaya)
Is an embroidery from meghalaya. Mustoh village is only known place for khneng embroidery and the embroidery is traditionally Done on eri silk shawls.
Kutch or Aribharat
The best known of the Kutch (Gujarat) embroidery techniques is Aribharat, named after the hooked needle which forms the chainstitch. It is also known as Mochibharat, as it used to be done by mochis (cobblers).
Kutchi bharat/Sindhi stitch (Gujarat)
A variation of Kutch work, this geometric embroidery starts with a foundation framework of herringbone stitch or Cretan stitch, and then this framework is completely filled with interlacing. It is said that this technique originated in far away land of Armenia and found its way to Gujarat by travelling Nomads. Sindhi stitch or Maltese cross stitch is also similar but the innovation of the Kutchi women have taken it beyond the traditional designs meow
Kutch work
Kashmiri embroidery
Kashmiri Kashida
Kashmiri embroidery (also Kashida) is originated during Mughal period and used for phirans (woollen kurtas) and namdahs (woollen rugs) as well as stoles. It draws inspiration from nature. Birds, blossoms and flowers, creepers, chinar leaves, ghobi, mangoes, lotus, and trees are the most common themes. The entire pattern is made with one or two embroidery stitches, and mainly chain stitch on a base of silk, wool and cotton: the colour is usually white, off-white or cream but nowadays one can find stoles and salwar-kameez sets in many other colours such as brown, deep blue, sky blue, maroon and rani pink. Kashida is primarily done on canvas with crystal threads, but Kashida also employs pashmina and leather threads. Apart from clothes, it is found on home furnishings like bed spreads, sofa and floor cushions, and pillow covers.
The base cloth, whether wool or cotton, is generally white or cream or a similar shade. Pastel colors are also often used. The craftsmen use shades that blend with the background. Thread colors are inspired by local flowers. Only one or two stitches are employed on one fabric.
Kashmiri embroidery is known for the skilled execution of a single stitch, which is often called the Kashmiri stitch and which may comprise the chain stitch, the satin stitch, the slanted darn stitch, the stem stitch, and the herringbone stitch. Sometimes, the doori (knot) stitches are used but not more than one or two at a time.
Kashmiri stitches
The stitches include sozni (satin), zalakdozi (chain) and vata chikan (button hole). Other styles include dorukha in which the motif appears on both sides of the shawl with each side having a different color; papier-mâché; aari (hook) embroidery; shaaldaar; chinar-kaam; samovar (the antique Kashimiri tea-pot) is a very typical and popular design used in Kashmiri embroidery. The samovar pattern is then filled up with intricate flowers and leaves and twigs; Kashir-jaal which implies fine network of embroidery, particularly on the neckline and sleeves of a dress material.
Further styles include naala jaal which involves embroidery particularly on the neckline and chest/yoke: naala means neck in the Koshur dialect of Kashmiri language; jaama is a very dense embroidery covering the whole base fabric with a thick spread of vine/creepers and flowers, badaam and heart shapes, a variation of this form is neem-jaama, where neem means demi or half, because the embroidery is less dense, allowing a view of the fabric underneath; and jaal consisting of bel-buti: a fine and sparse net of vine/creepers and flowers. Variation of this form is neem-jaal, where again the work is less dense.
Mukaish Work- (similar to chikankari) -Lucknow
Small rectangular pieces of metal are squeezed shut around some threads of the fabric. Mukesh work (known also as badla or fardi), includes women making shiny stitches amid chikan embroidery using a needle and long, thin strips of metal.
Phool Patti ka Kaam (Uttar Pradesh)
Flower embroidery of Uttar Pradesh, especially in Aligarh.
Phulkari (Punjab and Haryana)
Phulkari (Phul=flower, Kari=work) is originated in the late 17th century in Punjab region. the most famous rural embroidery tradition of Punjab, mentioned in the Punjabi folklore of Heer Ranjha by Waris Shah. Its present form and popularity goes back to 15th century, during Maharaja Ranjit Singh's reign Phulkari also means headscarf, and it comes from the 19th century tradition of carrying an odhani or a head-scarf with flower patterns. Its distinctive property is that the base is a dull hand-spun or khadi cloth, with bright coloured threads that cover it completely, leaving no gaps. It uses a darn stitch done from the wrong side of the fabric using darning needles, one thread at a time, leaving a long stitch below to form the basic pattern. Famous for Phulkari are the cities of
Amritsar, Jalandhar, Ambala, Ludhiana, Nabha, Jind, Faridkot, and Kapurthala. Other cities include Gurgaon (Haryana), Karnal, Hissar, Rohtak and Delhi. Bagh is an offshoot of phulkari and almost always follows a geometric pattern, with green as its basic colour.
Other styles
The embroidery styles of the Punjab region include kalabatun embroidery using thin wires. Kalabatan surkh involves using gold wires on orange coloured and red silk. Kalabatan safed involves using silver wires on white material. There are two kinds of gold embroidery, one of a solid and rich kind called kar-chob and the other called tila-kar or kar-chikan utilising gold thread. The former is used for carpets and saddle cloths whereas the latter is used for dresses. The Punjab region also uses mukesh embroidery: mukesh bati-hui, twisted tinsel, mukesh gokru, flattened gold wire for embroidery of a heavy kind, and waved mukesh, made by crimping mukesh batihui with iron tongs. Ludhiana and Amritsar are known for embroidery using white, silver and gold threads on clothes such as chogas and waistcoats (phatuhi). Patchwork is also a tradition of the region.
Pichwai (Rajasthan)
Colourful embroidered cloth-hangings made in Nathdwara, Rajasthan. The central themes focus on Lord Krishna.
Pipli (Odisha)
Appliqué or Pipli work originates from the Pipli village in Odisha and some parts of Gujarat. It is called Chandua based on patchwork: brightly coloured and patterned fabric pieces are sewn together on a plain background mostly velvet along with Mirror and lace work. Designs include Hindu gods, human forms, animals, flowers and vehicles. Originally Chandua work was done to build the chariots for Puri Rath Yatra and was also used for parasols, canopies and pillows for the Rath Yatra. Nowadays different home décor items can be found, such as lamp shades, garden umbrellas and bed covers and utility products like Hand bags, Wallets, Files.
Rabari (Rajasthan and Gujarat)
This embroidery style is made by the Rabari or Rewari community of Rajasthan and Gujarat. This very colourful embroidery style, using stark contrast was traditionally used only for garments, but now it can be found on bags, accessories, home furnishings, etc.
Mirrors of all shapes and sizes are incorporated in the embroidery, as a result of the belief that mirrors protect from evil spirits.
Designs include not only flowers and fruit and animals such as parrots and elephants, but also temples, women carrying pots, and the ubiquitous mango shape.
Shamilami (Manipur)
A combination of weaving and embroidery and was once a high status symbol.
Shisha or Mirrorwork (Gujarat, Haryana, Rajasthan)
This ornamentation method originated in Persia during 13th century and involves little pieces of mirror in various sizes which are encased in the decoration of the fabric first by interlacing threads and then with buttonhole stitch.
Originally, pieces of mica were used as the mirrors, but later, people started using thin blown-glass pieces, hence the name, which in Hindi means "little glass". Until recently they were all irregular, made by hand, and used mercury, nowadays one can also find them machine made and regularly shaped. It's usually found in combination with other types of stitches like cross stitch, buttonhole stitch and satin stitch, nowadays not only by hand but also by machine. Mirrorwork is very popular for cushion covers and bedcovers, purses and decorative hangings as well as in decorative borders in women's salwar-kameez and sari. Thousands of women from kutch (Gujarat) and sikar, churu (Rajasthan) are engaged in doing hand embroidery work like tie, mirror work, beads on fabric.
There are various types of Chikan work: Taipchi, Bakhia, Phunda, Murri, Jaali, Hathkati, Pechni, Ghas Patti, and Chaana Patti.
Toda embroidery
The Toda embroidery has its origins in Tamil Nadu. The Nilgiri Hills, inhabited by the Todu community have their own style called pugur, means flower. This embroidery, like Kantha, is practiced by women.
The embroidery adorns the shawls. The shawl, called poothkuli, has red and black bands between which the embroidery is done. As Todas worship the buffaloes, buffalo becomes an important motif in the Toda embroidery among mettvi kaanpugur, Izhadvinpuguti and others. Stylized sun, moon, stars and the eye of the peacock feathers are used in Toda embroidery.
Zardozi or Zari or kalabattu
The most opulent form of Indian embroidery is the Zari and the Zardozi or Zardosi, known since the late 16th century, brought in India by the Moghuls. The word Zardozi comes from the two Persian words, Zar (gold) and Dozi (embroidery). This form uses metallic thread.
Once real gold and silver thread was used, on silk, brocade and velvet fabric. Metal ingots were melted and pressed through perforated steel sheets to convert into wires, which then were hammered to the required thinness. Plain wire is called 'badla', and when wound round a thread, it is called 'kasav'. Smaller spangles are called 'sitara' and tiny dots made of badla are called 'mukais' or 'mukesh'.
Zardozi is either a synonym or a more elaborate version of zari where the gold or silver embroidery is embellished with pearls and precious stones, gota and kinari, making this art only affordable by rich people.
Nowadays Zardosi thread has a plastic core and a golden-coloured outside. The thread consists of coiled metal wires placed on the right side of the fabric and couched with a thinner thread.
References
External links
A modern take on Kasuti
Indian embroidery types
Description and drawings of common embroidery stitches
Aari Work Bridal Blouse Designs
Wedding Blouse Designs
Maggam Work
Aari Blouse Designs
Simple Aari Blouse Designs
Heavy Bead Aari Work
Pink color Blouse Desigsn
Aari Work Blouse
Maggam Work Blouse
Hand Embroidery Work
Dev aari works and coaching center | Where to learn aari
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uptown%20Hudson%20Tubes
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Uptown Hudson Tubes
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The Uptown Hudson Tubes are a pair of tunnels that carry PATH trains between Manhattan, New York City, to the east and Jersey City, New Jersey, to the west. The tubes originate at a junction of two PATH lines on the New Jersey shore and cross eastward under the Hudson River. On the Manhattan side, the tubes run mostly underneath Christopher Street and Sixth Avenue, making four intermediate stops before terminating at 33rd Street station. The tubes do not enter Uptown Manhattan; the name reflects their location north of the Downtown Hudson Tubes that connect Jersey City and the World Trade Center.
Dewitt Clinton Haskin first attempted to construct the Uptown Hudson Tubes in 1873. Work was delayed by five years by a lawsuit, and was further disrupted by an 1880 accident that killed twenty workers. The project was canceled in 1883 due to a lack of money. A British company attempted to complete the tunnels in 1888, but also ran out of money by 1892, by which point the tunnels were nearly half-finished. In 1901, a company formed by William Gibbs McAdoo resumed work on the tubes, and by 1907, the tunnels were fully bored. The Uptown Hudson Tubes opened to passenger service in 1908 as part of the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad (H&M) and were completed by 1910.
After the Uptown Hudson Tubes' opening, the H&M proposed extending them northward to Grand Central Terminal, as well as creating a crosstown spur line that would run under Ninth Street in Manhattan. However, neither extension was ultimately constructed. In the 1930s, parts of the tubes under Sixth Avenue were rebuilt due to the construction of the Independent Subway System (IND)'s Sixth Avenue Line. The Uptown Hudson Tubes contained seven original stations; two stations at 19th and 28th streets were later closed and the 33rd Street terminal was rebuilt. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey took over the H&M and the tunnels in 1962, rebranding the H&M as part of the PATH system. The Hoboken–33rd Street and Journal Square–33rd Street services operate through the tubes on weekdays, while the Journal Square–33rd Street (via Hoboken) service operates on weekends, nights, and holidays.
Description
Route
The Uptown Hudson Tubes travel roughly east–west beneath the Hudson River, connecting Manhattan in the east and Jersey City in the west.
On the Manhattan side, the tunnels initially run eastward under Morton Street. At Greenwich Street, the tubes curve sharply north for two blocks, then turn sharply east below Christopher Street. The curve, which follows the streets above it, was made to avoid demolishing basements during construction.
The tubes do not enter Upper Manhattan; their name reflects their location north of the Downtown Hudson Tubes that connect Jersey City and the World Trade Center. As well, they were built when today's Midtown Manhattan was considered "uptown" and the true northernmost reaches of the island were not as densely developed. The name "Uptown Hudson Tubes" also applies to the section of the subway under Christopher Street and Sixth Avenue in Manhattan.
The first PATH stop in New York is at the Christopher Street station; service continues uptown to the 33rd Street terminal, making intermediate stops at , 14th Street, and 23rd Street. Two stations formerly existed at 19th Street and 28th Street. The ornately-designed stations in Manhattan featured straight platforms, each long and able to accommodate 8-car consists. The stations underneath Sixth Avenue (14th, 19th, 23rd, and 28th streets, and the original 33rd Street Terminal) contain round columns with scrolls and the station name near the ceilings. The exposed steel rings of the tunnel's structure can be seen at Christopher and Ninth streets.
On the Jersey City side, the tunnels leave the riverbank approximately parallel to 15th Street and enter a flying junction where trains can turn to Hoboken Terminal to the north or Erie Terminal (now the Newport station) to the south. The junction also allows trains to travel between Hoboken and Newport. Each end of the junction is within one of three double-deck concrete caissons. The Uptown Hudson Tubes enter caisson 1 at the eastern end of the junction, which carries trains to Hoboken or Newport on the upper level and trains from Hoboken or Newport on the lower level. Caisson 2 at the northern end carries trains to and from Hoboken, while caisson 3 at the southern end carries trains to and from Newport.
Dimensions
The Uptown Hudson Tubes measure , or between shafts. The tubes descend as far as below mean river level. In both the uptown and downtown tubes, each track is located in its own tunnel. When a train passes through the tunnel, it pushes out the air in front of it towards the closest ventilation shaft. At the same time, it pulls air into the rail tunnel from the closest ventilation shaft behind it. This enables the piston effect, which results in better ventilation. On the Jersey City side, there is a construction shaft at 15th Street, measuring wide. When the tunnels were completed, the construction shaft was converted into a ventilation shaft. Additional ventilation shafts are located in Manhattan at Morton Street; Christopher and Greenwich streets; and Ninth Street and Sixth Avenue.
The diameter of the Uptown Tubes' southern tunnel is , while the more northerly tunnel is slightly larger with a diameter of , because that tube had been constructed first. The tunnels are composed of built-up concentric steel rings measuring wide. On one side of each tube is a concrete bench wall, which measures high above the track bed. The bench walls contain ducts with wiring.
At Sixth Avenue and Christopher Street, the tunnels enter an arched cavern measuring wide, then curve north under Sixth Avenue. The cavern was built to accommodate a junction with a never-built spur extending eastward under Ninth Street. Shield tunneling was used only between the Uptown Hudson Tubes' western end in Jersey City and 12th Street in Manhattan. North of 12th Street, the circular tubes become two rectangular tunnels, which measure high by wide and carry one track each. Initial plans called for the 33rd Street station to be constructed as a four-track station, with two tracks for terminating trains and two tracks for trains running along an unbuilt northern extension of the line. As built, the 33rd Street station contained three tracks.
Service
PATH operates two services through the Uptown Tubes on weekdays: Hoboken–33rd Street and Journal Square–33rd Street. On late nights, weekends, and holidays, they are combined into the Journal Square–33rd Street (via Hoboken) service.
Construction
Haskin attempt
Plans for a fixed crossing of the Hudson River date to the 1850s. No action was taken on the proposal until 1873, when engineer Dewitt Clinton Haskin formed the Hudson Tunnel Company to construct a tunnel under the Hudson River. The company was incorporated in New York on May 22 of that year and was incorporated in New Jersey four days later, on May 26; the companies initially had a $7 million capital stock authorization. Haskin intended for the tube to run from 15th Street in Jersey City to Morton Street in Manhattan, a distance of . At the time, constructing a tunnel under the mile-wide river was considered less expensive than trying to build a bridge over it. Trenor W. Park was hired as the president of the new company. Haskin subsequently sought $10 million in funding to pay for the tunnel.
An initial attempt to construct the Hudson River tunnel began in November 1874 from the Jersey City side. Had this original tunnel effort been completed, it would have been long and consisted of a single tube wide by high. Trains from five railroad companies on the New Jersey side would have been hauled by special steam locomotives that would be able to emit very little steam. The engines would have continued through the tube to Manhattan, terminating at a railroad hub in Washington Square Park. This tunnel project was known as the Morton Street Tunnel. Work had progressed for only one month when it was stopped by a court injunction submitted by the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, who owned the property at the tunnel's New Jersey portal. The construction shaft had been built to a depth of when work was paused. As a result of the lawsuit, work on the tunnel was delayed until September 1879, when the judge ruled in favor of the builders and the injunction was dissolved. The plans were also changed to a pair of tunnels wide by high.
The construction method used at the time did not employ a tunneling shield; rather, air compressors maintained pressure against the water-laden silt that was being tunneled through. Haskin believed the river silt was strong enough to maintain the tunnel's form—with the help of compressed air—until a brick lining could be constructed. Haskin's plan was to excavate the tunnel, then fill it with compressed air to expel the water and to hold the iron plate lining in place. However, the amount of pressure needed to hold back the water at the bottom of the tube was much greater than the pressure needed to hold back the water at the top. On July 21, 1880, an overpressure blowout at the tube's top caused an accident that resulted in an air lock jam, trapping several workers and killing 20. It took six months to retrieve the corpses of the workers. A memorial for one of the workers killed was later erected in Jersey City.
The tunnel's construction was taken over by a new company called the Hudson River Tunnel Company in March 1881. This company drove a shaft on Morton Street in Manhattan and extended the tunnel from the Jersey City side. The liabilities incurred as a result of the 1880 accident halted tunneling work on November 5, 1882, due to insufficient funds. At that time, water was allowed to fill the unfinished tunnel. On March 20, 1883, the air compressors were turned back on and the tunnel was drained with the resumption of work. This continued for the next four months until July 20, 1883, when it was stopped once again due to a lack of funds. By that time, about of the northern tube and about of the southern tube had been constructed.
British attempt
In 1888, an unnamed British company attempted to finish the Morton Street Tunnel; it employed James Henry Greathead as a consulting engineer and S. Pearson & Son as principal contractors. S. Pearson & Son subsequently acquired the project's construction contract from Haskin's company. The unnamed British company advertised bonds in England in 1889 to raise money for construction. Following another blowout in 1890, the company turned to shield tunneling. The firm used a new device developed by Greathead, a pneumatic shield called the "Greathead Shield", to extend the tunnel by . With a concentration of rock directly underneath the clay riverbed, the tube was aligned to pass directly above it, with very little clearance. To maintain sufficient air pressure inside, S. Pearson & Son decided to place a silt layer of at least above the tube. The silt layer was then removed after the tubes were finished, allowing each tube to maintain its own air pressure.
S. Pearson & Son were unable to finish the tubes because they had also run out of funds by 1891. Work stopped completely in 1892 after the company had completed another of digging. By this point, the pair of tubes had been dug from both sides of the river. The northern tube extended from the New Jersey shore and from the New York shore, with a gap of between the two ends of the tube. The southern tube had only been excavated from the New Jersey shore and from the New York shore. The construction company was foreclosed upon during 1898, and the bondholders took possession of the tunnel.
McAdoo attempt
In 1901, lawyer and future statesman William Gibbs McAdoo casually mentioned the idea of a Hudson River tunnel to a fellow lawyer, John Randolph Dos Passos, who had invested in the original tunneling project. From this conversation, McAdoo learned about the unfinished Morton Street Tunnel effort. He went on to explore it with Charles M. Jacobs, an engineer who helped build New York City's first underwater tunnel in 1894 under the East River, and who had also worked on the unfinished tunnel. McAdoo and consulting engineer J. Vipond Davies both believed that the existing work was still salvageable. McAdoo formed the New York and Jersey Tunnel Company in 1902, raising $8.5 million in capital stock for the company.
Unlike the North River Tunnels upstream, which would carry intercity and commuter trains when they opened in 1910, the Morton Street Tunnel was intended to carry only trolleys or rapid transit, which used smaller trains. This, in turn, allowed the Morton Street Tunnel to be smaller and less expensive. Originally, McAdoo only intended to complete the northern tube, which was further along in the construction process. Afterward, he would operate a narrow-gauge railway with two small carriages going back and forth within that single tube. However, amid worsening ferry congestion at Cortlandt Street Ferry Depot in Lower Manhattan, McAdoo ultimately devised a plan for a network of train lines connecting New Jersey and New York City. The Morton Street Tunnel became known as the Uptown Hudson Tubes, complementing a pair of downtown tunnels that McAdoo had planned to connect Jersey City with Lower Manhattan. The idea for the downtown tunnels was actually conceived by another company, the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad Corporation (H&M), in 1903, but McAdoo's New York and Jersey Railroad Company was interested in the H&M's plans as well.
The new effort to complete the Uptown Hudson Tubes, led by chief engineer Charles M. Jacobs, employed a different method of tunneling using tubular cast iron plating and a tunneling shield at the excavation site. The large mechanically-jacked shield was pushed through the silt at the bottom of the river, and the silt went through the bulkhead of the shield, which faced the portion of the tunnel that had already been dug. The bulkhead contained a pressurized air lock in order to avoid sudden blowouts, such as had occurred during the original construction. The air pressure was maintained at . The excavated mud was then carted away to the surface using battery-operated electric locomotives running on a temporary narrow-gauge railway. In some cases, the silt would be baked with kerosene torches to facilitate easier removal of the mud. The cast iron lining would then be placed on the tunnel wall immediately after the shield had been pushed through, so that no silt could be seen on the tube wall behind the shield's bulkhead. These iron plates were then bolted shut to prevent leakages, as well as to maintain low air pressure in the tunnel. McAdoo later noted that the Uptown Hudson Tubes effort was the first project where machines, rather than workers, carted out the excess silt.
Because of the previous work on the Morton Street Tunnel, the tunnel project was already half complete a year after McAdoo's company started digging. By 1903, the gap was only a few feet wide between the two sections of the northern tube. As a result, the tubular cast iron and tunneling shield method was mostly used on the southern tube. For the southern tube, the tunneling shield progressed from the New Jersey side. Some difficulties arose during the completion of the northern tube. The company had to use dynamite to tunnel through a hard reef on the Manhattan side, which was only above the intended grade of the tunnel. In addition, an explosion killed one worker. The two parts of the northern tube were connected on March 11, 1904, accompanied by a large celebration that involved a group of 20 men walking through the completed tube from end to end.
Completion and franchise
By the end of 1904, the New York and Jersey Railroad Company had received permission from the New York City Board of Rapid Transit Commissioners to build a new subway line through Midtown Manhattan, which would connect with the Uptown Hudson Tubes; the company received the sole rights to operate this line for a duration of 25 years. The Midtown Manhattan line would travel eastward under Christopher Street before turning northeastward under Sixth Avenue, then continue underneath Sixth Avenue to a terminus at 33rd Street. The New York City Board of Aldermen expressed that the line could be extended further north to Central Park in the future. The New York and Jersey Railroad had previously submitted a bid for a Sixth Avenue subway line, but it was refused because Sixth Avenue was a major north–south road. The Rapid Transit Board changed its decision after Sixth Avenue property owners expressed opposition to the rejection.
McAdoo's company was also given perpetual rights to build and operate an east–west crosstown line under Christopher Street and Ninth Street eastward to either Second Avenue or Astor Place, with no intermediate stops. The Ninth Street tunnel would be constructed only after the completion of the other lines. The crosstown line was only excavated about ; the partly completed crosstown tube still exists. In January 1905, the Hudson Companies was incorporated for the purpose of completing the Uptown Hudson Tubes and constructing the Sixth Avenue line. The company, which was contracted to construct the Uptown Hudson Tubes' subway tunnel connections on each side of the river, had a capital of $21 million to complete the project.
The Hudson and Manhattan Railroad Company (H&M) was incorporated in December 1906 to operate a passenger railroad system between New York and New Jersey via the Uptown and Downtown Hudson Tubes. The Downtown Hudson Tubes, located about south of the first pair, had started construction by that point, and would ultimately open in July 1909. Digging for the Uptown Hudson Tubes was completed in 1907, after 33 years of intermittent effort; they were celebrated as the first non-waterborne link between Manhattan and New Jersey. Work continued to finish off the interior of the tubes. The finishing touches included the addition of a concrete lining, which replaced the original brick lining, as well as laying tracks and electric third rails; this took an additional year to complete. The stations on the Manhattan side were also completed during this time. Test runs of trains without passengers started through the tunnels in late 1907; the Hudson Companies tested its rolling stock on the Second Avenue Elevated, then delivered the trains to the Uptown Hudson Tubes for further testing.
Operation
Service begins
A trial run, carrying a party of officials, dignitaries, and news reporters, ran on February 15, 1908. The first "official" passenger train, which was also open only to officials and dignitaries, left 19th Street on February 25, 1908, at 3:40 p.m., and arrived at Hoboken Terminal ten minutes later. The tubes opened to the general public at midnight the next day, at which point the tubes had taken more than three decades to construct. At the time, three more stations at 23rd Street, 28th Street, and 33rd Street were under construction, and there were plans to extend the H&M line northeast to Grand Central Terminal, at Park Avenue and 42nd Street.
In the coming years, many businesses moved to Sixth Avenue, along the route of the Uptown Hudson Tubes, while commuters moved to New Jersey to take advantage of the 10-minute commute to Manhattan. New office buildings were also developed around Hoboken Terminal. The 23rd Street station opened on June 15, 1908. Trains to 23rd Street initially used the eastern tube between 19th and 23rd Streets. The western tube opened on November 10, 1910, and the extension to 33rd Street also opened at that time. H&M officials celebrated the completion of the line to 33rd Street with a luncheon at the Hotel Martinique at Herald Square.
On July 19, 1909, service via the downtown tubes commenced between Hudson Terminal in Lower Manhattan and Exchange Place in Jersey City. By this time, the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT) had become a viable competitor, with a proposal to connect its Lexington Avenue line to the H&M at three locations: Fulton Street, Astor Place, and Grand Central–42nd Street. The Sixth Avenue portion of the H&M line also competed with the IRT's Sixth Avenue elevated, which extended both north of 33rd Street and south of 9th Street. Passengers along the uptown branch initially paid a flat fare of 5 cents. In 1911, H&M officials voted to raise fares to 7 cents for passengers traveling between the uptown branch and New Jersey. Passengers traveling between any two stations on the uptown branch, as well as passengers heading to Hudson Terminal, continued to pay 5 cents. In 1920, the fare between New Jersey and the uptown branch was raised to 10 cents, while passengers heading to Hudson Terminal paid 6 cents.
Proposed Grand Central extension
The original plans for the Uptown Hudson Tubes called for a terminal at 33rd Street under the Gimbels department store, now Manhattan Mall. During construction, the plan was changed so the 33rd Street station was directly under Sixth Avenue, providing for a future northward extension. This northward extension, which McAdoo had proposed by 1910, called for the Uptown Hudson Tubes to run under Sixth Avenue to 42nd Street, where they would curve east under the IRT's 42nd Street Line and terminate at Park Avenue. This would have created an easy connection to Grand Central Terminal, which was under construction at the time. There would be two intermediate stops at 39th Street/Sixth Avenue and 42nd Street/Fifth Avenue.
The proposed extension to Grand Central soon encountered problems. At Grand Central, the H&M platforms would be directly below the 42nd Street Line's platforms, but above the IRT's Steinway Tunnel that carried the Flushing Line to Queens. However, the IRT had constructed an unauthorized ventilation shaft between the 42nd Street line and the Steinway Tunnel; this would force the H&M to build its station at a very low depth, making it relatively harder for passengers to access the H&M station. As an alternative, the city's Utilities Board proposed connecting the Uptown Hudson Tubes to the Steinway Tunnel.
A franchise to extend the Uptown Hudson Tubes to Grand Central was awarded in June 1909, with the expectation that construction would start within six months and that the extension would be operational by January 1911. However, by February 1910, financing had only been secured to complete the 33rd Street terminal, and not for the Grand Central extension. By 1914, the H&M had not started construction of the Grand Central extension, and it requested to delay the start of construction for at least two more months. The Rapid Transit Commissioners had determined that the Ninth Street crosstown spur was unlikely to be built soon, so permission to build the Ninth Street tunnel was denied. By 1920, the H&M had submitted seventeen applications in which they sought to delay construction of the extension to Grand Central; in all seventeen instances, the H&M claimed that it was not an appropriate time to construct the tube. On its seventeenth application, the Rapid Transit Commissioners declined the request for a delay, effectively ending the H&M's right to build an extension to Grand Central.
Reconfiguration underneath Sixth Avenue
In 1924, the city-operated Independent Subway System (IND) submitted its list of proposed subway routes to the New York City Board of Transportation. One of the proposed routes, the Sixth Avenue Line, ran parallel to the Uptown Hudson Tubes from Ninth to 33rd streets. At first, the city intended to take over the portion of the Uptown Hudson Tubes under Sixth Avenue for IND use, then build a pair of new tunnels for the H&M directly underneath it. With the IND committed to building the Sixth Avenue line, and the H&M's 33rd Street terminal located both above and below preexisting railroad tunnels, the IND preferred to acquire the tubes. However, the H&M objected, and negotiations between the city, IND, and H&M continued until 1929.
The IND and H&M finally came to an agreement in 1930. The city had decided to build the IND Sixth Avenue Line's local tracks around the pre-existing H&M tubes, and add express tracks for the IND underneath the H&M tubes at a later date. However, the city still planned to eventually take over the H&M tracks, convert them to express tracks for the IND line, then build a lower level for the H&M. As part of the construction of the IND line, the H&M's 14th Street and 23rd Street stations had to be rebuilt to provide space for the IND's 14th Street and 23rd Street stations, which would be located at a similar elevation. The 19th Street station was not affected because the IND tracks were located below the H&M tracks at that point.
The 33rd Street terminal closed on December 26, 1937, and service on the H&M was cut back to 28th Street to allow for construction on the subway to take place. A temporary 29th Street entrance was installed at the 28th Street station. The 33rd Street terminal was moved south to 32nd Street and reopened on September 24, 1939. The city paid $800,000 to build the new 33rd Street station and reimbursed H&M another $300,000 for the loss of revenue. The 28th Street station was subsequently closed because the southern entrances to the 33rd Street terminal were located only two blocks away, rendering the 28th Street stop unnecessary. It was demolished to make room for the IND tracks below. The IND line opened in December 1940; it replaced the Sixth Avenue elevated, which was closed in December 1938 and demolished soon after.
Later years
The 19th Street station was closed in 1954. The only entrance to the station's westbound platform had been located inside a building, whose owner canceled the lease for the station entrance. The H&M determined that constructing a new entrance would be too expensive given the proximity of the 14th Street station. In 1962, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey took over the H&M's operations, and the H&M system was rebranded as the PATH.
In 1961, as part of the Chrystie Street Connection and DeKalb Avenue Junction projects, the city began building a pair of express tracks for the IND Sixth Avenue Line. Although the tracks were located below ground level, they were directly underneath the portion of the Uptown Hudson Tubes that ran along Sixth Avenue; their ceilings located just beneath the bottom of the tubes. Service on the Uptown Hudson Tubes was suspended for five days in 1962 when it was discovered that builders constructing the express tunnels had drilled to an "unsafe" margin of underneath. The express tracks opened in 1967.
In 1986, the New Jersey-bound platform at 14th Street and both platforms of Christopher Street were closed for three months for renovations. Due to positive train control installation on the Uptown Hudson Tubes, service through the tubes was mostly suspended on weekends from July to October 2018.
Awards
The Uptown and Downtown Hudson Tubes were declared a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1978 by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Additionally, the coal-fired Hudson and Manhattan Railroad Powerhouse, which generated electricity to run the Hudson tube trains, was built in 1906–1908. The powerhouse stopped generating in 1929, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 23, 2001.
See also
Hudson and Manhattan Railroad Powerhouse
List of bridges, tunnels, and cuts in Hudson County, New Jersey
North River Tunnels (Pennsylvania Railroad)
Timeline of Jersey City area railroads
Notes
References
Further reading
Progress of the Great Railway Tunnels Under the Hudson River between New York and New Jersey City Scientific American, November 1, 1890
Railroad tunnels in New Jersey
Railroad tunnels in New York City
Crossings of the Hudson River
PATH (rail system)
Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks
Tunnels completed in 1908
1908 establishments in New Jersey
1908 establishments in New York City
Tunnels in Manhattan
Tunnels in Hudson County, New Jersey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron%20Jeremy
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Ron Jeremy
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Ronald Jeremy Hyatt (born March 12, 1953) is an American writer and former pornographic actor.
Nicknamed "The Hedgehog", Jeremy was ranked by AVN at No. 1 in their "50 Top Porn Stars of All Time" list. Jeremy has also made a number of non-pornographic media appearances, and director Scott J. Gill filmed a documentary about him and his legacy, Porn Star: The Legend of Ron Jeremy, which was released on November 30, 2001 worldwide and on home media and digital download on March 25, 2003.
Jeremy has been accused of sexual assault more than a dozen times over the years. In June 2020, Jeremy was charged with four counts of rape and sexual assault involving four women, and in August 2020, he was charged with another 20 counts of either rape or sexual assault over a span of 16 years from 2004 to 2020 that involved 12 women and a 15-year-old girl. Upon further investigation he was indicted on 30 sexual-assault counts involving 21 victims, and as a result he was jailed while awaiting trial. In January 2023, he was found by the court to be mentally unfit to stand trial due to "incurable neurocognitive decline".
Early life
Ronald Jeremy Hyatt was born in Queens, New York City, to a middle-class Jewish family from Russia and Poland. His father, Arnold (born 1918), was a physicist and professor at Queens College, CUNY, and his mother a book editor who had served in the O.S.S. during World War II, as she spoke fluent German and French.
He graduated from Benjamin N. Cardozo High School. After high school, Jeremy attended Queen's College, CUNY, where he majored in theater and education as an undergraduate and completed a master's degree.
Pornographic film career
Jeremy left the teaching profession (he called it his "ace in the hole") to pursue a legitimate acting career on Broadway. He has said that he learned then what it was like to be broke, making no money as an actor who "starved Off-Broadway". Jeremy soon found work posing for Playgirl after his then-girlfriend submitted his photo to the magazine. Jeremy utilized this opportunity as a springboard into the adult film industry, which he viewed as a reliable means of supporting himself.
Jeremy had the nickname "The Hedgehog" bestowed upon him by fellow porn actor William Margold in 1979 after a situation on the set of the porn film Olympic Fever. Jeremy flew in from New York to shoot the movie. Expecting warm California weather, he wore only a T-shirt and shorts and brought no additional clothing. During the long motorcycle ride to the set, located near Lake Arrowhead, in the California mountains, the weather deteriorated to blizzard conditions, which chilled him to the point of near hypothermia. Upon arriving at the set, Jeremy was immediately whisked away to thaw out in a hot shower. When he finished, his skin had taken on a pinkish hue from the temperature extremes, and all the many hairs on his body were standing on end. Margold's comment upon seeing Jeremy at that moment was "You are a hedgehog, my friend. A walking, talking hedgehog." Contrary to popular belief, the nickname had nothing to do with his weight, as he was quite physically fit at the time.
Jeremy is listed in the Guinness Book of World Records for "Most Appearances in Adult Films"; his entry on the Internet Adult Film Database lists more than 2,000 films in which he has performed, and an additional 285 films which he directed. By way of comparison, John Holmes, the next highest-ranked male star on the AVN Top 50 porn stars, has 384 acting credits listed on the IAFD.
One joke that made the rounds within the industry at the time was "the kinkier acts some actresses would not perform were bestiality, sadomasochism, and sex with Jeremy" because he had an atypical appearance for a porn star.
In 2006, Jeremy began a series of debates on pornography opposing Pastor Craig Gross, founder of anti-pornography website XXXchurch.com, visiting various U.S. and Canada college campuses as part of the "Porn Debate Tour".
Non-pornographic appearances
Film
Outside the adult film industry, Jeremy worked as a "special consultant" for the 1986 film 9½ Weeks. He appears in the 1996 horror film They Bite in a role making a film-within-a-film (Invasion of the Fishfuckers) – another horror film, both in the same vein as Humanoids from the Deep. He also served as a consultant on the 1997 film Boogie Nights—which chronicled the emergence of the fictional porn star Dirk Diggler (Mark Wahlberg, loosely based on the life of porn star John Holmes, who had been a co-worker of Jeremy's)—and the movie The Chase, in which he has a small cameo as a news cameraman. He played the monster "Blisterface" in ABC's children's show Bone Chillers. He also appeared in the 1999 film The Boondock Saints, played a bartender in 2002's Spun and acted in 2003's Zombiegeddon. He was an extra in Ghostbusters, played a male strip-club announcer in Detroit Rock City, and had a cameo in Killing Zoe and in the porn spoof, Orgazmo. In addition, he appeared in several productions released by Troma Entertainment, such as Terror Firmer, Citizen Toxie: The Toxic Avenger IV, Poultrygeist and Tales from the Crapper.
He was the subject of a feature-length biographical documentary, Porn Star: The Legend of Ron Jeremy, released in 2001 and widely distributed on DVD by mainstream retailers. In that same year he is briefly seen on the heavy metal band Fear Factory's DVD Digital Connectivity. In 2003, Jeremy appeared as himself in, and lent his name to, the comedy film Being Ron Jeremy, a parody of Being John Malkovich. Jeremy is a frequent interviewee in documentaries about the porn industry, or related subjects such as Fuck: A Fuckumentary.
He was featured in the music video "The Plot to Bomb the Panhandle" by A Day to Remember in 2007 from their CD entitled For Those Who Have Heart. In 2007, he appeared in the comedy film Finishing the Game as himself. Jeremy starred in 2008 in the erotic horror film I Am Virgin, which was released in 2010.
Jeremy has a cameo in Crank: High Voltage, playing himself as a protester angry at the low salaries porn stars get. Another 2009 cameo was in "Stripper: Natasha Kizmet". He once again appears as himself in the 2009 release One-Eyed Monster, a horror film parody predicated on the premise that an alien force takes over Jeremy's penis and begins killing people in the woods.
Jeremy is the Lead Antagonist/League Owner in the sports comedy Tetherball: The Movie and appeared in the western comedy Big Money Rustlas featuring Insane Clown Posse in 2010.
Television
In 1980, Jeremy competed on the game show Wheel of Fortune, using his real last name, as Ron Hyatt. Among his winnings was a trip to Mazatlán.
Jeremy appeared in the second season of The Surreal Life, during which he developed a close friendship with Tammy Faye Bakker despite her devout Christianity and disapproval of pornography, and returned to the franchise for the ninth season of The Surreal Life: Fame Games, in which he finished second to Traci Bingham on the season finale, which aired on March 25, 2007. Jeremy also appeared in a segment on Comedy Central's Chappelle's Show. Additionally, he made appearances on Penn and Teller's Bullshit! in episodes regarding penis enlargement and circumcision. In 2005, he appeared on the UK reality TV show, The Farm. Jeremy also made a brief cameo on Lewis Black's Root of All Evil, in the episode "YouTube VS Porn", in a short segment where people on the street were shown a video of hardcore pornography, and Jeremy was the only one disgusted by the video.
Jeremy was seen in the Robot Chicken episode, "A Piece of the Action", in which he was voiced by Michael Benyaer. In the episode, he and several others parody The Surreal Life and The Lord of the Rings. The segment lampoons his penis size by having his character unseat a knight on horseback using nothing but his erect penis. Jeremy appeared as himself in the 2001 Family Guy episode "Brian Does Hollywood", in which he is a presenter at an adult industry award show in which Brian Griffin is a nominee. Comedian Kathy Griffin went on a date with him in the third season of her reality show, Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List. Jeremy has also appeared in a part on the Comedy Central show Tosh.0.
In 2003, Jeremy appeared on The Frank Skinner Show and performed a duet ("I Got You Babe") with former Cabinet minister Mo Mowlam. Jeremy appeared on Chappelle's Show as himself in a spoof called "What if the Internet was a real place?", in which he asks Dave Chappelle if he would like to see some of his films. Jeremy also appeared as a guest commentator on the Fox News Channel late-night news and comedy talk show Red Eye w/ Greg Gutfeld in 2007. In the "Super Karate Monkey Death Car" episode of Newsradio, Jeremy can be seen sitting in the audience at Jimmy James's reading, along with Brian Posehn. Jeremy appeared in Tosh.0 as the falling prom girl's date. Jeremy appeared on Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations, as himself, in Bourdain's "Food Porn" (Season 5) and "Food Porn 2" (Season 6) episodes. Jeremy appeared on Silent Library in 2010. In the show, he was the "Mystery Creature" that was concealed underneath a sheet in a cage, the contestant has to feed him carrots while being blindfolded.
Music
Jeremy has appeared in videos by Sublime, Mercury Rev, Moby, Insane Clown Posse, Kid Rock, LMFAO, Everclear, Sam Kinison, Guns N' Roses, Mad Yellow Sun, Los Umbrellos, XXX Rottweiler Hundar (Icelandic), the Radioactive Chicken Heads, A Day To Remember, Escape The Fate, Christina Linhardt, Necro, Flight of the Conchords, My Darkest Days, Armin Van Buuren, Loud Luxury, The Meices, and Steel Panther. In addition, he released a rap single called "Freak of the Week" which peaked at 95 on the Billboard rap charts; a music video for this was also produced. Jeremy introduced Boston ska punk band Big D and the Kids Table at the 2011 and 2013 Vans Warped Tour in Carson, California, and Ventura, California, respectively, and also appeared in their new video for the song "One Day". In 2001, he made a small appearance in industrial/groove metal band Fear Factory's DVD Digital Connectivity, where he welcomes the viewer, in the "Digimortal" portion of the DVD, "to the world of Fear Factory". In 2008, Brooklyn rap artist Necro featured Ron as well as Jack Napier, Rebeca Linares, and several others for the videos "Who's Ya Daddy" and "I Wanna F**k". In 2011, he appeared in LMFAO's music video for the song "Sexy And I Know It". In 2011, he also appeared on the rap group Bankrupt Records album Double Vision on the skit "The Ron Jeremy Call".
In 2012, he appeared in Canadian rock band My Darkest Days music video for their song "Casual Sex". In 2013, he appeared in the music video for the song "This Is What It Feels Like" by famous DJ Armin van Buuren, later in the year he appeared in a parody of the music video for Miley Cyrus's "Wrecking Ball" by YouTuber Bart Baker.
Video games
Jeremy was featured as a playable character in the 2003 video game Celebrity Deathmatch video game. His image was used as a fairy in the 2004 video game Leisure Suit Larry: Magna Cum Laude, in which he gives tips and advice to the main character. Jeremy also stars in the 2008 video game BoneTown as the king of Bonetown and sex god. Jeremy appears in the 2011 video game Postal III as Raul Chomo, the mayor of the fictional town of Catharsis, Arizona.
Video
Jeremy appeared in a series of viral video spoofs for video sharing website Heavy.com. The videos lampooned include Britney Spears, lonelygirl15, Little Superstar and others. In 2007 he had a cameo appearance in "The Plot to Bomb the Panhandle" video, by the band A Day to Remember. In addition, Jeremy appeared on an episode of Gorgeous Tiny Chicken Machine Show, titled "Pamous Movie Star".
In January 2009, Jeremy appeared with David Faustino (Bud Bundy from Married... with Children) in an episode of Faustino's show Star-ving, which airs on Crackle, as does the Gorgeous Tiny Chicken Machine Show. In June 2009, he did a cameo in the music video "10 Miles Wide" by Escape The Fate, along with Dennis Hof and other adult video performers. In December 2010, Jeremy starred in the Break.com video Tron Jeremy, a parody of the film Tron: Legacy. In October 2013, Jeremy appeared in Bart Baker's parody of Miley Cyrus's "Wrecking Ball".
Books
Jeremy released his memoir, titled Ron Jeremy: The Hardest (Working) Man in Showbiz, in February 2007. The book was published by HarperCollins.
Businesses
In June 2009, Jeremy and business partner Paul Smith opened Ron Jeremy's Club Sesso, a swingers nightclub located in the financial district of downtown Portland, Oregon. The club was closed on June 20, 2015, over legal problems with the city.
Jeremy is also involved in the marketing of a line of rum "Ron de Jeremy" to which he lent his name ("ron" being Spanish for "rum"). Television ads for the rum featuring Jeremy proclaim that it's rum "Ron Style".
Personal life and health
On January 29, 2013, Jeremy drove himself to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center after experiencing severe chest pain. Doctors discovered an aneurysm near his heart and he was operated on the following day. Three weeks later, he was released from the hospital.
It was reported in early 2023 by the Daily Beast that Jeremy suffered from "severe dementia", as determined by mental health experts at Jeremy's sexual assault trial.
Sexual assault allegations
More than a dozen women have publicly accused Jeremy of sexual assault. Several of the allegations relate to his appearances at fan conventions, alleging that he would grope and insert his fingers into attendees without their consent. The organizers of the Exxxotica national adult conventions permanently banned Jeremy from their shows in October 2017 after a June 2017 social media campaign by webcam model Ginger Banks. Due to the allegations, the Free Speech Coalition, an industry trade group, rescinded its Positive Image Award, which it had presented to him in 2009.
In June 2020, Jeremy was charged with four counts of rape and sexual assault by the Los Angeles County District Attorney's Office. Jeremy was accused of raping a 25-year-old woman at a home in West Hollywood in May 2014. He also allegedly sexually assaulted two women, ages 33 and 46, on separate occasions at a West Hollywood bar in 2017, and is accused of raping a 30-year-old woman at the same bar in July 2019. Many of the alleged assaults occurred at the Rainbow Bar and Grill where Jeremy was a regular. Owner of Golden Artists Entertainment, Dante Rusciolelli, announced they were dropping Jeremy as a client following the charges. On June 27, Jeremy pleaded not guilty to all charges. Jeremy posted his response to the charges on Twitter saying: "I am innocent of all charges. I can't wait to prove my innocence in court! Thank you to everyone for all the support."
Three days after Jeremy was initially charged, prosecutors said they had an additional 25 allegations of misconduct involving Jeremy had been made, 13 of which had occurred in Los Angeles County. Subsequently, six additional women who worked in the adult entertainment industry came forward stating that Jeremy had raped or abused them. In July 2020, a law enforcement official confirmed that the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department had received 30 new allegations of forcible rape and groping against Jeremy involving incidents that took place in Los Angeles County since 2000.
In August 2020, Los Angeles prosecutors filed 20 further counts against Jeremy, including charges of rape, sexual assault, sodomy, and forcible penetration by foreign object. The charges involved 12 different women ranging in age from 15 to 54 years old in incidents from 2004 to 2020. One woman stated that Jeremy sexually assaulted her at a party in Santa Clarita in June 2004 when she was 15. The most recent incident is said to have occurred on January 1, 2020, when a 21-year-old woman said that Jeremy sexually assaulted her outside of a business in Hollywood. Six other women accused Jeremy of sexually assaulting them inside a West Hollywood bar he frequented, and another woman said that he assaulted her in the bar’s parking lot. Jeremy, who originally had bail set at $6.6 million when first charged in June, was placed into custody at Twin Towers Correctional Facility. On August 25, 2021, he was indicted on a total of 30 sexual-assault counts involving 21 women.
The BBC documentary Ron Jeremy: Fall of a Porn Icon charting the history of allegations against Ron Jeremy and featuring interviews with some of Ron Jeremy's alleged victims, including porn actresses Ginger Banks and Tana Lee, premiered in November 2021.
On March 17, 2022, Jeremy's trial was suspended pending a mental health examination, after Jeremy was reported to be "incoherent" and unable to recognize his own lawyer, and was subsequently transferred to a mental health facility.
On January 17, 2023, Jeremy was found by the judge to be mentally unfit to stand trial due to "incurable neurocognitive decline". A hearing was scheduled for February 2023 on whether to transfer Jeremy to a state-run hospital.
On February 8, 2023, Jeremy was committed to a state mental health facility in California after being found incompetent to stand trial on rape and other charges, with a progress report hearing scheduled for May 8, 2023. Per California law, Greg Risling, a spokesperson for the Los Angeles district attorney's office, stated that Jeremy can be committed for up to two years.
On August 21, 2023, a lawsuit was filed by two women against the Rainbow Bar and Grill. The women alleged that employees knew Jeremy sexually assaulted women there, including themselves, and allowed him to do so.
Filmography
Awards
1983 AFAA Award – Best Supporting Actor (Suzie Superstar)
1984 AFAA Award – Best Supporting Actor Award (All the way in)
1986 AVN Award – Best Supporting Actor—Film (Candy Stripers II)
1991 AVN Award – Best Supporting Actor—Video (Playin' Dirty)
2004 AFWG Award – Crossover Performer of the Year
2004 FICEB Award – Best Actor (The Magic Sex Genie – International film group)
2006 F.A.M.E. Award – Favorite Adult Actor
See also
Golden Age of Porn
Porn Star: The Legend of Ron Jeremy
Bibliography
Ron Jeremy: The Hardest (Working) Man in Showbiz. Memoir, published in February 2007, by HarperCollins.
References
External links
Ron Jeremy profile in The New York Observer
Audio Interview w/ 'The Rafferty/Mills Connection' (2009)
World News, Jennifer Abbott, Director interviews Ron Jeremy
1953 births
Living people
Jewish American male actors
American male pornographic film actors
Participants in American reality television series
Pornographic film actors from New York (state)
Actors from Queens, New York
Queens College, City University of New York alumni
Contestants on American game shows
People from Bayside, Queens
American stand-up comedians
American male comedians
21st-century American comedians
Jewish American male comedians
People detained in psychiatric hospitals
People stripped of awards
21st-century American Jews
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barney%20Frank
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Barney Frank
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Barnett Frank (born March 31, 1940) is a former American politician. He served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts from 1981 to 2013. A Democrat, Frank served as chairman of the House Financial Services Committee from 2007 to 2011 and was a leading co-sponsor of the 2010 Dodd–Frank Act. Frank, a resident of Newton, Massachusetts, was considered the most prominent gay politician in the United States during his time in Congress.
Born and raised in Bayonne, New Jersey, Frank graduated from Bayonne High School, Harvard College and Harvard Law School. He worked as a political aide before winning election to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1972. He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1980 with 52 percent of the vote. He was re-elected every term thereafter by wide margins. In 1987, he publicly came out as gay, becoming the first member of Congress to do so voluntarily. From 2003 until his retirement, Frank was the leading Democrat on the House Financial Services Committee, and he served as committee chairman when his party held a House majority from 2007 to 2011. In July 2012, he married his long-time partner, James Ready, becoming the first member of Congress to marry someone of the same sex while in office. Frank did not seek re-election in 2012, and was succeeded by fellow Democrat Joe Kennedy III. Frank's autobiography, A Life in Politics from the Great Society to Same-Sex Marriage, was published in 2015.
Prior to his time in the House of Representatives, Frank served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1973 to 1981.
Early life, education, and early career
Frank was born in Bayonne, New Jersey, one of four children of Elsie (née Golush) and Samuel Frank. His family was Jewish, and his grandparents had emigrated from Poland and Russia. Frank's father ran a truck stop in Jersey City—a place Frank has described as "totally corrupt"—and when Frank was 6 or 7, his father served a year in prison for refusing to testify to a grand jury against Frank's uncle. Frank was educated at Bayonne High School, before matriculating at Harvard College, where he resided in Matthews Hall his first year and then in Kirkland House and Winthrop House. He graduated in 1962.
Frank's undergraduate studies were interrupted by the death of his father, and Frank took a year off to help resolve the family's affairs prior to his graduation. In 1964, he was a volunteer in Mississippi during Freedom Summer. He taught undergraduates at Harvard while studying for a PhD in Government, but left in 1968 before completing the degree, to become Boston mayor Kevin White's Chief Assistant, a position he held for three years. He then served for a year as Administrative Assistant to Congressman Michael J. Harrington. In 1977, Frank graduated from Harvard Law School, where he was once a student of Henry Kissinger, while serving as a Massachusetts state representative.
Pre-congressional career
In 1972, Frank was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives where he served for eight years.
He made a name for himself in the mid-1970s as a political defender of the Combat Zone, Boston's notorious red light district. Neighborhoods in Frank's district bordered the Combat Zone. As a means of dealing with crime in the area (including violence, police corruption and the infiltration by organized crime), he introduced a bill into the Massachusetts General Court that would have legalized the sex-for-hire business but kept it quarantined in a red light district, which would have been moved to Boston's Financial District. The bill, which had the support of Boston's Police Commissioner, never came up for a vote. Later, when Frank was running for Congress, opponents erroneously portrayed him as having attempted to permit red-light districts in all Bay State communities.
In 1979, Frank was admitted to the bar in Massachusetts. While in state and local government, he taught, part-time, at the University of Massachusetts Boston, the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard, and at Boston University. He published numerous articles on politics and public affairs; in 1992, he published Speaking Frankly, an essay on the role the Democratic Party should play in the 1990s.
U.S. House of Representatives
Elections
In 1980, Frank ran for the U.S. House of Representatives in the 4th congressional district, hoping to succeed Reverend Robert Drinan, who had left Congress, following a call by Pope John Paul II for priests to withdraw from political positions. In the Democratic primary held on September 16, 1980, Frank won 52% of the vote in a four-candidate field. As the Democratic nominee, he faced Republican Richard A. Jones in the general election and won narrowly, 52–48%.
For his first term, Frank represented a district in the western and southern suburbs of Boston, anchored by Brookline and his hometown of Newton. However, in 1982, redistricting forced him to run against Republican Margaret Heckler, who represented a district centered on the South Coast, including Fall River and New Bedford. Although the newly configured district retained Frank's district number—the 4th—it was geographically more Heckler's district. Frank focused on Heckler's initial support for President Ronald Reagan's tax cuts, and won with 60% of the vote.
Frank did not face another serious race again for a quarter-century. From 1984 to 2008, he won re-election 12 times with at least 67% of the vote. In 1994, 1998, 2002, 2006, Frank won with more than an overwhelming 97% of the vote, with no challenge from a major political party.
In 2010, Frank ran for his 16th term. Public opinion polling showed him facing his first credible challenge since defeating Heckler in 1982. His opponent was Republican Sean Bielat, a U.S. Marine veteran and businessman. In mid-September, an internal poll showed Frank leading 48–38%. In late October, he loaned his campaign $200,000. In early October, The Cook Political Report changed its assessment of the district from "solid Democratic" to "likely Democratic"—meaning that while Frank was favored, a victory by Bielat could not be entirely ruled out. While Frank had a 3-to-1 advantage in terms of cash on hand, Bielat outraised him in September. On October 25, a survey by The Boston Globe showed Frank leading 46–33%. Frank won re-election to his 16th term, 54–43%.
On November 28, 2011, Frank announced at a news conference that he would not seek re-election in 2012.
Tenure
Scandal
In 1985, Frank was still publicly closeted. That year he hired Steve Gobie, a male prostitute, for sex, and they became "more friends than sexual partners." Frank housed Gobie and hired him with personal funds as an aide, housekeeper and driver and paid for his attorney and court-ordered psychiatrist.
In 1987, Frank evicted Gobie after being advised by his landlord that Gobie kept escorting despite the support and was doing so in the residence. Later that year, Gobie's friends persuaded him that he had a gay male version of Mayflower Madam, a TV movie about an escort service. In 1989, Gobie tried to initiate a bidding war for the story between WUSA-TV (Channel 9), The Washington Times, and The Washington Post. He then gave the story to The Washington Times for nothing, in hopes of getting a book contract.
Amid calls for an investigation, Frank asked the House Ethics Committee to investigate his relationship "in order to ensure that the public record is clear." The Committee found no evidence that Frank had known of or been involved in the alleged illegal activity and dismissed all Gobie's more scandalous claims; they recommended a reprimand for Frank using his congressional office to fix 33 of Gobie's parking tickets and for misstatements of fact in a memorandum relating to Gobie's criminal probation record. The House voted 408–18 to reprimand Frank.
The attempts to censure and expel Frank were led by Republican Larry Craig (whom Frank later criticized for hypocrisy after Craig's own arrest in 2007 for "propositioning an undercover cop in a Minneapolis-St. Paul airport bathroom"). Despite the controversy, Frank won re-election in 1990 with 66 percent of the vote, and by larger margins until the 2010 mid-term elections when his victory margin went down to eleven points.
In 2003, a documentary film about Barney Frank entitled Let's Get Frank was released. The documentary recounted Barney Frank's struggle coming out in public and political life as a prominent gay man, the height of which was his reprimand following the Gobie scandal, and documented Frank's dedicated defense of U.S. President Bill Clinton during his impeachment trial in January and February 1999.
Public image
Frank is known for his quick wit and rapid-fire speaking style. In one quip, he said he was unable to complete his review of the Starr Report detailing President Bill Clinton's relationship with Monica Lewinsky, complaining that it was "too much reading about heterosexual sex". In 2004 and again in 2006, a survey of Capitol Hill staffers published in Washingtonian gave Frank the title of the "brainiest", "funniest", and "most eloquent" member of the House. In 2008, the same survey named him "brainiest", and runner up for "workhorse", and "most eloquent"; in 2010, he was named "brainiest", "workhorse", and "funniest". He is also widely considered to have been, during his tenure, one of the most powerful members of Congress. Democratic speech writer Josh Gottheimer, in his book Ripples of Hope: Great American Civil Rights Speeches, describes Frank as "one of the brightest and most energetic defenders of civil rights issues."
Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac
Frank was criticized by conservative organizations for campaign contributions totaling $42,350 between 1989 and 2008. Bill Sammon, the Washington managing editor for Fox News Channel, claimed the donations from Fannie and Freddie influenced his support of their lending programs, and said that Frank did not play a strong enough role in reforming the institutions in the years leading up to the economic crisis of 2008. In 2006, a Fannie Mae representative stated in SEC filings that they "did not participate in large amounts of these non-traditional mortgages in 2004 and 2005." In response to criticism, Frank said, "In 2004, it was Bush who started to push Fannie and Freddie into subprime mortgages, because they were boasting about how they were expanding homeownership for low-income people. And I said at the time, 'Hey—(a) this is going to jeopardize their profitability, but (b) it's going to put people in homes they can't afford, and they're gonna lose them.'"
In 2009 Frank responded to what he called "wholly inaccurate efforts by Republicans to blame Democrats, and [me] in particular" for the subprime mortgage crisis, which is linked to the financial crisis of 2007–2009. He outlined his efforts to reform these institutions and add regulations, but met resistance from Republicans, with the main exception being a bill with Republican Mike Oxley that died because of opposition from President Bush. The 2005 bill included Frank objectives, which were to impose tighter regulation of Fannie and Freddie and new funds for rental housing. Frank and Mike Oxley achieved broad bipartisan support for the bill in the Financial Services Committee, and it passed the House. But the Senate never voted on the measure, in part because President Bush was likely to veto it. "If it had passed, that would have been one of the ways we could have reined in the bowling ball going downhill called housing," Oxley told Frank. In an op-ed piece in The Wall Street Journal, Lawrence B. Lindsey, a former economic adviser to President George W. Bush, wrote that Frank "is the only politician I know who has argued that we needed tighter rules that intentionally produce fewer homeowners and more renters." Once control shifted to the Democrats, Frank was able to help guide both the Federal Housing Reform Act (H.R. 1427) and the Mortgage Reform and Anti-Predatory Lending Act (H.R. 3915) to passage in 2007. Frank also said that the Republican-led Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999, which repealed part of the Glass–Steagall Act of 1933 and removed the wall between commercial and investment banks, contributed to the financial meltdown. Frank stated further that "during twelve years of Republican rule no reform was adopted regarding Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. In 2007, a few months after I became the Chairman, the House passed a strong reform bill; we sought to get the [Bush] administration's approval to include it in the economic stimulus legislation in January 2008; and finally got it passed and onto President Bush's desk in July 2008. Moreover, "we were able to adopt it in nineteen months, and we could have done it much quicker if the [Bush] administration had cooperated."
Subprime Mortgage crisis
As former chairman of the House Financial Services Committee, beginning in 2007, Frank was "at the center of power". Frank has been a critic of aspects of the Federal Reserve system, partnering with some Republicans in opposition to some policies. Frank says that he and Republican Congressman Ron Paul "first bonded because we were both conspicuous nonworshipers at the Temple of the Fed and of the High Priest Alan Greenspan."
Frank has been involved in mortgage foreclosure bailout issues. In 2008 Frank supported passage of the American Housing Rescue & Foreclosure Prevention Act, intended to protect thousands of homeowners from foreclosure. This law, , is considered one of the most important and complex issues on which he worked. In an August 2007 op-ed piece in Financial Times, Frank wrote, "In the debate between those who believe in essentially unregulated markets and others who hold that reasonable regulation diminishes market excesses without inhibiting their basic function, the subprime situation unfortunately provides ammunition for the latter view." Frank was also instrumental in the passage of , the Credit Cardholders' Bill of Rights Act of 2008, a measure that drew praise from editorial boards and consumer advocates. In 2007. Frank co-sponsored legislation to reform the Section 202 refinancing program, which is for affordable housing for the elderly, and Section 811 disabled programs. Frank has been a chief advocate of the National Housing Trust Fund, which was created as part of the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 and was the first affordable housing program to be enacted by the Congress since 1990.
During the subprime mortgage crisis, Frank was characterized as "a key deal-maker, an unlikely bridge between his party's left-wing base and ... free market conservatives" in the Bush administration. Hank Paulson, the U.S. Treasury Secretary for the Bush administration, said he enjoyed Frank's penchant for brokering deals, "he is looking to get things done and make a difference, he focuses on areas of agreement and tries to build on those."
The New York Times noted that the Federal Housing Administration's crucial role in the nation's housing market, providing low-down-payment mortgages during the crisis of 2007–2010 when no mortgages would otherwise have been available, "helped avert full-scale disaster" by helping people purchase or refinance homes and thereby putting a floor under falling home prices. However, due to the tighter flow of credit from the banks, total FHA loans in 2009 were four times that of 2006, raising concern that year that if the economy were to dip back into recession, more Fed funds could be required to keep those loans afloat. Frank's response was that the additional defaults—2.2% more of the total portfolio in 2009 than the year before—were worth the economic stabilization of the broader policy, noting "It was an effort to keep prices from falling too fast." In that context, he opined, "I don't think it's a bad thing that the bad loans occurred." In fact, the unprecedented number of loans made since 2008 were noted to be performing far better than those in the prior two years.
Political positions and votes
Abortion
In 2009 Frank had a 100% rating from NARAL Pro-Choice America, indicating a pro-choice voting record. He voted against the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act, against the Unborn Victims of Violence Act and against restrictions on the transportation of minors across state lines by non-family members to circumvent local abortion laws. In 1993 Frank co-sponsored the "Freedom of Choice Act" (H.R.25) (1993-H25) to "protect the reproductive rights of women". In 2006, he co-sponsored the "Compassionate Assistance for Rape Emergencies Act" (S.3945) (06-S3945), a bill for "emergency contraception for rape victims". In 2007 he co-sponsored the "Compassionate Care for Servicewomen Act" (S.1800 & HR.2064) (07-HR2064) to "providing emergency contraception at military facilities"; the "Prevention First Act" (S.21&H.R.463 2009-S21) to "expand access to preventive health care services that help reduce unintended pregnancy, reduce abortions, and improve access to women's health care".
Civil rights
In 1987, Frank was the Chair of the House Judiciary Subcommittee on Administrative Law and Governmental Relations in the 100th Congress. In this position, he was one of the staunchest supporters of redress and reparations for Japanese American internment during World War II. In 2001, Frank co-sponsored an amendment to the U.S. Constitution to apply equal rights based on gender differences. In 2002 he co-sponsored the "Federal Agency Protection of Privacy Act" (H.R.4561) to require a "Privacy Impact Statement" on new federal rules. In 2002 he was scored at 93% by the American Civil Liberties Union on civil rights issues indicating a pro-civil rights voting record.
In 2006, Frank was one of three Representatives to oppose the Respect for America's Fallen Heroes Act, which restricted protests (notably those of Fred Phelps' Westboro Baptist Church) at soldiers' funerals. He opposed the bill, which passed unanimously in the Senate, on civil liberties and constitutional grounds. Frank said of the vote, "I think it's very likely to be found unconstitutional. It's true that when you defend civil liberties you are typically defending people who do obnoxious things ... You play into their hand when you let them provoke you into overdoing it. I don't want these thugs to [make the] claim [that] America is hypocritical." The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People scored him at 100% in 2006 indicating a pro-affirmative-action stance.
In 2007, Frank co-sponsored the "Partnership Benefits and Obligations Act" (S.2521/H.R.4838) to "provide benefits to domestic partners of Federal employees". That same year, he co-sponsored the "Equal Rights Amendment" (S.J.RES.10/H.J.RES.40) to "strengthen the ongoing efforts of women across the country to obtain equal treatment." In 2009, he signed bills recognizing the 40th anniversary of the Stonewall Riots and the 100th anniversary of the NAACP.
Frank has been outspoken on many civil rights issues, including lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights. In 1987, he publicly came out as gay. In 1990, Frank was instrumental in crafting the 1990 Immigration Act, which restated the reasons for which a person could be denied entry into the country. The act did not include "sexual preference exclusion[s]", reforming earlier immigration law which allowed persons to be excluded for a sexual deviance "afflict[ion]". He said in a 1996 interview: "I'm used to being in the minority. I'm a left-handed gay Jew. I've never felt, automatically, a member of any majority." In 1995, then-Republican House Majority Leader Dick Armey famously referred to Frank as "Barney Fag" in a press interview. Armey apologized and said it was "a slip of the tongue". Frank did not accept Armey's explanation, saying "I turned to my own expert, my mother, who reports that in 59 years of marriage, no one ever introduced her as Elsie Fag." In 1998, Frank founded the National Stonewall Democrats, the national LGBT Democratic organization.
In 2006, Frank and incoming House Speaker Nancy Pelosi were accused by Rep. John Hostettler (R-IN) of having a "radical homosexual agenda"; Frank responded "I do have things I would like to see adopted on behalf of LGBT people: they include the right to marry the individual of our choice; the right to serve in the military to defend our country; and the right to a job based solely on our own qualifications. I acknowledge that this is an agenda, but I do not think that any self-respecting radical in history would have considered advocating people's rights to get married, join the army, and earn a living as a terribly inspiring revolutionary platform." Frank's stance on outing gay Republicans has been called the "Frank Rule" whereby a closeted person who uses her or his power, position, or notoriety to hurt LGBT people can be outed. The issue became relevant during the Mark Foley scandal of 2006, during which Frank clarified his position on HBO's Real Time with Bill Maher: "I think there's a right to privacy. But the right to privacy should not be a right to hypocrisy. And people who want to demonize other people shouldn't then be able to go home and close the door and do it themselves."
In February 2009, Frank was one of three openly gay members of Congress, along with Tammy Baldwin of Wisconsin and Jared Polis of Colorado. In April 2009, Frank was named in the LGBT magazine Outs "Annual Power 50 List", landing at the top spot.
In 2006 the Human Rights Campaign scored him at 100% indicating a pro-gay-rights stance.
Crime
In 2000, Frank was rated at 89% by Citizens United for Rehabilitation of Errants, indicating pro-rehabilitation crime votes. He co-sponsored "Innocence Protection Act of 2001" (H.R. 912, S.486) to "reduce the risk that innocent persons may be executed [by examining DNA evidence more thoroughly]" and the "National Death Penalty Moratorium Act of 2001" (H.R.1038, S.233) to limit capital punishment until the National Commission on the Death Penalty reviewed the "fairness of the imposition of the death penalty". In 2001, he also co-sponsored the "Local Law Enforcement Hate Crimes Prevention Act" (01-HR1343) to "provide Federal assistance to States and local jurisdictions to prosecute hate crimes." Frank co-sponsored the "Recidivism Reduction and Second Chance Act of 2007" to reduce recidivism. (this became Public Law No: 110-199).
Drugs
In 2001, Frank authored the States' Rights to Medical Marijuana Act (H.R. 2592), an attempt to stop the federal government from preempting state medical marijuana laws. He consistently voted for the bipartisan Hinchey–Rohrabacher amendment, annually proposed by Maurice Hinchey (D-NY) and Dana Rohrabacher (R-CA), to prohibit the Justice Department from prosecuting individuals complying with state medical cannabis laws. In March 2008, he proposed the Personal Use of Marijuana by Responsible Adults Act of 2008 (HR 5843), which would have legalized at the federal level small amounts of the drug, but which died in committee during the 110th Congress. On June 18, 2009, he re-introduced the bill as the Personal Use of Marijuana by Responsible Adults Act of 2009 (HR 2943). On June 23, 2011, Frank introduced the Ending Federal Marijuana Prohibition Act to remove marijuana from the Controlled Substances Act. Commenting on legislation to remove federal criminal penalties for possession of small amounts of marijuana for personal use, Frank stated "In a free society a large degree of human activity is none of the government's business. We should make criminal what's going to hurt other people and other than that we should leave it to people to make their own choices." In 2003, he was rated "A" by Vote Hemp, indicating a pro-hemp voting record. In 2006 he was rated "+30" by NORML, indicating a pro-drug-reform stance. In 2007 he co-sponsored the "Drug Sentencing Reform & Kingpin Trafficking Act" ((S.1711) 07-S1711) to "target cocaine kingpins and address sentencing disparity between crack and powder cocaine". In 2008, Frank sponsored "Removing Impediments to Students Education" (RISE) ((H.R.5157) 08-HR5157) to allow rehabilitated drug offenders to get student loans.
In 2009 Frank signed the "Community AIDS and Hepatitis Prevention Act" (HR 179 2009-H179) to "use Federal funds for syringe exchange programs for purposes of reducing the transmission of bloodborne pathogens, including HIV and viral hepatitis" and the Industrial Hemp Farming Act of 2009 (H.R.1866 2009-H1866) to "grant each state regulating authority for the growing and processing of industrial hemp."
Economic issues
Frank was a member of the Congressional Internet Caucus established in 1996 to "promoting growth and advancement of the Internet and advance the United States' world leadership in the digital world". In 2001, he co-sponsored the "Anti-Spamming Act" (01-HR718) to protect people and businesses from "unsolicited and unwanted electronic mail".
In 2006, Frank voted for the "Communications, Opportunity, Promotion, and Enhancement Act" (Bill HR 5252 Amendment 987) to "establish "network neutrality" (non-tiered Internet)." In 2008, Frank voted against the "FISA Amendments Act" (Bill HR6304) which would give retroactive immunity for those involved in the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy. That same year, he co-sponsored overturning FCC approval of media consolidation (S.J.RES.28&H.J.RES.79 2008-SJR28).
Environment
In 1993, Frank co-sponsored "Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments" (H.R.3392) to regulate more contaminants under the Clean Water Act. In 2001, he co-sponsored the "National Forest Protection and Restoration Act" (H.R.1494) to "prohibiting commercial logging on Federal public lands". In 2003, he was rated 95% by the League of Conservation Voters, indicating pro-environment votes. In 2007, he co-sponsored the "Great Cats and Rare Canids Act" (H.R.1464) to "provide financial resources and to foster international cooperation for promoting conservation of rare felids & canids". In the same year, he co-sponsored the "Animal Fighting Prohibition Enforcement Act" (S.261/H.R.137) to "strengthen prohibitions against animal fighting".
Military
In 1996 Frank co-sponsored the "Federal Law Enforcement Dependents Assistance Act" (H.R.4111. Became Public Law No: 104–238.) "to provide educational assistance to the dependents of Federal law enforcement officials who are killed or disabled in the performance of their duties." In 2001 Frank co-sponsored "the MX Missile Stand-Down Act" (01-HR2718) to take fifty Peacekeeper missiles off of high-alert status as well as the Landmine Elimination and Victim Assistance Act (01-HR948). As of December 2003, Frank had an 89% rating by Peace Action, indicating a pro-peace voting record. In 2005, he co-sponsored "Rail Security Act" (S.1379/H.R.153) (05-S1379) giving higher priority to rail transportation security. In 2008, he co-sponsored the "Veterans Suicide Study Act" ( (S.2899/H.R.4204) 08-S2899) designed to study and address suicides among veterans. Frank advocated for a 25-percent reduction in the overall Military budget of the United States. "The math is compelling: if we do not make reductions approximating 25 percent of the military budget starting fairly soon, it will be impossible to continue to fund an adequate level of domestic activity ... ," wrote Frank. He claimed that such a significant reduction would have no effect on the United States' ability to defend itself. "If," he said, "beginning one year from now, we were to cut military spending by 25 percent from its projected levels, we would still be immeasurably stronger than any combination of nations with whom we might be engaged." Frank supports having fewer F-35 Joint Strike Fighter planes, but also supports a $3-billion backup engine project that the Pentagon does not want. Frank told MSNBC's Keith Olbermann that he actually wanted to cut the entire F-35 program, but as long as military spending continued, he would fight for his district's share of it.
Online gambling
Frank has partnered with Ron Paul in support of online gambling rights. In 2006, both strongly opposed H.R. 4777, the Internet Gambling Prohibition and Enforcement Act, and H.R. 4411, the Goodlatte-Leach Internet Gambling Prohibition Act. To restore online gambling rights, in 2007 Frank sponsored H.R. 2046, the Internet Gambling Regulation and Enforcement Act. This bill would have established licensing and regulation of online gaming sites. It provided for age verification and protections for compulsive gamblers. In 2008, he and Paul introduced H.R. 5767, the Payment Systems Protection Act, a bill that sought to place a moratorium on enforcement of the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006 while the United States Treasury Department and the Federal Reserve defined "unlawful Internet gambling". As a result of these efforts, Frank (who does not gamble) has been praised by poker players and online gamblers, including many Republicans.
Relations with Israel
Frank has been a determined supporter of the State of Israel. "The Israeli government has been a wholly democratic one from the beginning," he said in a lecture to students. "It is one of the freest democracies in the world". He attributed the primary reason for Israel's long war to his belief that Palestinians are unwilling to make concessions.
In August 2009, a confidential memo written by the consul general of Israel in Boston, Nadav Tamir, was leaked to the Israeli media. In the memo, Tamir said that Israel's dealings with the Obama administration on differences over settlements were eroding US support. After Tamir was reprimanded by the Israeli government, Frank defended Tamir in a letter sent to Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, in which Frank wrote: "I was sorry to learn that he (Tamir) is being criticized because of his accurate reporting of significant (negative) sentiment in the United States ... If the people who work for me did not give me the kind of straightforward, thoughtful analysis that the consul is providing, even if it wasn't the most welcome news, that failure — not the information — would cause me unhappiness."
Post-House career
In the wake of the fiscal cliff legislation at the start of 2013, Frank stated that he was interested in the interim appointment that Governor Deval Patrick was expected to make to fill John Kerry's U.S. Senate seat once the latter resigned to serve as United States Secretary of State. Frank had initially said he was not interested in the seat, but went on to change his mind, noting that "that [fiscal cliff] deal now means that February, March, and April are going to be among the most important months in American financial history". He said he would not run in the special election that would be held to fill the seat for the remainder of Kerry's term.
Frank joined the board of directors of the New York-based Signature Bank on June 17, 2015.
In 2018, Frank was featured on Sacha Baron Cohen's spoof comedy series Who Is America?, discussing the Donald Trump Access Hollywood tape and the Pizzagate conspiracy theory with Baron Cohen's alter ego Billy Wayne Ruddick Jr. Frank eventually walked out of the interview.
On December 8, 2022, Frank, despite being retired from the U.S. Congress, was present on the floor of the House of Representatives when the Respect for Marriage Act was successfully passed.
Personal life
Frank resides in a studio apartment complex in Newton, Massachusetts. His husband, Jim Ready, is a surfing enthusiast whom Frank met during a gay political fundraiser in Maine. On July 7, 2012, Frank married Ready at the Boston Marriott Newton in suburban Boston. Frank's net worth was estimated by OpenSecrets to be between $619,024 and $1,510,000. Frank chose not to participate in the Congressional pension system. He said he did not believe he'd live long enough after retirement to reap benefits over contributions; and he was convinced that he would remain single and have no beneficiary. His sister, Ann Lewis, served as a senior adviser for the Hillary Clinton 2008 presidential campaign.
Religion
On August 3, 2013, Frank expressed sympathy with the host's atheism on the television program Real Time with Bill Maher. In his biography, however, Frank states unequivocally that he is not an atheist and is uncomfortable expressing firm views on questions for which he is unable to provide an answer. Frank's agnosticism led him to resolve—if he had been appointed as interim senator—to take the oath of office on the United States Constitution, rather than the Bible. For most of his life and entire Congressional career, Frank was known as a Jew. Frank continues to identify strongly with the Jewish community and has been careful throughout his career that his agnosticism not reflect negatively on other Jews. For example, when he stopped going to temple services on the High Holy Days he was careful to remain at home and out of the public eye in order that other Jews would not be criticized using his example.
In May 2014, the American Humanist Association awarded Frank the Humanist of the Year and during his acceptance speech he spoke about his personal beliefs and the complexities of working in government. He talked primarily about the politicized case of Terri Schiavo and the public's evolving view about government intrusion into personal healthcare decisions.
Sexuality
According to Stuart Weisberg's 2009 biography Barney Frank: The Story of America's Only Left-Handed, Gay, Jewish Congressman, Frank dated women in an effort to deny his homosexuality. His last romance with a woman was a nearly two-year-long affair with Irish-American Catholic Kathleen Sullivan, a Boston School Committee member and the daughter of former New England Patriots owner Billy Sullivan, that began in 1974. When the two split up, at Frank's instigation, he admitted to her that he was gay. He was still closeted publicly. According to Frank, he "realized it was crazy" to try to have a romance with someone he cared for but was not sexually compatible with due to his homosexuality. "That was the last effort to avoid being gay," Weisberg quotes Frank as saying. Frank never again dated a woman. In 2015, in an interview with Boston Magazine, Frank said it was unfair to Sullivan to date her with him being gay.
Frank started coming out as gay to friends before he ran for Congress and came out publicly on May 30, 1987, "prompted in part by increased media interest in his private life" and the death of Stewart McKinney, "a closeted bisexual Republican representative from Connecticut". Frank told The Washington Post after McKinney's death that there was "An unfortunate debate about 'Was he or wasn't he? Didn't he or did he?' I said to myself, I don't want that to happen to me." Frank's announcement had little impact on his electoral prospects. Shortly after coming out, Frank met and began dating Herb Moses, an economist and LGBT activist; their relationship lasted for eleven years until an amicable break-up in July 1998. Moses, who was an executive at Fannie Mae from 1991 to 1998, was the first partner of an openly gay member of Congress to receive spousal benefits and the two were considered "Washington's most powerful and influential gay couple".
Electoral history
|+ : Results 1980–2010
! Year
!
! Democrat
! Votes
! %
!
! Republican
! Votes
! %
!
! Third Party
! Party
! Votes
! %
!
! Third Party
! Party
! Votes
! %
!
|-
|1980
||
| |Barney Frank
| |103,466
| |52%
|
| |Richard Jones
| |95,898
| |48%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1982
||
| |Barney Frank
| |151,305
| |60%
|
| |Margaret Heckler
| |82,804
| |40%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1984
||
| |Barney Frank
| |172,903
| |74%
|
| |Jim Forte
| |60,121
| |26%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1986
||
| |Barney Frank
| |134,387
| |89%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
| |Thomas DeVisscher
| |Independent
| align="right" |16,857
| align="right" |11%
|
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|
|
|
|
|-
|1988
||
| |Barney Frank
| |169,729
| |70%
|
| |Debra Tucker
| |71,661
| |30%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1990
||
| |Barney Frank
| |143,473
| |66%
|
| |John Soto
| |75,454
| |34%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1992
||
| |Barney Frank
| |182,633
| |68%
|
| |Edward McCormick
| |70,665
| |26%
|
| |Luke Lumina
| |Independent Voters
| align="right" |13,670
| align="right" |5%
|
| |Dennis Ingalls
| |Freedom for LaRouche
| align="right" |2,797
| align="right" |1%
|
|-
|1994
||
| |Barney Frank
| |168,942
| |99%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
| |Others
| |
| align="right" |853
| align="right" |1%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1996
||
| |Barney Frank
| |183,844
| |72%
|
| |Jonathan Raymond
| |72,701
| |28%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|1998
||
| |Barney Frank
| |148,340
| |98%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
| |Others
| |
| align="right" |2,380
| align="right" |2%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2000
||
| |Barney Frank
| |200,638
| |75%
|
| |Martin Travis
| |56,553
| |21%
|
| |David Euchner
| |Libertarian
| |10,553
| |4%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2002
||
| |Barney Frank
| |166,125
| |99%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
| |Others
| |
| |1,691
| |1%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2004
||
| |Barney Frank
| |219,260
| |78%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
| |Charles Morse
| |Independent
| |62,293
| |22%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2006
||
| |Barney Frank
| |196,513
| |98%
|
| |No candidate
| |
| |
|
| |Others
| |
| |2,730
| |1%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2008
||
| |Barney Frank
| |203,032
| |68%
|
| | Earl Sholley
| |75,571
| |25%
|
| |Susan Allen
| |Independent
| |19,848
| |7%
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2010
||
| |Barney Frank
| |126,194
| |54%
|
| |Sean Bielat
| |101,517
| |43%
|
| |Susan Allen
| |Independent
| |3,445
| |1%
|
| |Donald Jordan
| |Tax Revolt Independent
| |2,873
| |1%
|
Bibliography
Financing Foreign Aid: A Case Study in the Budgetary Process (1962)
Budget for a Strong America (1989)
Speaking Frankly: What's Wrong with the Democrats and How to Fix It (1992)
Improper Bostonians: Lesbian and Gay History from the Puritans to Playland (Foreword by Barney Frank) (2000)
"American Immigration Law: A Case Study in the Effective Use of the Political Process" in J. D’Emilio (Ed.), Creating Change: Sexuality, Public Policy, and Civil Rights (pp 208-235). St. Martin's Press (2000)
Positively Gay: New Approaches to Gay and Lesbian Life (Foreword by Barney Frank) (2001)
"Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act or HR 4173 (with 111th Congress and Christopher J. Dodd)" (2010)
Crossing the Barriers: The Autobiography of Allan H. Spear (Foreword by Barney Frank) (2010)
On the Brink: Inside the Race to Stop the Collapse of the Global Financial System (Foreword by Barney Frank) (2011)
Time on Two Crosses: The Collected Writings of Bayard Rustin (Afterword by Barney Frank)" (2014)
Frank: A Life in Politics from the Great Society to Same-Sex Marriage (2015)
"Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, HR 4173 (with 111th Congress and Christopher J. Dodd)" (2017)
"The Economic and Political Implications of the Dodd-Frank Act" in S. O’Halloran & T. Groll (Eds.), After the Crash: Financial Crises and Regulatory Responses (pp 261-280). Columbia University Press (2019)
Filmography
Let's Get Frank (2003) by Bart Everly, Library of Congress (LOC) Catalog
Compared to What: The Improbable Journey of Barney Frank (2014) by Sheila Canavan and Michael Chandler, IMDb
See also
LGBT culture in Boston
List of Jewish members of the United States Congress
List of LGBT members of the United States Congress
List of federal political scandals in the United States
List of federal political sex scandals in the United States
List of United States representatives expelled, censured, or reprimanded
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Filmography on IMDb (the Internet Movie Database)
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1940 births
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
American agnostics
American gay men
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Bayonne High School alumni
Censured or reprimanded members of the United States House of Representatives
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts
Gay politicians
Harvard College alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Jewish agnostics
Jewish American state legislators in Massachusetts
Jewish members of the United States House of Representatives
Gay Jews
LGBT members of the United States Congress
LGBT people from New Jersey
American LGBT rights activists
LGBT rights in Massachusetts
LGBT state legislators in Massachusetts
Living people
Democratic Party members of the Massachusetts House of Representatives
Politicians from Bayonne, New Jersey
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5052197
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton%20John
|
Elton John
|
Sir Elton Hercules John (born Reginald Kenneth Dwight; 25 March 1947) is a British singer, pianist and composer. Acclaimed by critics and musicians, particularly for his work during the 1970s and for his lasting impact on the music industry, his music and showmanship have had a significant impact on popular music. His songwriting partnership with lyricist Bernie Taupin is one of the most successful in history.
John was raised in the Pinner suburb of London and learned to play piano at an early age, winning a scholarship to the Royal Academy of Music, where he studied for five years. He formed the blues band Bluesology in 1962, but left in 1967 to embark on a solo career and met Taupin the same year. For two years, they wrote songs for other artists, and John worked as a session musician. In 1969, John released his debut album Empty Sky, and a year later formed the Elton John Band, also releasing his first hit single, "Your Song". John's critical success was at its peak in the 1970s, when he released a string of chart-topping albums both in the US and UK, which began with Honky Château (1972) and culminated with Rock of the Westies (1975). His success continued in the 1980s and 1990s, having several hit singles and albums in both decades, and he has continued to record new music since. John has also had success in musical films and theatre, composing music for The Lion King, Aida, and Billy Elliot the Musical. John's final tour, Farewell Yellow Brick Road (2018–2023), became the highest-grossing concert tour of all time. His life and career were dramatised in the 2019 biopic Rocketman.
Outside of music, John is an HIV/AIDS charity fundraiser and has been involved in the fight against AIDS since the late 1980s. He established the Elton John AIDS Foundation in 1992, which has raised over £300 million since its inception, and a year later he began hosting his annual AIDS Foundation Academy Awards Party, which has since become one of the biggest high-profile Oscar parties in the Hollywood film industry. John was the chairman and director of Watford F.C. from 1976 to 1987, and again from 1997 to 2002, and is an honorary life president of the club. From the late 1970s to the late 1980s, John developed a severe addiction to drugs and alcohol, but has been clean and sober since 1990. In 2005 he entered a civil partnership with his long-term partner, the Canadian filmmaker David Furnish. They married in 2014, when same-sex marriage became legal in England and Wales.
John has more than fifty top-40 hits on the UK Singles Chart and US Billboard Hot 100, including nine number ones in both countries, as well as seven consecutive number-one albums in the US. He has sold over 300 million records worldwide, making him one of the best-selling music artists of all time. He is the most successful solo artist in the history of the US Billboard charts. His tribute single to Princess Diana, "Candle in the Wind 1997", a rewritten version of his 1974 single, sold over 33million copies worldwide and is the best-selling chart single of all time. In 2021, he became the first solo artist with UK Top 10 singles across six decades. John's numerous awards include five Grammy Awards, five Brit Awards; including for Outstanding Contribution to Music; two Academy Awards, two Golden Globes, a Tony Award, a Laurence Olivier Award, a Disney Legend Award, and the Kennedy Center Honor. He was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1992 and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994, and is a fellow of The Ivors Academy. He was knighted by Elizabeth II for services to music and charity in 1998 and was appointed a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in 2020, being invested at Windsor Castle in 2021 by the Prince of Wales.
Early life
Elton John was born Reginald Kenneth Dwight on 25 March 1947 in Pinner, Middlesex, London, the eldest child of Stanley Dwight (1925–1991) and only child of Sheila Eileen (née Harris; 1925–2017). He was raised in a council house in Pinner by his maternal grandparents. His parents married in 1945, when the family moved to a nearby semi-detached house. He was educated at Pinner Wood Junior School, Reddiford School and Pinner County Grammar School, until he was 17, when he left just before his A-Level examinations to pursue a career in music.
When John began to consider a career in music seriously, his father, who served in the Royal Air Force, tried to steer him toward a more conventional career, such as banking. John has said that his wild stage costumes and performances were his way of letting go after a restrictive childhood. Both his parents were musically inclined, his father having been a trumpet player with the Bob Millar Band, a semi-professional big band that played at military dances. The Dwights were keen record buyers, exposing John to the popular singers and musicians of the day.
John started playing his grandmother's piano as a young boy, and within a year his mother heard him picking out Waldteufel's "The Skater's Waltz" by ear. After performing at parties and family gatherings, at age seven he began formal piano lessons. He showed musical aptitude at school, including the ability to compose melodies, and gained some notoriety by playing like Jerry Lee Lewis at school functions. At age 11, he won a junior scholarship to the Royal Academy of Music. According to one of his instructors, John promptly played back, like a "gramophone record", a four-page piece by George Frideric Handel after hearing it for the first time.
For the next five years, John attended Saturday classes at the Academy in central London, and he has said he enjoyed playing Frédéric Chopin and Johann Sebastian Bach and singing in the choir during Saturday classes, but that he was not otherwise a diligent classical student. "I kind of resented going to the Academy," he said. "I was one of those children who could just about get away without practising and still pass, scrape through the grades." He has said that he would sometimes skip classes and ride around on the London Underground. Several instructors have attested that he was a "model student", and during the last few years he took lessons from a private tutor in addition to his classes at the Academy. He left the Academy before taking the final exams.
John's mother, though strict with her son, was more vivacious than her husband, and something of a free spirit. With Stanley Dwight uninterested in his son and often absent, John was raised primarily by his mother and maternal grandmother. When his father was home, the Dwights had vehement arguments that greatly distressed John. When he was 14, they divorced. His mother then married a local painter, Fred Farebrother, a caring and supportive stepfather whom John affectionately called "Derf" ("Fred" backwards). They moved into flat No. 3A in an eight-unit apartment building called Frome Court, not far from both previous homes. There John wrote the songs that launched his career as a rock star; he lived there until he had four albums simultaneously in the American Top 40.
Career
1962–1969: Pub pianist to staff songwriter
At age 15, with his mother's and stepfather's help, John was hired as a pianist at a nearby pub, the Northwood Hills Hotel, playing Thursday to Sunday nights. Known simply as "Reggie", he played a range of popular standards, including songs by Jim Reeves and Ray Charles, as well as his own songs. A stint with a short-lived group called the Corvettes rounded out his time. Although normal-sighted as a teenager, John began wearing horn-rimmed glasses to imitate Buddy Holly.
In 1962, John and some friends formed a band called Bluesology. By day, he ran errands for a music publishing company; he divided his nights between solo gigs at a London hotel bar and working with Bluesology. By the mid-1960s, Bluesology was backing touring American soul and R&B musicians like the Isley Brothers, Major Lance and Patti LaBelle and the Bluebelles. In 1966, the band became Long John Baldry's supporting band and played 16 times at the Marquee Club.
In 1967, John answered an advertisement in the British music paper New Musical Express, placed by Ray Williams, then the A&R manager for Liberty Records. At their first meeting, Williams gave John an unopened envelope of lyrics written by Bernie Taupin, who had answered the same ad. John wrote music for the lyrics and then sent it to Taupin, beginning a partnership that . When the two first met in 1967, they recorded the first John/Taupin song, "Scarecrow". Six months later, John began going by the name Elton John in homage to two members of Bluesology: saxophonist Elton Dean and vocalist Long John Baldry. He legally changed his name to Elton Hercules John on 7 January 1972.
The team of John and Taupin joined Dick James's DJM Records as staff songwriters in 1968, and over the next two years wrote material for various artists, among them Roger Cook and Lulu. Taupin would write a batch of lyrics in under an hour and give it to John, who would write music for them in half an hour, disposing of the lyrics if he could not come up with anything quickly. For two years they wrote easy-listening tunes for James to peddle to singers. Their early output included a contender for the UK entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 1969, for Lulu, called "I Can't Go On (Living Without You)". It came sixth of six songs. In 1969, John provided piano for Roger Hodgson on his first released single, "Mr. Boyd" by Argosy, a quartet that was completed by Caleb Quaye and Nigel Olsson.
1969–1973: Debut album to Goodbye Yellow Brick Road
On the advice of music publisher Steve Brown, John and Taupin began writing more complex songs for John to record for DJM. The first was the single "I've Been Loving You" (1968), produced by Caleb Quaye, Bluesology's former guitarist. In 1969, with Quaye, drummer Roger Pope, and bassist Tony Murray, John recorded another single, "Lady Samantha", and an album, Empty Sky. For their follow-up album, Elton John, John and Taupin enlisted Gus Dudgeon as producer and Paul Buckmaster as musical arranger. Elton John was released in April 1970 on DJM Records/Pye Records in the UK and Uni Records in the US, and established the formula for subsequent albums: gospel-chorded rockers and poignant ballads. The album's first single, "Border Song", peaked at 92 on the Billboard Hot 100. The second, "Your Song", reached number seven in the UK Singles Chart and number eight in the US, becoming John's first hit single as a singer. The album soon became his first hit album, reaching number four on the US Billboard 200 and number five on the UK Albums Chart.
Backed by former Spencer Davis Group drummer Nigel Olsson and bassist Dee Murray, John's first American concert took place at the Troubadour in Los Angeles on 25 August 1970, and was a success. The concept album Tumbleweed Connection was released in October 1970 and reached number two in the UK and number five in the US. The live album 17-11-70 (titled 11–17–70 in the US) was recorded at a live show aired from A&R Studios on WABC-FM in New York City. Sales of the live album took a blow in the US when an east-coast bootlegger released the performance several weeks before the official album, including all 60 minutes of the aircast, not just the 40 minutes selected by Dick James Music.
John and Taupin wrote the soundtrack to the 1971 film Friends and the album Madman Across the Water, which reached number eight in the US and included the hit songs "Levon" and the album's opening track, "Tiny Dancer". In 1972, Davey Johnstone joined the Elton John Band on guitar and backing vocals. Released in 1972, Honky Château became John's first US number one album, spending five weeks at the top of the Billboard 200, and began a streak of seven consecutive US number-one albums. The album reached number two in the UK, and spawned the hit singles "Rocket Man" and "Honky Cat".
In 1972 John performed at the Royal Variety Performance, where he was upstaged by the dancing of "Legs" Larry Smith, the drummer with the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band. Smith was invited to join John's second US tour; Smith later said: "I suggested adding in various other bizarre elements like me doing "Singin' in the Rain" as a song and dance act with Elton playing piano. Kubrick's Clockwork Orange film had recently featured that song. Plus I designed crazy, over-the-top costumes and giant stage sets – known as 'Legstravaganzas'. Elton loved all of it."
The pop album Don't Shoot Me I'm Only the Piano Player came out at the start of 1973 and reached number one in the UK, the US, and Australia, among other countries. The album produced the hits "Crocodile Rock", his first US Billboard Hot 100 number one, and "Daniel", which reached number two in the US and number four in the UK. The album and "Crocodile Rock" were respectively the first album and single on the consolidated MCA Records label in the US, replacing MCA's other labels, including Uni.
Goodbye Yellow Brick Road, released in October 1973, gained instant critical acclaim and topped the chart on both sides of the Atlantic, remaining at number one for two months. It also temporarily established John as a glam rock star. It contained the US number 1 "Bennie and the Jets", along with the hits "Goodbye Yellow Brick Road", "Candle in the Wind", "Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting" and "Funeral for a Friend/Love Lies Bleeding".
1974–1980: The Rocket Record Company to 21 at 33
John formed his own label, The Rocket Record Company (distributed in the US by MCA and initially by Island in the UK), and signed acts to it—notably Neil Sedaka (John sang background vocals on Sedaka's "Bad Blood") and Kiki Dee, in whom he took a personal interest. Instead of releasing his own records on Rocket, he signed an $8 million contract with MCA. When the contract was signed in 1974, MCA reportedly took out a $25 million insurance policy on John's life. In 1974, MCA released Elton John's Greatest Hits, a UK and US number one that is certified Diamond by the RIAA for US sales of 17million copies.
In 1974, John collaborated with John Lennon on his cover of the Beatles' "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", the B-side of which was Lennon's "One Day at a Time". It was number 1 for two weeks in the US. In return, John was featured on "Whatever Gets You Thru the Night" on Lennon's album Walls and Bridges. Later that year, in Lennon's last major live performance, the pair performed these two number-one hits, along with the Beatles' "I Saw Her Standing There", at Madison Square Garden in New York. Lennon made the rare stage appearance with John and his band to keep the promise he had made that he would appear on stage with him if "Whatever Gets You Thru The Night" became a US number-one single. Caribou was released in 1974, becoming John's third number one in the UK and topping the charts in the US, Canada and Australia. Reportedly recorded in two weeks between live appearances, it featured "The Bitch Is Back" and "Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me". "Step into Christmas" was released as a stand-alone single in November 1973, and appears in the album's 1995 remastered reissue.
Pete Townshend of the Who asked John to play the "Local Lad" in the 1975 film adaptation of the rock opera Tommy, and to perform the song "Pinball Wizard". Drawing on power chords, John's version was recorded and used in the movie. The song charted at number 7 in the UK. John, who had adopted a glam aesthetic on stage, would later state glam rock icon Marc Bolan "had a great effect on me."
The 1975 autobiographical album Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy debuted at number one in the US, the first album to do so, and stayed there for seven weeks. John revealed his previously ambiguous personality on the album, with Taupin's lyrics describing their early days as struggling songwriters and musicians in London. The lyrics and accompanying photo booklet are infused with a specific sense of place and time that is otherwise rare in his music. The hit single from this album, "Someone Saved My Life Tonight", captured an early turning point in John's life. The album's release signalled the end of the Elton John Band, as an unhappy and overworked John dismissed Olsson and Murray. According to Circus, a spokesman for John's manager John Reid said the decision was reached mutually via phone while John was in Australia promoting Tommy. Davey Johnstone and Ray Cooper were retained, Quaye and Roger Pope returned, and the new bassist was Kenny Passarelli; this rhythm section provided a heavier backbeat. James Newton Howard joined to arrange in the studio and to play keyboards. In June 1975 John introduced the line-up at London's Wembley Stadium.
The rock-orientated Rock of the Westies entered the US albums chart at number 1, as had Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy, a previously unattained feat. John's stage wardrobe now included ostrich feathers, $5,000 spectacles that spelled his name in lights, and costumes such as the Statue of Liberty, Donald Duck, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In 1975, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The album features his fifth US number one single, "Island Girl". To celebrate five years since he had first appeared at the venue, in 1975, John played a two-night, four-show stand at the Troubadour. With seating limited to under 500 per show, the chance to purchase tickets was determined by a postcard lottery, with each winner allowed two tickets. Everyone who attended the performances received a hardbound "yearbook" of the band's history. That year, he also played piano on Kevin Ayers's Sweet Deceiver and was among the first and few white artists to appear on the African-American television series Soul Train. On 9 August 1975, John was named the outstanding rock personality of the year at the first annual Rock Music Awards in Santa Monica, California. In May 1976, the live album Here and There was released, followed in October by the album Blue Moves, which contained the single "Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word". His biggest success in 1976 was "Don't Go Breaking My Heart", a duet with Kiki Dee that topped a number of charts, including the UK, the US, Australia, France and Canada.
Besides being John's most commercially successful period, 1970–1976 is also held in the highest regard critically. In the three-year span from 1972 to 1975, John saw seven consecutive albums reach number one in the US, something that had not been accomplished before. All six of his albums to make Rolling Stones 2003 list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time" are from this period, with Goodbye Yellow Brick Road ranked highest at number 91. Between 1972 and 1976 he also had six singles reach number one on the Billboard Hot 100.
In November 1977, John announced he was retiring from performing; Taupin began collaborating with others. Now producing only one album a year, John issued A Single Man in 1978 with a new lyricist, Gary Osborne; the album produced no singles that made the top 20 in the US, but the two singles from the album released in the UK, "Part-Time Love" and "Song for Guy", both made the top 20 there, with the latter reaching the top 5. In 1979, accompanied by Ray Cooper, John became one of the first Western artists to tour the Soviet Union and Israel. John returned to the US top ten with "Mama Can't Buy You Love" (number 9), a song MCA rejected in 1977, recorded with Philadelphia soul producer Thom Bell. John said Bell was the first person to give him voice lessons and encouraged him to sing in a lower register. A disco-influenced album, Victim of Love, was poorly received. In 1979, John and Taupin reunited, though they did not collaborate on a full album until 1983's Too Low For Zero. 21 at 33, released the following year, was a significant career boost, aided by his biggest hit in four years, "Little Jeannie" (number 3 US), with the lyrics by Gary Osborne. In May 1979, John played eight concerts in the Soviet Union; four dates in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg) and four in Moscow. At the same time, Elton collaborated with the French couple France Gall and Michel Berger on the songs "Donner pour donner" and "Les Aveux", released together in 1980 as a single.
1981–1989: The Fox to Sleeping with the Past
John's 1981 album The Fox was recorded during the same sessions as 21 at 33 and included collaborations with Tom Robinson and Judie Tzuke. On 13 September 1980, with Olsson and Murray back in the Elton John Band, and joined by Richie Zito on lead guitar, Tim Renwick on rhythm guitar, and James Newton Howard on keyboards, John performed a free concert to an estimated 400,000 fans on The Great Lawn in Central Park in New York. He played part of the set dressed as Donald Duck. The album Jump Up! was released in 1982, the biggest hit from which was "Blue Eyes".
With original band members Johnstone, Murray and Olsson together again, John returned to the charts with the 1983 album Too Low for Zero, which included the singles "I'm Still Standing" (No. 4 UK) and "I Guess That's Why They Call It the Blues", the latter of which featured Stevie Wonder on harmonica and reached number four in the US and number five in the UK. In October 1983, John caused controversy when he broke the United Nations' cultural boycott on apartheid-era South Africa by performing at Sun City. He married his close friend and sound engineer, Renate Blauel, on Valentine's Day 1984; the marriage lasted three years. In 1984, he released Breaking Hearts, which featured the song "Sad Songs (Say So Much)", a number five hit in the US and number seven in the UK.
In 1985, John was one of the many performers at Live Aid, held at Wembley Stadium. He played "Bennie and the Jets" and "Rocket Man"; then "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" with Kiki Dee for the first time since the Hammersmith Odeon on 24 December 1982; and introduced George Michael, still then of Wham!, to sing "Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me". John also recorded material with Millie Jackson in 1985. Towards the end of the year, John released "Nikita" from the album Ice on Fire, which had a music video directed by Ken Russell. The song reached number three in the UK and number seven in the US.
John's highest-charting single of the decade was a collaboration with Dionne Warwick, Gladys Knight and Stevie Wonder called "That's What Friends Are For". It reached number one in the US at the beginning of 1986; credited as Dionne and Friends, the song raised funds for HIV/AIDS research. In the same year, a live orchestral version of "Candle in the Wind" reached number six in the US. He also played piano on two tracks on the heavy metal band Saxon's album Rock the Nations.
In 1987, John won a libel case against The Sun, which published false allegations that he had had sex with rent boys. In 1988, he performed five sold-out shows at Madison Square Garden in New York, giving him 26 for his career. Netting over $20 million, 2,000 items of John's memorabilia were auctioned off at Sotheby's in London. He also released "I Don't Wanna Go On with You Like That" from the album Reg Strikes Back, the single reaching number two in the US in 1988. His albums continued to sell, but of those released in the latter half of the 1980s, only Reg Strikes Back (number 16, 1988) placed in the top 20 in the US.
1990–1999: "Sacrifice" to Aida
In 1990, John achieved his first solo UK number one hit single, with "Sacrifice" (coupled with "Healing Hands") from the previous year's album Sleeping with the Past; it stayed at the top spot for five weeks. The following year, "Basque" won the Grammy for Best Instrumental, and a guest concert appearance at Wembley Arena John made on George Michael's cover of "Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me" was released as a single and topped the charts in both the UK and the US. At the 1991 Brit Awards in London, John won Best British Male.
In 1992, John released the US number 8 album The One, featuring the hit song "The One". It was his first album recorded entirely sober. As John recalled in 2020, "I was used to making records under the haze of alcohol or drugs, and here I was, 100% sober, so it was tough. But I managed to come up with a good song, which was the title of the record." He also released "Runaway Train", a duet he recorded with his longtime friend Eric Clapton, with whom he played on Clapton's World Tour. John and Taupin then signed a music publishing deal with Warner/Chappell Music for an estimated $39 million over 12 years, including the largest cash advance in music publishing history. In April 1992, John appeared at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert at Wembley Stadium, performing "The Show Must Go On" with the remaining members of Queen, and "Bohemian Rhapsody" with Axl Rose of Guns N' Roses and Queen's remaining members. In September, John performed "The One" at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards and closed the ceremony performing "November Rain" with Guns N' Roses. The following year, he released Duets, which featured collaborations with 15 artists, including Tammy Wynette and RuPaul. This included a new collaboration with Kiki Dee, "True Love", which reached the Top 10 of the UK charts.
In the same year, The Bunbury Tails, a multi-artist charity album, was released, which was the soundtrack to the British animated television series of the same name. "Up The Revolution" was John's track, alongside contributions from George Harrison, the Bee Gees and Eric Clapton. The album was issued briefly, and only in the UK.
Along with Tim Rice, John wrote the songs for the 1994 Disney animated film The Lion King. At the 67th Academy Awards, three of the five nominees for the Academy Award for Best Original Song were from The Lion King soundtrack. John won the award for "Can You Feel the Love Tonight". Both that and "Circle of Life" became hits. "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" also won the Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 37th Annual Grammy Awards. The soundtrack for The Lion King remained at the top of the Billboard 200 for nine weeks. On 10 November 1999, the RIAA certified The Lion King "Diamond" for selling 15million copies.
In 1994, John was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Guns N' Roses' frontman Axl Rose. In 1995, he released the album Made in England (number 3). The title track is an autobiographical recounting of parts of his life. The album also featured the single "Believe". John performed "Believe" at the 1995 Brit Awards and won the Outstanding Contribution to Music prize.
A duet with Luciano Pavarotti, "Live Like Horses", reached number nine in the UK in December 1996. A compilation album, Love Songs, was released in 1996. Early in 1997, John held a 50th birthday party, costumed as Louis XIV of France, with 500 friends. He performed with the surviving members of Queen in Paris at the opening night (17 January 1997) of Le Presbytère N'a Rien Perdu De Son Charme Ni Le Jardin De Son Éclat, a work by French ballet legend Maurice Béjart that draws upon the AIDS crisis and the deaths of Freddie Mercury and the company's principal dancer, Jorge Donn. Later in 1997, two close friends died: designer Gianni Versace was murdered on 15 July, and Diana, Princess of Wales died in a Paris car crash on 31 August.
In early September, John asked Taupin to revise the lyrics of their 1973 song "Candle in the Wind" to honour Diana, and Taupin agreed. On 6 September 1997, John performed "Candle in the Wind 1997" live for the only time at Diana's funeral in Westminster Abbey. The song became the fastest and biggest-selling single of all time, eventually selling over 33million copies globally. The best-selling single in UK chart history, and the best-selling single in Billboard history, it is the first single certified Diamond in the US where it sold over 11million copies. The 2009 Guinness World Records states it is "the biggest-selling single since UK and US singles charts began in the 1950s, having accumulated worldwide sales of 33million copies". The song's proceeds of approximately £55million were donated to Diana's charities via the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund. It won the Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 40th Annual Grammy Awards in 1998. The song "Something About the Way You Look Tonight" was released as a double A-side.
On 15 September 1997, John appeared at the Music for Montserrat charity concert at the Royal Albert Hall, performing three songs solo ("Your Song", "Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me" and "Live Like Horses") before finishing with "Hey Jude" alongside Paul McCartney, Eric Clapton, Phil Collins, Mark Knopfler and Sting. Two months later he performed on the BBC's Children in Need charity single "Perfect Day", which reached number one in the UK. John appeared as himself in the Spice Girls film Spice World, released in December 1997.
The Lion King musical debuted on Broadway in 1997 and the West End in 1999. In 2014, it had grossed over $6 billion and became the top-earning title in box-office history for both stage productions and films, surpassing the record previously held by Andrew Lloyd Webber's 1986 musical The Phantom of the Opera. In addition to The Lion King, John composed music for a Disney's musical production Aida in 1999 with lyricist Tim Rice, for which they received the Tony Award for Best Original Score at the 54th Tony Awards, and the Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album at the 43rd Annual Grammy Awards. The musical had its world premiere at Atlanta's Alliance Theatre and went on to Chicago and eventually Broadway. John released a live compilation album, Elton John One Night Only – The Greatest Hits, featuring songs from the show he did at Madison Square Garden in New York City that same year. A concept album of songs from the musical Aida, Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida, was also released and featured the John duets "Written in the Stars" with LeAnn Rimes, and "I Know the Truth" with Janet Jackson.
2000–2009: Billy Elliot the Musical and 60th birthday
By this time, John disliked appearing in his own music videos; the video for "This Train Don't Stop There Anymore" featured Justin Timberlake portraying a young John, and the video for "I Want Love" featured Robert Downey, Jr. lip-syncing the song. At the 2001 Grammy Awards, John performed "Stan" with Eminem. One month after the 11 September attacks, John appeared at the Concert for New York City, performing "I Want Love" as well as "Your Song" as a duet with Billy Joel. In August 2003, John's fifth UK number one single, "Are You Ready for Love", topped the charts.
Returning to musical theatre, John composed music for a West End production of Billy Elliot the Musical in 2005 with playwright Lee Hall. John had been moved to write the musical after seeing the 2000 British coming-of-age film Billy Elliot, saying of the titular character, "he's like me". Opening to strong reviews, the show won four Laurence Olivier Awards, including Best New Musical. The 12th-longest-running musical in West End history, the London production, which featured Tom Holland as Billy for two years, ran through April 2016, with 4,566 performances. As of December 2015, Billy Elliot has been seen by over 5.25 million people in London and nearly 11 million people worldwide (on Broadway where it won the Tony Award for Best Musical, in Sydney, Melbourne, Chicago, Toronto, Seoul, the Netherlands and São Paulo, Brazil etc.), grossed over $800 million worldwide and won over 80 theatre awards internationally. John's only theatrical project with Taupin is Lestat, based on Anne Rice's The Vampire Chronicles. It received negative reviews from critics and closed in May 2006 after 39 performances. John featured on rapper Tupac Shakur's posthumous single "Ghetto Gospel", which topped the UK charts in July 2005.
In October 2003, John announced that he had signed an exclusive agreement to perform 75 shows over three years at Caesars Palace on the Las Vegas Strip. The show, The Red Piano, was a multimedia concert featuring massive props and video montages created by David LaChapelle. Effectively, he and Celine Dion shared performances at Caesars Palace throughout the year; while one performed, the other rested. The first of these shows took place on 13 February 2004. In February 2006, John and Dion sang together at the venue to raise money for Harrah's Entertainment Inc. workers affected by the 2005 hurricanes, performing "Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word" and "Saturday Night's Alright (for Fighting)".
The Walt Disney Company named John a Disney Legend for his contributions to Disney's films and theatrical works on 9 October 2006. Also in 2006, he told Rolling Stone that he planned for his next record to be in R&B and hip hop. "I want to work with Pharrell Williams, Timbaland, Snoop [Dogg], Kanye [West], Eminem and just see what happens", he said. West sampled John's "Someone Saved My Life Tonight" on his 2007 song "Good Morning" and in 2010 invited him to his Hawaii studio to play piano and sing on "All of the Lights".
In March 2007, John performed at Madison Square Garden for a record-breaking 60th time for his 60th birthday; the concert was broadcast live and a DVD recording was released as Elton 60 – Live at Madison Square Garden; a greatest-hits compilation CD, Rocket Man—Number Ones, was released in 17 different versions worldwide, including a CD/DVD combo; and his back catalogue—almost 500 songs from 32 albums—became available for legal paid download.
On 1 July 2007, John appeared at the Concert for Diana at Wembley Stadium in honour of Diana, Princess of Wales on what would have been her 46th birthday, with the concert's proceeds going to Diana's charities as well as to charities of which her sons Prince William and Prince Harry are patrons. John opened the concert with "Your Song" and closed it with "Saturday Night's Alright For Fighting", "Tiny Dancer", and "Are You Ready For Love".
On 21 June 2008, John performed his 200th show at Caesars Palace. A DVD/CD package of The Red Piano was released through Best Buy in November 2008. In a September 2008 GQ interview John said, "I'm going on the road again with Billy Joel again next year", referring to "Face to Face", a series of concerts featuring the two. The tour began in March.
In 2009, John accepted Jerry Cantrell's invitation to collaborate with his band Alice in Chains. John played the piano in the song "Black Gives Way to Blue", a tribute to the band's late lead singer, Layne Staley, which was the title track and closing song of the album Black Gives Way to Blue, released in September 2009. The first concert Staley attended was one of John's, and his mother said he was blown away by it. Cantrell added, "Elton is a very important musical influence to all of us in varying degrees, and especially to me. My first album was Elton John's Greatest Hits. And actually, we were reminded by Layne's stepfather that Elton was his first concert, so it was all really appropriate." John said he had long admired Cantrell and could not resist the offer.
2010–2018: The Union to Wonderful Crazy Night
John performed a piano duet with Lady Gaga at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards, which consisted of two songs of Gaga's, before culminating in "Your Song". On 17 June, and 17 years to the day after his previous performance in Israel, he performed at the Ramat Gan Stadium; this was significant because of other then-recent cancellations by other performers in the fallout surrounding an Israeli raid on Gaza Flotilla the month before. In his introduction to that concert, John said that he and other musicians should not "cherry-pick our conscience", in reference to Elvis Costello, who was to have performed in Israel two weeks after John did but cancelled in the wake of the aforementioned raid, citing his conscience.
John released The Union on 19 October 2010. He has said the album, a collaboration with American singer, songwriter and sideman Leon Russell, marked a new chapter in his recording career, saying: "I don't have to make pop records any more." He began his new show The Million Dollar Piano at the Colosseum at Caesars Palace, Las Vegas, on 28 September 2011, and performed it there for the next three years. He performed his 3000th concert on 8 October 2011 at Caesars. Also in 2011, John performed vocals on "Snowed in at Wheeler Street" with Kate Bush for her album 50 Words for Snow. On 3 February 2012, he visited Costa Rica for the first time, performing at the recently built National Stadium.
On 4 June 2012, John performed at Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee Concert at Buckingham Palace, playing a three-song set. On 30 June, he played in Kyiv, Ukraine in a joint concert with Queen + Adam Lambert for the Elena Pinchuk ANTIAIDS Foundation. An album containing remixes of songs that he recorded in the 1970s, Good Morning to the Night, was released in July 2012. The remixes were conducted by Australian group Pnau, and the album reached number one in the UK. At the 2012 Pride of Britain Awards on 30 October, John along with Michael Caine, Richard Branson, Simon Cowell and Stephen Fry, recited Rudyard Kipling's poem "If—" in tribute to the 2012 British Olympic and Paralympics athletes.
In February 2013, John performed a duet with singer-songwriter Ed Sheeran at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards. Later in 2013, he collaborated with rock band Queens of the Stone Age on their sixth studio album, ...Like Clockwork, contributing piano and vocals on the song "Fairweather Friends". He said he was a fan of frontman Josh Homme's side project, Them Crooked Vultures, and had phoned Homme to ask if he could perform on the album. In September 2013, John received the first Brits Icon Award for his "lasting impact" on the culture of the United Kingdom. Rod Stewart presented him with the award on stage at the London Palladium before the two performed a duet of "Sad Songs (Say So Much)". John's 31st album, The Diving Board, produced by T-Bone Burnett, was released in September 2013 and reached number three in the UK and number four in the US. In October 2015, it was announced he would release his 32nd studio album, Wonderful Crazy Night, on 5 February 2016. It too was produced by Burnett. The album's first single, "Looking Up", was released in the same month. This album marked John's first full album recorded with his touring band since 2006's The Captain & the Kid. He also had a major role, as himself, in the action movie Kingsman: The Golden Circle, which was released in September 2017.
On 26 January 2017, it was announced that John would compose the score for the Broadway musical version of the novel The Devil Wears Prada and its film adaptation, with Kevin McCollum as producer and Paul Rudnick writing the lyrics and story. The timeline for the musical is yet to be announced. In June 2017, John appeared in the award-winning documentary The American Epic Sessions, directed by Bernard MacMahon. In the film, he recorded live on the restored first electrical sound recording system from the 1920s. John composed and arranged a lyric by Taupin, "Two Fingers of Whiskey", written specially for the film, live on camera with the help of Burnett and Jack White. Danny Eccleston in Mojo pointed out that "in one of the series' most extraordinary moments, Elton John arrives toting a box-fresh lyric by Bernie Taupin and works it up in an instant, the song materializing in front of the viewers' eyes before John and Jack White go for the take. There's the magic right there." "Two Fingers of Whiskey" was released on 9 June 2017 on Music from The American Epic Sessions: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack.
2018–present: Farewell Yellow Brick Road and more
On 24 January 2018, it was announced that John was retiring from touring and would soon embark on a three-year farewell tour. The first concert took place in Allentown, Pennsylvania, on 8 September 2018. John cited spending time with his family as the reason for his retirement: "Ten years ago if you asked me if I would stop touring I would have said no. But we had children and that changed our lives. I have had an amazing life and career but my life has changed. My priorities are now my children and my husband and my family." Consisting of more than 300 concerts worldwide, the tour ended in Stockholm on 8 July 2023 following rescheduled shows due to the covid pandemic and health issues. In September 2018, John reportedly signed an agreement with Universal Music Group (UMG) to represent his new music "for the rest of his career" in addition to his work from the last 50 years.
A biopic about John's life from his childhood to the 1980s, Rocketman, was produced by Paramount Pictures and released in May 2019. It was directed by Dexter Fletcher, who had also co-directed Bohemian Rhapsody, and stars Taron Egerton as John; John had previously appeared as a fictionalised version of himself alongside Egerton in the film Kingsman: The Golden Circle (2017). John and Egerton performed a new song written for Rocketman, "(I'm Gonna) Love Me Again", which premiered on BBC Radio 2 in 2019. The song would see John win the Academy Award for Best Original Song for the second time. In October 2019, John released what he described as his "first and only autobiography", Me. The audiobook of Me was narrated by Egerton, with John reading the prologue and epilogue.
As part of his farewell tour, in June 2019, John was presented with France's highest civilian award, the Legion of Honour, by President Emmanuel Macron during a ceremony at the Élysée Palace in Paris. Macron called John a "melodic genius" and one of the first gay artists to give a voice to the LGBT community. On 16 February 2020 his first show at Mount Smart Stadium in Auckland, New Zealand was cut short. He had been diagnosed with walking pneumonia, and lost his voice during the show. He was cleared to perform the next show on 19 February. John played at the Western Sydney Stadium on 7 March before the remainder of the tour were postponed indefinitely on 16 March due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In early 2020, John played piano on Ozzy Osbourne's rock ballad "Ordinary Man", released on Osbourne's album of the same name. On 29 May, his duet with Lady Gaga, "Sine from Above", from her album Chromatica, was released. John released Regimental Sgt. Zippo on 12 June 2021. Recorded as his debut album in 1968, the album was shelved in favour of 1969's Empty Sky, and released vinyl-only in 2021 for Record Store Day.
On 1 September 2021, John announced his new collaboration album The Lockdown Sessions which he made during the first COVID-19 lockdown, which was released on 22 October 2021. Artists he collaborated with on the album include Eddie Vedder, Miley Cyrus, Dua Lipa, Lil Nas X, Nicki Minaj, Young Thug, Stevie Wonder, Rina Sawayama and Stevie Nicks. In a statement on the project, John explained: "I realised there was something weirdly familiar about working like this. At the start of my career, in the late 60s, I worked as a session musician. Working with different artists during lockdown reminded me of that. I'd come full circle: I was a session musician again. And it was still a blast." "Cold Heart (Pnau remix)", a collaboration with Dua Lipa, was released on 13 August 2021 as the album's first single. It peaked at number one in the UK in October 2021, becoming John's first UK number one in 16 years since 2005's "Ghetto Gospel". With this hit, he became the first solo artist to have top 10 singles in the UK in 6 different decades. "Cold Heart" also peaked at number 1 in Australia in November 2021. At 74 years, 7 months and 14 days, John became the oldest artist to hit the top of the ARIA Singles Chart. John contributed to the charity tribute album The Metallica Blacklist, released in September 2021, by backing Miley Cyrus on a cover of the Metallica song "Nothing Else Matters".
In December 2021, "Merry Christmas", John's festive duet with Ed Sheeran, was released. The song's music video sees the duo re-create a scene from the festive romantic-comedy film Love Actually in which they pay homage to scenes from British Christmas hits from the past, including "Last Christmas" and "Merry Christmas Everyone". All of the UK profits from the song went to the Elton John AIDS Foundation and the Ed Sheeran Suffolk Music Foundation. The song topped the UK Singles Chart on 10 December to become John's ninth UK number one. Later that month, John and Sheeran collaborated with LadBaby on their 2021 Christmas single "Sausage Rolls for Everyone", a comedic version of "Merry Christmas" with a sausage roll theme. The song debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart and gave John his first Christmas number one, John's third number one of 2021, and 10th UK number one overall, making him joint ninth on the list of artists with most number-one singles on the UK Singles Chart (with Calvin Harris and Eminem). In January 2022, John continued his farewell tour for the first time since the start of the pandemic, with his first show back taking place in New Orleans, Louisiana. John had to temporarily postpone two shows in Dallas after testing positive for COVID-19 and experiencing mild symptoms, and resumed the tour again after making a full recovery. John has tour dates across the UK for 2022 and 2023, when the tour will wrap up. To celebrate his 75th birthday, John released a digitally remastered version of his Diamonds compilation album on streaming platforms.
John performed "Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me" at the memorial service for Australian cricketer Shane Warne on 30 March 2022. On 4 June 2022, John was projected on to the facade of Buckingham Palace playing "Your Song" (pre-recorded at Windsor Castle) at the Platinum Party at the Palace to mark the Queen's Platinum Jubilee. In August, John collaborated with Britney Spears on the song "Hold Me Closer". The same month it was announced that John had written the music for a new musical about the life of televangelist Tammy Faye Messner, with book by playwright James Graham and lyrics by Jake Shears. The musical, titled Tammy Faye, opened at the Almeida Theatre in London in October 2022.
John is among the people interviewed for the documentary film If These Walls Could Sing directed by Mary McCartney about the recording studios at Abbey Road which premiered in November 2022.
On 25 June 2023, John headlined the Glastonbury Festival. Performing on the Pyramid Stage, John closed the festival with a two hour performance which saw "Pinball Wizard" played live for the first time in over 10 years. The event drew in the festivals largest ever TV viewing figures in the UK with a peak of 7.6 million and an average of 7.3 million, the BBC also announced it had almost 50% of all viewers across all stations viewing the event.
On 8 July 2023, John performed the final concert of the tour in Stockholm, Sweden at the Tele2 Arena. Upon opening the show, John said: "Good evening Stockholm, well this is it". John has said that he will continue to "do the odd show" despite his retirement from touring.
Personal life
Sexuality and family
In the late 1960s, John was engaged to be married to his first lover, secretary Linda Woodrow, who is mentioned in the song "Someone Saved My Life Tonight". Woodrow provided financial assistance to John and Taupin at the time. John ended the relationship two weeks before their intended wedding, after being advised by Taupin and Long John Baldry. In 2020, John helped pay for Woodrow's medical fees upon her request, despite having lost contact with her 50 years previously.
In 1970, right after his first US shows in Los Angeles, he lost his virginity to and started his first gay relationship with John Reid, the Tamla Motown label manager for the UK, who later became John's manager. The relationship ended five years later, although Reid remained his manager until 1998.
John married German recording engineer Renate Blauel on 14 February 1984, in an extravagant wedding ceremony at Darling Point, New South Wales, Australia. Blauel said she attempted suicide during their honeymoon in St-Tropez after John told her that he wanted to end the union. Their marriage ended in divorce in 1988. John stated: "She was the classiest woman I've ever met, but it wasn't meant to be. I was living a lie." In 2020, Blauel sued John for writing about their relationship in his 2019 Me: Elton John Official Autobiography, which she claimed broke the terms of their divorce agreement. The case was settled later the same year.
John had come out as bisexual in a 1976 interview with Rolling Stone, and in 1992 he told Rolling Stone in another interview that he was "quite comfortable about being gay".
In 1993, John began a relationship with David Furnish, a former advertising executive and now filmmaker originally from Toronto. On 21 December 2005 (the day the Civil Partnership Act came into force), John and Furnish were among the first couples to form a civil partnership in the United Kingdom, which was held at the Windsor Guildhall. After same-sex marriage became legal in the United Kingdom in March 2014, John and Furnish married in Windsor, Berkshire, on 21 December 2014, the ninth anniversary of their civil partnership.
John and Furnish have two sons. The elder, Zachary Jackson Levon Furnish-John, was born via surrogacy on 25 December 2010 in California. The younger, Elijah Joseph Daniel Furnish-John, was born on 11 January 2013 via the same surrogate. John also has ten godchildren, including Sean Lennon, David and Victoria Beckham's sons Brooklyn and Romeo, Elizabeth Hurley's son Damian Hurley, and Seymour Stein's daughter.
In 2010, some Christian groups in the US criticised John after he described Jesus as a "compassionate, super-intelligent gay man who understood human problems". Bill Donohue, president of the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights and opponent of gay marriage, responded: "To call Jesus a homosexual is to label him a sexual deviant. But what else would we expect from a man who previously said, 'From my point of view, I would ban religion completely. John stated, in his 2019 autobiography Me, that he had received many death threats as a result of his statements. Neal Horsley, a Christian Reconstructionist from Bremen, Georgia, United States, was arrested for making terrorist threats, after posting a YouTube video stating: "We're here today to remind Elton John that he has to die". The charges were subsequently dropped.
In 2008, John said he preferred civil partnerships to marriage for gay people, but by 2012 he had changed his position and become a supporter of same-sex marriage in the United Kingdom. John said: "There is a world of difference between calling someone your 'partner' and calling them your 'husband'. 'Partner' is a word that should be preserved for people you play tennis with, or work alongside in business. It doesn't come close to describing the love that I have for David, and he for me. In contrast, 'husband' does". In 2014, he claimed Jesus would have been in favour of same-sex marriage.
Wealth
In April 2009, the Sunday Times Rich List estimated John's wealth at £175million () and ranked him the 322nd wealthiest person in Britain. A decade later, John was estimated to have a fortune of £320million in the 2019 Sunday Times Rich List, making him one of the 10 wealthiest people in the British music industry. Aside from his main home, Woodside, in Old Windsor, Berkshire, John owns residences in Atlanta, London, Los Angeles, Nice and Venice. His property in Nice is on Mont Boron. John is an art collector and is believed to have one of the largest private photography collections in the world.
In 2000, John admitted to spending £30million in just under two years—an average of £1.5million a month. Between January 1996 and September 1997, he spent more than £9.6m on property and £293,000 on flowers. In June 2001, John sold twenty of his cars at Christie's, saying he never had the chance to drive them because he was out of the country so often. The sale, which included a 1993 Jaguar XJ220, the most expensive at £234,750, and several Ferraris, Rolls-Royces, and Bentleys, raised nearly £2million. In 2003, John sold the contents of his Holland Park home — expected to fetch £800,000 at Sotheby's — to modernise the decoration and to display some of his contemporary art collection. Every year since 2004, John has opened a shop called "Elton's Closet", in which he sells his secondhand clothes.
In October 2021, John was named in the Pandora Papers, which allege a secret financial deal of politicians and celebrities using tax havens in an effort to avoid the payment of owed taxes.
Other
By 1975, the pressures of stardom had begun to take a serious toll on John. During "Elton Week" in Los Angeles that year, he had a cocaine overdose. He also developed the eating disorder bulimia. In a 2002 CNN interview with Larry King, King asked if John knew of Diana, Princess of Wales's eating disorder; John replied: "Yes, I did. We were both bulimic." In a July 2019 Instagram post, John stated he had been sober for 29 years. At a 2022 concert in Indianapolis, John said he cleaned himself up after spending time with the family of Ryan White. "I knew that my lifestyle was crazy and out of order. ... I cannot thank them enough, because without them, I'd probably be dead." In a 2014 interview, he also attributed his sobriety to the Kate Bush and Peter Gabriel duet "Don't Give Up" from 1986, in particular the lyric from Bush, "Rest your head. You worry too much. It's going to be all right. When times get rough you can fall back on us. Don't give up." He states, "she [Bush] played a big part in my rebirth. That record helped me so much."
A longtime tennis enthusiast, in 1975 he released the song "Philadelphia Freedom" in tribute to his friend Billie Jean King's World Team Tennis team, the Philadelphia Freedoms. King was a player-coach for the team at the time. John and King remain friends and co-host an annual pro-am event to benefit AIDS charities, most notably the Elton John AIDS Foundation, of which King is a chairperson. John, who maintains a part-time residence in Atlanta, Georgia, became a fan of the Atlanta Braves baseball team when he moved there in 1991.
John has appeared in commercials for Diet Coke (beginning in 1990), the Royal Mail, Snickers and John Lewis & Partners department store, among others. Authors Roger Blackwell and Tina Stephan wrote "the relationship of Elton John and Diet Coke is one of the classic success stories in the role of sponsorship in brand building." His 2018 John Lewis & Partners Christmas advert shown in the UK, titled "The Boy & The Piano", sees him reminisce about his life and career in reverse, culminating with Christmas Day in the 1950s when he received a piano for Christmas from his mother.
An admirer of Monty Python, in 1975, he was among a group of musicians who helped finance their film Monty Python and the Holy Grail. At the 2nd Empire Awards in 1997, John presented the comedy group the Empire Inspiration Award.
On 22 April 2017, John was discharged from hospital after two nights of intensive care for contracting "a harmful and unusual" bacterial infection during his return flight home from a South American tour in Santiago, Chile, and was forced to cancel all his shows scheduled for April and May 2017. In October 2021, John required hip surgery after "falling awkwardly on a hard surface".
On 9 December 2022, John left Twitter, following changes to its rules made by new owner Elon Musk, stating: "All my life I've tried to use music to bring people together. Yet it saddens me to see how misinformation is now being used to divide our world. I've decided to no longer use Twitter, given their recent change in policy which will allow misinformation to flourish unchecked."
Football
John became the chairman and director of Watford in 1976, after supporting the team since his youth. John appointed Graham Taylor as manager and invested large sums of money as the club rose three divisions into the English First Division. At their height, the club finished runners up in the First Division to Liverpool in 1983 and reached the FA Cup Final at Wembley Stadium in 1984. John sold the club to Jack Petchey in 1987, but remained president. Ten years later, John repurchased the club from Petchey and once again became chairman. He stepped down in 2002 when the club needed a full-time chairman, but continued as president. Although no longer the majority shareholder, John still holds a significant financial interest. In 2005 and 2010, John held a concert at Watford's home stadium, Vicarage Road, and donated proceeds to the club. He has remained friends with a number of high-profile players in football, including Pelé and David Beckham. From late 1975 to 1976, John was a part-owner of the Los Angeles Aztecs of the North American Soccer League. On 13 December 2014, he appeared at Watford's Vicarage Road with his husband and sons for the opening of the "Sir Elton John stand". He called the occasion "one of the greatest days of my life".
John's paternal cousin Roy Dwight was a professional footballer, who scored for Nottingham Forest in the 1959 FA Cup Final before breaking his leg later in the same match.
Political views
John has performed at a number of events involving the British royal family, such as the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales at Westminster Abbey in 1997, the Party at the Palace in 2002 and the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Concert outside Buckingham Palace in 2012. On 4 June 2022, John was projected on to the facade of Buckingham Palace playing "Your Song" (pre-recorded at Windsor Castle) at the Platinum Party at the Palace to mark the Queen's Platinum Jubilee. In 2008, after United States senator Barack Obama won the 2008 United States presidential election, John called Obama's victory "incredibly moving." He would later meet President Obama in the White House on 6 May 2015.
In 2013, John resisted calls to boycott Russia in protest at the Russian gay propaganda law, but told fans at a Moscow concert that the laws were "inhumane and isolating", and he was "deeply saddened and shocked over the current legislation". In a January 2014 interview, Russian President Vladimir Putin spoke of John in an attempt to show that there was no discrimination against gays in Russia, saying: "Elton John – he's an extraordinary person, a distinguished musician, and millions of our people sincerely love him, regardless of his sexual orientation." John responded by offering to introduce Putin to Russians abused under Russian legislation banning "homosexual propaganda". On 24 September 2015, the Associated Press reported that Putin called John and invited him to meet in the future to discuss LGBT rights in Russia.During the 2016 United States presidential election, John supported Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign, and performed alongside Katy Perry and Andra Day at Clinton's fundraiser concert at Radio City Music Hall. After his performance, John praised Clinton as "the only choice" America has. John was among 27 artists to have opposed Donald Trump's use of their music at his campaign rallies, and declined an invitation to attend Trump's inauguration in January 2017, stating: "I have given it at lot of thought, and as a British National I don't feel that it's appropriate for me to play at the inauguration of an American President, please accept my apologies." He also exhorted Trump to continue the global fight against HIV/AIDS, and closed his letter by wishing Trump "every success with your presidency." Trump, a fan of John's music, has referenced John on numerous instances, including referring to North Korean Supreme Leader Kim Jong-un as "Little Rocket Man" during Trump's first address to the United Nations in September 2017. He also claimed to have given Kim a CD of the song "Rocket Man" that was signed by John.
John announced his intention to vote Remain during the UK's 2016 EU referendum on Instagram, sharing an image with the words "build bridges not walls", along with the caption "I'm voting to remain. #StrongerInEurope". In 2019, he said the Brexit vote and the way it had been handled had made him ashamed. In October 2020, John called attention to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan. He said in his Instagram post: "In May 2018, I visited [Armenia] and was overwhelmed with the kindness and humanity shown to me by the Armenian people. Now Armenia and Artsakh are under attack from unprovoked Azeri/Turkish aggression. Civilians are being targeted and there are needless deaths on both sides." In September 2021, John said that his requests to meet with Boris Johnson regarding Brexit and touring visas for musicians were ignored.
Philanthropy
John is well known for his philanthropic efforts, being involved in charity fundraising events since 1986. In 1992, after losing two friends - (HIV/AIDS spokesperson Ryan White and fellow musician Freddie Mercury) to AIDS in the span of a year - John founded the Elton John AIDS Foundation, an organisation which has raised over $600 million to support HIV-related programs in 55 countries.
John was recognised for his services to charity twice, receiving a knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II in 1998 and being appointed by her to be a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in 2020.
AIDS foundation
John has said that he took risks with unprotected sex during the 1980s and considers himself lucky to have avoided contracting HIV. In 1985, he joined with Dionne Warwick, Gladys Knight and Stevie Wonder to record the single "That's What Friends Are For", with profits donated to the American Foundation for AIDS Research. The song went to number one in the United States the following year and won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. In April 1990, John traveled to Indianapolis to be by the side of Ryan White, a teenage haemophiliac whom he had befriended and whose health was deteriorating. On the eve of White's death, he performed at Farm Aid IV, dedicating "Candle in the Wind" to White. He performed his 1968 ballad "Skyline Pigeon" at White's funeral.John became more closely associated with AIDS charities following the deaths of his friends Ryan White in 1990 and Freddie Mercury in 1991, raising large amounts of money and using his public profile to raise awareness of the disease. He founded the Elton John AIDS Foundation in 1992 as a charity to fund programmes for HIV/AIDS prevention, for the elimination of prejudice and discrimination against HIV/AIDS-affected individuals, and to provide services to people living with or at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. This continues to be one of his passions. In 1993, he began hosting his annual Academy Award Party, which has become one of the highest-profile Oscar parties in the Hollywood film industry and has raised over .
To raise money for his AIDS charity, John annually hosts a White Tie & Tiara Ball on the grounds of his home in Old Windsor in Berkshire, to which many celebrities are invited. The ninth annual White Tie & Tiara Ball took place on 28 June 2007. The menu consisted of a truffle soufflé followed by surf and turf and a giant knickerbocker glory ice cream. An auction followed, emceed by Stephen Fry. A Rolls-Royce "Phantom" drophead coupe and a piece of Tracey Emin's artwork both raised £800,000 for the charity fund, with the total amount raised reaching £3.5million. Later, John sang "Delilah" with Tom Jones and "Big Spender" with Shirley Bassey. The 2011 guests included Prince Andrew's former wife Sarah Ferguson, Elizabeth Hurley and George Michael; the auction raised £5million, adding to the £45million the balls have raised for John's foundation.
On 23 February 2023, The Elton John AIDS Foundation donated $125,000 via United24 to purchase ten biochemistry analyzers, to help make sure that all Ukrainians living with HIV can continue to access high-quality care and treatment.
Other charity work
John and his husband David Furnish founded the Elton John Charitable Trust in 2007, which has supported over 100 charities. In 2014, John launched the Elton John Sports Fund to help citizens with training and competition costs for over 50 sports.
John performed "I'm Still Standing" during the One World: Together at Home television special, a benefit concert curated by Lady Gaga for Global Citizen to raise funds for the World Health Organization's COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund.
Artistry
Influences
John has said he remembers being immediately hooked on rock and roll when his mother brought home records by Elvis Presley and Bill Haley & His Comets in 1956. He also stated of when he was growing up: "I heard Little Richard and Jerry Lee Lewis, and that was it. I didn't ever want to be anything else. I'm more of a Little Richard stylist than a Jerry Lee Lewis, I think. Jerry Lee is a very intricate piano player and very skillful, but Little Richard is more of a pounder." John has also cited Ray Charles, the Beatles, the Band, Leon Russell, Aretha Franklin, Joni Mitchell and Freddie Mercury as influences.
John has often expressed a great appreciation for the accomplishments of young artists from the 21st century, collaborating with several of them on the 2021 collaborative album The Lockdown Sessions and interviewing them on his Apple Music radio show Rocket Hour. He stated in an interview: "It's wonderful because you think, 'God, they're 16 or 17 or 15 years of age. How do they do that?' It keeps me animated and it keeps me so happy", and that "These are the kind of artists that keep me young. I listen to all new music, I know all the old music but it's the new music in life that keeps me inspired."
Musicianship
John has written with Bernie Taupin since 1967, when he answered an advertisement for talent placed in the popular UK music publication New Musical Express by Liberty Records A&R man Ray Williams. The pair have collaborated on more than 30 albums to date. Their method involves Taupin writing the lyrics on his own and sending them to John, who then writes music for them before recording the songs; the two are never in the same room during the process. In November 2017, John said of their 50-year partnership:We've never ever had an argument professionally or personally, which is extraordinary because most songwriters sometimes split up because they get jealous of each other. And it's exciting because it's never changed from the first day we wrote songs. I still write the song when he's not there and then I go and play it to him. So the excitement is still the same as it was from day one and that's kept it fresh and it's kept it exciting.
In 1992, along with Taupin, John was inducted into the Songwriter's Hall of Fame. He is a fellow of the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors (BASCA). His voice was once classed as a tenor prior to his throat surgery; it is now a baritone. His piano playing is influenced by classical music and gospel music. Paul Buckmaster did orchestral arranging for his studio albums during the 1970s.
Honours and awards
John was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 1994. He and Taupin had already been inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1992. John was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1995. In October 1975, John received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. For his charitable work, John was knighted by Elizabeth II on 24 February 1998 for services to music and to charity. In the 2020 New Year Honours, he was appointed Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) by Queen Elizabeth II for services to music and to charity.
John was awarded Society of Singers Lifetime Achievement Award in 2005. He received a Kennedy Center Honor in 2004 and a Disney Legends Award in 2006. In 2000, he was named the MusiCares Person of the Year for his artistic achievement in the music industry and dedication to philanthropy. In 2010, he received the PRS for Music Heritage Award, which was erected on The Namaste Lounge Pub in Northwood, London, where John performed his first gig. In 2019, President Emmanuel Macron appointed John a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. In 2019, John featured on a series of UK postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail. In 2022, after John performed at the White House, President Joe Biden surprised him by presenting him with the National Humanities Medal.
Music awards include the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" from The Lion King, the 1994 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song for "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" from The Lion King, and the 2000 Tony Award for Best Original Score for Aida, all of which he shared with Tim Rice. The 2019 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and Academy Award for Best Original Song both went to John for "(I'm Gonna) Love Me Again", shared with Taupin. He has also received five Brit Awards, including the 1991 award for Best British Male, and awards for Outstanding Contribution to Music in 1986 and 1995. In 2013, John received the first Brits Icon award in recognition of his "lasting impact" on UK culture, which was presented to him by Rod Stewart.
Rankings
"Your Song", and "Bennie and the Jets" are listed in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
In 2000, VH1's "100 Greatest Rock Songs" included "Your Song" at number 70.
In 2003, Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Albums of All Time included Goodbye Yellow Brick Road at number 91, Greatest Hits at number 135, Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy at number 158, Honky Chateau at number 357, Tumbleweed Connection at number 463, and Elton John at number 468.
In 2004, Rolling Stones The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time included "Your Song" at number 136, "Rocket Man" at number 242, "Candle in the Wind" (original) at number 347, "Goodbye Yellow Brick Road" at number 380, and Tiny Dancer at number 387.
In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked John number 49 on their list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time".
In 2010, John was ranked number 28 on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of All Time".
In 2013, Ultimate Classic Rock website ranked "Rocket Man" number 37 in their Top 100 Classic Rock Songs chart.
In their 2019 list of the "Greatest Artists of All Time", Billboard ranked John the top solo artist in US chart history (third overall behind The Beatles and The Rolling Stones).
In 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Elton John at number 100 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.
Discography
Studio albums
Collaboration albums
Live in Australia with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra (1986)
Duets (1993)
The Union (with Leon Russell) (2010)
Good Morning to the Night (with Pnau) (2012)
The Lockdown Sessions (2021)
Soundtrack albums
Friends (1971)
The Lion King (1994)
Aida (1998)
Elton John and Tim Rice's Aida (1999)
The Muse (1999)
The Road to El Dorado (2000)
Billy Elliot (2005)
Lestat (2005)
Gnomeo & Juliet (2011)
Rocketman (2019)
Tours
Filmography
References
Further reading
Goodall, Nigel. Elton John: A Visual Documentary, Omnibus Press, 1993.
Rosenthal, Elizabeth. His Song: The Musical Journey of Elton John, Billboard Books, 2001.
O'Neill, Terry. Elton John by Terry O'Neill: The definitive portrait, with unseen images. Hachette UK, 2019
John, Elton. Me: Elton John Official Autobiography, Pan MacMillan, 2019.
External links
Elton John on the Internet Archive
Elton John on Spotify
Commentary by Elton John (The Guardian)
1947 births
Living people
20th-century British composers
20th-century British songwriters
20th-century British male actors
20th-century British male singers
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21st-century British composers
21st-century British songwriters
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21st-century British pianists
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music
Animation composers
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songwriters
Bluesology members
Brit Award winners
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British LGBT rights activists
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British LGBT songwriters
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British musical theatre composers
British philanthropists
British pop pianists
British pop singers
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British rock keyboardists
British rock pianists
British rock singers
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Broadway composers and lyricists
Chairmen and investors of soccer clubs in the United States
Knights of the Legion of Honour
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Critics of religions
DJM Records artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syed%20Ahmad%20Barelvi
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Syed Ahmad Barelvi
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Syed Ahmad Barelvi, also known as Sayyid Ahmad Shahid, (1786–1831) was a Pindari warlord-turned Indian Islamic revivalist, scholar, and military commander from Raebareli, a part of the historical United Provinces of Agra and Oudh (now called Uttar Pradesh). He launched the South Asian Jihad Movement that waged a decades-long Islamic revolt against colonial rule across various provinces of British India. Sayyid Ahmad is revered as a major scholarly authority in the Ahl-i Hadith and Deobandi movements. The epithet 'Barelvi' is derived from Raebareli, his place of origin.
His ancestors migrated to India in the early 13th century. Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi wrote Seerat-i-Sayyid Ahmad Shaheed, the first historical biography of Syed Ahmad Barelvi.
Early life and education
Syed Ahmad Barelvi was born on 29 November 1786 in Raebareli, into a family of Syed descent. His primary education was initiated in 1791, when he was aged four. As he turned 10, his father died and the familial responsibilities fell onto his shoulders, and this made him travel to Lucknow, at the age of 18 in search of some work. He however inclined to stay in the tutelage of Shah Abdul Aziz, an Islamic scholar, who was the son of revivalist reformer Shah Waliullah, in Delhi.
Ahmad travelled to Delhi, and was subsequently allotted accommodation in the Akbarabadi Mosque. He stayed in the tutelage of Abdul Aziz for a few years, and returned to his hometown in the early 1808, or in the late 1807.
Later career and military service
After his tutelage under Shah Abdul Aziz from 1806 to 1811, Syed Ahmad began his career as a Pindari horse soldier in the militia of Amir Khan Pindari, a military expeditionary at the age of 25. This was an era where large numbers of North Indian Muslim horsemen from the Uttar Pradesh region were unemployed and saw a destruction of their livelihood due to the fall of Muslim rule, and a large number of those disaffected turned into plunderers known as the Pindari freebooters who fought merely for loot and plunder to establish power.
In 1817, after the Third Anglo-Maratha War, Amir Khan allied with the East India Company, the Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief, the Marquess of Hastings, resolved to defeat the Pindaris whom they deemed a menace. The Treaty of Gwalior severed the link between them and Scindia. Moreover, the treaty required the latter to join forces with the East India Company to eliminate the Pindaris and Pathans. Bowing to the inevitable, Amir Khan came to terms with the English, agreeing to disband his men in return for a large stipend and recognition as a hereditary Nawab, who quietly settled down to consolidate his little state. Being against this treaty, Syed Ahmed left the military service, because for him the British were kuffar (Christian infidels).
Now unemployed, Syed Ahmad returned to Delhi after his service and decided to emulate Amir Khan. Journalist Tariw Hasan writes that W.W. Hunter described Syed Ahmad "as a robber who took to religion to plunder for wealth". During this period in his life, Syed Ahmad became more mature and harmonized his military experiences with a zealous commitment to establish Sharia (Islamic law). Two family members of the theologian Shah Waliullah—Shah Ismail Dehlavi (1771–1831) and Maulvi Abdul Hai (died 1828)—became disciples of Syed Ahmad, an event that raised his mystic confidence. This endorsement only added to his reputation, and his popularity grew with adherents flocking to him by the thousands.
Reform movement
Syed Ahmad was the first major Islamic theologian on the subcontinent to realize the necessity of an Islamic movement that was simultaneously scholarly, military, and political to repel the British threat. He eagerly addressed the Muslim masses directly, not traditional leaders, in his call for a popular jihad against a Sikh rule in Punjab. His evangelism—based on networks of preachers, collectors, and judges—also addressed the common people and not the rulers' courts.
At the core of the reform movement initiated by Syed Ahmad was the advocacy of a puritanical interpretation of Tawhid (monotheism), similar to the Muwahhidun movement in Arabia. The movement fought against local practices and customs related to saint veneration and grave visits, which they regarded as bid'ah (religious innovations) and shirk (polytheism) that corrupted Islam. Syed Ahmad's reformist teachings were set down in two prominent treatises: Sirat'ul Mustaqim (The Straight Path) and Taqwiyatul-Iman (Strengthening of the Faith), compiled by his acolyte Shah Muhammad Ismail. The two works stressed the centrality of Tawhid (monotheism), advocated that acts of worship—such as dua and sacrifices—belonged solely to God, and denounced all those practices and beliefs that were held in any way to compromise Tawhid. The followers of Syed Ahmad viewed three sources of threat to their beliefs: traditional Sufism, Shiism, and popular custom.
Syed Ahmad urged Muslims to follow the path laid down by Prophet Muhammad (Tariqa -i Muhammadiyah), abandon all superstitious activities in various Sufi orders, and called for a total reformation of Tasawwuf. Syed Ahmad reserved his sharpest condemnations for the moral degradation of Muslims and blamed the corrupt Sufis as the primary cause of Muslim decline. He called upon Muslims to strictly abide by the tenets of the Shariah (Islamic law) by following the Qur'an and the Sunnah. The most prominent feature of Syed Ahmad's teachings was his warning to avoid shirk (polytheism), bid'ah (religious innovations); and re-assertion of Tawhid. Once he said to a group of his disciples: Brethren! the purpose of performing the bay'ah is that you should give up everything you do which is of the nature of polytheism or heresy, your making of ta'ziyahs, setting up banners, worshipping the tombs of Pirs and martyrs, making offerings to them and taking vows in their names. All this you should give up, and do not believe that your good and ill come from anyone except God; do not recognize anyone but Him as having the power to grant the fulfillment of your wishes. If you continue [in this way of polytheism and heresy], merely offering bay'ah will bring no benefit.
Syed Ahmad visited numerous towns of the North Indian plains between 1818 and 1821. He incited hundreds of missionaries to preach against Shia beliefs and practices. Syed Ahmad repeatedly destroyed tazias, an act that resulted in subsequent riots and chaos. Syed Ahmad called upon the Muslim masses to abandon practices related to Shia influence, such as the tazias which were replicas of the tombs of the martyrs of Karbala taken in procession during the mourning ceremony of Muharram. Shah Muhammad Ismail declared the act of breaking tazias as an obligation upon all believers and asserted that it was as virtuous as breaking idols. Syed Ahmad is reported to have organized the burning of thousands of tazias.
In 1821, Syed Ahmad left for Hajj along with a group of devotees. He returned from Hajj in 1823, and once again visited different parts of India. For Syed Ahmad and the followers of the Faraizi movement, India was "Dar al-Harb" (a land without a peace treaty with Muslims) and therefore jihad was obligatory for all Muslims. In his book Sirat-e-Mustaqeem, Shah Ismail Dehlvi wrote:A large part of present-day India has become “Dar-ul-Harab”. Compare the situation with the heavenly blessings of India two and three hundred years ago.Syed Ahmad's opponents labeled him a Wahhabi (a follower of the puritan Sunni reform movement in Arabia), but he did not consider himself as such.
Jihad movement and Islamic State
Upon return, Syed Ahmad regarded his immediate enemy to be the Sikh Empire ruled by Ranjit Singh, which was expanding, close to Afghanistan. Syed Ahmad intended to establish a strong Islamic state on the North-West Frontier region in the Peshawar valley, as a strategic base for the future invasion of India. When the military action began, some Muslim Nawabs (like his former employer Amir Khan) provided funds but did not join Syed Ahmad for jihad. Around 8,000 mujahideen (holy warriors) accompanied him, mostly consisting of clergymen and poor people. The rulers of Tonk, Gwalior, and Rampur supported Syed Ahmad with British consent because they were dependent on British forces and knew the British would not stop them from aiding an enemy of a nation they would soon be at war with.
Arriving in Peshawar valley in late 1826, Syed Ahmad and his followers made their base in towns of Hund and Zaida in Swabi District. Syed Ahmad called upon the local Pashtun and Hazarewal tribes to wage jihad, and demanded that they renounce their tribal customs and adopt the Sharia. The traditional khans were replaced by Wahhabi-style reformist ulama (Islamic scholars) and a system of Islamic taxes was established to finance the jihad. Soon after this evangelist campaign and the establishment of the Sharia system, jihad was declared. He sent an ultimatum to Ranjit Singh, demanding:[...] either become a Muslim, pay Jizyah or fight and remember that in case of war, Yaghistan supports the Indians.
The mujahideen were educated with both theological doctrines and physical training sessions. Syed Ahmad organized wrestling, archery training, and shooting competitions. The mujahideen also chanted several Islamic anthems. One such popular anthem to have survived, known as "Risala Jihad", goes:
War against the Infidel is incumbent on all Musalmans;
make provisions for all things.
He who from his heart gives one farthing to the cause,
shall hereafter receive seven hundredfold from God.
He who shall equip a warrior in this cause of God,
shall hereafter obtain a martyr's reward;
His children dread not the trouble of the grave,
nor the last trump, not the Day of Judgement.
Cease to be crowded; join the divine leader, and smite the Infidel.
I give thanks to God that a great leader has been born,
in the thirteenth of the Hijra.In December 1826, Syed Ahmad and his followers clashed with Sikh troops at Akora with some success. On 11 January 1827, allegiance was sworn on his hand and he was declared Caliph and Imam. Syed Ahmad's claim to Khilafah was viewed with suspicion in the Frontier region as well as in the clerical circles of North India. When the Jumu'ah (Friday prayer) sermon was read in his name, symbolising his claim to power, the tribal chiefs became wary. According to prominent Pathan Sardars like Khadi Khan, Maulvis were ill-equipped to run the affairs of a state. In response to the criticisms, Syed Ahmad asserted that his aim was not material but to lead a jihad against kuffar. Defending his claim to Caliphate, Syed Ahmad writes:We thank and praise God, the real master and the true king, who bestowed upon his humble, recluse and helpless servant the title of Caliphate, first through occult gestures and revelations, in which there is no room for doubt, and then by guiding the hearts of the believers towards me. This way God appointed me as the Imam (leader)... the person who sincerely confesses to my position is special in the eyes of God, and the one who denies it is, of course sinful. My opponents who deny me of this position will be humiliated and disgraced.
Apart from the rebellious Pashtun chieftains, Syed Ahmad also faced strong opposition from Sufi clerical establishment. Throughout their armed activities during the 1820s and 1830s, mujahideen engaged in ideological and physical conflict with the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidis and various Sufi orders such as Qadiris and Chishtis. Excommunicating the opponents of the jihad movement as apostates and obliging all Muslims to fight them, Shah Ismail Dehlvi, the faithful commander of Syed Ahmad wrote:[...] therefore, obedience to Syed Ahmad is obligatory on all Muslims. Whoever does not accept the leadership of His Excellency or rejects it after accepting it, is an apostate and mischievous, and killing him is part of the jihad as is the killing of the disbelievers. Therefore, the appropriate response to opponents is that of the sword and not the pen.
After the conquest of Peshawar by the mujahideen, Syed Ahmad announced the abolition of all tribal rituals that he regarded as bid'ah (religious innovations). He abolished various practices such as: the bride being paid a regular price for marriage; the widowed of the deceased Muslims being divided among his heirs; practice of more than four marriages; denial of inheritance to women; clan wars being considered like jihad and its plunder being considered as booty. He also pushed for aggressive and violent policies to enforce Sharia. These included: allowing brides as long as half of the agreed money was given; young girls eligible for marriage should be married immediately; flogging people who didn't pray.
In addition to his Islamic social agenda, Syed Ahmad also attempted to collect ushr (an Islamic tithe), amounting to 10% of crop yields. This policy was faced with fierce opposition from an alliance of local Pathan tribesmen, who briefly managed to occupy Peshawar. The alliance was defeated and the Islamic reformers finally re-captured Peshawar. Over several months during 1830, Sayyed Ahmad tried to reconcile between established power hierarchies. But before the end of 1830, another organized uprising occurred, and Syed Ahmad's soldiers in Peshawar and surrounding villages were murdered and the movement was forced to retreat to the hills. There, in the town of Balakot in 1831, Syed Ahmad was killed and beheaded by the Sikh Army.
Battle of Balakot
Syed Ahmad's political and religious power created strong opposition against him in the Frontier region and the locals started to revolt. The decisive moments for Syed Ahmad came in 1830.After being bribed by Ranjit Singh, many Pukhtun leaders rose against him and around two hundred mujahideen were killed in the Peshawar valley, which compelled him to migrate and try his luck in Kashmir, his long-cherished dream.
On 6 May 1831, on the day of Jumu'ah 23 Zulqa'da 1246 AH, Syed Ahmad Barelvi's mujahideen forces prepared for the final battle at Balakot Maidan in the mountainous valley of Mansehra district. An ill-equipped army of 10,000 mujahideen faced a 12,000 strong force of soldiers led by the Sikh commander Sher Singh. On that day, Syed Ahmed, Shah Ismail, and prominent leaders of the Wahhabi movement fell fighting in the battlefield. Of the 10,000 mujahideen, 9,000 died; Sikh casualties were 5,000 deaths. Sikh victory at Balakot arose jubilation in Lahore. The defeat at Balakot was a devastating blow to the Wahhabi movement.
After Sher Singh left the area, Sikh soldiers dug up the grave of Syed Ahmad Barelvi and threw his dead body into the Kunhar River. It was never found as the river flows too fast in that area.
Legacy
Syed Ahmad is widely regarded as the founder of the subcontinental Ahl-i Hadith movement and his teachings are highly influential amongst its members. Another major group that carries his legacy is the Deobandi school of thought. Scholar Edward Mortimer believes Syed Ahmad anticipated modern Islamists in waging jihad and attempting to create an Islamic state with strict enforcement of Sharia. Scholar Olivier Roy considers Syed Ahmad to be the first modern Islamic leader to lead a movement that was "religious, military and political" and to address the common people and rulers with a call for jihad. The mujahideen were unprecedented for their tactics of popular mobilization aimed at swiftly achieving the objectives of social reformation through military means, combined with fierce hostility towards non-Muslim powers such as the British Empire and the Sikhs. Syed Ahmad was committed to expand his emirate to the whole of South Asia and authored tracts calling upon Indian Muslims to join the cause of jihad.
Syed Ahmad attained the exemplar status of shahid (martyr), one of the highest honours in Islam, and would inspire generations of Militant Islamist ideologues and Jihadi activists throughout the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries. His calls to action—such as a return to the pristine Islam of the Salaf, and the purifying of Islamic culture from Western and Shi'i influences through armed jihad—became major hallmarks of South Asian and Central Asian militant Islamist movements like the Taliban. Al-Qaeda's ideology was greatly inspired by Syed Ahmad's jihad movement, which was waged from Eastern Afghanistan and Khyber Pakhtunkwa. Influenced by Syed Ahmad, contemporary Jihadists compare American hegemony to the 19th century British rule to justify their campaigns.
The jihad movement of Syed Ahmad made a great impact on Islamic scholarly tradition of South Asia and would deeply divide many clerics and theologians. Some intellectuals and scholars criticised the militant aspects of his reform programme, especially its sectarian violence against other self-professed Muslims whom the mujahideen declared as heretics or apostates. Scholars like Wahiduddin Khan asserted that Syed Ahmad's jihad was illegitimate, since it was self-declared and not waged by a Muslim ruler. Meanwhile, South Asian Islamists eagerly embraced Syed Ahmad's teachings and popularised his writings that sought the militant restoration of an Islamic state. All major organisations that wage militant jihad in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Kashmir use the rhetoric and legacy of Syed Ahmad's mujahideen to shore up support from the conservative base. Hafiz Saeed's Lashkar-e-Taiba and Masood Azhar's Jaish-e-Muhammad are two major militant Islamist organisations inspired by Syed Ahmad that wage jihad against India in Kashmir. Other organisations include Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, a Jihadist group in Pakistan.
References
Bibliography
External links
Syed Ahmed Barelvi and his Jihad movement
Syed Ahmad Barelvi
1786 births
1831 deaths
Islamic fundamentalism
Indian Muslim scholars of Islam
Muslim nationalism in South Asia
18th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
Muslim reformers
Non-conformists
Critics of Shia Islam
Anti-Shi'ism
Indian Islamists
People from Raebareli
18th-century Indian Muslims
19th-century Indian Muslims
19th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
Indian people of Arab descent
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabindranath%20Tagore
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Rabindranath Tagore
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Rabindranath Tagore (; ; 7 May 1861 – 8 August 1941) was an Indian poet, writer, playwright, composer, philosopher, social reformer and painter. He reshaped Bengali literature and music as well as Indian art with Contextual Modernism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Author of the "profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful" poetry of Gitanjali, he became in 1913 the first non-European and the first lyricist to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Tagore's poetic songs were viewed as spiritual and mercurial; where his elegant prose and magical poetry were widely popular in the Indian subcontinent. He was a fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society. Referred to as "the Bard of Bengal", Tagore was known by sobriquets: Gurudeb, Kobiguru, and Biswokobi.
A Bengali Brahmin from Calcutta with ancestral gentry roots in Burdwan district and Jessore, Tagore wrote poetry as an eight-year-old. At the age of sixteen, he released his first substantial poems under the pseudonym Bhānusiṃha ("Sun Lion"), which were seized upon by literary authorities as long-lost classics. By 1877 he graduated to his first short stories and dramas, published under his real name. As a humanist, universalist, internationalist, and ardent critic of nationalism, he denounced the British Raj and advocated independence from Britain. As an exponent of the Bengal Renaissance, he advanced a vast canon that comprised paintings, sketches and doodles, hundreds of texts, and some two thousand songs; his legacy also endures in his founding of Visva-Bharati University.
Tagore modernised Bengali art by spurning rigid classical forms and resisting linguistic strictures. His novels, stories, songs, dance-dramas, and essays spoke to topics political and personal. Gitanjali (Song Offerings), Gora (Fair-Faced) and Ghare-Baire (The Home and the World) are his best-known works, and his verse, short stories, and novels were acclaimed—or panned—for their lyricism, colloquialism, naturalism, and unnatural contemplation. His compositions were chosen by two nations as national anthems: India's "Jana Gana Mana" and Bangladesh's "Amar Shonar Bangla". The Sri Lankan national anthem was also inspired by his work.
Family history
The name Tagore is the anglicised transliteration of Thakur. The original surname of the Tagores was Kushari. They were Pirali Brahmin ('Pirali' historically carried a stigmatized and pejorative connotation) who originally belonged to a village named Kush in the district named Burdwan in West Bengal. The biographer of Rabindranath Tagore, Prabhat Kumar Mukhopadhyaya wrote in the first volume of his book Rabindrajibani O Rabindra Sahitya Prabeshak that
Life and events
Early life: 1861–1878
The youngest of 13 surviving children, Tagore (nicknamed "Rabi") was born on 7 May 1861 in the Jorasanko mansion in Calcutta, the son of Debendranath Tagore (1817–1905) and Sarada Devi (1830–1875).
Tagore was raised mostly by servants; his mother had died in his early childhood and his father travelled widely. The Tagore family was at the forefront of the Bengal renaissance. They hosted the publication of literary magazines; theatre and recitals of Bengali and Western classical music featured there regularly. Tagore's father invited several professional Dhrupad musicians to stay in the house and teach Indian classical music to the children. Tagore's oldest brother Dwijendranath was a philosopher and poet. Another brother, Satyendranath, was the first Indian appointed to the elite and formerly all-European Indian Civil Service. Yet another brother, Jyotirindranath, was a musician, composer, and playwright. His sister Swarnakumari became a novelist. Jyotirindranath's wife Kadambari Devi, slightly older than Tagore, was a dear friend and powerful influence. Her abrupt suicide in 1884, soon after he married, left him profoundly distraught for years.
Tagore largely avoided classroom schooling and preferred to roam the manor or nearby Bolpur and Panihati, which the family visited. His brother Hemendranath tutored and physically conditioned him—by having him swim the Ganges or trek through hills, by gymnastics, and by practising judo and wrestling. He learned drawing, anatomy, geography and history, literature, mathematics, Sanskrit, and English—his least favourite subject. Tagore loathed formal education—his scholarly travails at the local Presidency College spanned a single day. Years later he held that proper teaching does not explain things; proper teaching stokes curiosity:
After his upanayan (coming-of-age rite) at age eleven, Tagore and his father left Calcutta in February 1873 to tour India for several months, visiting his father's Santiniketan estate and Amritsar before reaching the Himalayan hill station of Dalhousie. There Tagore read biographies, studied history, astronomy, modern science, and Sanskrit, and examined the classical poetry of Kālidāsa. During his 1-month stay at Amritsar in 1873 he was greatly influenced by melodious gurbani and nanak bani being sung at Golden Temple for which both father and son were regular visitors. He mentions about this in his My Reminiscences (1912) He wrote 6 poems relating to Sikhism and a number of articles in Bengali children's magazine about Sikhism.
Poems on Guru Gobind Singh: নিষ্ফল উপহার Nishfal-upahaar(1888, translated as "Futile Gift"), গুরু গোবিন্দ Guru Gobinda (1899) and শেষ শিক্ষা Shesh Shiksha (1899, translated as "Last Teachings")
Poem on Banda Bahadur: বন্দী বীর Bandi-bir (The Prisoner Warrior written in 1888 or 1898)
Poem on Bhai Torusingh: প্রার্থনাতীত দান (prarthonatit dan - Unsolicited gift) written in 1888 or 1898
Poem on Nehal Singh: নীহাল সিংহ (Nihal Singh) written in 1935.
Tagore returned to Jorosanko and completed a set of major works by 1877, one of them a long poem in the Maithili style of Vidyapati. As a joke, he claimed that these were the lost works of newly discovered 17th-century Vaiṣṇava poet Bhānusiṃha. Regional experts accepted them as the lost works of the fictitious poet. He debuted in the short-story genre in Bengali with "Bhikharini" ("The Beggar Woman"). Published in the same year, Sandhya Sangit (1882) includes the poem "Nirjharer Swapnabhanga" ("The Rousing of the Waterfall").
Shelaidaha: 1878–1901
Because Debendranath wanted his son to become a barrister, Tagore enrolled at a public school in Brighton, East Sussex, England in 1878. He stayed for several months at a house that the Tagore family owned near Brighton and Hove, in Medina Villas; in 1877 his nephew and niece—Suren and Indira Devi, the children of Tagore's brother Satyendranath—were sent together with their mother, Tagore's sister-in-law, to live with him. He briefly read law at University College London, but again left, opting instead for independent study of Shakespeare's plays Coriolanus, and Antony and Cleopatra and the Religio Medici of Thomas Browne. Lively English, Irish, and Scottish folk tunes impressed Tagore, whose own tradition of Nidhubabu-authored kirtans and tappas and Brahmo hymnody was subdued. In 1880 he returned to Bengal degree-less, resolving to reconcile European novelty with Brahmo traditions, taking the best from each. After returning to Bengal, Tagore regularly published poems, stories, and novels. These had a profound impact within Bengal itself but received little national attention. In 1883 he married 10-year-old Mrinalini Devi, born Bhabatarini, 1873–1902 (this was a common practice at the time). They had five children, two of whom died in childhood.
In 1890 Tagore began managing his vast ancestral estates in Shelaidaha (today a region of Bangladesh); he was joined there by his wife and children in 1898. Tagore released his Manasi poems (1890), among his best-known work. As Zamindar Babu, Tagore criss-crossed the Padma River in command of the Padma, the luxurious family barge (also known as "budgerow"). He collected mostly token rents and blessed villagers who in turn honoured him with banquets—occasionally of dried rice and sour milk. He met Gagan Harkara, through whom he became familiar with Baul Lalon Shah, whose folk songs greatly influenced Tagore. Tagore worked to popularise Lalon's songs. The period 1891–1895, Tagore's Sadhana period, named after one of his magazines, was his most productive; in these years he wrote more than half the stories of the three-volume, 84-story Galpaguchchha. Its ironic and grave tales examined the voluptuous poverty of an idealised rural Bengal.
Santiniketan: 1901–1932
In 1901 Tagore moved to Santiniketan to found an ashram with a marble-floored prayer hall—The Mandir—an experimental school, groves of trees, gardens, a library. There his wife and two of his children died. His father died in 1905. He received monthly payments as part of his inheritance and income from the Maharaja of Tripura, sales of his family's jewellery, his seaside bungalow in Puri, and a derisory 2,000 rupees in book royalties. He gained Bengali and foreign readers alike; he published Naivedya (1901) and Kheya (1906) and translated poems into free verse.
In 1912, Tagore translated his 1910 work Gitanjali into English. While on a trip to London, he shared these poems with admirers including William Butler Yeats and Ezra Pound. London's India Society published the work in a limited edition, and the American magazine Poetry published a selection from Gitanjali. In November 1913, Tagore learned he had won that year's Nobel Prize in Literature: the Swedish Academy appreciated the idealistic—and for Westerners—accessible nature of a small body of his translated material focused on the 1912 Gitanjali: Song Offerings. He was awarded a knighthood by King George V in the 1915 Birthday Honours, but Tagore renounced it after the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Renouncing the knighthood, Tagore wrote in a letter addressed to Lord Chelmsford, the then British Viceroy of India, "The disproportionate severity of the punishments inflicted upon the unfortunate people and the methods of carrying them out, we are convinced, are without parallel in the history of civilised governments...The time has come when badges of honour make our shame glaring in their incongruous context of humiliation, and I for my part wish to stand, shorn of all special distinctions, by the side of my country men."
In 1919, he was invited by the president and chairman of Anjuman-e-Islamia, Syed Abdul Majid to visit Sylhet for the first time. The event attracted over 5000 people.
In 1921, Tagore and agricultural economist Leonard Elmhirst set up the "Institute for Rural Reconstruction", later renamed Shriniketan or "Abode of Welfare", in Surul, a village near the ashram. With it, Tagore sought to moderate Gandhi's Swaraj protests, which he occasionally blamed for British India's perceived mental – and thus ultimately colonial – decline. He sought aid from donors, officials, and scholars worldwide to "free village[s] from the shackles of helplessness and ignorance" by "vitalis[ing] knowledge". In the early 1930s he targeted ambient "abnormal caste consciousness" and untouchability. He lectured against these, he penned Dalit heroes for his poems and his dramas, and he campaigned—successfully—to open Guruvayoor Temple to Dalits.
Twilight years: 1932–1941
Dutta and Robinson describe this phase of Tagore's life as being one of a "peripatetic litterateur". It affirmed his opinion that human divisions were shallow. During a May 1932 visit to a Bedouin encampment in the Iraqi desert, the tribal chief told him that "Our Prophet has said that a true Muslim is he by whose words and deeds not the least of his brother-men may ever come to any harm ..." Tagore confided in his diary: "I was startled into recognizing in his words the voice of essential humanity." To the end Tagore scrutinized orthodoxy—and in 1934, he struck. That year, an earthquake hit Bihar and killed thousands. Gandhi hailed it as seismic karma, as divine retribution avenging the oppression of Dalits. Tagore rebuked him for his seemingly ignominious implications. He mourned the perennial poverty of Calcutta and the socioeconomic decline of Bengal and detailed this newly plebeian aesthetics in an unrhymed hundred-line poem whose technique of searing double-vision foreshadowed Satyajit Ray's film . Fifteen new volumes appeared, among them prose-poem works Punashcha (1932), Shes Saptak (1935), and Patraput (1936). Experimentation continued in his prose-songs and dance-dramas— Chitra (1914), Shyama (1939), and Chandalika (1938)— and in his novels— Dui Bon (1933), Malancha (1934), and Char Adhyay (1934).
Tagore's remit expanded to science in his last years, as hinted in Visva-Parichay, a 1937 collection of essays. His respect for scientific laws and his exploration of biology, physics, and astronomy informed his poetry, which exhibited extensive naturalism and verisimilitude. He wove the process of science, the narratives of scientists, into stories in Se (1937), Tin Sangi (1940), and Galpasalpa (1941). His last five years were marked by chronic pain and two long periods of illness. These began when Tagore lost consciousness in late 1937; he remained comatose and near death for a time. This was followed in late 1940 by a similar spell, from which he never recovered. Poetry from these valetudinary years is among his finest. A period of prolonged agony ended with Tagore's death on 8 August 1941, aged 80. He was in an upstairs room of the Jorasanko mansion in which he grew up. The date is still mourned. A. K. Sen, brother of the first chief election commissioner, received dictation from Tagore on 30 July 1941, a day prior to a scheduled operation: his last poem.
Travels
Between 1878 and 1932, Tagore set foot in more than thirty countries on five continents. In 1912, he took a sheaf of his translated works to England, where they gained attention from missionary and Gandhi protégé Charles F. Andrews, Irish poet William Butler Yeats, Ezra Pound, Robert Bridges, Ernest Rhys, Thomas Sturge Moore, and others. Yeats wrote the preface to the English translation of Gitanjali; Andrews joined Tagore at Santiniketan. In November 1912 Tagore began touring the United States and the United Kingdom, staying in Butterton, Staffordshire with Andrews's clergymen friends. From May 1916 until April 1917, he lectured in Japan and the United States. He denounced nationalism. His essay "Nationalism in India" was scorned and praised; it was admired by Romain Rolland and other pacifists.
Shortly after returning home the 63-year-old Tagore accepted an invitation from the Peruvian government. He travelled to Mexico. Each government pledged 100,000 to his school to commemorate the visits. A week after his 6 November 1924 arrival in Buenos Aires, an ill Tagore shifted to the Villa Miralrío at the behest of Victoria Ocampo. He left for home in January 1925. In May 1926 Tagore reached Naples; the next day he met Mussolini in Rome. Their warm rapport ended when Tagore pronounced upon Il Duces fascist finesse. He had earlier enthused: "[w]without any doubt he is a great personality. There is such a massive vigor in that head that it reminds one of Michael Angelo's chisel." A "fire-bath" of fascism was to have educed "the immortal soul of Italy ... clothed in quenchless light".
On 1 November 1926 Tagore arrived at Hungary and spent some time on the shore of Lake Balaton in the city of Balatonfüred, recovering from heart problems at a sanitarium. He planted a tree, and a bust statue was placed there in 1956 (a gift from the Indian government, the work of Rasithan Kashar, replaced by a newly gifted statue in 2005) and the lakeside promenade still bears his name since 1957.
On 14 July 1927 Tagore and two companions began a four-month tour of Southeast Asia. They visited Bali, Java, Kuala Lumpur, Malacca, Penang, Siam, and Singapore. The resultant travelogues compose Jatri (1929). In early 1930 he left Bengal for a nearly year-long tour of Europe and the United States. Upon returning to Britain—and as his paintings were exhibited in Paris and London—he lodged at a Birmingham Quaker settlement. He wrote his Oxford Hibbert Lectures and spoke at the annual London Quaker meet. There, addressing relations between the British and the Indians – a topic he would tackle repeatedly over the next two years – Tagore spoke of a "dark chasm of aloofness". He visited Aga Khan III, stayed at Dartington Hall, toured Denmark, Switzerland, and Germany from June to mid-September 1930, then went on into the Soviet Union. In April 1932 Tagore, intrigued by the Persian mystic Hafez, was hosted by Reza Shah Pahlavi. In his other travels, Tagore interacted with Henri Bergson, Albert Einstein, Robert Frost, Thomas Mann, George Bernard Shaw, H.G. Wells, and Romain Rolland. Visits to Persia and Iraq (in 1932) and Sri Lanka (in 1933) composed Tagore's final foreign tour, and his dislike of communalism and nationalism only deepened.
Vice-president of India M. Hamid Ansari has said that Rabindranath Tagore heralded the cultural rapprochement between communities, societies and nations much before it became the liberal norm of conduct. Tagore was a man ahead of his time. He wrote in 1932, while on a visit to Iran, that "each country of Asia will solve its own historical problems according to its strength, nature and needs, but the lamp they will each carry on their path to progress will converge to illuminate the common ray of knowledge."
Works
Known mostly for his poetry, Tagore wrote novels, essays, short stories, travelogues, dramas, and thousands of songs. Of Tagore's prose, his short stories are perhaps most highly regarded; he is indeed credited with originating the Bengali-language version of the genre. His works are frequently noted for their rhythmic, optimistic, and lyrical nature. Such stories mostly borrow from the lives of common people. Tagore's non-fiction grappled with history, linguistics, and spirituality. He wrote autobiographies. His travelogues, essays, and lectures were compiled into several volumes, including Europe Jatrir Patro (Letters from Europe) and Manusher Dhormo (The Religion of Man). His brief chat with Einstein, "Note on the Nature of Reality", is included as an appendix to the latter. On the occasion of Tagore's 150th birthday, an anthology (titled Kalanukromik Rabindra Rachanabali) of the total body of his works is currently being published in Bengali in chronological order. This includes all versions of each work and fills about eighty volumes. In 2011, Harvard University Press collaborated with Visva-Bharati University to publish The Essential Tagore, the largest anthology of Tagore's works available in English; it was edited by Fakrul Alam and Radha Chakravarthy and marks the 150th anniversary of Tagore's birth.
Drama
Tagore's experiences with drama began when he was sixteen, with his brother Jyotirindranath. He wrote his first original dramatic piece when he was twenty — Valmiki Pratibha which was shown at the Tagore's mansion. Tagore stated that his works sought to articulate "the play of feeling and not of action". In 1890 he wrote Visarjan (an adaptation of his novella Rajarshi), which has been regarded as his finest drama. In the original Bengali language, such works included intricate subplots and extended monologues. Later, Tagore's dramas used more philosophical and allegorical themes. The play Dak Ghar (The Post Office; 1912), describes the child Amal defying his stuffy and puerile confines by ultimately "fall[ing] asleep", hinting his physical death. A story with borderless appeal—gleaning rave reviews in Europe—Dak Ghar dealt with death as, in Tagore's words, "spiritual freedom" from "the world of hoarded wealth and certified creeds". Another is Tagore's Chandalika (Untouchable Girl), which was modelled on an ancient Buddhist legend describing how Ananda, the Gautama Buddha's disciple, asks a tribal girl for water. In Raktakarabi ("Red" or "Blood Oleanders") is an allegorical struggle against a kleptocrat king who rules over the residents of Yaksha puri.
Chitrangada, Chandalika, and Shyama are other key plays that have dance-drama adaptations, which together are known as Rabindra Nritya Natya.
Short stories
Tagore began his career in short stories in 1877—when he was only sixteen—with "Bhikharini" ("The Beggar Woman"). With this, Tagore effectively invented the Bengali-language short story genre. The four years from 1891 to 1895 are known as Tagore's "Sadhana" period (named for one of Tagore's magazines). This period was among Tagore's most fecund, yielding more than half the stories contained in the three-volume Galpaguchchha, which itself is a collection of eighty-four stories. Such stories usually showcase Tagore's reflections upon his surroundings, on modern and fashionable ideas, and on interesting mind puzzles (which Tagore was fond of testing his intellect with). Tagore typically associated his earliest stories (such as those of the "Sadhana" period) with an exuberance of vitality and spontaneity; these characteristics were intimately connected with Tagore's life in the common villages of, among others, Patisar, Shajadpur, and Shilaida while managing the Tagore family's vast landholdings. There, he beheld the lives of India's poor and common people; Tagore thereby took to examining their lives with a penetrative depth and feeling that was singular in Indian literature up to that point. In particular, such stories as "Kabuliwala" ("The Fruitseller from Kabul", published in 1892), "Kshudita Pashan" ("The Hungry Stones") (August 1895), and "Atithi" ("The Runaway", 1895) typified this analytic focus on the downtrodden. Many of the other Galpaguchchha stories were written in Tagore's Sabuj Patra period from 1914 to 1917, also named after one of the magazines that Tagore edited and heavily contributed to.
Novels
Tagore wrote eight novels and four novellas, among them Chaturanga, Shesher Kobita, Char Odhay, and Noukadubi. Ghare Baire (The Home and the World)—through the lens of the idealistic zamindar protagonist Nikhil—excoriates rising Indian nationalism, terrorism, and religious zeal in the Swadeshi movement; a frank expression of Tagore's conflicted sentiments, it emerged from a 1914 bout of depression. The novel ends in Hindu-Muslim violence and Nikhil's—likely mortal—wounding.
Gora raises controversial questions regarding the Indian identity. As with Ghare Baire, matters of self-identity (jāti), personal freedom, and religion are developed in the context of a family story and love triangle. In it an Irish boy orphaned in the Sepoy Mutiny is raised by Hindus as the titular gora—"whitey". Ignorant of his foreign origins, he chastises Hindu religious backsliders out of love for the indigenous Indians and solidarity with them against his hegemon-compatriots. He falls for a Brahmo girl, compelling his worried foster father to reveal his lost past and cease his nativist zeal. As a "true dialectic" advancing "arguments for and against strict traditionalism", it tackles the colonial conundrum by "portray[ing] the value of all positions within a particular frame [...] not only syncretism, not only liberal orthodoxy, but the extremist reactionary traditionalism he defends by an appeal to what humans share." Among these Tagore highlights "identity [...] conceived of as dharma."
In Jogajog (Relationships), the heroine Kumudini—bound by the ideals of Śiva-Sati, exemplified by Dākshāyani—is torn between her pity for the sinking fortunes of her progressive and compassionate elder brother and his foil: her roue of a husband. Tagore flaunts his feminist leanings; pathos depicts the plight and ultimate demise of women trapped by pregnancy, duty, and family honor; he simultaneously trucks with Bengal's putrescent landed gentry. The story revolves around the underlying rivalry between two families—the Chatterjees, aristocrats now on the decline (Biprodas) and the Ghosals (Madhusudan), representing new money and new arrogance. Kumudini, Biprodas' sister, is caught between the two as she is married off to Madhusudan. She had risen in an observant and sheltered traditional home, as had all her female relations.
Others were uplifting: Shesher Kobita—translated twice as Last Poem and Farewell Song—is his most lyrical novel, with poems and rhythmic passages written by a poet protagonist. It contains elements of satire and postmodernism and has stock characters who gleefully attack the reputation of an old, outmoded, oppressively renowned poet who, incidentally, goes by a familiar name: "Rabindranath Tagore". Though his novels remain among the least-appreciated of his works, they have been given renewed attention via film adaptations by Ray and others: Chokher Bali and Ghare Baire are exemplary. In the first, Tagore inscribes Bengali society via its heroine: a rebellious widow who would live for herself alone. He pillories the custom of perpetual mourning on the part of widows, who were not allowed to remarry, who were consigned to seclusion and loneliness. Tagore wrote of it: "I have always regretted the ending".
Poetry
Internationally, Gitanjali () is Tagore's best-known collection of poetry, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913. Tagore was the first non-European to receive a Nobel Prize in Literature and second non-European to receive a Nobel Prize after Theodore Roosevelt.
Besides Gitanjali, other notable works include Manasi, Sonar Tori ("Golden Boat"), Balaka ("Wild Geese" — the title being a metaphor for migrating souls)
Tagore's poetic style, which proceeds from a lineage established by 15th- and 16th-century Vaishnava poets, ranges from classical formalism to the comic, visionary, and ecstatic. He was influenced by the atavistic mysticism of Vyasa and other rishi-authors of the Upanishads, the Bhakti-Sufi mystic Kabir, and Ramprasad Sen. Tagore's most innovative and mature poetry embodies his exposure to Bengali rural folk music, which included mystic Baul ballads such as those of the bard Lalon. These, rediscovered and re-popularized by Tagore, resemble 19th-century Kartābhajā hymns that emphasize inward divinity and rebellion against bourgeois bhadralok religious and social orthodoxy. During his Shelaidaha years, his poems took on a lyrical voice of the moner manush, the Bāuls' "man within the heart" and Tagore's "life force of his deep recesses", or meditating upon the jeevan devata—the demiurge or the "living God within". This figure connected with divinity through appeal to nature and the emotional interplay of human drama. Such tools saw use in his Bhānusiṃha poems chronicling the Radha-Krishna romance, which were repeatedly revised over the course of seventy years.
Later, with the development of new poetic ideas in Bengal – many originating from younger poets seeking to break with Tagore's style – Tagore absorbed new poetic concepts, which allowed him to further develop a unique identity. Examples of this include Africa and Camalia, which are among the better known of his latter poems.
Songs (Rabindra Sangeet)
Tagore was a prolific composer with around 2,230 songs to his credit. His songs are known as rabindrasangit ("Tagore Song"), which merges fluidly into his literature, most of which—poems or parts of novels, stories, or plays alike—were lyricized. Influenced by the thumri style of Hindustani music, they ran the entire gamut of human emotion, ranging from his early dirge-like Brahmo devotional hymns to quasi-erotic compositions. They emulated the tonal color of classical ragas to varying extents. Some songs mimicked a given raga's melody and rhythm faithfully, others newly blended elements of different ragas. Yet about nine-tenths of his work was not bhanga gaan, the body of tunes revamped with "fresh value" from select Western, Hindustani, Bengali folk and other regional flavors "external" to Tagore's own ancestral culture.
In 1971, Amar Shonar Bangla became the national anthem of Bangladesh. It was written – ironically – to protest the 1905 Partition of Bengal along communal lines: cutting off the Muslim-majority East Bengal from Hindu-dominated West Bengal was to avert a regional bloodbath. Tagore saw the partition as a cunning plan to stop the independence movement, and he aimed to rekindle Bengali unity and tar communalism. Jana Gana Mana was written in shadhu-bhasha, a Sanskritised form of Bengali, and is the first of five stanzas of the Brahmo hymn Bharot Bhagyo Bidhata that Tagore composed. It was first sung in 1911 at a Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress and was adopted in 1950 by the Constituent Assembly of the Republic of India as its national anthem.
Sri Lanka's National Anthem was inspired by his work.
For Bengalis, the songs' appeal, stemming from the combination of emotive strength and beauty described as surpassing even Tagore's poetry, was such that the Modern Review observed that "[t]here is in Bengal no cultured home where Rabindranath's songs are not sung or at least attempted to be sung... Even illiterate villagers sing his songs". Tagore influenced sitar maestro Vilayat Khan and sarodiyas Buddhadev Dasgupta and Amjad Ali Khan.
Art works
At sixty, Tagore took up drawing and painting; successful exhibitions of his many works—which made a debut appearance in Paris upon encouragement by artists he met in the south of France—were held throughout Europe. He was likely red, green color blind, resulting in works that exhibited strange color schemes and off-beat aesthetics. Tagore was influenced by numerous styles, including scrimshaw by the Malanggan people of northern New Ireland, Papua New Guinea, Haida carvings from the Pacific Northwest region of North America, and woodcuts by the German Max Pechstein. His artist's eye for handwriting was revealed in the simple artistic and rhythmic leitmotifs embellishing the scribbles, cross-outs, and word layouts of his manuscripts. Some of Tagore's lyrics corresponded in a synesthetic sense with particular paintings.
India's National Gallery of Modern Art lists 102 works by Tagore in its collections.
In 1937, Tagore's paintings were removed from Berlin's baroque Crown Prince Palace by the Nazi regime and five were included in the inventory of "degenerate art" compiled by the Nazis in 1941–1942.
Politics
Tagore opposed imperialism and supported Indian nationalists, and these views were first revealed in Manast, which was mostly composed in his twenties. Evidence produced during the Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial and latter accounts affirm his awareness of the Ghadarites and stated that he sought the support of Japanese Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake and former Premier Ōkuma Shigenobu. Yet he lampooned the Swadeshi movement; he rebuked it in The Cult of the Charkha, an acrid 1925 essay. According to Amartya Sen, Tagore rebelled against strongly nationalist forms of the independence movement, and he wanted to assert India's right to be independent without denying the importance of what India could learn from abroad. He urged the masses to avoid victimology and instead seek self-help and education, and he saw the presence of British administration as a "political symptom of our social disease". He maintained that, even for those at the extremes of poverty, "there can be no question of blind revolution"; preferable to it was a "steady and purposeful education".
Such views enraged many. He escaped assassination—and only narrowly—by Indian expatriates during his stay in a San Francisco hotel in late 1916; the plot failed when his would-be assassins fell into argument. Tagore wrote songs lionizing the Indian independence movement. Two of Tagore's more politically charged compositions, "Chitto Jetha Bhayshunyo" ("Where the Mind is Without Fear") and "Ekla Chalo Re" ("If They Answer Not to Thy Call, Walk Alone"), gained mass appeal, with the latter favored by Gandhi. Though somewhat critical of Gandhian activism, Tagore was key in resolving a Gandhi–Ambedkar dispute involving separate electorates for untouchables, thereby mooting at least one of Gandhi's fasts "unto death".
Repudiation of knighthood
Tagore renounced his knighthood in response to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919. In the repudiation letter to the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, he wrote
Santiniketan and Visva-Bharati
Tagore despised rote classroom schooling: in "The Parrot's Training", a bird is caged and force-fed textbook pages—to death. Visiting Santa Barbara in 1917, Tagore conceived a new type of university: he sought to "make Santiniketan the connecting thread between India and the world [and] a world center for the study of humanity somewhere beyond the limits of nation and geography." The school, which he named Visva-Bharati, had its foundation stone laid on 24 December 1918 and was inaugurated precisely three years later. Tagore employed a brahmacharya system: gurus gave pupils personal guidance—emotional, intellectual, and spiritual. Teaching was often done under trees. He staffed the school, he contributed his Nobel Prize monies, and his duties as steward-mentor at Santiniketan kept him busy: mornings he taught classes; afternoons and evenings he wrote the students' textbooks. He fundraised widely for the school in Europe and the United States between 1919 and 1921.
Theft of Nobel Prize
On 25 March 2004, Tagore's Nobel Prize was stolen from the safety vault of the Visva-Bharati University, along with several other of his belongings. On 7 December 2004, the Swedish Academy decided to present two replicas of Tagore's Nobel Prize, one made of gold and the other made of bronze, to the Visva-Bharati University. It inspired the fictional film Nobel Chor. In 2016, a baul singer named Pradip Bauri, accused of sheltering the thieves, was arrested.
Impact and legacy
Every year, many events pay tribute to Tagore: Kabipranam, his birth anniversary, is celebrated by groups scattered across the globe; the annual Tagore Festival held in Urbana, Illinois (US); Rabindra Path Parikrama walking pilgrimages from Kolkata to Santiniketan; and recitals of his poetry, which are held on important anniversaries. Bengali culture is fraught with this legacy: from language and arts to history and politics. Amartya Sen deemed Tagore a "towering figure", a "deeply relevant and many-sided contemporary thinker". Tagore's Bengali originals—the 1939 Rabīndra Rachanāvalī—is canonized as one of his nation's greatest cultural treasures, and he was roped into a reasonably humble role: "the greatest poet India has produced".
Tagore was renowned throughout much of Europe, North America, and East Asia. He co-founded Dartington Hall School, a progressive coeducational institution; in Japan, he influenced such figures as Nobel laureate Yasunari Kawabata. In colonial Vietnam Tagore was a guide for the restless spirit of the radical writer and publicist Nguyen An Ninh Tagore's works were widely translated into English, Dutch, German, Spanish, and other European languages by Czech Indologist Vincenc Lesný, French Nobel laureate André Gide, Russian poet Anna Akhmatova, former Turkish Prime Minister Bülent Ecevit, and others. In the United States, Tagore's lecturing circuits, particularly those of 1916–1917, were widely attended and wildly acclaimed. Some controversies involving Tagore, possibly fictive, trashed his popularity and sales in Japan and North America after the late 1920s, concluding with his "near total eclipse" outside Bengal. Yet a latent reverence of Tagore was discovered by an astonished Salman Rushdie during a trip to Nicaragua.
By way of translations, Tagore influenced Chileans Pablo Neruda and Gabriela Mistral; Mexican writer Octavio Paz; and Spaniards José Ortega y Gasset, Zenobia Camprubí, and Juan Ramón Jiménez. In the period 1914–1922, the Jiménez-Camprubí pair produced twenty-two Spanish translations of Tagore's English corpus; they heavily revised The Crescent Moon and other key titles. In these years, Jiménez developed "naked poetry". Ortega y Gasset wrote that "Tagore's wide appeal [owes to how] he speaks of longings for perfection that we all have [...] Tagore awakens a dormant sense of childish wonder, and he saturates the air with all kinds of enchanting promises for the reader, who [...] pays little attention to the deeper import of Oriental mysticism". Tagore's works circulated in free editions around 1920—alongside those of Plato, Dante, Cervantes, Goethe, and Tolstoy.
Tagore was deemed over-rated by some. Graham Greene doubted that "anyone but Mr. Yeats can still take his poems very seriously." Several prominent Western admirers—including Pound and, to a lesser extent, even Yeats—criticized Tagore's work. Yeats, unimpressed with his English translations, railed against that "Damn Tagore [...] We got out three good books, Sturge Moore and I, and then, because he thought it more important to see and know English than to be a great poet, he brought out sentimental rubbish and wrecked his reputation. Tagore does not know English, no Indian knows English." William Radice, who "English[ed]" his poems, asked: "What is their place in world literature?" He saw him as "kind of counter-cultur[al]", bearing "a new kind of classicism" that would heal the "collapsed romantic confusion and chaos of the 20th century." The translated Tagore was "almost nonsensical", and subpar English offerings reduced his trans-national appeal:
Museums
There are eight Tagore museums, three in India and five in Bangladesh:
Rabindra Bharati Museum, at Jorasanko Thakur Bari, Kolkata, India
Tagore Memorial Museum, at Shilaidaha Kuthibadi, Shilaidaha, Bangladesh
Rabindra Memorial Museum at Shahzadpur Kachharibari, Shahzadpur, Bangladesh
Rabindra Bhavan Museum, in Santiniketan, India
Rabindra Museum, in Mungpoo, near Kalimpong, India
Patisar Rabindra Kacharibari, Patisar, Atrai, Naogaon, Bangladesh
Pithavoge Rabindra Memorial Complex, Pithavoge, Rupsha, Khulna, Bangladesh
Rabindra Complex, Dakkhindihi village, Phultala Upazila, Khulna, Bangladesh
Jorasanko Thakur Bari (Bengali: House of the Thakurs; anglicised to Tagore) in Jorasanko, north of Kolkata, is the ancestral home of the Tagore family. It is currently located on the Rabindra Bharati University campus at 6/4 Dwarakanath Tagore Lane Jorasanko, Kolkata 700007. It is the house in which Tagore was born, and also the place where he spent most of his childhood and where he died on 7 August 1941.
List of works
The SNLTR hosts the 1415 BE edition of Tagore's complete Bengali works. Tagore Web also hosts an edition of Tagore's works, including annotated songs. Translations are found at Project Gutenberg and Wikisource. More sources are below.
Original
Translated
In popular culture
Rabindranath Tagore is a 1961 Indian documentary film written and directed by Satyajit Ray, released during the birth centenary of Tagore. It was produced by the Government of India's Films Division.
Serbian composer Darinka Simic-Mitrovic used Tagore's text for her song cycle Gradinar in 1962.
In 1969, American composer E. Anne Schwerdtfeger was commissioned to compose Two Pieces, a work for women's chorus based on text by Tagore.
In Sukanta Roy's Bengali film Chhelebela (2002) Jisshu Sengupta portrayed Tagore.
In Bandana Mukhopadhyay's Bengali film Chirosakha He (2007) Sayandip Bhattacharya played Tagore.
In Rituparno Ghosh's Bengali documentary film Jeevan Smriti (2011) Samadarshi Dutta played Tagore.
In Suman Ghosh's Bengali film Kadambari (2015) Parambrata Chatterjee portrayed Tagore.
See also
List of Indian writers
Kazi Nazrul Islam
Rabindra Jayanti
Rabindra Puraskar
Tagore family
An Artist in Life — biography by Niharranjan Ray
Taptapadi
Timeline of Rabindranath Tagore
Music of Bengal
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Primary
Anthologies
Originals
Translations
Secondary
Articles
Books
Other
Texts
Original
Translated
Further reading
External links
School of Wisdom
Analyses
Ezra Pound: "Rabindranath Tagore", The Fortnightly Review, March 1913
Mary Lago Collection, University of Missouri
Audiobooks
Texts
Bichitra: Online Tagore Variorum
Talks
South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)
Writers from Kolkata
1861 births
1941 deaths
Presidency University, Kolkata alumni
Alumni of University College London
Bengali Hindus
Bengali philosophers
Bengali writers
Bengali zamindars
Brahmos
Founders of Indian schools and colleges
Indian Nobel laureates
National anthem writers
Nobel laureates in Literature
People associated with Santiniketan
Oriental Seminary alumni
Vangiya Sahitya Parishad
English-language poets from India
19th-century Bengali poets
Bengali nationalists
Bengali-language poets
Bengali musicians
Indian Hindus
Indian male dramatists and playwrights
Indian male songwriters
Indian songwriters
Indian male essayists
19th-century Indian painters
Rabindranath
Musicians from Kolkata
19th-century Indian educational theorists
Indian portrait painters
Artist authors
Indian male poets
20th-century Indian painters
19th-century Indian poets
20th-century Indian poets
19th-century Indian musicians
19th-century Indian composers
20th-century Indian composers
19th-century Indian philosophers
20th-century Indian philosophers
20th-century Bengali poets
Bengali male poets
Indian male painters
Poets from West Bengal
19th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Indian dramatists and playwrights
20th-century Indian essayists
19th-century Indian essayists
20th-century Indian novelists
20th-century Indian educational theorists
Knights Bachelor
Painters from West Bengal
19th-century male musicians
Indian classical composers
19th-century classical musicians
Haiku poets
People associated with Shillong
Indian social reformers
Poets from British India
Dramatists and playwrights from British India
People from the Bengal Presidency
Hindu poets
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Game%20%282006%20TV%20series%29
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The Game (2006 TV series)
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The Game is an American television series created by Mara Brock Akil. A spin-off of UPN's Girlfriends, the series premiered on its successor network The CW on October 1, 2006.
The series was canceled in May 2009 after three seasons. Viacom's BET Networks would strike a deal with CBS Corporation to develop new episodes of the series, relocating taping of the show from Los Angeles to Atlanta, and announcing its renewal at the April 2010 upfronts. New seasons began airing on BET starting January 11, 2011, with the fourth season premiere drawing 7.7 million viewers, making it the most watched sitcom premiere in cable television history. The show would air for six seasons on BET, being renewed for its final two in 2014, and concluding its run on August 5, 2015.
In May 2021, a revival of the series was ordered by Paramount+ with Robinson and Chanchez returning. The revival series premiered on November 11, 2021, and was renewed for a second season in February 2022. On June 23, 2023, it was announced that the series was canceled after two seasons.<ref>{{cite web|last=Swift|first=Andy|url=https://tvline.com/lists/paramount-cancels-4-series-including-grease-the-game-and-star-trek-prodigy/|title=Paramount+ Cancels 4 Series, Including Grease, The Game and Star Trek: Prodigy|website=TVLine|date=June 23, 2023|access-date=June 23, 2023}}</ref> On June 26, 2023, The Game was removed from Paramount+.
Premise
For the first five seasons, The Game was centered around Joan Clayton's first cousin, Melanie Barnett (Tia Mowry), who was first introduced in the 2006 Girlfriends episode of the same name. Melanie is a first-year medical school student who has given up an offer of admission to Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in Baltimore to follow her boyfriend, Derwin Davis (Pooch Hall), to San Diego, against the advice of her parents. Derwin is a first-year rookie American football player with a fictional "San Diego Sabers" team. As Melanie settles into her new life, she meets Tasha Mack (Wendy Raquel Robinson), the mother of Sabers' starting quarterback Malik Wright (Hosea Chanchez), and Kelly Pitts (Brittany Daniel), the then-wife of Sabers' captain Jason Pitts (Coby Bell), who warn her to keep a close eye on her boyfriend because of the numerous "gold diggers" who approach the professional American football players. As Melanie learns to balance her new roles as both med student and the partner of a professional American football player, the series focuses on the evolving relationships between the players and their significant others.
Episodes
Cast
Main cast
Hosea Chanchez as Malik Wright – Malik Wright is the San Diego Sabers superstar quarterback and the son of Tasha Mack. Arrogant and cocky, Malik initially begins the series as an immature womanizer. He falls in love with actress Robin Givens and convinces her to marry him as a publicity stunt. In the beginning, he lived with his mom but eventually gets his own place for the purpose of being able to party every night. He also fired his mom in season 2. In the season 3, he finally meets his father and his half sister, Pucci, whom he tries to help with her singing career. In season 4, Malik is still a cocky, spoiled playboy who is sleeping with the wife of the Sabers' new owner (guest star Meagan Good). Malik gets incarcerated for assaulting a cop and DUI, and goes to rehab to solve his newfound problems. In rehab, he falls for a troubled supermodel Jenna Rice (Tika Sumpter). In season 5, Malik has financial issues and is forced to sell his multimillion-dollar mansion and his cars. The season 5 finale, Malik ends his relationship with Jenna. He seemed to be getting his life together, but then had converted back to his old ways. During the season 6 finale, after Malik lands in the hospital from being beat up by a group of men, he learns he won't have full use of his football arm anymore. In season 7, Malik goes through physical therapy in hopes of getting back into American football and falls for his previously lesbian physical therapist Yanna. In the season 7 finale Malik ends his relationship with Yanna. In season 8 Malik rejoins the Sabers, but loses his position as team captain to Blue. In the season 8 finale he and Keira admit their feelings about each other (after being best friends for a long time). In the beginning of season 9 Malik and Keira are in a relationship as he and Blue began feuding, and he becomes the laughing stock of the team . Then, in the next to last episode, Malik breaks up with Keira after realizing he wasn't truly in love with her the way he was with Yanna.(Malik determined this after realizing he wasn't crying after having sex with Keira like he did with Yanna, something he had never felt before then.) Keira responds by slapping him. In the series finale Malik leads the team to the playoffs, he proposes to Keira (who declines), he had plans to retire, but he continues to play, winning another championship with the Sabers.
Wendy Raquel Robinson as Tasha Mack - Tasha is the brash, bold, & flamboyant mother of Malik Wright and begins the series as his manager. Malik, giving his mother an ultimatum at one point, eventually fires Tasha. It is then that Tasha builds her own management company, Tasha Mack Management. She dissolves the company, however, to join Irv Smiff Management (ISM). In season three, she falls in love with former NBA player Rick Fox, who also works for ISM. Tasha ends up getting fired from ISM, and dumps Rick in the aftermath, assuming that he knew all about Irv Smith's plans to fire her. In the season three finale, Kelly Pitts and Tasha have a falling-out when Kelly discovers that Tasha set her then ex-husband, Jason Pitts, with his then new girlfriend, Camille. The altercation soon turns physical, with Kelly punching Tasha. Season four started with Tasha as Derwin's agent. She had also begun dating a much younger man named Donté (played by former 106 & Park host Terrence J). In season 5, Tasha decided to be celibate after a brief romance with a male escort (Carl Anthony Payne). She eventually falls for her longtime friend Pookie (Rockmond Dunbar). In the Season 5 finale, her ex-boyfriend Rick Fox returns. In season 6, she appoints herself Sunbeams president due to Jaz arguing with everybody with Tasha and Keira and Chardonnay. At the end of season 7, after breaking up with Pookie (upon Pookie finding out about her affairs with Rick) and later with Rick, she becomes pregnant & delivers a baby girl by Pookie. In the series finale, after revealing the feelings they still had for each other Tasha & Pookie decided to be together & happily moved into their own house with their baby daughter.
Coby Bell as Jason Pitts (seasons 1–3 and 6–9; recurring seasons 4–5) – Jason is a San Diego Sabers former team captain and superstar wide receiver, later its head coach. He is the husband of Kelly Pitts, although they divorced in season 3. Jason and Kelly have one child, Brittany Pitts. In season 2, realizing that his skills were visibly diminishing, Jason starts using steroids to boost his performance. The Sabers win the championship that year. But once Kelly finds out about his steroid use it puts a strain on their relationship, leading to their divorce in season 3. Jason had a girlfriend briefly in season 3 (guest star Stacey Dash); however, he is single at the beginning of season 4. Jason is officially cut from the Sabers in season 4, and he becomes a correspondent on Benched, a sports news television series hosted by former NBA basketball player Chris Webber. In season 5, he is a correspondent on his own show, The Pitts Stop, and is in a romantic relationship with girlfriend-wife Chardonnay (portrayed by Brandy Norwood). In season 6, Jason makes an attempt at a comeback but suffered a concussion, affecting his playing ability among other things as well. He retires for good at the beginning of season 7. In season 7 Kelly returns and attends the wedding of Chardonnay and Jason (at Chardonnay's request). Jason does not marry Chardonnay, admitting he is still in love with Kelly. In season 8 Jason courts Kelly again (despite her initial reluctance) and is also named interim head coach of the Sabers. He and Kelly remarry in season 9.
Brittany Daniel as Kelly Pitts (seasons 1–3 and 9; recurring seasons 4 and 7–8) – Kelly Pitts is the wife of Jason Pitts, mother of Brittany Pitts, and former President of the Sunbeams. After their relationship gradually becomes more and more strained in season 2, Kelly and Jason divorce at the beginning of season three. At the start of season 4, it is revealed that Kelly is now a reality TV star, with her own show centered around the ex-wives of professional athletes. Her character was bumped down to recurring in season 4, and her character was effectively written out of the show in season 4 after she stated to Jason that she needed to head back home to her parents to find herself again. Daniel had made no further appearances in the series after that season. But in season 6, Kelly is heavily mentioned by the remaining characters (especially Tasha). After being referred to a therapist by Kelly, Tasha reveals that Kelly has since moved to Paris. She made her return in season 7. She comes to Chardonnay and Jason's wedding where Jason reveals he still loves her, ending the wedding. She and Jason get remarried in season 9.
Pooch Hall as Derwin Davis (seasons 1−5; guest seasons 6 and 9) - Derwin is a wide receiver for the San Diego Sabers and husband of Melanie Barnett. In the season one finale, Derwin has an affair with Drew Sidora, and Melanie breaks off the relationship. In the beginning of season 2, after desperately trying to get her back, Derwin acts out against Melanie for a bit until she saves him from a gold digger who tried to "trap" him by getting her pregnant. Derwin and Melanie became cordial for a minute as they both went about their own way & were seeing other people, but a run-in at a grocery store and later at Derwin's apartment on the day of the Super Bowl stirred up their old feelings of love again, as the two passionately kiss upon sight the second time. The off field drama didn't affect Derwin's play on the field though, as he became a rising star for the Sabers until he suffered a bad knee injury in a playoff game. In the season two finale, he finds out his ex-girlfriend Janay is pregnant with his baby, and he and Melanie get back together. Derwin ran into some on the field issues (due to his injury, the Sabers considered cutting him for a little while) and off the field issues throughout season 3 (questions about whether he was actually the father of Janay's baby, Melanie and Janay feuding, getting with Melanie but not being all in, Melanie breaking up then getting back with him while having an affair with a handsome doctor, Derwin breaking up and then trying to get with Janay only for the baby's sake, and finally breaking up with Janay and proposing to Melanie). In the season three finale, Derwin's son is born and he finally marries Melanie in a private ceremony. In the fourth-season premiere, there are still some questions regarding the true paternity of Derwin's son. Derwin also emerges as a superstar player in season 4, getting numerous endorsement deals, including Nike, and becoming the new face of the Sabers organization. In May 2012, it was announced that Hall would not return to The Game for the sixth season; however in August 2012 it was announced that he would be returning, but Hall would only appear in one episode. In season 6, Derwin was traded to Baltimore in exchange for Blue and he is the enemies of Bryce "Blue" Westbrook, who was chosen by Baltimore as the Number 1 Draft Pick. This allowed Derwin to be with Melanie, who is in Baltimore doing her Residency. The trade, however, was not planned by Derwin, but executed by the team owner because Derwin was responsible for the injury of former teammate and quarterback Kwan Kirkland. In the series finale of season 9, Derwin made an appearance with a pregnant Melanie as the episode closes it's shown that they've had a baby boy & girl. He did not appear in Seasons 7 and 8.
Tia Mowry-Hardrict as Dr Melanie Barnett-Davis, M.D. (seasons 1−5; guest season 9) - Melanie is the show's main protagonist. In season one, Melanie is a medical student who gave up the chance to attend Johns Hopkins School of Medicine to move to San Diego with her boyfriend Derwin Davis while attending a less prestigious medical school in the area. Melanie is the cousin of Los Angeles attorney-turned-restaurateur Joan Clayton (of Girlfriends). In season one, Melanie and Derwin break up due to Derwin's infidelity with singer Drew Sidora, which starts a series of ups-and-downs between the two. In the season three finale, Melanie finally marries Derwin during a private ceremony, after the public ceremony was interrupted by the birth of Derwin's son by his ex-girlfriend Janay. In season five, after confessing that she felt empty being just a housewife despite their wealth and Derwin's success, she decides to pursue her medical career and begin a residency program at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Derwin was against it at first but eventually came around. In May 2012 Mowry announced via her Twitter account that she would not be returning to The Game in season six. In the series finale, Melanie made an appearance in where she was pregnant with her & Derwin's twin babies and as the episode closes it's shown that she has had a boy and girl. She did not appear in Season 6, Season 7 and Season 8.
Brandy as Chardonnay Pitts (seasons 6–9; recurring season 5) – Chardonnay Pitts is the ex-wife of Jason Pitts. She and Jason meet when he goes to the bar where she bartends. She refuses to serve Jason, who tells her boss and gets her fired. Feeling bad after he got her fired, Jason takes her on a date. They wind up in Tijuana. Jason gets drunk and Chardonnay tricks him into marrying her to see if he really loves black women. They return to San Diego and decide to get their marriage annulled. In the season 5 finale Chardonnay and Jason decide not to go through with the annulment and stay married. Though they have their ups and downs, everything seems fine between the two until Kelly shows up in season 7. Kelly pays off Ty Savage (Jason's former teammate) to stop him from revealing Jason's steroid use. This upsets Chardonnay to the point that she kicks Jason out of the house. She lets him back in and despite his reveal that he kissed Kelly after visiting her in a hotel, they still plan to get married. But in the season 7 finale, Jason doesn't go through with the wedding, revealing he's still in love with Kelly. Chardonnay slaps Jason and storms off, beside herself. At the beginning of season 8 she goes back to Fresno, saying to Tasha there is nothing left but bad memories in San Diego.
Lauren London as Keira Michelle Whitaker (seasons 6–9) – Keira is a former child star who starred in a fictional 'Cosby'-esque sitcom called Stuck Together. She is struggling to make the transition from child star to adult. Keira is one of the new characters introduced in season 6. Her character does not replace Melanie, but is a new character added into the script. Her love interest is "Bryce 'Blue' Westbrook". The two meet at a party where they hook up. After being shut down by Keira, Blue hooks up with Keira's friend, singer Ciara, making Keira jealous. Blue and Keira try to ignore and anger each other at first, then become cordial, then fall for each other. After Keira loses her virginity to Blue however, they break up due to Blue's insensitivity. They still have feelings for each other even while Keira briefly dates an actor named Luke, with whom she has a rather raunchy sex scene in her movie 'Baggers', that she didn't want Blue to see at the premiere. (He sees it from the back.) They break up again. After more ups and downs in season 7, they elope in that season's finale after Blue proposes, skipping Jason and Chardonnay's wedding. In season 8, after being told by several people that she needs to dedicate herself to her craft, she kisses Malik at an audition after being made to by the acting coach, leading to deeper feelings between the two, who were just best friends before. Blue catches on & breaks off the engagement in season 9 after a huge fight between him and Malik in an elevator. Keira ends up with Malik, at the disapproval of Tasha. In the series finale, after Malik breaks up with Keira, she sleeps with Blue once more, refuses Malik's proposal & she decides to focus on her career. She gets her breakout role.
Jay Ellis as Bryce "Blueprint" Westbrook (seasons 6–9) – Bryce is a San Diego Sabers wide receiver and the first overall draft pick from Stanford who is highly educated and often the smartest person in the room. Even though he is bright and talented, he is still a young man who has a lot to learn about life, love and himself. Blue is one of the new characters that was introduced in season 6. His character replaces Derwin Davis as a main character. Blue was traded from Baltimore to San Diego in exchange for Derwin. The two men confront each other at a post-draft party and brawl. That same night he pursues Keira for the first time. They start an on-again, off-again type of relationship throughout the series. Though Blue had his moments where he attempts to act out against Keira when the two weren't together by using women to make her jealous (sleeping with Ciara, bringing her to a group photoshoot, & the party bus episode all in season 6, having an escort with him in the season 7 premiere, having a woman with him in season 9 as he calls off their engagement), he obviously still loves Keira. In season 7 Jason chastises Blue for not being focused due to his off the field distractions. Blue takes initiative and eventually becomes team captain in season 8. In season 9 he led a protest against Saber management that cost him a couple of games, though the Sabers would eventually win the championship in the series finale.
Current recurring cast
Barry Floyd as Terrence "Tee-Tee" Carter - Malik's childhood friend, former assistant, and owner of Tee Tee's Cluck Truck.
Rockmond Dunbar as Pookie - Ex-con; Tasha's old friend and eventual love interest. He is the father of Tasha's newborn baby. It is revealed his real name is Marion.
Previous recurring cast
P. J. Byrne as Irv Smiff - Owner of Irv Smiff Management (ISM). (Seasons 1–3, 5, 9)
Bumper Robinson as Juvon Glenn - San Diego Sabers' Running Back and husband of Jazz. (Seasons 1, 3–6, 8-9)
Shanti Lowry as Dionne Marie Taylor - Derwin's former publicist and Melanie's previous roommate. (Seasons 1–3, 8)
Gregory Alan Williams as Dr. James Barnett - Melanie's father. (Seasons 1, 3-4)
Claudette Roche as Grace Barnett - Melanie's mother. (Seasons 1, 3-4)
Tahj Mowry as Cameron Barnett - Melanie's brother. (Season 1, 3)
Drew Sidora as herself — singer; Derwin's brief love interest. (Seasons 1-2)
Rocky Carroll as Kenny "Coach T" Taylor - offensive coordinator of the San Diego Sabers; Tasha's brief love interest. (Seasons 1-2)
Caryn Ward as Erica Harrison (Seasons 1–4, 8)
Kendra C. Johnson as Renee Royce - TV personality and one of Malik's love interests. (Seasons 1-2)
Chaz Lamar Shepherd as Trey Wiggs - Melanie's college friend and father of Melanie's aborted baby. (Seasons 1–2, 5)
Rick Fox as himself — former NBA basketball player; Tasha's co-worker and eventual love interest. (Seasons 2–3, 5–6, 9)
Robin Givens as herself — actress; Malik's ex-wife. (Seasons 2-3)
Tae Heckard as Jasmine "Jazz" - the former Sunbeams President and Wife of San Diego Sabers' Running Back Juvon (Seasons 2–6, 8-9)
Gabrielle Dennis as Janay Brice - Derwin's ex-girlfriend and mother of his son. In season 5, it was revealed that she is engaged to a man named Noah and decided to take her son DJ and move to New York with her fiancé. (Seasons 2-5)
Lee Majors as Coach Ross - coach of the San Diego Sabers. (Seasons 2-3)
Mehcad Brooks as Jerome - Melanie's ex-boyfriend. (Seasons 2-3)
Jason Olive as McHottie - Melanie's love interest in medical school. (Season 3, 5)
Michael Boatman as Lawrence Chauncey Wright - Malik's father. (Season 3)
Lisa Tucker as Pucci Wright - Malik's half-sister. (Season 3)
Stacey Dash as Camille Rose - Jason's ex-girlfriend. (Seasons 3-4)
Michael Beach as Roger Keith - Owner of San Diego Sabers. (Seasons 4–6, 8-9)
Terrence Jenkins as Donté - the younger ex-boyfriend of Tasha. (Season 4)
Chris Webber as himself — former NBA basketball player; Jason's co-host on the sports news television series Benched. (Season 4)
Tika Sumpter as Jenna Rice - Super Model; Malik met Jenna in Rehab; later Malik's love interest. (Seasons 4-5)
Meagan Good as Parker Keith - The wife of Roger Keith; had an affair with Malik. (Season 4)
Jigga as Bibs - Malik's bodyguard. (Seasons 4-9)
Isley Anderson as D.J. - Derwin and Janay's son (Seasons 4–5, 9)
Charles Michael Davis as Kwan Kirkland - the San Diego Saber's former quarterback. (Seasons 4-5)
Janet Varney as Summer Grayson - co-host of The Pitts Stop. (Season 5)
Ciara as Herself — singer; friend of Keira; she hooked up with Blue. (Season 6)
Candice Patton as Tori - Malik's personal assistant. (Seasons 6-7)
LaMonica Garrett as Luke Rogers (Season 6)
Miranda Rae Mayo as Patreece Sheibani (Season 6)
Carissa Capobianco as Nina - Malik's girlfriend; friend of Keira. (Seasons 6-7)
Hayley Marie Norman as Bianca (Season 6)
Danielle Nicolet as Yana - A physical therapist who agrees to help Malik recuperate from his injured arm. (Season 7-9)
Andra Fuller as Roger Keith Jr. - The son of Sabers owner Roger Keith. (Seasons 9)
Richard Gant as Walter Mack - Tasha Mack's father, Malik's Grandfather (Season 6-7, 9)
Special guest appearances
Jared Allen
Tichina Arnold
Nnamdi Asomugha
Rob Base
Garcelle Beauvais
Chico Benymon
Derek Blanks
Tisha Campbell-Martin
Chamillionaire
Morris Chestnut
Terry Crews
Loretta Devine
Dustin Diamond
Christopher B. Duncan
Earthquake
Selita Ebanks
Raymond Edwards, Jr.
David Eigenberg
Carmen Electra
Estelle
Eve
Faith Evans
Fabolous
Melyssa Ford
Scott Michael Foster
Vivica A. Fox
Andy Allo
Tomiko Fraser
Kevin Frazier
Rudy Gay
Cuba Gooding, Jr.
Kelsey Grammer
Tiffany Haddish
Irma P. Hall
Regina Hall
Cory Hardrict
Hill Harper
Napoleon Harris
Jamie Hector
Jim Hill
Djimon Hounsou
Daymond John
Magic Johnson
Shawn Johnson
Mike Jones
Leslie Jordan
Gayle King
Solange Knowles
Queen Latifah
Martin Lawrence
NeNe Leakes
Lisa Leslie
LisaRaye
Lil Scrappy
Lil' Kim
Nia Long
Eva Marcille
Shawn Marion
Penny Marshall
Duane Martin
Darius McCrary
Willie McGinest
Lonette McKee
Romeo Miller
Daryl Mitchell
Kel Mitchell
Mo'Nique
Tahj Mowry
Bria Murphy
Musiq
Navid Negahban
Elimu Nelson
Chad Ochocinco
Terrell Owens
Keke Palmer
Carl Anthony Payne II
Mario Van Peebles
Shaun Phillips
Eyal Podell
Kyla Pratt
Reagan Gomez-Preston
Jerry Rice
Charlie Robinson
Jalen Rose
Kelly Rowland
Ja Rule
Ephraim Salaam
Drew Sidora
John Singleton
Kenny Smith
Tasha Smith
Soulja Boy
Keith Sweat
Nick Swisher
Raven-Symoné
Kenan Thompson
Too Short
Lisa Tucker
Michael Twombley
Gabrielle Union
Chris Webber
Serena Williams
Stevie Williams
Tyler James Williams
Vanessa L. Williams
Kellen Winslow II
Jaleel White
Shereé Whitfield
William Allen Young
Jolee Alexander
Jason Momoa
Destine' Parker
Production
2021 revival series
In May 2021, it was announced that Paramount+ had ordered a revival of the series, with the setting relocated to Las Vegas. Hosea Chanchez, Coby Bell, Brandy, Brittany Daniel, Pooch Hall and Wendy Raquel Robinson were in talks to reprise their roles as Malik Wright, Jason Pitts, Chardonnay Pitts, Kelly Pitts, Derwin Davis and Tasha Mack.
Joining the returning cast was Vaughn W. Hebron as "Jamison Fields", an undrafted free agent; Adriyan Rae as "Brittany Pitts", Jason and Kelly Pitts daughter, (previous portrayed by Katlynn Simone); and Analisa Velez as "Raquel Navarro", Brittany’s best friend. Tia Mowry-Hardrict, who was cast in Netflix's Family Reunion, made a TikTok video expressing that she will most likely not return to her 2 roles of Sister, Sister and The Game. While being honored at the Ebony 'Power 100', she was interviewed by Entertainment Tonight saying: “You know what’s so funny? Never say never. I mean, as it stands for right now, we aren’t in any talks or communication about me coming back to the show...I know it seems kind of weird, because I’m like, the only one, but you know, Melanie, I loved playing that character, and if everything works out, and if everything works out the way that it should, then who knows? I might be on the show.”
U.S. ratings
Seasonal ratings based on average total viewers per episode of the series. The fourth season premiere acquired 7.7 million viewers, which was a record for a scripted premiere on BET.
**The series is marketed and rebranded as a fresh new season on Paramount+, beginning the new inception as Season 1.
Lawsuit
In September 2006, writer Staci Robinson filed a $40 million lawsuit against the CW, CBS, Warner Bros., and Grammnet Productions for copyright infringement. Robinson claimed that she had applied for a job as writer's assistant in 2005 with series creator and executive producer Mara Brock Akil, to whom Robinson had subsequently sent her novel, Interceptions''. The novel is about a woman who decides to put her goal of becoming a lawyer on hold to follow her boyfriend as he pursues a career as a professional American football player. After receiving the novel, Robinson was interviewed for the job but later declined the position. Robinson alleged that Akil and a CW screenwriter stole the idea from her novel to create the series. The suit was settled out of court under a non-disclosure agreement in September 2007.
Awards and nominations
DVD releases
Season releases
References
External links
Official website at Paramount+
2000s American black sitcoms
2000s American comedy-drama television series
2006 American television series debuts
2010s American black sitcoms
2010s American comedy-drama television series
2015 American television series endings
American football television series
American television series revived after cancellation
American television spin-offs
BET original programming
The CW original programming
English-language television shows
Television series created by Mara Brock Akil
Television shows filmed in Atlanta
Television shows filmed in Los Angeles
Television shows set in San Diego
Television series by CBS Studios
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5052801
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisian%20independence
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Tunisian independence
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Tunisian independence was a process that occurred from 1952 to 1956 between France and a separatist movement, led by Habib Bourguiba. He became the first Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Tunisia after negotiations with France successfully had brought an end to the colonial protectorate and led to independence.
Overview, the road to Tunisian independence
The first independence movement was formed by the Young Tunisian Party in 1907. By 1920, the Destour, a Tunisian political party, had formed a powerful base that was supported by the Bey. Their following lasted until 1934, when Neo Destour was formed, and brought about by a new generation of young nationalists striving for independence. With a new energized independence movement, the stage was set for a new leader, Habib Bourguiba.
With the threat of independence, the French immediately banned Neo Destour and sent Bourguiba to a variety of French prisons in France where he spent the next 20 years of his life. World War II brought about a halt in Tunisia's bid for independence, but helped win Bourguiba a transfer from a French prison to an Axis one in Rome. The Nazis attempted to pressure Bourguiba into helping the Axis powers with his influence over the Tunisian independence fighters in pushing back the Allied invasion of North Africa. He refused – primarily due to his belief that Germany would lose the war and was released from prison in 1943 when the Nazi campaign was finally defeated at El Alamein in Egypt. Upon his return to Tunisia, Bourguiba proposed a concept of gradual independence for Tunisia which was supported by most Tunisians. As a means of forcing the French to leave, the Neo Destour returned to armed resistance by carrying attacks on colonial facilities spearheaded by militants such as Chedly Kallala. As a result, from 1952 to 1954, Bourguiba was imprisoned for the attacks, further fueling the fire between Tunisian Independence and French Rule. In June 1954, new French Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France came to power and immediately instituted a withdrawal policy from Tunisia to lessen the violent backlashes occurring in the colonies.
France still retained control of Tunisia's foreign affairs, and gradually the nations returned to the same arrangement of 1881. By November 1955, France granted Morocco independence, which helped pave the way for Tunisia's independence. March 20, 1956, Tunisia achieved independence from France proposed by Habib Bourguiba. France, Tunisia, and Western Powers remained in good relations, and maintain significant economic and cultural links to this day.
The early Tunisian nationalist movement
Lamine Bey's rapprochement with the nationalists (1948–1951)
After the funeral of Moncef Bey the nationalists of the Neo Destour were more willing to work with Lamine Bey. Salah Ben Youssef met him several times, encouraging him to refuse to apply his seal to laws drafted by the Resident General. Delays in the passing of legislation ensued, and indeed on 1 October 1948 Lamine Bey formally protested when he learned that French residents in Tunisia had been elected to the French National Assembly. Jean Mons was obliged to recognise that once the threat of being deposed had been removed from him, Lamine Bey was determined to win the acclaim of his people and therefore worked willingly with the nationalists. The change of mood was evident on 15 May 1949 on the anniversary of his accession, during a demonstration headed jointly by Ben Youssef and Lamine Bey's own son Chedly. On 4 June, despite Mons' protestations, the Bey received a delegation from the Neo Destour although the party remained under ban following the violent demonstrations of 9 April 1938. In September 1949 the Neo Destourian leader Habib Bourguiba returned to Tunis from exile in Egypt, and one of his first visits was to the Bey.
The following year, seeing that nothing was coming of efforts for reform, the Bey sent a messenger to Mons in March 1950 asking for a response to the proposals he had made eight months previously. Mons warned the French government that if he was unable to give a substantial response, the Bey would withhold his seal from the decree confirming the budget for the protectorate. In April, after a meeting with Bourguiba, the Bey wrote directly to French President Vincent Auriol pressing him to agree reforms admitting Tunisians to a substantially larger share of self-government. The Bey's popularity rose. The first Bey since 1881 to leave Tunis, on 14 April he visited Kairouan and on 30 April Sousse, and he was given a rapturous welcome in both towns. On 19 June a new Resident General, Louis Périllier, was appointed with an explicit mission from the French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman to prepare Tunisia for internal autonomy.
A new government was formed under M'hamed Chenik, the former Grand Vizier under Moncef Bey, on 17 August 1950. For the first time the Resident General was not able to impose Tunisian ministers of his own choosing. His nomination of Abdelkader Belkhodja was rejected by Chenik, who was supported by the Bey. Chenik was however successful in imposing his own son-in-law Mohamed Ben Salem, as Minister of Health. Mahmoud El Materi, whom the Resident General had put forward for the post, became instead Minister of the Interior.
After five months of negotiations, an initial package of reforms was approved by the Bey on 8 February 1951. Although limited in scope, it was welcomed by Tunisians as a token of future progress. The Bey invested Périllier with the Nichan ad-Dam (Order of the Blood) as a gesture of thanks. However his gratitude was premature as no further negotiations on reforms took place beyond this point. In retaliation Chenik refused to present a budget to the consultative Grand Council, bringing government to an effective standstill. The Bey was able to add his own protest on the occasion of his address from the throne on 15 May 1951. In this speech, read by Hamadi Badra, he set out an unequivocally nationalist direction and expressed strong support for his government in pursuing nationalist goals. Contrary to custom, the speech was not sent in advance to the Resident General. This caused an outcry among the French colonists who regarded it as an affront to French dignity. On 19 May Périllier, in full uniform, accompanied by a military escort, went for an audience with the Bey to make an official protest at this snub, and to ask for the dismissal of Chenik and Ben Youssef. The following day, the Bey responded with a telegram to President Vincent Auriol, vigorously protesting against the actions and the tone of the Resident General. Faced with this show of determination, Périllier backed down.
To break this impasse, Tunisian ministers were invited to Paris to present their demands. On 16 October 1951 Chenik arrived in Paris and submitted a memorandum to Robert Schuman summarising key Tunisian demands for internal autonomy. The French government responded on 15 December with a flat refusal. With neither the Bey nor the Grand Vizier willing to give ground, Périllier resigned on 24 December.
Confrontations with De Hautecloque (1952–1953)
On 13 January 1952, the new Resident General Jean de Hauteclocque arrived in Tunis on board the cruiser Le Mercure. He asked for his first audience with the Bey to take place without his ministers present, but Lamine Bey refused this request and it took place with the full Chenik cabinet in attendance. Hautecloque was back again the following day, to demand the withdrawal of a memorandum outlining Tunisian protests about French rule which he had discovered Chenik's cabinet had sent to the United Nations, and the dismissal of the two ministers responsible for delivering it. He obtained no satisfaction in respect of either demand.
The UN memorandum had been drafted following discussions between Chenik and Chedly Bey, who had insisted that his father not be involved in any way. When Chenik approached Lamine Bey directly seeking his support, he responded that it 'was a matter for the government and for ministers' but raised no objections. The memorandum was therefore signed by all Chenik's ministers but did not carry the Bey's seal. Having disclaimed involvement in the memorandum itself, the Bey took no responsibility for its consequences when the two ministers who submitted it, Salah Ben Youssef and Hamadi Badra were eventually forced to resign under French pressure.
Following this, the congress of the Neo Destour Party was banned and large numbers of nationalists were arrested. Unrest spread and on 24 January De Hauteclocque was obliged to ask the Bey to issue an appeal for calm, agreeing to withdraw his insistence on the resignation of the Chenik government. Lamine Bey refused to oblige him for as long as Bourguiba and his companions remained in prison. The Bey refused to give way even under direct pressure from the French Prime Minister Edgar Faure. On 25 March, unsuccessful in his requests to meet the Bey in private, De Hauteclocque agreed to an audience with Tunisian ministers present. He once again demanded the resignation of the Chenik government, and the Bey responded with another angry telegram to President Vincent Auriol complaining of De Hauteclocque's discourteous and threatening tone. Within a few hours, every minister had been arrested and interned. Deprived of the support of his ministers, on 28 March the Bey eventually gave way and signed the decree naming De Hauteclocque's nominee Slaheddine Baccouche as his Grand Vizier.
Faced with the imposition of a government they regarded as having no legitimacy, Tunisians protested and demonstrated ever more vigorously. The opposition was so intense that on 14 April Baccouche attempted to present his resignation to the Bey. The Bey responded 'You should not address your resignation to me since I did not appoint you. Address yourself to him who has imposed you on me.' Baccouche remained in office, with the confidence of neither the Bey nor the people. Disturbances continued and there were outbreaks of sabotage. Lamine Bey continued to refuse to issue any appeal for calm for as long as thousands of his subjects remained interned. To increase the pressure on him, his daughter Princess Zakia was arrested on 29 April and accused of plotting sabotage with her friend Rafia Bornaz. The Bey's doctor, Mohamed Ben Salem, was prevented from visiting him despite his suffering from a lung infection. To show his defiance, the Bey went in person to the house of his daughter and her husband, and gave a thousand-franc note to each of the policemen guarding the house in ironic thanks for their valuable 'protection'.
On 7 June, an individual named Mohamed Achouri, one of the entourage of the future Bey al-Mahalla Essadok Bey, surrendered a sachet of poison to the palace doctor Abderrahmen Mami, claiming that he had been ordered to give it to the cook. When questioned, he implicated the Resident General's Chief of Staff Jacques Grellet and a second man known as Jacobson. Despite the matter being the subject of a criminal complaint, Achouri disappeared and the matter was covered up.
The ministers who had been interned were gradually released, and some gathered around Lamine Bey to offer him support. Determined to boycott the Baccouche government, the Bey relied more and more on his son Chedly and surrounded himself with counsellors he felt he could trust, including Mzali, Farhat Hached, Hédi Nouira and Sadok Mokaddem. Without a properly-functioning government, proposals for reform were unilaterally issued from Paris and presented to the Bey for his signature on 28 July. To the chagrin of De Hauteclocque, Lamine Bey refused to sign them straight away and said he would take two or three months to consider them. On 1 August he brought together in his palace in Carthage forty leading Tunisian figures representing a range of views to seek their opinions on the proposals from France. After a month of debates and consultations, the Assembly of Forty rejected the French proposals as unsatisfactory. According to Ahmed Mestiri the minute outlining the rejection was drafted in secret by the underground leadership of the Neo Destour before being passed to the Assembly through Hached and Mokaddem and approved by them. On 9 September 1952 the Bey sent a letter to the Resident General, addressed to President Auriol, declaring his refusal to sign the reform proposals. Soon after Lamine Bey confided his despondency about the future to Ben Salem: 'There is nothing to hope for from different French governments. I am old and tired. It may be that I will never see our country independent, but never mind..... when one plants a tree, one must not hope at the same time to eat its fruits.'
Assassinations and terror (1952–1953)
The Resident General persisted in his attempts to pressure the Bey into signing the French reforms. On 30 November he surrounded the palace with troops, on the pretext of protecting the Bey from the large demonstrations expected for the Mawlid festival. With all his nationalist advisers either in prison or in exile, the Bey had no-one to support him apart from Farhat Hached, the trade union leader, who visited him every day, encouraging him to stand firm. On 5 December 1952, Hached was assassinated by 'La Main Rouge' (The Red Hand), a terrorist unit operated by the French state to eliminate nationalists in North Africa. Anyone else who might advise or support the Bey was kept out of the way: Mohamed Salah Mzali was obliged to leave Tunis and remain in Monastir and when he tried to telephone the palace he found that all the lines had been cut. Completely cut off from the outside world, the ailing Bey wrote to the French government once again asking to restart negotiations about internal autonomy. With France's negative response on 20 December, he was able to resist no longer, and signed the decrees formulated months previously in Paris, which allowed for new municipal elections.
Bourguiba, in exile on the Galite Islands, understood all too well the extreme pressure which the Bey had withstood for so long. When he learned that he had finally given way and authorised the French proposals, he remarked 'I don't think we need to throw stones at this venerable old man who struggles alone in almost desperate conditions against an enemy who has no conscience and can exert such pressure. He may have thought... that it was better to bend once again than to be broken.' In any case, the reforms imposed by the French, on which they set such great store, remained a dead letter – the nationalists launched a campaign of terror against both candidates and voters. This extended as far as the ruling family itself – on 1 July 1953 the Bey al-Mahalla Azzedine Bey was assassinated inside his own palace, accused of weakening the position of the Bey by conducting discussions of his own with the Resident General. Arrested on the spot, the assassin was tried before a military tribunal, condemned to death on 28 September 1953 and shot on 14 April 1954. Essadok Bey, son of Mustapha Bey, became the new Bey al-Mahalla. He was not regarded sympathetic to the Neo Destour. On 2 September 1953, Jean de Hauteclocque was finally recalled to Paris.
The Mzali government (1953–1954)
Tensions eased somewhat with the arrival of the new Resident General, Pierre Voizard. As soon as he arrived, Lamine Bey issued a call for calm – something he had always refused to do with De Hauteclocque. Thousands of prisoners were freed and censorship was scaled back. However Voizard's instructions from the French government made the relative calm only temporary – he was to pursue a reform policy with the Bey only, but not with the Neo Destour. France hoped by this means to drive a wedge between the ruler and the militant nationalists. Lamine Bey was too wily to be deceived by the apparently pleasant demeanour of the new Resident General. On 16 October 1953 he refused to preside at the opening of the Tunis-Carthage Fair because some repressive measures were still in place. More efforts were made to appease him – on 1 January 1954 a number of nationalist leaders were freed and promptly received by the Bey. Bourguiba however, regarded by France as highly dangerous, remained confined on La Galite, despite Voizard's requests for his release.
On 24 November 1953 the Bey appointed Mzali to negotiate a new reform package with the Resident General. On 18 January 1954, sufficient progress had been made that the Bey asked him to form a new government. The key elements in the newly-agreed structure of government were – the majority of ministers were to be Tunisians; the Grand Vizier was to act as head of the government; the assent of the Resident General was no longer to be required to give effect to governmental decrees; local governors and mayors were to be appointed by and responsible to the Grand Vizier and not to the Resident General; and a national assembly was to be created. A number of nationalists, including Hédi Nouira, were willing to give these reforms a chance, but the refusal to free Bourguiba remained a stumbling block for many Tunisians, and indeed, for Bourguiba himself. 'The failure of an old man terrorised by the fear of deposition and exile, combined with the vile ambition of an unscrupulous adventurer risk depriving Tunisia of the only asset that remains to it: it standing as a nation state; its legal character, recognised internationally by treaty and confirmed by the General Assembly of the United Nations. Suddenly my release has been postponed indefinitely' he commented. On 27 May Bourguiba, who had recently been transferred from La Gailte to custody in France, returned to the Bey the Grand Cross of the Nichan Iftikhar which he had received in 1950.
Mzali's cabinet resigned on 17 June 1954 and no successor was appointed. Bitter at the defeat of his efforts, the Bey confided to Voizard 'For a year, since I have been asking for Bourguiba to be released or transferred to a spa, I have received nothing but threats. Then you transfer him to a remote island without seeking my opinion. Now you are transferring him close to Paris, depriving me of the goodwill I might have earned by securing this move for him. I am ready to take up my rifle and become a fellagha to rebuild my contact with my people, for you have done everything possible to separate me from them.'
Independence talks (1954–1956)
On 31 July 1954 the new French Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France arrived in Tunis. He was received by Lamine Bey in the palace of Carthage, where he announced internal autonomy for Tunisia. This was a welcome surprise for the Bey, who had been kept at arm's length from the negotiations between Mendès France and the Neo Destourians before his visit. Shortly afterwards, the Bey addressed his subjects: 'A new phase has just begun in the life of our beloved country. It is hard for us to recall the painful days that all of Tunisia has lived through.... before this decisive step in our national life, we must stand equal to our destiny in offering to the world the spectacle of a united people marching serenely towards progress. This great constructive effort to which we are summoned can only bear fruit for us through order, peace and security, which all the inhabitants of this country have the right to enjoy.' There was no doubt however that the balance of forces had shifted decisively away from the Bey. For France, the experience of the failed Mzali government highlighted the futility of hoping to evolve political institutions by means of negotiating only with the Bey. The new Resident General, Pierre Boyer de Latour was quick to understand this and it was now the Neo Destour who were the sole interlocutors for the Tunisian people.
Despite the repeated efforts of the Bey, a new government was formed without consulting the palace. To recover some semblance of his former influence, on 10 August he proposed to the French government that the institution of the beylicate should be replaced with a full monarchy, which would give him the authority he felt was appropriate. He was willing, in return, to sign supplementary agreements to the Treaty of Bardo necessary to maintain Franco-Tunisian cooperation and preserve the French presence in Tunisia. At the same time, he opened communications with Salah ben Youssef, in exile in Geneva. None of these approaches led to anything.
After six months of negotiation, the autonomy accords were signed on 3 June 1955. Bourguiba had returned to Tunis on 1 June, welcomed as he came down the gangplank by the Bey's three sons, and by a giant demonstration of Tunisians. Having crossed the capital in triumph, Bourguiba visited the Bey in Carthage, apparently unmindful of having returned his decoration only a few months before, and made a stirring declaration of the deep attachment felt by the Tunisian people towards beylical rule. On 7 August the Bey applied his seal to the conventions agreed with France and on 1 September, for the first time since the protectorate was established in 1881, he applied his seal to decrees that had not been authorised by the Resident General. On 29 December 1955 his seal confirmed a decree establishing a Constituent Assembly for the country, with elections to be held on 8 April 1956. Tunisia appeared to be evolving into a constitutional monarchy.
In fact, power continued to ebb rapidly away from Lamine Bey as independence approached. Salah Ben Youssef returned from exile on 13 September 1955, giving the Bey hopes that his political power would start to be restored. He was close to Ben Youssef, who had been one of the few politicians to pay his respects to him at the time of his installation in 1943. However violence quickly erupted between followers of Ben Youssef and those of Bourguiba, leaving the Bey to vainly attempt to act as arbiter between them. The French had already transferred authority over the police force from the Resident General to the Tunisian government, whose ministers had been chosen by Bourguiba, so Ben Youssef's representations to the Bey had no effect. On 2 December the Bey summoned the Resident General (now known as the High Commissioner) Roger Seydoux to remind him of France's responsibility for public order – which in fact it no longer had. In effect, the Bey was appealing for a restoration of colonial powers from the nationalist government. As his appeals had no effect he made use of the only power remaining to him and refused to apply his seal to the decrees authorising the forthcoming elections and the appointment of local governors and mayors. This move was welcomed by Ben Youssef, who demanded a ministerial reshuffle, but naturally alienated the Bey further from Bourguiba and his followers. He backed down and signed them the following day. Ben Youssef fled the country on 28 January and a crackdown followed on his followers in Tunisia, in which Bourguiba relied on the army, with its French officers, the airforce and heavy artillery. Horrified at this brutality, Lamine Bey renewed his ineffective protestations to Seydoux in April 1956. The only effect was to enrage Bourguiba, who hastened to the palace to accuse the Bey and his family of seeking to hinder the transfer of power from France to the Tunisian government.
On 20 March 1956 the Franco-Tunisian protocol was signed by the Grand Vizier Tahar Ben Ammar and the French Foreign Minister Christian Pineau. The new Tunisian government, led by Bourguiba, deemed the country to be independent by virtue of this protocol, and therefore refused to enter into the subsequent bilateral negotiations it provided for. Independence was regarded as a fait accompli, and for this reason the independence protocol was never ratified either by the Bey, or indeed by France, although this is what the protocol on internal autonomy required.
French military occupation of Bizerte-Ferryville and southern Tunisia (1956–1963)
After Tunisia was granted independence in 1956 the French military stayed in Tunisia and maintained full control of the cities and naval bases at Bizerte and Ferryville as well as a "military zone" in southern Tunisia. France occupied these areas because they viewed these areas of Tunisia as crucial to assist their efforts in the Algerian War.
In 1957–58 conflict broke out between France and Tunisia as a result of indirect support by the Tunisian government to the FLN rebels in the Algerian War. Tunisia pushed the United Nations, United States, and NATO to force France to abide by the independence agreement of 1956 and vacate all French military zones in Tunisia. In June 1958 France compromised and agreed to retreat from all of Tunisia except for Bizerte. The southern Tunisia zone and part of the Bizerte-Ferryville zone were handed over to the Tunisian government.
By 1961 the Algerian War was in the final stages which would lead to an eventual French defeat and evacuation. Tunisia also wanted all French soldiers to leave Tunisian territory because the French excuse to keep numerous bases in Tunisia no longer existed. In July 1961, the Tunisian military blockaded the French military in Bizerte. The French responded with airstrikes and a ground incursion into Tunisian territory to break the blockade. 630 Tunisian troops and about 30 French troops were killed in the battle. While France won this battle the writing was on the wall for the French presence in Tunisia. The French attack on Tunisia to break the siege upset many Tunisians and tensions between the French military and Tunisian government got worse afterwards. In October 1963, France fully withdrew from Bizerte-Ferryville. Tunisia finally achieved full independence from France.
See also
Tunisian national movement
Bizerte crisis
Algerian War
References
Bibliography
{{Cite book |last=Sayah |first=Mohamed |title=Histoire du mouvement national tunisien. Le Néo-Destour face à la troisième épreuve, 1952–1956, tome I « L'échec de la répression |others=Centre de Documentation Nationale |year=1979a |editor=Tunis : Dar El Amal}}
Further reading
Hole, Abigail, Michael Grosberg, and Daniel Robinson, Tunisia, Lonely Planet, 2007. pp28–33.
John Gunther, Inside Africa, Harper & Brothers, New York, 1955. pp146–162.
Us Army, multiple authors, Tunisia – a Country (study)'', 1st ed. Washington DC: US Government, 1987. pp30–52.
The World Factbook, CIA library
1950s conflicts
1950s in Tunisia
Military history of Tunisia
Tunisian nationalism
Wars involving France
Wars involving Tunisia
African resistance to colonialism
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5053598
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1913%20Ottoman%20coup%20d%27%C3%A9tat
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1913 Ottoman coup d'état
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The 1913 Ottoman coup d'état (January 23, 1913), also known as the Raid on the Sublime Porte (), was a coup d'état carried out in the Ottoman Empire by a number of Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) members led by Ismail Enver Bey and Mehmed Talaat Bey, in which the group made a surprise raid on the central Ottoman government buildings, the Sublime Porte (). During the coup, the Minister of War, Nazım Pasha, was assassinated and the Grand Vizier, Kâmil Pasha, was forced to resign. After the coup, the government fell into the hands of the CUP, now under the leadership of the triumvirate known as the "Three Pashas", made up of Enver, Talaat, and Cemal Pasha.In 1911, the Freedom and Accord Party (also known as the Liberal Union or Liberal Entente), Kâmil Pasha's party, was formed in opposition to the CUP and almost immediately won the by-elections in Constantinople (now Istanbul). Alarmed, the CUP rigged the general elections of 1912 with electoral fraud and violence against Freedom and Accord, earning them the nickname "Election of Clubs" (). In response, the Savior Officers () of the army, partisans of Freedom and Accord determined to see the CUP fall, rose up in anger and caused the fall of the CUP's post-election Mehmed Said Pasha government. A new government was formed under Ahmed Muhtar Pasha but after a few months it too was dissolved in October 1912 after the sudden outbreak of the First Balkan War and military defeat.
After gaining the permission of sultan Mehmed V to form a new government in late October 1912, Freedom and Accord leader Kâmil Pasha sat down to diplomatic talks with Bulgaria after the unsuccessful First Balkan War. With the Bulgarian demand for the cession of the former Ottoman capital city of Adrianople (today, and in Turkish at the time, known as Edirne) looming and the outrage among the Turkish populace as well as the CUP leadership, the CUP carried out the coup on January 23, 1913. After the coup, opposition parties like Freedom and Accord were subject to heavy repression. The new government led by Mahmud Şevket Pasha with Unionist support withdrew the Ottoman Empire from the ongoing London Peace Conference and resumed the war against the Balkan states to recover Edirne and the rest of Rumelia, but to no avail. After his assassination in June, the CUP would take full control of the empire, and opposition leaders would be arrested or exiled to Europe.
Ottoman victory in the Second Balkan War and the recovery of Edirne in the face of pressure by the Entente powers moved the CUP closer to Germany ahead of World War I.
Immediate pretext
While the inner circle of the CUP may already have decided earlier to stage a coup to regain power from the Freedom and Accord Party, the proximate occasion was the CUP's fear that the government would concede to a demand by the Great Powers that the town of Adrianople (a former Ottoman capital city from 1365 to 1453) be handed over to Bulgaria after the disastrous results of the First Balkan War for the Ottoman Empire.
Background
April 1912 elections and aftermath
In the 1908 elections, the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) had only managed to win about 60 of the 288 seats in the Chamber of Deputies (), the popularly elected lower house of the General Assembly. Nevertheless, it was the largest party in the Chamber.
The Freedom and Accord Party (Liberal Union/Entente) was founded on 21 November 1911 by those in opposition to the CUP, and immediately attracted 70 Deputies to its ranks. Only 20 days after its formation, Freedom and Accord won the December 1911 by-elections conducted in Constantinople by one vote. The ruling CUP, seeing the potential of Freedom and Accord to win next year's general elections, took several precautions. Hoping to thwart the nascent Freedom and Accord's efforts to grow its ranks and better organize itself, the CUP asked Sultan Mehmed V to dissolve the Chamber and announced its call for early general elections in January 1912.
These early April 1912 general elections were known infamously as the "Election of Clubs" () after the beating of opposition (Freedom and Accord) candidates for the Chamber of Deputies with weapons like clubs and sticks as well being marred by electoral fraud and violence in favor of the CUP. The fraud included early balloting, secret counting and reporting of votes, ballot stuffing, reapportioning electoral districts, and more, although the CUP still enjoyed genuine support outside of the cities. The results of the elections had CUP win 269 of 275 seats in the Chamber, with Freedom and Accord only netting 6 Deputies.
Angered at their loss in the election, the leadership of Freedom and Accord sought extra-legal methods to regain power over the CUP, complaining vocally about electoral fraud. At around this time, a group of military officers, uncomfortable with injustices it perceived within the military, organized itself into an armed organization known as the "Savior Officers" () and made their presence known to the imperial government. The Savior Officers, quickly becoming partisans of Freedom and Accord, soon created unrest in the capital Istanbul. After gaining the support of Prince Sabahaddin, another opposition leader, the Savior Officers published public declarations in newspapers.
Finally, after giving a memorandum to the Military Council, the Savior Officers succeeded in getting Grand Vizier Mehmed Said Pasha (who they blamed for allowing the early elections that led to the CUP domination of the Chamber) and his government of CUP ministers to resign in July 1912.
Great Cabinet
After Mehmed Said Pasha's resignation, a new, non-partisan cabinet was formed by Ahmed Muhtar Pasha, an old military hero, which was known as the "Great Cabinet" () because it included three former Grand Viziers as ministers and sometimes as the "Father-Son Cabinet" () because it included Ahmed Muhtar Pasha's son, Mahmud Muhtar Pasha, as Minister of the Navy. Although the Savior Officers had succeeded in making sure that the Great Cabinet was free of CUP members, the CUP's domination of the Chamber of Deputies had not changed. Soon, however, rumors began to circulate that the government would dissolve the Chamber of Deputies and call new elections. The rumors were confirmed when, a few days after Ahmed Muhtar Pasha took office, the Savior Officers sent another memorandum, this time to the President of the Chamber of Deputies (and CUP member), Halil Bey, demanding that the Chamber be dissolved for new elections within 48 hours. The CUP members in the Chamber condemned and censured this threat. However, thanks to a law he had passed through the Senate, Ahmed Muhtar Pasha was able, with the sultan's support, to dissolve the Chamber with ease on 5 August, after which sultan Mehmed V immediately called for new elections by royal decree.
While preparations for new elections were underway, however, the First Balkan War erupted early in October 1912, catching Ahmed Muhtar Pasha's administration off-guard. Martial law was declared, the new elections were cancelled on 25 October, and Ahmed Muhtar Pasha resigned as Grand Vizier on 29 October after just three months in the premier's office in order to defer to the premiership of Kâmil Pasha, who had good relations with the British and was expected to produce a favorable settlement to the disastrous war.
Government of Kâmil Pasha and lead-up to the coup
Although the foreign crisis in the Balkans put a temporary halt to domestic politics, it did not stop them. Unlike his predecessor Ahmed Muhtar Pasha, who had been non-partisan, Kâmil Pasha was a passionate Freedom and Accord Party member and was determined to use his premiership to destroy the CUP.
Using his friendly relations with the British, Kâmil Pasha also sat down to end the ongoing First Balkan War diplomatically. However, the heavy Ottoman military upsets during the war continued to sap morale, as rumors that the capital would have to be moved from Constantinople to inland Anatolia spread. The Bulgarian Army had soon advanced as far as Çatalca, a western district of modern Istanbul. At this point, Kâmil Pasha's government signed an armistice with Bulgaria in December 1912 and sat down to draw up a treaty for the end of the war at the London Peace Conference.
The Great Powers–the British Empire, France, Italy, and Russia–had begun to engage in the relationship of Bulgaria with the Ottoman Empire, citing the 1878 Treaty of Berlin. The Great Powers gave a note to the Sublime Porte (the Ottoman government) that they wanted the Ottoman Empire to cede Adrianople (Edirne) to Bulgaria and the Aegean islands under its control, most of which by that time had been captured by the Greek Navy, to the Great Powers themselves. Because of the losses experienced by the army so far in the war, the Kâmil Pasha government was inclined to accept the "Midye-Enez Line" as a border to the west and, while not outright giving Edirne to Bulgaria, favored transferring control of it to an international commission.
After the capture of Salonica (Thessaloniki), the birthplace of many progressive political leaders and movements of the era, by Greece in November 1912, many CUP members were arrested by Greek forces and exiled to Anatolia. At the same time, Freedom and Accord found itself on the brink of dissolution after inter-party conflicts.
Left with little political power and flexibility, the CUP began to plan a coup against Kâmil Pasha's Freedom and Accord government. In addition, an animosity had already been brewing between Kâmil Pasha and the CUP since the 1908 Young Turk Revolution that had started the Second Constitutional Era. During the more than four years since, Kâmil Pasha had made a series of efforts to keep CUP members far from government and keep the army, which had many CUP members among its ranks, out of politics. By January 1913, the CUP was thoroughly frustrated with Kâmil Pasha and Freedom and Accord. Although the coup was to be a surprise attack, the CUP had made definitive decisions to carry it out far in advance.
Although he was killed during the coup, both the CUP and Freedom and Accord claimed that they had been planning to give Minister of the Navy Nazım Pasha a position in their next cabinet. The CUP's Talaat Bey went as far as to say some time after the coup that the CUP had previously offered Nazım Pasha the position of Grand Vizier and the leadership its cabinet.
Events
March towards the Sublime Porte
On 23 January 1913, at 14:30, Lieutenant Colonel Enver Bey (later and better known as Enver Pasha), one of the top leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress, was notified by a CUP member named that everything was prepared for the raid as he waited in the military supply-station inspectorate () building near the Nuruosmaniye Mosque. After receiving this news, Enver Bey mounted a white horse waiting for him and began to ride the several blocks from Nuruosmaniye towards the Sublime Porte, which was a metonym referring to a group of government buildings that housed the offices of the Grand Vizier, his imperial government, and other state offices. At this time, Talaat Bey (later known as Talaat Pasha) also began to make his way towards the Sublime Porte with a group of CUP loyalists.
When Enver Bey arrived in front of the Ministry of Public Works () building, fellow CUP members and Ömer Seyfettin were already provoking a crowd that had gathered by loudly proclaiming that Kâmil Pasha was about to cede Adrianople to the Bulgarians. The speeches made by Ömer Naci and Ömer Seyfettin were effective, and the front of the Sublime Porte was soon filled with a crowd shouting slogans against Kâmil Pasha's government. Moreover, up to 60 CUP members were placed around the Sublime Porte's buildings.
Entering the Sublime Porte
Enver Bey, along with confederates Talaat Bey, Sapancalı Hakkı, Yakub Cemil, , and about 50 others, entered the Sublime Porte compound of government buildings and made their way into the Grand Vizier's building, in which Kâmil Pasha and his cabinet were in session. An aide-de-camp to the Grand Vizier, Ohrili Nâfiz Bey, heard the commotion and opened fire on the raid party but was unable to hit any of them. Himself wounded in the exchange, Ohrili Nâfiz Bey hid in the aide-de-camp office; when Mustafa Necip entered the office, Ohrili Nâfiz Bey shot and killed him but died himself of his wounds sustained from Mustafa Necip.
An aid-de-camp and nephew of Nazım Pasha, Kıbrıslı Tevfik Bey, had also drawn his revolver and fired at the raid party, his bullet also striking Mustafa Necip. After the raiders returned fire, Kıbrıslı Tevfik Bey was instantly killed. During the shooting, a secret police agent and an attendant of the Sheikh ul-Islam were also killed.
Shooting of Nazım Pasha
Hearing the gunshots, Minister of War Nazım Pasha stepped out of his room and rushed towards the raid party. According to the memoirs of future Turkish President and Prime Minister Celâl Bayar, Nazım Pasha angrily shouted at the men, "What is going on? You came to raid the Grand Vizier's office?", using "ill-mannered" profanities in his rage, after which Enver Bey saluted him and tried to explain his intentions. At this time Yakub Cemil, approaching Nazım Pasha from the back while he was engaged with Enver Bey and the rest of the coup party, fired his gun at Nazım Pasha's right temple, killing him.
Another account claimed that Enver Bey had tried to stop Yakup Cemil from killing Nazım Pasha, but Yakup Cemil had refused to listen. Yet another version of events held that either Enver Bey or Talaat Bey had accidentally killed Nazım Pasha while trying to protect themselves from gunfire from his aid-de-camp Kıbrıslı Tevfik Bey.
In any case, the CUP termed Nazım Pasha's death during the coup a "regrettable accident", saying that it was unpremeditated but "unavoidable" under the circumstances. The CUP said that the fact Interior Minister Ahmet Reşit had been allowed to go unhurt proved that the coup leaders had desired to avoid bloodshed, since Ahmet Reşit was much more hostile towards the CUP than Nazım Pasha was. Because the CUP had favored Nazım Pasha and had claimed to offer him a role as Grand Vizier for a future CUP cabinet before they undertook the coup, the contemporary French magazine L'Illustration said that his "strange fate was being persecuted by the former regime [of Kâmil Pasha's Freedom and Accord Party and then being included in its cabinet], and being cheered and treated in triumph by the new regime [of the CUP] and then being murdered by it."
Forced resignation of Kâmil Pasha
After this, Enver and Talaat Bey entered Grand Vizier Kâmil Pasha's room and forced him to write a letter of resignation at gunpoint. The letter addressed to the sultan read:
After Kâmil Pasha finished writing, Enver Bey immediately left the Sublime Porte to deliver the letter to Sultan Mehmed V in his palace, driving to the palace in the Sheikh ul-Islam's (Şeyhülislam) car.
Aftermath
Immediate effects
After the coup, Enver Bey told a local Turkish correspondent for the French magazine L'Illustration (pictured on right):
Kâmil Pasha was replaced as Grand Vizier and Nazım Pasha as Minister of War by Mahmud Shevket Pasha, who took both posts. The new cabinet under Mahmud Shevket Pasha was made up of:
Said Halim Pasha as President of the Council of State (for 3 days)
Hacı Adil (Arda) as Minister of the Interior
Çürüksulu Mahmud Pasha as Minister of the Navy
Nicolae Constantin Batzaria as Minister of Public Works
Muhtar Bey as acting Minister of Foreign Affairs (for 3 days)
Said Halim Pasha succeeding him
as Minister of Justice
as Minister of Pious Foundations
Mehmed Celal Bey as Minister of Agriculture
as Minister of Education
Oskan Mandikyan as Minister of Posts, Telegraph and Telephone
Although the CUP appointed Grand Vizier Mahmud Shevket Pasha to lead their cabinet, he was genial towards the now-opposition Freedom and Accord Party. When one of Nazım Pasha's relatives assassinated him in revenge in June 1913, the CUP used the opportunity to crack down on the opposition. Twelve men held responsible by the CUP for Mahmud Shevket Pasha's death, including Nazım Pasha's relative, were convicted for murder and hanged. The opposition parties, already sidelined by the coup, were heavily repressed by the CUP. The leaders of the Savior Officers () escaped to Egypt and Albania. Another opposition leader Prince Sabahaddin, who had backed the Savior Officers against the CUP, fled to western Switzerland, where he would remain until 1919.
Long-term legacy
The coup essentially led to the establishment of a dictatorial triumvirate known as the "Three Pashas": the soon-to-be war minister, Enver Pasha, the soon-to-be interior minister, Talaat Pasha, and the soon-to-be naval minister, Cemal Pasha. The Three Pashas, leading the CUP autocratically, would control the Empire until fleeing the country at the end of World War I. It established the CUP as the dominant party of Young Turks in the Empire; the rival Young Turks party, Freedom and Accord, would not regain power until the end of the war. The coup is considered one of the first violent coups d'état to take place in modern Turkish history, seen as some as establishing a precedent for future coups in the Republic of Turkey.
After the coup, the CUP became increasingly nationalist and intolerant of opposition after seeing significant resistance from more liberal Ottoman parties like Freedom and Accord, as well as rebellions and wars against the Ottoman government from non-Muslim nationalities in the Empire, such as the catastrophic Balkan Wars, which saw former Ottoman citizens of Bulgarian, Greek, Macedonian, and Armenian ethnicity actively fighting against the Empire and committing widespread ethnic cleansing against Ottoman Muslims. Though initially opposed in principle to the extension of local autonomy to the provinces, the CUP now seemed inclined to reconcile with those in favor of greater extension of the millet system to enable Ottoman Muslim unity.
The CUP government introduced several political and military reforms to the Empire, including increasing centralization and carrying out military modernization efforts. Under coup leader Enver Bey (later Pasha), the Ottoman Empire moved towards a closer relationship with the German Empire, officially leading to the Ottoman–German Alliance being ratified the next year in 1914. Enver would enter the Empire into World War I that same year as part of the Central Powers, on the side of Germany, in contrast to the overthrown Kâmil Pasha, who was partial towards the British.
Although the CUP had worked with the Armenians to reinstall constitutional monarchy against Abdul Hamid II, factions in the CUP began to view the Armenians as a fifth column that would betray the Ottoman cause after World War I with nearby Russia broke out; these factions gained more power after the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état. The first major offensive the Turks undertook in World War I was an unsuccessful attempt to drive the Russians from the portion of Western Armenia they had taken in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877. After the failure of this expedition, the CUP's leaders, Enver, Cemal, and Talaat, were involved in ordering the deportations and massacres of 1 and 1.5 million Armenians in 1915–1916 in what became known as the Armenian genocide. After World War I and the signing of the armistice of Mudros, the leadership of the Committee of Union and Progress and selected former officials were court-martialled with/including the charges of subversion of the constitution, wartime profiteering, and the massacres of both Armenians and Greeks. The court reached a verdict which sentenced the organizers of the massacres, Talat, Enver, Cemal and others to death.
Question of popularity
The public support for the coup was questioned at the time by analysts, some of whom reported that the CUP was backed by only a small crowd of actual citizens who had been gathered only within the hour by provocative speeches made by CUP members. Eyewitnesses and newspapers reported very little actual popular participation in the coup or the events surrounding it. Reporter Georges Rémond said:
Rémond said that preventing the minimalist coup would have taken at most 50 guards, and that the only reason that the Sublime Porte had been defenseless was because Kâmil Pasha wanted to call the bluff of any real threat the CUP, which he had sidelined politically, posed to his government. After the coup, Rémond said, he found the capital Constantinople to be quiet and devoid of public opinion, whether about the coup or the ongoing First Balkan War, noting an air of "indifference" among not only the populace, but the statesmen involved themselves.
References
Notes
Sources
Conflicts in 1913
Ottoman Coup D'etat, 1913
Committee of Union and Progress
Rebellions against the Ottoman Empire
Military coups in the Ottoman Empire
Enver Pasha
1910s coups d'état and coup attempts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20the%20Slav
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Thomas the Slav
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Thomas the Slav (, – October 823) was a 9th-century Byzantine military commander, most notable for leading a wide-scale revolt in 821–23 against Emperor Michael II the Amorian ().
An army officer of Slavic origin from the Pontus region (now north-eastern Turkey), Thomas rose to prominence, along with the future emperors Michael II and Leo V the Armenian (), under the protection of general Bardanes Tourkos. After Bardanes' failed rebellion in 803, Thomas fell into obscurity until Leo V's rise to the throne, when Thomas was raised to a senior military command in central Asia Minor. After the murder of Leo and usurpation of the throne by Michael the Amorian, Thomas revolted, claiming the throne for himself. Thomas quickly secured support from most of the themes (provinces) and troops in Asia Minor, defeated Michael's initial counter-attack and concluded an alliance with the Abbasid Caliphate. After winning over the maritime themes and their ships as well, he crossed with his army to Europe and laid siege to Constantinople. The imperial capital withstood Thomas's attacks by land and sea, while Michael II called for help from the Bulgarian ruler khan Omurtag. Omurtag attacked Thomas's army, but although repelled, the Bulgarians inflicted heavy casualties on Thomas's men, who broke and fled when Michael took to the field a few months later. Thomas and his supporters sought refuge in Arcadiopolis, where he was soon blockaded by Michael's troops. In the end, Thomas's supporters surrendered him in exchange for a pardon, and he was executed.
Thomas's rebellion was one of the largest in the Byzantine Empire's history, but its precise circumstances are unclear due to competing historical narratives, which have come to include claims fabricated by Michael to blacken his opponent's name. Consequently, various motives and driving forces have been attributed to Thomas and his followers. As summarized by the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, "Thomas's revolt has been variously attributed to a reaction against Iconoclasm, a social revolution and popular uprising, a revolt by the Empire's non-Greek ethnic groups, Thomas's personal ambitions, and his desire to avenge Leo V." Its effects on the military position of the Empire, particularly vis-à-vis the Arabs, are also disputed.
Early life and career
The 11th-century Theophanes Continuatus states that Thomas was descended from South Slavs resettled in Asia Minor by successive Byzantine emperors, while the 10th-century chronicler Genesios calls him "Thomas from Lake Gouzourou, of Armenian race". Most modern scholars support his Slavic descent and believe his birthplace to have been near Gaziura in the Pontus.
Hence his epithet of "the Slav", which has been applied to him only in modern times. Nothing is known about his family and early life, except that his parents were poor and that Thomas himself had received no education. Given that he was between 50 and 60 years old at the time of the rebellion, he was probably born around 760.
Two different accounts of Thomas's life are recounted in both Genesios and Theophanes Continuatus. According to the first account, Thomas first appeared in 803 accompanying general Bardanes Tourkos, and pursued a military career until launching his revolt in late 820. In the second version, he came to Constantinople as a poor youth and entered the service of a man with the high court rank of patrikios. Then, discovered trying to commit adultery with his master's wife, Thomas fled to the Arabs in Syria, where he remained for 25 years. Pretending to be the murdered emperor Constantine VI (r. 780–797), he then led an Arab-sponsored invasion of Asia Minor, but was defeated and punished. Classical and Byzantine scholar J.B. Bury tried to reconcile the two narratives, placing Thomas's flight to the Abbasid Caliphate at around 788 and then having him return to Byzantine service before 803, while the Russian scholar Alexander Vasiliev interpreted the sources as implying that Thomas fled to the Caliphate at Constantine VI's deposition in 797, and that his participation in Bardanes's revolt must be discounted entirely. The second version of Thomas's story is explicitly preferred by Genesios and Theophanes Continuatus, and is the only one recorded in 9th-century sources, namely the chronicle of George the Monk and the Life of Saints David, Symeon, and George of Lesbos. Nevertheless, the French Byzantinist Paul Lemerle came to consider it an unreliable later tradition created by his rival Michael II to discredit Thomas, and rejected it altogether, preferring to rely on the first account alone. Most modern scholars follow him in this interpretation.
The first tradition relates that Thomas served as a spatharios (staff officer) to Bardanes Tourkos, the monostrategos ("single-general", i.e. commander-in-chief) of the eastern themes, who in 803 rose in rebellion against Emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811). Alongside Thomas were two other young spatharioi in Bardanes's retinue, who formed a fraternal association: Leo the Armenian, the future Leo V, and Michael the Amorian, the future Michael II. According to a later hagiographic tradition, before launching his revolt, Bardanes, in the company of his three young protégés, is said to have visited a monk near Philomelion who was reputed to foresee the future. The monk predicted what would indeed happen: that Bardanes's revolt would fail, that Leo and Michael would both become emperors, and that Thomas would be acclaimed emperor and killed. When Bardanes did in fact rise up, he failed to win any widespread support. Leo and Michael soon abandoned him and defected to the imperial camp and were rewarded with senior military posts. Thomas alone remained loyal to Bardanes until his surrender. In the aftermath of Bardanes's failure, Thomas disappears from the sources for ten years. Bury suggests that he fled (for a second time according to his interpretation) to the Arabs, a view accepted by a number of other scholars, such as Romilly James Heald Jenkins. The historian Warren Treadgold, however, argues that Thomas stayed in the empire and that may have even remained in active military service, and explains his obscurity by Thomas's association with Bardanes, which hampered his career.
In July 813, Leo the Armenian became emperor and quickly rewarded his old companions, giving them command over elite military forces. Michael received the tagma of the Excubitors (one of the professional guard cavalry regiments stationed around Constantinople), and Thomas the tourma (division) of the Foederati, stationed in the Anatolic Theme.
Rebellion
Background and motives
On Christmas Day 820, Leo was murdered in the palace chapel by officials under the direction of Michael the Amorian, who was quickly crowned emperor. At about the same time, Thomas launched a rebellion in the Anatolic Theme. Sources are divided on the exact chronology and motives of the revolt. George the Monk, the hagiographic sources, and a letter from Michael II to the western emperor Louis the Pious claim that Thomas had risen up against Leo before Michael's usurpation. This chronology is followed by almost all later Byzantine chroniclers like Genesios, Theophanes Continuatus, and Skylitzes, as well as a number of modern scholars like J. B. Bury and Alexander Kazhdan. In his study of Thomas and the revolt, Paul Lemerle dismisses this timeline as a later attempt by Michael to justify his revolt as a response to Leo's failure to suppress the rebellion, and to exculpate himself of the early defeats suffered by the imperial forces. Some recent studies follow Lemerle and prefer the account of Symeon Logothetes—generally considered the most accurate of the 10th-century sources—according to which Thomas rebelled a few days after the murder of Leo and in reaction to it.
Consequently, the empire became divided in a struggle that was less a rebellion against the established government and more a contest for the throne between equal contenders. Michael held Constantinople and the European provinces, controlled the imperial bureaucracy, and had been properly crowned by the Patriarch, but he had come to the throne through murder, while Thomas gained support and legitimacy through his claim to avenge the fallen Leo, and he won the backing of themes both in Asia and later in Europe. Thomas was a well-known, popular, and respected figure in Asia Minor, where Leo V had enjoyed considerable support. Michael, on the other hand, was virtually unknown outside the capital; his military record was unremarkable, he was uneducated and coarse of manner, his stutter earned him ridicule, and he was reputed to sympathize with the heretical religious sect of the Athinganoi, to which his family had belonged.
Byzantine accounts of Thomas's rebellion state that he did not in fact claim the throne under his own name but assumed the identity of Emperor Constantine VI, who had been deposed and murdered by his mother, Irene of Athens, in 797. Most modern scholars follow Lemerle, who dismisses this as yet another later fabrication. If it contains any truth, it is possible that this story may originate from Thomas choosing to be crowned under the regnal name of "Constantine", but there is no evidence for such an act. The possible appropriation of Constantine VI's identity is linked in some Byzantine sources with the statement that Thomas was a rumoured supporter of iconolatry, as opposed to Michael's support for iconoclasm: it was under Constantine VI that veneration of the icons was restored. Nevertheless, the ambiguous phrasing of the sources, the iconoclast leanings of many themes in Asia Minor, and Thomas's alliance with the Arabs seem to speak against any open commitment to icon worship on his part. Indeed, given Michael II's conciliatory approach during his early reign, the icon worship controversy does not seem to have been a major issue at the time, and in the view of modern scholars most probably did not play a major role in Thomas's revolt. The image of Thomas as an iconophile champion opposed to the iconoclast Michael II in later, Macedonian-era sources was probably the result of their own anti-iconoclast bias. Warren Treadgold furthermore suggests that if true, Thomas's claim to be Constantine VI may have been little more than a tale circulated to win support, and that Thomas pursued a "studied ambiguity" towards icons, designed to attract support from iconophiles. In Treadgold's words, "Thomas could be all things to all men until he had conquered the whole empire, and then he would have time enough to disappoint some of his followers".
The account of Theophanes Continuatus on Thomas's revolt states that in this time, "the servant raised his hand against his master, the soldier against his officer, the captain against his general". This has led some scholars, chiefly Alexander Vasiliev and George Ostrogorsky, to regard Thomas's revolt as an expression of widespread discontent among the rural population, which suffered under heavy taxation. Other Byzantinists, notably Lemerle, dismiss rural discontent as a primary factor during the revolt.
Genesios and other chroniclers further state that Thomas won the support of "Hagarenes, Indians, Egyptians, Assyrians, Medians, Abasgians, Zichs, Iberians, Kabirs, Slavs, Huns, Vandals, Getae, the sectarians of Manes, Laz, Alanians, Chaldians, Armenians and every kind of other peoples". This has led to modern claims that Thomas's rebellion represented an uprising of the empire's non-Greek ethnic groups, but according to Lemerle, this exaggerated account is yet another piece of hostile disinformation. It is almost certain, however, that Thomas could count on support among the empire's Caucasian neighbours, for the presence of Abasgians, Armenians, and Iberians in his army is mentioned in the near-contemporary letter of Michael II to Louis the Pious. The reasons for this support are unclear; Thomas may have made unspecified promises to their rulers, but Lemerle suggests that the Armenians might have in part been motivated by revenge for Leo, their murdered kinsman.
Outbreak and spread of the revolt in Asia Minor
As commander of the Foederati, Thomas was based at Amorion, the capital of the Anatolic Theme. Although junior to the theme's strategos (military governor), his proclamation received widespread support throughout Asia Minor. Within a short time, all the Asian themes supported Thomas, except for the Opsician Theme under the patrician Katakylas, a nephew of Michael II, and the Armeniac Theme, under its strategos, Olbianos. The Thracesian Theme wavered between the two rivals, but finally threw its support behind Thomas. More than two-thirds of the empire's Asian army eventually aligned with Thomas, while the defection of the provincial tax officials provided him with much-needed revenue.
Michael's first response was to order the Armeniac army to attack Thomas. The Armeniacs were easily defeated in battle and Thomas proceeded through the eastern parts of the Armeniac Theme to occupy the frontier region of Chaldia. His conquest of the Armeniac province was left incomplete because the Abbasids, taking advantage of the Byzantine civil war, launched raids by land and sea against southern Asia Minor, where Thomas had left few troops. Instead of returning to face these raids, Thomas launched a large-scale invasion of his own against Abbasid territory in spring 821, either in Syria (according to Bury and others) or in Arab-held Armenia (according to Treadgold). Thomas then sent an emissary to the Caliph al-Ma'mun, who was sufficiently impressed by Thomas's show of force to receive his proposals, especially in view of the Caliphate's own problems with the rebellion of the Khurramites under Babak Khorramdin. Thomas and Ma'mun concluded a treaty of peace and mutual alliance. The Caliph allowed Thomas to recruit men from Arab-ruled territories, and gave leave for him to cross the border and travel to Arab-held Antioch, where he was crowned emperor by the iconophile Patriarch of Antioch, Job. In exchange, Thomas is said to have promised to cede unspecified territories and become a tributary vassal of the Caliph, though the agreement's exact terms are left unclear in the sources. At about the same time, Thomas adopted a young man of obscure origin, whom he named Constantius and made his co-emperor.
Meanwhile, Michael II tried to win support among the iconophiles by appointing a relative of his as Archbishop of Ephesus, but his plan failed when the latter refused to be consecrated by the avowedly iconoclast Patriarch Antony I Kassimates. In an effort to consolidate his hold on the provinces, and especially the two Asian themes still loyal to him, Michael proclaimed a 25 percent reduction in taxes for 821–822.
By summer 821, Thomas had consolidated his position in the East, though the Opsician and Armeniac themes still eluded his control. He set his sights on the ultimate prize, Constantinople, the possession of which alone conferred full legitimacy to an emperor. Thomas assembled troops, gathered supplies, and built siege machines. To counter the powerful Imperial Fleet stationed in the capital, he built new ships to augment his existing fleet, which came from the Cibyrrhaeot and Aegean Sea naval themes, and possibly included task forces from the theme of Hellas. Thomas recalled Gregory Pterotos, a general and nephew of Leo V whom Michael had exiled to the island of Skyros, and gave him command of the fleet. By October, the thematic fleets loyal to Thomas had finished assembling at Lesbos, and Thomas's army began marching from the Thracesian Theme towards Abydos, where he intended to cross over into Europe.
At this point, Thomas suffered his first reversal of fortune: before his departure for Abydos, he had sent an army under his adoptive son Constantius against the Armeniacs. Constantius was ambushed by strategos Olbianos and killed, although the army was able to withdraw with relatively few casualties. Constantius's severed head was sent to Michael, who dispatched it to Thomas at Abydos. Thomas was undaunted by this relatively minor setback, and crossed over into Europe some time in late October or early November. There, Constantius was soon replaced as co-emperor by another obscure individual, a former monk whom Thomas also adopted and named Anastasius.
Siege of Constantinople
Anticipating Thomas's move, Michael had gone out at the head of an army to the themes of Thrace and Macedonia in Constantinople's European hinterland and strengthened the garrisons of several fortresses there to secure the loyalty of their populace. When Thomas landed, the people of the European themes welcomed him with enthusiasm, and Michael was forced to withdraw to Constantinople. Volunteers, including many Slavs, flocked to Thomas's banner. As he set out towards Constantinople, chroniclers recount that his army swelled to some 80,000 men. The capital was defended by the imperial tagmata, augmented by reinforcements from the Opsician and Armeniac themes. Michael had ordered the city walls to be repaired, and chained off the entrance to the Golden Horn, while the Imperial Fleet further guarded the capital from the sea. Nevertheless, judging from Michael's passive stance, his forces were inferior to Thomas's; Warren Treadgold estimates Michael's army to have numbered approximately 35,000 men.
Thomas's fleet arrived at the capital first. Facing no opposition from the Imperial Fleet, the rebels broke or unfastened the chain and entered the Golden Horn, taking station near the mouths of the Barbysos river, where they awaited the arrival of Thomas and his army. Thomas arrived in early December. The sight of his huge force did not cow the capital's inhabitants: unlike the provinces, the capital's citizens and garrison stood firmly behind Michael. To further encourage his troops, Michael had his young son Theophilos lead a procession along the walls, carrying a piece of the True Cross and the mantle of the Virgin Mary, while a large standard was hoisted on top of the Church of St. Mary at Blachernae, in full view of both armies.
After subduing the cities around the capital, Thomas resolved to attack Constantinople from three sides, perhaps hoping his assault would impress its inhabitants or lead to defections. His deputies Anastasius and Gregory Pterotos would attack the Theodosian land and sea walls, respectively, while he would lead the main attack against the less formidable defenses protecting Blachernae. All of Thomas's forces were amply supplied with siege engines and catapults, and his fleet fielded quantities of Greek fire in addition to large shipborne catapults. Each of Thomas's attacks failed: the defenders' artillery proved superior and kept Thomas's engines away from the land walls, while adverse winds hindered the fleet from taking any meaningful action. Deciding that operations in the midst of winter were hazardous and unlikely to succeed, Thomas suspended all further attacks until spring and withdrew his army to winter quarters.
Michael used the respite to ferry in additional reinforcements from Asia Minor and repair the walls of Blachernae. When Thomas returned in spring, he decided to focus his attack on the Blachernae sector. Before the offensive, Michael himself ascended the walls and addressed Thomas's troops, exhorting them to abandon their commander and promising amnesty if they would defect. Thomas's army viewed the plea as a sign of weakness, and advanced confidently to begin the assault, but as they neared the wall, the defenders opened the gates and attacked. The sudden onslaught drove back Thomas's army; at the same time, the Imperial Fleet defeated Thomas's ships, whose crews broke and fled to the shore in panic. This defeat diminished Thomas's naval strength, and although he continued blockading the capital by land, the loss demoralized his supporters, who began defecting. Gregory Pterotos, whose family was in Michael's hands, resolved to desert Thomas, followed by a small band of men loyal to him. He departed the rebel camp, headed west, and sent a monk to inform Michael of his defection, but the monk failed to circumvent the blockade and reach the capital. Upon learning of this defection, Thomas reacted quickly: with a select detachment, he followed Gregory, defeated his troops and killed the deserter.
Thomas exploited this small victory for all it was worth, widely proclaiming that he had defeated Michael's troops "by land and sea". He sent messages to the themes of Greece, whose support had been lukewarm until that point, demanding additional ships. The themes responded forcefully, sending their squadrons, allegedly numbering 350 vessels, to join him. Thus reinforced, Thomas decided to launch a two-pronged assault against Constantinople's sea walls, with his original fleet attacking the wall of the Golden Horn, and the new fleet attacking the south coast, looking towards the Sea of Marmara. Michael, however, did not remain idle: his own fleet attacked the thematic force soon after it arrived at its anchorage in Byrida. Using Greek fire, the Imperial Fleet destroyed many of the rebel vessels and captured most of the remaining ships. Only a few managed to escape and rejoin Thomas's forces.
Through this victory, Michael secured control of the sea, but Thomas's army remained superior on land and continued its blockade of Constantinople. Minor skirmishes ensued for the remainder of the year, with Michael's forces sallying forth from the city to attack Thomas's forces. Although both sides claimed minor successes in these clashes, neither was able to gain a decisive advantage.
Michael turned to the empire's northern neighbour, Bulgaria, for help. The two states were bound by a 30-year treaty signed under Leo V, and the Bulgarian ruler, khan Omurtag (r. 814–831), was happy to respond to Michael's request for assistance. A later tradition, reported by Genesios and Theophanes Continuatus, holds that Omurtag acted of his own accord and against Michael's will, but this is almost universally rejected as a version started or at least encouraged by Michael, who did not wish to be seen encouraging "barbarians" to invade the empire. The Bulgarian army invaded Thrace, probably in November 822 (Bury believes that the Bulgarian attack occurred in spring 823), and advanced towards Constantinople. Thomas raised the siege, and marched to meet them with his army. The two armies met at the plain of Kedouktos near Heraclea (hence known as the Battle of Kedouktos in the Byzantine sources) . The accounts of the subsequent battle differ: the later sources state that Thomas lost the battle, but the near-contemporary George the Monk states that Thomas "killed many Bulgarians". Given the lack of Bulgarian activity after the battle, most modern scholars (with the notable exception of Bury) believe that Thomas won the battle.
Defeat and death of Thomas, end of the revolt
Thomas was unable to resume the siege: aside from the heavy casualties his army likely suffered, his fleet, which he had left behind in the Golden Horn, surrendered to Michael during his absence. Thomas set up camp at the plain of Diabasis some west of Constantinople, spending winter and early spring there. While a few of his men deserted, the bulk remained loyal. Finally, in late April or early May 823, Michael marched with his troops against Thomas, accompanied by the generals Olbianos and Katakylas with new troops from Asia Minor. Thomas marched to meet them and planned to use a stratagem to outwit his opponents: his men, ostensibly demoralized, would pretend to flee, and when the imperial army broke ranks to pursue them, they would turn back and attack. However, Thomas's troops were by now weary of the prolonged conflict, and their submission was unfeigned. Many surrendered to Michael, while others fled to nearby fortified cities. Thomas sought refuge in Arcadiopolis with a large group; his adopted son Anastasius went with some of Thomas's men to Bizye, and others fled to Panion and Heraclea.
Michael blockaded Thomas's cities of refuge but organized no assaults, instead aiming to capture them peacefully by wearing out their defenders. His strategy was motivated by the political and propaganda expedient of appearing merciful—"in order to spare Christian blood", as Michael himself put it in his letter to Louis the Pious—but also, according to the chroniclers, by fear of demonstrating to the Bulgarians that the Byzantine cities' fortifications could fall to attack. In Asia Minor, Thomas's partisans hoped to lure Michael away by allowing the Arabs free passage to raid the provinces of Opsikion and Optimaton, which were loyal to the emperor. Michael was unmoved and continued the blockade. His troops barred access to Arcadiopolis with a ditch. To conserve supplies, the blockaded troops sent away women and children, followed by those too old, wounded, or otherwise incapable of bearing arms. After five months of blockade, Thomas's loyalists were eventually forced to eat starved horses and their hides. Some began deserting by lowering themselves with ropes over the city walls or jumping from them. Thomas sent messengers to Bizye, where the blockade was less close, to arrange a relief attempt by Anastasius. Before anything could be done, however, the exhausted troops at Arcadiopolis surrendered their leader in exchange for an imperial pardon. Thomas was delivered to Michael seated on a donkey and bound in chains. He was prostrated before the emperor, who placed his foot on his defeated rival's neck and ordered his hands and feet cut off and his corpse impaled. Thomas pleaded for clemency with the words "Have mercy on me, oh True Emperor!" Michael only asked his captive to reveal whether any of his own senior officials had had dealings with Thomas. Before Thomas could respond, the Logothete of the Course, John Hexaboulios, advised against hearing whatever claims a defeated rebel might make. Michael agreed, and Thomas's sentence was carried out immediately.
When the inhabitants of Bizye heard of Thomas's fate, they surrendered Anastasius, who suffered the same fate as Thomas. In Panion and Heraclea, Thomas's men held out until an earthquake struck in February 824. The tremor severely damaged the wall of Panion, and the city surrendered. The damage at Heraclea was less severe, but after Michael landed troops at its seaward side, it too was forced to surrender. In Asia Minor, Thomas's loyalists mostly submitted peacefully, but in the Cibyrrhaeot Theme, resistance lingered until suppressed by strategos John Echimos. In the Thracesian theme, Thomas's soldiers turned to brigandage. The most serious opposition was offered in central Asia Minor by two officers, who had possibly served Thomas as strategoi: Choireus, with his base at Kaballa northwest of Iconium, and Gazarenos Koloneiates, based at Saniana, southeast of Ancyra. From their strongholds, they spurned Michael's offer of a pardon and the high title of magistros and raided the provinces that had gone over to him. Soon, however, Michael's agents persuaded the inhabitants of the two forts to shut their gates against the officers. Choireus and Koloneiates then tried to seek refuge in Arab territory but were attacked en route by loyalist troops, captured, and crucified.
Aftermath and effects
The end of Thomas the Slav's great rebellion was marked by Michael II's triumph, held in May 824 in Constantinople. While he executed Thomas's volunteers from the Caliphate and perhaps also the Slavs, the sheer number of individuals involved, the necessity of appearing clement and sparing with Christian lives, and the need to restore internal tranquillity to his realm compelled Michael to treat Thomas's defeated partisans with leniency: most were released after being paraded in the Hippodrome during his celebration, and only the most dangerous were exiled to remote corners of the empire. In an effort to discredit his opponent, Michael authorized an "official" and heavily distorted version of Thomas's life and revolt. The document was written by the deacon Ignatios and published in 824 as Against Thomas. This report quickly became the commonly accepted version of events.
Thomas failed in spite of his qualities and the widespread support he had gained, which brought him control of most of the empire. Lemerle holds that several factors played a role in his defeat: the Asian themes he did not subdue supplied reinforcements to Michael; Thomas's fleet performed badly; and the Bulgarian offensive diverted him away from the capital and weakened his army. But the most decisive obstacles were the impregnable walls of Constantinople, which ensured that an emperor who controlled Constantinople could only be overthrown from within the city.
Thomas's rebellion was the "central domestic event" of Michael II's reign, but it was not very destructive in material terms: except for Thrace, which had suffered from the prolonged presence of the rival armies and the battles fought there, the larger part of the empire was spared the ravages of war. The Byzantine navy suffered great losses, with the thematic fleets in particular being devastated, while the land forces suffered comparatively few casualties. This is traditionally held to have resulted in a military weakness and internal disorder which was swiftly exploited by the Muslims: in the years after Thomas's rebellion, Andalusian exiles captured Crete and the Tunisian Aghlabids began their conquest of Sicily, while in the East, the Byzantines were forced to maintain a generally defensive stance towards the Caliphate. More recent scholarship has disputed the degree to which the civil war was responsible for Byzantine military failures during these years, citing other reasons to explain them: Warren Treadgold opines that the empire's military forces recovered fairly quickly, and that incompetent military leadership coupled with "the remoteness of Sicily, the absence of regular troops on Crete, the simultaneity of the attacks on both islands, and the government's long-standing lack of interest in sea-power" were far more responsible for the loss of the islands.
See also
List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars
List of sieges of Constantinople
References
Sources
760s births
823 deaths
9th-century Byzantine people
Byzantine generals
Byzantine people of the Arab–Byzantine wars
Byzantine Pontians
Byzantine usurpers
Executed Byzantine people
People executed by impalement
9th-century executions by the Byzantine Empire
Abbasid Caliphate–Byzantine Empire relations
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5054574
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9ronique%20Sanson
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Véronique Sanson
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Véronique Marie Line Sanson (; born 24 April 1949) is a three-time Victoires de la Musique award-winning French singer-songwriter and record producer with an avid following in her native country.
Ten years after Barbara, Véronique Sanson became one of the first French female singer-songwriters to break into stardom with her debut album "Amoureuse" in 1972. She also became one of the most successful and most prominent members of the Seventies "Nouvelle chanson française" ("New French chanson"), alongside Alain Souchon, Bernard Lavilliers, Jacques Higelin, Michel Polnareff, Catherine Lara, Yves Duteil, Maxime Le Forestier, Renaud, William Sheller, Michel Jonasz, Michel Berger, Hubert-Félix Thiéfaine, Louis Chédid, or Francis Cabrel. Unlike most previous French artists of the Sixties Yé-yé era, who mostly released EPs consisting of a collection of singles, B-sides and covers, Sanson and her counterparts of the "nouvelle chanson française" established the dominance of singer-songwriters on the Seventies French charts thanks to albums with full-length artistic statements.
One of her songs, "Amoureuse", was covered in English in 1973 by singer Kiki Dee, and became a major hit in the United Kingdom, and has been covered since by various other singers, from Polly Brown (1973) to Elaine Paige with Olivia Newton-John (1974), Pete Townshend (1974), Linda Martin (1996) and Amanda Abbs with Illusive (1997). In 1974, Patti Dahlstrom recorded a second version with her own lyrics, entitled "Emotion", which was covered by Helen Reddy (1974) and Shirley Bassey (1975). Many other covers of "Amoureuse" have been recorded in French, German, Spanish, Dutch or Japanese.
Sanson plays piano and guitar.
Childhood and family
Both her parents, René and Colette Sanson, were members of the Resistance during the German occupation of France. Before the war, was a French diplomat in The Hague. When the Germans invaded the Netherlands, he sent a coded message to warn the French government that Germany was planning to attack France from across the Belgian border. This very message was decoded by Colette, a communication worker at the French Ministry of War. It was not until a few months later that they met in person, in a resistance cell. Both became prominent within the Resistance. In 1944, after the bombing of a German train, Colette was arrested and sentenced to death by the occupation force but managed to escape.
After the liberation of Paris, René Sanson was appointed Minister of Labour in Charles de Gaulle's provisional government. The couple married in 1945. As a lawyer and an economist, René Sanson remained involved in politics as Member of Parliament and Deputy of the 13th district of Paris until 1967. In 1970, he was in charge of the French delegation at the Osaka World Expo; Véronique first visited Japan on this occasion.
Véronique grew up in a very privileged Parisian home. She attended the Cours Hattemer, a private school. Her parents considered music the finest art there was, and emphasized the musical apprenticeship of their daughters. Her mother introduced her to the guitar, while her father, who was a great fan of jazz, taught her the piano at the age of four. At the age of 13, she already composed her own songs, influenced by The Beatles, Ray Charles and by Dionne Warwick's peculiar vibrato. In 1965, she was struck by amnesia after a severe bout of meningitis that left her with few and fragmented childhood memories.
Discovery and early recordings: the late 1960s
In 1967, her career began in a trio, the Roche-Martin, with François Bernheim and her sister Violaine Sanson. The three teenagers only managed to sell a few hundred records, but this experience allowed her to meet with Michel Berger, with whom she began a romantic relationship as well as a prolific artistic career. He introduced her to his record company (Pathé Marconi), and encouraged her to pursue a solo career. Sanson later mentioned that period as her most productive. In an interview, she recalled that she forced herself to write a song per day to keep up with Berger, who commissioned her to write songs for Isabelle de Funès, niece of French actor, Louis de Funès. She wrote "Mon voisin", "Une odeur de neige" and "Jusqu'à la tombée du jour" that would later be featured in Sanson's 1992 album Sans Regrets. In 1969, she released her first solo single, comprising "Le Feu Du Ciel" and "Le Printemps est là", which met with very little success.
The Breakthrough: the early 1970s
After the commercial failure of her first single, her contract with Pathé Marconi was severed. In 1971, she wrote "La brume de Philadelphie" for Petula Clark, which was issued as the B-side of Clark's French single "La Chanson de Marie Madeleine".
She and Berger had formed an inseparable team, and were offered a joint recording contract by Bernard de Bosson, CEO of WEA at the time.
In 1972, Sanson released the album Amoureuse, produced by Berger, which received a warm welcome from critics. With the singles "Besoin de personne", "Amoureuse", and "Bahia", it reached the summit of the charts thanks to intensive radio play (2× Gold in five months). Françoise Hardy later declared that the release of Amoureuse marked the end of the Yé-yé era, as she confessed "When I first heard Amoureuse, I had the impression that every female singer, including myself, was left far behind". However, the success of the album had an ironic downside for Sanson, who was terrified of performing in front of an audience and therefore refused to schedule concerts. However, Berger and de Bosson believed she could overcome her debilitating fear, and forced her to perform a daily showcase at the Eiffel Tower's restaurant. She also appeared the same year as the opening act for some of the biggest stars of the time such as Claude Francois, Julien Clerc, and Michel Polnareff.
Amoureuse was closely followed by De l'autre côté de mon rêve, which also became a commercial success thanks to the singles "Comme je l'imagine", and "Chanson sur ma drôle de vie". In the meantime, she had met Stephen Stills after a concert he performed with his new band Manassas in Paris. They fell in love, and Sanson left Berger to follow Stills to New York, just as De l'autre côté de mon rêve was released – she supposedly went out to buy cigarettes, but never came back. In 1973, Sanson went on tour as a main act for the first time in Canada.
The American Period: 1973–1981
Sanson and Stills married in 1973, in Guildford, England, with guests including Ringo Starr and Roger Daltrey. She moved permanently to the United States, but returned to France regularly to give concerts and promote her music. In 1974, she gave birth to her only child, Christopher, in Boulder, Colorado. Her marriage also marked a new direction to her career, which has led the French media to constantly associate her music with Anglophone influences (in her career she has recorded most of her albums in the US, and mostly with American musicians).
She enrolled Manassas and decided to produce her next album herself. In contrast with her Beatles-inspired previous albums, the record emerged as a mixture of pop and 1970's rock'n'roll. Critically acclaimed at the time and still viewed today as a milestone of Sanson's career, Le Maudit was released in 1974, and reflects a large spectrum of musical influences such as bossa nova in "Alia Souza", or pure rock'n'roll in "On m'attend là bas". After several tours in Quebec in 1973, she went touring in France, with two concerts at the Olympia in October 1974, with Stills on bass guitar, then a long tour in 1975, with two weeks at the Olympia.
In 1976, she began a long-lasting professional collaboration with producer Bernard Saint-Paul – making 12 albums – and released the album Vancouver, recorded in London with British musicians. The record became her first platinum album, propelled by the single "Vancouver", one of her biggest hits.
By 1976, Sanson had become an established star. Her music, very much inspired by the best American producers, was a rarity in the Seventies French musical landscape. She gave two weeks of concerts at the Olympia, where her first live album was recorded.
The following year she released Hollywood, her fifth studio album. Recorded in Stevie Wonder's studios in Los Angeles, Hollywood found Sanson combining a disco-inspired sound to pop-driven melodies, which led the album to be referred to as the most representative piece of Sanson's American period. The same year she went on tour across France with Michel Jonasz as her opening act. Although she lived in the United States most of the time, she managed to remain present in the French musical landscape, travelling back and forth between her home in Colorado and her audience in France.
In 1978, she became the first French female artist to perform at le Palais des sports in Paris, which was the biggest arena in Paris at that time.
In 1979, she released 7ème, best known for the single "Ma révérence", one of her most popular songs. Overall, the album is quite melancholic, which contrasts with the lightness of Hollywood two years earlier. In fact, Sanson was going through a hard time in her life. She had decided to leave Stills and was engaged in a tough legal battle in American courts for the custody of her son.
Period of Transition: The 1980s
The transition toward the 1980s was difficult and challenging. Still tied to America by her son, of whom she did not gain full custody until 1983, she continued to split her time between the US and France. Fans and critics were enthusiastic when her new album came out in 1981 (Laisse-la vivre). Though the record contained no memorable hit singles, it emerged as a solid ensemble of well-crafted songs. The album went double gold and she spent the following year on the road, managing to draw large audiences during a tour that ended with three weeks in a row at the le Palais des sports of Paris.
In 1983, she permanently settled in France with her son, Christopher, and her boyfriend, actor Etienne Chicot. After a long break, she released an eponymous album in 1985, recorded entirely in France. This untitled album was nicknamed The white album by the press, while Sanson refers to it as The lil' trees (Les p'tits arbres). This synth-driven album included C'est long c'est court which became a radio hit in France during the summer of 1985, as well as the ballad "Le temps est assassin". She then embarked in a long tour during 1985–86 which met with tremendous success highlighted by a month-long residence at the Olympia in November 1985.
In 1988, she released the album Moi le venin, which included the highly controversial single "Allah" (produced by Michel Berger). A couple of months after the release of the video directed by Dominic Sena (director of Gone in 60 Seconds, Kalifornia, Swordfish...), the song was censored in the media, and Sanson was forced to drop it from her tour's set-list after receiving threats of violence from radical Muslims. As a result of several death threats, she was put under police protection. The controversy arose because of the Muslim tradition forbidding reference to Allah in a song, and occurred just a few weeks after a fatwā was issued against Salman Rushdie. In response to the uproar, Sanson apologized and pleaded that the song was really meant to be a message of peace and tolerance. French show-business massively stood up for her, and more than a hundred artists signed a pamphlet against "the diktat of all forms of radicalism"
In November 1989, Sanson took part in the first charity tour entitled Les Enfoirés for Les Restos du coeur, alongside French rock stars Johnny Hallyday, Eddy Mitchell and Jean-Jacques Goldman.
In 1989, she realized a lifelong dream to play with a symphonic orchestra. After rehearsals in Czechoslovakia with the Czech symphonic orchestra "Fisyo", a series of six concerts took place in December 1989 at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris. A resulting live album was released the subsequent year. In 1990, she also toured with the symphonic orchestra for a dozen concerts across France.
The 1990s
In 1991, Véronique Sanson received the Grand Prix of "la SACEM" (the French Singer Songwriter guild) to celebrate her entire recording career. The same year, she released a duet with singer-songwriter Catherine Lara, entitled "Entre elle et moi".
For the first time in more than a decade, Sanson recorded her tenth studio album in the US with American musicians. Sans regrets, issued in 1992, was a tremendous success propelled by the famous single "Rien que de l'eau". This song was the result of an unprecedented collaboration with another songwriter, Bernard Swell, a long-time friend. The album went platinum and its first single still remains one of her biggest hits, with over 500,000 copies sold in six months.
In 1993, she won a Victoires de la musique for best female singer of the year. In March, she performed at the Zenith Paris. During these shows, she paid tribute to Berger who had died in 1992, by performing "Seras-tu là", one of his songs. The live album recorded at the Zenith went platinum.
Between 1993 and 1996, Sanson went on tour in France, Belgium, Switzerland and Canada. During the summer of 1994, at the Francofolies Festival of La Rochelle, several artists gathered to pay a musical tribute to her career. For more than two hours, Michel Fugain, Alain Chamfort, Yves Duteil, William Sheller, Marc Lavoine, les Innocents, Paul Personne, Maxime le Forestier and I Muvrini, performed some of her biggest hits in duet with Sanson. This special tribute was made into a live album released the following year: Comme ils l'imaginent went 2× Platinum, and became one of the best-selling albums of 1995 in France.
In 1995, she married stand-up comedian Pierre Palmade in Triel-sur-Seine. She also recorded a duet with her son, Chris Stills, titled "Run". The song was released on a benefit album for children living with AIDS (Sol En Si). In 1996, she won her second Victoire de la musique for Best Female Artist of The Year.
Sanson started the production of a new album in 1997. The album was recorded in the United States, and Bernard Swell wrote and produced four of the album's songs. A sold-out tour followed the release of Indestructible, which went 2× gold. She performed in the Palais des sports of Paris in January 1998, then toured through France, and in the summer of 1999, Sanson performed at various festivals, including at France's largest rock Festival Les Vieilles Charrues.
Long Distance: the 2000s
Sanson's cover album of Michel Berger songs – mostly from his early years – was released in 2000 (D'un papillon à une étoile) and went platinum in just a few weeks. It was followed by an extensive tour, produced by Paul Buckmaster (Elton John's arranger), and eventually by a live album (Avec vous). Sanson surrounded herself with her usual musicians, mostly Americans, as well as a classical ensemble from Prague. Her stage outfits for this tour were entirely created by Yves Saint Laurent.
In June 2000, she was invited to perform for President Jacques Chirac at the Elysée Palace for the Fête de la Musique.
In 2002, after a prolonged absence due to health problems, Sanson canceled a solo tour on which she would have accompanied herself only on piano. However, in September 2004, a few months after the press had announced her divorce from Pierre Palmade, she released a comeback album titled Longue Distance, produced by Bernard Saint-Paul. Longue Distance peaked at number 1 on the French charts. Her 2005 tour across France ended with nine concerts at the Olympia, during which she recorded her eighth live album.
In 2005, she released her autobiography, La Douceur du Danger (written with Didier Varrod), in which she discussed the most striking events of her life, particularly her alcoholism and her love life.
The "best-of", entitled Petits moments choisis, was released in November 2007, just as the singer started an unusually long tour which lasted until the summer of 2009. In December 2008, the limited edition 22CD/4DVD collection titled Et voilà !, including all her albums and videos as well as many previously unreleased tracks, sold out in less than a month.
In October 2008, she joined ex-husband Stills and her son, Chris Stills, on the stage of the Olympia, to perform a family version of Stills's "Love the One You're With".
In November 2008, rapper Jay-Z released a song called "History", to honor the election of US President Barack Obama. The song is based on samples and melodies from Véronique Sanson's 1972 recording of "Une nuit sur son épaule" (the original solo version, not the 1995 duet with Marc Lavoine). Jay-Z's song features Sanson on background vocals. In December 2008, she declared on Canal Plus's "Le Grand Journal" that she appreciated it, but would have preferred to be asked beforehand.
French-Canadian pop star Ima released a salsa-inspired reworking of "Chanson sur ma drôle de vie", followed in February 2009 by an associated video. Additionally, singer Lara Fabian released a cover version of "Amoureuse" in June on her studio album Toutes les femmes en moi.
The 2010s
In March 2010, the two lead actresses of the film Tout ce qui brille released a cover of "Chanson sur ma drôle de vie" on the movie soundtrack. The song became a number one hit in France, while the original recording by Sanson peaked at number 2 on the French iTunes.
The album, titled Plusieurs lunes (Many Moons) was released on 25 October 2010, and debuted at number 3 on the French charts. Plusieurs Lunes caught the attention of the press who widely celebrated and highlighted the return of Sanson after a couple of fairly disappointing albums (namely Indestructible and Longue Distance). A song from this new piece, "La nuit se fait attendre", was made available on her official website in June 2010, while the second single, "Qu'on me pardonne" (written by her sister, Violaine) was released in early October. After a week-long residence at the Paris Olympia in March 2011, Sanson toured across France, Belgium, Switzerland, Tunisia, Israel before finishing touring at the end of 2012 with more shows in Paris, at the Grand Rex and Salle Pleyel.
In commemoration of the forty years anniversary of the release of Amoureuse (released on 20 March 1972), singer songwriter Jeanne Cherhal played a tribute concert on 21 March 2012 at the studio 104 in Paris at which all 12 tracks of the album were covered by the singer. The concert was broadcast on the radio France Inter on 6 April 2012.
On 14 May 2012, Warner Music released a box set containing a remastered CD of Amoureuse (including 10 demo songs, and a duet with Fanny Ardant), a vinyl version, a live CD recorded in Brussels in 2011, and a photo book.
In January 2015, she launched a new tour named "Les Années Américaines" (The American Years) at the Olympia, along with a book, composed of unreleased personal documents and pictures, and a 2CD Best of, also titled "Les Années Américaines". In March 2015, a Deluxe issue of the Best of with a previously unreleased recording of her 1975 concert at the Olympia was released. Initially planned to last until April 2015, the tour "Les Années Américaines" was prolonged to January 2016.
After 43 years under contract with Warner, she joined Sony. At the 2016 Victoires de la Musique, she was nominated for "Best Female Artist of the year", but lost to Yael Naim.
In November 2016, she released her 15th album Dignes, dingues, donc..., which debuted at number 3 on the French album charts. "Et je l'appelle encore" was the first single released.
At the 2017 Victoires de la Musique, she received two nominations: for "Best Female Artist of the year" (lost to Jain), and for "Best song of the year" with "Et je l'appelle encore" (lost to Vianney's "Je m'en vais"). Her 2017-2018 tour started on 30 June.
Personal life
Sanson was romantically involved with French singer-songwriter Michel Berger from 1967 to 1972. Their love story has become a part of French music legend, especially through songs they wrote to each other long after they broke up. From 1973 to 1979 she was married to American rock musician Stephen Stills. Their son, Chris Stills, is also a musician. She was later married to French comic Pierre Palmade from 1995 to 2001.
Discography
Studio albums
Amoureuse (1972)
De l'autre côté de mon rêve (1972)
Le maudit (1974)
Vancouver (1976)
Hollywood (1977)
7ème (1979)
Laisse-la vivre (1981)
Véronique Sanson (1985)
Moi le venin (1988)
Sans regrets (1992)
Indestructible (1998)
D'un papillon à une étoile (1999)
Longue distance (2004)
Plusieurs Lunes (2010)
Dignes, dingues, donc... (2016)
Duos volatils (2018)
Live albums
Live at the Olympia 1976
Au Palais des Sports 1981
L'Olympia 1985
A l'Olympia 89
Symphonique Sanson (1989)
Zenith 93
Comme ils l'imaginent (1995)
Véronique Sanson chante Michel Berger, Avec vous (2000)
Olympia 2005
Le Cirque Royal de Véronique Sanson (2012)
Olympia 1975 (2015)
Les années américaines: Le film (2016)
Awards
1975: Silver Prize, Tokyo Music Festival
1978: Best Female Artist of the Year, Midem
1984: Named Chevalier of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Ministry of Culture
1991: Grand Prix de la SACEM
1992: Medal of the French National Order of Merit
1993: Victoires de la musique Best Female Artist of the Year
1996: Victoires de la musique Best Female Artist of the Year
2005: Named Officer of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Ministry of Culture
2013: Victoires de la musique Honorary Award
2015: Prix spécial de la SACEM
2015: "Grand Prix de la chanson française" from the Académie Française for her entire song catalog
2019: Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
References
External links
Official Site
Harmonies: V. Sanson: The 70's
Veronique Sanson's great moments in Quebec
1949 births
Living people
Musicians from Boulogne-Billancourt
French expatriates in the United States
20th-century French women singers
21st-century French women singers
French women singer-songwriters
French singer-songwriters
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
French-language singers
Stephen Stills
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5054635
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilcullen
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Kilcullen
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Kilcullen (), formally Kilcullen Bridge, is a small town on the River Liffey in County Kildare, Ireland. Its population of 3,815 at the 2022 census made it the 13th largest settlement in County Kildare. From 2002 to 2011, it was one of the fastest growing towns in the county, doubling its population from 1,483 to 3,473. It is situated primarily in the Barony of Kilcullen (in the Civil Parish of Kilcullen), with a part in the Barony of Naas South (Civil Parish of Carnalway), and subsidiary areas include Logstown, Harristown, Carnalway and Brannockstown, Gilltown, Nicholastown, and Castlemartin.
Kilcullen Bridge replaced the original settlement of Kilcullen, now Old Kilcullen, in the centuries following the building of the great bridge at the future site of the town. Other local historical features include Dun Ailinne, New Abbey and Castlemartin, for many years the home of media magnate Tony O'Reilly and his wife, horse-breeding shipping heiress Chryss Goulandris, and now owned by US billionaire John Malone. In the town's hinterland are a number of stud farms.
Location and natural features
Kilcullen is situated off the Dublin to Waterford (M9) motorway, between Naas and Kilkenny, and is centred on the crossroads of the R413 and R448 regional roads (the R448 was part of the main road from Dublin to Carlow, Kilkenny and Waterford until the M9 motorway was opened in 1995, bypassing the town).
Kilcullen straddles the River Liffey and is from the centre of Dublin, from the centre of Newbridge, and also close to Kildare town and Naas. There is just one bridge in the town (on the site of the historic bridge which gave rise to the settlement), and none to the north/west for some distance, until Athgarvan, though there are three to the south/east, in Harristown / Brannockstown, one on a public road, one a road bridge hidden on the old Harristown Estate, and one a former railway viaduct, also on private land. First built in the 1310s, the six-arch bridge over the Liffey was last reconstructed c. 1850, and renovated and widened in the early 1970s; the upstream face is modern while if viewed from downstream, the historic style is visible.
Upstream of the town the Liffey is joined by what is called locally the Mill Stream, coming from the direction of New Abbey, and forming the last stage of the substantial Kilcullen Stream (flowing north through Yellow Bog), a nationally monitored waterway. At the western edge of the town is the Pinkeen Stream, a minor tributary of the Liffey, which forms one boundary of Castlemartin Estate. At least two small streams lie further downstream in the Castlemartin area.
The town comprises one main street, with a few connecting roads. The main street slopes from Old Kilcullen and the Athy Road and motorway access, after joining with the Newbridge Road, down to the Liffey, and back up again, more steeply. Schools and churches are concentrated at the southwestern edge, businesses spread along the main street and near the old market square, and the town hall and theatre (former cinema) and heritage centre, and a bank, lie just to the northeast of the bridge.
History
(Old) Kilcullen
The current town and the barony of the same name are named for an earlier settlement, Kilcullen, on a hilltop a few kilometres to the south, now known as Old Kilcullen. Begun as a monastic settlement, in the mid-5th century, it was at its peak an Anglo-Norman walled town with seven gates and seven, or perhaps eight, roads. Little now remains visible beyond a damaged round tower and a churchyard. This town was perhaps related to the nearby Dun Ailinne, a ceremonial and possible palace site related to the kings of Leinster, though Dun Ailinne precedes any known settlement at Old Kilcullen. Old Kilcullen was raided by Vikings, landing at the location of the modern town, at least twice, in 936 and 944.
Foundation
The current town, officially known, mapped and recorded on legal documents, as Kilcullen Bridge, developed after 1319 when a bridge was constructed here across the River Liffey by a canon, Maurice Jakis, of Kildare Cathedral. It took over, over succeeding centuries, from the previous settlement. Originally, as shown on maps even as late as the late 18th century, the new settlement was wholly on the eastern bank of the Liffey, outside the Barony of Kilcullen.
(Fitz)Eustace family
Kilcullen was influenced for much of its history by the Eustace family, one of whose seats was at Castlemartin.
18th to 19th century
The town was in the vicinity of the Battle of Kilcullen in the 1798 Rebellion, and Castlemartin was the base of operations for the British Army in Kildare, under Dundas.
In 1837, the official town area had a population of 699, one principal street of 112 buildings, chiefly on the western bank of the Liffey, a market on Saturdays and fairs on 2 February 25 March, 22, 8 June and 29 September 2 October and 8 December. There was a police station and a dispensary, and petty sessions were held. At that time, the population of the rural area of Old Kilcullen still exceeded that of the town by a multiple.
Historic remains
On a hill around three kilometres south and east from Kilcullen (Bridge) is the site of the original settlement, now known as Old Kilcullen, featuring an historic church and graveyard, with an extant round tower.
Old Kilcullen may have related to the reputed site of a palace or ceremonial place of the Kings of Leinster at Dun Ailinne, on an adjacent hill. Local groups have constructed an interpretative site for Dun Ailinne at Nicholastown, about a kilometre from the modern town centre, featuring a sculpture by local sculptor and art teacher (at Kilcullen's Cross and Passion College) Noel Scullion. The site was informally launched at the Spring Equinox, and formally in summer, 2008. In April 2009, it was announced that Dun Ailinne might form part of a bid for World Heritage Site status, along with other royal sites from around Ireland.
To the west of the town is Castlemartin Estate, where, to the northwest, is situated Castlemartin House. This 18th-century mansion, said to have around thirty rooms, is owned by American billionaire, John Malone. The house is a successor to a series of older dwellings, perhaps dating back to the 13th century. The estate also includes St. Mary's Church ("Castlemartin Chapel"), a dependent chapel of Kilcullen Church, founded c. 1200, ruined for centuries and restored in 1979–1980, and a number of other houses. Two of these, and outlying buildings, opening off the northern part of Main Street, were planned to be redeveloped as apartments, restaurants and shops, with permission granted on 15 February 2008. While the estate itself is largely closed to the public, the new development is required to be without gates, and it was a condition of restoration of the old church that reasonable public access to this also be available.
Kilcullen has an early church of its own, around outside the town, the New Abbey, commenced in 1486 by Rowland FitzEustace, 1st Baron Portlester and Lord Chancellor of Ireland. The remnants of the abbey today lie in a church- and graveyard and feature some notable tombstones. They can be reached by a Mass path, within the Valley Community Park, which also passes St. Bridget's Well. Lord Portlester is buried here as is his daughter, Lady Kildare.
In the Brannockstown / Harristown area, near the five-way crossroads, is Harristown House, originally built in 1740 by Whitmore Davis as the country seat of the La Touche family, gutted by fire in 1891 (while some furniture was saved, most artworks was lost) and rebuilt by James Franklin Fuller in reduced form. The house was sold in 1920, refurnished, and is now open as a tourist attraction. Features include a walled garden and formal walk, the library, French and Italian furniture and 18th-century Chinese wallpaper. Notably, Harristown, although it had no real settlement, was once an electoral borough. Harristown once had its own railway station on the terminated Naas–Sallins–Tullow Branch Line, and a railway bridge over the Liffey, built in 1885. The line has since been lifted but the bridge remains, away from the roads.
Turnpike
Kilcullen Bridge and Old Kilcullen were pivotal to the first toll road in Ireland, founded in 1729, and initially running to "the Bridge at Kilcullen" and later to a point west of this, passing the fair green at Old Kilcullen. The road's administration and maintenance were at times questionable, and amending legislation was made at least twice in its history.
Birth of motor racing
On 2 July 1903, the Gordon Bennett Cup race ran through Kilcullen. It was the first international motor race to be held anywhere in what was then the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Automobile Club of Great Britain and Ireland wanted the race to be hosted in the United Kingdom, and Ireland was proposed as racing was illegal on British public roads. After some lobbying, a number of local laws were changed, and Kildare was chosen as the venue – partly because the straightness of the roads was deemed a safety benefit. As a compliment to Ireland, the British team chose to race in Shamrock green which thus became known as British racing green. The route consisted of several loops which passed through Kilcullen, Kildare, Monasterevin, Stradbally, Athy, Castledermot, and Carlow. The race was won by the Belgian racer Camille Jenatzy, driving a Mercedes. Modern signs mark both the route and the old inn that was used as a base.
Town Hall and Heritage Group
Today the town hall has historical displays, formed and maintained in cooperation with the active Kilcullen Heritage Group, and with the Kildare County Library Service. The town hall displays include photographs, prints and maps and some objects. The Heritage Group holds regular meetings and talks.
Community and amenities
A major feature of the town is the narrow but extensive Valley Community Park, which runs along the River Liffey, and related walks, one of which goes all the way to New Abbey. The Valley includes the restored historic main water source for the town, the Spout, and the Holy Well of St. Brigid, ornamented with a sculpture of "St. Brigid feeding the poor", by Fr Henry Flanagan, OP.
There is also the small Riverside Walk behind the Town Hall.
Kilcullen Library, a branch of Kildare County Libraries on New Abbey Road, provides service to the greater Kilcullen area. Located in the former boys' schoolhouse, built in 1925 and operating until 1980, it holds adult, reference and junior sections, some local history information, and a public access internet PC.
Civic groups
On a number of occasions from the mid-20th century, community groups have been formed, most notably Kilcullen Community Council, Kilcullen Community Development, and the current formation, Kilcullen Community Action (KCA). These groups have achieved much for the town, including the establishment, and preservation under charitable trustees, of the Valley Community Park.
Kilcullen has an active Lions Club, meeting regularly and driving and wholly or partly funding a number of community initiatives, such as the Youth Cafe due to open at the Tennis Club building, and the Photographic Competition, designed to capture a record of scenes and personalities, to be kept in the Heritage Centre. One of their major fund-raising events is the Duck Race in the Liffey, which since 2010 formed part of a larger community-led River Festival.
There is an active local Scout group, and a well-established credit union, with a large office near the town bridge, as well as the Kilcullen Flower and Garden Club.
Camphill
Kilcullen district is home to two Camphill Communities, one at Dunshane and one in the town itself, which operates the An Tearmann facility, including a coffee shop and Ireland's only Anthroposophical Bookshop, with an organic food shop behind.
Education
The town and area have a number of primary schools, and one secondary school, the Cross and Passion College. There is also a Steiner method school in nearby Grangebeg, about five miles from Kilcullen, on Dunlavin Road.
Media
There is a long-running local magazine, The Bridge, published monthly, and the area is also covered with a section in the Kildare Nationalist newspaper. There is also an established online journal, A Kilcullen Diary.
Religion
Kilcullen is the main element in the Parish of Kilcullen and Gormanstown in the Roman Catholic Church, with two churches managed by the parish of which the parish church, dedicated to the Sacred Heart and St. Brigid, from 1872, lies at the western end of the town proper, while the other, St. Joseph's, is at Yellow Bog. There is also a church on private land, at Castlemartin Estate, St. Mary's Church.
Kilcullen is part of the Union of Newbridge in the Church of Ireland (along with Newbridge town, Athgarvan and Brannockstown), having one of that Union's three churches, St. John's.
Kilcullen also has a Baptist church in Brannockstown (near Harristown), Brannockstown Baptist Church. It was founded in 1873 by John La Touche who was influenced by Charles Spurgeon.
Business
The town has more than thirty shops and service outlets, including a petrol station, several convenience stores (one of which includes the local post office), a bookshop, suppliers of farm, hardware & building equipment, and a bank branch. There are small restaurants, several fast food stores, at least three pubs serving food, and a coffee shop (and bookshop) run by the local Camphill Community. On Lower Main Street is Berney Bros. Saddlery, founded in the mid-nineteenth century.
Slightly to the east of the town, in parts of Brownstown and Carnalway, is a private refuse disposal facility, KTK. The owner of the facility made available funding over many years, notably from 2000 to 2006, from a levy on dumping there, to support the work of local groups such as the Tidy Towns Committee. As of late 2008, this facility had begun closure processes, being more or less full.
Sport
Kilcullen GAA is the local Gaelic Athletic Association club and Kilcullen AFC is the local soccer group. The GAA club adjoins, within the Kilcullen Community Centre Sports Complex, near the entrance to Castlemartin Estate, an all-weather pitch, and an 18-hole pitch-and-putt club (St. Brigids). On the opposite side of the town, opposite Hillcrest housing estate, is Kilcullen Tennis Club, in Logstown.
There is also a successful badminton club in the area which has both junior and senior members competing in inter-county tournaments and competitions such as the Westside and the county championships. It has a fierce rivalry with Naas badminton club which it competed against.
There is a Sli na Slainte healthy walking route around the area, passing the graveyard, St. Bridget's Well, the bridge and Bishop Rogan's Park.
Breeding and horses
Kilcullen is about from the Curragh, the centre of Ireland's horse racing industry and is home to the Aga Khan's horse breeding operation, the Gilltown Stud, and to stud and cattle breeding operations belonging to Tony O'Reilly and his wife. Horse riding is available, and horses can be stabled locally.
River activities
The area historically enjoyed a number of swimming locales in the Liffey (one at Carnalway, one in The Valley and one opposite Castlemartin House) and walking routes along its banks (at least one of which is a right-of-way), but access has become more difficult in recent years, and a bitter dispute over riverbank access took place at Carnalway from 2005 to 2007, featuring unauthorised construction of fencing and obstruction of rights of way.
The Liffey at Kilcullen is known for trout angling and the North Kildare TSAA manages fishing rights from Harristown through to the town centre.
Kilcullen is also home to the oldest canoe club in the country. Established in 1957 by Paddy Maloney, it has been the home of Olympic and international kayak athletes. Kilcullen Canoe Club are the current holders of the Irish Marathon Canoeing Cup (aka the Riba De Sella Cup), as well as the Irish Junior Series Cup. On 27 July 2008, the club opened its new clubhouse, just over half a century since the club was started. It is dedicated to the memory of Pat Dunlea, who played a major role in the building and financing of the facility. It lies just upstream of The Bridge and actively encourages locals to get involved.
Government and representation
Kilcullen is within the remit of Kildare County Council; it does not elect councillors for itself or its broader area but parts of the town and surrounds fall within the Naas Local Electoral Area and parts within the Athy Local Electoral Area.
For national elections, Kilcullen is today in the Kildare South Dáil constituency. It was controversially, for a period, in a Wicklow constituency.
Local government services
The council operates a covered reservoir almost a kilometre north of the bridge, with outlying areas served by group water schemes (many originally arranged by Kilcullen Community Council). There is a small sewage plant by the river a few hundred metres north of the bridge, and increased capacity is to be provided at a new plant in 2008 or 2009. There is a large county council reservoir near Old Kilcullen also.
After some protests in 2007–2008, the County Council began to provide a limited street cleaning service in mid-2008.
Notable residents
Abraham Boulger, Victoria Cross recipient
Hazel Gaynor, English author
See also
List of abbeys and priories in Ireland (County Kildare)
List of towns and villages in Ireland
Notes
References
External links
Brannockstown Baptist Church
Towns and villages in County Kildare
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20awards%20and%20nominations%20received%20by%20Shania%20Twain
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List of awards and nominations received by Shania Twain
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Canadian singer Shania Twain has been honored numerous times since her debut. Her self-titled debut studio album Shania Twain (1993), was certified platinum by the RIAA. Her follow up The Woman In Me (1995), sold over 12 million copies in the US (Diamond) and 20 million copies worldwide. Twain's third studio album Come On Over (1997), is the best selling album in country music history and the best selling album of all time by a female artist in any genre, having sold over 40 million copies worldwide and being certified 2× Diamond in the US. Her fourth release Up! (2002), was also certified Diamond in the US. In 2003, she was the only female artist to have 3 consecutive albums certified Diamond in the US. Afterwards, Twain released her Greatest Hits (2004) package, which was certified 4× platinum in the US. Thirteen years later, she released her fifth studio album Now (2017), and it was certified platinum in the US. The following is a list of awards Twain has won throughout her career. In total, she has won 223 awards.
Academy of Country Music Awards
American Music Awards
Amigo Awards
Bambi Awards
Billboard Music Awards
BMI Songwriter Awards
Country Music Association Awards
Canadian Country Music Association Awards
Danish Music Awards
Echo Awards
Edison Music Awards
Juno Awards
Grammy Awards
Ivor Novello Awards
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| rowspan="4" | 2000
| "You're Still The One"
| Best Song Musically and Lyrically
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| rowspan="3" | "That Don't Impress Me Much"
| Most Performed Work
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| International Hit of the Year
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| Best Selling UK Single
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MTV Video Music Awards
MTV Europe Music Awards
NRJ Music Awards
World Music Awards
Awards by Year
1993
CMT - (Europe): Rising Star
1995
ABC Radio Networks Country Music Awards: Female Video Artist of the Year
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Album of the Year - The Woman in Me
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Female Vocalist of the Year
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Single of the Year - "Any Man of Mine"
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): SOCAN Song of the Year - "Whose Bed Have Your Boots Been Under?"
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Video of the Year - "Any Man of Mine"
Country Music Radio Awards: Best Female Artist
Country Music Radio Awards: Single of the Year - "Any Man of Mine"
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Outstanding New Artist of the Year
1996
Academy of Country Music Awards (ACMA's): Album of the Year - The Woman in Me
Academy of Country Music Awards (ACMA's): Top New Female Vocalist
American Music Awards (AMA's): Favorite New Country Artist
AOL Online Music Awards: Hottest Country Video - "Any Man of Mine"
Billboard Music Awards: Country Album of the Year - The Woman in Me *Billboard Music Awards: Female Country Artist of the Year
Blockbuster Entertainment Awards: Favorite New Country Artist
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Any Man of Mine"
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "(If You're Not in It for Love) I'm Outta Here!"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Any Man of Mine"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Whose Bed Have Your Boots Been Under?"
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): NCN Fan's Choice Entertainer of the Year
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Female Vocalist of the Year
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Video of the Year - "(If You're Not in It for Love) I'm Outta Here!"
CMT - (Canada): Female Video Artist of the Year
CMT - (Europe): Female Artist of the Year
CMT - (Europe): Video of the Year - "Any Man of Mine"
CMT - (U.S.): Female Artist of the Year
First Americans in the Arts: Outstanding Musical Achievement Award
Golden Pick Awards: Favorite Album - The Woman In Me
Golden Pick Awards: Favorite Video of the Year - "The Woman in Me (Needs the Man in You)"
Grammy Awards: Best Country Album - The Woman in Me
Great British Country Music Awards: International Rising Star
Jukebox Awards: Country Single of the Year - "Any Man of Mine"
Jukebox Awards: Songwriter of the Year
Juno Awards: Country Female Vocalist of the Year
Juno Awards: Entertainer of the Year
Online Music Award: Best New Country Artist
Radio & Records' Trade Magazine Poll: Best Album - The Woman In Me
Radio & Records' Trade Magazine Poll: Best Female Vocalist
Radio & Records' Trade Magazine Poll: Best New Artist
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Album of the Year - The Woman In Me
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Canadian Country Artist of the Year
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Female Artist of the Year
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Song of the Year - "Any Man of Mine"
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Songwriters of the Year - Shania Twain and R.J. "Mutt" Lange
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Any Man of Mine"
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Whose Bed Have Your Boots Been Under?"
World Music Awards: World's Best Selling Female Country Artist
1997
American Music Awards (AMA's): Favorite Female Country Artist
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "No One Needs to Know"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Any Man of Mine"
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Special Achievement Award - The Woman in Me (Top selling album by a female country artist ever, selling over 12 million copies worldwide)
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Top Selling Album - The Woman In Me
Juno Awards: Country Female Vocalist of the Year
Juno Awards: Juno International Achievement Award
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Songwriters of the Year - Shania Twain and R.J. "Mutt" Lange
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "(If You're Not in It for Love) I'm Outta Here!"
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "No One Needs to Know"
1998
Billboard Music Awards: Best Selling Country Single - "You're Still the One"
Billboard Music Awards: Female Artist of the Year (All categories)
Billboard Music Awards: Hot 100 Singles Female Artist
Billboard Music Video Awards: Best Country Clip - You're Still The One
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Love Gets Me Every Time"
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): CMT Maple Leaf Foods Fan's Choice Award - Entertainer of the Year
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Female Vocalist of the Year
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Album of the Year - Come on Over
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Single of the Year - "You're Still the One"
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Top Selling Album - Come on Over
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Video of the Year - "Don't Be Stupid (You Know I Love You)"
CMT - (Canada): Female Video Artist of the Year
CMT - (Latin America): Female Artist of the Year
CMT - (Latin America): Video of the Year - "You're Still the One"
CMT - (Pacific): Female Artist of the Year
CMT - (U.S.): Female Artist of the Year
Juno Awards: Country Female Vocalist of the Year
MTV Video Music Awards: Nominated for Female Video of the Year - "You're Still the One"
Nashville Songwriters Association International (NSAI): Songwriter/Artist of the Year
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Album of the Year - Come on Over
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Canadian Country Artist of the Year
VH1 Viewer's Choice Awards: Sexiest Video - "You're Still the One"
1999
Academy of Country Music Awards (ACMA's): Double-Diamond Award - The Woman in Me and Come on Over
(Back to back albums selling over 10 million copies each in the U.S.)
American Music Awards (AMA's): Favorite Female Country Artist
American Music Awards (AMA's): Favorite Country Album- Come On Over
APRA Music Awards: Most Performed Foreign Work – "You're Still the One"
Blockbuster Entertainment Awards: Favorite Female Country Artist
Blockbuster Entertainment Awards: Favorite Single - "You're Still the One
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): Country Songwriter of the Year
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): Song of the Year - "You're Still the One"
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "You're Still the One"
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Don't Be Stupid (You Know I Love You)"
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "From This Moment On"
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Honey, I'm Home"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): Pop Songwriter of the Year
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): Song of the Year - "You're Still the One"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "You're Still the One"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "From This Moment On"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Love Gets Me Every Time"
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): CMT Maple Leaf Foods Fan's Choice Award - Entertainer of the Year
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Female Vocalist of the Year
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Video of the Year - "That Don't Impress Me Much"
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Vocal/Instrumental Collaboration of the Year - "From This Moment On"
Country Music Association Awards (CMA's) - (U.S.): CMA International Artist Achievement
Country Music Association Awards (CMA's) - (U.S.): Entertainer of the Year
CMT - (U.S.): Female Artist of the Year
Gazette Net Country Awards: Most Popular Female Artist
Grammy Awards - (U.S.): Best Country Song - "You're Still the One"
Grammy Awards - (U.S.): Best Female Country Vocal Performance - "You're Still the One"
Juno Awards: Best Country Female Vocalist
Modern Screen Magazine's Readers Ballot Awards: Favorite Female Vocalist
National Association of Record Merchandisers (NARM): Best Selling Country Record of the Year - Come on Over
Playboy's Reader Poll: Best Country Album - Come on Over
Playboy's Reader Poll: Female Country Artist of the Year
Radio & Records Magazine: Female Country Artist of the Year
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Canadian Country Artist of the Year
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Female Vocalist of the Year
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Don't Be Stupid (You Know I Love You)"
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "From This Moment On"
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "You're Still the One"
WB Radio Music Awards: Country/Young Country Artist of the Year
Yahoo! Internet Life Online Music Awards: Favorite Country Artist
2000
Academy of Country Music Awards (ACMA's): Entertainer of the Year
American Music Awards (AMA's): Favorite Female Country Artist
American Music Awards (AMA's): Favorite Female Pop/Rock Artist
Blockbuster Entertainment Awards: Favorite Female Country Artist
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): Country Songwriter of the Year
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Come on Over"
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Man! I Feel Like a Woman!"
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "That Don't Impress Me Much"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): Pop Songwriter of the Year
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "You're Still the One"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "From This Moment On"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Man! I Feel Like a Woman!"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "That Don't Impress Me Much"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "You've Got a Way"
Edison Awards - (Netherlands): Best International Female Artist
Grammy Awards - (U.S.): Best Country Song - "Come on Over"
Grammy Awards - (U.S.): Best Female Country Vocal Performance - "Man! I Feel Like a Woman!"
Grammy Awards - (Danish): Best Foreign Hit - "That Don't Impress Me Much"
Juno Awards: Best Country Female Artist
Juno Awards: Best Songwriter
M6 Awards - (France): Best International Female Artist
MuchMusic Video Awards - (Canada): MuchMoreMusic Video Award - "Man! I Feel Like a Woman!"
People's Choice Awards - (U.S.): Favorite Female Musical Performer
Playboy's Reader Poll: Female Country Artist of the Year
Radio & Records' Trade Magazine Poll: Performer of the Year
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Album of the Year - Come on Over
RPM's Big Country Music Awards - (Canada): Song of the Year - "Man! I Feel Like a Woman!"
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "From This Moment On"
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Man! I Feel Like a Woman!"
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "That Don't Impress Me Much"
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "You're Still the One"
SOCAN Awards: One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "You've Got a Way"
2001
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "You've Got a Way"
World Music Awards: World's Best Selling Canadian Artist
2002
CMT's 40 Greatest Women In Country Music' Ranked #7.
2003
Billboard Music Awards: Female Country Artist of the Year
Billboard Music Awards: Country Artist of the Year
Billboard Music Awards: Country Album of the Year - Up!
Billboard Music Awards: Country Albums Artist of the Year
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "I'm Gonna Getcha Good!"
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Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Video of the Year - "I'm Gonna Getcha Good!"
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Top Selling Album - Up!
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Album of the Year - Up!
CMT Flameworthy Awards - (U.S.): Concept Video of the Year - "I'm Gonna Getcha Good!"
Juno Awards: Country Recording of the Year - "I'm Gonna Getcha Good!"
Juno Awards: Artist of the Year
Juno Awards: Fan's Choice Award
MuchMusic Video Awards - (Canada): MuchMoreMusic Video Award - "Up!"
Radio & Records Magazine: Top Female Country Airplay Artist of the Year
Roughstock Awards: Female Artist of the Year
Sky Radio Airplay Award - (Holland): Sky Radio Airplay Award
VIVA Comet Awards - (Germany): Best International Act
2004
Bambi Awards - (Germany): International Pop Artist of the Year
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): Song of the Year - "Forever and for Always"
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Forever and for Always"
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "She's Not Just a Pretty Face"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Forever and for Always"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "I'm Gonna Getcha Good!"
BMI Songwriter Awards - (Europe): Song of the Year - "Forever and for Always"
Canadian Country Music Awards (CCMA's): Country Music Program or Special of the Year - Up! Close and Personal
Canadian Radio Music Awards: Songwriter Award
Canadian Radio Music Awards: "Chart Topper" Award
CMA Awards - (France): Best Live Performer
CMT Flameworthy Awards - (U.S.): Female Video of the Year - "Forever and for Always"
ECHO Awards - (Germany): Best International Female Artist
Juno Awards: Country Recording of the Year - "Up!"
2005
Billboard Music Awards: Album of the year - Greatest Hits
Order of Canada: Officer
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Party for Two"
BMI COUNTRY Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "It Only Hurts When I'm Breathing"
BMI POP Songwriter Awards - (U.S.): One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year - "Forever and for Always"
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Top Selling Album - Greatest Hits
Canadian Radio Music Awards: "Chart Topper" Award
MuchMusic Video Awards - (Canada): MuchMoreMusic Video Award - "Party for Two"
People's Choice Awards - (U.S.): Favorite Country Female Singer
2006
Canadian Radio Music Awards: "Chart Topper" Awards
2008
Billboard Hot-100 50th Anniversary
The Billboard Hot 100 All-Time Top Songs ranked #66 for "You're Still The One"
Top Billboard Hot 100 Country Songs ranked #3 for "You're Still The One"
Songs With The Most Weeks at No. 2 Without Reaching No. 1 ranked #4 for "You're Still The One"
2015
Taste of Country Fan Choice Awards - Who had the best tour in 2015 - Shania Twain Rock This Country Tour
2016
CMT Artists' of the Year: Artist of a Lifetime Award
Billboard Women in Music: Icon Award
2018
CMC Music Awards ARIA Award for Highest Selling International Album of the Year Now
Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Generation Award
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Canadian Country Music Association Awards (CCMA's): Apple Music Fan's Choice Award
2022
Academy of Country Music Awards (ACMA's): ACM Poet's Award
People's Choice Awards - (U.S.): Music Icon Award
2023
CMT Music Awards: CMT Equal Play Award
References
https://web.archive.org/web/20140907095855/http://www.shaniatwain.com/bio/shanias-awards/
Grammys.com
Awards
Twain, Shania
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5055422
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynching%20of%20Jesse%20Washington
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Lynching of Jesse Washington
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Jesse Washington was a seventeen-year-old African American farmhand who was lynched in the county seat of Waco, Texas, on May 15, 1916, in what became a well-known example of lynching. Washington was convicted of raping and murdering Lucy Fryer, the wife of his white employer in rural Robinson, Texas. He was chained by his neck and dragged out of the county court by observers. He was then paraded through the street, all while being stabbed and beaten, before being held down and castrated. He was then lynched in front of Waco's city hall.
Over 10,000 spectators, including city officials and police, gathered to watch the attack. There was a celebratory atmosphere among whites at the spectacle of the murder, and many children attended during their lunch hour. Members of the mob cut off his fingers, and hung him over a bonfire after saturating him with coal oil. He was repeatedly lowered and raised over the fire for about two hours. After the fire was extinguished, his charred torso was dragged through the town. A professional photographer took pictures as the event unfolded, providing rare imagery of a lynching in progress. The pictures were printed and sold as postcards in Waco.
Although the lynching was supported by many Waco residents, it was condemned by newspapers around the United States. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) hired Elisabeth Freeman to investigate; she conducted a detailed probe in Waco, despite the reluctance of many residents to speak about the event. Freeman concluded that white residents were generally supportive of Washington's lynching. She also concluded that Washington killed Fryer. After receiving Freeman's report on the lynching, NAACP co-founder and editor W. E. B. Du Bois published an in-depth report featuring photographs of Washington's charred body in The Crisis, and the NAACP featured his death in their anti-lynching campaign.
Historians have noted that Washington's death helped alter the way lynching was viewed. The widespread negative publicity helped curb public support for the practice. In the 1990s and 2000s, some Waco residents lobbied for a monument to Washington's lynching, but this idea failed to garner wide support in the city. On the centenary of the event, in May 2016, the mayor of Waco held a formal ceremony to apologize to Washington's descendants and the African American community. A historical marker has been installed to memorialize the lynching.
Background
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, thousands of lynchings were committed primarily in the Southern United States. Between 1890 and 1920, about 3,000 African Americans were killed by lynch mobs in cases where they were alleged perpetrators of crimes. They were conducted outside the legal system: suspects were taken from jail and courtrooms or killed before arrest. Supporters of lynching justified the practice as a way to assert dominance over African Americans, to whom they attributed a criminal nature. Lynching also provided a sense of White solidarity in a culture with changing demographics and power structures. Although lynching was tolerated by much of southern society, opponents of the practice emerged, including some religious leaders and the nascent National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
In 1916, Waco, Texas, was a prosperous city with a population of more than 30,000. After it became associated with crime in the 19th century, community leaders sought to change its reputation, sending delegations across the U.S. to promote it as an idyllic locale. By the 1910s, Waco's economy had become strong and the city had gained a pious reputation. A black middle class had emerged in the area, along with two black colleges. In the mid-1910s, blacks comprised about twenty percent of the Waco population. In her 2006 study of lynching, journalist Patricia Bernstein describes the city as then having a "thin veneer" of peace and respectability. Racial tension was present in the city: local newspapers often emphasized crimes committed by African Americans, and Sank Majors, a Black man, was lynched and hanged from a bridge near downtown Waco in 1905. A small number of anti-lynching activists lived in the area, including the president of Waco's Baylor University. In 1916, several factors led to an increase in local racism, including the screening of The Birth of a Nation, a movie that glorified the Ku Klux Klan, and the sale of photographs of a recently lynched black man in Temple, Texas.
Murder and arrest
In Robinson, Texas, Lucy Fryer was murdered while alone at her house on May 8, 1916. She was found clubbed to death, sprawled across the doorway of the farm's seed shed. It was a grisly scene that included signs of sexual assault. Officials determined a blunt instrument was used as the murder weapon. She and her husband George were English immigrants, and had become well respected in the rural community where they operated a farm. News of the death quickly reached the McLennan County Sheriff, Samuel Fleming, who immediately investigated with a team of law enforcement officers, a group of local men, and a doctor. The doctor determined that Fryer had been killed by blunt-force trauma to the head. The local men suspected that Jesse Washington, a seventeen-year-old black youth who had worked on the Fryers' farm for five months, was responsible. One man said that he had seen Washington near the Fryer house a few minutes before Lucy's body was discovered.
That night, sheriff's deputies traveled to Washington's home, finding him in front of the house wearing blood-stained overalls. He said the stains were from a nosebleed. Jesse, his brother William, and their parents were taken to nearby Waco to be questioned by the county sheriff's department; although Jesse's parents and brother were released after a short time, he was held for further interrogation, without an attorney or his parents present. His questioners in Waco reported that he denied complicity in Fryer's death, but offered contradictory details about his actions. Rumors spread after Washington's arrest that the youth had been in an altercation with a white man a few days before the murder.
On May 9, Sheriff Fleming took Washington to neighboring Hill County to prevent vigilante action. The Hill County sheriff, Fred Long, questioned Washington with Fleming. Washington eventually told them he had killed Fryer following an argument about her mules, and described the murder weapon and its location. Long then brought Washington to Dallas, while Fleming returned to Robinson. Fleming soon reported that he found a bloody hammer where Washington had indicated. In Dallas, Washington dictated and signed a statement that described the rape and murder of Fryer; the confession was published the next day in Waco newspapers. Newspapers sensationalized the murder, describing Fryer's attempts to resist Washington's attack, but the doctor who had examined her body concluded that she was killed before any assault. A lynch mob assembled in Waco that night to search the local jail, but dispersed after failing to find Washington. A local paper praised their effort. That night, a small private funeral and burial were held for Lucy Fryer.
A grand jury was assembled on May 11 in McLennan County and quickly returned an indictment against Washington; the trial was scheduled for May 15. The Times-Herald of Waco published a notice on May 12 requesting that residents let the justice system determine Washington's fate. Sheriff Fleming traveled to Robinson on May 13 to ask residents to remain calm; his address was well received. Washington was assigned several inexperienced lawyers. His lawyers prepared no defense, and noted that he appeared placid in the days before the trial.
Trial and lynching
On the morning of May 15, Waco's courthouse quickly filled to capacity in anticipation of the trial: the crowd almost prevented some jurors from entering. Observers also filled the sidewalks around the courthouse; more than two thousand spectators were present. Attendees were almost entirely white, but a few quiet members of Waco's black community were present. As Washington was led into the courtroom, one audience member pointed a gun at him, but was quickly overpowered. As the trial commenced, Judge Richard Irby Munroe attempted to keep order, insisting that the audience remain silent. Jury selection proceeded quickly: the defense did not challenge any selections of the prosecution. Judge Munroe asked Washington for a plea, and explained the potential sentences. Washington muttered a response, possibly "yes", interpreted by the court as a guilty plea.
The prosecution described the charges, and the court heard testimony from law enforcement officers and the doctor who examined Fryer's body. The doctor discussed how Fryer died, but did not mention rape. The prosecution rested, and Washington's attorney asked him whether he had committed the offense. Washington replied, "That's what I done" and quietly apologized. The lead prosecutor addressed the courtroom and declared that the trial had been conducted fairly, prompting an ovation from the crowd. The jury was sent to deliberate.
After four minutes of deliberation, the jury's foreman announced a guilty verdict and a sentence of death. The trial lasted about one hour. Court officers approached Washington to escort him away, but were pushed aside by a surge of spectators, who seized Washington and dragged him outside. Washington initially fought back, biting one man, but was soon beaten. A chain was placed around his neck and he was dragged toward city hall by a growing mob; on the way downtown, he was stripped, stabbed, and repeatedly beaten with blunt objects. By the time he was taken to city hall, a group had prepared wood for a bonfire next to a tree in front of the building. Washington, semiconscious and covered in blood, was doused with oil, hanged from the tree by a chain, and lowered to the ground. Members of the crowd cut off his fingers, toes, and genitals. The fire was lit and Washington was repeatedly raised and lowered into the flames until he burned to death. German scholar Manfred Berg posits that the executioners attempted to keep him alive to increase his suffering. Washington attempted to climb the chain, but was unable to do so without fingers. The fire was extinguished after two hours, allowing bystanders to collect souvenirs from the site of the lynching, including Washington's bones and links of the chain. One attendee kept part of Washington's genitalia; a group of children snapped the teeth out of Washington's head to sell as souvenirs. By the time the fire was extinguished, parts of Washington's arms and legs had been burned off, his torso and head were charred and his cranium was exposed. His body was removed from the tree and dragged behind a horse throughout the town. Washington's remains were transported to Robinson, where they were publicly displayed until a constable obtained the body late in the day and buried it.
The spectacle of the lynching drew a large crowd estimated at 10,000 to 15,000 at its peak, including the mayor, John Dollins, and the chief of police, Guy McNamara, although lynching was illegal in Texas. Sheriff Fleming told his deputies not to try to stop the lynching, and no one was arrested after the event. Bernstein speculates that Fleming may have wanted to be seen as dealing harshly with crime to help his candidacy for re-election that year. Mayor John Dollins may have also encouraged the mob for political benefit.
Residents had telephoned acquaintances to spread word of the lynching, allowing spectators to gather more quickly and in greater numbers than before the advent of telephones. Local media reported that "shouts of delight" were heard as Washington burned, although they noted that some attendees disapproved. The Waco Semi-Weekly Tribune maintained that a number of black Waco residents attended, a claim historian Grace Hale of the University of Virginia considers dubious. Waco residents, who likely had no connection with the rural Fryer family, constituted most of the crowd. Some people from nearby rural communities traveled to the city before the trial to witness the events. As the lynching occurred at midday, children from local schools walked downtown to observe, some climbing into trees for a better view. Many parents approved of their children's attendance, hoping that the lynching would reinforce a belief in White supremacy. Some Texans saw participation in a lynching as a rite of passage for young White men.
Aftermath
Fred Gildersleeve, a Waco-based professional photographer, arrived at city hall shortly before the lynching, possibly at the mayor's request, and photographed the event. His photographs provide rare depictions of a lynching in progress, rather than typical lynching photography, which shows only dead victims. Gildersleeve's photographs include views of the crowd shot from a building and close images of Washington's body; some may have been taken by an assistant. Gildersleeve produced postcards featuring images of adolescents, some as young as twelve, gathered around Washington's body. The individuals in the photographs made no attempt to hide their identities. Berg believes that their willingness to be photographed indicates that they knew that no one would be prosecuted for Washington's death. Although some Waco residents sent the cards to out-of-town relatives, several prominent local citizens persuaded Gildersleeve to stop selling them, fearing that the images would come to characterize the town.
In the days after the lynching, newspapers fiercely condemned the event. Within a week, news of the lynching was published as far away as London. A New York Times editorial opined that, "in no other land even pretending to be civilized could a man be burned to death in the streets of a considerable city amid the savage exultation of its inhabitants". In the New York Age, James Weldon Johnson described the members of the lynch mob as "lower than any other people who at present inhabit the earth". Although many southern newspapers had previously defended lynching as a defense of civilized society, after Washington's death, they did not cast the practice in such terms. The Montgomery Advertiser wrote that, "no savage was ever more cruel ... than the men who participated in this horrible, almost unbelievable episode". In Texas, the Houston Chronicle and the Austin American criticized the lynch mob, but spoke highly of Waco. The Morning News of Dallas reported the story, but did not publish an accompanying editorial. In Waco, the Times-Herald refrained from editorializing about the lynching. The Waco Morning News briefly noted disapproval of the lynching, focusing criticism on papers they felt had attacked the city unfairly. They cast the condemnatory editorials in the aftermath of the lynching as "Holier than thou" remarks. A writer for the Waco Semi-Weekly Tribune defended the lynching, stating that Washington deserved to die and that blacks should view Washington's death as a warning against crime. The paper later carried an editorial from the Houston Post condemning the lynching, characterizing the column as part of an attack on the city.
Some residents condemned the lynching, including ministers and leaders of Baylor University. The judge who presided over Washington's trial later stated that members of the lynch mob were "murderers"; the jury's foreman told the NAACP that he disapproved of their actions. Some who witnessed the lynching recorded persistent nightmares and psychological trauma. A few citizens contemplated staging a protest against the lynching, but declined to do so owing to concerns about reprisals or the appearance of hypocrisy. After the lynching, town officials maintained that it was attended by a small group of malcontents. Although their claim is contradicted by photographic evidence, several histories of Waco have repeated this assertion. There were no negative repercussions for Mayor Dollins or Police Chief Guy McNamara; although they made no attempt to stop the mob, they remained well respected in Waco. As was common with such attacks, no one was prosecuted for the lynching.
Although leaders of Waco's black community gave public condolences to the Fryer family, they complained about Washington's lynching only in private. One exception was the Paul Quinn Weekly newspaper, of Texas' Paul Quinn College, a black college. It published several articles that criticized the lynch mob and city leadership. In one article, the author proclaimed that Jesse Washington was innocent and George Fryer guilty. A. T. Smith, the paper's editor, was subsequently convicted of libel. When George Fryer sued the college for libeling him as a murderer, some Robinson residents interpreted his very umbrage as a sign that he himself had played a part in his wife's death. Bernstein states that it is "highly unlikely" that George Fryer played a role in Lucy's murder but notes that there is the "shadow of a possibility" that he bore some guilt.
On May 11, 1953, an F5 tornado tore through Downtown Waco, killing 114 people and injuring 593 others. Some people in the local African American community saw the tornado as divine retribution for the lynching of Jesse Washington over thirty years prior.
NAACP investigation and campaign
The NAACP hired Elisabeth Freeman, a women's suffrage activist based in New York City, to investigate the lynching. She had traveled to Texas in late 1915 or early 1916 to help organize the suffrage movement, and was already in Dallas for a statewide convention in early May. Freeman began her assignment in Waco soon after the lynching, posing as a journalist and attempting to interview people about the events. She found that most residents were reluctant to discuss the event. She spoke with town officials and obtained pictures of the lynching from Gildersleeve, who was initially reluctant to provide them. Although she feared for her safety, she enjoyed the challenge of the investigation. When speaking with city leaders, Freeman convinced them that she planned to defend Waco against criticism when she returned to the North. Some journalists soon grew suspicious of her and warned residents not to talk to outsiders. Local African Americans, however, gave her a warm reception.
Freeman interviewed both Sheriff Fleming and the judge who presided over the trial; each said that he did not deserve blame for the lynching. A schoolteacher who had known Washington told Freeman that the young man was illiterate, and that all attempts to teach him to read had been futile. Freeman concluded that White residents were generally supportive of Washington's lynching after his conviction, although many were upset that he had been mutilated. She determined that the mob that took him from the courtroom was led by a bricklayer, a saloonkeeper, and several employees of an ice company. The NAACP did not publicly identify them. Freeman concluded that Washington killed Fryer, and suggested he had resented her domineering attitude towards him.
W. E. B. Du Bois had been incensed by news of the brutal attack, saying "any talk of the triumph of Christianity, or the spread of human culture, is idle twaddle as long as the Waco lynching is possible in the United States". After receiving Freeman's report, he placed a photograph of Washington's body on the cover of The Crisis, the NAACP's newsletter, in a special issue that discussed the event. The issue was titled "The Waco Horror" and was published as an eight-page supplement to the July edition. Du Bois popularized "Waco Horror" as a name for Washington's lynching; the Houston Chronicle and the New York Times had previously used the word "horror" to describe the event. In 1916, The Crisis had a circulation of about 30,000, three times the size of the NAACP's membership.
Although The Crisis had campaigned against lynching in the past, this publication was their first to depict images of an attack. The NAACP's board was initially hesitant to publish such graphic content, but Du Bois insisted on doing so, arguing that uncensored coverage would push White Americans to support change. The issue included accounts of the lynching that Freeman had obtained from Waco residents. Du Bois wrote The Crisis''' article on the lynching; he edited and organized Freeman's report for publication, but did not credit her in the issue. Du Bois's article concluded with a call to support the anti-lynching movement. The NAACP distributed the report to hundreds of newspapers and politicians, a campaign that led to wide condemnation of the lynching. Many White observers were disturbed by photos of the southerners who celebrated the lynching. The Crisis included more images of lynchings in subsequent issues. Washington's death received continued discussion in The Crisis. Oswald Garrison Villard wrote in a later edition of the paper that "the crime at Waco is a challenge to our American civilization".
Other black newspapers also carried significant coverage of the lynching, as did liberal monthly magazines such as The New Republic and The Nation. Freeman traveled around the U.S. to speak to audiences about her investigation, maintaining that a shift in public opinion could accomplish more than legislative actions. Although there were other lynchings as brutal as Washington's, the availability of photographs and the setting of his death made it a cause célèbre. Leaders of the NAACP hoped to launch a legal battle against those responsible for Washington's death, but abandoned the plan owing to the projected cost.
The NAACP had struggled financially around that time. Their anti-lynching campaign helped them raise funds, but they scaled back the campaign as the U.S. entered World War I. NAACP president Joel Elias Spingarn later said that the group's campaign placed "lynching into the public mind as something like a national problem". Bernstein describes this anti-lynching campaign as the "barest beginnings of a battle that would last many years".
The number of lynchings in the U.S. increased in the late 1910s, particularly in the postwar period. In addition, in the summer and fall of 1919, called Red Summer, racial riots of Whites against blacks broke out in numerous large cities, including in the Northeast and Midwest, due in part to tensions related to competition for jobs and housing in the postwar period as veterans struggled to re-enter society. Particularly in Chicago and Washington, DC, blacks fought back fiercely in the riots but suffered the most casualties and property losses. They believed their war service should have earned them better treatment as citizens.
More lynchings took place in Waco in the 1920s, partially owing to the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan. By the late 1920s, however, Waco authorities had begun to protect blacks from lynching, as in the case of Roy Mitchell. Authorities feared that negative publicity generated by lynchings—such as the NAACP's campaign following Washington's death—would hinder their efforts to attract business investors. The NAACP fought to portray lynching as a savage, barbaric practice, an idea which eventually gained traction in the public mind. Bernstein credits the group's efforts with helping to end "the worst public atrocities of the racist system" in the Waco region.
Analysis and legacy
In 2011, Manfred Berg concluded that Washington probably murdered Fryer but doubted that he raped her. The same year, Julie Armstrong of the University of South Florida argued that Washington was possibly innocent of both charges. In her 2006 book, Patricia Bernstein noted that Washington's motives have never been established clearly, although he did confess to having a dispute about mules with Fryer and there was a witness who alleged to have seen a dispute, as noted previously. She also states that his confession could have been coerced, and that there is evidence he had limited intellectual capacity. She suggests that the murder weapon—perhaps the strongest evidence against him—could have been planted by authorities.
Bernstein states that Washington's lynching was a unique event because of its scale and location; not only did it occur in a larger city with a reputation for progressiveness, but it was attended by 10,000 spectators who were excited by the brutal torture. Similar acts of mob violence typically occurred in smaller towns with fewer spectators. William Carrigan of Rowan University argues that the culture of central Texas had glorified retributive mob violence for decades before Washington's lynching, maintaining that this culture of violence explains how such a brutal attack could be publicly celebrated. Hale posits that Washington's death signaled a transition in the practice of lynching, demonstrating its acceptance in modernized, 20th-century cities. She notes that Washington's lynching illustrates how technological innovations, such as telephones and inexpensive photographs, could empower lynch mobs but also increase society's condemnation of their actions.
In their 2004 study of lynching, Peter Ehrenhaus and A. Susan Owen compare the lynching to a blood sacrifice, arguing Waco residents felt a sense of collective righteousness after Washington's death, as they saw him as the presence of evil in the community. Bernstein compares the public brutality of the lynch mob to the medieval English practice of hanging, drawing, and quartering people convicted of high treason.
Amy Louise Wood of Illinois State University writes that the event was "a defining moment in the history of lynching", arguing that with Washington's death, "lynching began to sow the seeds of its own collapse". Although the spectacle of violent mob attacks had previously benefited White supremacists, Wood contends that after Washington's death was publicized, the anti-lynching movement included images of racially motivated brutality in their campaigns. Carrigan notes that Washington's death may have received more public attention than any other lynching in the United States, and sees the event as a "turning point in the history of mob violence in Central Texas". Although the outcry it provoked did not end the practice, it helped bring an end to public support of such attacks by city leaders. Carrigan states that the lynching was "the most infamous day in the history of central Texas" until the Waco siege of 1993.
After the practice of lynching was suppressed in central Texas, it received little attention from local historians. However, Waco developed a reputation for racism—propagated in part by American history textbooks—to the vexation of the city's White residents. In the years following the lynching, African Americans often held Waco in disdain, and some viewed the 1953 Waco tornado outbreak as divine retribution. White leaders of Waco took a non-violent approach in response to demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement, possibly owing to a desire to avoid stigmatizing the city again.
Blues musician Sammy Price recorded a version of "Hesitation Blues" that referenced Washington's lynching. Price lived in Waco as a child, possibly at the time of Washington's death. Waco-based novelist Madison Cooper featured a lynching, thought to be based on Washington's death, as a key event in his 1952 novel Sironia, Texas.
In the 1990s, Lawrence Johnson, a member of Waco's city council, viewed pictures of the Washington lynching at the National Civil Rights Museum, and began to lobby for a monument to the lynching. In 2002, Lester Gibson, another member of the city council, proposed that a plaque be installed at the courthouse where Washington was lynched. He further stated that the plaque should carry an apology from the city. The ideas were discussed, but were not developed. In the 2000s, the idea of a memorial was revived by a McLennan County commissioner and the Waco Chamber of Commerce; the Waco Herald Tribune has editorialized in support of a historical marker on the site of the lynching. Some descendants of Fryer objected to the proposed memorial. On the centenary of the lynching, May 15, 2016, the mayor of Waco apologized in a formal ceremony to Washington's relatives and issued a proclamation condemning Washington's lynching and noting the anniversary of the event. A historical marker is being erected at the site.
On February 12, 2023, a racially diverse crowd of more 300 people, including those who have worked on the Jesse Washington marker for the past seven years, gathered on Third Street in front of Waco City Hall. It was the same ground where a crowd of thousands gathered in May 1916 to watch the torture and burning of Washington.
Those unveiling the marker included relatives of Washington. Joining them were relatives of Sank Majors, a Black man who was seized by a mob in 1905 while waiting retrial on rape charges and hanged from the Washington Avenue Bridge.
In the 2018 film BlacKkKlansman, Harry Belafonte portrays a witness to the lynching who describes the event to a civil rights rally in 1970s Colorado Springs.
See also
False accusations of rape as justification for lynchings
References
Bibliography
Books
Journals
Newspapers
Websites
Further reading
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Fair, Richard H. "The Good Angel of Practical Fraternity": The Ku Klux Klan in McLennan County, 1915–1924, 2009, Baylor University master's thesis.
Goodwyn, Wade. "Waco Recalls a 90-Year-Old 'Horror'", All Things Considered''. May 13, 2006. National Public Radio. (Transcript of radio story.)
External links
1916 murders in the United States
1916 in Texas
Deaths by person in Texas
Deaths from fire in the United States
History of Waco, Texas
Lynching deaths in Texas
May 1916 events
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai%20Ghetto
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Shanghai Ghetto
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The Shanghai Ghetto, formally known as the Restricted Sector for Stateless Refugees, was an area of approximately one square mile in the Hongkou district of Japanese-occupied Shanghai (the ghetto was located in the southern Hongkou and southwestern Yangpu districts which formed part of the Shanghai International Settlement). The area included the community around the Ohel Moshe Synagogue. Shanghai was notable for a long period as the only place in the world that unconditionally offered refuge for Jews escaping from the Nazis. After the Japanese occupied all of Shanghai in 1941, the Japanese army forced about 23,000 of the city's Jewish refugees to be restricted or relocated to the Shanghai Ghetto from 1941 to 1945 by the Proclamation Concerning Restriction of Residence and Business of Stateless Refugees. It was one of the poorest and most crowded areas of the city. Local Jewish families and American Jewish charities aided them with shelter, food, and clothing. The Japanese authorities increasingly stepped up restrictions, surrounded the ghetto with barbed wire, and the local Chinese residents, whose living conditions were often as bad, did not leave. By 21 August 1941, the Japanese government closed Shanghai to Jewish immigration.
Emigrant Plans
Starting from 1934, one year after The Nazi Party gained control over Germany, some people chose China as a shutter for Jewish refugees. According to Gao Bei, a history professor from the University of Charleston, three plans were listed as the following:
The Maurice William Plan (1934)
Maurice William, a Russian Jewish dentist who lived in New York, was the first one to suggest that China could be a shelter for Jewish refugees. William first showed his proposal to Albert Einstein, who was recorded as being impressed by the idea. Later, William sent his plan to China for approval. However, the proposal was likely declined at that time. One possible reason for this may have been that China did not want to stand in opposition to Germany.
The Sun Ke Plan (1939)
In his plan, Sun Ke, an official of China suggested accepting Jewish refugees to China, to gain support from both other Western countries which had sympathy for Jewish refugees and from Jews refugees themselves, and to fight against Japan, which was one ally of Nazi Germany that China was opposed to.
The Jakob Berglas Plan (1939)
In the same year, Jakob Berglas, a German Jewish businessman also proposed his plan to the Chinese government. The plan included a proposal to ensure 100,000 Jewish refugees emigrated to China, and each person would pay £50, to build up a Jewish social community. Thus an amount of £5,000,000 would be sent to China, which could be used to support the country's war efforts. However, under the fear that a massive wave of migration may draw attention and attacks from Germany, the Chinese government finally decided to modify the plan, only accepting Jewish refugees without citizenship allowed as migrants to live in China. Otherwise, they were only considered foreigners.
Background
Jews in 1930s Germany
At the end of the 1920s, most German Jews were loyal to Germany, assimilated and relatively prosperous. They served in the German army and contributed to every field of German science, business and culture. After the Nazis were elected to power in 1933, state-sponsored anti-Semitic persecution such as the Nuremberg Laws (1935) and the Kristallnacht (1938) drove masses of German Jews to seek asylum abroad, with over 304,500 German Jews choosing to emigrate from 1933 to 1939. Chaim Weizmann wrote in 1936, "The world seemed to be divided into two parts—those places where the Jews could not live and those where they could not enter."
During the 1930s, there was a growing military conflict between Japan and China. However, in the Shanghai International Settlement there existed demilitarized areas which provided safe havens where tens of thousands of European Jewish refugees could escape to from the growing horrors of the holocaust, and also a place where a half million Chinese civilians could find safety.
The Evian Conference demonstrated that by the end of the 1930s it was almost impossible to find a destination open for Jewish immigration, with only the Dominican Republic being open.
According to Dana Janklowicz-Mann:
Jewish men were being picked up and put into concentration camps. They were told you have X amount of time to leave—two weeks, a month—if you can find a country that will take you. Outside, their wives and friends were struggling to get a passport, a visa, anything to help them get out. But embassies were closing their doors all over, and countries, including the United States, were closing their borders. ... It started as a rumor in Vienna... ‘There's a place you can go where you don't need a visa. They have free entry.’ It just spread like fire and whoever could, went for it.
Shanghai after 1937
The International Settlement of Shanghai was established by the Treaty of Nanking. Police, jurisdiction and passport control were implemented by the foreign autonomous board. Under the Unequal Treaties between China and European countries, visas were only required to book tickets departing from Europe.
Following the Battle of Shanghai in 1937, the city was occupied by the army of Imperial Japan, except for the Shanghai International Settlement, which was not occupied by the Japanese until 1941 in the aftermath of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Before 1941, with Japanese permission, the Shanghai International Settlement allowed entry without visa or passport. By the time when most German Jews arrived, two other Jewish communities had already settled in the city: the wealthy Baghdadi Jews, including the Kadoorie and Sassoon families, and the Russian Jews. The latter fled the Russian Empire because of anti-Semitic pogroms pushed by the tsarist regime and counter-revolutionary armies as well as the class struggle manifested by the Bolsheviks. They formed the Russian community in Harbin, then the Russian community in Shanghai.
Ho Feng Shan, Chiune Sugihara, Jan Zwartendijk and Tadeusz Romer
In 1935, the Chinese diplomat Ho Feng-Shan started his diplomatic career within the Foreign Ministry of the Republic of China. His first posting was in Turkey. He was appointed First Secretary at the Chinese legation in Vienna in 1937. When Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938, and the legation was turned into a consulate, Ho was assigned the post of Consul-General. After the Kristallnacht in 1938, the situation became rapidly more difficult for the almost 200,000 Austrian Jews. The only way for Jews to escape from Nazism was to leave Europe. In order to leave, they had to provide proof of emigration, usually a visa from a foreign nation, or a valid boat ticket. This was difficult, however, because at the 1938 Évian Conference 31 countries (out of a total of 32, which included Canada, Australia, and New Zealand) refused to accept Jewish immigrants. Motivated by humanitarianism, Ho started to issue transit visas to Shanghai, under Japanese occupation except for foreign concessions. Twelve hundred visas were issued by Ho in only the first three months of holding office as Consul-General.
At the time it was not necessary to have a visa to enter Shanghai, but the visas allowed the Jews to leave Austria. Many Jewish families left for Shanghai, from where most of them would later leave for Hong Kong and Australia. Ho continued to issue these visas until he was ordered to return to China in May 1940. The exact number of visas given by Ho to Jewish refugees is unknown. It is known that Ho issued the 200th visa in June 1938 and signed the 1906th visa on 27 October 1938. How many Jews were saved through his actions is unknown, but given that Ho issued nearly 2,000 visas only during his first half year at his post, the number may be in the thousands. Ho died in 1997 and his actions were recognized posthumously when in 2000 the Israeli organization Yad Vashem decided to award him the title "Righteous Among the Nations".
Many in the Polish-Lithuanian Jewish community were additionally saved by Chiune Sugihara, the Japanese consul in Kaunas, Lithuania, and Jan Zwartendijk, director of the Philips manufacturing plants in Lithuania and part-time acting consul of the Dutch government-in-exile. The refugees fled across the vast territory of Russia by train to Vladivostok and then by boat to Kobe in Japan. The refugees, totaling 2,185, arrived in Japan from August 1940 to June 1941.
Tadeusz Romer, the Polish ambassador in Tokyo, had managed to get transit visas in Japan, asylum visas to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Burma, immigration certificates to Palestine, and immigrant visas to the United States and some Latin American countries. Tadeusz Romer moved to Shanghai on November 1, 1941, where he continued to act for Jewish refugees. Among those saved in the Shanghai Ghetto were leaders and students of Mir yeshiva and Tomchei Tmimim.
Arrival of Ashkenazi Jews
The refugees who managed to purchase tickets for luxurious Italian and Japanese cruise steamships departing from Genoa later described their three-week journey with plenty of food and entertainment—between persecution in Germany and squalid ghetto in Shanghai—as surreal. Some passengers attempted to make unscheduled departures in Egypt, hoping to smuggle themselves into the British Mandate of Palestine.
The first German Jewish refugees—twenty-six families, among them five well-known physicians—had already arrived in Shanghai by November 1933. By the spring of 1934, there were reportedly eighty refugee physicians, surgeons, and dentists in China.
On August 15, 1938, the first Jewish refugees from Anschluss Austria arrived by Italian ship. Most of the refugees arrived after Kristallnacht. During the refugee flight to Shanghai between November 1938 and June 1941, the total number of arrivals by sea and land has been estimated at 1,374 in 1938; 12,089 in 1939; 1,988 in 1940; and 4,000 in 1941.
In 1939–1940, Lloyd Triestino ran a sort of "ferry service" between Italy and Shanghai, bringing in thousands of refugees a month - Germans, Austrians, and a few Czechs. Added to this mix were approximately 1,000 Polish Jews in 1941. Among these were the entire faculty of the Mir Yeshiva, some 400 in number, who with the outbreak of World War II in 1939, fled from Mir to Vilna and then to Keidan, Lithuania. In late 1940, they obtained visas from Chiune Sugihara, the Japanese consul in Kaunas, to travel from Keidan, already Soviet-occupied Lithuania, via Siberia and Vladivostok to Kobe, Japan. By November 1941 the Japanese moved this group and most of the others to the Shanghai Ghetto in order to consolidate the Jews under their control. Finally, a wave of more than 18,000 Ashkenazi Jews from Germany, Austria, and Poland immigrated to Shanghai; that ended with the Attack on Pearl Harbor by Japan in December 1941.
The Ohel Moshe Synagogue had served as a religious center for the Russian Jewish community since 1907; it is currently the Shanghai Jewish Refugees Museum. In April 1941, a modern Ashkenazic Jewish synagogue was built (called the New Synagogue).
Much-needed aid was provided by International Committee for European Immigrants (IC), established by Victor Sassoon and Paul Komor, a Hungarian businessman, and the Committee for the Assistance of European Jewish Refugees (CFA), founded by Horace Kadoorie, under the direction of Michael Speelman. These organizations prepared the housing in Hongkou, a relatively cheap suburb compared with the Shanghai International Settlement or the Shanghai French Concession. Refugees were accommodated in shabby apartments and six camps in a former school. The Japanese occupiers of Shanghai regarded German Jews as "stateless persons" because Nazi Germany treated them so.
Life inside
The authorities were unprepared for massive immigration, and the arriving refugees faced harsh conditions in the impoverished Hongkou District: 10 per room, near-starvation, disastrous sanitation, and scant employment.
The Baghdadis and later the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) provided some assistance with the housing and food problems. Faced with language barriers, extreme poverty, rampant disease, and isolation, the refugees still transitioned from being supported by welfare agencies to establishing a functioning community. Jewish cultural life flourished: schools were established, newspapers were published, theaters produced plays, sports teams participated in training and competitions and even cabarets thrived.
There is evidence that some Jewish men married Chinese women in Shanghai. Although not numerous, “the fact that interracial marriages were able to take place among the relatively conservative Jewish communities demonstrated the considerable degree of cultural interaction between the Jews and the Chinese” in Shanghai.
After Pearl Harbor (1941–1943)
After Japanese forces attacked Pearl Harbor, the wealthy Baghdadi Jews, many of whom were British subjects, were interned, and American charitable funds ceased. As communication with the US was banned and broken, unemployment and inflation intensified and times got harder for the refugees.
JDC liaison Laura Margolis, who came to Shanghai, attempted to stabilize the situation by getting permission from the Japanese authorities to continue her fundraising effort and turned to the Russian Jews, who arrived before 1937 and were exempt from the new restrictions, for assistance.
German requests, 1942–1944
During a trial in Germany relating to the Shanghai Ghetto, Fritz Wiedemann reported that Josef Meisinger had told him that he got the order from Himmler to persuade the Japanese to take measures against the Jews. According to Wiedemann, Meisinger certainly could not have done this in the form of a command to the Japanese.
Since most Japanese were not anti-Semitic, Meisinger used their fear of espionage to achieve his goal. In fall 1942, he conferred with the head of the foreign section of the Japanese Home Ministry. Meisinger explained that he had orders from Berlin to give the Japanese authorities all the names of "anti-Nazis" among the German community. He explained that "anti-Nazis" were primarily German Jews, of whom 20,000 had emigrated to Shanghai. These "anti-Nazis" were always "anti-Japanese" too.
Later, a subordinate, the interpreter of Meisinger, Karl Hamel, reported to U.S. Army Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC) agents that the Japanese, after some consideration, believed in this thesis. According to Hamel, this led to a veritable chase of "anti-Nazis" and to the internment of many people. In response, the Japanese demanded from Meisinger to compile a list of all "anti-Nazis." As his personal secretary later confirmed, this list had already been prepared by Meisinger in 1941. After consulting with General Heinrich Müller in Berlin, it was handed over by Meisinger to the Japanese Home Ministry and to the Kenpeitai at the end of 1942.
The list contained the names of all Jews with a German passport in Japan. For the Japanese, this official document made clear that, in particular, the large number of refugees who had fled to Shanghai from 1937 onwards represented the highest "risk potential". So the proclamation of a ghetto was just a logical consequence of Meisinger's intervention. This way, Meisinger succeeded, despite the barely existing anti-Semitism of the Japanese, in achieving his goal: The internment of a large part of the Jews in the Japanese sphere of influence. For this attainment, he was promoted to Colonel of the police on February 6, 1943, despite the Richard Sorge affair. This information was kept secret by US authorities and was not used in civil proceedings of ghetto inmates to gain redress. That is why, for example, in the case of a woman who was interned in the ghetto, a German court came to the conclusion that even though there was a probability that Meisinger tried to encourage the Japanese to take action against Jews, the establishment of the ghetto in Shanghai was "solely based on Japanese initiative".
On November 15, 1942, the idea of a restricted ghetto was approved after a visit of Shanghai by Meisinger.
As World War II intensified, the Nazis stepped up pressure on Japan to hand over the Shanghai Jews. While the Nazis regarded their Japanese allies as "Honorary Aryans", they were determined that the Final Solution to the Jewish Question would also be applied to the Jews in Shanghai. Warren Kozak describes the episode when the Japanese military governor of the city sent for the Jewish community leaders. The delegation included Amshinover rabbi Shimon Sholom Kalish. The Japanese governor was curious and asked, "Why do the Germans hate you so much?"
Without hesitation and knowing the fate of his community hung on his answer, Reb Kalish told the translator (in Yiddish): "Zugim weil wir senen orientalim—Tell him [the Germans hate us] because we are Orientals." The governor, whose face had been stern throughout the confrontation, broke into a slight smile. In spite of the military alliance, he did not accede to the German demand and the Shanghai Jews were never handed over.
According to another rabbi who was present there, Reb Kalish's answer was "They hate us because we are short and dark-haired." Orientalim was not likely to have been said because the word is an Israeli academic term in modern Hebrew, not a word in classical Yiddish or Hebrew.
Creation
On February 18, 1943, the occupying Japanese authorities declared a "Designated Area for Stateless Refugees" and ordered those who arrived after 1937 to move their residences and businesses within it by May 18, three months later. The stateless refugees needed permission from the Japanese to dispose of their property; others needed permission to move into the ghetto. About 18,000 Jews were forced to relocate to a 3/4 square mile area of Shanghai's Hongkou district, where many lived in group homes called "Heime" or "Little Vienna".
The English version of the order read:
While this area was not walled or surrounded with barbed wire, it was patrolled and a curfew enforced in its precincts. Food was rationed, and everyone needed passes to enter or leave the ghetto.
According to Dr. David Kranzler,
Thus, about half of the approximately 16,000 refugees, who had overcome great obstacles and had found a means of livelihood and residence outside the 'designated area' were forced to leave their homes and businesses for a second time and to relocate into a crowded, squalid area of less than one square mile with its own population of an estimated 100,000 Chinese and 8,000 refugees.
The US air raids on Shanghai began in 1944. There were no bomb shelters in Hongkou because the water table was close to the surface. The most devastating raid started on July 17, 1945, and was the first attack that hit Hongkou. Thirty-eight refugees and hundreds of Chinese were killed in the 17 July raid.
The bombings by the US 7th Air Force continued daily until early August, when the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima and the Japanese government surrendered shortly thereafter. Refugees in the ghetto improvised their own shelters, with one family surviving the bombing under a bed with a second mattress on top, mounted on two desks.
Some Jews of the Shanghai ghetto took part in the resistance movement. They participated in an underground network to obtain and circulate information and were involved in some minor sabotage and in providing assistance to downed Allied aircrews.
After liberation
The ghetto was officially liberated on September 3, 1945. The Government of Israel bestowed the honor of the Righteous Among the Nations to Chiune Sugihara in 1985 and to Ho Feng Shan in 2001.
Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between Israel and China in 1992, the connection between the Jewish people and Shanghai has been recognised in various ways. In 2007, the Israeli consulate-general in Shanghai donated 660,000 Yuan, provided by 26 Israeli companies, to community projects in Hongkou District in recognition of the safe harbour provided by the ghetto. The only Jewish monument in Shanghai is located at Huoshan Park (formerly Rabin Park) in Hongkou District.
Partial list of notable refugees in the Restricted Sector for Stateless Refugees
Walter Abish, Austrian-born American author of experimental novels and short stories.
Aaron Avshalomov, Russian composer.
Abba Berman, Haredi rabbi, Rosh yeshiva.
Charles K. Bliss, whose Chinese experience inspired him to create Blissymbols.
W. Michael Blumenthal, served as the U.S. Treasury Secretary.
Morris Cohen, known by his nickname Two-Gun Cohen, he served as bodyguard and aide-de-camp to Sun Yat-sen, eventually becoming a Chinese general.
Shaul Eisenberg, who founded and ran the Eisenberg Group of Companies in Israel.
Kurt Rudolf Fischer, professor at University of Pennsylvania and University of Vienna.
Eduard Glass, Austrian chess master.
Leo Hanin, leader of Shanghai Betar.
Otto Joachim, German composer.
Shimon Sholom Kalish, Hasidic rebbe of Amshinov–Otvotsk.
Yisrael Mendel Kaplan, Haredi rabbi, served as Reb Mendel.
Yechezkel Levenstein, Haredi rabbi, served as Mashgiach Ruchani.
Francis Mankiewicz, Canadian film director, screenwriter and producer.
Peter Max, American pop artist.
Michael Medavoy, a Hollywood executive at Columbia, Orion and TriStar Pictures.
Rene Rivkin, Australian financier.
Jakob Rosenfeld, more commonly known as General Luo, who spent nine years overseeing health care and who served as the Minister of Health in the 1947 Provisional Communist Military Government of China under Mao Zedong.
Hermann Schieberth, a Society photographer in Vienna
Otto Schnepp, professor at University of Southern California
Chaim Leib Shmuelevitz, Haredi rabbi, served as Rosh yeshiva of the Mirrer Yeshiva in Shanghai (1941–1947), and in Jerusalem (1965–1979).
John G. Stoessinger, Distinguished Professor of Global Diplomacy at the University of San Diego
George Szekeres, professor of mathematics, University of New South Wales.
Sigmund Tobias, professor City University of New York, Fordham University, studied in Mir Yeshiva in Shanghai, President of Northeastern Educational Research Association 1975, President Division of Educational Psychology, American Psychological Association 1987, Distinguished Faculty Fellow US Navy R&D Center San Diego summers 1991–1997, published extensively in professional outlets.
Laurence Tribe, professor, Harvard Law School, Carl M. LoeDb University Professor
George Zames, a control theorist and professor at McGill University, Montreal, Quebec.
See also
Abraham Kaufman, a prominent Zionist in China
An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus (1943)
History of the Jews in China & Japan
Jewish settlement in the Japanese Empire and Fugu Plan, a Japanese plan to bring Jewish refugees to Manchukuo (1934, 1938)
MS St. Louis (1939)
Japan and the Holocaust
Nanking Safety Zone
Films
Empire of the Sun. Directed by Steven Spielberg. 154 min. 1987.
A Jewish Girl in Shanghai. Directed by Wang Genfa and Zhang Zhenhui. 80 min. 2010.
The Port of Last Resort: Zuflucht in Shanghai. Documentary directed by Joan Grossman and Paul Rosdy. 79 min. 1998.
Shanghai Ghetto. Documentary by Dana Janklowicz-Mann and Amir Mann. 95 min. 2002.
Ye Shanghai. 62 min. Film and live audio-visual performance by Roberto Paci Dalò created in Shanghai in 2012. Commissioned by Massimo Torrigiani for SH Contemporary - Shanghai Contemporary Art Fair and produced by Davide Quadrio and Francesca Girelli.
Harbor from the Holocaust. Documentary by Violet Du Feng. 56 min. 2020.
References
Further reading
Betta, Chiara. "From Orientals to Imagined Britons: Baghdadi Jews in Shanghai." Modern Asian Studies 37#4 (2003): 999–1023.
Falbaum, Berl, ed. Shanghai Remembered...Stories of Jews Who Escaped to Shanghai from Nazi Europe (Momentum Books, 2005) ,
Headley, Hannelore Heinemann. "Blond China Doll: A Shanghai Interlude, 1939-1953." (Blond China Doll Enterprises), (2004) ,
Heppner, Ernest G. Shanghai Refuge: A Memoir of the World War II Jewish Ghetto (Lincoln:coln University of Nebraska Press: 1993). ,
Kranzler, David. Japanese, Nazis & Jews: The Jewish Refugee Community of Shanghai, 1938-1945 (Yeshiva University Press: 1976).
Malek, Roman. From Kaifeng--to Shanghai: Jews in China (Steyler Verlag, 2000).
Ristaino, Marcia Reynders. Port of Last Resort: The Diaspora Communities of Shanghai (Stanford University Press, 2001)
Ross, James R. Escape to Shanghai: A Jewish Community in China (The Free Press, 1994)
Strobin, Deborah and Ilie Wacs An Uncommon Journey: From Vienna to Shanghai to America—A Brother and Sister Escape to Freedom During World War II (Barricade Books, 2011)
Tobias, Sigmund. Strange Haven: A Jewish Childhood in Wartime Shanghai (University of Illinois Press, 1999)
Ten Green Bottles (book): The True Story of One Family's Journey from War-torn Austria to the Ghettos of Shanghai by Vivian Jeanette Kaplan (St. Martin's Press, 2004)
To Wear the Dust of War : From Bialystok to Shanghai to the Promised Land, an Oral History by Samuel Iwry, Leslie J.H. Kelley (Editor) (Palgrave Studies in Oral History. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004)
Tokayer, Rabbi Marvin (1979). "The Fugu Plan." New York: Weatherhill, Inc.
Maruyama, Naoki (2005). "Pacific War and Jewish Refugees in Shanghai."(Japanese) Tokyo: Hosei Univ. Press.
Survival in Shanghai: The Journals of Fred Marcus 1939-49 by Audrey Friedman Marcus and Rena Krasno (Pacific View Press, 2008)
Far from Where? Jewish Journeys from Shanghai to Australia by Antonia Finnane (Melbourne University Press, 1999)
Cafe Jause: A Story of Viennese Shanghai by Wena Poon (Sutajio Wena, 2015)
Love and Luck: The story of Jewish Shanghai Ghetto resident, Eva Levi written by her daughter, Karen Levi.
Zhang, Ruoyu (Ed.): "Wir in Shanghai" : Pressetexte deutscher und österreichischer Journalisten im Exil (1939-1949), München : Iudicium, [2021],
External links
Shanghai Jews
"Refuge in Shanghai (1938-1953)" American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee Archives
Jewish Voice of the Far East = Juedisches Nachrichtenblatt der Juedischen Gemeinde mitteleuropaeischer Juden in Shanghai is a digitized periodical at the Leo Baeck Institute
Medizinische Monatshefte Shanghai = Shanghai medical monthly is a digitized periodical at the Leo Baeck Institute
Mitteilungen der Vereinigung der Emigranten-Aerzte in Shanghai (China) is a digitized periodical at the Leo Baeck Institute
History of Shanghai
Jewish Chinese history
Jewish emigration from Nazi Germany
Jewish Japanese history
International response to the Holocaust
Jewish ghettos
Antisemitism in Japan
Jews and Judaism in Shanghai
Hongkou District
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nani%20%28footballer%29
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Nani (footballer)
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Luís Carlos Almeida da Cunha (born 17 November 1986), commonly known as Nani (), is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a winger for Süper Lig club Adana Demirspor. He represented Portugal in international football, playing 112 times for the senior national team.
Nani began his career with Sporting CP, joining the youth team in 2003 before making his first-team debut in 2005. During his two-year tenure in Portugal, Nani won the Portuguese Cup in the 2006–07 season. Before the 2007–08 season, Nani's performances attracted the attention of English club Manchester United, who secured his services in July 2007. He gained first-team status almost immediately and won four Premier League titles and the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League, along with the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup, two League Cups and three Community Shields. Following a loan back to Sporting, in which he won the Portuguese Cup, he was signed by Turkish side Fenerbahçe in 2015, and a year later he signed for Valencia in Spain. He rejoined Sporting in 2018, winning another Portuguese Cup as well as a Portuguese League Cup, before moving to Major League Soccer side Orlando City, whom he captained for three seasons before leaving at the end of 2021. In January 2022, he moved to Venezia in Italy.
Nani made his Portugal international debut in 2006, scoring his first goal soon after and establishing himself as a key member of the side. He represented his country at three European Championships, in 2008, 2012 and 2016, as well as in the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Nani started in the final of Euro 2016, and after Cristiano Ronaldo got injured, captained the team to victory. He made 112 appearances and scored 24 goals for his country in total.
Early life
Nani was born on 17 November 1986 in Amadora, Lisbon metropolitan area, Portugal, and is of Cape Verdean descent. He was raised by his aunt Antónia on the Santa Filomena estate in Amadora after being abandoned by his parents. At age five, his father left for a holiday in Cape Verde but never returned, and when he was 12 years old, his mother left Portugal to start a new life in the Netherlands. Nani has nine siblings from his mother, of which he is the youngest, and five from his father. Nani gained his nickname from an elder sister at a young age.
Nani's older brother taught him how to play football and he played with his childhood friend, midfielder Manuel Fernandes. When Nani was around the age of 14, his older brother took him to train with Real Massamá. They were Nani's first club and gave him money, food, and helped him obtain an ID card and a passport. At the age of 16, Nani was training on alternate days with Sporting CP and Benfica. Nani sometimes walked miles to and from practice before Sporting offered him pre-season training. Despite growing up in Lisbon, Nani and his brother supported FC Porto as a boy and his footballing hero was Luís Figo.
Club career
Sporting CP
Nani joined Sporting CP from his first club, Real Massamá. After two seasons in the youth team, where he won the National Junior Championship in 2004–05, Nani was promoted to the first team early in the 2005–06 season. On 10 August 2005, he made his Sporting CP debut, coming on as a substitute for Custódio in the 73rd minute in a 1–0 home defeat to Udinese in their third-round qualifier in the UEFA Champions League. Nani made his Portuguese Liga debut on 28 August, replacing Deivid in the 76th minute of a 1–2 victory over Marítimo at the Estádio dos Barreiros. Nani scored his first Sporting goal on 30 October, opening the scoring in a 2–2 draw away to Boavista. Nani ended the first season of his career with 5 goals from 36 appearances across all competitions.
Nani first came into the spotlight after scoring in the UEFA Champions League against Spartak Moscow, scoring Sporting's goal in a 1–1 group stage match on 27 September 2006. Nani helped Sporting win the 2006–07 Taça de Portugal, lifting the trophy after a 1–0 win over Belenenses on 27 May 2007 in the final. He was then named as the SJPF Young Player of the Month for May 2007. Nani's second season with Sporting ended with similar league statistics, with 40 appearances and 6 goals in all competitions.
Manchester United
Early years
Nani was sold to Manchester United for €25.5 million, five percent of which was paid to Real Massamá, his first professional club. He passed his medical on 6 June 2007, and signed a five-year contract one month later, joining Portuguese compatriot Cristiano Ronaldo, with whom he lived at the start of his Manchester United career.
Nani scored on his debut in a pre-season friendly against Shenzhen, scoring the third in a 6–0 win. He also scored in the following match against Guangzhou Pharmaceutical with a chip off the right post from the left side of the penalty area in a 3–0 win. On 5 August 2007, Nani made his competitive debut for United, coming on as a substitute in the Community Shield against Chelsea. He marked his debut with a trophy after they won 3–0 on penalties, following a 1–1 draw during normal time. This was followed up by Nani's third goal for the club three days later, when he scored against Glentoran in another 3–0 pre-season win.
Nani's Premier League debut came in United's opening match at home to Reading on 12 August as a substitute for Wayne Rooney, who had suffered a foot injury. Two weeks later, on 26 August, Nani scored his first competitive goal for United, netting a 30-yard goal in the 69th minute against Tottenham Hotspur. Nani also set up crucial goals for Louis Saha and Nemanja Vidić, allowing United to defeat both Sunderland and Everton 1–0, respectively. He returned to face his previous club, Sporting CP, in a Champions League tie in September, though it was teammate and fellow former Sporting player Cristiano Ronaldo who scored the winner in a 0–1 victory. Nani opened the scoring in a 4–1 home victory over Middlesbrough on 27 October.
On 16 February 2008, Nani put in a man of the match performance against Arsenal in the FA Cup Fourth Round, his goal and two assists helping United to a 4–0 win over their rivals. During the match, Nani was involved in an altercation with Arsenal captain William Gallas. After the match, Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger was equally displeased, while Gilberto Silva said Nani had a "big head".
On 23 March, Nani set up the second and scored the final goal in a 3–0 victory over rivals Liverpool, in the 79th and 81st minutes respectively, after coming onto the pitch as a substitute. On 3 May, towards the end of a 4–1 home win over West Ham United, Nani was sent off for the first time in his United career for a headbutt on West Ham defender Lucas Neill. On 21 May, Nani came on as a substitute for Wayne Rooney in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final as United defeated Chelsea 6–5 on penalties following a 1–1 draw after extra time. Nani took and scored Manchester United's crucial fifth penalty in the shootout.
Nani scored his first goal of the 2008–09 season on 23 September 2008, scoring United's third goal in a 3–1 win over Middlesbrough in the last minute to secure passage to the Fourth Round of the League Cup. On 18 October, he scored from a Wayne Rooney assist to complete the 4–0 rout of West Bromwich Albion at Old Trafford. On 20 January 2009, he opened the scoring for United in their 4–2 win at home to Derby County in the second leg of their League Cup semi-final.
Breakthrough
After Cristiano Ronaldo's transfer to Real Madrid in the 2009 close season, the weight of expectation was on Nani to step up from bit part player and replace his compatriot. Nani's first contribution to United's new season was opening the scoring in the tenth minute of the 2009 FA Community Shield, but United eventually lost the match on penalties after a 2–2 draw. Nani suffered a dislocated shoulder during the match, which was originally expected to keep him out of the start of the season. He recovered in time to play 17 minutes for Portugal against Liechtenstein on 12 August, however, and started the match against Birmingham City on 16 August. Although he provided the assist for Wayne Rooney's winning goal in the 34th minute, Nani was replaced by Ryan Giggs at half-time. On 22 August, Nani scored his first league goal of the 2009–10 season, a free-kick against Wigan Athletic in a 0–5 away win.
Following several poor performances, Nani criticised Sir Alex Ferguson for his lack of confidence in him. Despite this outburst, Nani was given a chance to shine and provided an assist for Rooney in the 4–0 league win over Hull City. Soon after this positive display, he put in another good performance in their League Cup semi-final victory over derby rivals Manchester City, revealing a heart-to-heart with Ferguson had resulted in a better display of form. On 31 January 2010, Nani scored the first goal and set up Rooney's 100th career Premier League strike in a 1–3 league victory over Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium. Nani's goal was first thought of as a Manuel Almunia own goal by many sources, but was confirmed as belonging to Nani on 26 March by the Dubious Goals Panel. Following this performance, Nani then set up the second of a 5–0 home win over Portsmouth.
However, just four days later, he was sent off for a lunge at Stiliyan Petrov against Aston Villa, which resulted in a three-match ban and ruled him out of the League Cup final. On 10 March, Nani set up Rooney's second in a 4–0 win over Milan, before providing another assist for Rooney four days later, in the 3–0 league victory over Fulham.
On 26 March, Nani signed a new four-year contract with United, committing himself until 2014. A day later, Nani took his assist tally in the league for the season to nine as he set up two goals in a 0–4 win over Bolton Wanderers at the Reebok Stadium, providing goals for Dimitar Berbatov and Darron Gibson. On 7 April, Nani scored his first ever European goals for United, netting two strikes in a 3–2 victory over Bayern Munich. Despite United winning the match, they were eliminated from the competition due to the away goals rule when the aggregate score was 4–4. On 24 April, Nani scored his first league goal at Old Trafford in 18 months, netting United's second in a 3–1 home victory over Tottenham Hotspur. On 2 May, Nani scored for the second match in a row, netting the only goal in a 0–1 away victory over Sunderland. Nani's third season with Manchester United ended with 34 appearances and seven goals in all competitions.
2010–11 season
On 22 August 2010, Nani missed a penalty in the 87th minute away to Fulham, and they then equalised two minutes later through Brede Hangeland to end the match 2–2. Six days later, in a 3–0 home victory over West Ham United, Nani scored his first goal of the season and assisted Dimitar Berbatov in a Man of the Match display. Nani scored and assisted Michael Owen in a 2–2 away draw away to Bolton Wanderers on 26 September. On 16 October, Nani scored United's second in a 2–2 home draw against West Bromwich Albion. Four days later, Nani scored his first Champions League goal of the season, scoring the solitary strike in a 1–0 home victory over Bursaspor.
On 30 October, Nani scored a controversial second goal as United beat Tottenham Hotspur 2–0 at home. He scored into an empty net after Tottenham goalkeeper Heurelho Gomes rolled the ball out to take a free-kick he thought had been given for handball; however, play was allowed to go on as referee Mark Clattenburg did not blow his whistle. On 27 November, Nani scored United's fifth goal in a 7–1 home win over Blackburn Rovers. Nani netted his first goal of 2011 as he scored the winning strike in a 2–1 home victory over Stoke City on 4 January.
On 22 January, Nani scored the final goal of a 5–0 home victory over Birmingham City. Nani scored United's only goal in their first league loss of the season, a 2–1 defeat at Wolverhampton Wanderers on 5 February. Seven days later Nani scored his first Manchester derby goal, opening the scoring in a 2–1 home victory over Manchester City.
On 6 March, during United's 3–1 loss against Liverpool at Anfield, Nani was injured following a challenge from Jamie Carragher just before half-time. Nani shed tears after the challenge and was subsequently taken off the pitch in a stretcher. Following post-match comments to the press from Manchester United, it was believed Nani had suffered a broken leg. However, this was not the case as he started training the following week. It was thought Nani would miss up to three weeks as a result of this tackle and would return in April, but he recovered in time to play 61 minutes of a 2–1 victory over Marseille on 15 March.
Nani was revealed as a contender for the Professional Footballers' Association (PFA) Young Player of the Year award alongside teammate Javier Hernández on 8 April. However, many people, including Nani, expressed their surprise he was not nominated for the main award. Following this nomination, he assisted both goals in a 2–0 home win over Fulham on 9 April. Nani lost out to Jack Wilshere for the PFA Young Player of the Year award on 18 April but he was included in the PFA Premier League Team of the Year for the first time. He was awarded for his outstanding season as he was voted Players' Player of the Year at the club's awards night on 18 May.
2011–12 season
Nani began the new season by putting in a man of the match performance and scoring twice against derby rivals Manchester City in the 2011 Community Shield, including a 94th-minute winner, as United came from two goals down to win 3–2 on 7 August 2011. He scored his first league goal of the 2011–12 season by netting United's fifth goal in an 8–2 victory over Arsenal on 28 August. Nani made his 100th Premier League appearance on 18 September as he scored in a 3–1 home win over Chelsea. He scored with a long-range strike after cutting inside from the right wing. He was also awarded with the man of the match. In United's following league match at the Britannia Stadium, Nani scored his third goal of the season in a 1–1 draw with Stoke City. He played a neat one-two with Darren Fletcher before making his way through Stoke's defence and firing a low shot inside the left post. Nani started the match against Manchester City where they fell victim to a 1–6 beating at home to their neighbours. On 1 November, Nani was shortlisted for the prestigious FIFA Ballon d'Or.
On 10 December, the first match after United's elimination from the UEFA Champions League, Nani scored a brace in a home match against Wolverhampton Wanderers. He opened the scoring in the 17th minute to put them 1–0 up with a shot into the bottom left corner. He scored his second goal in the 56th minute, tapping in from Antonio Valencia's drilled cross across the six-yard box to extend the lead to 3–1. He was later replaced by winger Ashley Young as the match finished 4–1 to the home side. Nani scored his sixth league goal of the season and provided two assists in a 5–0 away win at Fulham on 21 December. He first advanced on a run down the left flank before crossing for Danny Welbeck to slot home. He then met a Ryan Giggs cross with his head to glance United into a 2–0 lead. He then returned the compliment, squaring for Giggs to put United 3–0 up before half-time.
During Manchester United's 2–1 win against Arsenal on 22 January, Nani sustained a foot injury from a tackle by Arsenal defender Laurent Koscielny in the 75th minute and was replaced by Ashley Young. After a scan on Nani's foot, he was feared to have suffered a metatarsal injury, thus not being able to play for two months. Nani returned to football on 15 April at United's match against Aston Villa as a substitute, replacing Young on the left wing. He scored a goal in stoppage time (93rd minute) with a low shot past Villa goalkeeper Shay Given from Jonny Evans' through-ball assist, resulting in a 4–0 win over Villa. Nani then followed this with another goal when chipping Tim Howard at his near post in a 4–4 draw at Old Trafford against Everton.
2012–13 season
During the season Nani scored a single Premier League goal, and three in all competitions, marking significant decrease compared with previous seasons. He played just 11 times in the league, including only seven as a starter, although United ended up winning the league 11 points ahead of second place, to give Nani his fourth Premier League winner's medal. His most memorable appearance in the season came in the second leg of United's UEFA Champions League round of 16 tie with Real Madrid. With Manchester United leading 1—0, Nani was sent off in the 56th minute for a high boot on Álvaro Arbeloa; Real Madrid took advantage of their numerical superiority and scored twice to win the match 2–1, and the tie 3–2 on aggregate.
2013–14 season
On 5 September 2013, Nani renewed his contract with Manchester United, which was to keep him at the club until 2018. He started his first match of 2013–14 season against Liverpool in the League Cup. Despite this, Nani spent most of the season struggling against injury and trying to find form. He scored only once during the season.
Loan return to Sporting CP
On 19 August 2014, Sporting CP announced the return of Nani to the club on a season-long loan from Manchester United, as part of a deal that brought centre-back Marcos Rojo to United. Nani was given the number 77 shirt.
Nani made his comeback at the Estádio José Alvalade in a Primeira Liga match against Arouca, four days after signing. He missed a penalty, received a yellow card and was substituted in the 77th minute as the match ended in a 1–0 win for Sporting. He scored his first goal of this loan on 17 September, opening a 1–1 draw at Maribor in the first match of the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League group stage. He was also voted Man of the Match. Nani scored his first league goal for the club four days later in a 4–0 win against Gil Vicente On 3 January 2015, Nani was sent off for two bookings in a 3–0 win over Estoril. Nani scored in Sporting's penalty shootout victory over Braga in the 2015 Taça de Portugal final, which earned the club their first trophy since 2008.
Fenerbahçe
On 6 July 2015, Nani joined Turkish club Fenerbahçe, signing a three-year deal for a £4.25 million transfer fee. He and his former United teammate Robin van Persie debuted 22 days later in a goalless home draw against Shakhtar Donetsk in the third qualifying round of the season's Champions League, with Nani starting. He scored two goals including the winner, a free-kick in second-half stoppage time, against Antalyaspor on 30 August.
On 26 May 2016, Nani was sent off in the Turkish Cup final for sarcastically applauding the referee following a 1–0 loss to rivals Galatasaray.
Valencia
In July 2016, Nani signed for Spanish club Valencia on a three-year contract, with Valencia paying an undisclosed fee – reported at £7.2 million – to complete the transfer.
Nani was suspended for Valencia's season opener against Las Palmas as he had not served his suspension from his last game for Fenerbahçe. He debuted on 27 August in the next game, a 1–0 loss at Eibar. On 25 September, in his 500th game as a professional, he opened his Valencia account with his 100th goal to conclude a 2–1 win at Leganés. In his one season at the Mestalla, he suffered four muscular injuries over the course of the campaign – a contrast to his previous year in Turkey, where he played 64 games for club and country.
Loan to Lazio
On 31 August 2017, Lazio announced the signing of Nani on a season-long loan deal. He scored his first goal for Lazio on 29 October, the final goal of a 5–1 away victory over Benevento.
Return to Sporting CP
On 11 July 2018, Sporting CP announced that Nani would be rejoining the club. He scored twice in his second game on 18 August, a 2–1 home win over Vitória Setúbal. In one of his final games on 26 January, the 2019 Taça da Liga Final in Braga, he scored Sporting's last penalty as they defeated Porto following a 1–1 draw.
Orlando City
On 18 February 2019, Nani moved to Orlando City, signing a three-year contract on a Designated Player deal. He made his club debut on 2 March, coming on as a 70th minute substitute in Orlando's season opener at home against New York City FC; the game ended in a 2–2 draw, with Nani registering an assist on Dom Dwyer's equaliser. He scored his first goals for the team on 6 April 2019, when he netted twice in Orlando's 4–3 home win over Colorado Rapids, including the game–winning penalty in the 89th minute.
On 31 July 2020, he missed a penalty in regulation time against Los Angeles FC in the quarter-finals of the MLS is Back Tournament but later assisted the last-minute equalizer and scored the winning penalty during an extra-time shootout. In the semi-finals against Minnesota United FC, Nani scored two first-half goals to help his team reach the final with a 3–1 win. However, Orlando City eventually finished runners-up in the tournament, losing to Portland Timbers in the final.
On 26 November 2021, Nani announced he was leaving Orlando City following the expiration of his contract.
Venezia
On 14 January 2022, he signed a contract with Italian Serie A club Venezia until the end of the 2022–23 season. The contract was terminated by mutual consent on 8 July 2022.
Melbourne Victory
On 12 July 2022, Nani signed a two-year contract with A-League Men club Melbourne Victory.
Three days later, he made his unofficial debut for his new team, coming on as a late substitute in a 4–1 loss to former side Manchester United. On 6 January 2023, during an A-League Men game against Brisbane Roar, he ruptured his anterior cruciate ligament in an accidental clash with opponent Connor Chapman, and was ruled out for the rest of the season.
On 31 May 2023, the club confirmed Nani's departure.
Adana Demirspor
On 13 July 2023, Süper Lig club Adana Demirspor announced the signing of Nani on a one-year contract, with an option for a further year.
International career
Portugal under–21
Nani was the youngest member of the Portugal U21 squad at the 2006 UEFA Under-21 Championship, making his debut on 23 May 2006 in a 1–0 defeat to France. He appeared in all three matches, scoring no goals, before Portugal bowed out in group stages. During the 2007 European Under-21 Football Championship, he made four appearances, scoring one goal in a 4–0 victory against Israel U21 in a group stage match on 16 June 2007, and had to be taken off during the match after a right ankle injury.
Portugal senior team
Nani made his first appearance for the senior Portuguese team on 1 September 2006, and marked his debut with a goal in Portugal's 4–2 friendly defeat to Denmark. Nani was omitted from Portugal's 1–1 draw with Armenia, but was recalled for Euro 2008 qualifiers against Poland and Serbia in September. He also provided the assist for Ricardo Quaresma's goal in a friendly against Italy on 6 February 2008. Nani was ruled out of Portugal's friendly with Greece in March 2008 due to injury.
UEFA Euro 2008
Nani was a regular member of the Portugal squad in Euro 2008 qualification, and scored one of the goals in the 2–1 away win over Belgium on 2 June 2007. Nani received a call-up to Luiz Felipe Scolari's 23-man squad for Euro 2008 alongside Manchester United teammate Cristiano Ronaldo. During the campaign, Nani played three matches and started just one, but did provide the assist for Hélder Postiga's goal during a substitute appearance in the 3–2 quarter-final defeat to Germany on 19 June.
2010 FIFA World Cup and Qualification
Nani's fourth international goal came in Portugal's final friendly match before their World Cup qualifying campaign started, a 5–0 victory over the Faroe Islands on 20 August 2008. Nani scored the final goal of a 4–0 victory over Malta as Portugal started qualification for the 2010 World Cup on 6 September. He opened the scoring in the 3–2 home loss against Denmark four days later. Nani helped Portugal book a play-off place for the World Cup as he netted in the 4–0 home win over Malta on 14 October 2009. Nani was influential in the play-off against Bosnia and Herzegovina, setting up Bruno Alves for the only goal in the first leg. Raul Meireles' goal in the second-leg sealed Portugal's place at the World Cup in South Africa.
On 1 June 2010, Nani netted Portugal's third in a 3–1 victory over Cameroon. Following that game Nani was named in Carlos Queiroz 23-man squad for the tournament, However, on 8 June, Nani was ruled out of the tournament through a shoulder injury and was replaced by Benfica midfielder Rúben Amorim.
UEFA Euro 2012
Nani scored twice and assisted once in Paulo Bento's first game in charge of Portugal in a 3–1 Euro 2012 qualifying win over Denmark on 8 October 2010. Nani scored twice and set up another again in a 5–3 win over Iceland on 7 October 2011.
2014 FIFA World Cup
Nani started in the opening match of the 2014 World Cup for Portugal against Germany. After the match, he stated how the team played well despite the loss and how "the referee has discriminated against us, but that's normal, Portugal against big teams never get help". In the team's second fixture, Nani scored the opening goal for Portugal in a 2–2 draw with the United States.
UEFA Euro 2016
Nani scored Portugal's first goal in the last match of the group stage, a 3–3 draw against Hungary on 22 June, to help the team qualify for the knockout round. He then contributed to the only goal of the match in a 1–0 extra-time victory in the round of 16 against Croatia on 25 June. During their quarter-final match on 30 June against Poland, Nani set up Renato Sanches' goal in regulation time and later scored Portugal's fourth penalty in an eventual 5–3 shoot-out victory, following a 1–1 draw after extra-time. In the semi-finals against Wales on 6 July, he scored the second goal in a 2–0 victory. In the final against host-nation France on 10 July, Nani was awarded the captain's armband after Cristiano Ronaldo was forced off in the opening 25 minutes of the match following a challenge from Dimitri Payet. During extra-time, substitute Eder scored in the 109th minute to earn Portugal a 1–0 victory.
FIFA 2017 Confederations Cup and 2018 World Cup
On 24 June 2017, Nani scored the final goal of a 4–0 win over New Zealand in the FIFA Confederations Cup which saw Portugal finish third.
In May 2018 he was named in Portugal's preliminary 35-man squad for the 2018 World Cup in Russia but did not make the final 23.
Style of play
In the early stages of his career at Manchester United, Nani's ability and playing style often invited comparisons with club and international teammate Cristiano Ronaldo, however Nani's style developed into more that of a traditional winger than Ronaldo's evolution into a centre forward.
While being able to play on both wings, Nani is more comfortable on the right side, where he has been known to utilise his pace along with intricate dribbling skills and trickery to create space in wide areas and provide crosses for teammates. Though capable of cutting inside from either wing to strike at goal from distance, Nani scores fewer goals but produces a substantially higher proportion of assists than his compatriot Ronaldo. Due to his potent attacking talents, he can play a variety of additional roles as a forward including as an inverted winger on the left, second striker, or even in a more central position as a main striker, as he has played frequently for Portugal.
Celebration
Nani celebrates a goal with a somersault referred to in Portuguese as a "mortal" ("leap of death"), similar to that of Obafemi Martins and Lomana LuaLua. The celebration derives from Nani's background in capoeira, which he used to practice as a child. For a while, it was reported that United manager Sir Alex Ferguson had banned Nani's celebration due to fear for his safety. However, Nani denounced the reports in August 2007, stating it was "not true" and that "Ferguson has never spoken to me about this subject and I am going to continue to celebrate goals in this way. The conversations he has had with me are normal conversations, like he has with all players".
Career statistics
Club
International
Portugal score listed first, score column indicates score after each Nani goal.
Honours
Sporting CP
Taça de Portugal: 2006–07, 2014–15, 2018–19
Taça da Liga: 2018–19
Manchester United
Premier League: 2007–08, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2012–13
Football League Cup: 2008–09, 2009–10
FA Community Shield: 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011
UEFA Champions League: 2007–08
FIFA Club World Cup: 2008
Portugal
UEFA European Championship: 2016
Individual
SJPF Young Player of the Month: May 2007
PFA Team of the Year: 2010–11 Premier League
Manchester United Players' Player of the Year: 2010–11
SJPF Player of the Month: October/November 2014
Sporting CP Footballer of the Year: 2015
MLS All-Star: 2019, 2021
Premier League most assists: 2010–11
Orders
Commander of the Order of Merit
See also
List of footballers with 100 or more caps
References
External links
National team data
1986 births
Living people
2014 FIFA World Cup players
2017 FIFA Confederations Cup players
Black Portuguese sportspeople
Commanders of the Order of Merit (Portugal)
Designated Players (MLS)
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Italy
Expatriate men's footballers in Spain
Expatriate men's footballers in Turkey
Fenerbahçe S.K. footballers
FIFA Men's Century Club
Footballers from Lisbon District
La Liga players
Major League Soccer players
Manchester United F.C. players
Marquee players (A-League Men)
Melbourne Victory FC players
Men's association football wingers
Orlando City SC players
People from Amadora
Portugal men's B international footballers
Portugal men's international footballers
Portugal men's under-21 international footballers
Portugal men's youth international footballers
Portuguese expatriate men's footballers
Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in England
Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in Turkey
Portuguese men's footballers
Portuguese people of Cape Verdean descent
Premier League players
Primeira Liga players
Real S.C. players
Serie A players
Sporting CP footballers
SS Lazio players
Süper Lig players
UEFA Champions League winning players
UEFA Euro 2008 players
UEFA Euro 2012 players
UEFA Euro 2016 players
UEFA European Championship-winning players
Valencia CF players
Venezia FC players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated%20pool%20cleaner
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Automated pool cleaner
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An automated pool cleaner is a vacuum cleaner that is designed to collect debris and sediment from swimming pools with minimal human intervention.
History
Evolution
Swimming pool cleaners evolved from the water filter and early cistern cleaners. The forerunner of today's pool cleaners were cistern cleaners; they were developed due to the need to clean pools and cisterns. Thermae were well-known for their elaborate cisterns and prevalent in the early United States. The United States Patent and Trademark Office refers to a cistern cleaner patent filed (though never issued) as early as 1798.
In 1883 John E. Pattison of New Orleans applied for a "Cistern and Tank Cleaner" and the first discovered patent was issued the following year. It swept and scraped the bottom of a cistern or tank and, through a combination of suction and manipulation of the water pressure, was able to separate and remove sediment without removing the water. Over the next 20 years his invention was revised multiple times. Many pool cleaner patents issued in the modern era refer to some of the cistern cleaners as predecessors of their invention.
Early models
The first swimming pool cleaner was invented in 1912 by Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania citizen John M. Davison. On November 26, 1912, he submitted a patent application to the United States Patent and Trademark Office entitled "Cleaning Apparatus For Swimming Pools And The Like", which was issued on March 25, 1913.
The first suction-side pool cleaner was invented by Roy B. Everson of Chicago in 1937 and was named the "Swimming Pool Cleaner".
In 1953, another notable suction-side pool cleaner was created by Joseph Eistrup, who called his invention "Pool Cleaner". Two years later, the "Automatic Swimming Pool Cleaner" was created by Andrew L. Pansini; it was the first truly automatic pool cleaner and was touted by Pansini as "effective to remove the scum, dirt and other accumulations from both the bottom and sidewalls of a pool to disperse foreign matter in the water for removal therefrom by a normal pump-filter system of the pool".
The first robotic pool cleaner that used electricity was invented by Robert B. Myers in 1967.
The pressure-side cleaner was invented by Melvyn Lane Henkin in 1972. It was called the "Automatic Swimming Pool Cleaner" and it used three wheels to allow the machine "to travel underwater along a random path on the pool vessel surface for dislodging debris therefrom". The design is used in the Polaris Pool Cleaner, a commonly used pool cleaner amongst modern pool owners.
Independently from his American counterparts, Ferdinand Chauvier, a hydraulics engineer who emigrated to South Africa from the Belgian Congo, introduced the Kreepy Krauly in Springs, South Africa, in 1974.
Types
There are three main types of automated or automatic swimming pool cleaners, classified by the drive mechanism and source of power used: a suction side cleaner, a pressure side cleaner, and an electric robotic cleaner.
Suction-side
This type of pool cleaner pumps water out of the pool via its skimmer or drains, uses it for locomotion and debris suction, then returns it after being filtered via pool return or outlet valves. This is the least expensive and most popular type of cleaner, and it traces a random course around the pool. This type of cleaner is usually attached via a 1.5-inch hose to a vacuum plate in the skimmer, or a dedicated extraction or "vac" line on the side of the pool. The suction action of the pool's pump provides the needed force for the machine to randomly traverse the floor and walls of the pool, extracting dirt and debris in its path. The first automatic pool cleaner was a suction cleaner.
Suction-side cleaners are the least expensive and most widely used pool cleaners. The price of suction-side cleaners ranges from $250-$650. They are powered solely by the main pump of the pool and utilize the pool's filter system to remove dirt and debris from the water. Suction-side cleaners are best suited for screened-in pools or those with light debris such as sand. Large amounts of debris or larger debris such as leaves and sticks can easily clog the unit or its pump basket. These machines effectively diminish the suction of the main pump - using them will increase the electricity costs and require the main pump and filter system to be serviced more frequently. There are minimal maintenance and part replacement costs on these devices over time.
Pressure-side
In this design, pool water inflow is further pressurized using a secondary "booster" pump on most but not all models. This high-pressure water is used for locomotion and debris suction to exploit the Venturi effect. The cleaner traces a random course around the pool. The requirement of a booster pump makes pressure-side cleaners the most expensive in terms of electricity use.
The pressure causes turbulence in the water, distributing some debris onto the floor and walls of the pool, some of which are re-floated to the pool surface before being sucked into the main filter through the skimmer inlets. A portion of the dirt and debris is caught in an attached filter bag. Pressure-side cleaners are better suited for handling a heavy amount of debris. They are also better for large debris such as leaves, acorns, and sticks. The purchase cost of this type of cleaner range from $200 to about $700 plus the costs of the booster pump, usually over $200. Some more sophisticated models can cost over $1,000.
Both suction-side and pressure-side cleaners are dependent on the pool's main pump and filter system to remove contaminants from the pool water, which results in the inability to remove particles smaller than the pore size of the pool's existing filter element. Such elements can be sand, diatomaceous earth, zeolite, or other natural or synthetic materials. That particle size ranges from under 5 µm for diatomaceous filters to 50+ µm for sand filters.
Electric robot
These cleaners are independent of the pool's main filter and pump system and are powered by a separate electricity source, usually in the form of a set-down transformer that is kept at least from the pool. They have two internal motors: one to suck in water through a self-contained filter bag and eject the filtered water back into the pool, and another that is a drive motor connected to tractor-like rubber or synthetic tracks and "brushes" tied by rubber or plastic bands to a metal shaft. The brushes, which resemble paint rollers, are located on the front and back of the machine and help remove contaminant particles from the pool's floor and walls (in some designs even the pool steps are included) depending on size and configuration. They also direct the particles into the internal filter bag.
An internal microchip is programmed to control the drive motors. The chip causes the machine to change direction when it reaches a wall or the water surface after climbing the pool walls.
These machines may also be directed by sensors located in the bump bars which, on contact with objects such as a wall, cause a reverse in direction, with a small offset allowing it to move one machine's width over on each crossing of the pool. The delay timer is an important feature for many pools, as many switch off several circulation pumps during the night to allow suspended particles to settle on the bottom of the pool; after a couple of hours, the pool cleaner begins its cleaning cycle. This cleaning cycle is set up to complete before the pumps are turned back on. Although the feature is not necessary for adequate pool cleaning, it saves energy and improves cleaning efficiency.
To move forward and backward and navigate walls and steps, electric robotic cleaners rely on three natural principles: traction and movement caused by the drive motor and tracks, buoyancy created by the large areas inside the machine that fills with air, and the force resulting from the high pressure of water being emitted from the top of the machine that pushes it against the floor and walls. Some electric robotic machines use brushes made out of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), which has an adhesive quality that allows the unit to cling to the walls, steps, and floors. It is resistant to dirt and oil, which improves its lifespan over rubber or other synthetic materials.
The combination of these three natural principles and an internal mercury switch that tells the microchip that the unit has gone from a horizontal to a vertical position allows it to change direction from ascending to descending the wall at pre-programmed intervals based on the average height of swimming pool walls. Some machines have delayed timers that cause the robot to remain at the waterline, where more dirt accumulates, to momentarily scrub.
The major benefits of these machines are efficiency in time, energy, and cleaning ability and low-maintenance requirements and costs. The major disadvantage is purchase cost which can range from $1,000 to $1,500. The smart navigation system on the product makes it possible to cover the entire area with ease.
Commercial versions
All commercial pool cleaners are electric robotic and can range in price from a little over $1,000 to upwards of $15,000. They closely resemble residential models but in addition to their addition size, they are made with heavy-duty components, more sophisticated computer guidance, and on-and-off systems. In the US, commercial pool cleaners need to be certified by the National Spa Pool Foundation (NSPF) as Certified Pool Operators (CPO).
Controlling legislation
There have been attempts for nearly 100 years to mandate the use of pool cleaners, primarily addressed to public pools. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia, on a grant provided by the National Swimming Pool Foundation (NSPF), published the first uniform Model Aquatic Health Code (MAHC).
Historical perspective
The proposed MAHC is not the first attempt to propose a uniform aquatic health code. The American Public Health Association (APHA) recognized the dangers of improperly maintained aquatic facilities and formed a committee in 1918 that, for the next 66 years, issued eleven "Swimming Pools and Other Public Bathing Places Standards For Design, Construction, Equipment And Operation" recommended ordinances and regulations. But for a variety of reasons none of these recommendations were adopted, at least not formally or completely adopted.
The APHA has tried to develop a uniform aquatic health code, or what is referred to for years as referenced above, and published short reports annually from 1920 through 1925 that it simply referred to as "Report of the Committee On Bathing Places". In 1926 it published its first comprehensive report in its journal: "Standards for Design, Construction, Equipment, and Operation for Swimming Pools and Other Public Bathing Places". Twelve other reports were published through 1981.
However, its lack of authoritative power is implied by the changing description of what was limited to their recommendations or suggestions and the expressed purposes in issuing them. In 1957, it referred to its report as "Recommended Practice for Design, Equipment, and Operation of Swimming Pools and Other Public Bathing Places". The AHPA referred to its report in 1964 as "Suggested Ordinance and Regulations Covering Public Swimming Pools", with a modified one for "Private Swimming Pools" in 1970. Its last report in 1981 was called "Public Swimming Pools: Recommended Regulations for Design and Construction, Operation and Maintenance".
In 1912, coincidentally the same year when the United States Patent and Trademark Office issued the first patent for a swimming pool cleaner, the Sanitary Engineering Section of the APHA convened in New York City to lay the groundwork for the first recommended pool and spa regulations. As reported in the American Journal of Public Health in April 1912, a meeting was held in Havana the previous December. One of the subjects being studied at the New York meeting was the "Hygiene of swimming pools".
In 1918, a committee on swimming pools was appointed at the APHA's annual meeting in Chicago and a similar committee was appointed at the meeting in Washington, D.C., two years later. Despite their intended and published goals, none became law, uniform, much less national.
None of the proposed Standards included more than a passing reference of the need to properly clean a pool. A few, but not all of these recommended ordinances and regulations, related to the use of a vacuum, though the first that included any specificity in 1923 at least required a certain level of clarity. The 1921 report, barely a few pages in length, made this reference to the need to clean the pool:
The 1923 report of the American Journal of Public Health, Sanitary Engineering Section American Public Health Association read before the Sanitary Engineering Section of the American Public Health Association at the Fifty-second Annual Meeting at Boston, Massachusetts, October 8, 1923. slightly longer, but still very brief, stated:
It also stated:
In 1921, the fact that infectious material, namely pathogens collect in the pool and should be removed was recognized.
It was not until 1926 that the first true report was issued and later published in the Journal of the American Public Health Association. Of all of its reports from 1920 through 1981, the first major report by the APHA in 1926, written in narrative form as were the succeeding nine until 1957, the committee included the detailed provisions relating to pool cleaning, vacuuming and vacuums:
The 1964 report included the following language:
The CDC was founded (in 1946), followed by the Cabinet-level Department of Health, Education and Welfare (in 1953), now the Department of Health, and Human Services and its eleven operating divisions, the National Health Service Corps (in 1977), and a variety of private and non-profit aquatic organizations such as the National Spa and Pool Association (in 1956), now the Association of Pool and Spa Professionals the National Swimming Pool Foundation (in 1965).
A variety of states and jurisdictions have codified the requirement of inclusion of an independent vacuum cleaner, including the two states with the highest number and concentration of both residential and public pools:
California: 2010 Title 24, Part 2, Vol. 2 California Building Code. Section 3140B, Cleaning Systems:
Florida: Florida Department of Health section 64E-9.007 Recirculation and Treatment System Requirements:
Call to action
In 2005 the CDC, in response to growing concern and feared epidemic with the pathogen Cryptosporidium, much like the APHA did in 1912, gathered many of the United States' foremost medical and scientific experts to study the concern for aquatic health. As a result, in 2007 they began to consolidate a uniform aquatic health code.
Each health and safety segment was assigned to a committee to study it and draft a proposed module open for public comment before being adopted and recommended to the nation's 3200+ state and local health agencies that enact ordinances and regulations for swimming pools and spa and other aquatic facilities, inspect and monitor the facilities, and enforce the regulations. Since the focus of the MAHC was to respond to the threat of Cryptosporidium the Technical Committee of Recirculation Systems and Filtration is a major focus.
University of North Carolina Charlotte Associate Professor James Amburgey conducted many tests to evaluate existing swimming pool filters and he concluded that they have been extremely ineffective in removing Cryptosporidium in most cases.
See also
Domestic robot
Hot tub
Robotic vacuum cleaner
Swimming pool
Water purification
References
Further reading
United States Bureau of the Census. Statistical abstract of the United States, 1995. 115th ed. Washington, DC: US
Yoder J, Blackburn B, Levy DA, Craun GF, Calderon RL "Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks associated with recreational water—the United States", Beach MJ. 2001-2002. Surveillance Summaries, October 22, 2004.
Progress of the U.S. Model Aquatic Health Code Project World Conference on Drowning Prevention May 13, 2011, Da Nang, Vietnam.
William R. Peterson, PH.D. and Renee E. Berman A New Method For Removing and Inactivating Water-borne Pathogens Utilizing Saline Treated Materials Coating Systems Laboratories, Inc.
Making Waves in the Aquatics Industry 2005 International Symposium on Household Water Management, Model Health Code.
New Code Aims at Standards for Nation's Pools
Delaunay A. Gargala, G, Li X, Favennec, L, Ballet JJ, "Quantitative Flow Cytometric Evaluation of Maximal Cryptosporidium Parvum Oocyst Infectivity in a Neonate Mouse Model", Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Volume 66, Issue 10, p. 4315.
Huw. V. Smith, Rosely, A. B. Nicols, Anthony M. Grimason, "Cryptosporidium excystation and invasion: getting to the guts of the matter", Trends in Parasitology volume 21, Issue3, March 2002, pp. 133–142.
Okhuysen PC, Chappell CL, Crabb JH, Sterling CR, Dupont HL "Virulence of three distinct Cryptosporidium parvum isolates for healthy adults", Journal of Infectious Diseases, Volume 180, Issue 4, pp. 1275–128
Capet C. Kapel N, Huneau JF, Magne D, Laikuen R, Tricottet V, Benhamou Y, Tome D, Gobert JG "Cryptosporidium par-vum Infection in Suckling Rats: Impairment of Mucosal Permeability and Na+-Glucose Cotransport", Experimental Parasitology. Volume 91, Issue 2, February 1999, pp. 119–125, Water Quality Criteria, 1972"
A report of the Committee on Water Quality Criteria Environmental Studies Board, National Academy of Sciences National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C., 1972-EPA-United States Environmental Protection Agency. The United States Environmental Protection Agency Guide, 2 Swimming Pool Architects, and Building Branch at the Department for Education (DFE).
Gordon Nichols, Rachel Chalmers, lain Lake, Will Sopwith, Martyn Regan, Paul Hunter, Pippa Grenfell, Flo Harrison, Chris Lane, Cryptosporidiosis. A report on the surveillance and epidemiology of Cryptosporidium and epidemiology of Cryptosporidium infection in England and Wales
Jennifer L. Clancy, Karl G. Linden, Randi M. McCuin Cryptosporidium Occurrence in Wastewaters and Control Using UV Disinfection International Ultra-Violet Association- Volume 6, Issue 3
"In Search of Crypto's Achilles Heel", University of Georgia Research Magazine
Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments Volume 2 Swimming Pools and Similar Environments World Health Organization
Franz J. Maier "A System for Fluoridating Individual Water Supplies", American Journal of Public Health, Volume 48, Issue 6, June 1958
Fiona L. Henriquez, Thomas A. Richards, Fiona Roberts, Rima McLeod and Craig W. Roberts "The unusual mitochondrial compartment of Cryptosporidium parvum" -X. Trends in Parasitology, Volume 21, Issue 2, February 2005
James E. Amburgey, Kimberly J. Walsh, Roy R. Fielding and Michael J. Arrowood "Removal of Cryptosporidium and polystyrene microspheres from swimming pool water with sand, cartridge, and pre-coat filters", Journal of Water and Health, Volume 10, Issue 1, pp. 31–42
Paul A. Rochelle, Steve J. Upton, Beth A Montelone and Keith Woods "The response of Cryptosporidium parvum to UV light", Trends in Parasitology, Volume 21, Issue 2, February 2005, pp. 80–87
James E. Amburgey and J. Brian Anderson Disposable swim diaper retention of Cryptosporidium-sized particles on human subjects in a recreational water setting, Journal of Water and Health, Volume 9, Issue 4, September 2011, pp. 653–658
James E. Amburgey "Removal of Cryptosporidium-Sized Polystyrene Microspheres from Swimming Pool Water with a Sand Filter with and without Added Perlite Filter Media", Journal of Environmental Engineering, Volume 137, Issue 12, December 1, 2011, pp. 1205–1208
J. Lepage P. Rouvroy D, Vandepitte, J "Cryptosporidium spp., a frequent cause of diarrhea in Central Africa Bogaerts", Journal of Clinical Microbiology, Volume 20, Issue 5, November 1984, pp. 874–876
Thulin JD, Kuhlenschmidt MS, Rolsma MD, Current WL, Gelberg HB "An intestinal xenograft model for Cryptosporidium parvum infection". Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana 61801, Infection and Immunity, Volume 62, Issue 1, January 1994, pp. 329–331
"Neutralization of cryptosporidium parvum sporozoites by immunoglobulin and non-immunoglobulin components in serum-Hill", BD. Dawson AM, Blewett, DA, Research in Veterinary Science, Volume 54, Issue 3, May 1993, pp. 356–360
Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh, "Characterization of cyclophosphamide-rat model of cryptosporidiosis", Rehg JE, Hancock ML, Woodmansee DB., Infection and Immunity Volume 55, Issue 11, November 1987, pp. 2669–2674, Comparative Medicine Division, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis Tennessee 38101
James E. Amburgey, Kimberly J. Walsh, Roy R. Fielding and Michael J. Arrowood Removal of Cryptosporidium and polystyrene microspheres from swimming pool water with sand, cartridge, and precoat filters, IWA Publishing 2012
B T Croll, C R Hayes, C J Wright, S Williams, and D. Rowlands Optimisation of pool water filtration for Cryptosporidium oocyst removal and new research Swansea University, Wales, Biofilm- A Nasty that's in your Pool! Professional Pool Operators of America, 2012
Michael Unger The Role of the Schmutzdecke in Pathogen Removal in Slow Sand and Riverbank Filtration Presenta-tions/unger_schmutzdecke.pdf, University of New Hampshire
Equipment for Swimming Pools, Spas, Hot Tubs, and Other Recreational Water Facilities. National Sanitation Foundation International Standard
Kuan Mu Yao, Mohammad T. Habibian, and Charles R. O'Melia Water and Waste Water Filtration: Concepts and Applications. Environmental Science & Technology, Volume 5, Issue 11, November 1971
Swimming pool equipment
Cleaning
Domestic robots
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5056021
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan%20State%20University%20academics
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Michigan State University academics
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Michigan State University (MSU) offers over 200 academic programs at its East Lansing, Michigan campus. MSU is well known for its academic programs in education and agriculture, and the university pioneered the studies of packaging, horticulture and music therapy. MSU has one of the premier hospitality schools in the United States, and the study abroad program is one of the largest of any university in the nation, offering more than 300 programs in more than 60 countries on all continents, including Antarctica. MSU's Office of the University Ombudsperson is the oldest continually operating ombudsman office at a college or university in the country. Its most popular undergraduate majors, based on 2021 graduates, were:
Advertising (565)
Biology/Biological Sciences (477)
Psychology (402)
Exercise Science and Kinesiology (388)
Logistics, Materials, and Supply Chain Management (365)
Finance (343)
Mass Communication/Media Studies (300)
As a research university, MSU is one of 66 members of the Association of American Universities. Since its inception as a small agricultural college in 1855, MSU has put a strong emphasis on research. Research performed at MSU has greatly contributed to scientific progress and discoveries related to hybrid corn, homogenized milk, chemotherapy drug cisplatin, and Germanium isotope Ge-60.
Organization
Michigan State University is organized into 17 degree-granting colleges:
College of Agriculture and Natural Resources
College of Arts and Letters
The Eli Broad College of Business and The Eli Broad Graduate School of Management
College of Communication Arts and Sciences
College of Education
College of Engineering
College of Human Medicine
James Madison College
College of Law
Lyman Briggs College
College of Music
College of Natural Science
College of Nursing
College of Osteopathic Medicine
Residential College in the Arts and Humanities
College of Social Science
College of Veterinary Medicine
Demographics
As of the 2016-2017 academic year, Michigan State had the ninth largest student body in the United States. As of Fall 2021, there are 49,659 total students, with 38,574 undergraduates and 11,085 graduate and professional students. The undergraduate student body is 51.6% female and 48.4% male. While 73.5% of the entire student body comes from 82 out of 83 counties in the State of Michigan, also represented are all 50 states in the U.S. and about 126 other countries. MSU has about 5,670 faculty and academic staff members, and a student-faculty ratio of 16:1. Like other large American universities, MSU has a large number of teaching assistants teaching upper-level courses. This led The Princeton Review in 2005 to rank MSU eleventh worst in the category of "teaching assistants teach too many upper-level courses".
Rankings
MSU ranks 93rd in the world according to Times Higher Education World University Rankings, with U.S. News & World Report ranking MSU 83rd in their Best National University Rankings. The university has over 200 academic programs, several of them highly ranked. U.S. News ranks MSU's graduate-level Elementary Teacher Education, Secondary Teacher Education, Curriculum and Instruction, and Rehabilitation Counseling programs number one in the nation. U.S. News & World Report also ranks MSU's Nuclear Physics program number one in the country. Indeed, MSU's Physics & Astronomy department ranks highly based on the number and impact of faculty publications. In addition to this, U.S. News ranks MSU's undergraduate and graduate Supply Chain Management programs in the Eli Broad College of Business number one in the nation. The National Communication Association ranks MSU doctoral programs as the nation's most effective in educating researchers in health communication and communication technology. MSU also is ranked in the top four in several other communication fields, including international/intercultural communication, mass communication and interpersonal communication. Other programs of note include criminal justice, music therapy,<ref>"About Us: Fast Facts . MSU College of Music. Accessed April 12, 2007.</ref> hospitality business, packaging, political science, and communications. MSU's study abroad program is one of the largest of any university in the United States, with 2,832 MSU students studying abroad in 2018–19 in over 60 countries on all continents, including Antarctica.
Research
For fiscal year 2019-2020, MSU's total research expenditures were $713.2 million, and Federally funded research expenditures were $329.7 million, capping a long history of productive research. In the late 19th century, botany professor William J. Beal's research consisted of using cross-fertilization leading to hybrid corn, becoming one of the pioneers in the development of hybrid corn and doubling the yield of corn plantings at the time. In the early 20th century, MSU dairy professor and industry pioneer G. Malcolm Trout made significant progress in milk production methods, though he did not invent the processes of pasteurization nor homogenization. In the 1960s, Chemistry professor Barnett Rosenberg and colleagues Loretta VanCamp and Thomas Krigas observed that certain platinum compounds inhibited cell division, and by 1969 demonstrated that these compounds cured solid tumors, leading to the development of the leading chemotherapy drug that eventually resulted from this work, cisplatin.
Today, Michigan State continues its research with facilities such as the U.S. Department of Energy-sponsored MSU-DOE Plant Research Laboratory and a particle accelerator called the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory. The Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB)—a $730M scientific user facility funded by the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, MSU, and the State of Michigan—will advance nuclear physics and provide research opportunities for scientists and students from around the globe. FRIB is expected to be fully operational in 2022 and is ahead of schedule. In 2004, scientists at the Cyclotron produced and observed a new isotope of the element germanium, called Ge-60. In 2004, Michigan State, in consortium with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the government of Brazil, broke ground on the 4.1-meter Southern Astrophysical Research Telescope (SOAR) in the Andes Mountains of Chile. The consortium telescope will allow the Physics & Astronomy department to study galaxy formation and origins. Since 1999, MSU has been part of another consortium called the Michigan Life Sciences Corridor, which aims to develop biotechnology research in the State of Michigan. The College of Communication Arts and Sciences' Quello Center researches current issues of information and communication management. Avida, an artificial life software platform to study the evolutionary biology of self-replicating and evolving computer programs, is under active development by Charles Ofria in the Digital Evolution Lab of the Department of Computer Science and Engineering. Albert Fert, an Adjunct professor at MSU, was awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physics together with Peter Grünberg. In February 2010, a $25 million grant was awarded by the National Science Foundation to the university to develop a Bio/computational Evolution in Action Consortium (BEACON) within the Biomedical and Physical Sciences Building.
Endowment
MSU's (private, non-Morrill Act) endowment started in 1916 when the Engineering Building burned down. Automobile magnate R. E. Olds helped the program stay afloat with a gift of $100,000. While this opened the door for other types of private donations, MSU has often lagged behind peer institutions in terms of endowments. As recently as the early 1990s, MSU was last among the eleven Big Ten schools, with barely over $100 million in endowment funds. However, in the early 2000s, the university started a campaign to increase the size of the endowment. At the close of FY 2004–05, the endowment had risen to $1.325 billion, raising the university to sixth of the 11 Big Ten schools in terms of endowment; within $2M of the fifth-rated school. As of June 30, 2021, MSU's endowment had a market value of $4.4 billion.
Programs
James Madison College
James Madison College (JMC), one of MSU's three residential colleges, started in 1967. The concept behind Madison College was to merge the best attributes of a small public affairs college with the resources of a major university. Though JMC started as an experiment, it is now a well-respected liberal arts program. Madison admits about 320 students each year, holding the total student body around 1,150. Classes in the college are small, with an average of 25 students, and most instructors are tenure track faculty with PhDs or occasionally PhD candidates. As a residential college, JMC has its classrooms, offices, and student housing together in Case Hall. As part of its "living-learning" philosophy, JMC requires freshmen students to live in Case during their freshman year.
Madison offers majors, which students choose at the end of their freshman year. The four majors are Political Theory and Constitutional Democracy, International Relations, Social Relations and Policy, and Comparative Cultures and Politics. All of JMC's majors require two years of foreign language and one "field experience”, either in the form of an internship or study abroad program. James Madison College also has a fairly large amount of academically successful students. Madison boasts numerous major award recipients, including Rhodes, Truman, Fulbright and Marshall Scholars to name a few. About 15% of its students are in the Honors College and though JMC only represents about 4% of MSU graduates the college, they make up around 35% of the MSU's Phi Beta Kappa members.
Residential College in the Arts and Humanities
In 2007, MSU accepted its first class of students for the Residential College in the Arts and Humanities. Founded October 21, 2005, the college provides around 600 undergraduates with an individualized curriculum in the liberal, visual and performing arts. Though all the students will graduate with the same degree, MSU will encourage students in the college to get a second degree or specialization. The new college will be MSU's fourth residential college, after James Madison College, the Lyman Briggs School, and the now-defunct Justin Morrill College. Although early proposals named the college after Nelson Mandela, university officials have not decided on a permanent name , saying that it is still too early to fix a permanent name to the college.
RCAH classes started in Fall 2007 in the Collegiate Gothic Snyder-Phillips Residence Hall. Built in 1947, Snyder-Phillips once housed Justin Morrill College. MSU renovated the dormitory to make room for the new college. Along with a new dining hall and upgraded bathrooms, the expanded Snyder-Phillips includes a 150-seat multipurpose classroom and performing arts space, a student art gallery, a Wi-Fi-enabled coffeeshop, music practice rooms, and a language learning center.
Lyman Briggs College
The Lyman Briggs College teaches math and science within social, historical and philosophical contexts. Founded in 1967 as Lyman Briggs College, it was merged into the College of Natural Science in 1981, though the college has now regained its full college status. Many Lyman Briggs students intend to pursue careers in medicine, but the school supports 37 coordinate majors, from human biology to computer science. Lyman Briggs is one of the few colleges that lets undergraduates teach as "Learning Assistants."
MSU College of Law
The Michigan State University College of Law was founded in 1891. It was originally named Detroit College of Law, as it was the first law school founded in Detroit. Detroit College of Law became affiliated with Michigan State University in 1995 (changing its name to MSU College of Law), and began offering joint degree programs, including JD-MBA and various LLM programs. Students attending MSU College of Law come from 42 states and 13 countries, with applications tripling since affiliating with MSU in 1995. Full-time and part-time (night) students can participate in 8 concentrations, including the Trial Practice Institute. The law school publishes the Michigan State Law Review and several other journals.
The first trial practice institute in the United States, the Geoffrey Fieger Trial Practice Institute, started at Michigan State University College of Law with a grant of $4 million from Geoffrey Fieger. The Intellectual Property and Communications Law program is ranked number 1 among law schools in the Big Ten Conference, and number 17 in the United States. In addition, MSU College of Law's Indigenous Law Program offers an Indigenous Law Certificate Program.
Eli Broad College of Business
The Eli Broad College of Business has programs in accounting, information systems, finance, hospitality business, human resources management, management, marketing, and supply chain management. MSU's supply chain management program is currently ranked number one by the U.S. News & World Report. High school students who select a Broad major on the MSU Freshman application are considered for direct admission. Current undergraduate MSU students can apply to the Broad College through the secondary admission process. Applicants must fulfill specific academic and non-academic requirements as part of the application. The college has 2,066 admitted undergraduate students and 817 graduate students.The School of Hospitality Business is an industry-specific school within the business college with separate admission statistics. It started with 18 students and now has 402 admitted undergraduate students, 34 graduate students, and 13 full-time faculty members.
The Eli Broad Graduate School of Management, which Forbes'' magazine ranks 19th in the U.S., offers 3 MBA programs, as well as joint degrees with the College of Law. Other master's programs include accounting, business analytics, finance, food service business management, hospitality business management, marketing research, and supply chain management.
The college has been accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) since 1953.
Honors College
The Honors College was established in 1956 to provide more academic opportunities to MSU students, and to emphasize academic challenge and achievement. It is currently housed in Eustace-Cole Hall on the northern portion of MSU's campus.
Members of the Honors College at Michigan State University enjoy a great deal of freedom over their academic planning. They are allowed to skip prerequisites, substitute departmental courses for general education requirements, and enroll in Honors courses. Honors College members are also eligible to enroll in graduate courses. Upon graduation from the Honors College, a student receives an Honors College stole to wear at commencement.
Human Medicine
MSU opened the College of Human Medicine was founded in 1964. The main pre-clinical campus is located on Michigan State University's main campus in East Lansing, while half of the class studies at the Secchia Center in Grand Rapids. Clinical practice, undergraduate medical education during the clinical years three and four, graduate medical education, and research takes place across six campuses located in the Michigan cities of Flint, Grand Rapids, Lansing, Traverse City, Midland, and Marquette.
Osteopathic Medicine
Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine was founded in 1969 as the first osteopathic medical school on a public university campus. The main pre-clinical campus is located in East Lansing, with two additional sites in Macomb and Detroit. Clerkship medical education takes place throughout Michigan in one of the many Statewide Campus System hospitals. Basic and clinical research takes places at all sites.
Resources
Libraries
The Michigan State University Library is the 26th largest academic library system in North America with over 4.7 million volumes and 6.4 million microforms. The university library comprises nine branch locations including the main library. The Africana Collection is one of the largest of its kind in the nation with a collection of over 200,000 items. Other significant collections include The G. Robert Vincent Voice Library, the largest academic voice library in the nation, containing a collection of over 40,000 hours of spoken word recordings and includes the voices of over 100,000 persons from all walks of life, and the Russel B. Nye Popular Culture Collections which includes the extensive Comic Art Collection. This collection currently includes over 100,000 comic books, and 10,000 related books and periodicals.
Press
Michigan State University Press is the publishing arm of Michigan State University. It traces its origins to the late 1940s when the Michigan State Board of Agriculture established a publishing program at Michigan State College (MSC). President John A. Hannah made a recommendation on publications to a special committee. In response, the committee members recommended to Hannah that Michigan State College Press be created. The president acted on their advice and on July 1, 1947, the publishing house came into being. In addition to its own publishing program, Michigan State University Press distributes books from The African Books Collective, a consortium of more than 110 African small and scholarly publishers headquartered in Oxford, England. They also publish books for four Canadian publishers, as wells as books from the National Museum of Science and Industry, London.
Notes
External links
Official site
Michigan State University
University and college academics in the United States
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5056113
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC%20CSKA%20Kyiv
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FC CSKA Kyiv
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FC CSKA Kyiv () is a Ukrainian amateur football club, until 2001 of the Central Sports Club of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, which is government sponsored by the Ministry of Defense. As its farm team CSKA-2 Kyiv, in 1994–2001 it served as a farm team of CSKA Kyiv which later was renamed into Arsenal Kyiv.
After reorganization in 2001 the football section "FC CSKA Kyiv" was privately sponsored until 2009 when it withdrew from the professional league 4 September 2009 due to lack of financial support.
History
DO/SKA Kyiv (1934–1992)
The football team has founded in 1934 in Kharkiv as part of the Soviet Officers' Club (later CSKA) receiving the name UVO Kharkiv (, Ukrainian Military District – Kharkiv). During the Soviet regime the team was part of the Soviet Armed Forces sports society. At the end of 1934 the team was transferred to Kyiv during the transfer of republican capital. Its name has changed to DO Kyiv (, Officers' Club – Kyiv). In 1947–1956 the team was called ODO Kyiv (District Officers' Club – Kyiv) and in 1952, under this name, the team reached the semifinal stage of the Soviet National Cup. In 1957, the team played under the name OSK Kyiv (District Sports Club – Kyiv). The year of 1957 is considered the official year of establishment of CSK ZSU. In 1957–1959 the Kyivan army men football team was called SKVO Kyiv (Sports Club Military District – Kyiv) and in 1960–1971 – SKA Kyiv (Sports Club of Army – Kyiv). In 1972, the team moved to Chernihiv and changed its name to SK Chernihiv and had moved back to Kyiv in 1976 as SKA. In 1981–1982, the team had its last Soviet First League stint at the second level of Soviet football.
CSKA Kyiv (1992–1994)
FC CSKA Kyiv was created in place of the Soviet football team SKA Kyiv on 15 December 1992 during the reorganization of the Ukrainian military. Its first season in 1992 the club finished under its old name SKA Kyiv which was changed during the summer of 1992 to ZS – Oriana (abbr. Armed Forces – Oriana). In 1993 team changed its name to ZS – Oriana (Armed Forces – Oriana) and then to CSK ZSU (Central Sport Club of Armed Forces of Ukraine). The highest place it reached in the Ukrainian championships was the fifth in the First League.
Second team of CSKA-Borysfen & Arsenal (1994–2001)
In 1994, FC CSKA Kyiv while being in the Third League was promoted to the Second League. Borysfen Boryspil that was playing in the 1994–95 Ukrainian First League in the mid-season merged with the Central Sports Club of the Armed Forces of Ukraine under the name FC CSKA-Borysfen Kyiv. At that time the Central Sports Club of the Armed Forces of Ukraine obtained two professional teams, one in the Ukrainian First League, while the other in the Ukrainian Second League. FC CSKA Kyiv was kept as the Borysfen's second team in the Second League. In 1995 FC CSKA-Borysfen Kyiv was promoted to the Ukrainian Higher League.
Upon conclusion of the 1995–96 Ukrainian Premier League season Borysfen was omitted from the name and the reserve team, which coincidentally gained promotion to the First League now, automatically became CSKA-2 Kyiv. In 1997 Boryspil team was restored first on the Amateur Level and then gaining professional status once again.
In 2001, the Central Sports Club of the Armed Forces of Ukraine sold the club. The first team was bought by the Kyivan municipal administration and reformed into the new Kyivan club "FC Arsenal Kyiv". In turn, the second team was sold to another owner and reverted to the name of CSKA Kyiv continuing to play in the Ukrainian First League.
CSKA Kyiv
Since 2001 FC CSKA Kyiv played in the Ukrainian First League until 2008 when it was relegated to the Ukrainian Second League.
In 2009 FC CSKA Kyiv went bankrupt and the club disappeared from football.
Reformation as an amateur club (since 2013)
CSKA was only absent from football for 4 years. In 2013, the amateur football team Atlant Kyiv and the public organization "CSKA of Ukraine" established an amateur football club called CSKA Kyiv. Since 2013, the football team CSKA plays among amateur teams in the Premier Division of the Kyiv Region Championship Football League .
In 2015, CSKA Kyiv led by Viktor Ishchenko applied for the Makarov Memorial tournament. The new CSKA team is represented by the Republican College of Physical Education.
2021
The team participates in the Championship and Cup of the KSRFF (Kiev-Svyatoshinsky Regional Football Federation).
Naming history
1934 – UVO Kharkov
1934 – DO Kyiv
1947 – ODO Kyiv
1957 – OSK Kyiv
1957 – SKVO Kyiv
1960 – SKA Kyiv
1971 – SK Chernihiv
1976 – SKA Kyiv
1992 – FC ZS-Oriyana Kyiv
1993 – FC CSK ZSU Kyiv
1994 – FC CSKA Kyiv
1995 – FC CSKA-2 Kyiv
2001 – FC CSKA Kyiv
Honours
SKA Kyiv
Ukrainian SSR Championship
Winners (4): 1949, 1951, 1980, 1983
Runners up (5): 1946, 1964, 1965, 1977, 1979
Cup of the Ukrainian SSR
Winners (1): 1976
Runner up (1): 1954
Domestic competitions
Soviet Union
SKA Kyiv
{|class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor="#efefef"
! Season
! Div.
! Pos.
! Pl.
! W
! D
! L
! GS
! GA
! P
!Domestic Cup
!colspan=2|Europe
!Notes
|-
|align=center colspan=14|UDKA Kyiv
|-bgcolor=SteelBlue
|align=center|1936
|align=center|Rep 1
|align=center|3
|align=center|4
|align=center|2
|align=center|0
|align=center|2
|align=center|5
|align=center|5
|align=center|8
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|UkrSSR
|-
|align=center colspan=14|ODO Kyiv
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1947
|align=center rowspan=4|2
|align=center|5
|align=center|24
|align=center|13
|align=center|1
|align=center|10
|align=center|56
|align=center|34
|align=center|27
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone UkrSSR
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center rowspan="2"|1948
|align=center bgcolor=silver|2
|align=center|14
|align=center|9
|align=center|4
|align=center|1
|align=center|27
|align=center|14
|align=center|22
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center|Subgroup B
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center bgcolor=tan|3
|align=center|3
|align=center|1
|align=center|0
|align=center|2
|align=center|3
|align=center|6
|align=center|2
|align=center|Final of UkrSSR
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1949
|align=center bgcolor=tan|3
|align=center|34
|align=center|20
|align=center|8
|align=center|6
|align=center|93
|align=center|34
|align=center|48
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone UkrSSR
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1950-51
|align=center colspan=13|Club is idle
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center rowspan="2"|1952
|align=center rowspan=6|2
|align=center|5
|align=center|4
|align=center|0
|align=center|3
|align=center|1
|align=center|2
|align=center|4
|align=center|3
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center|Group Baku
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|14
|align=center|8
|align=center|4
|align=center|0
|align=center|4
|align=center|13
|align=center|9
|align=center|8
|align=center|Final for 10-18 places
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1953
|align=center colspan=11|Club withdrew
|align=center|Zone 3
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1954
|align=center|11
|align=center|22
|align=center|6
|align=center|4
|align=center|12
|align=center|34
|align=center|45
|align=center|16
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 3
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1955
|align=center bgcolor=tan|3
|align=center|30
|align=center|14
|align=center|8
|align=center|8
|align=center|44
|align=center|27
|align=center|36
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 1
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1956
|align=center|6
|align=center|34
|align=center|15
|align=center|9
|align=center|10
|align=center|43
|align=center|27
|align=center|39
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 1
|-
|align=center colspan=14|OSK Kyiv / SKVO Kyiv
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1957
|align=center rowspan=2|2
|align=center|8
|align=center|34
|align=center|14
|align=center|9
|align=center|11
|align=center|42
|align=center|36
|align=center|37
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 2
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1958
|align=center|8
|align=center|30
|align=center|11
|align=center|9
|align=center|10
|align=center|44
|align=center|38
|align=center|31
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 3
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1959-60
|align=center colspan=13|Club is idle
|-
|align=center colspan=14|SKA Kyiv
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center rowspan="2"|1961
|align=center rowspan="4"|2
|align=center|12
|align=center|36
|align=center|11
|align=center|11
|align=center|14
|align=center|45
|align=center|41
|align=center|33
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center|Ukrainian Zone 2
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|24
|align=center|2
|align=center|0
|align=center|1
|align=center|1
|align=center|3
|align=center|6
|align=center|1
|align=center|Ukrainian Final for 23 place
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center rowspan="2"|1962
|align=center bgcolor=tan|3
|align=center|24
|align=center|10
|align=center|10
|align=center|4
|align=center|39
|align=center|21
|align=center|30
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center|Ukrainian Zone 2
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|10
|align=center|10
|align=center|5
|align=center|1
|align=center|4
|align=center|18
|align=center|17
|align=center|11
|align=center bgcolor=pink|Ukrainian Final for 7–17 places, League Reorganization
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1963
|align=center rowspan="5"|3
|align=center|17
|align=center|38
|align=center|16
|align=center|12
|align=center|10
|align=center|54
|align=center|26
|align=center|44
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Ukrainian Zone 1
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center rowspan="2"|1964
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|30
|align=center|21
|align=center|4
|align=center|5
|align=center|55
|align=center|19
|align=center|46
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Ukrainian Zone 2
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center bgcolor=silver|2
|align=center|10
|align=center|8
|align=center|0
|align=center|2
|align=center|15
|align=center|8
|align=center|16
|align=center|Ukrainian Final for 1–6 places
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center rowspan="2"|1965
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|30
|align=center|22
|align=center|4
|align=center|4
|align=center|65
|align=center|22
|align=center|48
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center |Ukrainian Zone 1
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center bgcolor=silver|2
|align=center|10
|align=center|7
|align=center|1
|align=center|2
|align=center|23
|align=center|16
|align=center|15
|align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Ukrainian Final for 1–6 places
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1966
|align=center rowspan="6"|2
|align=center bgcolor=silver|2
|align=center|34
|align=center|17
|align=center|7
|align=center|10
|align=center|42
|align=center|36
|align=center|41
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 2
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center rowspan="2"|1967
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|38
|align=center|20
|align=center|11
|align=center|7
|align=center|47
|align=center|27
|align=center|51
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center|Zone 2
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center bgcolor=tan|3
|align=center|4
|align=center|0
|align=center|2
|align=center|2
|align=center|3
|align=center|6
|align=center|2
|align=center|Final for 1–3 places
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1968
|align=center bgcolor=silver|2
|align=center|40
|align=center|23
|align=center|11
|align=center|6
|align=center|58
|align=center|23
|align=center|57
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 1
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1969
|align=center bgcolor=silver|2
|align=center|42
|align=center|18
|align=center|16
|align=center|8
|align=center|51
|align=center|30
|align=center|52
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 3
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1970
|align=center|19
|align=center|42
|align=center|11
|align=center|10
|align=center|21
|align=center|39
|align=center|50
|align=center|32
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1971
|align=center rowspan="1"|3
|align=center|17
|align=center|50
|align=center|15
|align=center|17
|align=center|18
|align=center|43
|align=center|44
|align=center|47
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 1
|-
|}
SK Chernihiv
{|class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor="#efefef"
! Season
! Div.
! Pos.
! Pl.
! W
! D
! L
! GS
! GA
! P
!Domestic Cup
!colspan=2|Europe
!Notes
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center colspan=14|Moved to Chernihiv instead of dissolved FC Desna Chernihiv
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1972
|align=center rowspan="4"|3
|align=center|10
|align=center|46
|align=center|19
|align=center|14
|align=center|13
|align=center|59
|align=center|44
|align=center|52
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 1
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1973
|align=center|11
|align=center|44
|align=center|18
|align=center|8
|align=center|18
|align=center|63
|align=center|56
|align=center|38
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 1
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1974
|align=center|6
|align=center|38
|align=center|17
|align=center|9
|align=center|12
|align=center|63
|align=center|46
|align=center|43
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 6
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1975
|align=center|4
|align=center|32
|align=center|12
|align=center|13
|align=center|7
|align=center|41
|align=center|33
|align=center|37
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 6
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center colspan=14|Moved back to Kyiv
|-
|}
SKA Kyiv
{|class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor="#efefef"
! Season
! Div.
! Pos.
! Pl.
! W
! D
! L
! GS
! GA
! P
!colspan=2|Domestic Cup
!Notes
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1976
|align=center rowspan="6"|3
|align=center|11
|align=center|38
|align=center|12
|align=center|11
|align=center|15
|align=center|36
|align=center|44
|align=center|35
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 6
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1977
|align=center bgcolor=silver|2
|align=center|44
|align=center|26
|align=center|11
|align=center|7
|align=center|63
|align=center|32
|align=center|63
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 2
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1978
|align=center bgcolor=tan|3
|align=center|44
|align=center|23
|align=center|14
|align=center|7
|align=center|71
|align=center|29
|align=center|60
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 2
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1979
|align=center bgcolor=silver|2
|align=center|46
|align=center|26
|align=center|12
|align=center|8
|align=center|65
|align=center|32
|align=center|64
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Zone 2
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center rowspan="2"|1980
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|44
|align=center|28
|align=center|9
|align=center|7
|align=center|83
|align=center|33
|align=center|65
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Q Finals (Zone 5)
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|4
|align=center|2
|align=center|2
|align=center|0
|align=center|8
|align=center|5
|align=center|6
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Promoted (Final 3)
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1981
|align=center rowspan="2"|2
|align=center|17
|align=center|46
|align=center|16
|align=center|10
|align=center|20
|align=center|59
|align=center|71
|align=center|42
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1982
|align=center|21
|align=center|42
|align=center|5
|align=center|10
|align=center|27
|align=center|31
|align=center|81
|align=center|20
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center rowspan="2"|1983
|align=center rowspan="9"|3
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|50
|align=center|28
|align=center|16
|align=center|6
|align=center|91
|align=center|49
|align=center|72
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center|Zone 6
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center bgcolor=tan|3
|align=center|4
|align=center|1
|align=center|0
|align=center|3
|align=center|6
|align=center|7
|align=center|2
|align=center|Zone 6, Final 1
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center rowspan="2"|1984
|align=center bgcolor=tan|3
|align=center|24
|align=center|10
|align=center|8
|align=center|6
|align=center|38
|align=center|22
|align=center|28
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center|Zone 6, 1st Group
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|4
|align=center|36
|align=center|19
|align=center|7
|align=center|10
|align=center|65
|align=center|37
|align=center|45
|align=center|Zone 6, finals
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center rowspan="2"|1985
|align=center bgcolor=tan|3
|align=center|26
|align=center|11
|align=center|10
|align=center|5
|align=center|38
|align=center|28
|align=center|32
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center|Zone 6, 1st Group
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|4
|align=center|40
|align=center|19
|align=center|11
|align=center|10
|align=center|62
|align=center|46
|align=center|49
|align=center|Zone 6, finals
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center rowspan="2"|1986
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|26
|align=center|14
|align=center|6
|align=center|6
|align=center|39
|align=center|21
|align=center|34
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center rowspan="2"|
|align=center|Zone 6, 2nd Group
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center bgcolor=tan|3
|align=center|40
|align=center|20
|align=center|9
|align=center|11
|align=center|65
|align=center|42
|align=center|49
|align=center|Zone 6, finals
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1987
|align=center|27
|align=center|52
|align=center|11
|align=center|15
|align=center|26
|align=center|41
|align=center|67
|align=center|37
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated
|-bgcolor=SteelBlue
|align=center rowspan="2"|1988
|align=center rowspan="4"|4th
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|22
|align=center|15
|align=center|4
|align=center|3
|align=center|55
|align=center|16
|align=center|34
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|to Final group
|-bgcolor=SteelBlue
|align=center|4
|align=center|5
|align=center|1
|align=center|2
|align=center|2
|align=center|10
|align=center|8
|align=center|4
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=SteelBlue
|align=center rowspan="2"|1989
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|24
|align=center|18
|align=center|4
|align=center|2
|align=center|56
|align=center|15
|align=center|40
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|to Final group
|-bgcolor=SteelBlue
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|5
|align=center|3
|align=center|1
|align=center|1
|align=center|13
|align=center|6
|align=center|7
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Promoted (Finals)
|-bgcolor=SkyBlue
|align=center|1990
|align=center rowspan="2"|3rd (lower)
|align=center|11
|align=center|36
|align=center|14
|align=center|4
|align=center|18
|align=center|40
|align=center|41
|align=center|32
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=SkyBlue
|align=center|1991
|align=center|21
|align=center|50
|align=center|11
|align=center|20
|align=center|19
|align=center|48
|align=center|60
|align=center|42
|align=center|Ukr
|align=center| finals
|align=center|fall of USSR
|-
|}
Ukraine
CSKA Kyiv
{|class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor="#efefef"
! Season
! Div.
! Pos.
! Pl.
! W
! D
! L
! GS
! GA
! P
!Domestic Cup
!colspan=2|Europe
!Notes
|-
|align=center colspan=14|SKA Kyiv
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1992
|align=center|2nd "A"
|align=center|14
|align=center|26
|align=center|3
|align=center|3
|align=center|20
|align=center|14
|align=center|45
|align=center|9
|align=center|1/32 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated
|-
|align=center colspan=14|ZS Oriyana / CSK ZSU
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1992–93
|align=center|3rd
|align=center|18
|align=center|34
|align=center|9
|align=center|7
|align=center|18
|align=center|27
|align=center|50
|align=center|25
|align=center|1/64 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated
|-bgcolor=SkyBlue
|align=center|1993–94
|align=center|3rd (lower)
|align=center|11
|align=center|34
|align=center|14
|align=center|4
|align=center|16
|align=center|45
|align=center|42
|align=center|32
|align=center|Did not qualify
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|CSK ZSU Kyiv
|-
|align=center colspan=14|CSCA Kyiv
|-bgcolor=SkyBlue
|align=center|1994–95
|align=center|3rd (lower)
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|42
|align=center|32
|align=center|5
|align=center|5
|align=center|81
|align=center|28
|align=center|101
|align=center|1/32 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Promoted
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|1995–96
|align=center|3rd "A"
|align=center bgcolor=gold|1
|align=center|40
|align=center|27
|align=center|7
|align=center|9
|align=center|61
|align=center|27
|align=center|89
|align=center|1/16 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center bgcolor=lightgreen|Promoted
|-
|align=center colspan=14|CSKA-2 Kyiv
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1996–97
|align=center rowspan="5"|2nd
|align=center|19
|align=center|46
|align=center|15
|align=center|9
|align=center|22
|align=center|37
|align=center|56
|align=center|54
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1997–98
|align=center|12
|align=center|42
|align=center|18
|align=center|5
|align=center|19
|align=center|56
|align=center|44
|align=center|59
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1998–99
|align=center|11
|align=center|38
|align=center|14
|align=center|10
|align=center|14
|align=center|45
|align=center|48
|align=center|52
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|1999–00
|align=center|5
|align=center|34
|align=center|16
|align=center|6
|align=center|12
|align=center|38
|align=center|26
|align=center|54
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|2000–01
|align=center|8
|align=center|34
|align=center|15
|align=center|1
|align=center|18
|align=center|36
|align=center|43
|align=center|46
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
|align=center colspan=14|CSKA-2 / CSKA Kyiv
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|2001–02
|align=center rowspan="7"|2nd
|align=center|14
|align=center|34
|align=center|10
|align=center|9
|align=center|15
|align=center|33
|align=center|38
|align=center|41
|align=center|1/32 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|Changed back to CSKA
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|2002–03
|align=center|14
|align=center|34
|align=center|10
|align=center|11
|align=center|13
|align=center|33
|align=center|38
|align=center|41
|align=center|1/32 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|2003–04
|align=center|11
|align=center|34
|align=center|12
|align=center|6
|align=center|16
|align=center|29
|align=center|39
|align=center|42
|align=center|1/16 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|2004–05
|align=center|7
|align=center|34
|align=center|15
|align=center|6
|align=center|13
|align=center|28
|align=center|38
|align=center|51
|align=center|1/8 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|2005–06
|align=center|15
|align=center|34
|align=center|8
|align=center|8
|align=center|18
|align=center|25
|align=center|52
|align=center|32
|align=center|1/16 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|2006–07
|align=center|16
|align=center|36
|align=center|10
|align=center|8
|align=center|18
|align=center|24
|align=center|44
|align=center|38
|align=center|1/32 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|2007–08
|align=center|19
|align=center|38
|align=center|7
|align=center|6
|align=center|25
|align=center|36
|align=center|74
|align=center|27
|align=center|1/32 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center bgcolor=pink|Relegated
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|2008–09
|align=center rowspan="2"|3rd "A"
|align=center|4
|align=center|32
|align=center|18
|align=center|3
|align=center|11
|align=center|38
|align=center|23
|align=center|57
|align=center|1/16 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=PowderBlue
|align=center|2009–10
|align=center|-
|align=center|3
|align=center|1
|align=center|0
|align=center|2
|align=center|6
|align=center|6
|align=center|0
|align=center|1/16 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center bgcolor=lightgrey|(−3) Withdrew, results removed
|}
CSKA-2 Kyiv / CSKA-3 Kyiv / KLO Bucha
{|class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor="#efefef"
! Season
! Div.
! Pos.
! Pl.
! W
! D
! L
! GS
! GA
! P
!Domestic Cup
!colspan=2|Europe
!Notes
|-bgcolor=SteelBlue
|align=center|1995–96
|align=center|4th
|align=center|4
|align=center|6
|align=center|0
|align=center|1
|align=center|5
|align=center|1
|align=center|11
|align=center|1
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|as CSKA-2 Kyiv
|-
|align=center|1996-1999
|align=center colspan=13|Club idle
|-bgcolor=SteelBlue
|align=center|1999
|align=center|4th
|align=center|3
|align=center|10
|align=center|4
|align=center|1
|align=center|5
|align=center|10
|align=center|18
|align=center|13
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|as CSKA-3 Kyiv
|-
|align=center|1999-2003
|align=center colspan=13|Club idle
|-bgcolor=SteelBlue
|align=center rowspan=3|2003
|align=center rowspan=3|4th
|align=center|2
|align=center|10
|align=center|5
|align=center|2
|align=center|3
|align=center|16
|align=center|12
|align=center|17
|align=center rowspan=3|
|align=center rowspan=3|
|align=center rowspan=3|
|align=center|as KLO-CSKA Bucha
|-bgcolor=SteelBlue
|align=center|5
|align=center|8
|align=center|2
|align=center|2
|align=center|4
|align=center|5
|align=center|10
|align=center|8
|align=center rowspan=2|as KLO Bucha
|-bgcolor=SteelBlue
|align=center|4
|align=center|3
|align=center|0
|align=center|0
|align=center|3
|align=center|1
|align=center|12
|align=center|0
|}
In 1999–2000 CSKA-3 Kyiv was coached by Oleksandr Shcherbakov
CSKA Kyiv (predecessor of Arsenal Kyiv)
After being split from CSKA-Borysfen, the new CSKA was owned by company Kyiv–Donbas until in 2001 it was sold to the mayor of Kyiv, Oleksandr Omelchenko.
{|class="wikitable"
|-bgcolor="#efefef"
! Season
! Div.
! Pos.
! Pl.
! W
! D
! L
! GS
! GA
! P
!Domestic Cup
!colspan=2|Europe
!Notes
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|Previous
|align=center colspan=13|Refer to FC Boryspil
|-
|align=center|1995–96
|align=center rowspan="6"|1st
|align=center|4
|align=center|34
|align=center|15
|align=center|11
|align=center|8
|align=center|47
|align=center|27
|align=center|56
|align=center|1/16 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|as CSKA-Borysfen Kyiv
|-
|align=center|1996–97
|align=center|11
|align=center|30
|align=center|9
|align=center|8
|align=center|13
|align=center|33
|align=center|35
|align=center|35
|align=center bgcolor=#A67D3D|1/2 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
|align=center|1997–98
|align=center|13
|align=center|30
|align=center|9
|align=center|6
|align=center|15
|align=center|30
|align=center|35
|align=center|33
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runner-up
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
|align=center|1998–99
|align=center|7
|align=center|30
|align=center|11
|align=center|10
|align=center|9
|align=center|37
|align=center|35
|align=center|43
|align=center|1/8 finals
|align=center|CWC
|align=center|1st round
|align=center|
|-
|align=center|1999–00
|align=center|10
|align=center|30
|align=center|9
|align=center|8
|align=center|13
|align=center|31
|align=center|36
|align=center|35
|align=center|1/4 finals
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-
|align=center|2000–01
|align=center|6
|align=center|26
|align=center|10
|align=center|10
|align=center|6
|align=center|30
|align=center|23
|align=center|40
|align=center bgcolor=silver|Runner-up
|align=center|
|align=center|
|align=center|
|-bgcolor=LightCyan
|align=center|After
|align=center colspan=13|Refer to FC Arsenal Kyiv
|}
European competitions
UEFA Cup Winners Cup
UEFA Europa League
Football kits and sponsors
Owners
prior to 2001 – Central Sports Club of Armed Forces of Ukraine (state financed)
2001–2009 – private owner
since 2013 – CSKA of Ukraine (public organization)
Notes and references
See also
FC Arsenal Kyiv
FC Borysfen Boryspil
External links
Public Organization CSKA Kyiv
Unofficial site of the Army club
Official website of CSK ZSU
About the Sports Committee of Ministry of Defense
Football clubs in Kyiv
Armed Forces sports society (Ukraine)
Military association football clubs in Ukraine
1934 establishments in Ukraine
2013 establishments in Ukraine
2021 establishments in Ukraine
Association football clubs established in 1934
Association football clubs established in 2013
Association football clubs established in 2021
|
5056134
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brave%20Command%20Dagwon
|
Brave Command Dagwon
|
is a Japanese anime series begun in 1996, created by Takara and Sunrise under the direction of Tomomi Mochizuki (who also wrote episodes for the show under the penname Go Sakamoto) and was the seventh and penultimate entry in the Brave (Yūsha) franchise.
Earth is the target of the former Sargasso prisoners who seize control of Sargasso and attack our planet - to counter this, alien officer Brave Alien selects five (and then later seven as the series progresses) teenage boys from Earth to receive the wrist-worn DagCommanders that transform them into the series' title team, the human equivalent to "brave" warriors.
Drawing inspiration from anime franchises which feature transforming heroes as well as anime stock footage hero transformation sequences, the selected teenage protagonists transform into special battle suits, by activating their DagCommanders' transformation function with the transformation call "Try Dagwon", which grant them pseudo-elemental powers and attacks as well as protection, weapons, tools and amplified physical power. If that is not enough, they have personal basic mecha at their disposal which can turn into humanoid forms as a part of , a process that sees a character (hero, villain, or otherwise) merge with their mecha not in the sense of a physical merger but in a style where the character transforms their body into anti-matter, like they became an illusion or ghost, and becomes an embodiment for their mecha's humanoid transformation, the mecha serving also as a way of assuming a mecha form. If even greater power is needed, the heroes can merge with additional support units (or perhaps each other) to strengthen their Fusion Combination transformations by forming a physical mecha combination.
In addition to the title protagonists, other friendly beings soon arrive on Earth to aid their efforts of fighting Sargasso - for example: Gunkid, whose own transformations include a tank, jet or the hand-held , was initially on Sargasso's side before he decides to support the Dagwon team, and Lian, a robot that transforms into a sword who later becomes Gunkid's teacher.
The protagonists also have , a base which En, one of the Dagwon team's members, uses one ability of: , a form of Fusion Combination which is slightly stronger than the basic kind as a user assimilates DagBase, transforming themselves and DagBase into .
Composition
This series consists of 48 episodes, first aired on Nagoya TV from February 3, 1996, to January 25 next year. Its success, despite children being put off by its male bishōnen superhero theme and instead finding an audience in women who are fond of male bishōnen main characters (especially male bishōnen protagonists and male bishōnen superheroes), warrants the two-episode O.V.A. , which came out in September 1997. The show is currently not licensed in the US as is the status with all the other entries in the Brave franchise, except the franchises' last incarnation to span an anime presentation:The King of Braves GaoGaiGar.
Team
Voiced by Kōichi Tōchika
The fire warrior.
The stereotypical hot-headed, juvenile-delinquent-like and determined type. Reckless, short-tempered and stubborn to a fault, but also brave, fearless and a loyal friend. En often locks heads with Kai, who just so happens to be his superior in school. He develops a close friendship with Ryu in the beginning of the series. En's basic mecha is Fire Stratos (a Lancia Stratos HF police car). His first auxiliary mecha is Fire Jumbo, based on a Boeing 747 jumbo jet (Fire Jumbo is equipped with two sub-ordinates: Fire Ladder, based on a Morita ladder fire truck and Fire Rescue, based on a Toyota HiMedic (H100) ambulance). His second auxiliary mecha is Fire Shovel, based on an excavator - from Fire Shovel's debut (number 31) onwards, Fire Jumbo, after restoration, becomes used less to the extent of not being used at all, instead used only for combination into Super Fire Dagwon.
Voiced by Takehito Koyasu
The speed warrior.
Kai is head of the student council and practitioner of Kendo. He is almost always seen carrying a shinai which he uses to enforce the rules at school. He also tries to remind the team of their job and that it's not only fun and games, but does not always succeed since his strict, no-nonsense personality tends to rub them the wrong way. Kai's mecha is Turbo Liner which is based on a 300 Series Shinkansen.
Voiced by Jin Yamanoi
The weapons warrior.
Shin is a luckless flirt with girls and has an alarming tendency to get shot down whenever he talks to one. In spite of this, he is friendly and good-natured. He is also skilled at martial arts, as seen when he uses Judo to stop a purse-snatching in the first episode. Shin's vehicle is Armor Liner, based on an E1 Series Shinkansen.
Voiced by Hiro Yūki
The sky warrior.
Shy and a bit geeky, Yoku is the brains of the team. He is very knowledgeable and computer savvy. He also likes to study strange and unusual things. Yoku's vehicle is Wing Liner, based on a 400 Series Shinkansen.
Voiced by Atsushi Kisaichi
The shadow warrior.
Calm, mysterious and a puzzle even to his team members. He's the only one to have "subordinates": transforming beast mecha stored in the form of cards. He was the last of the team to achieve his mecha fusion. Ryu develops a close friendship with En in the beginning of the series. Ryu is one of two members of the team who does not gain any new after-Fusion-Combination forms after gaining one. Ryu's basic mecha is Shadow Jet, based on an F/A-18 Hornet.
Voiced by Hisao Egawa
The ground warrior.
Geki has a rivalry with En, who injured his arm in a fight at Geki's old school. He is even more short tempered and impatient than En and has a serious crush on Maria. Geki had something of a misguided view on being a hero at first, but eventually became a valuable member. His Fusion Combination transformation combines with Kai's, Shin's and Yoku's own to assemble the super form of an already existing mecha combination. Geki's vehicle is Drill Liner, based on a JNR Class C62 steam locomotive (while Drill Liner is designed as a steam engine, it is unknown if it is based on either a complete steam engine which actually steams or a steam engine that is an electricity-powered visual replica model and which steams only for display reasons - this is due to a steam engine being used as the template of a mecha).
Voiced by Kappei Yamaguchi
The thunder warrior.
An alien officer who appears later in the series. He is very good-looking, which earns him the unwanted advances of practically every female student at the boys' school. Rai hates the attention and it easily embarrasses and flusters him. Like En, his Fusion Combination transformation is a stand-alone mecha and does not combine with the others. His auxiliary mecha Thunder Shuttle's transformation into the body of Thunder Dagwon is based on NASA space shuttle. Like Ryu, Rai doesn't combine with any other mechs to achieve an upgrade. Rai's basic vehicle is Thunder Bike, based on a sidecar motorcycle .
Allies
Humans
Voiced by Miki Nagasawa
En's classmate. Because she is very interested in occultism, she is often implicated into the commotion of aliens. She and En have been friends since they were 9 years old, they often quarreled with each other. But she gradually came to love him.
Voiced by Naomi Nagasawa
Maria's younger brother. His nickname is "Gaku". Because he is very interested in Dagwons, he is often implicated into the commotion of aliens, too.
Voiced by Yuko Mizutani
A high school reporter trying to find out the identity of Dagwon and later becomes Shin's love interest despite her not liking him and having affection for his alter ego DagArmor.
Voiced by Kumiko Nishihara
A junior high student and a friend of Yoku.
Voiced by Hiroko Konishi
Ryu's younger sister. She has the power to foresee the future by dream, and predicts the revival of Fire Jumbo.
Voiced by Yū Shimaka
The principal of Sankai High School.
Voiced by Ken Shiroyama
The vice-principal of Sankai High School.
Voiced by Mika Kanai
Kai's younger sister who is more lean-back than her brother. She only appears in the OVA.
Aliens
Voiced by Jōji Nakata
An alien police officer who chooses the team's members. He is killed by Mado and Gedo in retaliation for killing Hido.
Voiced by Yutaka Hirose
A warrior whose people, the Sword Aliens, were exterminated by Arch Seijin a long time ago. His transformation from humanoid is a sword. He joins forces with the title protagonists after they prove themselves regarding their worth to him and he learns a lesson about personal revenge vendettas - common ground is established.
Voiced by Miki Nagasawa
Formerly named Gundroid T96, a young artillery youth who used to be corrupted by Sargasso, but eventually turns to the side of good by joining Brave Command Dagwon - Lian, as such, proceeds to become Gunkid's teacher. His transformations from humanoid are a jet, a tank and the (which can be used by both Fire Dagwon (Gunkid sends out a waist-mounted connecter when Fire Dagwon is the user - Gunkid attaches his Ifinity Cannon transformation onto this connector. The power of the Cannon is so strong that when used by Fire Dagwon, a recoil forces the user back) and Power Dagwon (Power Dagwon's all-purpose Power Arm which is mounted on the left upper arm goes into the ground so that Power Dagwon, when the Infinity Cannon fires, is not forced back. Power Dagwon uses an in-built connector stored in the right shoulder).
Voiced by Yumi Fukamizu
An alien Dagwon officer and a galaxy-elemented warrior. Luna comes to Earth in the middle of the series and creates Fire Shovel after Fire Jumbo's temporary destruction. She is kidnapped afterward and brainwashed by Hido into his bidding. Kai is able to free her after he tries to kill Hido. She is also shown to have feelings for him. She has no basic (and therefore Fusion Combination) and ehancement mecha (and therefore physical mecha combination) like the others, but flies a fighter ship instead. She wields a lipstick-beam rapier in her DagTector armor.
Voiced by Tomoko Ishimura
The OVA's title character. Although shy-natured he is of a race of crystal-like aliens called the Deandozol that drain the energy of stars unless they are killed in juvenile form. In order to stop him, Kenta himself uses and merges the Dagwon team's powers into a new humanoid mecha which is used for his own destruction.
Major antagonists
Arch Alien
The first major villain in the series. He is responsible for exterminating the Sword Aliens a long time ago. He wears black knight-like armour and is revealed to look human underneath his armour when he is defeated by Lian.
Warugaia Seijin Brothers
Hido
Voiced by Masahito Yabe
First-appearing in his human disguise, crashing into Luna's ship as she is leaving earth, kidnapping and then brainwashing her into doing his bidding. He tries to have her kill Kai who is able to break the brainwashing. He is killed by Brave Seijin.
Gedo
Voiced by Takashi Nagasako
The muscle of the brothers. Killed by Power Dagwon & Lian
Mado
Voiced by Koji Ishii
The leader of the three. Killed by Super Fire Dagwon with Lian and Gunkid
Genocide
Voiced by Ryuzaburo Otomo
He is responsible for the Sargasso prison break. His power is machine and organism possession. He manipulates the prisoners throughout the entire series when his asteroid-like body crashes into Sargosso and takes over the prison's computer system. He was thought to be killed when Sargasso was split in half by DagBase. He survives and possesses Fire Jumbo (also transforming into the body of Fire Dagwon), creating a barrier of hatred that consumes the Earth. Finally killed when En forces a combination into Super Fire Dagwon and self-destructs in space.
Minor antagonists
Sandoll Alien: Appears in episode 1. Powers include a capsule form for space travel, palm sand missiles, reformation after body part or entire body destruction and a two-or-more-Sandoll combination to form a slightly stronger Sandoll kind. Upon combination with each other they acquire the ability to shoot concentrated sand from the torso.
Zargoss Alien: There are several antagonists who spin off of or are in some way related to this Alien that appear in episodes 2, 8, 16 & 31 or exclusively in either some or at least a minimum of one of these 4 episodes:
Zargoss Soldier: Powers include super speeds, explosive saliva, invisibility, eye lasers and human disguise transformation capabilities. Reappear in Brave Saga.
Zargoss Robo: Powers include levitation, invisibility, underside energy bolts, eye, torso, and pelvis energy beams, and torso lasers.
Mognel: Appears only in episode 8. Powers include burrowing, hypnotic snoring that becomes more powerful over time, a rubbery body with a high resistance to cold, and a powerful tail. Reappears in Brave Saga.
Sister Zargoss: Appear only in episode 31. Powers include flight, acid streams from the mouth, and super speed. They are the elites of the Zargoss Seijin.
Queen Zargoss: Appears only in episode 31. Powers include eye energy bolts, an energy field, and mouth energy bolts that convert objects into stone. She is the leader and possible mother of the Zargoss Seijin.
Gallon Alien: Appears in episode 3 with an 18-episodes-later reappearance. Powers include a life-draining slime body, emitting electricity, body spears, and a high resistance to heat.
Death Pulse Alien: Appears in episode 4. Powers include levitation, circular saw top probes, and an electrical force field. This Alien has a 'Robo' relation that appears one episode before episode 4, the 4th episode being the appearance of this Alien after the Robo's first appearance:
Death Pulse Robo: Appears in episodes 3 and 4. Powers include flight, swimming, an underside drill, fast spinning, and four flamethrowers on the top of the body.
Electron Alien: Appears in episode 5. Powers include planetary travel in an orb of light, emitting electrical bolts and balls, body conversion into electricity, electricity-absorption-powered size increase, an electric force field and electric-blade-spawning from the hands.
Chaos Alien: Appears in episode 6. Powers include flight, possessing objects and reinforcing their structure, and reformation.
Guardroid: Appears in episode 7. They are the former jailer robots of Sargasso before a cosmic storm hits the prison and accidentally releases the prisoners - they are then made assistants of the antagonists. They are armed with an assault rifle.
Gososa: Appears in episode 7. Powers include flight, Guardroid storage, a black hole cell, a pair of punching arms armed with palm lasers, and a 16-tube rocket pod.
Space Locust: Appear in episode 11. Powers include sharp teeth and flight. They serve as the personal minions of Arch Alien.
Gallabird Alien: Appears in episodes 9 and 21. Powers include flight at mach 8, hurricane winds from the wings, a grapple tentacle in the forehead, and acid streams from the mouth. Reappears in Brave Saga.
Zamuza: Appear in episode 9. Powers include growth by eating, wall crawling, and mouth webs. Reappears in Brave Saga.
Killad Alien: Appears in episode 10. Powers include absorbing defeated enemies using a forehead laser to absorb their powers and teleportation.
Evolved Killad: Assumed in episode 10 with a reappearance 11 episodes later. Powers include gorilla-style strength, tiger-style agility and fangs, a tank cannon on the left shoulder, a pair of missile launchers on the right shoulder, jet-powered flight, and projectile resistance. After absorbing a destroyer class warship his new body weapons consist of machine gun turrets, a missile pod and a triple-barreled howitzer cannon while his body gains a resistance to blades.
Armor Alien: Appears in episodes 12 and 21. Powers include a ball form capable of planetary travel, burrowing and self-defense against most objects, iron consumption, thick head armor and launchable needles from the mouth. After eating enough iron it can grow launchable spikes in its ball form.
Wildy Alien: Appears in episode 13. Powers include a heat reflective sword, high jumping, and can cause illusions from his single eye.
Wildon: Appears in episode 13. Powers include flight and mouth flames. It serves as the mount for Wildy.
Rod Alien: Appears in episode 14. Powers include flight and an electric whip for each arm.
Griffin: Appears in episode 14. Powers include flight, mouth energy bolts that rival napalm, mouth sonic waves, armored wings, growth over time, a high resistance to heat, and lasers from the forehead emerald.
Succubus: Appears in episodes 15 and 21. Powers include human disguises, hypnotic eyes, extendable tentacle fingers, teleportation, electric capture rings from her staff, size changing, and mouth flames.
Phoenix Alien: Appears in episodes 17 and 21. Powers include a high body temperature, levitation, mouth flames, an egg-like regenerative core with telekinetic properties and black electric bolts, and fire absorption. Reappears in Brave Saga.
Vander Alien: Appears in episode 18. Powers include hypnotizing children and entrapping them in spheres of light, floating on top of water, tentacles in his stomach, and flight. Reappears in Brave Saga.
Drangran Alien and Drangran Spider: Appear in episode 19.
Drangran Alien's powers include extendable tentacle limbs, painful screams, and when wearing their bio-suits are armed with right wrist lasers.
Drangran Spider's only known power is emitting webs from its mouth.
Space Seed Plant: Appears in episode 19. Powers include destructive vines and acidic spores upon blooming.
Nouvelle Alien: Appear in episodes 20 and 21. Powers include a barrel-less laser pistol and flying saucers armed with jade converting energy bolts and spike missiles.
Hydron Alien: Appears in episode 21. Powers include levitation, teleportation, reviving the dead, a bone scythe, summoning wormholes, holograms, and combining with revived spirits to form a skull-like tank.
Demos: Appears in episode 22. Powers include flight, teleportation, emitting lightning bolts from his hands, a sword made of electricity, and size changing.
Mekaju Alien: Appears in episodes 23 and 24. Powers include draining the life out of surrounding plant life, a grid energy barrier, reformation, and solar radiation absorption to power the Infinity Cannon. He is the former owner of Gunkid.
Cameron Alien: Appears in episode 25. Powers include flight, shape-shifting and body bombs.
Demaka Alien: Appears in episode 26. Powers include merging into the environment, levitation, projecting images with his eye-like body, and turning into a cockroach.
Mouser Alien: Appear in episode 27. Powers include reproduction by mitosis by consuming nutrients and super speed.
Mouser Robo: Appears in episode 27. Powers include flight, a mouth tractor beam, four energy cannons on the nose, energy beams from its launchable wired arms, gun turrets around the body, armor thick enough to withstand the Infinity Cannon, stunning energy bolts from the arms, and can release a drill from said arms.
Gumopider Alien: Appears in episode 28. Powers include levitation, forehead and palm webs, solidifying clouds, wings that can control web movements, and eye lasers.
Radonpa Alien: Appears in episode 29. He possesses no known powers.
Death Cop: Appears in episode 32. Powers and tools include a slicing whip from the right wrist, a laser pistol, and Fusion Combination with his ship. He is a former Dagwon officer who turns to crime. Death Cop faces En in a fierce battle over the course of his appearance.
Death Cop Powered: The Fusion Combination of Death Cop and his ship into a mecha body form assumed during his battle with En. Powers include a three-barreled machine gun in the left wrist, high jumping, a slicing electric whip in the right wrist, an energy saber stored in the left hip, and a powerful energy cannon called the Death Buster that is similar to the Infinity Cannon.
Futtoba Alien: Appears in episode 33. Powers include levitation, weather manipulation, and hiding in a cumulonimbus cloud.
Pat Alien: Appear in episode 34. Their only known power is having a metallic armored body.
Heavy Machine Robo: Appear in episode 34. Powers include flight, four grapple claw arms, and storing metal in their canister-like body.
Patrol Machine Robo: Appears in episode 34. Its only known power is a pair of claws for arms.
Savalas Alien: Appears in episode 35. Powers include a flying orb that can manipulate water and has a high resistance to cold, swimming, and sharp claws.
Pulse Alien: Appears in episode 36. Powers include converting his body into electricity and eye beams.
Trucker Alien: Appears in episode 37. Powers include a turbine in its back used for speed and morphing into different types of trucks. Upon fully evolving he is armed with a pair of missile pods, a pair of machine guns on h its face, a cannon on its "scalp", and remote tires armed with a pair of spikes.
Ashura Shura: Appears in episode 38. Powers include a human disguise, telepathy, six spider legs from the back, and extendable arms.
Zelma Alien: Appears in episode 41. Powers include flight, weather manipulation, tentacles that emit black energy bolts, a force field capable of emitting energy beams strong enough to obliterate mountains in one hit, and energy shockwaves and hurricane-force winds from below the head section.
Bomber Alien: Appears in episode 43. Powers include flight, spawning explosions around him, and a nuclear bomb within his body.
Battle Robo: Appear in episode 44. Powers include flight and a beam machine gun.
Episodes
External links
勇者指令ダグオン (Japanese) - Sunrise's Brave website's official Brave Command Dagwon index
勇者指令ダグオン 水晶の瞳の少年 OVA (Japanese) - official Brave website page for the OVA
1996 anime television series debuts
1997 anime OVAs
Sunrise (company)
Super robot anime and manga
Brave series
|
5057078
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard%20Tomic
|
Bernard Tomic
|
Bernard Tomic (; , ; born 21 October 1992) is an Australian professional tennis player whose career-high ranking was world No. 17. As a junior, Tomic enjoyed a successful career in which he won an Orange Bowl title and two junior Grand Slam singles titles, the 2008 Australian Open and 2009 US Open. As a pro, he has won the 2013 Apia International Sydney, 2014 Claro Open Colombia, 2015 Claro Open Colombia and the 2018 Chengdu Open. He made a final appearance at the 2016 Acapulco Telcel and a quarterfinal appearance at the 2011 Wimbledon Championships, as well as at the 2015 BNP Paribas Open, the 2015 Shanghai Masters, and the 2016 Western & Southern Open.
In January 2018, Tomic was revealed as a celebrity contestant on the fourth season of the Australian version of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! On 30 January 2018, Tomic withdrew from the competition after three days, owing to feeling uncomfortable and depressed.
Throughout his career, Tomic has been known for his controversial behaviour, including legal issues, altercations with officials and fans, and accusations of tanking during events.
Personal life
Tomic was born in Stuttgart, Germany, on 21 October 1992. Tomic's parents, Bosnian Croat father (from Tuzla), John (Ivica) and Bosnian mother, Adisa (from Brčko), left Socialist Yugoslavia several years before his birth. In an interview, Tomic stated that his parents "have a Croatian background". They had both been working in Germany when Tomic was born. The family migrated to Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia in 1996 when Tomic was three years old. His younger sister Sara is also a professional tennis player. Tomic was educated at Southport State School during his primary school years before taking up a sports scholarship at The Southport School for high school.
In 2018 he became vegan.
Junior career
Before Tomic began competing on the ITF junior tour he stated that he would become the number 1 tennis player in the world, win all the Grand Slams and become Australia's youngest Davis Cup player. He also claimed he would achieve these goals by attaining the serve of Goran Ivanišević, the mind of Pete Sampras, the groundstrokes of Roger Federer and the heart of Lleyton Hewitt. In 2004, 2006 and 2007 respectively, Tomic won the 12s, 14s and 16s Orange Bowl titles – one of the most prestigious events on the junior tour.
Playing his first singles event on the ITF junior tour in 2006, he qualified for the Sunsmart 18 and Under Canterbury Championships in New Zealand and went on to win the title at 13 years of age, defeating Dae-Soung Oh of Korea in the final. His success continued in the following weeks, winning the next three tournaments he played in, giving him a 25 match winning streak. He was able to extend this streak to 26 at the Riad 21 junior tournament in Morocco before falling in the round of 16 to future junior world number 1 and ATP top 50 player Ričardas Berankis.
Tomic gained direct acceptance into his first junior Grand Slam at the 2007 Australian Open junior boys tournament at 14 years of age, the youngest player to ever gain direct entry. He came out victorious in round 1 against the sixth seed José-Roberto Velasco. In the second round he was defeated by Kevin Botti 6–3, 3–6, 6–3. In attendance for the match were Australian tennis greats Tony Roche, John Newcombe and Pat Rafter. In his second junior Grand Slam tournament at the 2007 French Open he made his way through qualifying to reach the main draw where he triumphed in the first round. In the second round he would lose to Ričardas Berankis 6–2, 6–3.
Tomic did not play in another tournament until August 2007, where he won the Oceania Closed Junior Championships without dropping a set. He was unable to continue his dominance at the Junior US Open, falling in the Round of 16 to future top 15 ATP player Jerzy Janowicz. Following the US Open, Tomic picked up a second title in 2007 by winning the G1 in Kentucky. He would then travel to Italy where he compiled an undefeated record in the Junior Davis Cup and lead Australia to victory in the final against Argentina with teammates Mark Verryth and Alex Sanders. Tomic finished 2007 with a junior world ranking of 23.
Tomic began 2008 by winning Nottinghill, an Australian ITF Junior event in Melbourne without dropping a set. Two days later he started his campaign for the Australian Open Juniors title as the 5th seed. He went on to win the event, defeating the 25th, 11th, 8th and 1st seed before beating 10th seed Tsung-Hua Yang of Taiwan in the final. His win at the age of 15 made him the youngest winner of the Australian Open Junior Boys' Championships in the Open Era.
Four months later, at Roland Garros, Tomic, the number one seed, fell in the quarter-finals to Guido Pella of Argentina, losing in two sets. At Wimbledon, Tomic was again the number one seed, but fell in the semi-finals to Henri Kontinen. In a notable quarter final match, he played another rising star, Henrique Cunha of Brazil, and came through victorious in three sets. He also finished runner-up in the Wimbledon Junior Boys' doubles with fellow Australian junior Matt Reid. At the 2008 US Open, Tomic lost in the first round of the boys' singles to qualifier Devin Britton of the United States in three sets, who would go on to lose in the final.
Tomic returned to junior competition at the 2009 French Open where he reached the Round of 16 in the boys' singles tournament and a month later once again reached the semi-finals at Wimbledon. At the 2009 US Open, however, Tomic won the junior grand slam title, defeating Chase Buchanan of the United States. The 2009 US Open was his last junior tournament. Despite winning two junior grand slams Tomic's highest junior ranking was number 2 in the world.
Junior Grand Slam results - Singles:
Australian Open: W (2008)
French Open: QF (2008)
Wimbledon: SF (2008, 2009)
US Open: W (2009)
ITF Junior finals (11)
Singles: 9 (9 titles)
Doubles: 2 (2 runners-up)
Professional career
2008–2009
At the age of 15 Tomic began competing in professional events. Tomic began 2008 at the Australian Open where he was given a place in the qualifying draw. He defeated Yeu-Tzuoo Wang of Chinese Taipei in the first round in three sets after saving five match points but lost to Prakash Amritraj in the next round.
In August, Tomic reached the first professional final of his career at an F2 tournament in Indonesia. He defeated Kittipong Wachiramanowong, Hsien-Yin Peng, Peerakiat Siriluethaiwattana and Kento Takeuchi en route to the final without dropping a set before losing to Yūichi Sugita in three sets. In December, Tomic competed at a F12 tournament in Australia where he defeated fellow Australian James O'Brien in the first round before controversially walking off court whilst down a set and 3–1 against Marinko Matosevic in his next match. Towards the end of 2008, Tomic stated that he would no longer compete in junior tournaments and instead focus solely on senior tournaments. In March 2009, the ITF suspended Tomic from playing ITF professional tournaments for a month.
In January 2009, Tomic was granted a wildcard into his first ATP event, the Brisbane International, where he lost to Fernando Verdasco in the first round. He was also granted a wildcard into the 2009 Australian Open, drawing Potito Starace in the first round. He won the match after saving two set points in the fourth set tiebreak and thus became the youngest ever male tennis player to win a senior Australian Open Grand Slam tournament match. In the second round he lost to Gilles Müller in four sets. Tomic also contested the mixed doubles event with fellow 16-year-old Australian Monika Wejnert but the pair lost to the Canadian pairing of Aleksandra Wozniak and Daniel Nestor in the first round.
Tomic received wildcards into Australian Challenger tournaments in Burnie and Melbourne held in February. He reached the quarter-finals in Burnie before winning his first Challenger title in Melbourne at the age of 16. He later received a wildcard into the 2009 French Open but was easily beaten by Philipp Kohlschreiber in the first round.
Following the defeat, Tomic decided to return to the junior tour to contest the Grand Slam tournaments and reached the quarterfinals of the French Open Junior tournament. At Wimbledon, Tomic lost in the final round of qualifying to Édouard Roger-Vasselin. He contested the junior tournament and reached the semi-finals before being losing to the eventual champion, Andrey Kuznetsov. In September, Tomic won the 2009 US Open Junior singles title by defeating Chase Buchanan in the final. In December 2009, Tomic lost in the final of the Australian open wildcard playoff to Nick Lindahl. He finished the year as the World No. 286.
2010
Tomic began the 2010 season by competing in the 2010 Brisbane International where he lost in the first round to qualifier Alexandr Dolgopolov. He won the World Tennis Challenge for the Australasia team, defeating Gilles Simon of team Europe, Radek Štěpánek of the Internationals team and Robby Ginepri of the Americas team. At 2010 Kooyong Classic Tomic defeated World No. 3 Novak Djokovic in three sets (6–4, 3–6, 7–5). Despite losing in the wildcard playoff, Tomic was granted a main draw wildcard for the 2010 Australian Open. At the Australian Open, Tomic defeated Guillaume Rufin in the first round in straight sets before losing to fourteenth seed Marin Čilić in the second round in five sets.
In February, Tomic qualified for the Burnie Challenger tournament in Tasmania and went on to win the event by defeating Greg Jones in the final. In March, Tomic was selected to play singles for the Australian Davis Cup Team. He won both of his matches in the tie against Chinese Taipei, defeating Yang Tsung-hua and Lee Hsin-han. He then competed at the 2010 Tennis Napoli Cup as a wildcard but lost to Paolo Lorenzi in the first round in straight sets. Tomic's next tournament was the 2010 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters where he lost in the first round to the unseeded German Benjamin Becker. He then received a wildcard to compete in the 2010 Zagreb Open but lost to Michael Yani in the first round.
Tomic was awarded a wildcard for the 2010 Aegon Championships where he upset fifteenth seed Andreas Seppi in the first round before losing to Belgian Xavier Malisse in the second round. At the 2010 Wimbledon Championships, Tomic qualified for the main draw but lost in the first round to Mardy Fish. He then entered the qualifying draw of the 2010 US Open but lost in the second round to Noam Okun. His final ATP event of the year was the 2010 Proton Malaysian Open where he competed as a wildcard. He lost to David Ferrer in the first round. In December 2010, Tomic withdrew from the Australian Open wild card playoffs. He finished the year at a career high singles ranking of world No. 208.
2011: Grand Slam quarterfinal
Tomic began his 2011 season at the Brisbane International where he was given a main draw wild card but lost to Florian Mayer in the first round. At the Medibank International in Sydney, Tomic lost to Ukrainian Alexandr Dolgopolov in the first round despite taking the first set. His performance in Sydney earned him the final discretionary wildcard into the main draw of the 2011 Australian Open.
In Melbourne, Tomic matched his two prior Open performances when he defeated Jérémy Chardy in the first round. He then recorded back-to-back main draw wins for the first time in his career when he defeated the thirty-first seed Feliciano López. In a much anticipated night match, Tomic lost to world No. 1 Rafael Nadal in the third round despite having led 4–0 in the second set.
In February, Tomic competed in the 2011 BNP Paribas Open, where he was given a main draw wild card. In the first round, Tomic defeated Indian qualifier Rohan Bopanna in three sets to reach the second round of an ATP Masters 1000 tournament for the first time. He faced sixteenth seeded Serbian, Viktor Troicki in the second round where he lost in straight sets. Tomic was granted a main draw wild card for the Sony Ericsson Open in Miami but lost in the first round to Pablo Andújar. At the French Open he lost in the first round to Carlos Berlocq, in straight sets.
At the 2011 Wimbledon Championships as a qualifier, Tomic defeated twenty-eighth seed Nikolay Davydenko, Igor Andreev, fifth seed Robin Söderling and Xavier Malisse to reach his first grand slam singles quarterfinal, thus becoming the youngest player since Boris Becker in 1986 to reach the quarterfinals at Wimbledon. There, he lost to the eventual champion Novak Djokovic in four sets. With this showing, Tomic moved 87 places up in the ATP rankings, to number 71 in the world.
At the Rogers Cup, Tomic won his first round match against Lu Yen-hsun before losing to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in the second round. He earned direct entry into the US Open, and defeated Michael Yani before losing to Marin Čilić in the second round.
Tomic then returned home to Australia to compete in the 2011 Davis Cup World Group play-offs against Switzerland. He defeated Stanislas Wawrinka in the opening match but lost his second match to world No. 3 Roger Federer. Tomic then competed at the 2011 Proton Malaysian Open but lost in the first round to Flavio Cipolla. Tomic's next event was the 2011 Rakuten Japan Open Tennis Championships. He upset the fifth seed, Victor Troicki in straight sets in the first round and defeated Japanese wildcard Tatsuma Ito in the second round before losing to fourth seed Mardy Fish in the quarterfinals. Tomic achieved a new career high singles ranking of world No. 49 following the event. Tomic then entered the Shanghai Masters where despite being unseeded, he reached the third round. Tomic defeated Kevin Anderson and 5th seed Mardy Fish before losing to Alexandr Dolgopolov.
He then competed at the 2011 If Stockholm Open. He defeated qualifier, Jürgen Zopp in the first round but lost to Gaël Monfils in the second round. Tomic finished the year ranked world No. 42.
2012: First ATP semi-final
Tomic began his 2012 season at the Brisbane International. He defeated Julien Benneteau, Japanese qualifier Tatsuma Ito and Denis Istomin to reach his first ATP semi-final where he lost in straight sets to world No. 4 and eventual champion, Andy Murray. He then won the 2012 Kooyong Classic, defeating Tomáš Berdych, Gaël Monfils and Mardy Fish in the final.
In the first round of the 2012 Australian Open, Tomic rallied from two sets to love down to defeat Fernando Verdasco in 4 hours and 11 minutes. He defeated Sam Querrey and Alexandr Dolgopolov in the next two rounds to reach the fourth round for the first time where he lost to world No. 3 Roger Federer in straight sets.
Tomic was seeded eighth at the Regions Morgan Keegan Championships and the Cellular South Cup in Memphis, but lost to Ivan Dodig in the first round, despite having two match points. At the 2012 Delray Beach International Tennis Championships, Tomic was seeded eighth. He reached the quarterfinals but lost to the top seed John Isner. In his next event the BNP Paribas Open, Tomic suffered a first round loss to Gilles Müller. At the 2012 Sony Ericsson Open Tomic defeated Sergiy Stakhovsky before losing to world No. 5 David Ferrer in the second round.
Tomic began his clay court season at the Monte-Carlo Masters, where he advanced to the second round of a clay court event for the first time, defeating Denis Istomin in straight sets before losing to Alexandr Dolgopolov in three sets. At the Barcelona Open, Tomic defeated Ernests Gulbis before losing to Albert Montañés in the second round. Tomic's next event was the BMW Open where he reached the quarterfinals of a clay court event for the first time in his career after wins over Olivier Rochus and Potito Starace. He later lost to Feliciano López. In his first ever match at the Madrid Open, Tomic lost to Radek Štěpánek in the first round. At the 2012 Italian Open, Tomic defeated qualifier Santiago Giraldo in the first round before losing to world No. 1 and defending champion Novak Djokovic in the second round.
Tomic was seeded twenty-fifth at the French Open, marking his first appearance as a seeded player in a Grand Slam tournament. He defeated qualifier Andreas Haider-Maurer in the first round but lost to Santiago Giraldo in the second round.
Tomic began his grass court season at the 2012 Gerry Weber Open where he retired against wildcard and eventual champion Tommy Haas in the first round whilst down 5–2. Tomic was seeded fourth in his next event, the 2012 Aegon International but lost in three sets to Fabio Fognini in the second round after receiving a first round bye. At the 2012 Wimbledon Championships, Tomic suffered a first round four set loss to David Goffin.
Tomic's losing streak continued after Wimbledon as he lost to Thomaz Bellucci in the second round of the 2012 MercedesCup after a first round bye. In his next two events, Tomic lost to Benoît Paire of France in the first round of the 2012 Crédit Agricole Suisse Open Gstaad and Kei Nishikori in the first round of the 2012 London Olympics.
Tomic snapped his 7-match losing streak at the 2012 Rogers Cup, defeating Michael Berrer in three sets before losing to the eventual champion Novak Djokovic in the second round. The following week, Tomic reached the third round of the Western & Southern Open, defeating Americans Ryan Harrison and Brian Baker en route before losing to the world No. 1 and eventual champion, Roger Federer. At the US Open, Tomic progressed to the second round for the second consecutive year after defeating Carlos Berlocq in four sets before losing to former world No. 1 and twentieth seed, Andy Roddick in straight sets. In his first event following the US Open, Tomic advanced to the quarterfinals of the 2012 PTT Thailand Open, defeating Guillermo García-López and Dudi Sela en route before losing to the second seed and eventual champion, Richard Gasquet. However, Tomic did not win another match for the rest of the season, losing his opening matches in Tokyo, Shanghai and Basel. He finished the year ranked world No. 52.
2013: First ATP title
At the 2013 Hopman Cup Tomic defeated Tommy Haas, World No. 1 Novak Djokovic and Andreas Seppi. Tomic's first official tournament for the year was the Apia International in Sydney. He defeated compatriot Marinko Matosevic, fifth seed Florian Mayer, defending champion Jarkko Nieminen and Andreas Seppi in the semifinals to reach his first career singles final where he defeated Kevin Anderson in three sets to win his maiden ATP title. At the 2013 Australian Open, Tomic defeated Leonardo Mayer and Daniel Brands to reach the third round where he lost to world No. 2 Roger Federer in straight sets.
In his first match since the Australian Open, Tomic suffered a three set loss to Grigor Dimitrov in the first round of the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament. He rebounded by reaching the quarterfinals of the Open 13, defeating the eighth seed, Martin Kližan in the first round after saving a match point in the deciding set tie-break and Somdev Devvarman in the second round before losing to third seed, Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in three sets. At the Dubai Tennis Championships, Tomic retired from his first round match against Victor Hănescu whilst trailing 3–2.
At the BNP Paribas Open, Tomic defeated Thomaz Bellucci before losing to tenth seed Richard Gasquet in the second round. The following fortnight, Tomic reached the second round of the Sony Open Tennis, defeating Marc Gicquel in the first round before losing to world No. 3 and eventual champion Andy Murray in straight sets.
Tomic's first clay court tournament of the year was in Monte Carlo where he fell to Alexandr Dolgopolov in the first round. Tomic then reached the second round in Barcelona defeating Kenny de Schepper before losing to Juan Mónaco. In his next tournament, Tomic suffered a round one defeat in Madrid against Radek Štěpánek, At the French Open, his first round match was against Victor Hănescu however Tomic was forced to retire at the beginning of the third set, citing a hamstring injury.
At the Aegon International, Tomic defeated James Ward and Julien Benneteau en route to the quarterfinals where he lost to Gilles Simon in straight sets. At Wimbledon, Tomic beat Sam Querrey in five tough sets and James Blake in straight sets before recording a huge win over 9th seeded Richard Gasquet in the third round. In the fourth round, he lost to Tomáš Berdych in four sets
To begin his north-American hard court season, he played in Washington. As a seeded player, he received bye through to the second round where he demolished David Goffin. In the third round, he lost to No. 1 seed and eventual champion Juan Martín del Potro. At the Rogers Cup he lost in the first round to Florian Mayer in three sets after winning the first set. At the US Open he defeated Albert Ramos in five sets before losing to Dan Evans in the second round.
Tomic's first tournament following the US open was in Bangkok where he defeated Ivo Karlović to reached the second round before losing to Gilles Simon. Then Tomic took part in the 2013 China Open men's singles; in the first round, he defeated Zhang Ze before losing to fifth seed Richard Gasquet in the second round. This was the first of five consecutive main draw losses, which included losing to Jérémy Chardy in Shanghai, Jack Sock in Stockholm, Mikhail Youzhny in Valencia and Feliciano López in Paris to close out his 2013 season. He finished the year ranked world No. 51.
2014: Injuries, rankings slip and second ATP title
At the 2014 Hopman Cup Tomic lost to Milos Raonic but then he defeated Andreas Seppi and Grzegorz Panfil. Tomic started off his 2014 season attempting to defend his Sydney International crown. In the first round, he crushed eighth seed Marcel Granollers, dropping just three games. He then defeated to Blaž Kavčič in the three sets to reach the quarterfinals where he had a straight sets win over Alexandr Dolgopolov. In the semifinals he faced Sergiy Stakhovsky, coming from a set down to advance to the final. In the final, he was defeated easily by world No. 6 Juan Martín del Potro. His next tournament was the 2014 Australian Open, where he retired in the first round against Rafael Nadal with a groin injury.
After undergoing two hip surgeries, Tomic returned to the tour to play at the 2014 Sony Open Tennis, where he lost in the first round against Jarkko Nieminen in 28 minutes, winning just one game. This match was the shortest recorded professional tennis match in 'Open Era' history.
Still recovering from surgery, Tomic failed to making it through qualifying in both Madrid and Rome. His next tournament was in Nice where he lost in the first round to Martin Kližan in three sets. Tomic then played at the French Open where he lost to Richard Gasquet in straight sets.
Tomic began his grass court season at the 2014 Aegon Championships where he defeated Tim Smyczek in the first round before losing to Radek Štěpánek in straight set tie-breaks. He then competed in Eastbourne. In the first round, he had a comfortable win over Andrey Golubev to reach the second round where he fell to top seed Richard Gasquet in three sets. Tomic's next tournament was Wimbledon. In the first round he defeated Evgeny Donskoy in straight sets to set up a second round clash with Tomáš Berdych who defeated him in four sets. As a result of the early exit, Tomic fell out of top 100 for the first time since 2011.
Due to his rankings slide, Tomic needed a wildcard to gain entry into the 2014 Claro Open Colombia. Tomic cruised through the opening rounds, defeating Farrukh Dustov and fifth seed Alejandro Falla in straight sets. In the quarterfinals, he defeated fourth seed Vasek Pospisil in straight sets, to advance to the semifinals where he emerged victorious in a tight three-set clash over Víctor Estrella Burgos. In the final, Tomic defeated defending champion and second seed Ivo Karlović in three sets to claim his second ATP title. His successful run catapulted him back into the top 70 for the first time since February.
At the 2014 Stockholm Open, Tomic defeated Patrik Rosenholm, Kevin Anderson and Fernando Verdasco into the semi-final, he lost to Grigor Dimitrov.
He finished the year ranked world No. 56.
2015: Third ATP title and Top 20 ranking
Tomic started the year with quarterfinal appearances in Brisbane and Sydney before falling in the fourth round of the Australian Open to Tomáš Berdych. He backed this up with quarterfinal appearances in Memphis and Acapulco and a semi-final appearance in Delray Beach in February. These included wins over seeded players including Alexandr Dolgopolov, Philipp Kohlschreiber, Viktor Troicki and Benjamin Becker. He finished the month by securing Australia a quarterfinal berth in the Davis Cup for the first time since 2006 with wins against Jiří Veselý and Lukáš Rosol.
In March, Tomic was seeded thirty-second at the BNP Paribas Open, where he reached his first ATP Masters 1000 quarterfinal after defeating qualifier Borna Ćorić, eighth seed David Ferrer for the first time in his career and compatriot and wildcard Thanasi Kokkinakis. However, he withdrew from his match against World No. 1 and defending champion Novak Djokovic due to a back injury. He then played at the Miami Open as the 25th seed. He defeated Austin Krajicek in straight sets before losing to eighth seed Tomáš Berdych in the third round despite having four match points in the second set. He then played at the Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters where he defeated Lukáš Rosol in the first round. He then faced Andreas Haider-Maurer but lost in three tight sets. Tomic next played at the BMW Open where he was the 6th seed. He lost in three sets to former World number 8 Janko Tipsarević. Tomic then played at the Masters 1000 Mutua Madrid Open where he played Luca Vanni in round one and lost in 3 sets. Following this tournament he will play at the 2015 Internazionali BNL d'Italia where he lost to Viktor Troicki in 3 tight sets. He then played at the Nice Open where he retired against Gianni Mina after losing the first set 6–2. Tomic snapped his five match losing streak at the 2015 French Open where he was the 27th seed. He defeated Luca Vanni in 4 sets who he lost to in Madrid a month earlier. He then faced compatriot Thanasi Kokkinakis and despite storming to a 2 set lead and having 3 match points in the final set, he lost the match.
Tomic began his grass court season at the 2015 MercedesCup where he defeated Jan-Lennard Struff and Tommy Haas to reach the quarterfinals where he lost to former world number 1 Rafael Nadal in 3 tight sets. His next tournament was the 2015 Gerry Weber Open where he lost to Steve Johnson in the first round. Tomic then played at Wimbledon as the 27th seed. He opened against Jan-Lennard Struff and defeated him in 5 sets. He then defeated Pierre-Hugues Herbert in straight sets to reach the third round where he lost to defending champion, World no. 1, and eventual champion Novak Djokovic in straight sets. Tomic then contested the 2015 Hall of Fame Tennis Championships as the 3rd seed. He lost against fellow Australian and eventual semi-finalist John-Patrick Smith in straight sets. He then played in Bogotá where he was the defending champ and 2nd seed. He played Adrián Menéndez-Maceiras following a first round bye and won in 3 sets to reach his 8th quarterfinal of 2015. He then defeated Tatsuma Ito in straight sets to set up a semifinal clash with Michael Berrer. He defeated Berrer in 3 sets to reach the final for the second straight year. He then defeated third seed Adrian Mannarino in 3 sets to win his 3rd career title.
Tomic was unable to capitalize on his success, losing in the first round at the 2015 Citi Open to eventual semifinalist Steve Johnson.Tomic next played at the Canadian Masters where he defeated João Sousa, Tomic backed this up by defeating world number 8 and reigning US Open champion Marin Čilić. He then lost to defending champion and 10th seed Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. Tomic's then played at the 2015 Western & Southern Open where he defeated Sergiy Stakhovsky in the first round, he then lost to eventual semi-finalist Alexandr Dolgopolov. Tomic next played at the 2015 US Open as the 24th seed where he defeated Damir Džumhur in 4 sets. He then defeated compatriot and former champion Lleyton Hewitt in a thrilling five set match. Tomic emerged victorious after trailing 3–5 in the final set and saving 2 match points to take out the match in 3 hours and 30 minutes. Tomic then played against world No. 12 Richard Gasquet and lost in straight sets. His 3rd round performance was his best result at the US Open to date.
Tomic then competed for Australia at the Davis Cup Semifinals and defeated Daniel Evans which saw him crack the top 20 in the rankings for the first time. Following his win he lost in straight sets to world number 3 Andy Murray.
His next tournament was the Japan Open where he retired whilst down a set against Steve Johnson. Tomic then entered the Shanghai Masters where despite being unseeded, he reached the quarterfinals. Tomic defeated Fernando Verdasco, 7th seed David Ferrer and Richard Gasquet before losing to world number one Novak Djokovic 7–6, 6–1. This was the most games any player had won against Djokovic in 8 matches. The tournament scored Tomic his 3rd top 10 win in 2015 (over David Ferrer) and was also his 2nd Masters quarterfinal of his career. As a result of his performance, he propelled to world number 18 for the first time. Tomic next played at the 2015 Stockholm Open as the 4th seed where he lost to Marcos Baghdatis in the second round after a first round bye. His final tournament of the year was the Paris Masters where he defeated Fabio Fognini before losing to eventual semi finalist Stan Wawrinka in the second round. He finished the year ranked world No. 18.
2016: First ATP 500 final, Masters 1000 quarterfinal
Tomic begun his season in Brisbane as the 7th seed. He won his opening round against Nicolas Mahut before defeating Radek Štěpánek and 2nd seed Kei Nishikori in subsequent rounds. Tomic was eliminated in the semi-finals by eventual champion Milos Raonic in two tight sets. This semi-final appearance saw the Australian move up to his career high ranking of 17th in the world. Tomic next contested the 2016 Apia International Sydney as the top seed. He defeated Aussie wildcard Jordan Thompson in the second round (following a first round bye). He then faced Teymuraz Gabashvili in the quarterfinals where he controversially retired while down a set and 3–0 in the second.
Tomic then participated at the 2016 Australian Open as the 16th seed. He breezed through to the 4th round with defeats over Denis Istomin, Simone Bolelli and John Millman before losing in straight sets to eventual runner up and second seed Andy Murray. Tomic next participated at the 2016 Ecuador Open Quito as the top seed. He defeated Roberto Carballés Baena in the second round after a first round bye. He then lost to Paolo Lorenzi in the quarterfinals in three tight sets. Tomic next contested the 2016 Delray Beach International where he was the second seed. He lost in the first round to eventual runner-up Rajeev Ram in straight sets.
The following week Tomic played at the ATP 500 tournament in Acapulco where he was the 5th seed. He was drawn against Rajeev Ram in the first round but avenged his loss from the previous week and defeated him in straight sets. He then defeated Adrian Mannarino and Illya Marchenko both in straight sets to set up a semi-final clash with Alexandr Dolgopolov. Tomic lost the first set 1–6 yet rallied back to win the match in a thrilling three set match. He then contested his first ATP 500 final against Dominic Thiem where he lost in 3 sets, despite having led 5–2 in the first set. Tomic then played for Australia at the 2016 Davis Cup where they faced the United States. He won his first match against Jack Sock in 4 sets. However, he lost the reverse singles to John Isner which meant Australia lost in the 1R and therefore will face the World Group Playoffs in September.
Tomic stated before his next tournament at 2016 Indian Wells that he would miss the 2016 Miami Masters due to a wrist injury. He still played at Indian Wells as the 17th seed. For the third straight tournament he faced Rajeev Ram, again winning in straight sets. He then lost to eventual finalist Milos Raonic in the third round.
Tomic missed the 2016 Miami Masters and 2016 Monte-Carlo Masters due to his wrist injury. He then began his clay court season at the 2016 Bucharest Open where he was the top seed. He lost in the first round to Robin Haase. His next tournament is the 2016 Istanbul Open where again he's the top seed. He lost to eventual champion Diego Schwartzman in the second round following a first round bye. Tomic competed at the Madrid Open, but lost in straight sets to Fabio Fognini. He was criticized for giving up on match point. He turned his racket the other way around, with the handle facing forward as Fognini served for the point. He then competed at the Italian Open, but was forced to retire ten minutes in because of illness. Tomic next tournament was the French Open where he was seeded 20th. He beat Brian Baker in the first round in straight sets. However, he would lose to Borna Ćorić in the second round in four sets.
Tomic began his grass court season at the 2016 Ricoh Open as the second seed. He beat Aljaž Bedene to reach the quarterfinals before losing to the defending and eventual champion Nicolas Mahut. He next competed at the 2016 Queens Championships. He opened against the 2015 Queens finalist Kevin Anderson who he defeated in straight sets. He then beat Fernando Verdasco who defeated 2nd seed Stan Wawrinka in the previous round. In the quarterfinals he defeated Gilles Müller to set up a semifinal clash with Milos Raonic where he lost to the 3rd seed in straight sets. At the 2016 Wimbledon Championships, in the first round, Tomic beat Fernando Verdasco in five tough sets. Then he beat Radu Albot in four sets in the second round. In the third round, he beat world No.15 Roberto Bautista Agut in straight sets. But in the fourth round, he lost to Lucas Pouille in five sets.
To begin his north-American hard court season, he played in Washington as the No.3 seed. He received a bye through to the second round where he defeated Donald Young. In the third round, he lost to No. 13 seed and eventual Runner-up Ivo Karlović. Tomic next played at the Canadian Masters where he defeated Alejandro González and Steven Diez but then lost to Kevin Anderson in the third round. He reached the quarter-final of the 2016 Western & Southern Open by beating former world number 28 João Sousa he then caused consecutive upsets by defeating the 11th seed David Goffin and the 5th seed Kei Nishikori. He then lost to world number 2 and eventual finalist Andy Murray in straight sets. Then Tomic played at the 2016 US Open as the 17th seed where he lost to Damir Džumhur in 4 sets in the first round.
Tomic began the Asian swing at the 2016 ATP Shenzhen Open as the fourth seed. He beat Ryan Harrison to reach the quarterfinals before losing to Thomaz Bellucci. He next participated at the 2016 China Open where he lost to Pablo Carreno Busta in the first round. Tomic also played the 2016 China Open Men's Doubles partnering Jack Sock. Despite his early singles exit, Tomic reached his first tour doubles final which included a win over the second seeds and world number three Marcelo Melo who partnered Łukasz Kubot. Tomic/Sock lost in the final in a tight three set match to the partnership of Pablo Carreño Busta/Rafael Nadal. Tomic next contests the 2016 Shanghai Rolex Masters, he lost to the 15th seed Roberto Bautista Agut in the first round.
He finished the year ranked world No. 26.
2017: Rapid decline
Tomic commenced the year at the Brisbane International. He lost in round 1 to David Ferrer.
At the 2017 Australian Open, Tomic defeated Thomaz Bellucci and Víctor Estrella Burgos to reach the third round where he lost to Dan Evans in straight sets. Tomic then lost in the first round at five consecutive tournaments, before defeating Dustin Brown at the Barcelona Open. At the French Open, Tomic lost in the first round in a straight sets thumping against world number 7 Dominic Thiem. In the lead up to Wimbledon, Tomic achieved his best result of the season when he made the quarter-finals of the Aegon International. At Wimbledon, Tomic was fined $15,000 (£11,500) after his first round exit against Mischa Zverev. The fine was handed out due to Tomic's comments in the press conference where he admitted that he was bored with the tournament and faked an injury. Tomic's racquet provider Head subsequently dropped him. Tomic did not play any tournaments between Wimbledon and the US Open. At the US Open, Tomic was beaten by Gilles Muller in four-sets. With three consecutive first-round exits at Grand Slams and a string of poor results, Tomic's ranking dipped outside the world's top 140, his worst world ranking since 2011. In late September, Tomic returned at the Chengdu Open where he was easily beaten by Kyle Edmund in the first round. At the Japan Open in Tokyo, Tomic scored his first win on tour in three months after defeating Joao Sousa in the opening round. He was then beaten handily by 8th seed Diego Schwartzman.
He finished the year ranked world No. 140, a decline of 114 places from the end of 2016.
2018: Rankings downfall, reality television stint and fourth ATP title
Following his ranking slide, Tomic entered the qualifying tournament at the Australian Open as the 29th seed. He advanced to the final round before losing to unheralded Italian Lorenzo Sonego. This marked the first time since 2008 that Tomic had failed to appear in the main draw of the Australian Open. Following his loss in qualifying, Tomic entered reality television show I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here. Tomic quit the competition after three days, proclaiming a desire to return to tennis as the primary reason. After this, Tomic was awarded a wildcard into the 2018 Istanbul Open where he served for the match against 6th seed Viktor Troicki in the first round, however, he went on to lose the match. Tomic's hiatus coupled with poor results blew his ranking out to 243 in the world, his worst ranking since 2010. Tomic then entered a challenger tournament in France where he scored three consecutive wins for the first time since Cincinnati in 2016. He made the final but was defeated by compatriot and top seed John Millman. The result improved his ranking to 191. Tomic then qualified for the French Open and was expected to face compatriot Nick Kyrgios in a hotly anticipated first round match-up. Kyrgios however withdrew before the tournament from an elbow injury, leaving Tomic to face lucky loser Marco Trungelliti. Tomic went on to lose the match in four sets.
Following the French Open, Tomic qualified for the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships in the Netherlands, where he made a surprise run to the semi-finals, losing to eventual champion Richard Gasquet in three sets. This was Tomic's first appearance in an ATP tour semi-final in more than two years. The result moved Tomic back inside the world's top 150. Tomic then attempted to qualify for Wimbledon, but lost in the final round of qualification to second seed Ruben Bemelmans. He gained entry into the main draw as a lucky loser however, after Roberto Bautista-Agut withdrew from the tournament. Tomic defeated fellow lucky loser Hubert Hurkacz in the first round to earn his first main draw grand slam win since the 2017 Australian Open. He went on to lose to the 24th seed Kei Nishikori in four sets in the second round. Tomic then suffered a string of poor results in his next four tournaments, failing to win a main draw match at any event. His poor form carried over to the US Open, where he lost in the first round of qualifying to fellow Australian Thanasi Kokkinakis and was accused of tanking. Tomic then returned to the Challenger tour at the inaugural Rafa Nadal Open, where he won the tournament as the sixth seed. This was Tomic's first title of any kind in three years and first Challenger title in eight years. In late September, Tomic qualified for and won the Chengdu Open, defeating top-seeded Fabio Fognini in the final. Tomic saved four match points against Fognini in what was his first ATP world tour tournament victory in three years. The win moved Tomic back inside the Top 100 at world number 76, his best ranking since July 2017.
Tomic then attempted to qualify for the Stockholm Open, but was forced to retire due to an injury in the first-round of qualifying against Oscar Otte. Tomic played no further tournaments in 2018 and finished the year ranked world No. 83.
2019: Severe downfall in form and ranking
Tomic started off his 2019 season with a first round loss at the Australian Open to world No. 7 Marin Čilić. Two months later at the Miami Masters, he played world No. 1 Novak Djokovic in the second round and lost in straight sets.
Tomic made no ATP final or semifinal appearances during the year and only made two ATP quarterfinal appearances. The first one came at the Antalya Open where he defeated 7th seed Andreas Seppi in the first round but lost to 4th seed Pablo Carreño Busta in three sets. The second one came at the Atlanta Open where he defeated 5th seed Frances Tiafoe in the first round but lost to 3rd seed and eventual champion Alex de Minaur after retiring in the second set.
At the Chengdu Open, Tomic entered the qualifying draw as the defending champion of the tournament but lost in first round of qualifying to 2017 champion Denis Istomin after retiring in the second set. Because of his failure to defend all 250 ranking points from the previous edition, Tomic's ranking dropped significantly from 109 to 191.
Tomic finished the year with a year-end ranking of 185. A significant drop from his ranking of 83 at the beginning of the year.
2020: Inactivity due to COVID-19
After starting off the year with a first round loss at the Australian Open qualifying to 7th seed Denis Kudla, Tomic only played one ATP tournament in 2020 at the Delray Beach Open where he lost in the qualifying competition to Ernests Gulbis but received a lucky loser spot and lost in the first round to Cedrik-Marcel Stebe in straight sets.
After the COVID-19 pandemic suspended tennis in March, Tomic decided to stay inactive for the rest of the year even when tennis returned in August.
2021: Australian Open second round
Tomic returned to playing tennis at the Australian Open qualifying. There, he defeated 14th seed Jozef Kovalík, Tristan Schoolkate and John-Patrick Smith to qualify for his first grand slam tournament in close to two years at the Australian Open. There, he played Yūichi Sugita and won after Sugita retired in the third set to mark his first grand slam match win in close to three years. In the second round, he played 11th seed Denis Shapovalov and lost in straight sets. He finished 2021 ranked world No. 260.
2022
Tomic lost in the first round of the 2022 Australian Open qualifying rounds to Roman Safiullin. Tomic complained to the umpire about the lack of COVID-19 testing at the Australian Open, and tested positive for the virus two days after the loss.
Tomic's next tournament was the Monterrey Challenger in March, where he recorded his first match win at any level since the qualifying rounds at 2021 Wimbledon by beating 4th seed Cedrik-Marcel Stebe in straight sets.
2023: Top 300 return
After losing in the final of a Futures tournament in Doha, Tomic qualified for Monterrey. There, he reached his first Challenger quarterfinal since 2018 after defeating Juan Pablo Ficovich and upsetting second seed Emilio Gómez while saving two match points. He eventually lost to Mitchell Krueger in the quarterfinals, losing 6-4 in the 1st set before retiring a break down in the 2nd. He returned to Top 300, for the first time in nearly 2 years, with a title at the M15 Futures tournament in Las Vegas where he beat Thai-Son Kwiatkowski in the final.
National representation
Davis Cup (17–4)
Tomic made his Davis Cup debut for Australia in Melbourne against Chinese Taipei in 2010 at the age of 17 years and 135 days, the youngest ever player for Australia. In the first rubber of the tie Tomic defeated Yang Tsung-hua. In the fifth rubber he picked up another victory over Lee Hsin-han.
Tomic was called back into the team in July 2011 for the tie against China. Following a shock loss in the first match, Tomic drew Australia level in the second rubber of the tie against Zhang Ze. Tomic's reverse singles match was cancelled due to Australia winning the tie 3–1. In September 2011 at the Davis Cup World Group Playoffs Tomic pulled off the biggest scalp of his Davis Cup career by defeating world number 19 Stanislas Wawrinka in four sets. In the reverse rubber, Tomic faced his childhood hero Roger Federer, losing in four sets.
Prior to the commencement of the 2012 ATP season, Tomic and Lleyton Hewitt both committed to the Davis Cup team for all ties in a bid to re-enter the world group. In the second rubber of the first zonal tie against China, Tomic was victorious against Wu Di. In the second zonal tie of 2012, he recorded two straight sets victories in a 5–0 rout of South Korea. In the 2012 Davis Cup World Group Playoffs, Tomic was victorious in his first rubber against Cedrik-Marcel Stebe in four sets but fell to Florian Mayer in straight sets which would see Australia lose to Germany 3–2 overall.
Following poor off court behaviour in late 2012, Tomic was suspended from playing for Australia in the first round of the 2013 Davis Cup competition. After serving a one tie ban, Tomic returned to the Australian Davis Cup team in their 2013 zonal semifinal against Uzbekistan and later that year was instrumental in Australia's return to the World Group after an away playoff victory over Poland. Injuries prevented Tomic from competing in the Davis Cup competition in 2014 but he returned for Australia's first round of the 2015 Davis Cup against the Czech Republic. Despite facing the two-time defending champions away, Tomic secured two crucial singles victories and led Australia to a 3–2 victory over the Czech Republic. It was the first time Australia had reached the second round of the Davis Cup world group since 2006. Tomic was then once again suspended from the Australian Davis Cup team for an outburst during a Wimbledon press conference. Tomic returned to the team once again in the 2015 semifinal against Great Britain and scored a crucial four set victory over Dan Evans in the second rubber. Tomic played for Australia at the 2016 Davis Cup where they faced the United States. He won his first match against Jack Sock in four sets. However, he lost the reverse singles to John Isner which meant Australia lost in the first round.
Olympics (0–1)
Tomic represented Australia in his maiden Olympics at London 2012. He competed in the singles competition against Japan's 15th seed Kei Nishikori in the first round, but fell in two straight tiebreaks.
Hopman Cup (5–1)
At the 2013 Hopman Cup Tomic defeated Tommy Haas (7–6, 3–6, 7–5), World No. 1 Novak Djokovic (6–4, 6–4) and Andreas Seppi (6–3, 7–5). Australia finished in 2nd place in the group.
At the 2014 Hopman Cup Tomic lost to Milos Raonic (6–7, 1–6) but then he defeated Andreas Seppi (4–6, 6–3, 6–2) and Grzegorz Panfil (6–1, 6–4). Australia team finished in last place in the group.
World Tennis Challenge (3–0)
In 2010, Tomic won the World Tennis Challenge for the Australasia team. Tomic won all three singles matches, defeating Gilles Simon, Radek Štěpánek and Robby Ginepri.
Fast 4 Tennis Showdown (1–0)
On 9 January 2017, Bernard Tomic defeated Dominic Thiem 3–4 4–2 4–3 3–4 5–3 to win the event. Before this match, Nick Kyrgios defeated Rafael Nadal 4–3, 2–4, 4–3 4–3. With Australia leading 2–0, the doubles were not played.
Coaching
Tomic was first coached by Gold Coast tennis instructor Neil Guiney at age 7. As a child Tomic was officially coached by his father, John, at Queens Park Tennis Centre on the Gold Coast. Despite his father never having played tennis, he continues to coach Tomic. In November 2012 it was revealed that Tomic had approached Australian tennis legend Pat Cash to coach him on a full-time basis. Cash declined the offer. As of 2016, Tomic was training out of Koza World of sports tennis academy with Australian coach Gavin Hopper.
Equipment and sponsors
In March 2006, a 13-year-old Tomic signed a six-figure deal with sports marketing and management giant IMG. Prior to joining the ITF juniors tour in 2007, Tomic played with Wilson racquets but switched to Head when he debuted on the junior tour. At the beginning of the 2012 ATP season Tomic signed a deal to use Yonex racquets. Bernard again switched to Head racquets, but was later dropped by the racquet manufacturer following a post match press conference at the 2017 Wimbledon.
He previously held a long-standing sponsorship deal with Nike, before switching to Lacoste in 2018. Tomic wore Lotto clothing during the 2018 French Open qualifying, but was wearing Lacoste by the main draw. Tomic wore Mizuno clothing for the first time at the start of the 2019 season.
Controversies
At 2009 Wimbledon, at which Tomic was contesting the junior event, Lleyton Hewitt contacted the Tomic camp inviting Bernard to practice. Hewitt's physiotherapist Iván Gutiérrez was told by Tomic's agent: "No, he's not hitting with Lleyton, Lleyton's not good enough."
In January 2012, he was fined by the police on the Gold Coast three times in one day. Later that day he also ran from the police and locked himself in his house. In November 2012, Tomic pleaded guilty in court to failing to stop for police in his orange BMW M3 and was fined $750, as well as being put on a 12-month good-behaviour bond. Tomic accused a police officer of trying to hit him. He was also found guilty of three other traffic offences committed in January and was fined a further $1000.
While competing at the 2012 Miami Masters, Tomic was overheard making a request to the chair umpire for his father to be ejected from the stands. He was heard saying: "He's annoying. I know he's my father but he's annoying me. I want him to leave but how's that possible?"
At the same event, qualifier Dan Evans had booked to practise with Tomic, but was told by Tomic Sr. that he was not good enough. Evans went on to win the pair's first career meeting the following year.
In 2013, John Tomic was sentenced to eight months in prison and banned from the ATP World Tour for 12 months for headbutting and breaking the nose of Bernard's hitting partner, Thomas Drouet. However, Tomic Sr. did not serve the jail term, as under Spanish law, there was a discount for his first conviction if the sentence is less than two years.
During his third round press conference, following his loss to top seed Novak Djokovic at the 2015 Wimbledon Championships, Tomic ranted against Tennis Australia, namely Craig Tiley, Pat Rafter and Steve Healy. Tomic was angry from what he perceived as a lack of support, respect and funding for both him and his sister, Sara. As a result, Tennis Australia dropped Tomic from Australia's Davis Cup team for their quarterfinal tie against Kazakhstan.
In July 2015, Tomic was arrested in Miami and charged with resisting arrest and trespassing. In October, all charges were dropped against Tomic.
In his first round match at the 2016 Madrid Masters, Tomic reversed his racquet on return of serve whilst defending match point. This also brought up past tanking allegations against Tomic from matches at the 2016 Sydney International and 2012 US Open.
In the 2016 US Open, during his first round loss to Damir Džumhur, he verbally abused a spectator after apparently being taunted.
In an interview with Channel 7's Sunday Night program, Tomic admitted that he never loved tennis and says that he has built his career on 50% effort.
After Tomic failed to qualify for the 2018 Australian Open, losing to Lorenzo Sonego, Tomic was asked about the impact of the loss on his career, to which he replied "I just count money, that's all I do. I count my millions". His comments drew criticism from former players and the public, with Andy Roddick tweeting "Maybe stop for a second and think of the millions you've left on the table."
After losing his opening match of the 2019 Wimbledon Championships to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in 58 minutes, Tomic was fined his full prize money of £45,000 for not meeting the "required professional standard" according to the match referee. The requirement to "perform to a professional standard" is specified in the Grand Slam Rulebook, Article III section G, and provides for a greater fine than "Best Efforts" in section C. The incident has revived news reports of Tomic's old nickname "Tomic the Tank Engine." ("Tanking" is refusing to use best efforts to win).
After competing in Mexico and travelling to Miami during March 2020, Tomic reportedly experienced symptoms of COVID-19, and subsequently entered self-isolation. However, Andrea Petkovic later contacted Tomic, who admitted to having lied about his health.
Career statistics
Grand Slam performance timeline
References
External links
1992 births
Living people
Australian expatriate sportspeople in Monaco
Australian expatriate sportspeople in Germany
Australian male tennis players
Australian Open (tennis) junior champions
Australian people of Bosnia and Herzegovina descent
Australian people of Croatian descent
Australian Roman Catholics
Naturalised citizens of Australia
Naturalised tennis players
Olympic tennis players for Australia
People from Monte Carlo
Sportspeople from Stuttgart
Tennis people from the Gold Coast
Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics
US Open (tennis) junior champions
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' singles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Tamil%20Nadu
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History of Tamil Nadu
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The region of Tamil Nadu in the southeast of modern India, shows evidence of having had continuous human habitation from 15,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE. Throughout its history, spanning the early Upper Paleolithic age to modern times, this region has coexisted with various external cultures.
The three ancient Tamil dynasties namely Chera, Chola, and Pandya were of ancient origins. Together they ruled over this land with a unique culture and language, contributing to the growth of some of the oldest extant literature in the world. These three dynasties were in constant struggle with each other vying for hegemony over the land. Invasion by the Kalabhras during the 3rd century disturbed the traditional order of the land, displacing the three ruling kingdoms. These occupiers were overthrown by the resurgence of the Pandyas and the Pallavas, who restored the traditional kingdoms. The Cholas who re-emerged from obscurity in the 9th century by defeating the Pallavas and the Pandyas rose to become a great power and extended their empire over the entire southern peninsula. At its height the Chola empire spanned almost 3,600,000 km² (1,389,968 sq mi) straddling the Bay of Bengal. The Chola navy held sway over the Sri Vijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia.
Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India occurred due to incursions of Muslim armies from the northwest and the decline of the three ancient dynasties during the 14th century. Despite this, the Vijayanagara Empire gained a foothold in the region from the late 14th century until the 16th century. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Maratha Empire expanded its territories into the northern regions of present-day Tamil Nadu. The Madras Presidency, comprising most of southern India, was created in the late 18th century and was ruled directly by the British. After the independence of India, after the Telugu and Malayalam parts of Madras state were separated from Tamilagam state in 1956, it was renamed as Tamil Nadu on January 14, 1969 by the state government.
Prehistoric period
Palaeolithic
For most of the Lower Palaeolithic stage, pre-modern humans lived close to river valleys with sparse forest cover or in grassland environments. The population density was very low and so far only two localities of this lower Palaeolithic culture have been found in south India. Pre-modern humans in South India, belonging to the species of Homo erectus, lived in this primitive 'old stone age' (Palaeolithic) for quite a long time, using only crude implements such as hand axes and choppers and subsisting as hunter-gatherers.
In Attirampakkam, archaeologists from the Sharma Centre for Heritage Education excavated ancient stone tools which suggests that a humanlike population existed in the Tamil Nadu region somewhere around 300,000 years before homo sapiens arrived from Africa.
A discovery of a rare fossilized baby brain in Viluppuram district, by a team of archaeologists was reported in April 2003, It is estimated to be about 187,000 years - 200,000 years or older. The ancestor of modern humans (Homo sapiens) who appeared around 50,000 years ago was more developed and could make thinner flake tools and blade-like tools using a variety of stones. From about 10,000 years ago, humans made still smaller tools called Microlithic tools. The material used by the early humans to make these tools were jasper, agate, flint, quartz, etc. In 1949, researchers found such microliths in Tirunelveli district. Archaeological evidence suggests that the microlithic period lasted between 6000–3000 BCE.
Neolithic
In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE. Humans of the Neolithic period made their stone tools in finer shapes by grinding and polishing. A Neolithic axe head with ancient writing on it has been found in North Tamil Nadu Near Palar river. The Neolithic humans lived mostly on small flat hills or on the foothills in small, more or less permanent settlements but for periodical migration for grazing purposes. They gave the dead proper burials within urns or pits. They were also starting to use copper for making certain tools or weapons.
Iron Age
During the Iron Age humans started using iron for making tools and weapons. The Iron Age culture in peninsular India is marked by Megalithic burial sites, which are found in several hundreds of places. On the basis of both some excavations and the typology of the burial monuments, it has been suggested that there was a gradual spread of the Iron Age sites from the north to the south. Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli District and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture.
The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around 1800 BCE, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at Adichanallur, 24 km from Tirunelveli, where archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed 157 urns, including 15 containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, plus husks, grains of rice, charred rice and Neolithic Celts. One urn has writing inside, which, according to archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India, resembles early Tamil-Brahmi script, confirming it of the Neolithic period 2800 years ago. Adhichanallur has been announced as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies.
Mentions of the political situation of Tamil Nadu before the common era are found in Ashoka's edicts dated c.3rd century BCE and, vaguely, in the Hathigumpha inscription dated c.2nd century BCE.
Early history
Ancient Tamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings called Vendhar and several tribal chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination Vel or Velir. Still lower at the local level there were clan chiefs called kizhar or mannar. During the 3rd century BCE, the Deccan was part of the Maurya Empire, and from the middle of the 1st century BCE to 2nd century CE the same area was ruled by the Satavahana dynasty. The Tamil area had an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires. The Tamil kings and chiefs were always in conflict with each other mostly over the property. The royal courts were mostly places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were centres for distribution of resources. Tamil literature Tolkappiyam sheds some light on early religion. Gradually the rulers came under the influence of Vedic beliefs, which encouraged performance of sacrifices to enhance the status of the ruler. Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivika co-existed with early Shaivite, Vaishnavism and Shaktism during the first five centuries.
The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, among the kingdoms, which though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him. The king of Kalinga, Kharavela, who ruled around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.
Karikala Chola was the most famous early Chola. He is mentioned in a number of poems in the Sangam poetry. Purananuru poem 224 mentions him as a great king who performed Vedic Sacrifices. In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in the Cilappatikaram and in inscriptions and literary works of the 11th and 12th centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks of the river Kaveri with the aid of his feudatories. These legends, however, are conspicuous by their absence in the Sangam poetry. Kocengannan was another famous early Chola king who has been extolled in a number of poems of the Sangam period. He was even made a Saiva saint during the medieval period.
Pandyas ruled initially from Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyas are also mentioned in Sangam Literature, as well as by Greek and Roman sources during this period. Megasthenes in his Indika mentions the Pandyan kingdom. The Pandyas controlled the present districts of Madurai, Tirunelveli, and parts of south Kerala. They had trading contacts with Greece and Rome. With the other kingdoms of Tamilakam, they maintained trading contacts and marital relationships with Tamil merchants from Eelam. Various Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam literature. Among them, Nedunjeliyan, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam' deserves a special mention. Besides several short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are two major works—Mathuraikkanci and the Netunalvatai (in the collection of Pattupattu) that give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangam age. The early Pandyas went into obscurity at the end of the 3rd century CE during the incursion of the Kalabhras.
The kingdom of the Cheras comprised the modern Western Tamil Nadu and Kerala, along the western or Malabar Coast of southern India. Their proximity to the sea favoured trade with Africa. Chera rulers dated to the first few centuries AD. It records the names of the kings, the princes, and the court poets who extolled them. The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present, a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the rulers referred to in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the heroine of the Tamil epic Silapathikaram.
These early kingdoms sponsored the growth of some of the oldest extant literature in Tamil. The classical Tamil literature, referred to as Sangam literature is attributed to the period between 500 BCE and 300 CE. The poems of Sangam literature, which deal with emotional and material topics, were categorised and collected into various anthologies during the medieval period. These Sangam poems paint the picture of a fertile land and of a people who were organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to the established order (dharma). The people were loyal to their kings and roving bards, musicians and dancers gathered at the royal courts of the generous kings. The arts of music and dancing were highly developed and popular. Musical instruments of various types are mentioned in the Sangam poems. The amalgamation of the southern and the northern styles of dancing started during this period and is reflected fully in the epic Cilappatikaram.
Internal and external trade was well organised and active. Evidence from both archaeology and literature speaks of a flourishing foreign trade with the Yavanas (Greeks). The port city of Puhar on the east coast and Muziris on the west coast of south India were emporia of foreign trade, where huge ships moored, offloading precious merchandise. This trade started to decline after the 2nd century CE and the direct contact between the Roman empire and the ancient Tamil country was replaced by trade with the Arabs and the Auxumites of East Africa. Internal trade was also brisk and goods were sold and bartered. Agriculture was the main profession of a vast majority of the populace.
Interregnum (300–600)
After the close of the Sangam era, from about 300 to about 600 CE, there was an almost total lack of information regarding occurrences in the Tamil land. Some time about 300 CE, the whole region was upset by the appearance of the Kalabhras. These people are described in later literature as 'evil rulers' who overthrew the established Tamil kings and got a stranglehold of the country. information about their origin and details about their reign is scarce. They did not leave many artifacts or monuments. The only source of information on them is the scattered mentions in Buddhist and Jain literature.
Historians speculate that these people followed Buddhist or Jain faiths and were antagonistic towards the Hindu religions (viz. the Astika schools) adhered by the majority of inhabitants of the Tamil region during the early centuries CE. As a result, Hindu scholars and authors who followed their decline in the 7th and 8th century may have expunged any mention of them in their texts and generally tended to paint their rule in a negative light. It is perhaps due to this reason, the period of their rule is known as a 'Dark Age'—an interregnum. Some of the ruling families migrated northwards and found enclaves for themselves away from the Kalabhras. Jainism and Buddhism, took deep roots in the society, giving birth to a large body of ethical poetry.
Writing became very widespread and vatteluttu evolved from the Tamil-Brahmi became a mature script for writing Tamil. While several anthologies were compiled by collecting bardic poems of earlier centuries, some of the epic poems such as the Cilappatikaram and didactic works such as the Tirukkural were also written during this period. The patronage of the Jain and Buddhist scholars by the Kalabhra kings influenced the nature of the literature of the period, and most of the works that can be attributed to this period were written by the Jain and Buddhist authors. In the field of dance and music, the elite started patronising new polished styles, partly influenced by northern ideas, in the place of the folk styles. A few of the earliest rock-cut temples belong to this period. Brick temples (known as kottam, devakulam, and palli) dedicated to various deities are referred to in literary works. Kalabhras were displaced around the 7th century by the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.
Even with the exit of the Kalabhras, the Jain and Buddhist influence still remained in Tamil Nadu. The early Pandya and the Pallava kings were followers of these faiths. The Hindu reaction to this apparent decline of their religion was growing and reached its peak during the later part of the 7th century. There was a widespread Hindu revival during which a huge body of Saiva and Vaishnava literature was created. Many Saiva Nayanmars and Vaishnava Alvars provided a great stimulus to the growth of popular devotional literature. Karaikkal Ammaiyar who lived in the 6th century CE was the earliest of these Nayanmars. The celebrated Saiva hymnists Sundaramurthi, Thirugnana Sambanthar and Thirunavukkarasar were of this period. Vaishnava Alvars such as Poigai Alvar, Bhoothathalvar and Peyalvar produced devotional hymns for their faith and their songs were collected later into the four thousand poems of Naalayira Divyap Prabhandham.
Age of empires (600–1300)
The medieval period of the history of the Tamil country saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms, some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas. The Cholas who were very active during the Sangam age were entirely absent during the first few centuries. The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas. The Cholas went on to become a great power. Their decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period was also that of the re-invigorated Hinduism during which temple building and religious literature were at their best.
The Hindu sects Saivism and Vaishnavism became dominant, replacing the prevalence of Jainism and Buddhism of the previous era. Saivism was patronised more by the Chola kings and became more or less a state religion. Some of the earliest temples that are still standing were built during this period by the Pallavas. The rock-cut temples in Mamallapuram and the majestic Kailasanatha and Vaikuntaperumal temples of Kanchipuram stand testament to the Pallava art. The Cholas, utilising their prodigious wealth earned through their extensive conquests, built long-lasting stone temples including the great Brihadisvara temple of Thanjavur and exquisite bronze sculptures. Temples dedicated to Siva and Vishnu received liberal donations of money, jewels, animals, and land, and thereby became powerful economic institutions. Mutharaiyar who ruled the central part of Tamil Nadu between 600 - 900 CE. The Cauvery Delta regions were mostly ruled by the Muthraiyar Kings having Woraiyur as their Capital. Vijayalayachola conquered Tanjore from Dhancheya Muhuraiyar King who established the Tanjore City. Among the noted Muthariyar King, Perumbidugu alias Swaran Maran Muthraiyar who conquered consequently 14 battles and known as the Emperor in Tamil Nadu (Perarasar). He and his ancestors built many cave temples in Tiruchirappalli and Pudukottai regions. Among them Kuvavan Sathan alias Videl Vidugu Muthraiyar built many cave temples in Pudukottai Region. Mutharaiyars and ancestors are known as Muthuraja in central of part of Tamil Nadu particularly Tiruchirappalli.
Tamil script replaced the vatteluttu script throughout Tamil Nadu for writing Tamil. Religious literature flourished during the period. The Tamil epic, Kamban's Ramavatharam, was written in the 13th century. A contemporary of Kamban was the famous poet Auvaiyar who found great happiness in writing for young children. The secular literature was mostly court poetry devoted to the eulogy of the rulers. The religious poems of the previous period and the classical literature of the Sangam period were collected and systematised into several anthologies. Sanskrit was patronised by the priestly groups for religious rituals and other ceremonial purposes. Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a contemporary of Rajaraja Chola I, collected and arranged the books on Saivism into eleven books called Tirumurais. The hagiology of Saivism was standardised in Periyapuranam by Sekkilar, who lived during the reign of Kulothunga Chola II (1133–1150 CE). Jayamkondar's Kalingattupparani, a semi-historical account on the two invasions of Kalinga by Kulothunga Chola I was an early example of a biographical work.
Pallavas
The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the 2nd century. It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers under the Satavahana kings. After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of Andhra and the Tamil country. Later they had marital ties with the Vishnukundina who ruled over the Deccan. It was around 550 CE under King Simhavishnu that the Pallavas emerged into prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as the Kaveri River.
The Pallavas were at their finest during the reigns of Narasimhavarman I and Pallavamalla Nandivarman II. Pallavas ruled a large portion of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital. Dravidian architecture during the Pallava rule includes the Shore Temple, built for Narasimhavarman II, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many sources describe Bodhidharma, the founder of the Zen school of Buddhism in China, as a prince of the Pallava dynasty. Alongside Bodhidharma, another monk, Vajrabodhi is said to have been the son of a Tamil aristocrat, travelled from Tamil Nadu to the Tang capital of Chang'an, via Sri Lanka and Srivijaya, after mastering the art of Tantric Buddhism. He took a plethora of new theological beliefs to a China that was largely following Confucianism or Daoism. Vajrabodhi's contribution to the growth of Tantric Buddhism in China has been recorded by one of his lay disciples, Lü Xiang.
During the 6th and the 7th centuries, the western Deccan saw the rise of the Chalukyas based in Vatapi. Pulakeshin II (c.610–642) invaded the Pallava kingdom in the reign of Mahendravarman I. Narasimhavarman who succeeded Mahendravarman mounted a counter invasion of the Chalukya country and captured the Chalukyan capital Vatapi and ruled it for 12 years. The rivalry between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas continued for another 100 years until the demise of the Chalukyas around 750. The Chalukyas and Pallavas fought numerous battles and the Pallava capital Kanchipuram was occupied by Vikramaditya II during the reign of Nandivarman II. Nandivarman II had a very long reign (732–796). He led an expedition to the Ganga kingdom (south Mysore) in 760. Pallavas were also in constant conflict with the Pandyas and their frontier shifted along the river Kaveri. The Pallavas had the more difficult existence of the two as they had to fight on two fronts—against the Pandyas as well as the Chalukyas.
Pandyas
Pandya Kadungon (560–590) is credited with the overthrow of the Kalabhras in the south. Kadungon and his son Maravarman Avanisulamani revived the Pandya power. Pandya Cendan extended their rule to the Chera country. His son Arikesari Parantaka Maravarman (c. 650–700) had a long and prosperous rule. He fought many battles and extended the Pandya power. Pandya was well known since ancient times, with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching the Roman Empire; during the 13th century, Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest empire in existence.
The Pandyan Empire was large enough to pose a serious threat to the Pallava power. Pandya Maravarman Rajasimha aligned with the Chalukya Vikramaditya II and attacked the Pallava king Nandivarman II. Varagunan I defeated the Pallavas in a battle on the banks of the Kaveri. The Pallava king Nandivarman sought to restrain the growing power of the Pandyas and went into an alliance with the feudal chieftains of Kongu and Chera countries. The armies met in several battles and the Pandya forces scored decisive victories in them. Pandyas under Srimara Srivallaba also invaded Sri Lanka and devastated the northern provinces in 840.
The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava territories. The Pallavas were now facing a new threat in the form of the Rashtrakutas who had replaced the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. However, the Pallavas found an able monarch in Nandivarman III, who with the help of his Ganga and Chola allies defeated Srimara at the Battle of Tellaru. The Pallava kingdom again extended up to the river Vaigai. The Pandyas suffered further defeats at the hands of the Pallava Nripatunga at Arisil (c. 848). From then the Pandyas had to accept the overlordship of the Pallavas.
Cholas
Around 850, out of obscurity rose Vijayalaya Chola, the successor of Srikantha Chola made use of an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured Thanjavur from Mutharaiyar dynasty and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty and his son Aditya I helped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in 903 and killed the Pallava king Aparajita in battle, ending the Pallava reign. The Chola kingdom under Parantaka I expanded to cover the entire Pandya country. However, towards the end of his reign, he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well into the Chola kingdom.
The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace intrigues and succession disputes. Despite a number of attempts, the Pandya country could not be completely subdued and the Rashtrakutas were still a powerful enemy in the north. However, the Chola revival began with the accession of Rajaraja Chola I in 985. Cholas rose as a notable military, economic and cultural power in Asia under Rajaraja and his son Rajendra Chola I. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the river Ganges in Bengal. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of Maldives. Rajendra Chola extended the Chola conquests to the Malayan archipelago by defeating the Srivijaya kingdom. He defeated Mahipala, the king of Bihar and Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram (the town of Cholas who conquered the Ganges). At its peak, the Chola Empire extended from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago. Chola armies exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia. During the reign of Rajaraja and Rajendra, the administration of the Chola empire matured considerably. The empire was divided into a number of self-governing local government units, and the officials were selected through a system of popular elections.
Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever-resilient Sinhalas trying to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, Pandya princes trying to win independence for their traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. The history of this period was one of constant warfare between the Cholas and of these antagonists. A balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and there was a tacit acceptance of the Tungabhadra river as the boundary between the two empires. However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom. The Cholas and Chalukyas fought many battles and both kingdoms were exhausted by the endless battles and a stalemate existed.
Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukya kings based around Vengi located on the south banks of the river Godavari began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070 and Kulothunga Chola I ascended the Chola throne starting the Chalukya Chola dynasty. Kulothunga was a son of the Vengi king Rajaraja Narendra. The Chalukya Chola dynasty saw very capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola, however, the eventual decline of the Chola power practically started during this period. The Cholas lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. Around 1118 they also lost control of Vengi to Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the growing power of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, a Chalukya feudatory. In the Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central administration caused a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. During the last century of the Chola existence, a permanent Hoysala army was stationed in Kanchipuram to protect them from the growing influence of the Pandyas. Rajendra Chola III was the last Chola king. The Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I even captured Rajendra and held him prisoner. At the close of Rajendra's reign (1279), the Pandyan empire was at the height of prosperity and had completely absorbed the Chola kingdom.
The Cholas also found a place in the very famous novel by Kalki title Ponniyin Selvan which portrays the whole Chola history with Rajaraja Cholan ( Ponniyin Selvan, Arul Mozhi Varman, Vallavarayan Vanthiyaththevan, Karikalar, Nandhini, Kundhavi) as the characters of the novel.
Cheras
The Cheras were an ancient Dravidian royal dynasty of Tamil origin who ruled in regions of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in India. Together with the Chola and the Pandyas, it formed the three principal warring Iron Age kingdoms of southern India in the early centuries of the Common Era. over a wide area comprising Venad, Kuttanad, Kudanad, Pazhinad, and more. In other words, they governed the area between Alappuzha in the south to Kasargod in the north. This included Palghat, Coimbatore, Salem, and Kollimalai. The capital was Vanchi, which the Romans who actively traded with the Cheras knew as Muzris.
By the early centuries of the Common Era, civil society and statehood under the Cheras were developed in present-day western Tamil Nadu. The location of the Chera capital is generally assumed to be at modern Karur (identified with the Korra of Ptolemy). The Chera kingdom later extended to the plains of Kerala, the Palghat gap, along the river Perar and occupied land between the river Perar and river Periyar, creating two harbour towns, Tondi (Tyndis) and Muciri (Muziris), where the Roman trade settlements flourished.
The Cheras were in continuous conflict with the neighboring Cholas and Pandyas. The Cheras are said to have defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas and their ally states. They also made battles with the Kadambās of Banavasi and the Yavanas (the Greeks) on the Indian coast. After the 2nd century AD, the Cheras' power decayed rapidly with the decline of the lucrative trade with the Romans.
The Tamil poetic collection called Sangam literature describes a long line of Chera rulers dated to the first few centuries AD. It records the names of the kings, the princes, and the court poets who extolled them. The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present, a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan and Senguttuvan Chera are some of the rulers referred to in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated Chera king, is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the heroine of the Tamil epic Silapathikaram.
The Chera kingdom owed its importance to trade with West Asia, Greece, and Rome. Its geographical advantages, like the abundance of exotic spices, the navigability of the rivers connecting the Ghat mountains with the Arabian Sea, and the discovery of favorable Monsoon winds which carried sailing ships directly from the Arabian coast to Chera kingdom, combined to produce a veritable boom in the Chera foreign trade.
The Later Cheras ruled from the 9th century. Little is known about the Cheras between the two dynasties. The second dynasty, Kulasekharas ruled from a city on the banks of River Periyar called Mahodayapuram (Kodungallur). Though never regained the old status in the Peninsula, Kulasekharas fought numerous wars with their powerful neighbors and diminished to history in the 12th century as a result of continuous Chola and Rashtrakuta invasions. The Chera Dynasty was supported by Tamil warriors such as Villavar, Vanavar and Malayar clans.
The Chera rulers of Venadu, based at the port Quilon in southern Kerala, trace their relations back to the later/second Cheras. Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, ruler of Venadu from 1299 to 1314, is known for his ambitious military campaigns to former Pandya and Chola territories.
Pandya revival
After being overshadowed by the Pallavas and Cholas for centuries, the Pandiyas revived their fortunes in the 13th century and the Pandya power extended from the Telugu territories along the banks of the Godavari river to the northern half of Sri Lanka. When Kulasekara Pandyan I died in 1308, a conflict stemming from succession disputes arose amongst his sons – the legitimate Sundara Pandya and the illegitimate Vira Pandya (who was favoured by the king) fought each other for the throne. Soon Madurai fell into the hands of the invading armies of the Delhi Sultanate (which initially gave protection to the vanquished Sundara Pandyan).
Delhi Sultanate
Malik Kafur, a general of the Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khalji invaded and sacked Madurai in 1311. Pandyas and their descendants were confined to a small region around Thirunelveli for a few more years. Ravivarman Kulasekara (r. 1299–1314), a Chera (Perumal) feudatory of Kulasekara Pandya, staked his claim to the Pandya throne. Ravivarman, utilising the unsettled nature of the country, quickly overran the southern Tamil Nadu and brought the entire region from Kanyakumari to Kanchipuram, under the Chera kingdom. His inscription was found in Punaamalli, a suburb of Madras. But, Ravivarman's hold over Kānci was only short-lived and his aggressive activities were arrested by the Kākatiya ruler, Pratāparudra II. The Kākatiya army under the command of Muppidi Nāyaka marched to Kanci, and captured the city.
Vijayanagar and Nayak period (1300–1650)
The 14th-century invasion by the Delhi Sultans caused a retaliatory reaction from the Hindus, who rallied to build a new kingdom, called the Vijayanagara Empire. Bukka, with his brother Harihara, founded the Vijayanagara Empire based in the city of Vijayanagara in Karnataka. Under Bukka the empire prospered and continued to expand towards the south. Bukka and his son Kampana conquered most of the kingdoms of southern India. In 1371 the Vijayanagar empire defeated the short-lived Madurai Sultanate, which had been established by the remnants of the invading Khalji army. Eventually the empire covered the entire south India. Vijayanagara empire established local governors called Nayaks to rule in the various territories of the empire.
The Vijayanagar Empire declined in 1565 defeated by the Deccan sultans in the Battle of Talikota. The local Nayak governors declared their independence and started their rule. The Nayaks of Madurai and Thanjavur were the most prominent of them. Ragunatha Nayak (1600–1645) was the greatest of the Tanjavur Nayaks. Raghunatha Nayak encouraged trade and permitted a Danish settlement in 1620 at Tarangambadi. This laid the foundation of future European involvement in the affairs of the country. The success of the Dutch inspired the English to seek trade with Thanjavur, which was to lead to far-reaching repercussions. Vijaya Raghava (1631–1676) was the last of the Thanjavur Nayaks. Nayaks reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the country and their contributions can be seen even today. Nayaks expanded the existing temples with large pillared halls, and tall gateway towers, which is representative of the religious architecture of this period.
In Madurai, Thirumalai Nayak was the most famous Nayak ruler. He patronised art and architecture creating new structures and expanding the existing landmarks in and around Madurai. On Thirumalai Nayak's death in 1659, the Madurai Nayak kingdom began to break up. His successors were weak rulers and invasions of Madurai recommenced. The Nayakas manned their forces with primarily Kallar and Marava warriors.
Tondaiman period (1680–1948)
Pudukkottai was a kingdom and later a princely state in British India, which existed from 1680 until 1948. It was one of the very few regions of Tamil Nadu not to be colonized by the British. The Kingdom of Pudukkottai was founded in about 1680 as a feudatory of Ramnad and grew with subsequent additions from Tanjore, Sivaganga and Ramnad. One of the staunch allies of the British East India Company in the Carnatic, Anglo-Mysore and Polygar Wars, the kingdom was brought under the Company's protection in 1800 as per the system of Subsidiary Alliance. The state was placed under the control of the Madras Presidency from 1800 until 1 October 1923, when the Madras States Agency was abolished, and until 1948 it was under the political control of the Government of India.
Pudukkottai State covered a total area of 1,178 square miles (3,050 km2) and had a population of 438,648 in 1941. It extended over the whole of the present-day Pudukkottai district of Tamil Nadu (with the exception of Aranthangi taluk which was then a part of Tanjore district). The town of Pudukkottai was its capital.
List of kings of Pudukkottai
Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman (1686–1730)
Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman I (1730–1769)
Raya Raghunatha Tondaiman (1769– December 1789)
Vijaya Raghunatha Tondaiman (December 1789 – 1 February 1807)
Vijaya Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman II (1 February 1807 – June 1825)
Raghunatha Tondaiman (June 1825 – 13 July 1839)
Ramachandra Tondaiman (13 July 1839 – 15 April 1886)
Martanda Bhairava Tondaiman (15 April 1886 – 28 May 1928)
Rajagopala Tondaiman (28 October 1928 – 1 March 1948)
Maratha influences (1676–1855)
In 1676, Shivaji Bhonsle, the first Maratha Chhatrapati, started a campaign in present-day Tamil Nadu. Shivaji had conquered important forts like Gingee and Vellore by 1678. Ekoji Bhonsle, the paternal half brother of Shivaji, established his own rule in Thanjavur. This particular Bhonsle dynasty ruled Thanjavur until 1855, when the kingdom was annexed by the British Raj.
Gingee served as the Maratha capital for nine years during the 27-year Mughal-Maratha war, starting after the death of Chhatrapati Sambhaji. The Mughals captured Gingee in 1698.
Rule of Poligars, Nizams and Nawabs
European settlements began to appear in the Tamil country during the Vijayanagara Empire. In 1605, the Dutch established trading posts in the Coromandel Coast near Gingee and in Pulicat. The British East India Company built a 'factory' (warehouse) at Armagaon (Durgarazpatnam), a village around North of Pulicat, as the site in 1626. In 1639, Francis Day, one of the officers of the company, secured the rights over a three-mile (5 km) long strip of land a fishing village called Madraspatnam from the Damarla Venkatadri Nayakudu, the Nayak of Vandavasi. The East India Company built Fort St George and castle on an approximate five square kilometre sand strip. This was the start of the town of Madras. The coromandel coast was ruled by the Vijayanagara King (Aravidu Dynasty), Peda Venkata Raya, based in Chandragiri and Vellore Fort. With his approval the English began to exercise sovereign rights over their strip of land.
During the Maratha rule of Thanjavur. After Ekoji, his three sons namely Shaji, Serfoji I, Thukkoji alias Thulaja I ruled Thanjavur. The greatest of the Maratha rulers was Serfoji II (1798–1832 ). Serfoji devoted his life to the pursuit of culture and Thanjavur became renowned as a seat of learning. Serfoji's patronised art and literature and built the Saraswati Mahal Library at his palace. The incursion of the Muslim armies from the north forced a southward migration of Hindus from the central Deccan and the Andhra countries to seek shelter under the Nayak and the Maratha kings. The famous Carnatic music composer Tyagaraja (1767–1847), along with the Trinity of Carnatic music flourished in the Thanjavur district during this time.
With the demise of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, his empire dissolved amidst numerous succession wars and the vassals of the empire began to assert their independence. The administration of the southern districts of Tamil Nadu was fragmented with hundreds of Polygars or Palayakkarars governing a few villages each. These local chieftains often fought amongst each other over territory. This turned the political situation in the Tamil country and in South India in general into confusion and chaos. The European traders found themselves in a situation where they could exploit the prevailing confusion to their own advantage.
European influences
Anglo-French conflicts
The French were relative newcomers to India. The French East India Company was formed in 1664 and in 1666 the French representatives obtained Aurangzeb's permission to trade in India. The French soon set up trading posts at Pondicherry on the Coromandel coast. They occupied Karaikal in 1739 and Joseph François Dupleix was appointed Governor of Pondichéry. In Europe the War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 and eventually the British and the French forces in India were caught up in the conflict. There were numerous naval battles between the two navies along the Coromandel coast. The French led by La Bourdonnais attacked the poorly defended Fort St. George in Madras in 1746 and occupied it. Robert Clive was one of the prisoners of war from this battle. The war in Europe ended in 1748 and with the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Madras was restored to the British.
The conflict between the British and the French continued, this time in political rather than military terms. Both the Nawab of the Carnatic and Nizam of Hyderabad positions were taken by rulers who were strongly sympathetic to the French. Chanda Sahib had been made Nawab of the Carnatic with Dupleix's assistance, while the British had taken up the cause of the previous incumbent, Mohammed Ali Khan Walajah. In the resultant battle between the rivals, Clive assisted Mohammed Ali by attacking Chanda Sahib's fort in Arcot and took possession of it in 1751. The French assisted Chanda Sahib in his attempts to drive Clive out of Arcot. However, the large Arcot army assisted by the French was defeated by the British. The Treaty of Paris (1763) formally confirmed Mahommed Ali as the Nawab of the Carnatic. It was a result of this action and the increased British influence that in 1765 the Emperor of Delhi issued a firman (decree) recognising the British possessions in southern India.
British Government control
Although the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was getting clearer day by day that the Company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. Opinion amongst the members of the British Parliament urged the government to control the activities of the Company. The Company's financial position was also bad and it had to apply for a loan from Parliament. Seizing this opportunity, the Parliament passed the Regulating Act (also known as East India Company Act) in 1773. The act set down regulations to control the Company Board and created the position of the Governor General. Warren Hastings was appointed the first Governor-General. In 1784 Pitt's India Act made the Company subordinate to the British Government.
The next few decades were of rapid growth and expansion in the territories controlled by the British. The Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1766 to 1799 and the Anglo-Maratha Wars of 1772 to 1818 put the Company in control of most of India. In a sign of the early resistance against the English control, the Palayakkarar chieftains of the old Madurai Kingdom, who had independent authority over their territories, ran into a conflict with the Company officials over tax collection. Kattabomman, a local Palayakkarar chieftain in the Tirunelveli district, rebelled against the taxes imposed by the Company administration in the 1790s. After the First Polygar War (1799–1802), he was captured and hanged in 1799. A year later, the Second Polygar War was fought by Oomaithurai was involved in the Polygar Wars against the East India Company. In the first Poligar war, he was captured and imprisoned in Palayamkottai Central Prison
. In February 1801, he escaped from Palayamkottai Central Prison and rebuilt the Panchalankurichi fort which had been razed in the first war. In the second Poligar war that followed, Oomaithurai allied himself with Maruthu brothers (who ruled Sivagangai) and was part of a grand alliance against the Company which included Dheeran Chinnamalai and Kerala Verma. The Company forces led by Lt. Colonel Agnew laid siege to the Panchalankurichi fort and captured it in May 1801 after a prolonged siege and artillery bombardment. Oomaithurai escaped the fall of the fort and joined Marudu brothers at their jungle fort at Kalayar Kovil. The Company forces pursued him there and eventually captured Kalayar Kovil in October 1801. Oomaithurai along with the Marudu brothers was hanged on 16 November 1801.
In 1798 Lord Wellesley became the Governor-General. In the course of the next six years, Wellesley made vast conquests and doubled the Company's territory. He shut out the French from further acquisitions in India, destroyed several ruling powers in the Deccan and the Carnatic, took the Mughal Emperor under the company's protection and compelled Serfoji, the king of Thanjavur to cede control of his kingdom. The Madras Presidency was established so that the territory under direct Company control could be administered effectively. The direct administration began to cause resentment among the people. In 1806 the soldiers of the Vellore cantonment rebelled when William Bentinck, the Governor of Madras decreed that the native soldiers should abandon all caste marks. Fearing this act to be an attempt of forceful conversion to Christianity, the soldiers mutinied. The rebellion was suppressed but 114 British officers were killed and several hundred mutineers executed. Bentinck was recalled in disgrace.
End of Company rule
The simmering discontent in the various districts of the company territories exploded in 1857 into the Sepoy war. Although the rebellion had a huge impact on the state of the colonial power in India, Tamil Nadu was mostly unaffected by it. As a consequence of the war, the British Government enacted the Act of 1858 to abolish the powers of the Company and transfer the government to the Crown.
British rule (1858–1947)
In 1858 the British Crown assumed direct rule in India. During the early years, the government was autocratic in many ways. The opinion of Indians in their own affairs was not considered by Britain as important. However, in due course, the British Raj began to allow Indians participation in local government. Viceroy Ripon passed a resolution in 1882, which gave a greater and more real share in local government to the people. Further legislation such as the 1892 Indian councils Act and the 1909 "Minto–Morley Reforms" eventually led to the establishment of the Madras Legislative Council. The non-cooperation movement started under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership led the British government to pass the Government of India Act (also known as Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms) of 1919. The first elections were held for the local assemblies in 1921.
Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the Ryotwari system resulted in a severe famine in the Madras Presidency during 1876–1877. The government and several charitable institutions organised relief work in the city and the suburbs. Funds were also raised from Europeans in India and overseas for the famine relief. Humanitarians such as William Digby wrote angrily about the woeful failure of the British administration to act promptly and adequately in response to the wholesale suffering caused by the famine. When the famine finally ended with the return of the monsoon in 1878, between three and five million people had perished. In response to the devastating effects of the famine, the government organised a Famine Commission in 1880 to define the principles of disaster relief. The government also instituted a famine insurance grant, setting aside 1.5 million Rupees. Other civic works such as canal building and improvements in roads and railway were also undertaken to minimise the effects of any future famines.
Independence struggle
The growing desire for independence began to gradually gather pace in the country and its influence in Tamil Nadu generated a number of volunteers to the fight against the British colonial power in the struggle for Independence. Notable amongst these are Tiruppur Kumaran, who was born in 1904 in a small village near Erode. Kumaran lost his life during a protest march against the British. The location of the French colony of Pondichéry, offered a place of refuge for the fugitives freedom fighters trying to flee the British Police. Aurobindo was one such living in Pondicherry in 1910. The poet Subramania Bharati was a contemporary of Aurobindo. Bharathi wrote numerous poems in Tamil extolling the revolutionary cause. He also published the journal India from Pondicherry. Both Aurobindo and Bharathi were associated with other Tamil revolutionaries like V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. Tamils formed a significant percentage of the members of the Indian National Army (INA), founded by Subhas Chandra Bose to fight the British occupation in India. Lakshmi Sahgal from Tamil Nadu was a prominent leader in the INA's Rani of Jhansi Regiment.
In 1916 Dr. T. M. Nair and Rao Bahadur Thygaraya Chetty released the Non-Brahmin Manifesto sowing the seeds for the Dravidian movements. During the 1920s, two movements focused mainly on regional politics began in Tamil Nadu. One was the Justice Party, which won the local legislative elections held in 1921. The Justice Party was not focused on the Indian independence movement, rather on local issues such as affirmative action for socially backward groups. The other main movement was the anti-religious, anti-Brahmin, Self-Respect Movement led by E. V. Ramasami. Further steps towards eventual self-rule were taken in 1935 when the British Government passed the All-India Federation Act of 1935. Fresh local elections were held and in Tamil Nadu the Congress party captured power defeating the Justice party. In 1938, Ramasami with C. N. Annadurai launched an agitation against the Congress ministry's decision to introduce the teaching of Hindi in schools.
Post Independence period
The trauma of the partition did not impact Tamil Nadu when India was granted Independence in 1947. There was no sectarian violence against various religions. There had always been an atmosphere of mutual respect and peaceful coexistence between all religions in Tamil Nadu. Congress formed the first ministry in the Madras Presidency. C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) was the first Chief Minister. Madras Presidency was eventually reconstituted as Madras State. Following agitations for a separate Andhra state comprising the Telugu-speaking regions of the Madras state by Potti Sriramalu, the Indian Government decided to partition the Madras state. In 1953 Rayalaseema and the coastal Andhra regions became the new state of Andhra Pradesh and the Bellary district became part of the Mysore state. In 1956 south Kanara district was transferred to Mysore, the Malabar coastal districts became part of the new state of Kerala, and the Madras state assumed its present shape. The Madras state was named Tamil Nadu (literally The Land of Tamils or Tamil Country) in 1969.
The Sri Lankan Civil War during the 1970s and the 80s saw large numbers of Sri Lankan Tamils fleeing to Tamil Nadu. The plight of Tamil refugees caused a surge of support from most of the Tamil political parties. They exerted pressure on the Indian government to intercede with the Sri Lankan government on behalf of the Sri Lankan Tamilians. However, LTTE lost much of its support from Tamil Nadu following the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi on 21 May 1991 by an operative from Sri Lanka for the former prime minister's role in sending Indian peacekeepers to Sri Lanka to disarm the LTTE.
The east coast of Tamil Nadu was one of the areas affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, during which almost 8000 people died in the disaster. The sixth most populous state in the Indian Union, Tamil Nadu was the seventh-largest economy in 2005 among the states of India. The growing demands for skilled labour has caused increased number of educational institutions in Tamil Nadu. The widespread application of caste-based affirmative action caused the state to have 69% of all educational and employment vacancies to be reserved to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes. Such caste-based reservations have huge public support in Tamil Nadu, with no popular protests organised against its implementation.
Since the 1990s, Tamil Nadu has experienced significant economic growth, especially in the service sector, and has had significant increases in development indicators. Kalaiyarasan (2014) attributes this to the strong welfare measures implemented by successive state governments and a two-track focus on economic growth and grassroots development.
Evolution of regional politics
The politics of Tamil Nadu have gone through three distinct phases since independence. The domination of the Congress Party after 1947 gave way to the Dravidian populist mobilisation in the 1960s. This phase lasted until the end of the 1990s. The most recent phase saw the fragmentation of the Dravidian political parties and led to the advent of political alliances and coalition governments. Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in 1949 after splitting from Dravidar Kazhagam. DMK also decided to oppose the 'expansion of the Hindi culture' in Tamil Nadu and started the demand for a separate homeland for the Dravidians in the South. The demand was for an Independent state called Dravida Nadu (country of Dravidians) comprising Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra, Karnataka and Kerala. The increased involvement of the Indian National Congress party in Madras during the late 1950s and the strong pan-Indian emotions whipped up by the Sino-Indian War in 1962 led to the demand for Dravida Nadu losing some of its immediacy. Consequently, in 1963, when the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution of India, precluded secessionist parties from contesting elections, the DMK chose to formally drop its demand for an independent Dravida Nadu, focusing instead on securing greater functional autonomy within the framework of the Indian Constitution.
The Congress party, riding on the wave of public support stemming from the independence struggle, formed the first post-independence government in Tamil Nadu and continued to govern until 1967. In 1965 and 1968, DMK led widespread anti-Hindi agitations in the state against the plans of the Union Government to introduce Hindi in the state schools. Affirmative action in employment and educational institutions were pioneered in Tamil Nadu based on the demands of the Dravidian movement. The leadership of the Dravidian movement had very capable authors and literati in Annadurai and Karunanidhi, who assiduously utilised the popular media of stage plays and movies to spread its political messages. MG Ramachandran (MGR) who later became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, was one such stage and movie actor.
In 1967 DMK won the state election. DMK split into two in 1971, with MGR forming the splinter All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK). Since then these two parties have dominated the politics of Tamil Nadu. AIADMK, under MGR, retained control of the State Government over three consecutive assembly elections in 1977, 1980 and 1984. After MGR's death, AIADMK was split over the succession between various contenders. Eventually J. Jayalalithaa took over the leadership of AIADMK.
Several changes to the political balance in Tamil Nadu took place during the later half of the 1990s, eventually leading to the end of the duopoly of DMK and AIADMK in the politics of Tamil Nadu. In 1996, a split in the Congress party in Tamil Nadu eventuated in the formation of Tamil Maanila Congress (TMC). TMC aligned with the DMK, while another party Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK), which split from DMK aligned with the AIADMK. These and several smaller political parties began to gain popular support. The first instance of a 'grand alliance' was during the 1996 elections for the National parliament, during which the AIADMK formed a large coalition of a number of smaller parties to counter the electoral threat posed by the alliance between the DMK and TMC. Since then the formation of alliances of a large number of political parties has become an electoral practice in Tamil Nadu. The electoral decline of Congress party at the national level, which started during early 1990, forced the Congress to seek coalition partners from various states including Tamil Nadu. This paved the way for the Dravidian parties to be part of the Central Government.
In the 2001 elections, Jaylalithaa became Chief Minister again, but due to legal cases against her, the Chief Ministership was taken up by loyalist O. Paneerselvam until she returned 6 months later. In the 2006 assembly elections however, the DMK won a majority and Karunanidhi became chief minister. During the 2011 election however, the DMK was beset by anti-incumbency and anger over the 2G scam, and Jaylalithaa became Chief Minister again. Unlike the rest of India, the 2014 Lok Sabha elections resulted in no significant increase in support for the Bharatiya Janata Party in Tamil Nadu and the AIADMK swept the state. In 2016, Jaylalithaa won another term, but soon after taking office died of a heart attack. After her death, Paneerselvam served again as caretaker Chief Minister until he was expelled from the party by general secretary V. K. Sasikala. Then Edappadi Palaniswami, the newly-elected leader of the AIADMK legislature party, reached an agreement on chief ministership, and Palaniswami became chief minister in February 2017 with Paneerselvam as his deputy. In 2018, Karunanidhi died and was succeeded by his son M.K. Stalin as DMK leader and leader of the opposition. In the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, the DMK-led alliance swept the state winning 37 out of 38 seats. The alliance also won the 2021 Legislative Assembly election, with 159 out of 234 seats. As a result, M.K. Stalin became the Chief Minister for the first time.
See also
Chronology of Tamil history
Tamil inscriptions
Tamizhi
Tamil Heritage Foundation
The Tamils are an ancient people...
Political history of medieval Karnataka
Notes
References
Further reading
Unintended influence of Jainism on the development of caste in post-classical Tamil society
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1957 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1957 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 25th running of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 22 and 23 June 1957, on the Circuit de la Sarthe. It was also the fifth round of the F.I.A. World Sports Car Championship. Some 250,000 spectators had gathered for Europe's classic sports car race, around an 8.38-mile course. The prospect of an exciting duel between Ferrari, Maserati, Jaguar, Aston Martin and Porsche was enough to draw large crowds to the 24 Hours race, now back at its usual date and reintegrated into the World Championship.
Never before had a single nation swept the board so completely as Britain did in 1957. The great success of the Jaguars in taking the first four and sixth places became all the more significant when it is considered that all of the cars were privately entered (albeit with some factory support), and matched against the works entries of some of the greatest sport car manufacturers.
Regulations
After the major changes in the previous year, the ACO relented on its engine-size limitation – prototypes were again an open limit. They did, however, address body-shape requirements: the token second seat. Cars now had to have at least two doors and both seats had to be the same size, in a cockpit a minimum 1.2m wide. The minimum windscreen height was reduced from 20 to 15 cm, maximum fuel-tank size was 120 litres, and the total fuel usage restrictions were removed a year after they were imposed. One of the oldest regulations was removed – of having to carry all spares and tools on the car, allowing them to be left in the pits.
This all re-aligned with the FIA/CSI, who themselves issued a major new Appendix C to the Sports Car regulations based closely on the 1956 ACO regulations. Therefore, the Le Mans race was drafted back into the World Sportscar Championship.
The number of starters was fixed at 55. The maximum drive time stayed at 14 hours, but drivers were now limited to a maximum single stint of 36 laps, down from the previous year's 72 laps. The interval between refuelling was reduced for the first time, down to 30 laps from 34 laps. This year, for the Index of Performance, the target distances for nominal engine sizes were set as follows (according to a specific formula):
The Hors Course rule was revised: there would be systematic disqualification after every 6 hours (rather than previous 12 hours) of cars that had fallen more than 20% below its nominal Index of Performance at that time. Finally, the ACO formalised a ban on female drivers, after the death of Annie Bousquet in the 1956 12 Hours of Reims
Entries
A total of 82 racing cars were registered for this event, of which 58 were allowed to practice, trying to qualify for the 55 starting places for the race. The big talking point with the entry list was the non-appearance of the works Jaguar team, which had retired from racing at the end of the previous year; and the arrival in force of Maserati in the top class.
In the absence of the works team, the defending champions put their support behind their customer teams. Ex-works driver Duncan Hamilton and Ecurie Ecosse both had one of the experimental fuel-injected 3.8L-engined cars, capable of nearly 300 bhp. Ecurie Ecosse also ran the 3.4L car that Paul Frère had crashed early in the previous year's race (and arriving still in its British Racing Green straight from the Jaguar factory). Frère himself was racing for his native Equipe Nationale Belge using the same car the team had finished 4th in 1956. Finally there was the car for French industrial diamond-manufacturer privateer Jean Brussin (racing under the pseudonym “Mary”) in conjunction with the Lyon-based Los Amigos racing team.
Aston Martin, now managed by Reg Parnell as John Wyer had moved up to be general manager, brought three works cars: their new DBR2, as well as two DBR1/300s with uprated 3.0L engines generating 245 bhp. Their regular drivers Roy Salvadori and Tony Brooks were paired with new team-members Les Leston and Noël Cunningham-Reid respectively. The one-off DBR2 used the defunct Lagonda P166 frame fitted with the 3.7L engine of the new DB4 road-car (producing 290 bhp) and given to the Whitehead brothers. The team had good reason to be confident for outright honours, after Brooks and Cunningham-Reid raced to victory over the Italians in their DBR1/300 at the most recent round of the championship: the 1000km of Nürburgring. There was also an older DB3S entered for two French gentleman-drivers filled a vacant fourth works entry.
Ferrari arrived, it hoped, with an overwhelming force of ten cars. The works team had two of their mighty new Type 335 S, with its big 4.0L V12 engine (capable of 390 PS) for their grand prix drivers: Mike Hawthorn / Luigi Musso and Peter Collins / Phil Hill - their driver ranks were sadly depleted after the deaths, earlier in the year, of works drivers Eugenio Castellotti and then Alfonso de Portago (in an accident that led to the end of the iconic Mille Miglia). The team also ran a pair of Type 250 TR prototypes testing for the upcoming CSI regulations changes. One with a 3.0L V12 for Ferrari test-driver Martino Severi and Stuart Lewis-Evans, and the other with a 3.1L V12 for Maurice Trintignant and Olivier Gendebien, who had been Ferrari's best performers in the previous year's race, finishing 4th. There were also a pair of privately entered 3.5L 290 MM and three 2.0L Testarossas (including Equipe Nationale Belge running a Jaguar, Ferrari and a Porsche to hedge their bets).
Maserati also turned up with confidence this year: Stirling Moss was now a Maserati works driver, and was to drive the coupé version (designed by Vanwall’s Frank Costin) of the 450S with French-American Harry Schell, while the spyder version was run by Jean Behra / André Simon. Its 4.5L V8 developed 420 bhp (being the biggest engine in this year’s race) although the cars still used big, obsolete drum brakes. Along with these were a 3.0L car and a pair of smaller 2.0L cars. Juan Manuel Fangio (who had won at Sebring with Behra in a 450 spyder) was present in the pit, as a ‘reserve driver’ to put concern in the opposition teams.
France, now a fading force in the major categories was only represented by a pair of Talbot-Maseratis for the Ecurie Dubonnet team and two works Gordinis (as usual, split between the S-3000 and S-2000 classes). As it turned out, this was to be the last appearance from these stalwart supporters of the race.
Although Bristol was no longer running, its 2.0L engine was used by Frazer Nash and debutante AC Cars to take on the five medium-engined privateer Ferraris and Maseratis in the S-2000 class. Without Lotus present, the six Porsches had the S-1500 class to themselves. The works team brought a pair of 550As as well as one of the new 718 RSK for Umberto Maglioli and East German Edgar Barth. The other three were Belgian, French and American private entrants.
The British instead pushed into the S-1100 class with the FWA-Climax engine powering the Lotus (after a class win at Sebring), Cooper and Arnott cars. They were up against a Stanguellini stepping up a class, and a 1-off appearance from Germany of an unusual, plastic DKW using its 3-cylinder 2-stroke motorcycle engine (developing less than 50 bhp!).
The smallest, S-750, class was the usual assortment of French and Italian cars except for a lone Lotus muddying the waters. Colin Chapman had convinced Coventry Climax to develop a short-stroke version of its successful FWA engine (generating 75 bhp) to take on the French in the lucrative Index of Performance (the handicap system which measured cars exceeding their specified target distance by the greatest ratio). Lotus works driver Cliff Allison, and Keith Hall, were its drivers. Lucky to reach scrutineering in time, it was presented with no exhaust and without having the engine been run.
Practice and Pre-Race
A number of events were held over the race weekend to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of the ACO – postponed as they were from the previous year after the 1955 disaster. Seventy classic French cars from the very earliest years of the organisation, with drivers in period costume, did demonstration laps of the circuit in a ‘Race of Regularity’ – the winning 1908 Roland-Pillain recorded doing over 50 mph along the Mulsanne straight . This year also saw a demonstration lap performed by the first turbine car – a Renault L’Etoile Filante.
The big Italian cars set the first sub-4 minute laps in practice: Mike Hawthorn in the Ferrari, then Fangio driving Behra's Maserati spyder – his 3.58:1 being the fastest single lap of the decade. Moss had a major moment when the special new large brakes on his car locked coming up to Mulsanne corner at top speed. Getting back to the pits he got the regular brakes fitted instead. Meanwhile, the works Ferraris were fitted with experimental pistons and one of the works prototype Testarossas suffered piston failure before it could get to do any laps. It was scratched when other cars started getting similar problems and time ran out to make repairs. Severi & Lewis-Evans were allowed to change to the Type 315 S that had won that fateful Mille Miglia. It was a harbinger for bad problems to come.
The lead Ecosse Jaguar had developed a misfire in practice. After the crew fixed it, Murray took it out onto public roads to test it at 4am on race-day morning. Winding it up to its 178 mph top speed he was lucky not to be held by the gendarmerie.
The Whitehead brothers found their new Aston Martin DBR2 was very quick, but deliberately eased off in practice in case team manager Reg Parnell bumped them from the car for his other drivers. In Friday practice, one of the Talbots had terminal issues and had to be scratched. It was also soon apparent that the little French cars would have a fight on their hands this year, as the small Lotus-Climax was proving to be very quick – almost 25 seconds per lap quicker. Chapman's own 1475cc Lotus had practiced faster than the Porsches in its class (and breaking the S-1500 lap record), but dropped a valve and had to be withdrawn. His American co-drivers, Herbert MacKay-Fraser and Jay Chamberlain (Lotus’ agent in California) were substituted into the team's S-1100 reserve entry. This left the S-1500 class the sole preserve of Porsche.
Race
Start
Despite the poor weather leading up to race day, it began cloudy and humidly muggy. By the 4 pm start, the crowd was around 250,000. The usually quick and nimble Moss was slowed trying to squeeze into his cramped Maserati coupé so the first car to clear the startline was the Ferrari of Peter Collins, leaving a long trail of rubber, followed by the three Aston Martins. Unfortunately, the final appearance of Talbot was rather ignominious: its transmission broke as it left its start-box and it only went a handful of metres giving its driver, Bruce Halford the shortest debut on record.
At the end of the first lap, Collins was in the lead (already on lap-record pace, from a standing start), followed by Brooks, Hawthorn, Gendebien and Salvadori fifth. But on the second lap Collins dropped back to tenth with engine trouble, pitting at the end of the next lap to retire with a seized piston. The Ferrari of Hawthorn had taken over the lead, hounded by the Maseratis of Moss, then Behra, at a blistering pace.
At the end of the first hour and 14 laps, Hawthorn had a 40-second lead over the Maseratis of Behra and Moss, then Gendebien, Bueb's Ecosse Jaguar and Brooks in the Aston Martin. The other Jaguars were biding their time, running just in the top-10. Soon enough, trouble struck more of the Italian cars: Moss’ Maserati began to smoke ominously and heavily, and after 26 laps, just before the two-hour mark, Hawthorn came into the pits to change tyres. The task of inserting the new spare into the Ferrari's tail took considerably longer than to change the wheel. Desperate to get back into the race, he leapt into the car – to be ordered out again smartly by a marshal. In the meantime, Behra took over the lead, and Hawthorn finally re-joined back in fifth place. In trying to catch the lead pack, Hawthorn set a new lap record with the first two sub-4 minute laps. Around 30 laps the regular pitstops and driver-changes started. The Moss Maserati, now in the hands of Harry Schell after a long pit stop costing a dozen laps, was soon to retire with rear axle trouble, just four laps after a similar issue cost their teammates Behra/Simon - forced to retire when it caused Simon to have an accident on his opening lap from the pits, splitting the fuel tank. Hawthorn refueled and handed the Ferrari over to Musso to start moving back up the field.
This attrition of the Italian challengers, combined with a very rapid fuel stop, moved the Ecurie Ecosse car of Flockhart/Bueb into the lead at the start of the third hour – a lead they would not relinquish. In the fourth hour, Musso, having fought back up to second place, was hobbled by another seized piston destroying his engine out on the Mulsanne straight just before dusk. With the Severi/Lewis-Evans Ferrari held back with braking problems, this left the Gendebien/Trintignant car as the sole challenger from Maranello, who took over second place from their teammates.
Another casualty in the fourth hour was the second Gordini – the first having only lasted 3 laps – when it pulled into the pits with terminal engine issues. With dwindling funds, this was to be a disappointing end to Amedee Gordini’s long association with Le Mans.
By 9 pm, when the majority of the second fuel stops had been completed, the Ecosse Jaguar still led the race, now with Bueb back behind the wheel; Brooks, back in the Aston Martin, held second place, Gendebien in third, Masten Gregory, in Hamilton’s Jaguar was fourth with the second Ecurie Ecosse Jaguar running fifth being chased by the Severi/Lewis-Evans Ferrari making up for lost time. The works Porsches were scrapping amongst themselves, just out of the top-10, for the lead in the S-1500 and well ahead of the Belgian Testarossa leading the S-2000 class.
Night
Just before 10:30 pm, the Whitehead brothers had to retire the big Aston Martin out of the top-10 when its gearbox finally broke. When the Scarlatti/Bonnier Maserati retired with clutch failure, the works team had finished its dismal race after only 6 hours. Soon after midnight Gendebien retired out of third with a holed crankcase and yet another piston failure, leaving Ferrari’s fortunes barely any better. Salvadori retired around 2am, when the gearbox of his Aston Martin finally broke, after he had been running with only 4th gear for most of his stint.
Meanwhile, the remaining Aston Martin was still lying second to Bueb’s D-Type. When Brooks took over he was four minutes behind Bueb; two hours later, he was only two minutes adrift when his gearbox also left him with only 4th gear and he started dropping back. Then at 1.50am came the most serious accident of the race: Brooks’ Aston Martin, now trailing by two laps and still stuck in 4th gear, was coming out of Tertre Rouge when he lost control, hit the bank and rolled. He was then hit by Maglioli closely following in the Porsche 718, which had been comfortably leading the S-2000 class and running 7th overall. Brooks was taken to hospital with severe cuts and bruises. This left Jaguar sitting 1-2-3-4: Ecurie Ecosse, leading from Equipe Nationale Belge, then the second Ecosse and the Los Amigos cars. Lewis-Evans, battling failing brakes, had the last works Ferrari back in 5th.
Missing from the list was Hamilton's Jaguar that had been delayed around midnight by a burnt-through exhaust pipe which was filling the cockpit with fumes and overheating the fuel lines and burning a hole in the cockpit-floor. When Hamilton pitted, the exhaust system was welded up and the hole repaired with a plate of steel cut out of an unattended gendarmerie wagon by the “enterprising” pit-crew! The car returned to the race in 11th and set about a hard race to make up time. Meanwhile, the Lotus in the S-750 class held a comfortable margin in the Index of Performance over the OSCA, with Mackay-Fraser's Lotus and Chancel's Panhard, the best of the little French cars, battling for third.
By half-distance, the order at the top had stabilised (the leader having done 165 laps), but with the attrition of the front-runners more of the smaller cars were coming up into the top-10. With the demise of Maglioli, it was now the works Porsche of Storez/Crawford that was running a very creditable 6th having done 152 laps. The big American Ferrari of George Arents was now 7th (147 laps) then 3 laps back to the Belgian Ferrari of Bianchi/Harris in 8th, leading the S-2000 category. In 9th was the little Lotus of Mackay-Fraser/Chamberlain, doing a mighty job leading the S-1100 class, on 141 laps and a lap back was the new AC Ace (virtually a shop-standard car) running very consistently. The little DKW stopped near the pits but the driver was able to run down, pick up a fuel pump and go back and fit it himself to get back into the race.
Morning
By 5:30 am, as dawn broke the overnight mist changed to a heavy fog covering the circuit (the only bad weather of the weekend). Although at times the visibility forced drivers to slow to 50 km/h this did not dramatically affect the lap times of the Jaguars. From this point on it became a real test of endurance – with almost half the field retired or barely running. An hour later, and the lead Jaguar completed its 200th lap and holding a comfortable 5-lap lead over the field. At 6:55 am, “Freddy” Rousselle, in the Belgian Jaguar running second came to a halt at Mulsanne for nearly an hour with ignition trouble. He eventually got the car moving again and got back to the pits and later rejoined down in sixth place putting in very rapid times to haul back the leaders. By 10am, they were back up to 4th.
Although other classes had been hit by retirements, the S-2000 was still very close – the Bianchi Ferrari, running 8th overall, was still leading the class ahead of Rudd's AC, Tavano's Ferrari, Dickie Stoop's well-travelled Fraser-Nash and Guyot's Maserati. In the Index of Performance, the small Lotus still had a comfortable lead, now ahead of their bigger brother running second and the works Porsche in third. Overnight the OSCA had hit troubles and slipped back.
At three-quarter time (10am), as the fog finally lifted, the order was staying very static – the four Jaguars holding the top places over a 16-lap spread. The leader had a comfortable 7-lap advantage over its teammate running second and the others about four laps apart from each other. The Ferrari and Porsche were both on the same lap and chasing the Belgian Jaguar two laps ahead of them.
Finish and post-race
In the last hour the leading Porsche, which had been running as high as 5th, ran out of fuel near Maison Blanche. Storez pushed it back to the pit-entrance, but could not refuel (being inside its 30-lap window) and it could never be pushed around the track again meaning they could not complete the final lap in the required 30 minutes to be classified. In contrast, the little Stanguellini came into the pits stuck in top gear. Unable to restart and not allowed an assisted start from the pit-crew, the driver set about pushing the car himself: half a mile to the top of the Dunlop hill, to the great cheers of support from the crowd. Half an hour later, he was able to bump-start the car on the downhill, still stuck in top-gear, and went on to take the last finishing position.
But otherwise the leaderboard remained unchanged. At 4:00pm, the chequered flag fell and for the second year in succession, in a formation finish with his teammate, Flockhart brought a dark blue Ecurie Ecosse Jaguar D-Type first past the finish line. The winners were never challenged in a trouble-free run, except for one unscheduled stop to change a light bulb. In fact, the car spent only 13 minutes and 9 seconds on pit lane during the 24 hours! The margin of triumph over the Jaguar of Lawrence/Sanderson was eight laps.
As well as being the Ecurie Ecosse team's finest hour, it was also Jaguar's greatest triumph finishing a fine 1-2-3-4-6. Third home was the local Equipe Los Amigos Jaguar of Lucas/”Mary” who were two laps adrift. After their delays in the morning, Rousselle/Frère brought their Equipe Nationale Belge Jaguar home in fourth, 17 laps behind the winners. The Lewis-Evans Ferrari held on to fifth place ahead of the hard-charging Hamilton Jaguar just one lap behind. Hamilton's D-Type was the only one to hit serious trouble when he and Gregory had lost two hours due to electrical and exhaust problems the night before.
In the other classes, it was the privateers that saved the blushes of the works teams – the older French Aston Martin won the S-3000 class by finishing 11th. After the late demise of the Storez Porsche, it was the American Porsche coming 8th who were the sole finisher in the S-1500 keeping up Porsche's class-win tradition. Likewise, the Ferrari Testarossa of Ecurie Nationale Belge finishing 7th, won the S-2000 class by 7 laps from the AC Ace and also ahead of the S-1500s whom it had been outperformed by for almost the whole race.
Although the public glamour was associated with those that took the outright victory, the performance of the Lotus marque should not be overlooked. Four cars entered, four finished, including the little 750cc version which finished 14th and beat their French opposition to win the Index of Performance. The seal on the British success was set by the Mackay-Frazer/Chamberlain Lotus – winning the S-1100 class by a huge distance (26 laps) over its teammates, winning the Biennial Cup and 2nd on Index.
The good weather meant the winning car set a new race distance record, exceeding the previous record set in 1955 by . Before his retirement, Mike Hawthorn put in a new lap record in his Ferrari. A special award was made to Roger Masson who had pushed his Lotus single-handedly for four miles, taking over an hour to get back to the pits after running out of petrol on the Mulsanne straight in the early hours of the race. It was refuelled and they went on to finish 16th.
As well as being the only entry for Arnott and DKW, the 1957 race was to be the last appearance for French stalwarts Talbot and Gordini – none of the cars from these manufacturers made it to the end.
Official results
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Class Winners are in Bold text.
Note *: Ran out of fuel; Not classified because last lap too slow
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Index of Performance
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
23rd Rudge-Whitworth Biennial Cup (1956/1957)
Note: Only the top three positions are included in this set of standings.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice – Fangio, #2 Maserati 450S Spyder – 3m 58.1s; 203.53 kp/h (126.46 mph)
Fastest Lap: Hawthorn, #7 Ferrari 335 S - 3:58.7secs 203.20 kp/h (126.15 mph)
Distance -
Winner's Average Speed -
Attendance – 250 000. (or >150 000)
Standings after the race
Note: Championship points were awarded for the first six places in each race in the order of 8-6-4-3-2-1. Manufacturers were only awarded points for their highest finishing car with no points awarded for positions filled by additional cars. Only the best 4 results out of the 7 races could be retained by each manufacturer. Points earned but not counted towards the championship totals are listed within brackets in the above table.
Citations
References
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1949-59 Sherborne, Dorset: Evro Publishing
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Jaguar Years 1949-1957' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Frère, Paul (1958) Automobile Year – World Championship Sports Car Races 1957 Lausanne: Edita S.A. ASIN B00LK7JOHM
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Pomeroy, L. & Walkerley, R. - editors (1958) The Motor Year Book 1958 Bath: The Pitman Press
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1957 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 15 February 2017
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 15 February 2017
World Sports Racing Prototypes – Le Mans 1957 results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 15 February 2017
Unique Cars
Sportscars.TV – Le Mans 1957 race summary & regulations. Retrieved 15 February 2017
Formula 2 – Le Mans 1957 results & reserve entries. Retrieved 15 February 2017
YouTube English Pathé b/w footage (2 mins). Retrieved 15 February 2017
YouTube English colour footage (2 mins). Retrieved 15 February 2017
YouTube Spanish colour footage (5 mins). Retrieved 15 February 2017
Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayoob%20Kara
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Ayoob Kara
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Ayoob Kara (, ; born 12 March 1955) is an Israeli Druze politician. He has served as a member of the Knesset for Likud in four spells between 1999 and 2021, and as Minister of Communications.
Biography
Kara was born in Daliyat al-Karmel, a Druze town near Haifa, in 1955. He went to an agricultural high school in Kfar Galim. He spent a year playing professional football as a defensive back for Bnei Yehuda Tel Aviv. He later served in the Israel Defense Forces reserve and attained the rank of major before being discharged for post-traumatic stress disorder. Serving alongside Jews before and after the establishment of Israel has been a source of family pride; his uncle was killed during the Arab revolt in 1939 and his father served in the IDF during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Another uncle was also killed by Arabs then and two of his brothers were killed in action in the 1982 Lebanon War. Following his national service, Kara studied Business Administration. Today, he lives in Daliyat al-Karmel with his wife and five children.
Political career
Kara was placed 35th on the Likud–Gesher–Tzomet list that won 32 seats in the 1996 elections. He urged Likud party chairman Ariel Sharon to campaign for the Arab vote. Sharon agreed on the importance of it and the need for an Arab minister in government. Kara was elected in 1999, becoming the third Druze Likud MK in history, after Amal Nasser el-Din and Assad Assad. He was appointed Deputy Speaker of the Knesset and served as chairman of the Committee on Foreign Workers. He retained his seat in the 2003 elections and became chairman of the Anti-Drug Committee. Speaking out during the Second Intifada, he condemned Arab MKs for incitement.
Kara opposed the Gaza disengagement plan championed by prime minister Ariel Sharon, and was almost ejected from Knesset with Michael Ratzon for "repeated disturbances". When Sharon announced plans to break from Likud, Kara refused to defect to Kadima in 2005 and criticized other MKs that did, including Shaul Mofaz. He praised Likud's "glorious past" and said it will return stronger, despite the split. He lost his seat in the 2006 elections, when Likud dropped to 12 seats.
Nevertheless, he remained active in politics. He met with Hebron residents and criticized the demolition of a Jewish home there, calling Kadima chairman Tzipi Livni as "good for Hamas".
Deputy Minister for the Development of the Negev and Galilee
Announcing his intention to run in the Likud primary for the 2009 elections, Kara called for unity between Druze and Jews, "to strengthen the Zionist connection...that has been damaged in recent years." He reminded voters of his opposition to the disengagement, making it an important part of his campaign. He was placed 23rd on the party's list, and returned to the Knesset when Likud won 27 seats. Kara sought and received a ministerial post: becoming Israel's new Deputy Minister of the Development of the Negev and Galilee. He is the first non-Jewish nationalist to receive a portfolio. Kara opposed the inclusion of Kadima in Netanyahu's government, saying that Likud had "no room for traitors".
As Deputy Minister, Kara cited demographic issues as a growing threat to Israel. He promoted development of the two regions to encourage Jews to stay and work there. He worked to help former soldiers to study for free at colleges in the Negev and Galilee, as well as a new college of medicine in the latter. He also supported the building of casinos in the Negev. In addition, he promoted a program in Knesset to train Druze firefighters that will serve in Jewish towns in the West Bank. Later, with Kara's help, ZAKA volunteers began to establish volunteer rescue services in northern Druze and Arab towns in September 2010, starting with Beit Jann and Yirka.
Foreign relations
Shortly after the election, the family of Ouda Tarabin, an Israeli Bedouin convicted of espionage in absentia by Egypt, enlisted Kara's support to gain Tarabin's release. Tarabin entered Egypt in 2000 illegally, and was arrested and sentenced to 15 years in prison. Kara also led a group of Druze, Bedouins, and Muslims that met with the family of Gilad Shalit to show support for his release from Hamas, who kidnapped Shalit in a 2006 raid.
Kara met with Turkish ambassador to Israel, Ahmet Oğuz Çelikkol, to improve Israel–Turkey relations, citing Turkey as a "proven" ally to Israel. However, relations deteriorated after the Gaza flotilla raid. Kara has also been instrumental in improving relations with Syria and Lebanon. Just before the 2009 election, he claimed to have met with Syrian officials in Washington, D. C., who said Syria was interested in revisiting talks to improve relations. However, the Syrian embassy in Washington denied the meeting took place, as did a spokesman for Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu. He has also been outspoken in his opposition to proposed divisions of the border village of Ghajar, comparing it to the Berlin Wall.
In 2010, he worked to improve economic and humanitarian ties between Israel and Syria. Druze farmers in the Golan Heights now import water from Syria and export thousands of tons of apples every year. In addition, Druze were able to visit relatives in Syria for the first time in decades and also receive organ transplants there. In addition, he has coordinated burials for families between Syria, Lebanon, and the Golan Heights. Kara is hopeful that these "cracks in the great wall between Israel and Syria" will one day lead to real negotiations for peace. Or at the very least, he hopes to cut down the bureaucracy preventing humanitarian exchanges between Israel and Syria. Kara has also called for mines to be removed from the Golan Heights, citing them as dangerous to travelers and not needed for Israel's defense.
When several pro-Israel European politicians visited Israel, Kara and other Knesset members joined the Europeans to condemn the Gaza disengagement and lack of assistance to former Jewish residents of Gaza, who had been expelled from their homes. Kara urged stronger relationships with European politicians that support Israel. Kara visited Austria in December 2010 and met with Heinz-Christian Strache, leader of the Freedom Party of Austria, praising him at a joint press conference and calling him a "friend of Israel" in its war on terror. Austria's Jewish community complained in a letter addressed to Israeli Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu about the meeting and the praise and honor bestowed by Kara on the party and its members, particularly in light of the party's anti-semitic remarks and their praise for the Nazi regime of the Third Reich. Israel had scaled back its diplomatic relations with Austria when the party entered into the Austrian government a few years ago.
The head of a South Sudan delegation to a February 2011 meeting of a new organization to develop Nigeria, Suleiman Alhariri, invited Kara to help begin setting up diplomatic relations. Kara led a delegation of Jewish, Muslim, Druze, and Christian religious leaders to discuss interfaith relations in Istanbul with TV show host Adnan Oktar. The delegation presented a list of Jewish religious sites in Syria for the opposition in the Syrian Civil War to guard, should unrest threaten the sites. The group planned to set up a religious court to arbitrate regional disputes. Kara also said "Turkey is eager to reestablish its ties with Israel." In May 2011, Kara claimed that the opposition movement in the Syrian Civil War had approached him to seek help for their movement from the United Nations, United States, and European Union.
Kara was placed 39th on the Likud Yisrael Beiteinu list for the 2013 elections, losing his seat as the alliance won only 31 seats. However, he returned to the Knesset following the 2015 elections, for which he was placed 24th on the Likud list. He was subsequently appointed Deputy Minister of Regional Cooperation.
Minister of Communications
In January 2017, Netanyahu appointed Kara as Minister in the Prime Minister's Office. In May of the same year, Netanyahu appointed Kara as Minister of Communications.
In the April 2019 elections, Kara was placed 39th in the Likud list and not re-elected. In September 2019, a tape was leaked of a conversation between Kara and Netanyahu in which the latter demanded that Kara close down the Cable and Satellite Broadcasting Council. Kara was blamed by several Likud politicians for the leak, but denied involvement.
Views and opinions
Kara is known as a staunch conservative in the Knesset, supporting "hawkish" and Zionist views. He opposed the Gaza disengagement and the 2009–10 settlement freeze. He was a supporter of Moshe Feiglin's Manhigut Yehudit faction, within Likud.
Gaza
During the months preceding the disengagement from the Gaza Strip and northern West Bank, Kara requested from then Prime Minister, Ariel Sharon, that Druze soldiers not be assigned to tasks related to the disengagement, since the Druze opposed the disengagement and did not want to have anything to do with it. He was threatened with expulsion from the Knesset for trying to obstruct the plan as it went through. The Israeli media called him the "prophet of fury". Years earlier, he opposed the withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000, warning that Hezbollah would gain power in Israel's absence.
After the Gaza flotilla clash, Kara spoke with a leading mufti in Turkey. He told the mufti that Israel conducted the operation legally and humanely and presented facts backing his claims. In addition, he said "Israel is the most humanitarian country in the Middle East and never objected to the transfer of humanitarian aid to Gaza," and the flotilla organizers intended to provoke Israel. He also asked the mufti to preach brotherhood between Israel and Turkey, "saying there are no winners in war."
At a meeting hosted by Turkish television personality Adnan Oktar, Kara stated that flotillas must carry humanitarian aid and not weapons. He said that Israel wanted to work with Turkey to transfer humanitarian aid to Gaza.
Iran
Kara supports an Israeli strike against Iran's nuclear program and assured that other Muslim nations would support a strike, albeit quietly, and not publicly. In April 2010, the MK made public that he had been approached by an Israeli woman of Persian Jewish origin, who had been contacted by an Iranian nuclear scientist seeking asylum in Israel. Kara stated he would help and that the scientist was staying in a "friendly country", but there has been no word on the plan since the announcement.
Following a planned visit by Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to the Israel-Lebanon border, Kara organized a rally in which 2,000 blue and white balloons would be released if Ahmadinejad came, stating that "the balloons represent the fact that the Jewish people have come home after 2,000 years of exile, and are not going anywhere". Kara also stated that as a non-Jew, he appreciated Israel's freedom and democracy, and that were it not for the Jewish people, the entire region would look like Iran. Kara also claims to have sent Ahmadinejad a letter in Persian, in which he expressed "the Israeli nation's desire for peace, and its willingness to defend itself".
At the event, Kara criticized the Israeli government for inaction, and called Ahmadinejad "a catastrophe for the world" and said that Israel wants peace, not wars. He also warned that Ahmadinejad intends to rebuild the Persian Empire, using Lebanon as an army base.
Arab-Israeli conflict and peace
Kara believes that Israel "has no one to make peace with", and that all the peace partners aim to weaken Israel. He noted that many Israelis think like Europeans and do not understand the thought process in the Middle East. He criticized the Oslo accords for giving "the criminal Palestinian leadership that was in Lebanon and Tunisia the legitimacy to be leaders in Judea, Samaria, and Gaza".
In July 2010, Kara warned Israel not to be tricked by United States president Barack Obama's apparent sympathy for Israel. Kara stated that Obama "doesn't sound evil now because he needs Jewish votes and money, but I won't forget the pressure he put on Netanyahu and the stress I saw in the prime minister the last time he came back from Washington". Several days later, in an interview, he endorsed a three-state solution, saying that Egypt should resume control over Gaza. He noted that Arabs almost universally call for a restoration of the situation prior to the Six-Day War, when Gaza was part of Egypt. In addition, he mentioned that it would be beneficial to the security of Egypt to eliminate Iranian influence in the territory. In an interview, Kara noted that "In all history there was never a Palestinian state." He proposed that Jordan, which is 90% Palestinian take administrative control of Arab cities in the West Bank, while Israel would control defense, major cities, and broad areas in the territory.
During the 2010 Israel forest fire, Kara stated he had information that the fire was "a terrorist act"—arson—and called for the perpetrators to be executed like Adolf Eichmann. Some of the 41 killed in the blaze were Druze.
In 2011, Kara and fellow MK Aryeh Eldad met with Glenn Beck. After Eldad said that there was a Palestinian state in Jordan, Kara added "the world doesn't understand that there are already two states here, and now, they want three states. There were never Palestinians in this area" During the same meeting, he explained his Zionism as consistent with the Druze tradition that they are descendants of Jethro, and "commanded to watch over the Land of Israel for the People of Israel". At the first International Regional Cooperation Conference in Tel Aviv, Kara said Israel should negotiate with businessmen rather than the Palestinian Authority leadership.
Settlements
A staunch supporter of Jewish settlement in the West Bank, Kara spoke at a ceremony marking the end of the settlement freeze. He criticizing it as not helpful to Israel or the PA and said that the killings of four Israelis near Kiryat Arba shows that the freeze only serves as "appeasement" and is not working. At an event marking the construction of a new building in the West bank, Kara stated: "The expulsion of Jews from Gush Katif brought zero results, the expulsion of the Israeli army from Lebanon has brought zero results, and the construction freeze brought zero results." Kara attended an Israeli version of the American tea party protests with other Likud MKs and members. Speakers at the event called on Obama to stop pressuring Netanyahu and for the prime minister to stand his ground and uphold Jewish rights and values.
In 2010, Kara attended a rally marking the end of the construction slow down in Revava, that was also attended by hundreds of Christian supporters of Israel. He welcomed the tourists saying: "I say to all the non-Jews who are here, I too am not a Jew, but in spirit I am most Jewish, I am most Zionist, and so are you! Good for you that you are here to support Israel."
In 2011, however, he abstained from a vote brought by National Union MKs that would extend sovereignty to Jewish settlements in the West Bank.
Support for Trump
Following the violent Unite the Right rally, attended by neo-Nazis and other far-right protesters which took place in the United States in August 2017 Kara defended U.S. President Donald Trump. Trump's response to the protest and his failure to immediately condemn the rally received much criticism, including from some in Israel. Kara, however, suggested relations with Trump were more important, stating "Due to the terrific relations with the US, we need to put the declarations about the Nazis in the proper proportion." Kara also described the Obama administration as "terrible"
Calls for imposition of the death penalty
In 2010 Kara called for the imposition of the death penalty on the perpetrator of the Tapuah Junction stabbing.
2017 visit to Poland
Ayoob Kara was part of a delegation of Israeli politicians who visited Poland at the invitation of the Polish Redemptorist priest Tadeusz Rydzyk in late 2017. The purpose of the visit was to support Rydzyk's effort to draw greater attention to the Polish Righteous Among the Nations who saved Jews from the Nazis during the Holocaust.
Rydzyk and his radio station, Radio Maryja, have repeatedly been accused of anti-Semitism, notably by the Anti-Defamation League and the World Jewish Congress.
On 26 October 2017, together with Knesset Deputy Speaker Yehiel Bar, Rabbi Dov Lipman (a former Knesset member of the Yesh Atid party) and other politicians, Kara attended a Radio Maryja commemoration ceremony in Torun devoted to the theme of "Remembrance and Hope" and attended by then Polish Prime Minister Beata Szydło. The group was attacked in the Israeli media over their visit
See also
Sarhan Bader
References
External links
1955 births
Living people
Deputy ministers of Israel
Deputy Speakers of the Knesset
Druze members of the Knesset
Israeli Druze
Government ministers of Israel
Likud politicians
Members of the 15th Knesset (1999–2003)
Members of the 16th Knesset (2003–2006)
Members of the 18th Knesset (2009–2013)
Members of the 20th Knesset (2015–2019)
Members of the 23rd Knesset (2020–2021)
Ministers of Communications of Israel
Ono Academic College alumni
People from Daliyat al-Karmel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Singaporean%20general%20election
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2006 Singaporean general election
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General elections were held in Singapore on 6 May 2006. President S.R. Nathan dissolved parliament on 20 April 2006 on the advice of Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong three weeks before the election. The People's Action Party (PAP) won 66.6% of the overall votes and gained 82 out of 84 seats. The PAP held the office of Prime Minister for a twelfth consecutive term. The general election was held under the first-past-the-post system. On Nomination Day, the PAP gained 37 seats in divisions which were uncontested by other parties. The main election issues included employment, cost of living, housing, transport, education, the need for an effective opposition voice in parliament, and the quality of the candidates.
This election marked the first time since 1988 that total eligible voter population in contested seats as well as voter turnout exceeded 1 million and this figure has not dropped ever since. Together with 2011 GE, PAP also decided not to return the mandate on Nomination Day but on the Election Day.
Background
The 2006 General Election was the 15th General Election in Singapore and the 10th since independence in 1965. The governing People's Action Party (PAP) sought to secure their twelfth consecutive term in office since 1959. This would be the first election since Lee Hsien Loong replaced Goh Chok Tong and became PAP's Secretary-General in 2004.
Political parties
Besides the ruling PAP, the other major political parties were the Workers' Party of Singapore (WP) led by Low Thia Khiang, the Singapore People's Party (SPP) led by Chiam See Tong, the National Solidarity Party (NSP) led by Steve Chia, and the Singapore Democratic Party (SDP) led by Chee Soon Juan, who himself was ineligible to run in this election because of a 2002 conviction.
Four parties, including the SPP and the NSP, contested the election as members of the Singapore Democratic Alliance (SDA).
Election deposit
For this election, the deposit for each candidate was set at S$13,500 (approximately US$8,590 or £4,620) which was about 8% of the total annual salary to a member of parliament in the preceding year, rounded to the nearest S$500. The regulations of the elections stated that the deposit was to be forfeited if the candidate failed to obtain at least one-eighth of the votes.
Electorate
All citizens at least 21 years of age, based on the Registers of Electors, were eligible to vote. The Elections Department had completed its revision of the Registers and made them available for public inspection from 17 January through 30 January 2006. There were 2,158,439 eligible voters. The 2006 election was the first election where more than half the electorate were of the post-independence generation, i.e., those born after Singapore's independence in 1965.
For the first time in Singapore's election history, Singaporeans living overseas were able to vote at designated polling stations located within Singapore's High Commissions, Embassies or Consulates in other countries. To be qualified to vote overseas, they must have had either resided in Singapore for an aggregate of two of the past five years, or be overseas for reasons of employment or education related to the Singapore government. There were several overseas polling stations, namely Tokyo, Canberra, Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, London, Washington, D.C. and San Francisco. 1,017 Singaporeans had registered for overseas voting by 22 March 2006, although only 558 voted, as the rest had a walkover in their constituencies.
Electoral divisions
On 3 March 2006, the Electoral Boundaries Review Committee published the updated list of electoral divisions. There were fourteen Group Representation Constituencies (GRC), each with five or six seats, and nine Single Member Constituencies (SMC). The total number of seats remained the same at 84 as the previous general election in 2001, but there are some minor changes and tweaks. The two opposition held SMCs, Hougang SMC and Potong Pasir SMC were intact. Also unchanged was the Chua Chu Kang SMC which saw a close contest in the previous election between the ruling PAP's Low Seow Chay and NSP's Steve Chia. The boundaries for the five Group Representation Constituencies (namely Bishan–Toa Payoh, Hong Kah, Jalan Besar, Jurong and Tampines) were also intact.
The changes made in the constituencies were:
Election issues
As in previous elections, bread and butter issues including jobs, medical care and cost of living dominated the election campaign. Other major election issues are listed in the following.
Social
Integrated Resorts and legalisation of casino gambling
Education policy
Public transport
Public housing policy
Lift Upgrading Programme(LUP)
Governance
Progress package and Budget 2006
Group representation constituency system
Central Provident Fund scheme
Internal Security Act and civil liberties
Ministerial pay
Others
National Kidney Foundation Singapore scandal
Integrity of the candidates, such as the James Gomez incident
Timeline
Pre-nomination day events
Dissolution of Parliament
On 20 April 2006, Parliament was dissolved by President Sellapan Ramanathan on the advice of Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong. Later that day, the President issued the writ of election and the government announced that the election would be held on Saturday, 6 May 2006, with nomination day on Thursday, 27 April 2006. The Returning Officer was to be Tan Boon Huat, Chief Executive Director of the People's Association.
New/outgoing candidates
A total of 49 candidates made their debut among which include notable PAP candidates include Grace Fu, Lui Tuck Yew, Josephine Teo and Masagos Zulkifli, while WP introduced their party's chairwoman Sylvia Lim (who would later become the first-ever female opposition MP-elect in the next election), as well as James Gomez (now SDP member) and Goh Meng Seng (who later founded the People's Power Party).
A total 24 candidates did not seek re-election, among which were former cabinet ministers Lee Yock Suan and former Speaker of Parliament Tan Soo Khoon, as well as Tan Cheng Bock and Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore Tony Tan, though they would later return to compete in the 2011 presidential election five years later in which the latter won; the former would later return to the political fray in the 2020 elections as a founder of Progress Singapore Party.
Budget day and progress package
On 17 February 2006, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, who was also Minister for Finance and Secretary General of the PAP, delivered the country's Budget Statement to the Parliament. He released details of a S$2.6 billion "progress package" including S$500 million for Central Provident Fund top-ups, S$400 million for workfare bonuses, and S$200 million bonuses for national servicemen. Largely due to this package, the 2006 Budget incurred a deficit of S$2.86 billion.
Low Thia Khiang (WP) came out strongly against the progress package which he said was no more than a vote-winning tool for the PAP. Low called for greater transparency on how the government intend to finance the package and to compensate for the budget shortfall. Deputy Prime Minister Wong Kan Seng (PAP) later dismissed claims that the progress package constitutes a form of vote buying.
Workers' Party manifesto
The Workers' Party (WP) was the first party to launch an update to its manifesto on 14 January 2006. Among its policy proposals, WP called for the Presidency to revert to its former ceremonial role and the abolishment of the GRCs, the Ethnic Integration Policy for Housing and Development Board flats, the Resident Committees and the Citizen Consultative Committees. It also revealed its intentions to establish a central agency in the provision of public transport, set up of a national unemployment insurance scheme and a more comprehensive national health insurance scheme among a host of other things.
On 21 January, PAP made various criticisms on the WP's proposals, describing four of their proposals as "four time bombs...[which] will weaken and tear Singapore apart". Khaw Boon Wan, revealed various changes in medical policies, including the Medisave scheme, which had been a constant target for criticism by opposition parties. He also chided the WP for its "failure to understand what makes inter-racialism work in Singapore and why we are different from the rest of the world", referring the four points brought up by Ng Eng Hen as "poisons" Workers' Party chairman Sylvia Lim released a press statement on 22 January, responding to each of the four "time bombs" criticised by Ng and adding that the party was standing firmly by its manifesto.
Goh Chok Tong's special assignment
On 19 March, Lee Hsien Loong said that PAP was aiming to win all the constituencies including the two opposition wards in Hougang SMC and Potong Pasir SMC, stating that "We want to win, this is not masak-masak [a Malay term meaning a child's game]". The PAP candidates for these two wards were respectively previously-contested candidates Eric Low and Sitoh Yih Pin respectively, and both candidates had been working the ground in these wards since along with assistance by Goh Chok Tong who had been given the special assignment to help the PAP win the two wards.
Goh had suggested that if Low and Sitoh won the election, they would be given extra latitude when speaking and voting in parliament and not be subjected to the political Whip, and he would also help Sitoh to gain a post in the new Cabinet if elected. Hougang and Potong Pasir residents were also promised housing upgrades worth $100 million and $80 million respectively if PAP was to retake the two seats as both of these constituencies have not been selected for housing upgrades or provided with lifts that stop on every floor due to the constituencies being held by the opposition. When the PAP shaved Low's vote share from 58% to 55% in the 2001 General Election, Goh offered to upgrade Hougang estate if the share was reduced to 52%.
Remarks in The New Democrat
In April 2006, the SDP published an article headlined "Govt's role in the NKF scandal" in the SDP party newspaper The New Democrat regarding the National Kidney Foundation Singapore scandal. On 22 April, letters of demand were served on twelve members of the SDP and the publisher. Drew and Napier, the law firm acting for Lee Hsien Loong and Lee Kuan Yew, said that the newspaper article had alleged that the two Lees were "dishonest and unfit for office", that Lee Kuan Yew "devised a corrupt political system for the benefit of the political elite", and that he managed the Government of Singapore Investment Corporation in a "corrupt manner". In addition, according to the letter of demand, the newspaper also alleged that Lee Hsien Loong had "perpetuated a corrupt political system for the benefit of the political elite" and how he and his Government "had access to the information which has now been unearthed about NKF but corruptly concealed and covered up the facts to avoid criticism". The letters demanded that damages be paid and an apology made in the media by 25 April.
Four of SDP's eleven committee members apologized shortly after, while the party's chairman refused to do so, as it would constitute "an admission of guilt". An apology had been formally rejected by the party, though the party would not oppose individual members making personal apologies. M Ravi, the lawyer representing most of the accused, had rejected claims made in the letters that allegations made in the paper were "highly defamatory", and he "[does] not see how a government or public body could be defamed". On 27 April, Chee said that the threat of legal action was already seriously affecting SDP's campaign at Sembawang GRC: "Lawyers for Mr Lee Kuan Yew and Mr Lee Hsien Loong have gone as far as to sue the printer, so much so that he is so frightened he dares not publish our election material." SDP was still seen selling the publication, and the Lees were seeking aggravated damages; the Chee siblings however, have yet to do so.
SDP podcast
On 25 April, the Elections Department warned SDP that it would take action against the party if they did not remove audio files and podcasts from the party's website, as they were against election advertising regulations under the Parliamentary Elections Act. Within hours after the notice was issued, SDP posted a notice on its website that the podcast service was suspended.
Nomination day
Planning for nomination day by political parties
As early as January 2006, when it became clear that the election would be held soon, the political parties began making definitive plans for Nomination Day.
On 10 March 2006, major opposition parties hosted a meeting, after which they announced their intention to contest 57 of the 84 seats in Parliament, but full details of the opposition's plan was not revealed until Nomination Day itself. Steve Chia told reporters, "Any self-respecting politician will hold his cards close to his chest."
There were nine Single Member Constituencies for the election. For smaller political parties and independents who do not have sufficient candidates and resources to contest the GRCs, the SMCs were the only constituencies that they could afford to run; many analysts cited that opposition candidates stand a greater chance of winning in SMCs as compared to GRCs, and all nine SMCs were expecting contests. The opposition tried to avoid three-cornered fights by co-ordinating with each other. Chiam See Tong (SPP) said that "if we enter into one [three-cornered fight], we're only going to kill ourselves. We're not that stupid."
In March 2006, it was thought that there could be a potential three-way contest in MacPherson SMC, where both Mansor Rahman, Chairman of Democratic Progressive Party, and Sin Kek Tong, Chairman of Singapore People's Party, cited interest to run for that seat, but both members eventually chose not to contest. Tan Lead Shake, ex-Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) member, later joined the National Solidarity Party (NSP) (under the banner in Singapore Democratic Alliance), and became a member of SDA's team contesting Tampines GRC.
As of 26 April 2006, the opposition had indicated that they would contest at least half of the seats in the 84 member Parliament; 47 PAP candidates standing for election with 10 new candidates facing the opposition. Candidates standing for election had only an hour to present their nomination papers and must be accompanied by their proposers, seconders and assentors. Observers projected that the other 37 candidates from seven Group Representative Constituencies would return unopposed and the PAP would be denied a majority on nomination day, an eventuality that proved to be true.
Early announcement of intention by parties
Some of the opposition parties, such as Workers' Party and Singapore Democratic Alliance, adopted the strategy of announcing early their plans on which constituencies they intended to contest prior to announced changes in electoral boundaries, as a tactical move to earmark those divisions to discourage any third party from contesting in the same divisions leading to three-cornered fights. Another cited reason was that, if the Government electoral commission redrew those boundaries, the opposition would be able to exploit such actions by accusing the PAP of gerrymandering to avoid the ballot challenge.
Nomination day results
On nomination day 47 candidates representing the opposition (a large increase of 29 candidates from the previous election) contested 16 constituencies; all contests were between the PAP and one opposition party, which marked the first (and to-date, the only) election with no three-cornered fights. For the first time since 1980, no independent candidates participated in this election, which was a rare occurrence as independent candidates had participated in every election since 1955.. For the first time since 1988, the total number of uncontested seats (37) from the seven GRCs were less than the majority of the parliament (42 out of 84 seats), and the ruling PAP was not returned to power on nomination day. The Elections Department also announced that over 1.2 million Singaporeans, 56.6% of eligible voters, would be able to cast votes.
Diversity of candidates
Notably, all 18 candidates contested in SMCs were male Chinese. On 28 April, Lee Kuan Yew (PAP) referred to this fact when defending the Group Representation Constituency (GRC) system on the grounds that it ensures minority and women representation in parliament, although there is no prerequisites on GRCs having at least one female candidate.
Over the years, each GRC team has been steadily increased by the government from three to at least five members. WP had called for the abolishment of the GRC system which it considered as a means introduced by the PAP to make it difficult for opposition who lack sufficient resource to contest the large electoral division.
Events between nomination day and election day
With the nominations completed, the opposition was contesting 47 seats with the remaining 37 returned to the PAP, resulting in PAP being prevented a walkover majority to form a government on nomination day for the first time since 1988.
Between 28 April to 5 May, a total of 50 political rallies were held by the parties at 24 designated sites during nine days of campaign. The "Lunchtime Rally Site" at Boat Quay, next to UOB Plaza, made a comeback in the election; it was removed from the list of rally sites in the previous election due to fears of terrorist attacks after the September 11, 2001 attacks.
The Workers' Party had put up their strongest team, consisting of its more prominent candidates led by chairman Sylvia Lim, to contest Aljunied GRC challenging the PAP team led by Foreign Affairs Minister George Yeo. The constituency eventually had the fiercest GRC contest in the election. The strongest GRC team for the SDA was one contesting Jalan Besar GRC. It was led by Sebestian Teo and its members include former MP Cheo Chai Chen.
Workers' Party fielded a very young team in Ang Mo Kio GRC, with candidates mostly born after 1965, to compete with the flagship PAP team led by Lee Hsien Loong. On 29 April 2006, Lee referred to his opponents at Ang Mo Kio GRC as "敢死队" (suicide squad). In response, Low Thia Kiang said that it was better to be a "敢死队" (suicide squad) and not a "怕死队" (squad that is scared to die). WP's candidate Yaw Shin Leong added that his teammates and himself were mentally prepared to lose but they were not push-overs.
James Gomez saga
Controversy arose during the election surrounding the application for a minority-race candidate certificate by James Gomez of Workers' Party. On 24 April, Gomez went to the Elections Department to fill up the minority-race candidate certificate application form accompanied by the chairperson Sylvia Lim. Instead of handing in the application form to election official, Gomez slipped the form in his bag and went off for an interview. At the time, Sylvia Lim had gone to a waiting area and did not witness the event.
On the eve of Nomination Day, James Gomez went to collect his minority-race candidate certificate claiming he had submitted the application form. After failing to get the certificate, Gomez warned an elections officer of the "consequences". At 1pm that day, an Elections Department staff called Gomez and told him that he did not submit the Indian and minority candidate certificate form. During the call, which was recorded, Gomez changed his story and said that he would get back to them. When the media asked him about the issue, Gomez initially refused to discuss about the issue, but later conceded. Following two days of dispute between both sides, the Elections Department was able to produce video evidence showing that James Gomez did not submit the application form; a day later, James Gomez apologised to the Elections Department at a Worker's Party rally saying he was distracted by his busy schedule.
During the controversy, PAP raised questions about the credibility of Gomez. He was accused of attempting to discredit the Elections Department by claiming they misplaced the form. Two PAP leaders Wong Kan Seng and Lee Kuan Yew called Gomez a "liar" and Lee dared Gomez to sue him and Wong. George Yeo (PAP) also suggested that the Worker's Party should sack Gomez and field a four-member team for the five-member Group Representation Constituency. This was rejected by Low who asserted that PAP was trying to divert public and media attention from main election issues.
Party political broadcast
On both 29 April 2006 and 4 May 2006, the four contesting parties made their political broadcasts over television and radio in the four official languages – the English, Mandarin, Malay and Tamil languages. Each party was given an allocated time based on the number of candidates it fielded. The People's Action Party (PAP) was given 12 minutes with 84 candidates fielded, the Workers' Party (WP) and Singapore Democratic Alliance (SDA) were given 4.5 minutes each with 20 candidates fielded, and the Singapore Democratic Party (SDP) was given 2.5 minutes with 7 candidates fielded. The SDP was represented by Chee Siok Chin, the Workers' Party by Sylvia Lim on the first broadcast and by Tan Hui Hua on the second broadcast, the SDA by Chiam See Tong on both broadcasts, with the PAP by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong on the first broadcast and by PAP chairman Lim Boon Heng on the second broadcast.
Debate on housing and lift upgrading
The upgrading of public housing, including the Lift Upgrading Programme (LUP), was a major issue in this election. As in previous elections, PAP had tied the scheduling of housing upgrades to the number of votes the party received in the election. The PAP argued that government was successful in raising the standard of living in the country, and those who supported its various policies, including the upgrading, should be given priority. In the hotly contested Aljunied GRC, George Yeo (PAP) placed lift upgrading the "top of [his] priority list" so that the lift would stop on every floor in as many blocks as possible. Sylvia Lim (WP) accused the PAP of being selective in its upgrading programmes, arguing that this was a divisive policy.
Large turnout at opposition election rallies
The election featured large turnouts at some of the election rallies of the opposition parties, which was unheard of since the 1980s. A report by Malaysian press The Star estimated that around 10,000 people attended the Workers' Party rally on 30 April at Hougang. At the last rally of the Workers' Party at Serangoon Stadium on 5 May, the audience filled up most of the field and even spilled outside the stadium. However, the local media did not report on the large turnout at all, prompting criticism of the credibility of the Singapore media on local political issues.
The PAP dismissed the significance of the crowds, suggesting that crowd size would not necessarily translate into votes.
Results
After polls closed at 8pm, vote counting began. Results were announced by the returning officer Tan Boon Huat. The first result was declared at 10.46pm on 6 May 2006 where PAP candidate Seng Han Thong won the Yio Chu Kang Single Member Constituency with a majority of 8,419. The final result to be declared was for the Sembawang Group Representation Constituency at 12.16am on 7 May 2006 where the six-member PAP team, led by Health Minister Khaw Boon Wan retained the constituency by a wide margin of 53.4%, or 90,633 votes.
The People's Action Party won a 12th consecutive term with its majority virtually untouched, but vote majorities were reduced island-wide. Goh's special assignment in which winning the two opposition-held constituencies were unsuccessful as opposition MPs were re-elected with swings toward their parties, among which Hougang won its largest share of 63%, a then-record for the Workers' Party.
Apart from overseas voting for those who had resided in Singapore for two of the previous five years, this was also the first election where six-member GRCs were contested (among which the Prime Minister's constituency of Ang Mo Kio saw the PAP's perform worse than their national average of 67%), and none of the candidates forfeited their election deposits. This was also the second election since 1968 where there are no multi-cornered fights, and the first time there had been no independents since 1980, likely due to new election laws requiring presence of assenters in Nomination Centres, posing difficulty for candidates without a party machinery.
By constituency
Aftermath
Non-Constituency Member of Parliament
Elections Department announced that the Workers' Party team for Aljunied GRC received the highest share of votes among losing constituencies with 43.9%, and the party was allowed to appoint a member as Non-Constituency Member of Parliament, replacing Steve Chia. The Central Executive Committee voted for Sylvia Lim with nine in favour and one opposed. Lim would not represent any constituency but she said she was looking forward to the opportunity to fulfil her obligation to supporters and also to voice people's concerns.
Detaining and questioning of Gomez
On 7 May, Gomez was detained by police at Singapore Changi Airport when he was about to take a flight to Sweden for work. The police were investigating an "alleged offences of criminal intimidation and providing false information". The Elections Department had earlier filed a police report regarding the incident during the election period in which Gomez spoke to an election official in a threatening tone, an episode that was caught on closed-circuit television. Gomez was brought to the Criminal Investigations Department (CID) at Police Cantonment Complex for questioning and to file his statement, after which he was released at midnight. His passport was impounded by the police to prevent him from leaving the country and his air ticket was forfeited as it was non-refundable. He also suffered a loss of income due to his absence from work.
On that night, Sylvia Lim and Low Thia Khiang were also asked to give statements at the CID. On 9 May, Gomez was called again to CID for a questioning session that lasted five hours. Gomez later told the media that he was giving the police "the fullest cooperation."
After three questioning sessions, Gomez was let off with a stern warning by the police who issued a statement stating that the public prosecutor was satisfied that Gomez had committed the offence of using threatening words towards a civil servant but the police decided to release Gomez as he had no prior criminal records. His passport was returned to him and he left for Sweden on 16 May.
Chee Siok Chin's challenge of polling results
New cabinet
The new cabinet was inaugurated on 30 May 2006. Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong reveal lineup in which Raymond Lim relinquished his roles as Second Minister for Finance and Minister in the Prime Minister's Office for a new ministerial portfolio for Transport succeeding Yeo Cheow Tong. Minister for Education Tharman Shanmugaratnam was given another role as Second Minister for Finance, while Minister for Community Development, Youth and Sports Vivian Balakrishnan was given a second post as Second Minister for Information, Communications and the Arts as he relinquished his Second Minister for Trade and Industry.
Five new candidates, Lui Tuck Yew, Lee Yi Shyan, Grace Fu, Teo Ser Luck and Masagos Zulkifli, along with three returning MPs, S Iswaran, Amy Khor and Zainudin Nordin, were promoted as Minister of State or Parliamentary secretaries in political office.
Senior Minister of State Balaji Sadasivan relinquished his position as Senior Minister of State for Ministry of Health for the Foreign Affairs Ministry, but remained as Senior Minister for State for the MICA. Heng Chee How took Balaji's place as Senior Minister of State for Health; he relinquished his appointments in the Ministry of National Development and Mayor for the Central Community Development Council. Zainul Abidin Rasheed was appointed Senior Minister of State for Foreign Affairs and Koo Tsai Kee as Minister of State for Defence.
Influence of the Internet
The Internet played a much more significant role compared to previous general elections. Singapore has a large number of computer users, with 74% of households owning computers and 2 in 3 households having Internet access. Podcasts, blogs, and online political discussions have become common in Singaporean cyberspace. A blog called "SGRally" was set up to collect recorded rally speeches in this election. Opposition candidates had complained about insufficient rally sites allocated to them in past elections.
In August 2005, Singapore Democratic Party became the first political party in Singapore to launch a podcast called RadioSDP on its party website. Several members of the Workers' Party are active in blogsphere; the notable bloggers are James Gomez, Goh Meng Seng, and Melvin Tan.
On 25 February 2006, the Department of Political Science, National University of Singapore organised a public forum on politics titled "The (In)Significance of Political Elections in Singapore?" Among the speakers were 2nd Assistant Secretary-General of Workers' Party James Gomez, Nominated Member of Parliament (NMP) Geh Min, and former NMP Chandra Mohan. A recording of the forum is available via podcast.
Regulations
Regulation of political content online was an issue throughout the election period. The Media Development Authority (MDA) had reminded Internet content providers to comply with the law of Singapore, including those relating to political content. Online bloggers and podcasts are subject to the Parliamentary Elections Act.
In a notification issued by MDA under the Broadcasting Act, all political websites are required to register with the MDA. These websites include those belonging to political parties as well as to "individuals, groups, organisations and corporations engaged in providing any programme for the propagation, promotion or discussion of political or religious issues relating to Singapore on the World Wide Web through the Internet." A MDA spokesperson said that only a handful of websites have registered and that they mostly belonged to political parties or registered political associations.
Political analyst Cherian George noted that the regulation would hinder the development of citizen journalism in Singapore. A number of bloggers and political commentators had noted that the rules are too broadly defined and were unsure how they would be enforced. They protested that this was a violation of freedom of speech. A candidate Goh Meng Seng (WP) refused to register his blog, saying "I don't see the need to do so as an individual citizen. We have our rights to our political views."
In a parliament session on 3 April 2006, Balaji Sadasivan, the senior minister of state for information, communications and the arts, made some clarification on the regulation in response to a question by Low Thia Khiang. Balaji said that podcasting and streaming of videos were prohibited during the election. On the other hand, pictures of election candidates, political party histories and manifestos were allowed to be used as election advertising on the Internet. He added that bloggers who persistently promoted political views had to register with the MDA. During elections, only political parties, candidates and election agents are allowed to advertise. Balaji warned that those who violate the rules would face prosecution, and said "In a free-for-all internet environment, where there are no rules, political debate could easily degenerate into an unhealthy, unreliable and dangerous discourse, flush with rumours and distortions to mislead and confuse the public." The regulation of political content on the Internet had previously led to the closing down of a popular discussion forum website Sintercom in 2001, after the owner refused to register with the authority and voluntarily shut down his website.
Additionally, publication of election surveys during the election period or exit polls was banned.
Notes
References
External links
Official elections webpage – Elections Department Singapore
Singapore-elections – a comprehensive archive of elections results, as well as past ones
https://web.archive.org/web/20180117131215/http://www.eld.gov.sg/elections_past_parliamentary2006.html - statistics of 2006 Singapore General Election
Official websites of political parties
National Solidarity Party
People's Action Party, Manifesto (PDF)
Singapore Malay National Organisation, (Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Singapura)
Singapore Democratic Party, Manifesto
Singapore People's Party, Manifesto
Workers' Party of Singapore, Manifesto 2006
News medial special coverage
Asiaone
Channel NewsAsia
Lianhe Zaobao
Xinhuanet
Yahoo! Singapore news
The Singapore Elections Rally Archive – with pictures and videos
Other official information
Parliamentary Elections Act Singapore Statutes Online, Chapter 218
Internet Policies and Guidelines – Media Development Authority, for information on regulations regarding political websites
Singapore Police Force media releases – for list of election rallies.
General elections in Singapore
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunsterforce
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Dunsterforce
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Dunsterforce was an Allied military force, established in December 1917 and named after its commander, Major-General Lionel Dunsterville. The force comprised fewer than 350 Australian, New Zealand, British and Canadian officers and NCOs, who were drawn from the Western and Mesopotamian fronts. The force was intended to organise local units in northern Iran (Persia) and South Caucasus, to replace the Tsarist army that had fought the Ottoman armies in Armenia. The Russians had also occupied northern Iran in co-operation with the British occupation of southern Iran, to create a cordon to prevent German and Ottoman agents from reaching Central Asia, Afghanistan and India.
In July 1918, Captain Stanley Savige, five officers and fifteen NCOs of Dunsterforce, set out towards Urmia and were caught up in an exodus of Assyrians, after the town had been captured by the Ottoman army. About fled and the Dunsterforce party helped hold off the Ottoman pursuit and attempts by local Kurds to get revenge on the Assyrians for their earlier plundering. By the time the rearguard reached Bijar on 17 August, the Dunsterforce party was so worn out that only four men recovered before the war ended. A combined infantry and cavalry brigade was raised from the Assyrian survivors to re-capture Urmia and the rest of the civilians were sent to refugee camps at Baqubah near Baghdad.
Dunsterville and the rest of the force, with reinforcements from the 39th Infantry Brigade, drove in and armoured cars about from Hamadan across Qajar Iran to Baku. Dunsterforce fought in the Battle of Baku from 26 August to 14 September 1918 and retreated from the city on the night of to be disbanded two days later. North Persia Force (Norper Force, Major-General William Thomson) took over command of the troops in northern Iran. Troops diverted from Dunsterforce in Sweet's Column opposed an Ottoman diversion from Tabriz, on the Persian road, during September; the situation was transformed by news of the great British victory in the Battle of Megiddo in Palestine The army in Caucasus was the only source of Ottoman reinforcements and had to give up divisions, ending offensive operations in the theatre.
Background
North-West Frontier
Britain and Russia had played The Great Game for influence in Central Asia from the early nineteenth century but in the 1880s, Russian absorption of the local Khanates and Emirates restricted British influence. The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 ended the rivalry by defining spheres of influence in Afghanistan, Iran and Tibet. Early in the First World War, British and Indian forces set up the East Persia Cordon with Seistan Force assembled from the Indian Army. The force was created to counter German, Austrian and Ottoman subversion in Afghanistan and the North West Frontier of British India. Two squadrons of the 28th Cavalry Regiment and the locally raised South Persia Rifles patrolled the border of Baluchistan and the Persian Empire. The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the collapse of the convention; the dissolution of the Tsarist armies from March 1917 left open the Caspian Sea and the route from Baku to Krasnovodsk and Central Asia to the Central Powers. In the spring of 1918, German and Ottoman forces advanced into Transcaucasia and Central Asia.
Iran
Russian policy towards Iran in 1914 was based on assurances that Iranian territorial integrity would be respected. Tsarist expansion in northern Iran and opposition to the emergence of a stable modern state, led to suspicion that its policy was really to keep Iran as a dependency or to absorb more of its northern provinces. Britain traditionally sought to maintain commercial interests in the country and the use of naval power to protect India. The geographical position of Iran, between Europe and India and the ancient west–east trade routes through Iranian provinces, had led the British in the nineteenth century to follow a policy of using Iran as a buffer state.
The British in practice preferred inaction, although it enabled Russian expansionism until the Anglo-Russian Convention (Anglo-Russian Entente) of 1907. The Russian sphere ran from Meshed in the east to Tabriz in the west and as far south as Teheran and the British sphere ran west of the North-West Frontier of India and the Afghan border, west to the vicinity of Bandar Abbas on the Persian Gulf. Only the Ottoman Empire remained as a possible field for German diplomatic and economic influence. Traditional Ottoman hostility to Iran on religious grounds meant that the Pan-Islamism of Sultan Abdul Hamid II of the Ottoman Empire failed to gain much of a following in Iran, until the Young Persians took it up as a political tool. The Young Turks in the Ottoman Empire evolved into Pan-Turanists, seeking to renew the Ottoman Empire by expanding into Trans-Caucasia, Turkestan and at least the north-west of Iran. By 1914 little attention had been paid to the Pan-Turanists, mainly due to the power of the Russian Empire; Ottoman encroachments on Iran were seen as defensive moves against Russia.
In 1914, British forces from India occupied Iranian territory east of the Shatt al-Arab waterway, to guard oil concessions in Iran and in 1915 advanced up the Tigris river to Ctesiphon near Baghdad, before being defeated by the Ottoman army and forced to retreat to Kut. During the Siege of Kut the Ottomans defeated three relief attempts and refused an offer of £2,000,000 to ransom the garrison, which surrendered at the end of April. Hopes of a Russian relief force from the Caspian Sea through Kermanshah and Khanaqin (Khanikin) to Baghdad failed to materialise. From May–November 1916, the British consolidated a hold on Ottoman territory to the west of Iran around Basra and the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris at the head of the Persian Gulf. In 1917 the British campaign in Mesopotamia continued, with advances to Baghdad and towards the oilfields of Mosul as the campaign in the Levant led to the occupation of Palestine. A Russian invasion of 1915 from Caucasus established bases at Resht, Kazvin and Teheran and led to inconclusive operations between the Russians and Ottomans further west, closer to the Iranian–Ottoman border.
Caucasia
In January 1915, the British Cabinet had canvassed possible diversionary attacks against the Ottoman Empire after appeals for support from the Russian Empire. The British planned operations against the Ottoman Empire in the Aegean Sea, eastern Mediterranean and a land invasion of the Levant from Egypt, combined with a Russian invasion from Caucasus towards Anatolia and Mesopotamia. In 1917, the Eastern Committee of the War Cabinet considered that British India had been drained of troops and decided to avoid committing more troops to Iran from Europe, by sending a mission of picked men to train local recruits at Tiflis (now Tbilisi), the capital of Georgia. The War Office undertook to send officers and to organise local forces and replace the Russian Caucasus Army. Another force was to be raised in north-western Iran by Lieutenant-General W. R. Marshall, commander of the III (Indian) Corps of the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force (MEF, Lieutenant-General Frederick Stanley Maude); the French took responsibility for the area north of Caucasus.
In Armenia, the local Christians had been sympathetic to the Russians and feared that a revival of Ottoman power would lead to more atrocities. It was believed in London that they would be willing recruits and that some Russian soldiers in the region might fight on for pay, despite the Russian Revolution. On 13 April 1918, the Baku Soviet Commune, a Bolshevik and Left Socialist Revolutionary (SR) faction led by Stepan Shahumyan, was established in Baku, having come to power after the March Days. On 26 July, the Centrocaspian Dictatorship, an anti-Soviet alliance of Russian Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaks), overthrew the Baku Commune in a bloodless coup. All the factions involved tried to gain support from about and Austro-Hungarian former prisoners of war. Those men willing to fight tended to be sympathetic to the Bolsheviks based in Astrakhan and at Tashkent, the terminus of the Trans-Caspian railway (Central Asian Railway). German and Ottoman armies in eastern Ukraine and Caucasus sent troops and diplomatic missions to Baku and further afield. By September 1918, the Ottoman force in Caucasus was the Eastern Army Group with the 3rd Army, comprising the 3rd Division, 10th Division and the 36th Caucasian Division, the 9th Army with the 9th Division, 11th Caucasian Division, 12th Division and the Independent Cavalry Brigade and the Army of Islam, with the 5th Caucasian Division and the 15th Division.
Prelude
Raising of Dunsterforce
Dunsterforce was formed in December 1917, to organise local replacements for the Russian Caucasus Army, that had collapsed in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, the Bolshevik October Revolution in the Gregorian calendar) and the Armistice of 15 December. If the new force managed to pass the Persian road from Baghdad to the Caspian Sea and through Baku to Tiflis, it might be impossible to keep the route open and so men of dash and intelligence were sought. About and were raised by quota from the various national and Dominion contingents in France, the largest number coming from the Australians. From and about twenty NCOs each, was requested from the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF) and the Canadian Corps, twelve officers and about ten NCOs from the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) and several South Africans. The Canadians sent and of
to London by 13 January 1918. Until the "Hush-Hush Party" sailed for the Middle East on 29 January, the War Office kept the men incognito at the Tower of London, with no knowledge of their destination. Eleven Russians and an Iranian accompanied the party and in Egypt, another quota of twenty officers and forty NCOs joined from the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, the group arriving in Basra on 4 March. The force moved up the Tigris to Baghdad by 28 March and began training, having already begun learning Russian and Iranian on the voyage.
Dunsterville Mission
The commander of Dunsterforce, Major-General Lionel Dunsterville, had arrived in Baghdad from India, with his staff and the quota of officers and NCOs drawn from India and Mesopotamia on 18 January, carrying orders to proceed to Tiflis, as the British representative to the Trans-Caucasian Government. The MEF had occupied Baghdad since March 1917 and Marshall, who had taken over the MEF after Maude died in November 1917, sent parties forward to guard the section of the Persian road vacated by the Russian army. Marshall had severe doubts about Dunsterforce, calling it a "mad enterprise" concocted by the War Cabinet against an imagined threat, which would obstruct the main campaign in Mesopotamia. Dunsterville, on arrival at Baghdad, decided that due to the unsettled conditions in the region, he should confer urgently with the British representatives in Tiflis. On 27 January, Dunsterville had set off with eleven officers, four NCOs, four batmen, two clerks and in Ford cars and vans, through the advanced parties of the MEF guarding the road.
The decline of the Russian Army led the Ottomans to advance towards the Caspian Sea, where the Germans and Ottomans intended to capture Baku. Internal disagreements made their progress very slow and in the south after April, Armenians, Assyrians and some Russian troops, managed to stop the advance near Urmia in north-west Iran, about from the Persian road. Iran was politically unstable and agents of the Central Powers attempted to exacerbate British problems in India; Dunsterforce intended to be an extension of the "cordon" in Iran, intended to prevent the unrest spreading to India. From the British railhead in Mesopotamia to the Caspian shore was about and the motor-column passed through the last British outpost at Pai Tak (also Pai Taq), then drove through Kermanshah on, Hamadan and then Kazvin further, to the Elburz mountains, over the Bulagh Pass and into the jungle lowlands of Gilan Province, home of the Jungle Movement of Gilan (Jangali) led by Kuchik Khan Around Resht and Bandar-e Anzali on the Caspian coast, German and Austrian agents had established a measure of influence with the Jangali. Dunsterville discovered that thousands of Russian troops, formerly part of the occupation force in northern Iran, under General Nikolai Baratov, were being allowed free passage and on 17 February, the Dunsterville party reached Bandar-e Anzali.
After contemplating the hijack of a ship to run the gauntlet of Bolshevik-operated coastal craft, Dunsterville decided not to risk alienating local opinion and turned back, intending to meet the party en route from Europe and make arrangements in Iran, while waiting for another chance to reach Tiflis. On 20 February, the party dodged the local authorities and returned to Hamadan, where it could use MEF and Russian army wireless stations, to keep in touch with Baghdad. It had become clear that there was little chance that the Russians formerly under Baratov could be induced to remain on service and that only Colonel Lazar Bicherakov and some of his Cossacks were willing to continue. On 11 February, Bicherakov flew to Baghdad and told Marshall that the Cossacks were willing to act as rearguard for the Russians before leaving and that the Tiflis initiative was doomed to failure. Marshall wanted an advance on Mosul to protect the Persian road but was over-ruled, in preference for operations in Palestine and at Hamadan, Dunsterville claimed that the Iranian public welcomed British protection and requested that he might wait at Hamadan to try again.
To gain the support of the Iranian public, Dunsterville made an effort to relieve the famine, caused partly by a drought and partly by Russian and Ottoman military operations in north-west Iran. The Dunsterville Mission had plenty of money and recruited local labour to repair roads. By a ruse, Dunsterville got the local grain merchants, mostly supporters of the Democratic Party and in the pay of the Germans, to stop hoarding, which proved very popular. The Democrats retaliated by claiming that the British had poisoned the wheat and sniped at the British in Hamadan but public support for the British increased as the famine relief measures took effect. The Dunsterville Mission was also able to establish an intelligence organisation that saw all telegrams and letters concerning the mission. After the Bicherakov Cossack detachment moved from Kermanshah to Kazvin and blocked the Jangalis from using the Teheran road, the mission was able to arrest the passage of German and Ottoman agents with local levies of Christian Assyrians for local order and security duties. The prisoners were guarded a party of the 1/4th Hampshire and the "Irregulars", a military force was raised from the hill peoples of the north-west closer to the Ottoman border, to oppose an Ottoman move against the Persian road from Armenia.
Baratov sold Dunsterville most of the weapons and supplies of the Russian Army but some were also traded by Russian soldiers to the Persian locals and the Kurdish hill peoples, leaving them exceptionally well armed. By the end of March, all but the Bicherakov Cossack detachment at Kazvin had withdrawn and the MEF extended its hold on the road to Kermanshah, with the 36th Brigade. Dunsterville borrowed some infantry and cavalry and Bicherakov agreed to remain at Kazvin, until British troops could take over. Twenty officers and twenty NCOs of Dunsterforce arrived by Ford car on 3 April, the rest of the force making their way on foot with a mule train, all arriving by 25 May. By the time that the rest of Dunsterforce had arrived, the local and international situation had changed; the success of the German spring offensive in France leading the Georgians to bid for German support; in May the Germans took over part of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. The Ottomans repudiated the treaty of Brest Litovsk and began to organise Tartars into the Islamic Army of the Caucasus on 25 May, to attack Baku and Iran, making a British move to Tiflis even less likely.
The Bolsheviks asked for British assistance to reorganise the Black Sea Fleet and it appeared possible that a rapprochement with the Bolsheviks and the Armenians could be arranged, in return for British protection of Baku. Control of the port and shipping on the Caspian Sea might still achieve British and Allied objectives, despite the Ottoman push eastwards into the vacuum left by the decline of the Tsarist army. The War Office and the British command in India considered that the good campaigning weather of a Caucasian summer should be exploited by augmenting Dunsterforce as much as possible. Operations on the Euphrates by the 15th Indian Division of the MEF, surrounded an Ottoman force in the action of Khan Baghdadi and took In April, the 2nd Ottoman Division was forced back from the Persian road, after which the MEF advanced into Kurdistan and tried to block the Ottoman retreat towards Kirkuk. Marshall was ordered to advance to Kirkuk, to divert Ottoman forces from their advance through Armenia to the Caspian Sea. The MEF took the town unopposed on 7 May, then retired to Tuz Khormato and Kifiri, due a shortage of troops and supplies.
The War Office urged Marshall to send a brigade to Dunsterville but he claimed that mounted in Fords and a force of armoured cars, would be sufficient to get beyond Kermanshah. The force could to the Caspian Sea by June and then the waters could be controlled by arming ships; if he was wrong, reinforcements could be sent later. During the discussions, the Bolsheviks in Caucasus requested that Bicherakov attack the Jangalis to protect Baku, to which he agreed, in return for their acquiescence in British involvement. Dunsterville wanted to depart on 30 May but was delayed by the War Office until 1 June and allowed to move on, provided that the road was adequately guarded. Ottoman forces were west of the road at Tabriz and the Jangalis held the road at Manjil. Just after the fourth party of Dunsterforce had arrived, Dunsterville sent parties of his Officers and NCOs with pack-wireless stations, to Zenjan and Bijar, about north-west of Kazvin and Hamadan. Their objective was to recruit local Kurds, to bar the two tracks through Kurdistan against an Ottoman advance. Sehneh, on a southern track from Urmia to Kermanshah, was left until July, when Marshall sent troops to occupy the town.
Operations
Dunsterforce
The Dunsterforce parties moved off via Zenjan, with their destinations secret until they were on their way, just after the fourth group of Dunsterforce arrived. Soon after the party for Zenjan arrived it was sent on another to Mianeh about from Tabriz and the Bijar party pressed on, using a track last reported on by British intelligence in 1842, arriving on 18 June. The Ottoman advance further north on Baku, was opposed by about and Bolshevik troops with about and pieces. Dunsterville proposed to reconnoitre, regardless of the reluctance of the Russian Bolshevik government to allow British interference. On 12 June, the Bicherakov Cossacks advanced from Kazvin and defeated the Jangai at Manjil bridge, reaching Bandar-e Anzali a few days later. Bicherakov took ship for Baku, styled himself a Bolshevik, was appointed commander of the Red Army in Caucasus, then returned to Bandar-e Anzali. In June, the Malleson mission, an Indian Army force under General Wilfrid Malleson, established a base to the east of Bandar e-Anzali in Mashhad, to counter German and Ottoman encroachments in Transcaspia (now Turkmenistan).
Dunsterville was in contact with the Armenian National Council in Baku and urged Marshall in Mesopotamia to send infantry and artillery but Marshall refused and in June sent only the already promised, two companies each of the 1st/4th Hampshire and 1st/2nd Gurkhas, two mountain guns of the 21st Battery and supplies in the vans; the troops took over guarding the road up to Resht. The War Office and the War Cabinet questioned Marshall's judgement and asked Dunsterville directly, what it would take to control the Caspian Sea and destroy the oilfields. Dunsterville urged a forward policy but not the sabotage of the oil as this was inimical to the interests of the populations he was trying to recruit against the Ottomans. Marshall then offered the 39th Infantry Brigade of the 13th (Western) Division and artillery, provided that it could be supplied locally. (The brigade was detached on 1 July and set off in stages from the Brigade HQ arriving five days later.) Along with training and leadership, Dunsterforce was to occupy the Baku oil fields, to deny oil and the local cotton crop to the Germans and Ottomans. Dunsterforce was to operate against the Ottomans in the west and hold a line from Batum to Tiflis, Baku and Krasnovodsk (on the opposite side of the Caspian Sea) to Afghanistan.
Bicherakov and the Cossacks left for Baku and were replaced by British troops at Bandar e-Anzali, as Dunsterville waited for news from Baku of the local factions and changes in their views about British involvement. Although Dunsterville and the British consul at Baku wanted to conciliate the Bolsheviks at Bandar e-Anzali, the War Cabinet wanted him to suppress them but communication was difficult, with the Bolsheviks in control of the transmitter at the port. On 25 July about attacked the British garrison of at Resht and were repulsed; ten days later, Dunsterville gained proof of Bolshevik involvement, arrested the committee in Bandar e-Anzali, seized the wireless and installed Australian signallers. At Baku the situation had changed when the Ottoman advance on the oilfields began. Bicherakov and the Cossacks, with help from four Dunsterforce armoured cars, tried to stop the advance but the local troops ran away. Also on 25 July, Bicherakoff and a few British officers with the four Dunsterforce armoured cars, staged another coup d'état in Baku. A Centrocaspian Dictatorship was installed, Bicherakoff appealed for British aid and sent ships to Bandar-e Anzali to pick up the first troops. Dunsterville sent his intelligence officer, Lieutenant-Colonel C. B. Stokes and all the available to Baku, with news that the brigade and artillery he had requested were on the way.
Urmia Crisis
In 1918, Urmia was defended by Christian (Nestorian) Assyrians of the Urmia villages, that had endured a siege by local Muslim rivals, until the Russian army reached Urmia in May 1915. About Assyrians from the Hakkiari Mountains south of Lake Van, declared war on the Ottomans in 1915 and then retreated towards the Russians, when they were unable to break through. These refugees settled at Salmas, north of Urmia and attacked the local population, who began to call them Jelus. After the Russian armies collapsed, the Ottomans drove another from around Lake Van, who joined the earlier fugitives. Tsarist officers reorganised the two groups defending Salmas until June, when they retreated to the group at Urmia. A British officer had been sent from Tiflis with offers of organisation and help but the assurances were not honoured, which reduced British prestige. A local teacher-turned-general, Agha Petros, managed to unite the three factions and repulse fourteen Ottoman attacks.
On 8 July, before Dunsterforce set off for Baku, Lieutenant K. M. Pennington flew to the Jelus at Urmia, who were under siege by the 5th Ottoman Division and the 6th Ottoman Division of the Ottoman army. Dunsterville offered to send money, machine-guns and ammunition north from Bijar, if Petross pushed a force through the Ottoman siege lines around Lake Urmia, to meet the column and escort it in. The column departed from Bijar on 19 July, commanded by Major J. C. More, carrying £45,000 in Iranian silver Dinar, twelve Lewis guns and of ammunition, accompanied by Captain Stanley Savige, five Dunsterforce officers and fifteen NCOs, escorted by a squadron of the 14th (King's) Hussars (Colonel Bridges). The British reached the rendezvous at Sain Kala on 23 July as arranged but there was no reception party waiting. After a couple of days, Bridges decided that he must return before the grain supply for the horses ran out.
Savige and the Dunsterforce party got permission to go on alone, when the column had retired to Takan Tepe, where his party and the convoy was allowed to remain, with a squadron of cavalry. Savige judged that the Assyrians could still reach them and in the meantime, they would raise a local force to get to Urmia if necessary. Recruitment began and on 1 August, news arrived of a battle south of Lake Urmia, that Savige took to be the Assyrian break out attempt and the party moved north the next day. Aga Petros and the Assyrians arrived on 3 August and next day the march to Urmia began; at dusk near Sain Kala, Petros was aghast to see Assyrian women on the road. The Ottomans had captured Urmia in his absence and the had fled. On 5 August, the British saw a multitude on the road from Urmia, who said that the far end was some miles back, with a rear-guard commanded by Dr W. A. Shedd an American missionary, trying to protect the refugees from local Kurdish and Iranian attacks. The Dunsterforce party went to join the rearguard, while the cavalry protected the main body. A hundred men promised by Petros had already gone to find their families, when the rearguard moved at dawn on 6 August.
The Savige party (two officers and six NCOs), found the tail of the refugee column up the road, with Mrs Shedd encouraging wounded refugees to keep going and the Doctor and men on a ridge, waiting for the next attack. Savige took over the refugee guard and pressed on for about to a village that was being looted by local mounted irregulars. Savige and his exiguous force forced the horsemen out of the village and held them off until later the next day and then retreated, finding that the Assyrians had pillaged the villages in the past, as ruthlessly as the survivors had been taking reprisals against them as they fled from Urmia. Soon after dawn the next day, advanced down the road and others moved past on the flanks. Savige and the party hurried back to a ridge behind a village and commenced a rear-guard action with some of the refugees, while the others ran away. Many well-armed Assyrians pushed to the head of the column, seizing the best horses and leaving women and children to the bandits; having fought in the defence of Urmia, Petros lost control of them once they were under British protection. During the first day, Savige and a local leader got several Assyrians (at gunpoint) to charge the pursuers, as a message was got back to the Hussars asking for support.
After seven hours of fighting, having been pressed back to the tail of the column, twelve British cavalry appeared on the next ridge back, having heard of the request for help and arriving just in time, as the rearguard was exhausted. The cavalry held off the attackers and then fifty men sent by Aga Petros arrived and relieved Savige and the Dunsterforce party. Dr Shedd reached the British encampment but during the night died of cholera and was buried nearby. Attacks on the refugee column by Ottoman troops and local Kurds diminished but for the rest of the march there were frequent attempts to take loot and rustle cattle before the escort could intervene. The cavalry guarded the money and the Dunsterville party provided the rearguard but was not able to protect wounded or exhausted women and children, who had been abandoned by their men, from being murdered. Short of Bijar, an attack by hillmen was deterred, by a show of force by Agha Petros and on 17 August, the rearguard entered Bijar, by when the Dunsterforce members were so worn out that only four regained their fitness before the end of the war. Of about who fled from Urmia, perhaps the Persian road.
Urmia Brigade
At Bijar, Lieutenant-Colonel McCarthy tried with Agha Petros to recruit from the Assyrians a force to recapture Urmia but found that the best men were leading the retreat and would not stop. McCarthy returned to Hamadan ready to stop them with machine-guns if necessary and the best men were press-ganged at bayonet-point by a platoon of the 1st/4th Hampshire. The "recruits" were formed at Abshineh, into the Urmia Brigade (Major G. S. Henderson) of and , trained and commanded through a small Dunsterforce detachment. The remaining Assyrians were sent on to a refugee camp at Baqubah near Baghdad and the Dunsterforce personnel attempted to prevent the Assyrians from getting into Baghdad and plundering local Iranians. The Dunsterforce officers and NCOs were unscrupulous, using training methods like "young sheepdogs practising on the fowls" but had made little progress, when two of the new battalions were sent to counter the threat of an Ottoman advance towards the Persian road; the third battalion moved to Bijar in October. (Eventually the Urmia Brigade returned to Mesopotamia to prepare to recapture Urmia, when the armistice made the attempt unnecessary and the brigade disbanded)
Baku
Baku was attacked on 29 July and again the local troops ran away, leaving the Bicherakov Cossacks in the lurch. On 31 July, the Ottomans attacked Hill 905 north-west of Baku at and continued until 2 August. The 10th Caucasian Infantry Division, the 51st Infantry Division, several batteries of artillery and a cavalry regiment arrived but another attack on 5 August failed, with casualties. The 10th Caucasian Infantry Division was withdrawn to rest and the 15th Infantry Division took over. When the Ottomans were about from the docks, Bicherakov decided to retreat to Derbent, up the coast but the Ottomans were unaccountably seized by panic and retreated, which encouraged the Armenians to counter-attack, until the Ottomans rallied about outside town. Dunsterville also obtained the steamships (President Kruger), Kursk and Argo, to be held ready for a hurried retreat. Fears about the British line of communications were reduced, when the Jangali leader Kuchik Khan made terms on 12 August, which included supplying the British forces.
Every spare man of Dunsterforce began the task of training the Armenian and Russian troops at Baku into an army. There were in 23 battalions that were commanded by five political organisations. The troops held a defensive perimeter across the Baku peninsula about long, the last in the south running along cliffs and the rest on low ground including a salt lake. From the salt lake to the cliffs lies a hill known as Mud Volcano, that was the most important defensive feature on the right flank. On 18 August, Dunsterville and two more battalions reached Baku but at the end of the month, troops intended for Baku had to be diverted to Bijar, against another Ottoman attack from Tabriz, which threatened to cut the lines of communication to Bandar-e Anzali. As parties of the 39th Infantry Brigade arrived at Baku, they took over parts of the defence, particularly at Mud Volcano and the left flank. Even when the rest of Dunsterforce had arrived from Mesopotamia in the Ford vans and joined in the defence of the city, there were only just over and one artillery battery, against about who had already captured villages behind the right flank.
Without the support of local troops, Dunsterforce could not defend Baku and so the locals were reorganised into brigades of three Baku battalions, each with Dunsterforce advisers and one British battalion. Dunsterville had ordered two Martinsyde Elephants of 72 Squadron RAF to Baku, to encourage the population and on 18 August, the aeroplanes flew from Kazvin to Bandar-e Anzali. The aircraft flew on to Baku and by 20 August, the Martinsydes were ready for operations.
The Armenians attempted bravado but during Ottoman attacks, tended to hang back or melt away; a Bolshevik crew of a ship reported to Dunsterville that,
On 26 August, the Ottomans captured Mud Volcano and inflicted many casualties on the British battalion. The British repulsed the Ottomans four times but the local troops melted away; a Canadian captain commanding an Armenian battalion suddenly found himself alone and the fifth attack succeeded.
In another attack on 31 August, a Russian battalion joined in and assisted the British during a retirement but Dunsterville threatened the Baku authorities, that he would order more withdrawals of British troops, rather than leave them to be killed. Next day he told the Dictators that he would evacuate Baku that night, at which the Dictators replied that the British could only go after women and children had left and at the same time as the local troops; Russian gunboats were ordered to fire on the British if their ships tried to leave. Dunsterville took no notice but had second thoughts and the situation improved, when Bicherakov sent reinforcements, with a promise of in two weeks. Another Russian controlled settlement was at Lankaran south of Baku, where Dunsterville had sent Lieutenant-Colonel A. Rawlinson and some Dunsterforce personnel, to raise a force of for raids on Ottoman communications.
In early September, an evacuation was considered and the War Office agreed with Marshall, that British troops should be withdrawn. The Ottoman success had been costly and it was only after the arrival of reinforcements that the attack could be resumed on 14 September, a plan disclosed to the defenders by a deserter on 12 September. The Ottoman plan for the final assault on Baku, was for the 15th Infantry Division to attack from the north and the 5th Caucasian Infantry Division to attack from the west, with the main attack on the north-west corner of the Baku defence line. The attack began at along a road through Wolf's Gap in the ridge. In clouds and mist, the two British pilots strafed the Ottoman troops on the western slopes from low altitude and reported the progress of the attack. By the Ottomans were half-way from the ridge to the city and at the pilots were ordered to destroy the aircraft, since they were too badly damaged to risk flying. The RAF contingent abandoned the airfield under artillery fire, the pilots took a machine-gun, salvaged three cameras and the ground crews took another machine-gun and joined the infantry defending the north end of the field.
With the Ottomans able to bombard the port and shipping with observed artillery-fire, Marshall ordered Dunsterforce to leave. Ships had been readied at the docks and evacuation took place on the night of in two ships. The Dictators changed their minds but behind a rearguard of the 7th North Staffordshire, the men guns and equipment were loaded. A crewmember managed to turn on the lights of Dunsterville's ship, that was fired on by the port guardship and hit the Armenian six times (the Dunsterforce passengers holding up the crew at gunpoint) as the ships ran for Bandar e-Anzali and arrived with no more casualties. Two Australians who were stranded managed to leave on a refugee ship to Krasnovodsk. With the withdrawal of the British, order broke down among the civilian Azeris, Cossacks and Armenian refugees and as the remaining defences were overrun, fires, pillaging and atrocities began. The Ottoman bombardment continued through the night and by dawn up to many of them civilians, had been killed in reprisal by Azeri irregulars; there had been about casualties. The retreat from Baku left the Dunsterforce troops and Australian wireless operators in Lankaran isolated among an aggrieved public and the force had to repel an attack by Tartar irregulars, before running for Bandar e-Anzali in a stolen lorry on 18 October.
Tabriz
The main Ottoman effort at Baku was assisted by operations on the southern flank, where the 9th Army began an invasion of Iran with six divisions, to capture Tabriz. In late June 1918, two divisions had to be withdrawn but the 12th Division attacked southwards and captured Dilman on 18 June; by 27 July the division had reached Urmia. In late August the advance passed beyond Lake Urmia and to the north, two more Ottoman divisions by-passed Yerevan and went straight toward Nahcivan, which was captured on 19 July. The 11th Division advanced along the railway and captured Tabriz on 23 August, then a force of about advanced on 5 September and drove back Dunsterforce outposts beyond Mianeh and occupied the town, then pressed on to the Persian road near Kazvin. The 39th Infantry Brigade elements diverted from Dunsterforce at Baku to Bijar in August, were organised into Sweet's Column (Lieutenant-Colonel E. H. Sweet) and set off from Hamadan to Zenjan on 14 September, accompanied by an Australian wireless team. The British reinforcements were able to prevent the 9th Army from advancing further and in September, the Ottomans consolidated a line in northern Iran, from Astara on the Caspian Sea south of Baku, to Mianeh in Iran about to the south-east of Tabriz, thence to Sulaymaniyah in Kurdistan.
Aftermath
Analysis
The Centrocaspian Dictatorship fell on 15 September, after Ottoman-Azerbaijani forces occupied Baku. In 1937, the RAF official historian, H. A. Jones wrote that Dunsterforce had failed to reach Tiflis or to create a Caucasian military force to hold the line between Batum, Tiflis and Baku but the cotton crop and the oil of Baku had been denied to the Germans. The Ottomans took over the oil fields in September, though only for a few weeks. On 30 October, the armistice with the Ottoman Empire required them to leave and allow the Allies to re-occupy Baku. Exaggerated rumours about the strength of Dunsterforce had also tied down Ottoman troops in Kurdistan, protecting the British flank in Mesopotamia.
In the same year, Charles Bean, the Australian official historian, wrote that after Dunsterforce was disbanded, the officers were allowed to return to their former units, join Indian battalions or stay with Norperforce. The Dunsterville Mission had failed in its original purpose but managed to stop the agents of the Central powers getting into Iran. The obstruction of the Jungle Movement of Gilan (Jangali) was achieved by Bicherakov but this would have not occurred without the rapport with him that was established by Dunsterville. The operations of Dunsterforce gave the British great local prestige as the rest of the Dunsterville Mission carried out famine relief and the organisation of supplies, for which it had little local knowledge but the force adapted and also displayed its military quality in the fighting at Sain Kala and Baku.
In 1987, Vasili Mitrokhin, a Soviet archivist, wrote that the real objective of Dunsterforce, in the guise of defending British India, was to secure a foothold in the Caucasus. The force would then co-operate with counter-revolutionary forces, to overthrow the Baku Soviet and seize control of Caucasus and the Caspian Sea region. Mitrokhin claimed that General Dunsterville had "forty Ford Model T vans loaded with gold and silver" to pay for the operation.
Casualties
One Canadian member of Dunsterforce was wounded. Ottoman forces in Iran in 1918 lost about killed and and in Armenia and Azerbaijan lost about killed and
Subsequent operations
After the Allied victory at the Battle of Dobro Pole near Salonika and the British victory at the Battle of Megiddo , the army in Caucasus was the only source for Ottoman reinforcements and had to give up more and more divisions, that eventually ended offensive operations in the theatre. After resting, the Ottoman army in Caucasus advanced with the 15th Division northwards along the Caspian coast to Derbent but were held up on 7 October by troops supported by naval gunfire from the Bolshevik fleet. The Ottomans attacked again from and the 15th Division reached Petrovsk on 28 October. After several attacks the city fell on 8 November, in the last Ottoman offensive operation of the war and marked the northern limit of the Ottoman advance into the Caucasus Mountains.
On 17 September, Dunsterforce had been disbanded and North Persia Force (Major-General W. M. Thomson) took over the command of the troops in the area. The Dunsterforce officers were allowed to choose to return to their regiments, join Indian battalions or stay on in Norperforce. Marshall was told by the War Office on 2 October, that an Ottoman request for an armistice was anticipated and he was to take as much ground as possible up the Tigris, to assist the British in Syria to advance on Aleppo. Marshall planned a advance up the Tigris, despite most of the transport being in Iran, making an advance to Aleppo out of the question. The advance began after the Ottoman armistice request and the Ottoman troops began a withdrawal on 24 October, until the Tigris Group (Dicle Grubu) of the 6th Army was surrounded and forced to surrender on 29 October, at the Battle of Sharqat (23–30 October).
A flying column pushed on but was met south of Mosul by an Ottoman delegation on 1 November, with the news that the armistice had come into force the day before and the town was occupied on 10 November. Far to the north, the North Persia Force and the Bicherakov Cossacks re-entered Baku on 17 November. The Bolshevik regime eventually defeated its enemies in Central Asia in 1921 but local operations continued against Basmachi irregulars for years afterwards. British intervention had been part of a wider attempt by the British, French, Americans and Japanese to prevent military bases and Allied war material at ports falling into the hands of the Central Powers. At first the Allies were encouraged by the Bolshevik regime but in the summer of 1918, the Allies began intriguing with the internal enemies of the Bolsheviks, which soured relations with the USSR for decades.
Order of battle
Dunsterforce
Western Front
Quotas of picked officers and NCOs from the British Expeditionary Force, Canadian Corps, Australian Imperial Force, New Zealand Expeditionary Force and the South African Overseas Expeditionary Force.
Mediterranean Front
Quotas from British and Dominion contingents of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force.
39th Infantry Brigade
9th (Service) Battalion, The Royal Warwickshire Regiment
7th (Service) Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment
9th (Service) Battalion, The Worcestershire Regiment
7th (Service) Battalion, The North Staffordshire Regiment
1st/4th Battalion, The Hampshire Regiment (platoon)
39th Machine Gun Company, Machine Gun Corps (MGC)
39th Supply & Transport Column, Army Service Corps (ASC)
39th Trench Mortar Battery
See also
26 Baku Commissars
Malleson mission
Republic of Azerbaijan
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
UK title: On Secret Service East of Constantinople: The Great Game and the Great War
Encyclopaedias
Further reading
Books
Encyclopaedias
Journals
Newspapers
Theses
Websites
External links
Persia becomes Iran
Medman, L. Dunsterforce's top ranking Canadian officer, Lieutenant-Colonel John Weightman Warden
Newsreel of Dunsterforce, Australian War Memorial
Imperial War Museums. Video footage: Baku - The Occupation by 'Dunsterforce' 17th August to 14th September 1918
History of the British Isles
Ad hoc units and formations of the British Army
Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
20th century in Armenia
Soviet Union–United Kingdom relations
20th-century military history of the United Kingdom
Military history of Azerbaijan
Military units and formations established in 1917
1910s in Iran
Military history of Qajar Iran
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Windle
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Bob Windle
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Robert George Windle (born 7 November 1944) is an Australian freestyle swimmer of the 1960s, who won four Olympic medals, including an individual gold medal. Windle won the 1500 m freestyle and took bronze in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, and silver and bronze in the 4 × 200 m and 4 × 100 m freestyle relays respectively at the 1968 Summer Olympics. Known for his versatility, he is the only male swimmer to represent Australia at the Olympics in all freestyle distances from 100 m to 1500 m. During his career, Windle set six world records and won six Commonwealth Games gold medals. He won 19 Australian championships in all distances from 220 yd to 1650 yd.
Growing up in eastern Sydney, Windle was trained by Frank Guthrie from the age of 12. Windle's first major swimming competition was the 1960 Australian Championships. Aged 15, his second-place finish in the 1650 yd freestyle earned him a place on the team for the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. However, the Australian coaches only took him along to gain experience and he did not compete. He won his first national title in 1961—the 1650 yd freestyle—and claimed the 220–440–1650 yd treble in 1962. Windle made his international debut at the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth, winning gold in the 4 × 220 yd freestyle and silver and bronze in the 1650 and 440 yd freestyle respectively. In 1963, he won four individual national titles, adding the 880 yd event to the successful defence of his three titles. He won three individual titles in 1964 and proceeded to the Tokyo Olympics where he was eliminated in the heats of the 400 m freestyle after attempting to save energy for the final. In response, Windle took an aggressive approach in the 1500 m and set Olympic records in the heats and final to win gold. He added a bronze in the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay.
After the Olympics, Windle enrolled at Indiana University, where he trained under Doc Counsilman. While in the United States, Windle converted to sprint swimming. He competed in the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Kingston, Jamaica, winning the 440 yd freestyle, 4 × 110 yd and 4 × 220 yd freestyle relays, all in world-record times. He competed in his second Olympics in Mexico City in 1968, racing the 100 m and 200 m freestyle and the corresponding relays, having completed his transition to sprinting. He won a bronze and silver in the respective relays and retired after the games. In retirement, he worked for Allis-Chalmers in the United States, before being transferred to their Australian division.
Early years
Born in Sydney on 7 November 1944, Windle grew up in the eastern Sydney suburb of Waverley. Windle and his sister Norma learnt to swim at nearby Bronte Beach. His family later relocated to Bexley North, and he swam for his school team at Marist College Kogarah. Windle was coached by Frank Guthrie at the Enfield pool from the age of 12. After a fortnight of training, he entered the district age group championships and won a place in the top three. From then on, he began training three or four times a week, and his father drove him to Enfield for morning training. By the age of 15, he was training every day.
A turning point for Windle was the 1960 Australian Championships; he came second in the 1650 yd freestyle behind John Konrads and was selected for the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. He dropped out of high school to attend a three-month training camp in Queensland with the Olympic swimming team. Windle did not swim in Rome; team officials merely wanted him to learn from the routine and atmosphere of Olympic swimming. On his return to Australia, he switched to the tutelage of Don Talbot, who also coached Konrads.
Talbot nicknamed Windle "the greyhound" because of his thin and angular build. As a result of Windle's small build, he took between 45 and 47 strokes to complete a lap, but fellow distance swimmer Murray Rose needed only 35 to 37 strokes. Talbot said that Windle was the most thinly built elite swimmer that he had trained, and had great trouble in trying to increase Windle's frame. Talbot motivated Windle and instilled him with a greater level of self belief. For his part, Windle responded by increasing his workload, and was regarded as Talbot's most diligent student. Windle trained with a determination that often saw him swim through others who were in his training lane. These collisions led to complaints by recreational swimmers that Windle was too aggressive. He often did twice as much pre-season training as the other swimmers in Talbot's squad. According to Talbot, Windle's weakness was that he was only capable of swimming in two ways, flat out or very slowly. Windle had trouble in pacing himself to conserve energy for later events. Talbot lamented to "never [being] astute enough to realise that he [Windle] didn't have the subtleties of pace that would have added to his armament as a swimmer".
First national title and international medals
At the 1961 Australian Championships, Windle won the 1500 m in a time of 17 min 37.7 s to claim his first Australian title at the age of 16. However, his victory was overshadowed when his bathers partly fell off during the race. In the following year, Windle showed his versatility by winning the 220 yd, 440 yd and 1650 yd freestyle events, in times of 2 min 2.9 s, 4 min 25.0 s and 17 min 53.3 s respectively. He also anchored the New South Wales team to victory in the 4 × 220 yd freestyle relay. Selected for the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Perth, he marked his international debut with silver and bronze in the 1650 yd and 440 yd freestyle respectively. Murray Rose, who had returned from competition in the United States college system, won both events. Rose won the 1650 yd event, finishing in 17 min 18.1 s, with Windle 26.4 s in arrears. In the 440 yd event, Rose finished in a time of 4 min 20.0 s, 3.1 s ahead of the third-placed Windle. Windle also won gold in the 4 × 220 yd freestyle relay, along with Rose, Allan Wood and Anthony Strahan, setting a world record in the process.
With Rose absent in the United States, Windle won the 220 yd, 440 yd, 880 yd and 1650 yd freestyle at the 1963 Australian Championships, in times of 2 min 2.8 s, 4 min 23.0 s, 9 min 10.5 s and 17 min 59.6 s respectively. His quest to sweep all of the freestyle events failed when David Dickson defeated him in a touch finish in the 110 yd race. The pair were neck and neck but Dickson judged the finishing touch on the wall better. Windle collected two more wins as part of the New South Wales team in the 4 × 220 yd and the 4 × 110 yd freestyle relays, anchoring both quartets.
Windle set world records in the 200 m and 220 yd freestyle in 1963, posting times of 2 min 0.3 s and 2 min 1.1 s respectively. He won three individual titles at the 1964 Australian Championships, the 200 m, 400 m and 1500 m freestyle in times of 2 min 0.0 s, 4 min 17.6 s and 17 min 9.4 s respectively. As it was an Olympic year, the competition was held over metric distances, in conformance with Olympic standards. Windle was a member of all three New South Wales relay teams as they swept the relay events, winning the 400 m and 800 m freestyle and 400 m medley relays.
Olympic gold
Windle's performances qualified him for the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, where he was slated to swim four events: the 400 m and 1500 m freestyle and the 4 × 100 m and 4 × 200 m freestyle relays. Windle's first event was the 4 × 100 m freestyle relay, where he combined with Dickson, Peter Doak, and John Ryan to win Australia's heat in a time of 3 min 40.6 s, which lagged behind the United States' winning heat time by 1.8 s. Windle anchored the team as Australia came from second at the halfway point to win their heat. The Australians were the second fastest qualifier for the finals. However, the United States improved their time by a further 5.6 s in the final, but Australia could only improve their time to 3 min 39.1 s, leaving them third behind the Americans and Germans. Australia were in second place for the first two legs, until Germany moved into the silver medal position at the last change by 0.1 s. A distance swimmer, Windle could not keep up with his German anchorman counterpart, and Australia fell 1.9 s behind the silver medalists by the end of the race.
In the 400 m freestyle heats, Windle and Talbot made a misjudgement; in an attempt to conserve his energy for the final they decided that Windle should not go flat out, and Windle was four seconds slower than he was at the Australian Championships. Windle was one of the top seeds for the race, and Talbot advised him to swim hard in the first half of the race before slowing down. However, he swam too slowly and missed the final completely. Although he won his heat by seven seconds in a time of 4 min 21.6 s, he was the ninth fastest overall, so he missed the final by one position with a time deficit of 0.5 s. The slowest qualifier was Tsuyoshi Yamanaka, who had been prevented from withdrawing from the race by his coaches. On the other hand, the two other Australian representatives who he defeated at the national championships did make the final, including Wood, who went on to win bronze. Talbot said that the tactical error was mostly his responsibility and that he learnt a lot from it.
In the 1500 m, Talbot decided that Windle would attack from the outset and attempt to hang on in the latter stages of the race. They also worked on Windle's technique, curing his habit of dropping his elbow to a lower position when he was tired. Windle broke the Olympic record in the heats with a time of 17 min 15.9 s to qualify fastest for the final by more than six seconds. In the final, Windle repeated the strategy of sprinting from the start, leading throughout to lower his own Olympic record to 17 min 1.7 s and holding off American John Nelson by 1.3 s. Windle's tactics disrupted the raceplan of the Americans; Nelson and world record holder Roy Saari had planned to pace each other throughout the race, but ended up reacting to Windle instead of swimming their own race. As a result, Saari finished in seventh place, far outside his global standard.
Windle later combined with Wood, Ryan and Dickson in the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay final. Having rested their two individual medalists—Wood and Windle—in the heats, Australia struggled to fourth place and were the slowest qualifier for the final. In the decider, Australia were fourth when Windle dived in for the anchor leg, 3.7 s behind the third-placed Japan. Windle posted a time of 1 min 58.7 s, the sixth fastest split in the race and the fastest Australian leg by 3.0 s. Although he made up 1.8 s on the Japanese anchor swimmer, it was not enough and Australia finished fourth, 1.9 s out of the medals.
US college career
After the Olympics, Windle enrolled at Indiana University—whose Indiana Hoosiers swimming team was coached by Doc Counsilman—on an athletic scholarship. He did so after getting advice from Australian teammate, Olympic gold medallist and Indiana student Kevin Berry. He studied business while competing for the university, where he switched his focus to shorter sprint distances. Windle did not enjoy as much success at short-course swimming in the United States as he did in long-course swimming. He cited the lack of enjoyment for switching to shorter distances, quipping "Why swim 30 laps for a gold, when you can get one for swimming two laps?" However, Windle enjoyed his time in the United States, approving of the additional emphasis on relays and team spirit and the social life that it entailed. Windle also enjoyed learning from Counsilman, who was regarded as an expert in mechanics, resulting in an improvement in his swimming technique.
Windle's performances in the United States for Indiana earned him selection for the 1966 Commonwealth Games in Kingston, Jamaica. He won the 440 yd freestyle in a world record time of 4 min 15.0 s, but with his focus now on the shorter distances, only managed fourth in the 1650 yd freestyle with a time of 17 min 49.2 s, 4% slower than his personal best for the distance. He won golds in the 4 × 110 yd freestyle relay with Ryan, Dickson and Michael Wenden and the 4 × 220 yd freestyle with Wenden, Dickson and Peter Reynolds. The times of 3 min 35.6 s and 7 min 59.5 s, respectively, were world records.
International farewell
In 1967, Windle retired, but made a comeback to compete in the shorter distances after being persuaded by Talbot. In 1968, Windle anchored Indiana's 880 yd freestyle relay to victory at the National Collegiate Athletic Association Men's Swimming and Diving Championships, sealing what would be the first of six consecutive men's team titles for the university. He then competed in the Australian Championships for the first time in four years. Although he did not win any individual events, he was part of New South Wales' winning quartets in the 4 × 100 m and 4 × 200 m freestyle relays. Windle was appointed the captain of the men's Olympic swimming team, gaining selection for the 100 m and 200 m freestyle events and the respective freestyle relays. He was not selected for the 1500 m freestyle, ending the defence of his Olympic title before the team had reached Mexico City.
In the 100 m freestyle, Windle came second in his heat in a time of 54.8 s, making him the sixth fastest qualifier for the semifinals. He improved his time to 54.6 s in the semifinals, but this placed him only 11th and he missed the final by 0.5 s. In the 200 m freestyle, Windle came second in his heat behind Wenden and scraped into the final by 0.3 s as the seventh fastest qualifier. He improved his time by 0.1 s in the final to finish sixth in 2 min 0.9 s. Wenden won both events. After the 200 m final, Wenden lost consciousness due to exhaustion and sank underwater. Wenden was pulled from the water and saved after Windle noticed the incident.
In the 4 × 100 m freestyle, Windle combined with Wenden, Robert Cusack and Greg Rogers to win bronze behind the United States and the Soviet Union. Australia used the same team and swimming order in both the heats and finals, with Windle doing the third leg. Australia came second in their heat behind the United States and qualified third overall, and the Soviet Union were the second fastest. It was a similar story in the final; Australia were third at every change. Despite Wenden anchoring the Australians with the fastest split among all 32 swimmers in the race, the Australians missed the silver medal by just 0.5 s. In the 4 × 200 m freestyle relay, Windle won a silver along with Wenden, Rogers and Graham White. The quartet won their heat and qualified fastest, while the Americans qualified second with their second-choice team. However, using their full-strength team in the final, the Americans won by 1.4 s. Australia were 2.5 s behind at the halfway point of the race, but the Americans were able to hold on, despite the gains made by Windle and Wenden in the last two legs.
Windle retired after the Games, noting that "I have swum to that point when I could hardly lift myself out of the water. I have seen John Konrads to that point also. I would always give 110%. There is no substitute for hard and honest work". Windle was usually regarded as the fittest and hardest-working member of the Australian swimming team. In retirement, Windle stayed in the United States for a few more years, working for Allis-Chalmers, an agricultural equipment corporation. He returned home after being transferred to the Australian division of the firm's operations. Windle was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1987 and the International Swimming Hall of Fame in 1990.
See also
List of members of the International Swimming Hall of Fame
List of Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming (men)
List of Olympic medalists in swimming (men)
World record progression 200 metres freestyle
Notes
References
External links
1944 births
Australian male freestyle swimmers
Commonwealth Games bronze medallists for Australia
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Australia
Commonwealth Games medallists in swimming
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Australia
Indiana Hoosiers men's swimmers
Living people
Medalists at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists for Australia
Olympic bronze medalists in swimming
Olympic gold medalists for Australia
Olympic gold medalists in swimming
Olympic silver medalists for Australia
Olympic silver medalists in swimming
Olympic swimmers for Australia
Swimmers from Sydney
Swimmers at the 1960 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
Swimmers at the 1964 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
Swimmers at the 1968 Summer Olympics
World record setters in swimming
Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductees
20th-century Australian people
Medallists at the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
Medallists at the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games
Sportsmen from New South Wales
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirate%20Party%20%28Sweden%29
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Pirate Party (Sweden)
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The Pirate Party () is a political party in Sweden founded in 2006. Its sudden popularity has given rise to parties with the same name and similar goals in Europe and worldwide, forming the International Pirate Party movement.
The Pirate Party was initially formed to reform laws regarding copyright and patents. The party agenda includes support for strengthening the individual's right to privacy, both on the Internet and in everyday life, and the transparency of state administration. The Pirate Party has intentionally chosen to be bloc independent of the traditional left-right scale to pursue their political agenda with all mainstream parties. The party originally stayed neutral on other matters, but started broadening into other political areas in 2012.
The Pirate Party participated in the 2006 Riksdag elections and gained 0.63% of the votes, making them the third largest party outside parliament. In terms of membership, it passed the Green Party in December 2008, the Left Party in February 2009, the Liberal People's Party and the Christian Democrats in April 2009, and the Centre Party in May 2009, making it, for the time being, the third largest political party in Sweden by membership. The Pirate Party's associated youth organisation, Young Pirate (), was, for a part of 2009 and 2010, the largest political youth organisation in Sweden by membership count.
The Pirate Party came 5th in the 2009 European Parliament elections with 7.13% of the vote and 1 MEP (increasing to 2 after ratification of the Lisbon Treaty). Christian Engström became the first MEP for the party, and Amelia Andersdotter took the second seat on 1 December 2009.
Rick Falkvinge, founder of the party, stepped down on 1 January 2011 after five years as party leader, making vice leader Anna Troberg the party leader.
On 1 December 2014, Anna Troberg announced that she would not be available for re-election in 2015 after her term ended on 31 December 2014.
Declaration of principles
The party advocates a severe reduction of economic sole right of copyrighted works, which today exist for 70 years after the creator's death. They also advocate releasing all non-commercial sharing of copyrighted material, which means that all films, phonograms and programs can be shared freely as long as the operation isn't run commercially.
The party also has personal privacy as a core value, and is critical towards laws such as ACTA, IPRED, the Telecoms Package, and the change in legislation regulating the National Defence Radio Establishment (FRA).
The party advocates strengthened individual privacy, are against the Data Retention Directive, wants to elevate secrecy of correspondence to general secrecy of communication, and create a constitutional right to privacy. The party also seeks to modify the laws of intellectual property (copyright and patent), but doesn't want to change the laws of trademarks or industrial design rights. The party views itself as a defender of the individual's civil rights especially with regards to surveillance, government accountability and political and business corruption.
Before the Swedish general election of 2010 the party stayed neutral in all other political matters, and could be considered a single-issue party. After 2010 the party started opening up for a broader political agenda. A new declaration of principles was formed in 2011, and at the spring member meeting of 2012 several new political standpoints were decided on areas such as school, research and health care.
The party has stated that it supports decriminalising the consumption of all currently illegal substances. It also supports legalising cannabis in Sweden through a regulated market by using state monopolies or licenses in a similar way to how alcohol and tobacco is regulated in the country. It says this would "deprive criminal organisations of income from drug sales and free up police resources that instead could be used to fight crimes with human victims."
History
Founding
The website for the Pirate Party was launched on 1 January 2006 (at 20.30 CEST), marking the foundation of the Party. Six phases were presented on the website, with phase one being the collection of at least 2,000 signatures (500 more than required) to be handed over to the Swedish Election Authority before 4 February (the deadline for registering being February 28), so that the Party would be allowed to participate in the upcoming 17 September general election. In less than 24 hours after the opening of the website, the Party had collected over 2,000 signatures (2,268 at 16.05 CEST).
By the morning of 3 January, the Party closed the signature collection. In about 36 hours, they had gathered 4,725 signatures. As signatories are required by Swedish election law to identify themselves when giving support for a new party, international media reported this as a significant feat, given the nature of the Party. However, signatures presented to the election authorities are required to be handwritten. The goal of at least 1,500 handwritten signatures was reached February 10 and the final confirmation from the authorities was presented three days later. The Party claimed to have recruited 900 members within the first month, each member paying a membership fee of 5 Swedish kronor (approx. US$0.69, c.2006), payable by SMS (The Party has since changed to free member registration).
Phases two to five included registering with the Election Authority, getting candidates for the Riksdag, raising money for printing ballots, and preparing an organization for the election, including local organizations in all municipalities of Sweden with a population in excess of 50,000, which in 2005 meant 43 municipalities. During this phase fundraising was also started, with an initial goal of raising 1 million SEK ($126,409).
The sixth and final phase was the election itself. The Party, which claims that there are between 800,000 and 1.1 million active file sharers in Sweden, hoped that at least 225,000 (4% of all the voters in Sweden) of those would vote for the party, granting them membership in Parliament.
Initial media attention
Media quickly picked up on the movement. On Monday 2 January 2006, a large Swedish financial newspaper, Dagens Industri, produced a story on what was happening. By 3 pm, the media seemed irritated that no owner of the website was listed or easy to track down; some reports listed the website as not serious and a PR stunt. However, the largest Swedish tabloid, Aftonbladet, managed to track down the Party leader Rickard Falkvinge at work. Falkvinge, however, was unable to explain the Party's positions while at work, bringing this information gathering effort to an abrupt end.
On 3 January 2006, all the major Swedish news outlets had produced stories on the Party. Aftonbladet posted an online poll indicating that its readers gave the Party a 61% approval rating, and IDG produced a longer front page interview with Falkvinge in the afternoon. IDG also posted an online poll similar to the first, with similar results. The Party website was also slashdotted.
The Pirate Party's web server received one million hits on its first day of operation, two million the next.
On 4 January, international media and radio stations picked up the story. A major Swedish radio station broadcast an interview with Falkvinge about the unexpected amount of attention the initiative received. More attention followed on Thursday, including coverage by the BBC World Service, the first global radio station to produce a story on the Pirate Party initiative.
At the end of the first week, the Pirate Party platform had been covered by over 500 English-language and over 600 Swedish-language media outlets.
The Pirate Bay trial
On 31 May 2006, Swedish police raided a facility hosting The Pirate Bay (and Piratbyrån, along with over 200 other independent site owners, hosted at the same facility), leading to a breakthrough for the Pirate Party in the public eye. Before the raid, the Party was steadily growing with some ten new members every day, but the raid caused a surge of 500 new members by the end of the day, with a membership count of 2,680. The next day another 930 people had registered membership, giving a total of 3,611 members, more than doubling their original number. During parts of 2006 Mikael Viborg, who is also known as the legal advisor of the popular BitTorrent tracker, The Pirate Bay was a board member of the Pirate Party.
On 3 June 2006, the Party performed a "pirate demonstration" in Stockholm and Gothenburg. The demonstration was in collaboration with the youth sections of some other political parties (the Young Liberals, Young Greens and Young Left). Within a few days the file sharing issue had become the focus of national debate, followed by national as well as international media. Along with criticizing the approach to restricting Pirate Bay's file sharing by the Minister for Justice Thomas Bodström, the right to free information and rule of law became the Party's main standpoints.
The Pirate Party had over 50,189 members – more members than 5 of the 7 parties in the Swedish Parliament – and was the third largest political party in Sweden by member count. Pirate Party's youth organisation, Young Pirate, had more than 21,800 members, making it the largest political youth organisation in Sweden. Since 17 April 2009, the party had more than tripled in size. Large increases in membership were associated with the controversial legislative change regulating signals intelligence, the IPRED law regarding copyright holder access to ISP subscriber information and the trial against The Pirate Bay. On 17 April 2009 the court reached a guilty verdict in the Pirate Bay trial and on the same day the Pirate Party gained 3,000 new members within 7 hours, making it larger in terms of members than 3 of the 7 parties in the Parliament of Sweden. A total of over 9,000 new members joined the party on that day and the day after. One week later it reached 40,000 members, compared to 15,000 members before the verdict.
On 30 April 2009, a newspaper election poll reported the Pirate Party vote to be 5.1% for the upcoming European Parliament election. Another more recent poll conducted by polling organization Demoskop for newspaper Upsala Nya Tidning gave the party 7.9%. The party eventually received 7.1% of the vote in the 7 June election, and won a seat in the European Parliament.
2010s decade
On 18 May 2010, The Pirate Bay started hosting its site through bandwidth delivered from the Pirate Party.
On 17 August 2010, it was announced that the Pirate Party will be hosting and managing many of WikiLeaks' new servers. The party donates servers and bandwidth to WikiLeaks without charge. Technicians of the party will make sure that the servers are maintained and working.
On 19 September 2010, the party won 0.7% of the votes in the 2010 general election, slightly increasing its performance in comparison to the 2006 general election.
On 1 January 2011, the party celebrated its five-year anniversary with a Bambuser live broadcast with party leader Rick Falkvinge and vice party leader Anna Troberg. Live in the video, Falkvinge sent a tweet saying he stepped down as party leader, and he announced that his successor would be Troberg. Falkvinge now works as an evangelist, spreading the politics of the Pirate Party in and out of Europe.
In December 2011, the party launched Free & Social, a social networking/microblogging service.
In the 2014 general election and the 2014 European Parliament election the party won 0.4% respectively 2.2% of the votes and consequently lost their seats in the European Parliament. In the 2018 general election and the 2019 European Parliament election the party won 0.1% respectively 0.6% of the votes.
After peaking at about 50,000 in late 2009 the membership numbers did steadily decline to about 2,500 party members in early 2020.
Political impact
National
Less than a week before the 2006 elections, the Green Party shifted their stance on copyright reform. Additionally, both the Moderate Party and the Left Party changed their stances on internet downloads, and both prime ministerial candidates stated publicly that it shouldn't be illegal for young people to share files. Several influential analysts have credited the Pirate Party and its rising popularity for this shift in the political climate; these include a panel of senior editors at International Data Group and political analysts at the largest morning newspaper, Dagens Nyheter.
Additionally, the then Swedish Minister of Justice Thomas Bodström, announced on 9 June that he was willing to negotiate a possible revision of the law introduced in 2005 that made unauthorised downloading of copyrighted material illegal, introducing a new tax on broadband Internet access, but he later denied having changed his stance on the issue.
After the 2006 elections, the issue faded from the public debate. In January 2008, seven Swedish members of parliament from the conservative Moderate Party, senior member of the governing Alliance coalition, authored a piece in a Swedish tabloid calling for the complete decriminalisation of filesharing. The Swedish members of parliament wrote that "Decriminalising all non-commercial file sharing and forcing the market to adapt is not just the best solution. It's the only solution, unless we want an ever more extensive control of what citizens do on the Internet."
International
Outside Sweden, pirate parties have been started in some 33 countries, inspired by the Swedish initiative. They cooperate through Pirate Parties International (PPI).
The Pirate Party of Germany gained seats in the city council of Münster and Aachen in August 2009, and in the federal election a month later they received 2.0% of the party list votes, becoming the biggest party outside the Bundestag. In the election to the Abgeordnetenhaus in Berlin in September 2011, the Pirate Party received 9% of the votes and, for the first time in Germany, gained seats in a state parliament.
Free software
Richard Stallman has expressed concern that the Pirate Party's goal of reducing copyright term to 5 years could harm the free software movement. Many free software licenses, mainly the GPL, are based on long-term copyrights. Stallman argues that if copyright terms are reduced to 5 years, proprietary software vendors would be able to take free software and use it in proprietary software once the copyright expires. But proprietary software is restricted by EULAs in addition to copyright, and the source code is not available, rendering the proprietary software unusable for free software developers even after its copyright expires. Stallman suggests that under this new copyright law, proprietary software developers should put their code in escrow when the software's binaries are released and then release their software into the public domain immediately after their copyright expires.
Election results, voter base
2006 Swedish general election
The Pirate Party attracted 34,918 votes in the Swedish general election of 2006, their first participation at an election for parliament since the founding of the party less than 9 months prior. With 0.63% of the overall votes, it became the 10th biggest party of more than 40 participating. However, a voting result of less than 4% of the total votes does not qualify the party for seats in the Swedish Parliament. Getting more than 1% of the vote would have granted the party financial assistance from the state for printing ballots which is costly in Sweden, while at least 2.5% would grant them state funds for campaigning in the next election. Despite the setbacks, Falkvinge began planning for the Swedish general election in 2010.
2009 European Parliament election
In the first pre-election poll before the 2009 European Parliament election, the Pirate Party registered at 5.1%, which would be enough to get a seat in the parliament. The support for the party was concentrated among younger voters, especially those of ages 18–29 (where it was the second largest party) and 30–44 (where it was the fourth largest).
By 22 May 2009, a Demoskop poll showed a 7.9% support amongst Swedish voters, making the Pirate Party the third largest party. A week later this had grown to 8.2% and a projected two seats in Parliament, with 21.8% support amongst people aged 18–29. The party's top two candidates were Christian Engström and Amelia Andersdotter.
A model-based prediction for the 2009 European Parliament election by political scientists estimated on 4 June 2009 that the Pirate Party could be the third largest party from Sweden, gaining 2 seats.
The Pirate Party got enough votes for at least one seat of the 18 available seats Sweden then had at the European Parliament, getting 7.1% of the Swedish votes. Following the ratification of the Treaty of Lisbon, a second seat was given to Amelia Andersdotter on December 1, 2009. The Pirate Party joined The Greens-European Free Alliance group.
The Pirate Party of Germany also participated in the European Parliament elections, which was their first participation in a nationwide election, and achieved 0.9% in Germany, getting 230,000 votes. They missed the 5% level by a wide margin but qualified for public funding.
2010 election
In the 2010 general election, the Pirate Party increased their percentage of the vote by 0.02%, bringing it to a total of 0.65%, remaining under the required amount to gain a seat, but becoming the biggest party outside of Parliament.
Parliament (Riksdag)
European Parliament
Relations to other Swedish pirate organizations
There are three major pirate organisations in Sweden: the political Pirate Party, the now-defunct NGO Piratbyrån (Pirate Bureau), and the BitTorrent tracker The Pirate Bay. Of these three, Piratbyrån and The Pirate Bay share a common history but are now separate, whereas the Pirate Party developed on a completely separate and parallel track, founded by Falkvinge, and was initially unrelated to the other two. This was until 18 May 2010, when the Pirate Party became The Pirate Bay's ISP in response to an injunction that temporarily shut down access to The Pirate Bay, with the Pirate Party stating that "It is time to take the bull by the horns and stand up for what we believe is a legitimate activity."
See also
Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA)
Elections in Sweden
EU Copyright Directive and DADVSI
2009 European Parliament election in Sweden
National Defence Radio Establishment (FRA)
Patent pirate
Piratbyrån
Pirate Parties International
Politics of Sweden
The Pirate Bay
References
External links
Official sites, documents
Pirate Party official site
Declaration of Principles
2006 Election Manifesto 2006 election manifesto
Interviews
Interview with founder in The Local by Agence France-Presse
YouTube Interview with Founder Rick Falkvinge
Speeches
Rickard Falkvinge speaks at the O'Reilly Open Source Convention 2007 (27 July 2007)
Rickard Falkvinge speaks at Google (31 July 2007)
Rickard Falkvinge speaks at Stanford Law School (31 July 2007)
Rickard Falkvinge speaks at the party congress 2007 of the German Pirate Party Part 2 Part 3
Rickard Falkvinge speaks at the PPI Conference Friedrichshafen, Germany (13 Mar 2011)
Sweden
Political parties established in 2006
File sharing
Intellectual property activism
Swedish intellectual property law
2006 establishments in Sweden
Minor political parties in Sweden
gl:Partido Pirata
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20and%20Rescue%20Department%20of%20Malaysia
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Fire and Rescue Department of Malaysia
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The Fire and Rescue Department of Malaysia (, Jawi: جابتن بومبا دان ڤڽلامت مليسيا), commonly known as Bomba, is a federal agency of Malaysia responsible for firefighting and technical rescue. Bomba is a Malay word derived from the Portuguese bombeiros which means 'firefighters'.
History
Firefighting services in Malaysia began in 1883 with the establishment of the Selangor fire and rescue volunteers led by H.F. Bellamy, with 15 active personnel. The Malayan Union Fire Services (MUS), based in Kuala Lumpur, was established after World War II, headed by Flight Lt. W.J. German.
The firefighting services became the responsibility of state governments after the Malaysia Federation Agreement. The services were then integrated as a federal-level department on 1 January 1976, reporting to the Ministry of Housing and Local Government. The department received a new name on 15 May 1981: "The Malaysian Fire Services Department".
On 8 January 1997, the Malaysian Ministerial Cabinet agreed to change the coat of arms, flag, and name of the Malaysian Fire Services Department to the Malaysian Fire and Rescue Department. These were officially launched in a ceremony at the Genting Highlands Fire and Rescue Station in Pahang on 21 February 1997, by Prime Minister of Malaysia Mahathir Mohamad.
Insignia
Flag
The JBPM flag is divided into 2 sections: a red triangle with the department crest and the lower triangle, with 15 alternating golden yellow and blue stripes.
Crest
Organizational structure
Federal Level
State Branch Director
Fire and Rescue Academy
There are five Fire and Rescue Academy of Malaysia (FRAM) () campuses which includes:
FRAM Central Region, Kuala Kubu Bharu, Selangor.
FRAM Eastern Region, Wakaf Tapai, Marang, Terengganu.
FRAM Northern Region, Tronoh, Perak.
FRAM Sabah Region, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah.
FRAM Sarawak Region, Kuching, Sarawak.
FRAM offers certificate and diploma level courses in fire and rescue.
FRAM has a Band Unit that is attached to FRAM Central Region.
Auxiliary Fire Service & Volunteer Firefighting Teams
On 4 May 2014, the Malaysian Government re-established the Auxiliary Fire Service () in conjunction with the International Firefighters' Day celebrations at Merdeka Square, Kuala Lumpur. The re-establishment was officiated by the then Deputy Prime Minister, Tan Sri Muhyidin Yassin. Historically, the Auxiliary Fire Service was first formed in 1940. Then, after World War II, they were absorbed into the regular fire services.
There are some differences between Auxiliaries and Volunteers. Auxiliary Firefighters () are formally trained at FRAM, while the Volunteer Firefighters receive their training at state and district fire stations. Auxiliary Firefighters are governed by the Fire Services Act 1988 and receive an allowance from the government. Volunteer Firefighters do not receive allowances from the government but are citizen volunteers serving as part of Volunteer Firefighting Teams based at Volunteer Fire Stations paid for by their local community. They are covered through insurance paid for by the Malaysian Government. Previously registered and governed by the Registrar of Societies, Volunteer Firefighters will now be registered and governed directly by the Malaysian Fire and Rescue Department after Parliament passed the Fire Services (Amendment) Act 2018.
Mountain Search and Rescue
After the Sabah earthquake that happened on 5 June 2015 affected Ranau and Mount Kinabalu, a specialist Mountain Search and Rescue team (MOSAR) was formed out of the Kinabalu Mountain Guides of Sabah Parks on 23 June 2015. In a ceremony at Ranau Fire Station, 20 Kinabalu Mountain Guides were appointed as Auxiliary Firefighters and designated as the founding members of MOSAR. The ceremony was officiated by the then Minister of Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government, Datuk Abdul Rahman Dahlan.
MOSAR takes its place among Malaysian Fire and Rescue Department's specialist rescue units, which includes the Special Tactical Operation and Rescue Team of Malaysia (STORM) and the Multi Skill Team (MUST).
Volunteer Fire and Rescue Force
Volunteer Fire and Rescue Force () traces their history back to 1883. The modern Volunteer Fire and Rescue Force was formed in 1987 and protected under Section 62 (1) (CA) Fire and Rescue Services Act 1988. Each Volunteer Fire and Rescue Force has their own fire stations, fire trucks, and equipment, which are usually sponsored by local industry.
The primary role of the Volunteer Fire and Rescue Force is to perform firefighting operations in their community. In case of fire emergencies in their community, the volunteers are the first there to control if not extinguish the fire. Their secondary role is to be the link between JBPM and their local community. In addition, they are entrusted by JBPM to spread awareness regarding to fire safety.
The Volunteer Fire and Rescue Force train regularly in district fire stations so that they and their equipment are in good shape for fire emergencies. The volunteers can be easily identified by their yellow Firefighting Operations Dress.
Uniform
Blue Working Dress
JBPM start using 'Very Dark Corn Flower Blue' for their official duty uniform since 1997. Before that, JBPM personnel wore a Khaki-coloured working uniform.
The blue bush jacket uniform is worn by all JBPM ranks during official duties, while the tuck-in blue uniform version is worn during the parades.
Orange Camouflage Dress
This dress is devoted to carrying out special tasks, rescue operations, and other operations that do not involve firefighting. This dress can also be worn when doing the daily work at the fire station or in the official parade.
Red Beret
Both JBPM personnel and Auxiliary Firefighters are awarded with a red beret with a black lining behind the insignia once they finish their basic fire and rescue training at FRAM.
For Volunteer Fire and Rescue Force, headwear differs depending to the state. In Kedah, the volunteers wear a maroon beret with a red lining behind the JBPM insignia, whilst in Penang, they wear a red beret similar to the regular force but without the black lining. Firefighter Cadets wear a dark navy-blue beret instead.
Firefighting Operations Dress
This fire-retardant dress is worn during firefighting operations and exercises that involve fire. This dress can also be worn during the official parade if instructed.
There are a few colors of the firefighting operations dress. The color red (which replacing orange) is worn by regular firefighters, yellow is worn by volunteer firefighters and black is worn by JBPM officers (ranking from Assistant Fire Superintendent to Chief Fire Commissioner).
Helmet
JBPM currently uses the Dräger HPS 7000 as their standard issued fire and rescue helmet. JBPM currently uses 3 colors to mark a firefighter's rank,
White
Used by all standard firefighting personnel.
Orange
Used by officers and superintendents.
Red
Used by commissioners.
USAR Helmet
JBPM has chosen the Dräger HPS 3100 as their standard urban search and rescue helmet (Primarily used by STORM). The helmet is standardly issued to STORM but also USAR qualified firefighters from other specialist units including MUST and K9 unit (Obtained through the STORM Urban Search and Rescue training).
Rank
List of ranks
Special operations
Pasukan Khas Jabatan Bomba dan Penyelamat Malaysia () is a term used by JBPM to its special trained firefighters.
To differentiate with regular firefighters, Special Force firefighters wear a unit patch on the right shoulder and use different styles of camouflage and operations uniform.
MUST Team, Smoke Jumpers (PASKUB), and STORM can be sent to overseas to help handling any disaster with STORM being the primary unit being sent.
Special Forces
HAZMAT Unit Team
Formed on 29 October 1992 after the Bright Sparklers Fireworks disaster incident, Hazardous Material Unit Team or commonly known as "HAZMAT" is a JBPM's Special Force trusted to handle with five types of hazards which is:
Handling hazardous chemical spills.
Decontaminate JBPM personnel that have been exposed to hazardous materials.
Handling radioactive and radiation-emitting materials.
Handling fire caused by hazardous materials.
Handling Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear Exposure (CBRNe) during wartime.
MUST Team
Multi-Skill Team (MUST) is an elite airborne team of JBPM. Formed on 11 September 1998, MUST is formed by combining all special trained firefighters into one team and supported by helicopters from JBPM Air Wing. MUST units are usually deployed whenever a certain special unit is unavailable in a certain area or when extra assistance is requested by other special units. MUST primarily serve as helicopter-borne firefighters mainly tasked with rescue involving airborne rappelling insertion.
Although MUST is primarily an elite airborne unit, MUST can conduct support operations to assist other divisions (that are unavailable or requested) such as:
High Rise Rescue
Water Rescue
Major Road and Traffic Accident management
HAZMAT Operations (Support unit)
General Search and Rescue (basic) first responder
Emergency Medical and Rescue (helicopter-borne extraction)
Jungle Firefighting
High Angle Rescue
Air Rescue (rappel insertion)
All MUST members are trained in helicopter-borne, emergency management in aircraft, jungle survival and sea-land navigation.
Elite JBPM Rescue Swimmer Unit is attached to MUST.
RIM
Rapid Intervention Motorcycle Team (RIM) was formed in 1999 to tackle problems of late arriving rescue caused by traffic jammed in the big city. With superbikes equipped with basic Firefighting and rescue equipment, RIM team can handle small scale fire and Road and Traffic Accident (RTA) without having traffic problems. During bigger scale of fire, RIM team will arrive early and assess the size and type of incident, building, and materials involve and victim if any. RIM team also will help control the traffic for the fire truck movement.
Water Rescue Unit
Pasukan Penyelamat Dalam Air (PPDA); also known as Water Rescue Unit, their role is to deal with incidents and emergencies that occur in the water. This unit consists of qualified officers and men trained at local and overseas diving training centres. All members of the JBPM Water Rescue Unit are certified divers from the National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI).
PASKUB
Pasukan Khas Udara Bomba (PASKUB) () is a command for elite Smokejumper with support of helicopters from JBPM Air Wing.
Smoke Jumpers Unit () is an elite unit of JBPM and trained in parachute insertion (static line and freefall), helicopter-borne operation and jungle survival. The formation of elite Smoke Jumper began in 2000 after JBPM sent five firefighters to enter the Basic Static Line Parachuting Course held at Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) Sempang Air Force Base, Sungai Besi as the pioneer team Smoke Jumpers. The course was conducted by RMAF Special Operations Force, PASKAU until 2007 when JBPM established their own Static Ramp Air Course. Among the task of Smoke Jumper is:
Combat Air Rescue Medic
Medical Evacuation (Medevac)
Deep jungle/Isolated Area Firefighting Operations
Smoke Jumper enjoys good relations with Malaysian Armed Force Special Operations Forces as they always train with RMAF PASKAU, Malaysian Army Grup Gerak Khas from PULPAK and Royal Malaysian Police VAT 69 Commando. PASKUB members are selected from various units including STORM, MUST and EMRS.
EMRS
Emergency Medical Rescue Services (EMRS) Team was formed in 2006 with cooperation from the Malaysian Ministry of Health and Malaysian Association of Traumatology and Emergency Medicine (MASTEM). EMRS was established as a Special Force Paramedic to rescue and conduct medical care to other JBPM Special Forces members if any incident occurs to them. However, EMRS can rescue and conduct medical care to civilians if there are no other ambulance or paramedics from the Malaysian Ministry of Health or State Health Department around.
Typically, EMRS team is assigned to HAZMAT and Water Rescue unit and EMRS vehicle will go out in pairs with the other JBPM Special Forces vehicle to operations. EMRS members are also usually tasked as paramedics during JBPM Special Forces and Special Operations Forces Selections.
Some EMRS members are trained in HAZMAT and Scuba diving.
K9 Unit
K9 Management Unit uses trained dogs to operate in the Search and Rescue (SAR) operations and investigation. The K9 Unit can be attached to the regular firefighting unit or JBPM Special Forces thus all dog handlers together with their dogs are trained for a variety of situations, including the urban and jungle operations.
Special Force Boat Team
A support team task to support JBPM Special Forces with water transportation during operations involving of lake, river and sea. The boat crews are trained in water survival and able to perform water rescue to JBPM personnel and civilians if things go south.
Special Operations Force
STORM
Special Tactical Operation and Rescue Team of Malaysia (STORM) unit is a part of the Malaysian Rapid Deployment Force () together with 10 Parachute Brigade (10 PARA) but with different task and role. Formed in March 2011, STORM winning is a Search and Rescue (SAR) experts and on standby for 24/7 at JBPM Airbases and State Branch Headquarters. Storm unit mainly task with SAR operations involving:
Night rescue operations
Heavy Urban Search and Rescue (Advanced) and Technical Rescue
Deep-jungle rescue
Cave rescue
Air-sea rescue
Mountain rescue
Large-scale natural disaster
Airplane and Helicopter crash
Dubbed as Komando Bomba (), to be selected as STORM members, firefighters need to pass the rigorous selection course which is on par as Basic Commando Course. Eligibility requirements including Individual Physical Proficiency Test (IPPT) standards of physical fitness that is also used by the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF), Singapore Police Force (SPF) and Singapore Civil Defence Force (SCDF) before trainee can even enter the Basic Storm Course. Once pass the Storm Survival Course, the graduate will receive a tactical knife, the same sort used by RMAF PASKAU, STORM patch and permission to wear STORM Red Helmet and STORM Version Camouflage Dress.
Many of STORM members are drawn from Water Rescue Unit (PPDA), EMRS, HAZMAT Unit and MUST.
For big operations, STORM work together with other federal SAR Special Force; Special Malaysia Disaster Assistance and Rescue Team (SMART) which under administration of the National Security Council. They are usually supported by the jungle experts, the aboriginal police unit; Senoi Praaq, Royal Malaysian Police's (RMP) VAT 69 Commando and General Operations Force, Malaysian Armed Force special operations force and Malaysian Civil Defence Force.
Current inventory
Vehicles
Honda ST 1300 Pan European, VFR 800 – Rapid intervention motorcycles.
Honda 6x6 All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV) – Off-road rescue missions and forest firefighting.
DRB-Hicom Handalan 2 – 4WD General purpose 3 tonne truck with rear lift.
GMC C3500 – Rapid intervention fire rescue tender.
Ford F350 XL – Rapid intervention fire rescue tender.
Ford Ranger Everest 4WD command vehicle.
Isuzu D-Max – 4WD utility vehicle.
Toyota Hilux – 4WD utility vehicle.
Mitsubishi Pajero. 4WD Fire command vehicle. Gradually being replaced with Toyota Hilux.
Perodua Rusa utility van. Gradually being phased out. Replaced with Nissan Urvan utility van/MPV and Jinbei Haise utility van/MPV.
Kia Pregio – Fire investigation/forensics vehicle.
Toyota Hiace – Emergency medical and rescue services (EMRS) ambulance.
Isuzu Morita Super Gyro turntable ladder.
Magirus TL30 turntable ladder.
Mercedes-Benz Actros 1831/Amdac-Magirus – turntable ladder.
Mercedes-Benz Actros 3335/Amdac-Magirus – turntable ladder.
Mercedes-Benz Axor firefighting truck.
Volvo N1227 Numela 30m Skylift HP. Bought in the early 80's. SLEP Programme Upgrades (on 2003). Gradually to be phased-out.
Scania Medium fire rescue tender.
Scania HAZMAT tender.
Scania Exhibition and information vehicle.
Scania P31D Multilift pod carriers (Mobile/Modular command post, Rescue equipments).
Mercedes-Benz Atego – Light fire rescue tender.
Mercedes-Benz Actros – Pumper/Heavy tanker/Water tender.
Scania Trailer – 20,000 litres water tanker.
Sea units
Kevlar Composite Boat-Rigid Hull Inflatable Boat (RHIB).
Aluminium Boat Light Rescue Boat.
Jet Ski Rescue Boat.
Inboard Fire Boat.
Air units
2 x AgustaWestland AW109 (Light utility helicopter) – Search and rescue, aerial surveillance, aerial command and control. (9M-BOA & 9M-BOB) (9M-BOA crashed on 16/9/2010 at near Lanchang, Pahang.)
2 x AgustaWestland AW139 (Medium utility helicopter) – Firefighting, disaster relief, search and rescue, aerial surveillance, aerial command and control. (9M-BOC & 9M-BOD)
1 x AgustaWestland AW189 (Medium utility helicopter) - Delivered in December 2018.
4 x Mil Mi-17-1V (Heavy helicopter) – Search and rescue, heavy lift for utility, disaster relief, forest aerial firefighting. (M994-01 (Enggang), M994-02 (Pekaka), M994-03, M994-04)
In popular culture
2010: "Da Bomba", a comedy TV series by TV3, about Firefighters, their spouses and the fire station's living quarters Community.
2016: "Abang Bomba I Love You", a romantic TV series by ASTRO, about a young girl fallen in love with her rescuer; a firefighter.
2016 & 2020: "Hero", a TV series by RTM, about challenges faced by firefighters. Starring by Sharnaaz Ahmad, Tiz Zaqyah, Faezrul Khan, Rusdi Ramli Season 1) and Season 2 continue by Redza Rosli, Sarah Hildebrand, Aidil Aziz, Riz Amin, Anne Ngasri
Hero: Jangan Bikin Panas a comedy action film direct by Azizi Chunk Adnan and starring by Hisyam Hamid, Bell Ngasri and Mark Adam in 2019
Medals of honor & service bar
List medals of honor
Service Bar
See also
List of fire departments
Elite Forces of Malaysia
References
External links
Fire departments
Federal ministries, departments and agencies of Malaysia
Ministry of Housing and Local Government (Malaysia)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick%20Cheney
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Dick Cheney
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Richard Bruce Cheney ( ; born January 30, 1941) is an American politician and businessman who served as the 46th vice president of the United States from 2001 to 2009 under President George W. Bush. He is often cited as the most powerful vice president in American history. Cheney previously served as the 17th United States Secretary of Defence, the U.S. Representative for , and White House Chief of Staff. He is currently the oldest living former U.S. vice president, following the death of Walter Mondale in 2021.
Born in Lincoln, Nebraska, Cheney grew up there and in Casper, Wyoming. He attended Yale University before earning a Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts in political science from the University of Wyoming. He began his political career as an intern for Congressman William A. Steiger, eventually working his way into the White House during the Nixon and Ford administrations. He served as White House chief of staff from 1975 to 1977. In 1978, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, and represented Wyoming's at-large congressional district from 1979 to 1989, briefly serving as House minority whip in 1989. He was selected as Secretary of Defense during the presidency of George H. W. Bush, and held the position for most of Bush's term from 1989 to 1993. During his time there, he oversaw 1991's Operation Desert Storm, among other actions. Out of office during the Clinton administration, he was the chairman and CEO of Halliburton from 1995 to 2000.
In July 2000, Cheney was chosen by presumptive Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush as his running mate in the 2000 presidential election. They defeated their Democratic opponents, incumbent Vice President Al Gore and Senator Joe Lieberman. In 2004, Cheney was reelected to his second term as vice president with Bush as president, defeating their Democratic opponents Senators John Kerry and John Edwards. During Cheney's tenure as vice president, he played a leading behind-the-scenes role in the George W. Bush administration's response to the September 11 attacks and coordination of the Global War on Terrorism. He was an early proponent of invading Iraq, alleging that the Saddam Hussein regime possessed weapons of mass destruction program and had an operational relationship with Al-Qaeda; however, neither allegation was ever substantiated. He also pressured the intelligence community to provide intelligence consistent with the administration's rationales for invading Iraq. Cheney was often criticized for the Bush Administration's policies regarding the campaign against terrorism, for his support of wiretapping by the National Security Agency (NSA) and for his endorsement of "enhanced interrogation techniques" which several critics have labeled as torture. He publicly disagreed with President Bush's position against same-sex marriage in 2004, but also said it is "appropriately a matter for the states to decide".
Cheney ended his vice presidential tenure as an unpopular figure in American politics with an approval rating of 13 percent. His peak approval rating in the wake of the September 11 attacks was 68 percent.
Early life and education
Cheney was born in Lincoln, Nebraska, the son of Marjorie Lorraine (née Dickey) and Richard Herbert Cheney. He is of predominantly English, as well as Welsh, Irish, and French Huguenot ancestry. His father was a soil conservation agent for the U.S. Department of Agriculture and his mother was a softball star in the 1930s; Cheney was one of three children.
He attended Calvert Elementary School before his family moved to Casper, Wyoming, where he attended Natrona County High School.
He attended Yale University, but by his own account had problems adjusting to the college, and dropped out. Among the influential teachers from his days in New Haven was Professor H. Bradford Westerfield, whom Cheney repeatedly credited with having helped to shape his approach to foreign policy. He later attended the University of Wyoming, where he earned both a Bachelor of Arts and a Master of Arts in political science. He subsequently started, but did not finish, doctoral studies at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
In November 1962, at the age of 21, Cheney was convicted of driving while intoxicated (DWI). He was arrested for DWI again the following year. Cheney said that the arrests made him "think about where I was and where I was headed. I was headed down a bad road if I continued on that course."
In 1964, he married Lynne Vincent, his high school sweetheart, whom he had met at age 14.
When Cheney became eligible for the draft, during the Vietnam War, he applied for and received five draft deferments. In 1989, The Washington Post writer George C. Wilson interviewed Cheney as the next Secretary of Defense; when asked about his deferments, Cheney reportedly said, "I had other priorities in the '60s than military service." Cheney testified during his confirmation hearings in 1989 that he received deferments to finish a college career that lasted six years rather than four, owing to sub-par academic performance and the need to work to pay for his education. Upon graduation, Cheney was eligible for the draft, but at the time, the Selective Service System was not inducting married men. On October 26, 1965, the draft was expanded to include married men without children; Cheney's first daughter, Elizabeth, was born 9 months and two days later. Cheney's fifth and final deferment granted him "3-A" status, a "hardship" deferment available to men with dependents. In January 1967, Cheney turned 26 and was no longer eligible for the draft.
In 1966 Cheney dropped out of the doctoral program at the University of Wisconsin to work as staff aide for Gov. Warren Knowles.
In 1968 Cheney was awarded an American Political Science Association congressional fellowship and moved to Washington.
Early career
Cheney's political career began in 1969, as an intern for Congressman William A. Steiger during the Richard Nixon Administration. He then joined the staff of Donald Rumsfeld, who was then Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity from 1969 to 1970. He held several positions in the years that followed: White House Staff Assistant in 1971, Assistant Director of the Cost of Living Council from 1971 to 1973, and Deputy Assistant to the president from 1974 to 1975. As deputy assistant, Cheney suggested several options in a memo to Rumsfeld, including use of the US Justice Department, that the Ford administration could use to limit damage from an article, published by The New York Times, in which investigative reporter Seymour Hersh reported that Navy submarines had tapped into Soviet undersea communications as part of a highly classified program, Operation Ivy Bells.
White House Chief of Staff
Cheney was Assistant to the President and White House Deputy Chief of Staff under Gerald Ford from December 1974 to November 1975. When Rumsfeld was named Secretary of Defense, Cheney became White House Chief of Staff, succeeding Rumsfeld. He later was campaign manager for Ford's 1976 presidential campaign.
U.S. House of Representatives (1979–1989)
Elections
In 1978, Cheney was elected to represent Wyoming in the U.S. House of Representatives and succeeded retiring Democratic Congressman Teno Roncalio, having defeated his Democratic opponent, Bill Bagley. Cheney was re-elected five times, serving until 1989.
Tenure
Leadership
In 1987, he was elected Chairman of the House Republican Conference. The following year, he was elected House Minority Whip. He served for two and a half months before he was appointed Secretary of Defense instead of former U.S. Senator John G. Tower, whose nomination had been rejected by the U.S. Senate in March 1989.
Votes
He voted against the creation of the U.S. Department of Education, citing his concern over budget deficits and expansion of the federal government, and claiming that the department was an encroachment on states' rights. He voted against funding Head Start, but reversed his position in 2000.
Cheney initially voted in 1978 against establishing a national holiday in honor of Martin Luther King Jr., but supported creation of Martin Luther King Jr. Day five years later, in 1983.
Cheney supported Bob Michel's (R-IL) bid to become Republican Minority Leader. In April 1980, Cheney endorsed Governor Ronald Reagan for president, becoming one of Reagan's earliest supporters.
In 1986, after President Ronald Reagan vetoed a bill to impose economic sanctions on South Africa for its policy of apartheid, Cheney was one of 83 Representatives to vote against overriding Reagan's veto. In later years, he articulated his opposition to unilateral sanctions against many different countries, stating "they almost never work" and that in that case they might have ended up hurting the people instead.
In 1986, Cheney, along with 145 Republicans and 31 Democrats, voted against a non-binding Congressional resolution calling on the South African government to release Nelson Mandela from prison, after the Democrats defeated proposed amendments that would have required Mandela to renounce violence sponsored by the African National Congress (ANC) and requiring it to oust the communist faction from its leadership; the resolution was defeated. Appearing on CNN, Cheney addressed criticism for this, saying he opposed the resolution because the ANC "at the time was viewed as a terrorist organization and had a number of interests that were fundamentally inimical to the United States."
Committee assignments
Originally declining, U.S. Congressman Barber Conable persuaded Cheney to join the moderate Republican Wednesday Group in order to move up the leadership ranks. He was elected Chairman of the Republican Policy Committee from 1981 to 1987. Cheney was the Ranking Member of the Select Committee to investigate the Iran-Contra Affair.
He promoted Wyoming's petroleum and coal businesses as well.
Secretary of Defense (1989–1993)
President George H. W. Bush nominated Cheney for the office of Secretary of Defense immediately after the U.S. Senate failed to confirm John Tower for that position. The senate confirmed Cheney by a vote of 92 to 0 and he served in that office from March 1989 to January 1993. He directed the United States invasion of Panama and Operation Desert Storm in the Middle East. In 1991, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Bush. Later that year, he received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards.
Cheney has said his time at the Pentagon was the most rewarding period of his public service career, calling it "the one that stands out." In 2014, Cheney recounted that when he met with President George H. W. Bush to accept the offer, he passed a painting in the private residence entitled The Peacemakers, which depicted President Lincoln, General Grant, and William Tecumseh Sherman. "My great-grandfather had served under William Tecumseh Sherman throughout the war," Cheney said, "and it occurred to me as I was in the room as I walked in to talk to the President about becoming Secretary of Defense, I wondered what he would have thought that his great-grandson would someday be in the White House with the President talking about taking over the reins of the U.S. military."
Early tenure
Cheney worked closely with Pete Williams, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs, and Paul Wolfowitz, Under Secretary of Defense for Policy, from the beginning of his tenure. He focused primarily on external matters, and left most of the internal DoD management to Deputy Secretary of Defense Donald Atwood.
Budgetary practices
Cheney's most immediate issue as Secretary of Defense was the Department of Defense budget. Cheney deemed it appropriate to cut the budget and downsize the military, following the Reagan Administration's peacetime defense buildup at the height of the Cold War. As part of the fiscal year 1990 budget, Cheney assessed the requests from each of the branches of the armed services for such expensive programs as the Avenger II Naval attack aircraft, the B-2 stealth bomber, the V-22 Osprey tilt-wing helicopter, the Aegis destroyer and the MX missile, totaling approximately $4.5 billion in light of changed world politics. Cheney opposed the V-22 program, which Congress had already appropriated funds for, and initially refused to issue contracts for it before relenting.
When the 1990 Budget came before Congress in the summer of 1989, it settled on a figure between the Administration's request and the House Armed Services Committee's recommendation.
In subsequent years under Cheney, the proposed and adopted budgets followed patterns similar to that of 1990. Early in 1991, he unveiled a plan to reduce military strength by the mid-1990s to 1.6 million, compared with 2.2 million when he entered office. Cheney's 1993 defense budget was reduced from 1992, omitting programs that Congress had directed the Department of Defense to buy weapons that it did not want, and omitting unrequested reserve forces.
Over his four years as Secretary of Defense, Cheney downsized the military and his budgets showed negative real growth, despite pressures to acquire weapon systems advocated by Congress. The Department of Defense's total obligational authority in current dollars declined from $291 billion to $270 billion. Total military personnel strength decreased by 19 percent, from about 2.2 million in 1989 to about 1.8 million in 1993. Notwithstanding the overall reduction in military spending, Cheney directed the development of a Pentagon plan to ensure U.S. military dominance in the post-Cold War era.
Political climate and agenda
Cheney publicly expressed concern that nations such as Iraq, Iran, and North Korea, could acquire nuclear components after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The end of the Cold War, the fall of the Soviet Union, and the disintegration of the Warsaw Pact obliged the first Bush Administration to reevaluate the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO's) purpose and makeup. Cheney believed that NATO should remain the foundation of European security relationships and that it would remain important to the United States in the long term; he urged the alliance to lend more assistance to the new democracies in Eastern Europe.
Cheney's views on NATO reflected his skepticism about prospects for peaceful social development in the former Eastern Bloc countries, where he saw a high potential for political uncertainty and instability. He felt that the Bush Administration was too optimistic in supporting General Secretary of the CPSU Mikhail Gorbachev and his successor, Russian President Boris Yeltsin. Cheney worked to maintain strong ties between the United States and its European allies.
Cheney persuaded the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to allow bases for U.S. ground troops and war planes in the nation. This was an important element of the success of the Gulf War, as well as a lightning-rod for Islamists, such as Osama bin Laden, who opposed having non-Muslim armies near their holy sites.
International situations
Using economic sanctions and political pressure, the United States mounted a campaign to drive Panamanian ruler General Manuel Antonio Noriega from power after he fell from favor. In May 1989, after Guillermo Endara had been duly elected President of Panama, Noriega nullified the election outcome, drawing intensified pressure. In October, Noriega suppressed a military coup, but in December, after soldiers of the Panamanian army killed a U.S. serviceman, the United States invasion of Panama began under Cheney's direction. The stated reason for the invasion was to seize Noriega to face drug charges in the United States, protect U.S. lives and property, and restore Panamanian civil liberties. Although the mission was controversial, U.S. forces achieved control of Panama and Endara assumed the presidency; Noriega was convicted and imprisoned on racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992.
In 1991, the Somali Civil War drew the world's attention. In August 1992, the United States began to provide humanitarian assistance, primarily food, through a military airlift. At President Bush's direction, Cheney dispatched the first of 26,000 U.S. troops to Somalia as part of the Unified Task Force (UNITAF), designed to provide security and food relief. Cheney's successors as Secretary of Defense, Les Aspin and William J. Perry, had to contend with both the Bosnian and Somali issues.
Iraqi invasion of Kuwait
On August 1, 1990, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein sent the invading Iraqi forces into neighboring Kuwait, a small petroleum-rich state long claimed by Iraq as part of its territory. This invasion sparked the initiation of the Persian Gulf War and it brought worldwide condemnation. An estimated 140,000 Iraqi troops quickly took control of Kuwait City and moved on to the Saudi Arabia/Kuwait border. The United States had already begun to develop contingency plans for the defense of Saudi Arabia by the U.S. Central Command, headed by General Norman Schwarzkopf, because of its important petroleum reserves.
U.S. and world reaction
Cheney and Schwarzkopf oversaw planning for what would become a full-scale U.S. military operation. According to General Colin Powell, Cheney "had become a glutton for information, with an appetite we could barely satisfy. He spent hours in the National Military Command Center peppering my staff with questions."
Shortly after the Iraqi invasion, Cheney made the first of several visits to Saudi Arabia where King Fahd requested U.S. military assistance. The United Nations took action as well, passing a series of resolutions condemning Iraq's invasion of Kuwait; the UN Security Council authorized "all means necessary" to eject Iraq from Kuwait, and demanded that the country withdraw its forces by January 15, 1991. By then, the United States had a force of about 500,000 stationed in Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf. Other nations, including Britain, Canada, France, Italy, Syria, and Egypt, contributed troops, and other allies, most notably Germany and Japan, agreed to provide financial support for the coalition effort, named Operation Desert Shield.
On January 12, 1991, Congress authorized Bush to use military force to enforce Iraq's compliance with UN resolutions on Kuwait.
Military action
The first phase of Operation Desert Storm, which began on January 17, 1991, was an air offensive to secure air superiority and attack Iraqi forces, targeting key Iraqi command and control centers, including the cities of Baghdad and Basra. Cheney turned most other Department of Defense matters over to Deputy Secretary Atwood and briefed Congress during the air and ground phases of the war. He flew with Powell to the region to review and finalize the ground war plans.
After an air offensive of more than five weeks, Coalition forces launched the ground war on February 24. Within 100 hours, Iraqi forces had been routed from Kuwait and Schwarzkopf reported that the basic objectiveexpelling Iraqi forces from Kuwaithad been met on February 27. After consultation with Cheney and other members of his national security team, Bush declared a suspension of hostilities. On working with this national security team, Cheney has said, "there have been five Republican presidents since
Eisenhower. I worked for four of them and worked closely with a fifththe Reagan years when I was part of the House leadership. The best national security team I ever saw was that one. The least friction, the most cooperation, the highest degree of trust among the principals, especially."
Aftermath
A total of 147 U.S. military personnel died in combat, and another 236 died as a result of accidents or other causes. Iraq agreed to a formal truce on March 3, and a permanent cease-fire on April 6. There was subsequent debate about whether Coalition forces should have driven as far as Baghdad to oust Saddam Hussein from power. Bush agreed that the decision to end the ground war when they did was correct, but the debate persisted as Hussein remained in power and rebuilt his military forces. Arguably the most significant debate concerned whether U.S. and Coalition forces had left Iraq too soon. In an April 15, 1994, interview with C-SPAN, Cheney was asked if the U.S.-led Coalition forces should have moved into Baghdad. Cheney replied that occupying and attempting to take over the country would have been a "bad idea" and would have led to a "quagmire", explaining that:
[If] we'd gone to Baghdad we would have been all alone. There wouldn't have been anybody else with us. There would have been a U.S. occupation of Iraq. None of the Arab forces that were willing to fight with us in Kuwait were willing to invade Iraq. Once you got to Iraq and took it over, took down Saddam Hussein's government, then what are you going to put in its place? That's a very volatile part of the world, and if you take down the central government of Iraq, you could very easily end up seeing pieces of Iraq fly off: part of it, the Syrians would like to have to the west, part of iteastern Iraqthe Iranians would like to claim, they fought over it for eight years. In the north you've got the Kurds, and if the Kurds spin loose and join with the Kurds in Turkey, then you threaten the territorial integrity of Turkey. It's a quagmire if you go that far and try to take over Iraq. The other thing was casualties. Everyone was impressed with the fact we were able to do our job with as few casualties as we had. But for the 146 Americans killed in action, and for their familiesit wasn't a cheap war. And the question for the president, in terms of whether or not we went on to Baghdad, took additional casualties in an effort to get Saddam Hussein, was how many additional dead Americans is Saddam worth? Our judgment was, not very many, and I think we got it right.
Cheney regarded the Gulf War as an example of the kind of regional problem the United States was likely to continue to face in the future.
We're always going to have to be involved [in the Middle East]. Maybe it's part of our national character, you know we like to have these problems nice and neatly wrapped up, put a ribbon around it. You deploy a force, you win the war and the problem goes away. But it doesn't work that way in the Middle East. It never has, and isn't likely to in my lifetime.
Private sector career
Between 1987 and 1989, during his last term in Congress, Cheney served on the board of the Council on Foreign Relations foreign policy organization.
With the inauguration of the new Democratic administration under President Bill Clinton in January 1993, Cheney joined the American Enterprise Institute. He also served a second term as a Council on Foreign Relations director from 1993 to 1995.
From October 1, 1995 to July 25, 2000, he served as chairman of the board and chief executive officer of Halliburton, a Fortune 500 company. Cheney resigned as CEO on the same day he was announced as George Bush's vice presidential pick in the 2000 election.
Cheney's record as CEO was subject to some dispute among Wall Street analysts. A 1998 merger between Halliburton and Dresser Industries attracted the criticism of some Dresser executives for Halliburton's lack of accounting transparency. Halliburton shareholders pursued a class-action lawsuit alleging that the corporation artificially inflated its stock price during this period, though Cheney was not named as an individual defendant in the suit. In June 2011, the United States Supreme Court reversed a lower court ruling and allowed the case to continue in litigation. Cheney was named in a December 2010 corruption complaint filed by the Nigerian government against Halliburton, which the company settled for $250 million.
During Cheney's term, Halliburton changed its accounting practices regarding revenue realization of disputed costs on major construction projects. Cheney resigned as CEO of Halliburton on July 25, 2000. As vice president, he argued that this step, along with establishing a trust and other actions, removed any conflict of interest. Cheney's net worth, estimated to be between $19 million and $86 million,
is largely derived from his post at Halliburton.
His 2006 gross joint income with his wife was nearly $8.82 million.
He was also a member of the board of advisors of the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs (JINSA) before becoming vice president.
2000 presidential election
In early 2000, while serving as the CEO of Halliburton, Cheney headed then-Governor of Texas George W. Bush's vice-presidential search committee. On July 25, after reviewing Cheney's findings, Bush surprised some pundits by asking Cheney himself to join the Republican ticket. Halliburton reportedly reached agreement on July 20 to allow Cheney to retire, with a package estimated at $20 million.
A few months before the election Cheney put his home in Dallas up for sale and changed his drivers' license and voter registration back to Wyoming. This change was necessary to allow Texas' presidential electors to vote for both Bush and Cheney without contravening the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which forbids electors from voting for "an inhabitant of the same state with themselves" for both president and vice president.
Cheney campaigned against Al Gore's running mate, Joseph Lieberman, in the 2000 presidential election. While the election was undecided, the Bush-Cheney team was not eligible for public funding to plan a transition to a new administration, prompting Cheney to open a privately funded transition office in Washington. This office worked to identify candidates for all important positions in the cabinet. According to Craig Unger, Cheney advocated Donald Rumsfeld for the post of Secretary of Defense to counter the influence of Colin Powell at the State Department, and tried unsuccessfully to have Paul Wolfowitz named to replace George Tenet as director of the Central Intelligence Agency.
Vice presidency (2001–2009)
First term (2001–2005)
Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Cheney remained physically apart from Bush for security reasons. For a period, Cheney stayed at a variety of undisclosed locations, out of public view. Cheney later revealed in his memoir In My Time that these "undisclosed locations" included his official vice presidential residence, his home in Wyoming, and Camp David. He also utilized a heavy security detail, employing a motorcade of 12 to 18 government vehicles for his daily commute from the vice presidential residence at the U.S. Naval Observatory to the White House.
On the morning of June 29, 2002, Cheney served as acting president from 7:09a.m. to 9:24a.m., under the terms of the 25th Amendment to the Constitution, while Bush underwent a colonoscopy.
Iraq War
Following 9/11, Cheney was instrumental in providing a primary justification for a renewed war against Iraq. Cheney helped shape Bush's approach to the "War on Terror", making numerous public statements alleging Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction, and making several personal visits to CIA headquarters, where he questioned mid-level agency analysts on their conclusions. Cheney continued to allege links between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda, even though President Bush received a classified President's Daily Brief on September 21, 2001, indicating the U.S. intelligence community had no evidence linking Saddam Hussein to the September 11 attacks and that "there was scant credible evidence that Iraq had any significant collaborative ties with Al Qaeda." Furthermore, in 2004, the 9/11 Commission concluded that there was no "collaborative relationship" between Iraq and al-Qaeda. By 2014, Cheney continued to misleadingly claim that Saddam "had a 10-year relationship with al Qaeda."
Following the US invasion of Iraq, Cheney remained steadfast in his support of the war, stating that it would be an "enormous success story", and made many visits to the country. He often criticized war critics, calling them "opportunists" who were peddling "cynical and pernicious falsehoods" to gain political advantage while US soldiers died in Iraq. In response, Senator John Kerry asserted, "It is hard to name a government official with less credibility on Iraq [than Cheney]."
In a March 24, 2008, extended interview conducted in Ankara, Turkey, with ABC News correspondent Martha Raddatz on the fifth anniversary of the original U.S. military assault on Iraq, Cheney responded to a question about public opinion polls showing that Americans had lost confidence in the war by simply replying "So?" This remark prompted widespread criticism, including from former Oklahoma Republican Congressman Mickey Edwards, a long-time personal friend of Cheney.
Second term (2005–2009)
Bush and Cheney were re-elected in the 2004 presidential election, running against John Kerry and his running mate, John Edwards. During the election, the pregnancy of his daughter Mary and her sexual orientation as a lesbian became a source of public attention for Cheney in light of the same-sex marriage debate. Cheney has since stated that he is in favor of gay marriages personally, but that each individual U.S. state should decide whether to permit it or not.Cheney's former chief legal counsel, David Addington, became his chief of staff and remained in that office until Cheney's departure from office. John P. Hannah served as Cheney's national security adviser.
Until his indictment and resignation in 2005, I. Lewis "Scooter" Libby Jr. served in both roles.
On the morning of July 21, 2007, Cheney once again served as acting president, from 7:16 am to 9:21 am. Bush transferred the power of the presidency prior to undergoing a medical procedure, requiring sedation, and later resumed his powers and duties that same day.
After his term began in 2001, Cheney was occasionally asked if he was interested in the Republican nomination for the 2008 elections. However, he always maintained that he wished to retire upon the expiration of his term and he did not run in the 2008 presidential primaries. The Republicans nominated Arizona Senator John McCain.
Disclosure of documents
Cheney was a prominent member of the National Energy Policy Development Group (NEPDG), commonly known as the Energy Task Force, composed of energy industry representatives, including several Enron executives. After the Enron scandal, the Bush administration was accused of improper political and business ties. In July 2003, the Supreme Court ruled that the US Department of Commerce must disclose NEPDG documents, containing references to companies that had made agreements with the previous Iraqi government to extract Iraq's petroleum.
Beginning in 2003, Cheney's staff opted not to file required reports with the National Archives and Records Administration office charged with assuring that the executive branch protects classified information, nor did it allow inspection of its record keeping.
Cheney refused to release the documents, citing his executive privilege to deny congressional information requests. Media outlets such as Time magazine and CBS News questioned whether Cheney had created a "fourth branch of government" that was not subject to any laws. A group of historians and open-government advocates filed a lawsuit in the US District Court for the District of Columbia, asking the court to declare that Cheney's vice-presidential records are covered by the Presidential Records Act of 1978 and cannot be destroyed, taken or withheld from the public without proper review.
CIA leak scandal
On October 18, 2005, The Washington Post reported that the vice president's office was central to the investigation of the Valerie Plame CIA leak scandal, for Cheney's former chief of staff, Lewis "Scooter" Libby, was one of the figures under investigation. Libby resigned his positions as Cheney's chief of staff and assistant on national security affairs later in the month after he was indicted.
In February 2006, The National Journal reported that Libby had stated before a grand jury that his superiors, including Cheney, had authorized him to disclose classified information to the press regarding intelligence on Iraq's weapons. That September, Richard Armitage, former Deputy Secretary of State, publicly announced that he was the source of the revelation of Plame's status. Armitage said he was not a part of a conspiracy to reveal Plame's identity and did not know whether one existed.
On March 6, 2007, Libby was convicted on four felony counts for obstruction of justice, perjury, and making false statements to federal investigators. In his closing arguments, independent prosecutor Patrick Fitzgerald said that there was "a cloud over the vice president", an apparent reference to Cheney's interview with FBI agents investigating the case, which was made public in 2009. Cheney lobbied President George W. Bush vigorously and unsuccessfully to grant Libby a full presidential pardon up to the day of Barack Obama's inauguration, likening Libby to a "soldier on the battlefield". Libby was subsequently pardoned by President Donald Trump in April 2018.
Assassination attempt
On February 27, 2007, at about 10 am, a suicide bomber killed 23 people and wounded 20 more outside Bagram Airfield in Afghanistan during a visit by Cheney. The Taliban claimed responsibility for the attack and declared that Cheney was its intended target. They also claimed that Osama bin Laden supervised the operation. The bomb went off outside the front gate while Cheney was inside the base and half a mile away. He reported hearing the blast, saying "I heard a loud boom... The Secret Service came in and told me there had been an attack on the main gate." The purpose of Cheney's visit to the region had been to press Pakistan for a united front against the Taliban.
Policy formulation
Cheney has been characterized as the most powerful and influential Vice President in history.
Both supporters and critics of Cheney regard him as a shrewd and knowledgeable politician who knows the functions and intricacies of the federal government. A sign of Cheney's active policy-making role was then-House Speaker Dennis Hastert's provision of an office near the House floor for Cheney in addition to his office in the West Wing, his ceremonial office in the Old Executive Office Building, and his Senate offices (one in the Dirksen Senate Office Building and another off the floor of the Senate).
Cheney has actively promoted an expansion of the powers of the presidency, saying that the Bush administration's challenges to the laws which Congress passed after Vietnam and Watergate to contain and oversee the executive branchthe Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, the Presidential Records Act, the Freedom of Information Act and the War Powers Resolutionare, in Cheney's words, "a restoration, if you will, of the power and authority of the president".
In June 2007, The Washington Post summarized Cheney's vice presidency in a Pulitzer Prize-winning
four-part series, based in part on interviews with former administration officials. The articles characterized Cheney not as a "shadow" president, but as someone who usually has the last words of counsel to the president on policies, which in many cases would reshape the powers of the presidency. When former Vice President Dan Quayle suggested to Cheney that the office was largely ceremonial, Cheney reportedly replied, "I have a different understanding with the president." The articles described Cheney as having a secretive approach to the tools of government, indicated by the use of his own security classification and three man-sized safes in his offices.
The articles described Cheney's influence on decisions pertaining to detention of suspected terrorists and the legal limits that apply to their questioning, especially what constitutes torture. U.S. Army Colonel Lawrence Wilkerson, who served as Colin Powell's chief of staff when he was both Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff at the same time Cheney was Secretary of Defense, and then later when Powell was Secretary of State, stated in an in-depth interview that Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld established an alternative program to interrogate post-9/11 detainees because of their mutual distrust of CIA.
The Washington Post articles, principally written by Barton Gellman, further characterized Cheney as having the strongest influence within the administration in shaping budget and tax policy in a manner that assures "conservative orthodoxy." They also highlighted Cheney's behind-the-scenes influence on the Bush administration's environmental policy to ease pollution controls for power plants, facilitate the disposal of nuclear waste, open access to federal timber resources, and avoid federal constraints on greenhouse gas emissions, among other issues. The articles characterized his approach to policy formulation as favoring business over the environment.
In June 2008, Cheney allegedly attempted to block efforts by Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice to strike a controversial US compromise deal with North Korea over the communist state's nuclear program.
In July 2008, a former Environmental Protection Agency official stated publicly that Cheney's office had pushed significantly for large-scale deletions from a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention report on the health effects of global warming "fearing the presentation by a leading health official might make it harder to avoid regulating greenhouse gases." In October, when the report appeared with six pages cut from the testimony, the White House stated that the changes were made due to concerns regarding the accuracy of the science. However, according to the former senior adviser on climate change to Environmental Protection Agency Administrator Stephen Johnson, Cheney's office was directly responsible for nearly half of the original testimony being deleted.
In his role as President of the U.S. Senate, Cheney broke with the Bush Administration Department of Justice, and signed an amicus brief to the United States Supreme Court in the case of Heller v. District of Columbia that successfully challenged gun laws in the nation's capital on Second Amendment grounds.
On February 14, 2010, in an appearance on ABC's This Week, Cheney reiterated his support of waterboarding and for the torture of captured terrorist suspects, saying, "I was and remain a strong proponent of our enhanced interrogation program."
Post–vice presidency (2009–present)
The Washington Post reported in 2008 that Cheney purchased a home in McLean, Virginia, part of the Washington suburbs, which he was to tear down for a replacement structure. He also maintains homes in Wyoming and on Maryland's Eastern Shore.
Political activity
In July 2012, Cheney used his Wyoming home to host a private fund-raiser for Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney, which netted over $4 million in contributions from attendees for Romney's campaign.
Cheney is the subject of the documentary film The World According to Dick Cheney, which premiered March 15, 2013, on the Showtime television channel. Cheney was also reported to be the subject of an HBO television mini-series based on Barton Gellman's 2008 book Angler and the 2006 documentary The Dark Side, produced by the Public Broadcasting Service.
Cheney maintained a visible public profile after leaving office, being especially critical of Obama administration policies on national security. In May 2009, Cheney spoke of his support for same-sex marriage, becoming one of the most prominent Republican politicians to do so. Speaking to the National Press Club, Cheney stated: "People ought to be free to enter into any kind of union they wish, any kind of arrangement they wish. I do believe, historically, the way marriage has been regulated is at a state level. It's always been a state issue, and I think that's the way it ought to be handled today." In 2012, Cheney reportedly encouraged several Maryland state legislators to vote to legalize same-sex marriage in that state.
Although, by custom, a former vice president unofficially receives six months of protection from the United States Secret Service, President Obama reportedly extended the protection period for Cheney.
On July 11, 2009, CIA Director Leon Panetta told the Senate and House intelligence committees that the CIA withheld information about a secret counter-terrorism program from Congress for eight years on direct orders from Cheney. Intelligence and Congressional officials have said the unidentified program did not involve the CIA interrogation program and did not involve domestic intelligence activities. They have said the program was started by the counter-terrorism center at the CIA shortly after the attacks of September 11, 2001, but never became fully operational, involving planning and some training that took place off and on from 2001 until 2009. The Wall Street Journal reported, citing former intelligence officials familiar with the matter, that the program was an attempt to carry out a 2001 presidential authorization to capture or kill al Qaeda operatives.
Cheney has said that the Tea Party Movement is a "positive influence on the Republican Party" and that "I think it's much better to have that kind of turmoil and change in the Republican Party than it would be to have it outside."
In May 2016, Cheney endorsed Donald Trump as the Republican nominee in the 2016 presidential election. That November, his daughter Liz won election to the House of Representatives (to his former congressional seat). When she was sworn into office in January 2017, Cheney said he believed she would do well in the position and that he would only offer advice if requested.
That March, Cheney said that Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections could be considered "an act of war".
Views on President Obama
On December 29, 2009, four days after the attempted bombing of an international passenger flight from the Netherlands to United States, Cheney criticized President Barack Obama: "[We] are at war and when President Obama pretends we aren't, it makes us less safe. ... Why doesn't he want to admit we're at war? It doesn't fit with the view of the world he brought with him to the Oval Office. It doesn't fit with what seems to be the goal of his presidencysocial transformationthe restructuring of American society." In response, White House Communications Director Dan Pfeiffer wrote on the official White House blog the following day, "[I]t is telling that Vice President Cheney and others seem to be more focused on criticizing the Administration than condemning the attackers. Unfortunately too many are engaged in the typical Washington game of pointing fingers and making political hay, instead of working together to find solutions to make our country safer."
During a February 14, 2010, appearance on ABC's This Week, Cheney reiterated his criticism of the Obama administration's policies for handling suspected terrorists, criticizing the "mindset" of treating "terror attacks against the United States as criminal acts as opposed to acts of war".
In a May 2, 2011, interview with ABC News, Cheney praised the Obama administration for the covert military operation in Pakistan that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden.
In 2014, during an interview with Sean Hannity, he called Obama a "weak President" after Obama announced his plans to pull forces out of Afghanistan.
Memoir
In August 2011, Cheney published his memoir, In My Time: A Personal and Political Memoir, written with Liz Cheney. The book outlines Cheney's recollections of 9/11, the War on Terrorism, the 2001 War in Afghanistan, the run-up to the 2003 Iraq War, so-called "enhanced interrogation techniques" and other events. According to Barton Gellman, the author of Angler: The Cheney Vice Presidency, Cheney's book differs from publicly available records on details surrounding the NSA surveillance program.
Exceptional: Why the World Needs a Powerful America
In 2015, Cheney published another book, Exceptional: Why the World Needs a Powerful America, again co-authored with his daughter Liz. The book traces the history of U.S. foreign policy and military successes and failures from Franklin Roosevelt's administration through the Obama administration. The authors tell the story of what they describe as the unique role the United States has played as a defender of freedom throughout the world since World War II. Drawing upon the notion of American exceptionalism, the co-authors criticize Barack Obama's and former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton's foreign policies, and offer what they see as the solutions needed to restore American greatness and power on the world stage in defense of freedom.
Views on Donald Trump
Cheney has criticized modern Republican leadership.
In May 2016, Cheney said he would support Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election. In May 2018, Cheney supported President Trump's decision to withdraw from the Iran Nuclear Deal.
He criticized the Trump administration during a forum at the American Enterprise Institute alongside Vice President Mike Pence in March 2019. Questioning his successor on Trump's commitment to NATO and tendency to announce policy decisions on Twitter before consulting senior staff members, Cheney went on to opine, "It seems, at times, as though your administration’s approach has more in common with Obama’s foreign policy than traditional Republican foreign policy."
On the one year anniversary of the January 6, 2021, Capitol attack, Cheney joined his daughter Liz Cheney at the Capitol and participated in the remembrance events. He later appeared in a 2022 primary campaign ad for Liz in which he called Trump a "coward" and "threat to our republic" due to his attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election. That year, Liz ran for her Wyoming congressional seat against Trump-backed primary challenger Harriet Hageman, who ultimately won.
Public perception and legacy
Cheney's early public opinion polls were more favorable than unfavorable, reaching his peak approval rating in the wake of the September 11 attacks at 68 percent. However, polling numbers for both him and the president gradually declined in their second terms, with Cheney reaching his lowest point shortly before leaving office at 13 percent. Cheney's Gallup poll figures are mostly consistent with those from other polls:
April 2001 – 63% approval, 21% disapproval
January 2002 – 68% approval, 18% disapproval
January 2004 – 56% approval, 36% disapproval
January 2005 – 50% approval, 40% disapproval
January 2006 – 41% approval, 46% disapproval
July 2007 – 30% approval, 60% disapproval
March 2009 – 30% approval, 63% disapproval
In April 2007, Cheney was awarded an honorary doctorate of public service by Brigham Young University, where he delivered the commencement address. His selection as commencement speaker was controversial. The college board of trustees issued a statement explaining that the invitation should be viewed "as one extended to someone holding the high office of vice president of the United States rather than to a partisan political figure". BYU permitted a protest to occur so long as it did not "make personal attacks against Cheney, attack (the) BYU administration, the church or the First Presidency".
Cheney has been cited as the most powerful vice president in American history. He has been compared to Darth Vader, a characterization originated by his critics, but which was later adopted humorously by Cheney himself as well as by members of his family and staff.
As a result of Cheney having admitted that he "signed off" on the so-called "enhanced interrogation techniques" program, some public officials, as well as several media outlets and advocacy groups, have called for his prosecution under various anti-torture and war crimes statutes.
In Jon Meacham's book Destiny and Power: The American Odyssey of George Herbert Walker Bush, published in November 2015, the 41st president, although also laudatory of Cheney, is in part critical of the former vice president, whom Bush describes as "having his own empire" and "very hard-line."
The federal building in Casper, Wyoming is named the Dick Cheney Federal Building.
In popular culture
In Eminem's 2002 single "Without Me", where the lines "I know that you got a job, Ms. Cheney / But your husband's heart problem's complicating" refer to his health problems.
In The Day After Tomorrow, the character Raymond Becker (played by Kenneth Welsh) is intended to be a criticism of Dick Cheney.
In W. (2008), a biographical comedy-drama film directed by Oliver Stone, he is portrayed by Richard Dreyfuss.
In War Dogs (2016), where the line "God bless Dick Cheney's America" refers to his support of American military presence in Iraq.
In Who Is America? (2018), a political satire series, Sacha Baron Cohen pranked Cheney into signing a makeshift waterboard kit.
In Vice (2018), a biographical comedy-drama film written and directed by Adam McKay, Cheney is portrayed by Christian Bale, for which the latter won a Golden Globe and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor.
In Mrs. America (2020), a historical drama television miniseries produced by FX, Cheney is portrayed by Andrew Hodwitz.
Bob Rivers did a parody cover called "Cheney's Got a Gun"
In an episode entitled "Dick Cheney" during the first-season run of the dramedy Patriot aired on Amazon Prime, protagonist John Lakeman shoots his rival with a shotgun while the two were conducting a duck hunt, referencing events surrounding the Dick Cheney hunting accident.
Personal life
Cheney is a member of the United Methodist Church and was the first Methodist vice president to serve under a Methodist president.
Cheney's brother, Bob, is a former civil servant at the Bureau of Land Management.
His wife, Lynne, was chair of the National Endowment for the Humanities from 1986 to 1996. She is now a public speaker, author, and a senior fellow at the American Enterprise Institute.
The couple have two daughters, Elizabeth ("Liz") and Mary Cheney, and seven grandchildren. Liz, a former congresswoman from Wyoming, is married to Philip J. Perry, a former General Counsel of the Department of Homeland Security. Mary, a former employee of the Colorado Rockies baseball team and the Coors Brewing Company, was a campaign aide to the Bush re-election campaign; she lives in Great Falls, Virginia, with her wife Heather Poe. Cheney has publicly supported gay marriage since leaving the vice presidency.
As of 2015, Cheney had a pet Golden Retriever named Nelson.
Health problems
Cheney's long histories of cardiovascular disease and periodic need for urgent health care raised questions of whether he was medically fit to serve in public office. Having smoked approximately 3 packs of cigarettes per day for nearly 20 years, Cheney had his first of five heart attacks on June 18, 1978, at age 37. Subsequent heart attacks in 1984, 1988, on November 22, 2000, and on February 22, 2010, resulted in moderate contractile dysfunction of his left ventricle. He underwent four-vessel coronary artery bypass grafting in 1988, coronary artery stenting in November 2000, urgent coronary balloon angioplasty in March 2001, and the implantation of a cardioverter-defibrillator in June 2001.
On September 24, 2005, Cheney underwent a six-hour endo-vascular procedure to repair popliteal artery aneurysms bilaterally, a catheter treatment technique used in the artery behind each knee. The condition was discovered at a regular physical in July, and was not life-threatening. Cheney was hospitalized for tests after experiencing shortness of breath five months later. In late April 2006, an ultrasound revealed that the clot was smaller.
On March 5, 2007, Cheney was treated for deep-vein thrombosis in his left leg at George Washington University Hospital after experiencing pain in his left calf. Doctors prescribed blood-thinning medication and allowed him to return to work. CBS News reported that during the morning of November 26, 2007, Cheney was diagnosed with atrial fibrillation and underwent treatment that afternoon.
On July 12, 2008, Cheney underwent a cardiological exam; doctors reported that his heartbeat was normal for a 67-year-old man with a history of heart problems. As part of his annual checkup, he was administered an electrocardiogram and radiological imaging of the stents placed in the arteries behind his knees in 2005. Doctors said that Cheney had not experienced any recurrence of atrial fibrillation and that his special pacemaker had neither detected nor treated any arrhythmia. On October 15, 2008, Cheney returned to the hospital briefly to treat a minor irregularity.
On January 19, 2009, Cheney strained his back "while moving boxes into his new house". As a consequence, he was in a wheelchair for two days, including his attendance at the 2009 United States presidential inauguration.
On February 22, 2010, Cheney was admitted to George Washington University Hospital after experiencing chest pains. A spokesperson later said Cheney had experienced a mild heart attack after doctors had run tests. On June 25, 2010, Cheney was admitted to George Washington University Hospital after reporting discomfort.
In early-July 2010, Cheney was outfitted with a left-ventricular assist device (LVAD) at Inova Fairfax Heart and Vascular Institute to compensate for worsening congestive heart failure. The device pumped blood continuously through his body. He was released from Inova on August 9, 2010, and had to decide whether to seek a full heart transplant.
This pump was centrifugal and as a result he remained alive without a pulse for nearly fifteen months.
On March 24, 2012, Cheney underwent a seven-hour heart transplant procedure at Inova Fairfax Hospital in Woodburn, Virginia. He had been on a waiting list for more than 20 months before receiving the heart from an anonymous donor. Cheney's principal cardiologist, Jonathan Reiner, advised his patient that "it would not be unreasonable for an otherwise healthy 71-year-old man to expect to live another 10 years" with a transplant, saying in a family-authorized interview that he considered Cheney to be otherwise healthy.
Hunting incident
On February 11, 2006, Cheney accidentally shot Harry Whittington, a then-78-year-old Texas attorney, while participating in a quail hunt at Armstrong ranch in Kenedy County, Texas. Secret Service agents and medical aides, who were traveling with Cheney, came to Whittington's assistance and treated his birdshot wounds to his right cheek, neck, and chest. An ambulance standing by for the Vice President took Whittington to nearby Kingsville before he was flown by helicopter to Corpus Christi Memorial Hospital. On February 14, 2006, Whittington had a non-fatal heart attack and atrial fibrillation due to at least one lead-shot pellet lodged in or near his heart. Because of the small size of the birdshot pellets, doctors decided to leave up to 30 pieces of the pellets lodged in his body rather than try to remove them.
The Secret Service stated that they notified the sheriff about one hour after the shooting. Kenedy County Sheriff Ramone Salinas III stated that he first heard of the shooting at about 5:30 pm. The next day, ranch owner Katharine Armstrong informed the Corpus Christi Caller-Times of the shooting. Cheney had a televised interview with MSNBC News about the shooting on February 15. Both Cheney and Whittington have called the incident an accident. Early reports indicated that Cheney and Whittington were friends and that the injuries were minor. Whittington has since told The Washington Post that he and Cheney were not close friends but acquaintances. When asked if Cheney had apologized, Whittington declined to answer.
The sheriff's office released a report on the shooting on February 16, 2006, and witness statements on February 22, indicating that the shooting occurred on a clear sunny day, and Whittington was shot from 30 or away while searching for a downed bird. Armstrong, the ranch owner, claimed that all in the hunting party were wearing blaze-orange safety gear and none had been drinking. However, Cheney has acknowledged that he had one beer four or five hours prior to the shooting. Although Kenedy County Sheriff's Office documents support the official story by Cheney and his party, re-creations of the incident produced by George Gongora and John Metz of the Corpus Christi Caller-Times indicated that the actual shooting distance was closer than the 30 yards claimed.
The incident hurt Cheney's popularity standing in the polls. According to polls on February 27, 2006, two weeks after the accident, Dick Cheney's approval rating had dropped 5 percentage points to 18%. The incident became the subject of a number of jokes and satire.
Works
"A Comparative Analysis of Senate–House Voting on Economic and Welfare Policy, 1953–1964," American Political Science Review, Vol. 64, Issue 1 (March 1970), pp. 138–152. Co-authored with Aage R. Clausen.
Exceptional: Why the World Needs a Powerful America with Liz Cheney. New York: Simon & Schuster. 2015. .
Notes
References
Bibliography
Goldstein, Joel K. "The contemporary presidency: Cheney, vice presidential power, and the war on terror." Presidential Studies Quarterly 40.1 (2010): 102–139. online
External links
US Department of State from the Internet Archive
The New York Times – Dick Cheney archives
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September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks, commonly known as 9/11, were four coordinated Islamist suicide terrorist attacks carried out by al-Qaeda against the United States in 2001. That morning, 19 terrorists hijacked four commercial airliners scheduled to travel from the New England and Mid-Atlantic regions of the East Coast to California. The hijackers crashed the first two planes into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, two of the world's five tallest buildings at the time, and aimed the next two flights toward targets in or near Washington, D.C., in an attack on the nation's capital. The third team succeeded in crashing into the Pentagon, the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Defense in Arlington County, Virginia, while the fourth plane crashed in rural Pennsylvania following a passenger revolt. The attacks killed nearly 3,000 people and instigated the multi-decade global war on terror.
The first impact was that of American Airlines Flight 11, which crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan at 8:46 a.m. Sixteen minutes later, at 9:03, the World Trade Center's South Tower was hit by United Airlines Flight 175. Both 110-story skyscrapers collapsed within an hour and forty-one minutes, bringing about the destruction of the remaining five structures in the WTC complex and damaging or destroying nearby buildings. A third flight, American Airlines Flight 77, crashed into the Pentagon at 9:37 a.m., causing a partial collapse. The fourth and final flight, United Airlines Flight 93, flew in the direction of the capital. Alerted to the previous attacks, the passengers retaliated in an attempt to take control of the aircraft, forcing the hijackers to crash the plane in a Stonycreek Township field, near Indian Lake and Shanksville, at 10:03 a.m. Investigators determined that Flight 93's target was either the United States Capitol or the White House.
Within hours of the attacks, the Central Intelligence Agency had determined that al-Qaeda was responsible. The United States formally responded by launching the war on terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, which rejected the conditions of U.S. terms to expel al-Qaeda from Afghanistan and extradite its leaders. The U.S.'s invocation of Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty—its only usage to date—called upon allies to fight al-Qaeda. As U.S. and NATO invasion forces swept through Afghanistan, al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden disappeared into the White Mountains, eluding captivity by Western forces. Although bin Laden initially denied any involvement, in 2004 he formally claimed responsibility for the attacks. Al-Qaeda's cited motivations included U.S. support of Israel, the presence of U.S. military bases in Saudi Arabia and sanctions against Iraq. The nearly decade-long manhunt for bin Laden concluded on May 2, 2011, when he was killed during a U.S. military raid after being tracked down to his compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan. The war in Afghanistan continued for another eight years until the agreement was made in February 2020 for American and NATO troops to withdraw from the country, and the last members of the U.S. armed forces left the region on August 30, 2021, resulting in the return to power of the Taliban.
Not including the hijackers, the attacks killed 2,977 people, injured thousands more and gave rise to substantial long-term health consequences while also causing at least $10billion in infrastructure and property damage. It remains the deadliest terrorist act in human history as well as the single deadliest incident for both firefighters and law enforcement personnel in the history of the United States, causing the deaths of 343 and 72 members respectively. The loss of life stemming from the impact of Flight 11 secured its place as the most lethal plane crash in aviation history followed by the death toll incurred by Flight 175. The destruction of the World Trade Center and its environs seriously harmed the U.S. economy and induced global market shocks. Many other countries strengthened anti-terrorism legislation and expanded their powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site (colloquially "Ground Zero") took eight months and was completed in May 2002, while The Pentagon was repaired within a year. After delays in the design of a replacement complex, construction of the One World Trade Center began in November 2006; it opened in November 2014. Memorials to the attacks include the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City, The Pentagon Memorial in Arlington County, Virginia, and the Flight 93 National Memorial at the Pennsylvania crash site.
Background
Al-Qaeda
The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Soon after the invasion, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen (the "Afghan Arabs") to resist the "Communist invaders" (Soviets) until their exit from the country in 1989. During that time, bin Laden, together with Abdullah Azzam, formed the Maktab al-Khidamat (MAK) in 1984, an organization to support Arab mujahideen who came to join the jihad in Afghanistan.
The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) funneled several billion dollars worth of weapons to the indigenous Afghan mujahideen resistance, a portion of which bled to the Arab volunteers. However, no direct evidence of U.S. aid to bin Laden or any of his affiliates was ever uncovered.
In 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. In a second 1998 fatwā, bin Laden outlined his objections to American foreign policy with respect to the State of Israel, as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War. A subscriber to the Athari (literalist) and Wahhabi school of Islamic theology, Bin Laden used Islamic Quran texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances were reversed. According to bin Laden, Muslim legal scholars had "throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries".
The Hamburg cell in Germany included radical Islamists who eventually came to be key operatives in the 9/11 attacks. Mohamed Atta; Marwan al-Shehhi; Ziad Jarrah; Ramzi bin al-Shibh; and Said Bahaji were all members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell.
Osama bin Laden
Bin Laden orchestrated the attacks. He initially denied involvement, but later recanted his false statements. Al Jazeera broadcast a statement by him on September 16, 2001: "I stress that I have not carried out this act, which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation". In November 2001, U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden, talking to Khaled al-Harbi, admitted foreknowledge of the attacks. On December 27, 2001, a second video of bin Laden was released in which he, stopping short of admitting responsibility for the attacks, said:
Shortly before the 2004 U.S. presidential election, bin Laden used a taped statement to publicly acknowledge al-Qaeda's involvement in the attacks. He admitted his direct link to the attacks and said they were carried out because:
Bin Laden said that he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and The Pentagon. Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 showed bin Laden with one of the attacks' chief planners, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, as well as hijackers, Hamza al-Ghamdi and Wail al-Shehri, amidst making preparations for the attacks. Bin Laden had been on the FBI's Most Wanted List since 1998 for the 1998 bombings of the U.S. embassies in Tanzania and Kenya.
Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and other al-Qaeda members
Journalist Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel Al Jazeera reported that in April 2002 al-Qaeda member Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admitted his involvement in the attacks, along with Ramzi bin al-Shibh. The 2004 9/11 Commission Report determined that the animosity towards the United States felt by Mohammed, the principal architect of the 9/11 attacks, stemmed from his "violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel". Mohammed was also an adviser and financier of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the uncle of Ramzi Yousef, the lead bomber in that attack. In late 1994, Mohammed and Yousef moved on to plan a new terrorist attack called the Bojinka plot planned for January 1995. Despite a failure and Yousef's capture by U.S. forces the following month, the Bojinka plot would highly influence the later 9/11 attacks.
In "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" from the trial of Zacarias Moussaoui, five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation's details. They are bin Laden; Khalid Sheikh Mohammed; Ramzi bin al-Shibh; Abu Turab al-Urduni; and Mohammed Atef.
Motives
Osama bin Laden's declaration of a holy war against the United States, and a 1998 fatwā signed by bin Laden and others, calling for the killing of Americans, are seen by investigators as evidence of his motivation.
In bin Laden's November 2002 "Letter to America", he explicitly stated that al-Qaeda's motives for the attacks included:
U.S. support of Israel
To support and globally expand the Al-Aqsa Intifada
The "attacks against Muslims" in Somalia
Support of the Philippines against Muslims in the Moro conflict
Support for Israeli "aggression" against Muslims in Lebanon
Support of Russian "atrocities against Muslims" in Chechnya
Pro-American governments in the Middle East (who "act as your agents") being against Muslim interests
Support of Indian "oppression against Muslims" in Kashmir
The presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia
The sanctions against Iraq
Environmental destruction
After the attacks, bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri released additional videotapes and audio recordings, some of which repeated those reasons for the attacks. Two particularly important publications were bin Laden's 2002 "Letter to America" and a 2004 videotape by bin Laden.
Bin Laden interpreted Muhammad as having banned the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia". In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwā calling for American troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In 1998, al-Qaeda wrote "for over seven years the United States has been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places, the Arabian Peninsula, plundering its riches, dictating to its rulers, humiliating its people, terrorizing its neighbors, and turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through which to fight the neighboring Muslim peoples".
In a December 1999 interview, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca", and considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world. One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, al-Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions.
In the 1998 fatwā, al-Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans, condemning the "protracted blockade" among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against "Allah, his messenger, and Muslims". The fatwā declared that "the ruling to kill the Americans and their alliescivilians and militaryis an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque of Mecca from their grip, and in order for their [the Americans'] armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim".
In 2004, Bin Laden claimed that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982, when he witnessed Israel's bombardment of high-rise apartment buildings during the 1982 Lebanon War. Some analysts, including political scientists John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt, also claimed that U.S. support of Israel was one motive for the attacks. In 2004 and 2010, bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel, although most of the letter expressed bin Laden's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden's hope to "destroy and bankrupt" the U.S.
Other motives have been suggested in addition to those stated by bin Laden and al-Qaeda. Some authors suggested the "humiliation" that resulted from the Islamic world falling behind the Western worldthis discrepancy was rendered especially visible by globalization and a desire to provoke the U.S. into a broader war against the Islamic world in the hope of motivating more allies to support al-Qaeda. Similarly, others have argued that 9/11 was a strategic move with the objective of provoking America into a war that would incite a pan-Islamic revolution.
Documents seized during the 2011 operation that killed bin Laden included a few notes handwritten by bin Laden in September 2002 with the heading "The Birth of the Idea of September 11". In these notes he describes how he was inspired by the crash of EgyptAir Flight 990 on October 31, 1999, which was deliberately crashed by co-pilot Gameel Al-Batouti. "This is how the idea of 9/11 was conceived and developed in my head, and that is when we began the planning" bin Laden continued, adding that no one but Abu Hafs and Abu al-Khair knew about it at the time. The 9/11 Commission Report identified Khalid Sheikh Mohammed as the architect of 9/11, but he is not mentioned in bin Laden's notes.
Planning
The attacks were conceived by Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who first presented it to Osama bin Laden in 1996. At that time, bin Laden and al-Qaeda were in a period of transition, having just relocated back to Afghanistan from Sudan. The 1998 African embassy bombings and bin Laden's February 1998 fatwā marked a turning point of al-Qaeda's terrorist operation, as bin Laden became intent on attacking the United States.
In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot. Mohammed, bin Laden, and Mohammed Atef, the deputy of bin Laden, held a series of meetings in early 1999. Atef provided operational support, including target selections and helping arrange travel for the hijackers. Bin Laden overruled Mohammed, rejecting potential targets such as the U.S. Bank Tower in Los Angeles for lack of time.
Bin Laden provided leadership and financial support and was involved in selecting participants. He initially selected Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, both experienced jihadists who had fought in Bosnia. Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived in the United States in mid-January 2000. In early 2000, Hazmi and Mihdhar took flying lessons in San Diego, California. Both spoke little English, performed poorly in flying lessons, and eventually served as secondary "muscle" hijackers.
In late 1999, a group of men from Hamburg, Germany, arrived in Afghanistan. The group included Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh. Bin Laden selected these men because they were educated, could speak English, and had experience living in the West. New recruits were routinely screened for special skills and al-Qaeda leaders consequently discovered that Hani Hanjour already had a commercial pilot's license. Mohammed later said that he helped the hijackers blend in by teaching them how to order food in restaurants and dress in Western clothing.
Hanjour arrived in San Diego on December 8, 2000, joining Hazmi. They soon left for Arizona, where Hanjour took refresher training. Marwan al-Shehhi arrived at the end of May 2000, while Atta arrived on June 3, 2000, and Jarrah arrived on June 27, 2000. Bin al-Shibh applied several times for a visa to the United States, but as a Yemeni, he was rejected out of concerns he would overstay his visa. Bin al-Shibh stayed in Hamburg, providing coordination between Atta and Mohammed. The three Hamburg cell members all took pilot training in South Florida at Huffman Aviation.
In the spring of 2001, the secondary hijackers began arriving in the United States. In July 2001, Atta met with bin al-Shibh in Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain, where they coordinated details of the plot, including final target selection. Bin al-Shibh also passed along bin Laden's wish for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible. Some of the hijackers received passports from corrupt Saudi officials who were family members or used fraudulent passports to gain entry.
There have been a few theories that 9/11 was selected by the hijackers as the date of the attack because of its resemblance to 9-1-1, the phone number used to report emergencies in the United States. However, Lawrence Wright wrote that the hijackers chose the date when John III Sobieski, the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, began the battle that turned back the Ottoman Empire's Muslim armies that were attempting to capture Vienna (present-day capital of Austria) on 11 September 1683. During 1683, Vienna was the seat of the Holy Roman Empire and Habsburg monarchy, both major powers in Europe at the time. For Osama bin Laden, this was a date when the West gained some dominance over Islam, and by attacking on this date, he hoped to make a step in Islam "winning" the war for worldwide power and influence.
Prior intelligence
In late 1999, al-Qaeda associate Walid bin Attash ("Khallad") contacted Mihdhar, telling him to meet him in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Hazmi and Abu Bara al Yemeni would also be in attendance. The NSA intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting, Mihdhar, and the name "Nawaf" (Hazmi). While the agency feared "Something nefarious might be afoot", it took no further action.
The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence about the status of Mihdhar and Hazmi as al-Qaeda members, and a CIA team broke into Mihdhar's Dubai hotel room and discovered that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. While Alec Station alerted intelligence agencies worldwide about this fact, it did not share this information with the FBI. The Malaysian Special Branch observed the January 5, 2000, meeting of the two al-Qaeda members and informed the CIA that Mihdhar, Hazmi, and Khallad were flying to Bangkok, but the CIA never notified other agencies of this, nor did it ask the State Department to put Mihdhar on its watchlist. An FBI liaison to Alec Station asked permission to inform the FBI of the meeting but was told: "This is not a matter for the FBI".
By late June, senior counter-terrorism official Richard Clarke and CIA director George Tenet were "convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come", although the CIA believed the attacks would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel. In early July, Clarke put domestic agencies on "full alert", telling them "Something really spectacular is going to happen here. soon". He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments, and the Defense Department to go to "Threat Condition Delta". Clarke later wrote: "Somewhere in CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States. Somewhere in FBI, there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools in the United States... They had specific information about individual terrorists from which one could have deduced what was about to happen. None of that information got to me or the White House".
On July 13, Tom Wilshire, a CIA agent assigned to the FBI's international terrorism division, emailed his superiors at the CIA's Counterterrorism Center (CTC) requesting permission to inform the FBI that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. The CIA never responded.
The same day in July, Margarette Gillespie, an FBI analyst working in the CTC, was told to review material about the Malaysia meeting. She was not told of the participant's presence in the U.S. The CIA gave Gillespie surveillance photos of Mihdhar and Hazmi from the meeting to show to FBI counterterrorism, but did not tell her their significance. The Intelink database informed her not to share intelligence material on the meeting with criminal investigators. When shown the photos, the FBI were refused more details on their significance, and they were not given Mihdhar's date of birth nor passport number. In late August 2001, Gillespie told the INS, the State Department, the Customs Service, and the FBI to put Hazmi and Mihdhar on their watchlists, but the FBI was prohibited from using criminal agents in searching for the duo, hindering their efforts.
Also in July, a Phoenix-based FBI agent sent a message to FBI headquarters, Alec Station, and FBI agents in New York alerting them to "the possibility of a coordinated effort by Osama bin Laden to send students to the United States to attend civil aviation universities and colleges". The agent, Kenneth Williams, suggested the need to interview all flight school managers and identify all Arab students seeking flight training. In July, Jordan alerted the U.S. that al-Qaeda was planning an attack on the U.S.; "months later", Jordan notified the U.S. that the attack's codename was "The Big Wedding" and that it involved airplanes.
On August 6, 2001, the CIA's Presidential Daily Brief ("PDB"), designated "For the President Only", was entitled Bin Ladin Determined to Strike in US. The memo noted that FBI information "indicates patterns of suspicious activity in this country consistent with preparations for hijackings or other types of attacks".
In mid-August, one Minnesota flight school alerted the FBI about Zacarias Moussaoui, who had asked "suspicious questions". The FBI found that Moussaoui was a radical who had traveled to Pakistan, and the INS arrested him for overstaying his French visa. Their request to search his laptop was denied by FBI headquarters due to the lack of probable cause.
The failures in intelligence-sharing were attributed to 1995 Justice Department policies limiting intelligence sharing, combined with CIA and NSA reluctance to reveal "sensitive sources and methods" such as tapped phones. Testifying before the 9/11 Commission in April 2004, then – Attorney General John Ashcroft recalled that the "single greatest structural cause for the September 11th problem was the wall that segregated or separated criminal investigators and intelligence agents". Clarke also wrote: "[T]here were... failures to get information to the right place at the right time".
Attacks
Early on the morning of September 11, 2001, nineteen hijackers took control of four commercial airliners (two Boeing 757s and two Boeing 767s) en route to California (three of them headed to LAX in Los Angeles and one to SFO in San Francisco) after takeoffs from Logan International Airport in Boston, Massachusetts; Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark, New Jersey; and Washington Dulles International Airport in Loudoun and Fairfax counties in Virginia. Large planes with long coast-to-coast flights were selected for hijacking because they would have more fuel.
The four flights were:
American Airlines Flight 11: a Boeing 767 aircraft, departed Logan Airport at 7:59a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of 11 and 76 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the northern façade of the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 8:46a.m.
United Airlines Flight 175: a Boeing 767 aircraft, departed Logan Airport at 8:14a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of nine and 51 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the southern façade of the South Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 9:03a.m.
American Airlines Flight 77: a Boeing 757 aircraft, departed Washington Dulles International Airport at 8:20a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of six and 53 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the western façade of The Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, at 9:37a.m.
United Airlines Flight 93: a Boeing 757 aircraft, departed Newark International Airport at 8:42a.m. en route to San Francisco, with a crew of seven and 33 passengers, not including four hijackers. As passengers attempted to subdue the hijackers, the aircraft crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania, near Shanksville, at 10:03a.m.
Media coverage was extensive during the attacks and aftermath, beginning moments after the first crash into the World Trade Center.
* Eastern Daylight Time (UTC−04:00)† Excluding hijackers§ Including emergency workers‡ Including hijackers
The four crashes
At 7:59 a.m., American Airlines Flight 11 took off from Logan International Airport in Boston. Fifteen minutes into the flight, five hijackers armed with boxcutters took over the plane, injuring at least three people (and possibly killing one) before forcing their way into the cockpit. The terrorists also displayed an apparent explosive device in order to frighten the hostages into submission, while additionally spraying mace into the cabin to further hinder any efforts to resist. Back at Logan, United Airlines Flight 175 took off at 8:14 a.m., approximately the same time as Flight 11's hijacking. Hundreds of miles southwest at Dulles International Airport in Fairfax and Loudoun Counties, Virginia, American Airlines Flight 77 left the runway at 8:20 a.m. Flight 175's journey proceeded normally for 28 minutes until 8:42 a.m., when another group of five hijacked the plane, murdering both pilots and stabbing several crew members before assuming control of the aircraft. As was the case with Flight 11, the hijackers used bomb threats to instill fear into the passengers and crew and sprayed chemical weapons to disable any opposition. Concurrently, United Airlines Flight 93 departed from Newark International Airport in New Jersey; originally scheduled to pull away from the gate at 8:00 a.m., the plane was running 42 minutes late.
At 8:46 a.m., Flight 11 became the first plane to reach its target when it was deliberately crashed into the north face of the World Trade Center's North Tower (1 WTC), although the initial presumption by many was that this was merely an accident. At 8:51 a.m., shortly after the North Tower was struck and only minutes following the hijacking of Flight 175, American Airlines Flight 77 was also taken over by another group of five who forcibly entered the cockpit 31 minutes after takeoff. Although the hijackers were equipped with knives, there were no reports of anyone on board actually being stabbed unlike the first two planes, nor did the two people who made phone calls mention the use of mace or a bomb threat of any kind. Seventeen minutes after the first plane crashed into the North Tower, Flight 175 was flown into the South Tower's southern facade (2WTC) at 9:03 a.m., instantly proving to the entire world that the first crash was not an accident but that a terrorist attack was underway. After waiting 46 minutes to make their move—a holdup that proved disastrous for the terrorists when combined with the delayed takeoff from the runway—four men aboard Flight 93 struck suddenly, killing at least one passenger before storming the cockpit and seizing control of the plane at 9:28 a.m., turning the plane eastbound and setting course for Washington, D.C. Much like their counterparts on the first two flights, the fourth team also used bomb threats to get their way and again filled the cabin with mace. Nine minutes after Flight 93's hijacking, Flight 77 was crashed into the west side of The Pentagon. Because of the two delays, the passengers and crew of Flight 93 had time to be made aware of the previous attacks through phone calls to the ground. Knowing their lives were forfeited rendered the bomb threat moot, and an uprising was hastily organized in the hopes of taking control of the aircraft, with an assault on the hijackers being launched at 9:57 a.m. Within minutes, they had fought their way to the front of the cabin and began breaking down the cockpit door. Fearing their captives would gain the upper hand, the hijackers rolled the plane and pitched it into a nosedive, crashing into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, southeast of Pittsburgh, at 10:03 a.m. The plane was around twenty minutes away from reaching D.C. at the time of the crash, and its target is believed to have been either the Capitol Building or the White House.
Some passengers and crew members who called from the aircraft using the cabin air phone service and mobile phones provided details: several hijackers were aboard each plane; they used mace, tear gas, or pepper spray to overcome attendants; and some people aboard had been stabbed. Reports indicated hijackers stabbed and killed pilots, flight attendants, and one or more passengers. According to the 9/11 Commission's final report, the hijackers had recently purchased multi-function hand tools and assorted Leatherman-type utility knives with locking blades (which were not forbidden to passengers at the time), but were not found among the possessions left behind by the hijackers. A flight attendant on Flight 11, a passenger on Flight 175, and passengers on Flight 93 said the hijackers had bombs, but one of the passengers said he thought the bombs were fake. The FBI found no traces of explosives at the crash sites, and the 9/11 Commission concluded that the bombs were probably fake. On at least two of the hijacked flights – American 11 and United 93 – the terrorists tried to ensure nobody would resist by claiming over the PA system that they were taking hostages and were returning to the airport to have a ransom demand met, an obvious attempt to deceive those on-board into staying put by way of a false hope. Both of these attempts fell on deaf ears, however, as the hijacker pilots in both instances (Mohamed Atta and Ziad Jarrah, respectively) keyed the wrong switch and mistakenly transmitted their messages to ATC instead of the people on the plane as intended, in the process tipping off the flight controllers that the planes had been hijacked.
Three buildings in the World Trade Center collapsed due to fire-induced structural failure. Although the South Tower was struck 17 minutes after the North Tower, the plane's impact zone was far lower, at a much faster speed, and into a corner, with the unevenly-balanced additional structural weight causing it to collapse first at 9:59 a.m., having burned for 56 minutes in the fire caused by the crash of United Airlines Flight 175 and the explosion of its fuel. The North Tower lasted another 29 minutes before collapsing at 10:28 a.m., one hour and forty-two minutes after being struck by American Airlines Flight 11. When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center building (7WTC), damaging the building and starting fires. These fires burned for nearly seven hours, compromising the building's structural integrity, and 7WTC collapsed at 5:21p.m. The west side of The Pentagon sustained significant damage.
At 9:42 a.m., the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) grounded all civilian aircraft within the continental U.S., and civilian aircraft already in flight were told to land immediately. All international civilian aircraft were either turned back or redirected to airports in Canada or Mexico, and were banned from landing on United States territory for three days. The attacks created widespread confusion among news organizations and air traffic controllers. Among the unconfirmed and often contradictory news reports aired throughout the day, one of the most prevalent said a car bomb had been detonated at the U.S. State Department's headquarters in Washington, D.C. Another jet (Delta Air Lines Flight 1989) was suspected of having been hijacked, but the aircraft responded to controllers and landed safely in Cleveland, Ohio.
In an April 2002 interview, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi bin al-Shibh, who are believed to have organized the attacks, said Flight 93's intended target was the United States Capitol, not the White House. During the planning stage of the attacks, Mohamed Atta (Flight 11's hijacker and pilot) thought the White House might be too tough a target and sought an assessment from Hani Hanjour (who hijacked and piloted Flight 77). Mohammed said al-Qaeda initially planned to target nuclear installations rather than the World Trade Center and The Pentagon, but decided against it, fearing things could "get out of control". Final decisions on targets, according to Mohammed, were left in the hands of the pilots. If any pilot could not reach his intended target, he was to crash the plane.
Casualties
In New York City, the attack on the World Trade Center's North Tower single-handedly made 9/11 the deadliest act of terrorism in world history. Our World in Data described it as the deadliest terrorist act in human history. Taken together, the four crashes caused the deaths of 2,996 people (including the hijackers) and injured thousands more. The death toll included 265 on the four planes (from which there were no survivors); 2,606 in the World Trade Center and in the surrounding area; and 125 at The Pentagon. Most who died were civilians; the rest included 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 terrorists. After New York, New Jersey lost the most state citizens. More than 90 countries lost citizens in the attacks.
In New York City, more than 90% of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact. In the North Tower, between 1,344 and 1,402 people were at, above or one floor below the point of impact and all died. Hundreds were killed instantly the moment the plane struck. The estimated 800 people who survived the impact were trapped and died in the fires or from smoke inhalation; fell or jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames; or were killed in the building's collapse. The destruction of all three staircases in the North Tower when Flight 11 hit made it impossible for anyone from the impact zone upward to escape. 107 people not trapped by the impact died. When the plane struck between floors 93 and 99, the 92nd floor was also rendered inescapable when the crash severed all elevator shafts while debris falling from the impact zone blocked the stairwells, ensuring the deaths of all 69 workers on the final floor below the point of impact.
In the South Tower, around 600 people were on or above the 77th floor when Flight 175 struck and few survived. As with the North Tower, hundreds were killed at the moment of impact. However, unlike those in the North Tower, the estimated 300 survivors of the crash were not technically trapped by the damage done by Flight 175's impact, but most were either unaware that a means of escape still existed or were unable to use it. One stairway, Stairwell A, narrowly avoided being destroyed as Flight 175 crashed through the building, allowing 14 people located on the floors of impact (including Stanley Praimnath, a man who saw the plane coming at him) and four more from the floors above to escape. New York City 9-1-1 operators who received calls from people inside the tower were not well informed of the situation as it rapidly unfolded and as a result, told callers not to descend the tower on their own. In total, 630 people died in the South Tower, fewer than half the number killed in the North Tower. Of the 100–200 people witnessed jumping or falling to their deaths that morning, only three recorded sightings were from the South Tower. Casualties in the South Tower were significantly reduced because some occupants decided to leave the building immediately following the first crash, and because Eric Eisenberg, an executive at AON Insurance, made the decision to evacuate the floors occupied by AON (floors 92 and 98–105) in the moments following the impact of Flight 11. The 17-minute gap allowed over 900 of the 1,100 AON employees present on-site to evacuate from above the 77th floor before the South Tower was struck; Eisenberg was among the nearly 200 who did not escape. Similar pre-impact evacuations were carried out by companies such as Fiduciary Trust, CSC, and Euro Brokers, all of whom had offices on floors above the point of impact. The failure to order a full evacuation of the South Tower after the first plane crash into the North Tower was described by USA Today as "one of the day's great tragedies".
As exemplified in the photograph The Falling Man, more than 200 people fell to their deaths from the burning towers, most of whom were forced to jump in order to escape the extreme heat, fire and smoke. Some occupants of each tower above the point of impact made their way toward the roof in the hope of helicopter rescue, but the roof access doors were locked. No plan existed for helicopter rescues, and the combination of roof equipment, thick smoke and intense heat prevented helicopters from approaching.
At the World Trade Center complex, a total of 414 emergency workers died as they tried to rescue people and fight fires, while another law enforcement officer was separately killed on-board United 93 as it crashed. The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) lost 343 firefighters, including a chaplain and two paramedics. The New York City Police Department (NYPD) lost 23 officers. The Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) lost 37 officers. Eight emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics from private emergency medical services (EMS) units were killed. Almost all of the emergency personnel who died at the scene that day were killed as a result of the towers collapsing, with the exception of one who died when a civilian who fell from the upper floors of the South Tower landed on him.
Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. (an investment bank on the North Tower's 101st–105th floors) lost 658 employees, considerably more than any other employer. Marsh Inc., located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93–100, lost 358 employees, and 175 employees of Aon Corporation were also killed. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated that about 17,400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks. Turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest 14,154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8:45a.m. Most people below the impact zone safely evacuated the buildings.
In Arlington County, Virginia, 125 Pentagon workers died when Flight 77 crashed into the building's western side. 70 were civilians and 55 were military personnel, many of whom worked for the United States Army or the United States Navy. The Army lost 47 civilian employees; six civilian contractors; and 22 soldiers, while the Navy lost six civilian employees; three civilian contractors; and 33 sailors. Seven Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) civilian employees died, and one Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) contractor. Lieutenant General Timothy Maude, an Army Deputy Chief of Staff, was the highest-ranking military official killed at The Pentagon.
Weeks after the attack, the death toll was estimated to be over 6,000, more than twice the number of deaths eventually confirmed. The city was only able to identify remains for about 1,600 of the World Trade Center victims. The medical examiner's office collected "about 10,000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead". Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 by workers who were preparing to demolish the damaged Deutsche Bank Building.
In 2010, a team of anthropologists and archaeologists searched for human remains and personal items at the Fresh Kills Landfill, where 72 more human remains were recovered, bringing the total found to 1,845. DNA profiling continues in an attempt to identify additional victims. The remains are being held in storage in Memorial Park, outside the New York City Medical Examiner's facilities. It was expected that the remains would be moved in 2013 to a repository behind a wall at the 9/11 museum.
In July 2011, a team of scientists at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner continued efforts to identify remains, in the hope that improved technology will allow them to identify other victims. In August 2017, the 1,641st victim was identified as a result of newly available DNA technology, and a 1,642nd during July 2018. Three more victims were identified in October 2019, two in September 2021 and an additional two in September 2023. As of September 2023, 1,104 victims remain unidentified, amounting to 40% of the deaths in the World Trade Center attacks. On September 25, 2023, the FDNY reported that with the death of EMT Hilda Vannata and retired firefighter Robert Fulco, marking the 342nd and 343rd deaths from 9/11-related illnesses, the department had now lost the same number of firefighters, EMTs, and civilian members to 9/11-related illnesses as it did on the day of the attacks.
Damage
Along with the 110-floor Twin Towers, numerous other buildings at the World Trade Center site were destroyed or badly damaged, including WTC buildings 3through7 and St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church. The North Tower, South Tower, the Marriott Hotel (3WTC), and 7WTC were destroyed. The U.S. Customs House (6 World Trade Center), 4World Trade Center, 5 World Trade Center, and both pedestrian bridges connecting buildings were severely damaged. The Deutsche Bank Building (still popularly referred to as the Bankers Trust Building) on 130 Liberty Street was partially damaged and demolished some years later, starting in 2007. The two buildings of the World Financial Center also suffered damage. The last fires at the World Trade Center site were extinguished on December 20, exactly 100 days after the attacks.
The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned as uninhabitable because of toxic conditions inside the office tower, and was deconstructed. The Borough of Manhattan Community College's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was condemned due to extensive damage from the attacks, and was reopened in 2012.
Other neighboring buildings (including 90 West Street and the Verizon Building) suffered major damage but have been restored. World Financial Center buildings, One Liberty Plaza, the Millenium Hilton, and 90 Church Street had moderate damage and have since been restored. Communications equipment on top of the North Tower was also destroyed, with only WCBS-TV maintaining a backup transmitter on the Empire State Building, but media stations were quickly able to reroute the signals and resume their broadcasts.The PATH train system's World Trade Center station was located under the complex. As a result, the entire station was demolished completely when the towers collapsed, and the tunnels leading to Exchange Place station in Jersey City, New Jersey, were flooded with water. The station was rebuilt as the $4billion World Trade Center Transportation Hub, which reopened in March 2015. The Cortlandt Street station on the New York City Subway's IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line was also in close proximity to the World Trade Center complex, and the entire station, along with the surrounding track, was reduced to rubble. The latter station was rebuilt and reopened to the public on September 8, 2018.
The Pentagon was severely damaged by the impact of American Airlines Flight 77 and the ensuing fires, causing one section of the building to collapse. As the airplane approached The Pentagon, its wings knocked down light poles and its right engine hit a power generator before crashing into the western side of the building. The plane hit The Pentagon at the first-floor level. The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact, while the mid and tail sections kept moving for another fraction of a second. Debris from the tail section penetrated the furthest into the building, breaking through of the three outermost of the building's five rings.
Rescue efforts
The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) deployed more than 200 units (approximately half of the department) to the World Trade Center. Their efforts were supplemented by numerous off-duty firefighters and emergency medical technicians. The New York City Police Department (NYPD) sent its Emergency Service Units and other police personnel and deployed its aviation unit. The NYPD aviation unit assessed the situation and decided that helicopter rescues from the towers were not feasible. Numerous police officers of the Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) also participated in rescue efforts. Once on the scene, the FDNY, the NYPD, and the PAPD did not coordinate efforts and performed redundant searches for civilians.
As conditions deteriorated, the NYPD aviation unit relayed information to police commanders, who issued orders for its personnel to evacuate the towers; most NYPD officers were able to safely evacuate before the buildings collapsed. With separate command posts set up and incompatible radio communications between the agencies, warnings were not passed along to FDNY commanders.
After the first tower collapsed, FDNY commanders issued evacuation warnings. Due to technical difficulties with malfunctioning radio repeater systems, many firefighters never heard the evacuation orders. 9-1-1 dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along to commanders on the scene.
Reactions
The 9/11 attacks resulted in immediate responses to the event, including domestic reactions; closings and cancellations; hate crimes; Muslim-American responses to the event; international responses to the attack; and military responses to the events. An extensive compensation program was quickly established by Congress in the aftermath to compensate the victims and families of victims of the 9/11 attacks as well.
Immediate response
At 8:32 a.m., FAA officials were notified Flight11 had been hijacked and they, in turn, notified the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). NORAD scrambled two F-15s from Otis Air National Guard Base in Massachusetts and they were airborne by 8:53 a.m. Because of slow and confused communication from FAA officials, NORAD had nine minutes' notice, and no notice about any of the other flights before they crashed.
After both of the Twin Towers had already been hit, more fighters were scrambled from Langley Air Force Base in Virginia at 9:30 a.m. At 10:20 a.m., Vice President Dick Cheney issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked. These instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action. Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition, knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets, the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes, possibly ejecting at the last moment.
For the first time in U.S. history, the emergency preparedness plan called Security Control of Air Traffic and Air Navigation Aids (SCATANA) was invoked, thus stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world. Ben Sliney, in his first day as the National Operations Manager of the FAA, ordered that American airspace would be closed to all international flights, causing about 500 flights to be turned back or redirected to other countries. Canada received 226 of the diverted flights and launched Operation Yellow Ribbon to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers.
The 9/11 attacks had immediate effects on the American people. Police and rescue workers from around the country took a leave of absence from their jobs and traveled to New York City to help recover bodies from the twisted remnants of the Twin Towers. Blood donations across the U.S. surged in the weeks after 9/11.
The deaths of adults in the attacks resulted in over 3,000 children losing a parent. Subsequent studies documented children's reactions to these actual losses and to feared losses of life, the protective environment in the attacks' aftermath, and the effects on surviving caregivers.
Domestic reactions
Following the attacks, President George W. Bush's approval rating soared to 90%. On September 20, 2001, he addressed the nation and a joint session of Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts, and described his intended response to the attacks. New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani's highly visible role won him high praise in New York and nationally.
Many relief funds were immediately set up to assist the attacks' victims, with the task of providing financial assistance to the survivors of the attacks and to the victims' families. By the deadline for victims' compensation on September 11, 2003, 2,833 applications had been received from the families of those who were killed.
Contingency plans for the continuity of government and the evacuation of leaders were implemented soon after the attacks. Congress was not told that the United States had been under a continuity of government status until February 2002.
In the largest restructuring of the U.S. government in contemporary history, the United States enacted the Homeland Security Act of 2002, creating the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Congress also passed the USA PATRIOT Act, saying it would help detect and prosecute terrorism and other crimes. Civil liberties groups have criticized the PATRIOT Act, saying it allows law enforcement to invade citizens' privacy and that it eliminates judicial oversight of law enforcement and domestic intelligence.
In an effort to effectively combat future acts of terrorism, the National Security Agency (NSA) was given broad powers. NSA commenced warrantless surveillance of telecommunications, which was sometimes criticized since it permitted the agency "to eavesdrop on telephone and e-mail communications between the United States and people overseas without a warrant". In response to requests by various intelligence agencies, the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court permitted an expansion of powers by the U.S. government in seeking, obtaining, and sharing information on U.S. citizens as well as non-U.S. people from around the world.
Hate crimes
Six days after the attacks, President Bush made a public appearance at Washington, D.C.'s largest Islamic Center and acknowledged the "incredibly valuable contribution" that millions of American Muslims made to their country and called for them "to be treated with respect". Numerous incidents of harassment and hate crimes against Muslims and South Asians were reported in the days following the attacks.
Sikhs were also subject to targeting due to the use of turbans in the Sikh faith, which are stereotypically associated with Muslims. There were reports of attacks on mosques and other religious buildings (including the firebombing of a Hindu temple), and assaults on individuals, including one murder: Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh mistaken for a Muslim, who was fatally shot on September 15, 2001, in Mesa, Arizona. Two dozen members of Osama bin Laden's family were urgently evacuated out of the country on a private charter plane under FBI supervision three days after the attacks.
According to an academic study, people perceived to be Middle Eastern were as likely to be victims of hate crimes as followers of Islam during this time. The study also found a similar increase in hate crimes against people who may have been perceived as Muslims, Arabs, and others thought to be of Middle Eastern origin. A report by the South Asian American advocacy group known as South Asian Americans Leading Together documented media coverage of 645 bias incidents against Americans of South Asian or Middle Eastern descent between September 11 and 17, 2001. Various crimes such as vandalism, arson, assault, shootings, harassment, and threats in numerous places were documented. Women wearing hijab were also targeted.
Discrimination and racial profiling
A poll of Arab-Americans, conducted in May 2002, found that 20% had personally experienced discrimination since September 11. A July 2002 poll of Muslim Americans found that 48% believed their lives had changed for the worse since September 11, and 57% had experienced an act of bias or discrimination.
Following the September 11 attacks, many Pakistani Americans identified themselves as Indians to avoid potential discrimination and obtain jobs (Pakistan was created as a result of the partition of India in 1947).
By May 2002, there were 488 complaints of employment discrimination reported to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). 301 of those were complaints from people fired from their jobs. Similarly, by June 2002, the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) had investigated 111 September 11th-related complaints from airline passengers purporting that their religious or ethnic appearance caused them to be singled out at security screenings. DOT investigated an additional 31 complaints from people who alleged they were completely blocked from boarding airplanes on the same grounds.
Muslim American response
Muslim organizations in the United States were swift to condemn the attacks and called "upon Muslim Americans to come forward with their skills and resources to help alleviate the sufferings of the affected people and their families". These organizations included the Islamic Society of North America, American Muslim Alliance, American Muslim Council, Council on American-Islamic Relations, Islamic Circle of North America, and the Shari'a Scholars Association of North America. Along with monetary donations, many Islamic organizations launched blood drives and provided medical assistance, food, and shelter for victims.
Interfaith efforts
Curiosity about Islam increased after the attacks. As a result, many mosques and Islamic centers began holding open houses and participating in outreach efforts to educate non-Muslims about the faith. In the first 10 years after the attacks, interfaith community service increased from 8 to 20 percent and the percentage of U.S. congregations involved in interfaith worship doubled from 7 to 14 percent.
International reactions
The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide. Across the globe, nations offered pro-American support and solidarity. Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries, as well as Libya and Afghanistan, condemned the attacks. Iraq was a notable exception, with an immediate official statement that, "the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity". The government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks, but privately many Saudis favored bin Laden's cause.
Although Palestinian Authority (PA) president Yasser Arafat also condemned the attacks, there were reports of celebrations of disputed size in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem. Palestinian leaders discredited news broadcasters that justified the attacks or showed celebrations, and the Authority claimed such celebrations do not represent the Palestinians' sentiment, adding that it would not allow "a few kids" to "smear the real face of the Palestinians". Footage by CNN and other news outlets were suggested by a report originating at a Brazilian university to be from 1991; this was later proven to be a false accusation, resulting in a statement being issued by CNN. As in the United States, the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non-Muslims.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368 condemned the attacks and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat all forms of terrorism in accordance with their Charter. Numerous countries introduced anti-terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al-Qaeda ties. Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries arrested alleged terrorists.
British Prime Minister Tony Blair said Britain stood "shoulder to shoulder" with the United States. A few days later, Blair flew to Washington, D.C., to affirm British solidarity with the United States. In a speech to Congress nine days after the attacks, which Blair attended as a guest, President Bush declared "America has no truer friend than Great Britain". Subsequently, Prime Minister Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy to rally international support for military action; he held 54 meetings with world leaders and traveled more than 40,000 miles (60,000km).
The U.S. set up the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to hold inmates they defined as "illegal enemy combatants". The legitimacy of these detentions has been questioned by the European Union and human rights organizations.
On September 25, 2001, Iran's fifth president, Mohammad Khatami, meeting British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw, said: "Iran fully understands the feelings of the Americans about the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on September 11". He said although the American administrations had been at best indifferent about terrorist operations in Iran (since 1979), the Iranians felt differently and had expressed their sympathetic feelings with bereaved Americans in the tragic incidents in the two cities. He also stated that "Nations should not be punished in place of terrorists".
According to Radio Farda's website, when the news of the attacks was released, some Iranian citizens gathered in front of the Embassy of Switzerland in Tehran, which serves as the protecting power of the United States in Iran (U.S. interests-protecting office in Iran), to express their sympathy, and some of them lit candles as a symbol of mourning. This piece of news at Radio Farda's website also states that in 2011, on the anniversary of the attacks, the United States Department of State published a post at its blog, in which the Department thanked the Iranian people for their sympathy and stated that it would never forget Iranian people's kindness on those harsh days. After the attacks, both the President and the Supreme Leader of Iran, condemned the attacks. The BBC and Time magazine published reports on holding candlelit vigils for the victims by Iranian citizens on their websites. According to Politico Magazine, following the attacks, Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, "suspended the usual 'Death to America' chants at Friday prayers" temporarily.
In September 2001, shortly after the attacks, some fans of AEK Athens burned an Israeli flag and unsuccessfully tried to burn an American flag. Though the American flag did not catch fire, the fans booed during a moment of silence for victims of the attacks.
Military operations
At 2:40 p.m. on September 11, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was issuing rapid orders to his aides to look for evidence of Iraqi involvement. According to notes taken by senior policy official Stephen Cambone, Rumsfeld asked for, "Best info fast. Judge whether good enough hit S.H. [Saddam Hussein] at same time. Not only UBL" [Osama bin Laden]. Cambone's notes quoted Rumsfeld as saying, "Need to move swiftlyNear term target needsgo massivesweep it all up. Things related and not".
In a meeting at Camp David on September 15 the Bush administration rejected the idea of attacking Iraq in response to the September 11 attacks. Nonetheless, they later invaded the country with allies, citing "Saddam Hussein's support for terrorism". At the time, as many as seven in ten Americans believed the Iraqi president played a role in the 9/11 attacks. Three years later, Bush conceded that he had not.
The NATO council declared that the terrorist attacks on the United States were an attack on all NATO nations that satisfied Article 5 of the NATO charter. This marked the first invocation of Article 5, which had been written during the Cold War with an attack by the Soviet Union in mind. Australian Prime Minister John Howard, who was in Washington, D.C., during the attacks, invoked Article IV of the ANZUS treaty. The Bush administration announced a war on terror, with the stated goals of bringing bin Laden and al-Qaeda to justice and preventing the emergence of other terrorist networks. These goals would be accomplished by imposing economic and military sanctions against states harboring terrorists, and increasing global surveillance and intelligence sharing.
On September 14, 2001, the U.S. Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists. It is still in effect, and grants the President the authority to use all "necessary and appropriate force" against those whom he determined "planned, authorized, committed or aided" the September 11 attacks or who harbored said persons or groups.
On October 7, 2001, the War in Afghanistan began when U.S. and British forces initiated aerial bombing campaigns targeting Taliban and al-Qaeda camps, then later invaded Afghanistan with ground troops of the Special Forces. This eventually led to the overthrow of the Taliban's rule of Afghanistan with the Fall of Kandahar on December 7, 2001, by U.S.-led coalition forces.
Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden, who went into hiding in the White Mountains, was targeted by U.S. coalition forces in the Battle of Tora Bora, but he escaped across the Pakistani border and would remain out of sight for almost ten years. In an interview with Tayseer Allouni in 21 October 2001, Bin Laden stated: "The events proved the extent of terrorism that America exercises in the world. Bush stated that the world has to be divided in two: Bush and his supporters, and any country that doesn’t get into the global crusade is with the terrorists. What terrorism is clearer than this? Many governments were forced to support this “new terrorism.”.. America wouldn’t live in security until we live it truly in Palestine. This showed the reality of America, which puts Israel’s interest above its own people’s interest. America won’t get out of this crisis until it gets out of the Arabian Peninsula, and until it stops its support of Israel.
The Philippines and Indonesia, among other nations with their own internal conflicts with Islamic terrorism, also increased their military readiness. The military forces of the United States of America and the Islamic Republic of Iran cooperated with each other to overthrow the Taliban regime, which had had conflicts with the government of Iran. Iran's Quds Force helped U.S. forces and Afghan rebels in the 2001 uprising in Herat.
Aftermath
Health issues
Hundreds of thousands of tons of toxic debris containing more than 2,500 contaminants, including known carcinogens, were spread across Lower Manhattan due to the Twin Towers' collapse. Exposure to the toxins in the debris is alleged to have contributed to fatal or debilitating illnesses among people who were at Ground Zero. The Bush administration ordered the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks, citing national security, but the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre-September 11 levels until June 2002.
Health effects extended to residents, students, and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby Chinatown. Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust, and the victims' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial. Approximately 18,000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust. There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development. A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions, and that 30%–40% were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack.
Years after the attacks, legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system. On October 17, 2006, a federal judge rejected New York City's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers, allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city. Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks. Christine Todd Whitman, administrator of the EPA in the attacks' aftermath, was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe. Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater Wall Street area.
On December 22, 2010, the United States Congress passed the James L. Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act, which President Barack Obama signed into law on January 2, 2011. It allocated $4.2billion to create the World Trade Center Health Program, which provides testing and treatment for people suffering from long-term health problems related to the 9/11 attacks. The WTC Health Program replaced preexisting 9/11-related health programs such as the Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program and the WTC Environmental Health Center program.
In 2020, the NYPD confirmed that 247 NYPD police officers had died due to 9/11-related illnesses. In September 2022, the FDNY confirmed that the total number of firefighters that died due to 9/11-related illnesses was 299. Both agencies believe that the death toll will rise dramatically in the coming years. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department (PAPD), the law enforcement agency with jurisdiction over the World Trade Center due to the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey owning the site confirmed that four of its police officers have died of 9/11-related illnesses. The chief of the PAPD at the time, Joseph Morris, made sure that industrial-grade respirators were provided to all PAPD police officers within 48 hours and decided that the same 30 to 40 police officers would be stationed at the World Trade Center pile, drastically lowering the number of total PAPD personnel who would be exposed to the air. The FDNY and NYPD had rotated hundreds, if not thousands, of different personnel from all over New York City to the pile, which exposed many of them to dust that would give them cancer or other diseases years or decades later. Also, they weren't given adequate respirators and breathing equipment that could have prevented future diseases.
Economic
The attacks had a significant economic impact on United States and world markets. The stock exchanges did not open on September 11 and remained closed until September 17. Reopening, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) fell 684 points, or 7.1%, to 8921, a record-setting one-day point decline. By the end of the week, the DJIA had fallen 1,369.7 points (14.3%), at the time its largest one-week point drop in history. In 2001 dollars, U.S. stocks lost $1.4trillion in valuation for the week.
In New York City, about 430,000 job-months and $2.8billion in wages were lost in the first three months after the attacks. The economic effects were mainly on the economy's export sectors. The city's GDP was estimated to have declined by $27.3billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002. The U.S. government provided $11.2billion in immediate assistance to the Government of New York City in September 2001, and $10.5billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs.
Also hurt were small businesses in Lower Manhattan near the World Trade Center (18,000 of which were destroyed or displaced), resulting in lost jobs and their consequent wages. Assistance was provided by Small Business Administration loans; federal government Community Development Block Grants; and Economic Injury Disaster Loans. Some of Lower Manhattan office space was damaged or destroyed. Many wondered whether these jobs would return, and if the damaged tax base would recover. Studies of 9/11's economic effects show the Manhattan office real-estate market and office employment were less affected than first feared, because of the financial services industry's need for face-to-face interaction.
North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased upon its reopening, leading to a nearly 20% cutback in air travel capacity, and exacerbating financial problems in the struggling U.S. airline industry.
The September 11 attacks also led to the U.S. wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as additional homeland security spending, totaling at least $5trillion.
Effects in Afghanistan
Most of the Afghan population was already going hungry at the time of the September 11 attacks. In the aftermath of the attacks, tens of thousands of people attempted to flee Afghanistan due to the possibility of military retaliation by the United States. Pakistan, already home to many Afghan refugees from previous conflicts, closed its border with Afghanistan on September 17, 2001. Thousands of Afghans also fled to the frontier with Tajikistan, although were denied entry. The Taliban leaders in Afghanistan themselves pleaded against military action, saying "We appeal to the United States not to put Afghanistan into more misery because our people have suffered so much", referring to two decades of conflict and the humanitarian crisis attached to it.
All United Nations expatriates had left Afghanistan after the attacks and no national or international aid workers were at their post. Workers were instead preparing in bordering countries like Pakistan, China and Uzbekistan to prevent a potential "humanitarian catastrophe", amid a critically low food stock for the Afghan population. The World Food Programme stopped importing wheat to Afghanistan on September 12 due to security risks. The Wall Street Journal suggested the creation of a buffer zone in an inevitable war, similarly as in the Bosnian War.
Approximately one month after the attacks, the United States led a broad coalition of international forces to overthrow the Taliban regime from Afghanistan for their harboring of al-Qaeda. Though Pakistani authorities were initially reluctant to align themselves with the United States against the Taliban, they permitted the coalition access to their military bases, and arrested and handed over to the U.S. over 600 suspected al-Qaeda members.
In a speech by the Nizari Ismaili Imam at the Nobel Institute in 2005, Aga Khan IV stated that the "9/11 attack on the United States was a direct consequence of the international community ignoring the human tragedy that was Afghanistan at that time".
In 2011, the U.S. and NATO under President Obama initiated a drawdown of troops in Afghanistan finalized in 2016. During the presidencies of Donald Trump and Joe Biden in 2020 and 2021, the United States alongside its NATO allies withdrew all troops from Afghanistan completing the withdrawal of all regular U.S. troops on August 30, 2021, 12 days before the 20th anniversary of the September 11 attacks, The withdrawal marked the end of the 2001–2021 War in Afghanistan. Biden said that after nearly 20 years of war, it was clear that the U.S. military could not transform Afghanistan into a modern democracy.
The second emir of Al-Qaeda, Ayman al-Zawahiri, a close associate of bin Laden, was killed in a U.S. drone strike at his home in Kabul, Afghanistan on July 31, 2022.
Cultural influence
The impact of 9/11 extends beyond geopolitics and into society and culture in general. Immediate responses to 9/11 included greater focus on home life and time spent with family, higher church attendance, and increased expressions of patriotism such as the flying of American flags. The radio industry responded by removing certain songs from playlists, and the attacks have subsequently been used as background, narrative, or thematic elements in film, music, literature, and humor. Already-running television shows as well as programs developed after 9/11 have reflected post-9/11 cultural concerns.
9/11 conspiracy theories have become social phenomena, despite lack of support from expert scientists, engineers, and historians. 9/11 has also had a major impact on the religious faith of many individuals; for some it strengthened, to find consolation to cope with the loss of loved ones and overcome their grief; others started to question their faith or lose it entirely, because they could not reconcile it with their view of religion.
The culture of America succeeding the attacks is noted for heightened security and an increased demand thereof, as well as paranoia and anxiety regarding future terrorist attacks that includes most of the nation. Psychologists have also confirmed that there has been an increased amount of national anxiety in commercial air travel. Anti-Muslim hate crimes rose nearly ten-fold in 2001 and have subsequently remained "roughly five times higher than the pre-9/11 rate".
Government policies towards terrorism
As a result of the attacks, many governments across the world passed legislation to combat terrorism. In Germany, where several of the 9/11 terrorists had resided and taken advantage of that country's liberal asylum policies, two major anti-terrorism packages were enacted. The first removed legal loopholes that permitted terrorists to live and raise money in Germany. The second addressed the effectiveness and communication of intelligence and law enforcement. Canada passed the Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act, their first anti-terrorism law. The United Kingdom passed the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005. New Zealand enacted the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002.
In the United States, the Department of Homeland Security was created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002 to coordinate domestic anti-terrorism efforts. The USA Patriot Act gave the federal government greater powers, including the authority to detain foreign terror suspects for a week without charge; to monitor terror suspects' telephone communications, e-mail, and Internet use; and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions. The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes, and assigned sky marshals to flights.
Further, the Aviation and Transportation Security Act made the federal government, rather than airports, responsible for airport security. The law created the Transportation Security Administration to inspect passengers and luggage, causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy. After suspected abuses of the USA Patriot Act were brought to light in June 2013 with articles about the collection of American call records by the NSA and the PRISM program (see Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)), Representative Jim Sensenbrenner,(R- Wisconsin) who introduced the Patriot Act in 2001, said that the NSA overstepped its bounds.
Criticism of the war on terror has focused on its morality, efficiency, and cost. According to a 2021 study conducted under the auspices of the Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, the several post-9/11 wars participated in by the United States in its War on Terror have caused the displacement, conservatively calculated, of 38 million people in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Yemen, Somalia, and the Philippines. The study estimated these wars caused the deaths of 897,000 to 929,000 people and cost $8 trillion. The U.S. Constitution and U.S. law prohibits the use of torture, yet such human rights violations occurred during the War on Terror under the euphemism "enhanced interrogation". In 2005, The Washington Post and Human Rights Watch (HRW) published revelations concerning CIA flights and "black sites", covert prisons operated by the CIA. The term "torture by proxy" is used by some critics to describe situations in which the CIA and other U.S. agencies have transferred suspected terrorists to countries known to employ torture.
Legal proceedings
As all 19 hijackeres died in the attacks, they were never procecuted. Osama bin Laden, the mastermind of the attacks, was never formally indicted, but was after a 10-year manhunt killed by U.S. special forces on May 2, 2011 in his compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan. To date, only peripheral persons have been convicted for charges in connection with the attacks. These are:
Zacarias Moussaoui who was indicted in December 2001 and sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole in May 2006 by a U.S. federal jury
Mounir El Motassadeq who was first convicted in February 2003 by a Federal Court of Justice in Germany and was deported to Morocco in October 2018 after serving his sentence
Abu Dahdah who was arrested in November 2001, sentenced by a Spanish High Court and released from prison in May 2013.
The main trial of the attacks against Mohammed and his co-conspirators Walid bin Attash, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, Ammar al-Baluchi, and Mustafa Ahmad al Hawsawi remains unresolved. Charges were announced by Brigadier General Thomas W. Hartmann on February 11, 2008 at a press conference hosted by The Pentagon. In August 2023, it was reported that the Biden Administration is considering a plea deal that would eliminate the death penalty. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was arrested on March 1, 2003, in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, by Pakistani security officials working with the CIA. He was then held at multiple CIA secret prisons and Guantanamo Bay, where he was interrogated and tortured with methods including waterboarding. During U.S. hearings at Guantanamo Bay in March 2007, Mohammed again confessed his responsibility for the attacks, stating he "was responsible for the 9/11 operation from A to Z" and that his statement was not made under duress. In 2003, Mustafa al-Hawsawi and Abd al-Aziz Ali were arrested and transferred to US custody. Both would later be accused of providing money and travel assistance to the hijackers.
Investigations
FBI
Immediately after the attacks, the Federal Bureau of Investigation started PENTTBOM, the largest criminal inquiry in United States history. At its height, more than half of the FBI's agents worked on the investigation and followed a half-million leads. The FBI concluded that there was "clear and irrefutable" evidence linking al-Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks.
The FBI was quickly able to identify the hijackers, including leader Mohamed Atta, when his luggage was discovered at Boston's Logan Airport. Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19-seat commuter flight he took to Boston. Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays, the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned. The luggage contained the hijackers' names, assignments, and al-Qaeda connections. "It had all these Arab-language papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation", said one FBI agent. Within hours of the attacks, the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers. Abu Jandal, who served as bin Laden's chief bodyguard for years, confirmed the identity of seven hijackers as al-Qaeda members during interrogations with the FBI on September 17. He had been jailed in a Yemeni prison since 2000. On September 27, 2001, photos of all 19 hijackers were released, along with information about possible nationalities and aliases. Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia, two were from the United Arab Emirates, one was from Egypt, and one was from Lebanon.
By midday, the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden. Two of the hijackers were known to have traveled with a bin Laden associate to Malaysia in 2000 and hijacker Mohamed Atta had previously gone to Afghanistan. He and others were part of a terrorist cell in Hamburg. One of the members of the Hamburg cell in Germany was discovered to have been in communication with Khalid Sheikh Mohammed who was identified as a member of al-Qaeda.
Authorities in the United States and United Kingdom also obtained electronic intercepts, including telephone conversations and electronic bank transfers, which indicated that Mohammed Atef, a bin Laden deputy, was a key figure in the planning of the 9/11 attacks. Intercepts were also obtained that revealed conversations that took place days before September 11 between bin Laden and an associate in Pakistan. In those conversations, the two referred to "an incident that would take place in America on, or around, September 11" and they discussed potential repercussions. In another conversation with an associate in Afghanistan, bin Laden discussed the "scale and effects of a forthcoming operation". These conversations did not specifically mention the World Trade Center, The Pentagon, or other specifics.
In their annual violent crime index for the year of 2001, the FBI recorded the deaths from the attacks as murder, in separate tables so as not to mix them with other reported crime for that year. In a disclaimer, the FBI stated that "the number of deaths is so great that combining it with the traditional crime statistics will have an outlier effect that falsely skews all types of measurements in the program's analyses". New York City also did not include the deaths in their annual crime statistics for 2001.
CIA
In 2004, John L. Helgerson, the Inspector General of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), conducted an internal review of the agency's pre-9/11 performance and was harshly critical of senior CIA officials for not doing everything possible to confront terrorism. According to Philip Giraldi in The American Conservative, Helgerson criticized their failure to stop two of the 9/11 hijackers, Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, as they entered the United States and their failure to share information on the two men with the FBI.
In May 2007, senators from both major U.S. political parties (the Republican and Democratic party) drafted legislation to make the review public. One of the backers, Senator Ron Wyden said, "The American people have a right to know what the Central Intelligence Agency was doing in those critical months before 9/11". The report was released in 2009 by President Barack Obama.
Congressional inquiry
In February 2002, the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence formed a joint inquiry into the performance of the U.S. Intelligence Community. Their 832-page report released in December 2002 detailed failings of the FBI and CIA to use available information, including about terrorists the CIA knew were in the United States, in order to disrupt the plots. The joint inquiry developed its information about possible involvement of Saudi Arabian government officials from non-classified sources. Nevertheless, the Bush administration demanded 28 related pages remain classified. In December 2002, the inquiry's chair Bob Graham (D-FL) revealed in an interview that there was "evidence that there were foreign governments involved in facilitating the activities of at least some of the terrorists in the United States". September 11 victim families were frustrated by the unanswered questions and redacted material from the congressional inquiry and demanded an independent commission. September 11 victim families, members of Congress and the Saudi Arabian government are still seeking release of the documents. In June 2016, CIA chief John Brennan said that he believes 28 redacted pages of a congressional inquiry into 9/11 will soon be made public, and that they will prove that the government of Saudi Arabia had no involvement in the September 11 attacks.
In September 2016, the Congress passed the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act that would allow relatives of victims of the September 11 attacks to sue Saudi Arabia for its government's alleged role in the attacks.
9/11 Commission
The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, popularly known as the 9/11 Commission, chaired by Thomas Kean, governor of New Jersey from 1982 to 1990, was formed in late 2002 to prepare a thorough account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks, including preparedness for and the immediate response to the attacks. On July 22, 2004, the commission issued the 9/11 Commission Report, a 585-page report based on its investigations and interviews. Thehe report detailed the events leading up to the September 11 attacks, concluding that they were carried out by al-Qaeda. The commission also examined how security and intelligence agencies were inadequately coordinated to prevent the attacks.
According to the report, "We believe the 9/11 attacks revealed four kinds of failures: in imagination, policy, capabilities, and management". The commission made numerous recommendations on how to prevent future attacks, and in 2011 was dismayed that several of its recommendations had yet to be implemented.
National Institute of Standards and Technology
The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) investigated the collapses of the Twin Towers and 7WTC. The investigations examined why the buildings collapsed and what fire protection measures were in place, and evaluated how fire protection systems might be improved in future construction. The investigation into the collapse of 1WTC and 2WTC was concluded in October 2005 and that of 7WTC was completed in August 2008.
NIST found that the fireproofing on the Twin Towers' steel infrastructures was blown off by the initial impact of the planes and that had this not occurred, the towers likely would have remained standing. A 2007 study of the north tower's collapse published by researchers of Purdue University determined that since the plane's impact had stripped off much of the structure's thermal insulation, the heat from a typical office fire would have softened and weakened the exposed girders and columns enough to initiate the collapse regardless of the number of columns cut or damaged by the impact.
The director of the original investigation stated that "the towers really did amazingly well. The terrorist aircraft didn't bring the buildings down; it was the fire which followed. It was proven that you could take out two-thirds of the columns in a tower and the building would still stand". The fires weakened the trusses supporting the floors, making the floors sag. The sagging floors pulled on the exterior steel columns causing the exterior columns to bow inward.
With the damage to the core columns, the buckling exterior columns could no longer support the buildings, causing them to collapse. Additionally, the report found the towers' stairwells were not adequately reinforced to provide adequate emergency escape for people above the impact zones. NIST concluded that uncontrolled fires in 7WTC caused floor beams and girders to heat and subsequently "caused a critical support column to fail, initiating a fire-induced progressive collapse that brought the building down".
Alleged Saudi government role
In July 2016, the Obama administration released a document compiled by U.S. investigators Dana Lesemann and Michael Jacobson, known as "File 17", which contains a list naming three dozen people, including the suspected Saudi intelligence officers attached to Saudi Arabia's embassy in Washington, D.C., which connects Saudi Arabia to the hijackers.
In September 2016, Congress passed the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act. The practical effect of the legislation was to allow the continuation of a longstanding civil lawsuit brought by families of victims of the September 11 attacks against Saudi Arabia for its government's alleged role in the attacks. In March 2018, a U.S. judge formally allowed a suit to move forward against the government of Saudi Arabia brought by 9/11 survivors and victims' families.
In 2022, the families of some 9/11 victims obtained two videos and a notepad seized from Saudi national Omar al-Bayoumi by the British courts. The first video showed him hosting a party in San Diego for Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, the first two hijackers to arrive in the U.S. The other video showed al-Bayoumi greeting the cleric Anwar al-Awlaki, who was blamed for radicalizing Americans and later killed in a CIA drone strike. The notepad depicted a hand-drawn airplane and some mathematical equations that, according to a pilot's court statement, might have been used to calculate the rate of descent to get to a target. According to a 2017 FBI memo, from the late 1990s up until the 9/11 attack, al-Bayoumi was a paid cooptee of the Saudi General Intelligence Presidency. he is believed to be living in Saudi Arabia, which has denied any involvement in 9/11.
Rebuilding
On the day of the attacks, New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani stated: "We will rebuild. We're going to come out of this stronger than before, politically stronger, economically stronger. The skyline will be made whole again".
Within hours of the attack, a substantial search and rescue operation was launched. After months of around-the-clock operations, the World Trade Center site was cleared by the end of May 2002. The damaged section of The Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks. The temporary World Trade Center PATH station opened in late 2003 and construction of the new 7World Trade Center was completed in 2006. Work on rebuilding the main World Trade Center site was delayed until late 2006, when leaseholder Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed on financing. The construction of One World Trade Center began on April 27, 2006, and reached its full height on May 20, 2013. The spire was installed atop the building at that date, putting OneWTC's height at 1,776 feet (541m) and thus claiming the title of the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere. One WTC finished construction and opened on November 3, 2014.
On the World Trade Center site, three more office towers were to be built one block east of where the original towers stood. 4WTC, meanwhile, opened in November 2013, making it the second tower on the site to open behind 7World Trade Center, as well as the first building on the Port Authority property. 3WTC opened on June 11, 2018, becoming the fourth skyscraper at the site to be completed. In December 2022, the Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church fully reopened for regular services followed by the opening of the Ronald O. Perelman Performing Arts Center in September 2023. With construction beginning in 2008, 2 World Trade Center remains unfinished. Construction of a 5 World Trade Center is planned to begin in 2024 and be finished by 2029.
Christopher O. Ward, Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Executive Director from 2008 to 2011, is a survivor of the attacks and is credited with getting the construction of the 9/11 site back on track.
Memorials
In the days immediately following the attacks, many memorials and vigils were held around the world, and photographs of the dead and missing were posted around Ground Zero. A witness described being unable to "get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed. Their pictures are everywhere, on phone booths, street lights, walls of subway stations. Everything reminded me of a huge funeral, people quiet and sad, but also very nice. Before, New York gave me a cold feeling; now people were reaching out to help each other".
One of the first memorials was the Tribute in Light, an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers. In New York City, the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site. The winning design, Reflecting Absence, was selected in August 2006, and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers, surrounded by a list of the victims' names in an underground memorial space. The memorial was completed on September 11, 2011; a museum also opened on site on May 21, 2014.
The Sphere by the German sculptor Fritz Koenig is the world's largest bronze sculpture of modern times, and stood between the Twin Towers on the Austin J. Tobin Plaza of the World Trade Center in New York City from 1971 until the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. The sculpture, weighing more than 20 tons, was the only remaining work of art to be recovered largely intact from the ruins of the collapsed Twin Towers after the attacks. Since then, the work of art, known in the U.S. as The Sphere, has been transformed into an important symbolic monument of 9/11 commemoration. After being dismantled and stored near a hangar at John F. Kennedy International Airport, the sculpture was the subject of the 2001 documentary The Sphere by filmmaker Percy Adlon. On August 16, 2017, the work was reinstated, installed at the Liberty Park, close to the new World Trade Center aerial and the 9/11 Memorial.
In Arlington County, the Pentagon Memorial was completed and opened to the public on the seventh anniversary of the attacks in 2008. It consists of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing The Pentagon. When The Pentagon was repaired in 2001–2002, a private chapel and indoor memorial were included, located at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building.
In Shanksville, a concrete-and-glass visitor center was opened on September 10, 2015, situated on a hill overlooking the crash site and the white marble Wall of Names. An observation platform at the visitor center and the white marble wall are both aligned beneath the path of Flight 93. A temporary memorial is located from the crash site. New York City firefighters donated a cross made of steel from the World Trade Center and mounted on top of a platform shaped like The Pentagon. It was installed outside the firehouse on August 25, 2008. Many other permanent memorials are elsewhere. Scholarships and charities have been established by the victims' families and by many other organizations and private figures.
On every anniversary in New York City, the names of the victims who died there are read out against a background of somber music. The President of the United States attends a memorial service at The Pentagon, and asks Americans to observe Patriot Day with a moment of silence. Smaller services are held in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, which are usually attended by the First Lady. As the first sitting U.S. president since the attacks, Joe Biden did at the 2023 anniversary not attend services in the affected areas, instead marking the day in Anchorage, Alaska.
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Bodnar, John.. Divided by Terror: American Patriotism after 9/11 (University of North Carolina Press, 2021) how memory of the event stimulated and reshaped patriotism.
Further reading
External links
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States official commission website
List of victims
September 11, 2001, Documentary Project from the U.S. Library of Congress, Memory.loc.gov
September 11, 2001, Web Archive from the U.S. Library of Congress, Minerva
National Security Archive
September 11 Digital Archive: Saving the Histories of September 11, 2001, from the Center for History and New Media and the American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning
DoD: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Verbatim Transcript of Combatant Status Review Tribunal Hearing for ISN 10024, from Wikisource
The 9/11 Legacies Project, Oriental Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague
9/11 at 20: A Week of Reflection, Responsible Statecraft, The Quincy Institute
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden
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Sweden
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Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, Finland to the east, and is connected to Denmark in the southwest by a bridgetunnel across the Öresund.
At , Sweden is the largest Nordic country and the fifth-largest country in Europe. The capital and largest city is Stockholm. Sweden has a population of 10.5 million, and a low population density of , with around 87% of Swedes residing in urban areas, which cover 1.5% of the entire land area, in the central and southern half of the country. Nature in Sweden is dominated by forests and many lakes, including some of the largest in Europe. Many long rivers run from the Scandes range, primarily emptying into the northern tributaries of the Baltic Sea. It has an extensive coastline and most of the population lives near a major body of water. With the country ranging from 55°N to 69°N, the climate of Sweden is diverse due to the length of the country.
Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats () and Swedes () and constituting the sea peoples known as the Norsemen. An independent Swedish state emerged during the early 12th century. After the Black Death in the middle of the 14th century killed about a third of the Scandinavian population, the dominance of the Hanseatic League in Northern Europe threatened Scandinavia economically and politically. This led to the formation of the Scandinavian Kalmar Union in 1397, which Sweden left in 1523. When Sweden became involved in the Thirty Years' War on the Protestant side, an expansion of its territories began, forming the Swedish Empire, which remained one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century.
Sweden is a highly developed country ranked seventh in the Human Development Index, it is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy, with legislative power vested in the 349-member unicameral . It is a unitary state, divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens. It has the world's 14th highest GDP per capita and ranks very highly in quality of life, health, education, protection of civil liberties, economic competitiveness, income equality, gender equality and prosperity. Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 but rejected Eurozone membership following a referendum. It is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, the Schengen Area, the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
Etymology
The name for Sweden is generally agreed to derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *s(w)e, meaning "one's own", referring to one's own tribe from the tribal period. The native Swedish name, (a compound of the words and , first recorded in the cognate in Beowulf), translates as "realm of the Swedes", which excluded the Geats in Götaland.
The contemporary English variation was derived in the 17th century from Middle Dutch and Middle Low German. As early as 1287, references are found in Middle Dutch referring to a ("land of [the] Swedes"), with as the singular form. In Old English the country was known as or , and in Early Modern English as . Some Finnic languages, such as Finnish and Estonian, use the terms and ; these variations refer to the Rus' people who inhabited the coastal areas of Roslagen in Uppland and who gave their name to Russia.
History
Prehistory
Sweden's prehistory begins in the Allerød oscillation, a warm period around 12,000 BC, with Late Palaeolithic reindeer-hunting camps of the Bromme culture at the edge of the ice in what is now the country's southernmost province, Scania. This period was characterised by small clans of hunter-gatherers who relied on flint technology.
Sweden and its people were first described by Publius Cornelius Tacitus in his Germania (98 AD). In Germania 44 and 45 he mentions the Swedes (Suiones) as a powerful tribe with ships that had a prow at each end (longships). Which kings () ruled these Suiones is unknown, but Norse mythology presents a long line of legendary and semi-legendary kings going back to the last centuries BC. The runic script was in use among the south Scandinavian elite by at least the second century AD, but all that has survived from the Roman Period is curt inscriptions demonstrating that the people of south Scandinavia spoke Proto-Norse at the time, a language ancestral to Swedish and other North Germanic languages.
In the sixth century, Jordanes names two tribes living in Scandza, both of which are now considered to be synonymous with the Swedes: the and . The were known to the Roman world as suppliers of black fox skins and, according to Jordanes, had very fine horses, similar to those of the Thyringi of ().
Vikings
The Swedish Viking Age lasted roughly from the eighth century to the 11th century. It is believed that Swedish Vikings and Gutar mainly travelled east and south, going to Finland, Estonia, the Baltic countries, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, the Black Sea and even as far as Baghdad. Their routes passed through the Dnieper south to Constantinople, on which they carried out numerous raids. The Byzantine Emperor Theophilos noticed their great skills in war, and invited them to serve as his personal bodyguard, known as the Varangian Guard. The Swedish Vikings, called Rus are believed to be the founders of Kievan Rus'. The Arab traveller Ibn Fadlan described these Vikings saying:
The actions of these Swedish Vikings are commemorated on many runestones in Sweden, such as the Greece runestones and the Varangian runestones. There was also considerable participation in expeditions westwards, which are commemorated on stones such as the England runestones. The last major Swedish Viking expedition appears to have been the ill-fated expedition of Ingvar the Far-Travelled to Serkland, the region south-east of the Caspian Sea. Its members are commemorated on the Ingvar runestones, none of which mentions any survivor.
Kingdom of Sweden
The actual age of the kingdom of Sweden is unknown. Establishing the age depends mostly on whether Sweden should be considered a nation when the (Sweonas) ruled Svealand or if the emergence of the nation started with the and the Götar (Geats) of Götaland being united under one ruler. In the first case, Svealand was first mentioned as having one single ruler in the year 98 by Tacitus, but it is almost impossible to know for how long it had been this way. However, historians usually start the line of Swedish monarchs from when Svealand and Götaland were ruled under the same king, namely Eric the Victorious (Geat) and his son Olof Skötkonung in the tenth century. These events are often described as the consolidation of Sweden, although substantial areas were conquered and incorporated later. It is not known how long they existed: the epic poem Beowulf describes semi-legendary Swedish-Geatish wars in the sixth century. Götaland in this sense mainly includes the provinces of Östergötland (East Gothia) and Västergötland (West Gothia). The island of Gotland was disputed by other than Swedes, at this time (Danish, Hanseatic, and Gotland-domestic). Småland was at that time of little interest to anyone due to the deep pine forests, and only the city of Kalmar with its castle was of importance. The south-west parts of the Scandinavian peninsula consisted of three Danish provinces (Scania, Blekinge and Halland). North of Halland, Denmark had a direct border to Norway and its province Bohuslän. But there were Swedish settlements along the southern coastline of Norrland.
During the early stages of the Scandinavian Viking Age, Ystad in the Danish province Scania and Paviken on Gotland were flourishing centres of trade, but they were not parts of the early Swedish Kingdom. Remains of what is believed to have been a large market dating from 600 to 700 CE have been found in Ystad. In Paviken, an important centre of trade in the Baltic region during the ninth and tenth century, remains have been found of a large Viking Age harbour with shipbuilding yards and handicraft industries. Between 800 and 1000, trade brought an abundance of silver to Gotland.
Saint Ansgar is usually credited with introducing Christianity to Sweden in 829, but the new religion did not begin to fully replace paganism until the 12th century. The period between 1100 and 1400 was characterised by internal power struggles and competition among the Nordic kingdoms. In the years 1150–1293 according to the legend of Eric IX and the Eric Chronicles Swedish kings made a first, second and third crusade to pagan Finland and started conflicts with the Rus' who no longer had any connection with Sweden. The Swedish colonisation of the coastal areas of Finland also started during the 12th and 13th century. In the 14th century, the colonisation began to be more organised, and by the end of the century, several of the coastal areas of Finland were inhabited mostly by Swedes.
Except for the provinces of Scania, Blekinge and Halland in the south-west of the Scandinavian peninsula, which were parts of the Kingdom of Denmark during this time, feudalism never developed in Sweden as it did in the rest of Europe. As a result, the peasantry remained largely a class of free farmers throughout most of Swedish history. Slavery (also called thralldom) was not common in Sweden, and what slavery there was tended to be driven out of existence by the spread of Christianity, by the difficulty of obtaining slaves from lands east of the Baltic Sea, and by the development of cities before the 16th century. Indeed, both slavery and serfdom were abolished altogether by a decree of King Magnus IV in 1335. Sweden remained a poor and economically backward country in which barter was the primary means of exchange.
In the middle of the 14th century, Sweden was struck by the Black Death. The population of Sweden and most of Europe was decimated. The population (at same territory) did not reach the numbers of the year 1348 again until the beginning of the 19th century. One third of the population died during 1349–1351. During this period, the cities began to acquire greater rights and were strongly influenced by German merchants of the Hanseatic League, active especially at Visby. In 1319, Sweden and Norway were united under King Magnus Eriksson, and in 1397 Queen Margaret I of Denmark affected the personal union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark through the Kalmar Union. However, Margaret's successors, whose rule was also centred in Denmark, were unable to control the Swedish nobility.
Many times the Swedish crown was inherited by child kings over the course of the kingdom's existence; consequently, real power was held for long periods by regents (notably those of the Sture family) chosen by the Swedish parliament. King Christian II of Denmark, who asserted his claim to Sweden by force of arms, ordered a massacre of Swedish nobles in Stockholm in 1520. This came to be known as the "Stockholm blood bath" and stirred the Swedish nobility to new resistance and, on 6 June (now Sweden's national holiday) in 1523, they made Gustav Vasa their king. This is sometimes considered as the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards the new king rejected Catholicism and led Sweden into the Protestant Reformation.
The term was used for the first time in the 1540s, although the first meeting where representatives of different social groups were called to discuss and determine affairs affecting the country as a whole took place as early as 1435, in the town of Arboga. During the Riksdag assemblies of 1527 and 1544, under King Gustav Vasa, representatives of all four estates of the realm (clergy, nobility, townsmen and peasants) were called on to participate for the first time. The monarchy became hereditary in 1544.
The Hanseatic League sought civil and commercial privileges from the princes and royalty of the countries and cities along the coasts of the Baltic Sea. In exchange, they offered a certain amount of protection to the joining cities. The privileges obtained by the Hansa included assurances that only Hansa citizens would be allowed to trade from the ports where they were located. They sought agreement to be free of all customs and taxes. With these concessions, Lübeck merchants flocked to Stockholm, where they soon came to dominate the city's economic life and made the port city of Stockholm into the leading commercial and industrial city of Sweden. Under the Hanseatic trade, two-thirds of Stockholm's imports consisted of textiles, while the remaining third was salt. The main exports from Sweden were iron and copper.
However, the Swedes began to resent the monopoly trading position of the Hansa (mostly consisting of German citizens). Consequently, when Gustav Vasa or Gustav I broke the monopoly power of the Hanseatic League he was regarded as a hero by the Swedish people. Furthermore, when Sweden did develop, freed itself from the Hanseatic League, and entered its golden era, the fact that the peasantry had traditionally been free meant that more of the economic benefits flowed back to them rather than going to a feudal landowning class.
The end of the 16th century was marked by a final phase of rivalry between the remaining Catholics and the new Protestant communities. In 1592, Gustav Vasa's Catholic grandson and king of Poland, Sigismund, ascended the Swedish throne. He pursued to strengthen Rome's influence by initiating Counter-Reformation and created a dual monarchy, which temporarily became known as the Polish-Swedish Union. His despotic rule, strongly characterised by intolerance towards the Protestants, sparked a civil war that plunged Sweden into poverty. In opposition, Sigismund's uncle and successor, Charles Vasa, summoned the Uppsala Synod in 1593 which officially confirmed the modern Church of Sweden as Lutheran. Following his deposition in 1599, Sigismund attempted to reclaim the throne at every expense and hostilities between Poland and Sweden continued for the next one hundred years.
Swedish Empire
Sweden rose to prominence on a continental scale during the reign of king Gustavus Adolphus, seizing territories from Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in multiple conflicts. During the Thirty Years' War, Sweden conquered approximately half of the Holy Roman states and defeated the Imperial army at the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631. Gustavus Adolphus planned to become the new Holy Roman Emperor, ruling over a united Scandinavia and the Holy Roman states, but he was killed at the Battle of Lützen in 1632. After the Battle of Nördlingen in 1634, Sweden's only significant military defeat of the war, pro-Swedish sentiment among the German states faded. These German provinces broke away from Swedish power one by one, leaving Sweden with only a few northern German territories: Swedish Pomerania, Bremen-Verden and Wismar. From 1643 to 1645, during the last years of the war, Sweden and Denmark-Norway fought the Torstenson War. The result of that conflict and the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War helped establish postwar Sweden as a major force in Europe.
In the middle of the 17th century, Sweden was the third-largest country in Europe by land area. Sweden reached its largest territorial extent under the rule of Charles X after the treaty of Roskilde in 1658, following Charles X's crossing of the Danish Belts. The foundation of Sweden's success during this period is credited to Gustav I's major changes to the Swedish economy in the 16th century, and his introduction of Protestantism. In the 17th century, Sweden was engaged in many wars, for example with Poland–Lithuania, with both sides competing for territories of today's Baltic states, with Sweden suffering a notable defeat at the Battle of Kircholm. One-third of the Finnish population died in the devastating Great Famine of 1695–1697 that struck the country. Famine also hit Sweden, killing roughly 10% of Sweden's population.
The Swedes conducted a series of invasions into the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, known as the Deluge. After more than half a century of almost constant warfare, the Swedish economy had deteriorated. It became the lifetime task of Charles X's son, Charles XI, to rebuild the economy and refit the army. His legacy to his son, the coming ruler of Sweden, Charles XII, was one of the finest arsenals in the world, a large standing army and a great fleet. Russia, the most serious threat to Sweden at this time, had a larger army but lagged far behind in both equipment and training.
After the Battle of Narva in 1700, one of the first battles of the Great Northern War, the Russian army was so severely devastated that Sweden had an open chance to invade Russia. However, Charles XII did not pursue the Russian army, instead turning against Poland and defeating the Polish king, Augustus II the Strong, and his Saxon allies at the Battle of Kliszów in 1702. This gave Russia time to rebuild and modernise its army.
After the success of invading Poland, Charles XII decided to make an attempt at invading Russia, but this ended in a decisive Russian victory at the Battle of Poltava in 1709. After a long march exposed to Cossack raids, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great's scorched-earth techniques and the extremely cold winter of 1709, the Swedes stood weakened with a shattered morale and were enormously outnumbered against the Russian army at Poltava. The defeat meant the beginning of the end for the Swedish Empire. In addition, the plague raging in East Central Europe devastated the Swedish dominions and reached Central Sweden in 1710. Returning to Sweden in 1715, Charles XII launched two campaigns against Norway on 1716 and 1718, respectively. During the second attempt, he was shot to death during the siege of Fredriksten fortress. The Swedes were not militarily defeated at Fredriksten, but the whole structure and organisation of the campaign fell apart with the king's death. Forced to cede large areas of land in the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, Sweden also lost its place as an empire and as the dominant state on the Baltic Sea. With Sweden's lost influence, Russia emerged as an empire and became one of Europe's dominant nations. As the war finally ended in 1721, Sweden had lost an estimated 200,000 men, 150,000 of those from the area of present-day Sweden and 50,000 from the Finnish part of Sweden.
Executive power was historically shared between the King and an aristocratic Privy council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the commoner estates of the Riksdag. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, a parliamentary system was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of constitutional monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. Already during the first of those three periods, the 'Era of Liberty' (1719–72) the Swedish Rikstag had developed into a very active Parliament, and this tradition continued into the nineteenth century, laying the basis for the transition towards modern democracy at the end of that century.
In the 18th century, Sweden did not have enough resources to maintain its territories outside Scandinavia, and most of them were lost, culminating with the loss in 1809 of eastern Sweden to Russia, which became the highly autonomous Grand Principality of Finland in Imperial Russia.
In interest of re-establishing Swedish dominance in the Baltic Sea, Sweden allied itself against its traditional ally and benefactor, France, in the Napoleonic Wars. However, in 1810, a French Marshal, Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, was chosen as heir presumptive to Charles XIII; in 1818, he established the House of Bernadotte, taking the regnal name of Charles XIV. Sweden's role in the Battle of Leipzig gave it the authority to force Denmark–Norway, an ally of France, to cede Norway to the King of Sweden on 14 January 1814 in exchange for the northern German provinces, at the Treaty of Kiel. The Norwegian attempts to keep their status as a sovereign state were rejected by the Swedish king, Charles XIII. He launched a military campaign against Norway on 27 July 1814, ending in the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a personal union with Sweden under the Swedish crown, which lasted until 1905. The 1814 campaign was the last time Sweden was at war.
Modern history
The Swedish East India Company began in 1731. The obvious choice of home port was Gothenburg at Sweden's west coast, the mouth of Göta älv river is very wide and has the county's largest and best harbour for high-seas journeys. The trade continued into the 19th century, and caused the little town to become Sweden's second city.
Between 1750 and 1850, the population in Sweden doubled. According to some scholars, mass emigration to America became the only way to prevent famine and rebellion; over 1% of the population emigrated annually during the 1880s. It is thought that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States. Nevertheless, Sweden remained poor, retaining a nearly entirely agricultural economy even as Western European countries began to industrialise.
Despite the slow rate of industrialisation into the 19th century, many important changes were taking place in the agrarian economy due to constant innovations and a rapid population growth. These innovations included government-sponsored programmes of enclosure, aggressive exploitation of agricultural lands, and the introduction of new crops such as the potato. The Swedish farming culture began to take on a critical role in Swedish politics, which has continued through modern times with modern Agrarian party (now called the Centre Party). Between 1870 and 1914, Sweden began developing the industrialised economy that exists today.
Strong grassroots movements sprang up in Sweden during the latter half of the 19th century (trade unions, temperance groups, and independent religious groups), creating a strong foundation of democratic principles. These movements precipitated Sweden's migration into a modern parliamentary democracy, achieved by the time of World War I. As the Industrial Revolution progressed during the 20th century, people gradually moved into cities to work in factories and became involved in socialist unions. A communist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of parliamentarism, and the country was democratised.
World War I and World War II
Sweden was officially neutral during World War I. However, under pressure from the German Empire, they did take steps which were detrimental to the Allied powers – most notably, mining the Øresund channel, thus closing it to Allied shipping, and allowing the Germans to use Swedish facilities and the Swedish cipher to transmit secret messages to their overseas embassies. Sweden also allowed volunteers to fight for the White Guards alongside the Germans against the Red Guards and Russians in the Finnish Civil War, and briefly occupied Åland in cooperation with the German Empire.
As in the First World War, Sweden remained officially neutral during World War II, although its neutrality has been disputed. Sweden was under German influence for much of the war, as ties to the rest of the world were cut off through blockades. The Swedish government unofficially supported Finland in the Winter War and the Continuation War by allowing volunteers and materiel to be shipped to Finland. However, Sweden supported Norwegian resistance against Germany, and in 1943 helped rescue Danish Jews from deportation to Nazi concentration camps.
During the last year of the war, Sweden began to play a role in humanitarian efforts, and many refugees, among them several thousand Jews from Nazi-occupied Europe, were rescued thanks to the Swedish rescue missions to internment camps and partly because Sweden served as a haven for refugees. The Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg and his colleagues ensured the safety of tens of thousands of Hungarian Jews. Nevertheless, both Swedes and others have argued that Sweden could have done more to oppose the Nazis' war efforts.
Post-war era
Sweden was officially a neutral country and remained outside NATO and Warsaw Pact membership during the Cold War, but privately Sweden's leadership had strong ties with the United States and other western governments. Following the war, Sweden took advantage of an intact industrial base, social stability and its natural resources to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe. Sweden received aid under the Marshall Plan and participated in the OECD. During most of the post-war era, the country was governed by the Swedish Social Democratic Party largely in co-operation with trade unions and industry. The government actively pursued an internationally competitive manufacturing sector of primarily large corporations.
Sweden was one of the founding states of the European Free Trade Area (EFTA). During the 1960s the EFTA countries were often referred to as the Outer Seven, as opposed to the Inner Six of the then-European Economic Community (EEC).
Like many industrialised countries, Sweden entered a period of economic decline and upheaval following the oil embargoes of 1973–74 and 1978–79. In the 1980s several key Swedish industries were significantly restructured. Shipbuilding was discontinued, wood pulp was integrated into modernised paper production, the steel industry was concentrated and specialised, and mechanical engineering was robotised. Swedish GDP per capita ranking declined during this time.
Recent history
A bursting real estate bubble caused by inadequate controls on lending combined with an international recession and a policy switch from anti-unemployment policies to anti-inflationary policies resulted in a fiscal crisis in the early 1990s. Sweden's GDP declined by around 5%. In 1992, a run on the currency caused the central bank to briefly increase interest rates to 500%.
The response of the government was to cut spending and institute a multitude of reforms to improve Sweden's competitiveness, among them reducing the welfare state and privatising public services and goods. A referendum passed with 52.3% in favour of joining the EU on 13 November 1994. Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995. In a 2003 referendum the Swedish electorate voted against joining the Euro currency.
On 28 September 1994, the MS Estonia sank as the ship was crossing the Baltic Sea, en route from Tallinn, Estonia, to Stockholm, Sweden. The disaster claimed the lives of 852 people (501 of them were Swedes), being one of the worst maritime disasters of the 20th century.
Until recently Sweden remained non-aligned militarily, although it participated in some joint military exercises with NATO and some other countries, in addition to extensive cooperation with other European countries in the area of defence technology and defence industry. However, in 2022, in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Sweden moved to formally join the NATO alliance. On 10 July 2023, after opposing the Swedish NATO application for 14 months, president Erdogan agreed to send the Swedish NATO application to the Turkish parliament for ratification.
Swedish export weapons were also used by the American military in Iraq. Sweden has a long history of participating in international military operations, including Afghanistan, where Swedish troops were under NATO command, and in EU-sponsored peacekeeping operations in Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Cyprus. Sweden also participated in enforcing a UN mandated no-fly zone over Libya during the Arab Spring. Sweden held the chair of the European Union from 1 July to 31 December 2009.
In recent decades Sweden has become a more culturally diverse nation due to significant immigration; in 2013, it was estimated that 15% of the population was foreign-born, and an additional 5% of the population were born to two immigrant parents. The influx of immigrants has brought new social challenges. Violent incidents have periodically occurred including the 2013 Stockholm riots. In response to these violent events, the anti-immigration opposition party, the Sweden Democrats, promoted their anti-immigration policies, while the left-wing opposition blamed growing inequality caused by the centre-right government's socioeconomic policies.
Sweden was heavily affected by the 2015 European migrant crisis, eventually forcing the government to tighten regulations of entry to the country. Some of the asylum restrictions were relaxed again later.
On 30 November 2021, Magdalena Andersson became Sweden's first female prime minister. The September 2022 general election ended in a narrow win to a bloc of right-wing parties. On 18 October 2022, Ulf Kristersson of the Moderate Party became the new Prime Minister.
Geography
Situated in Northern Europe, Sweden lies west of the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Bothnia, providing a long coastline, and forms the eastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. To the west is the Scandinavian mountain chain (Skanderna), a range that separates Sweden from Norway. Finland is located to its north-east. It has maritime borders with Denmark, Germany, Poland, Russia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, and it is also linked to Denmark (south-west) by the Öresund Bridge. Its border with Norway (1,619 km long) is the longest uninterrupted border within Europe.
Sweden lies between latitudes 55° and 70° N, and mostly between longitudes 11° and 25° E (part of Stora Drammen island is just west of 11°).
At , Sweden is the 55th-largest country in the world, the fifth-largest country in Europe, and the largest country in Northern Europe. The lowest elevation in Sweden is in the bay of Lake Hammarsjön, near Kristianstad, at below sea level. The highest point is Kebnekaise at above sea level.
Sweden has 25 provinces or . While these provinces serve no political or administrative purpose, they play an important role in people's self-identity. The provinces are usually grouped together in three large lands, parts, the northern Norrland, the central Svealand and southern Götaland. The sparsely populated Norrland encompasses almost 60% of the country. Sweden also has the Vindelfjällen Nature Reserve, one of the largest protected areas in Europe, totaling 562,772 ha (approx. 5,628 km).
About 15% of Sweden lies north of the Arctic Circle. Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, with increasing forest coverage northward. Around 65% of Sweden's total land area is covered with forests. The highest population density is in the Öresund Region in southern Sweden, along the western coast up to central Bohuslän, and in the valley of lake Mälaren and Stockholm. Gotland and Öland are Sweden's largest islands; Vänern and Vättern are its largest lakes. Vänern is the third largest in Europe, after Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega in Russia. Combined with the third- and fourth-largest lakes Mälaren and Hjälmaren, these lakes take up a significant part of southern Sweden's area. Sweden's extensive waterway availability throughout the south was exploited with the building of the Göta Canal in the 19th century, shortening the potential distance between the Baltic Sea south of Norrköping and Gothenburg by using the lake and river network to facilitate the canal.
Sweden also has plenty of long rivers draining the lakes. Northern and Central Sweden have several wide rivers known as , commonly sourced within the Scandinavian Mountains. The longest river is Klarälven-Göta älv, which originates in Trøndelag in central Norway, running before it enters the sea at Gothenburg. In southern Sweden, narrower rivers known as are also common. The vast majority of municipal seats are set either on the sea, a river or a lake and the majority of the country's population live in coastal municipalities.
Climate
Most of Sweden has a temperate climate, despite its northern latitude, with largely four distinct seasons and mild temperatures throughout the year. The winter in the far south is usually weak and is manifested only through some shorter periods with snow and sub-zero temperatures; autumn may well turn into spring there, without a distinct period of winter. The northern parts of the country have a subarctic climate while the central parts have a humid continental climate. The coastal south can be defined as having either a humid continental climate using the 0 °C isotherm, or an oceanic climate using the −3 °C isotherm.
Due to the increased maritime moderation in the peninsular south, summer differences between the coastlines of the southernmost and northernmost regions are about in summer and in winter. This grows further when comparing areas in the northern interior where the winter difference in the far north is about throughout the country. The warmest summers usually happen in the Mälaren Valley around Stockholm due to the vast landmass shielding the middle east coast from Atlantic low-pressure systems in July. Daytime highs in Sweden's municipal seats vary from to in July and to in January. The colder temperatures are influenced by the higher elevation in the northern interior. At sea level, the coldest average highs range from to . As a result of the mild summers, the arctic region of Norrbotten has some of the northernmost agriculture in the world.
Sweden is much warmer and drier than other places at a similar latitude, and even somewhat farther south, mainly because of the combination of the Gulf Stream and the general west wind drift, caused by the direction of Earth's rotation. Because of Sweden's high latitude, the length of daylight varies greatly. North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets for part of each summer, and it never rises for part of each winter. In the capital, Stockholm, daylight lasts for more than 18 hours in late June but only around 6 hours in late December. Sweden receives between 1,100 and 1,900 hours of sunshine annually.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Sweden was in Målilla in 1947, while the coldest temperature ever recorded was in Vuoggatjålme on 2 February 1966.
On average, most of Sweden receives between of precipitation each year, making it considerably drier than the global average. The south-western part of the country receives more precipitation, between , and some mountain areas in the north are estimated to receive up to . Despite northerly locations, southern and central Sweden may have almost no snow in some winters. Most of Sweden is located in the rain shadow of the Scandinavian Mountains through Norway and north-west Sweden. It is predicted that as the Barents Sea gets less frozen in the coming winters, becoming thus "Atlantified", additional evaporation will increase future snowfalls in Sweden and much of continental Europe.
Vegetation
Sweden has a considerable south to north distance which causes large climatic difference, especially during the winter. The related matter of the length and strength of the four seasons plays a role in which plants that naturally can grow at various places. Sweden is divided in five major vegetation zones. These are:
The southern deciduous forest zone
The southern coniferous forest zone
The northern coniferous forest zone, or the Taiga
The alpine-birch zone
The bare mountain zone
Southern deciduous forest zone, also known as the nemoral region, the southern deciduous forest zone is a part of a larger vegetation zone which also includes Denmark and large parts of Central Europe. It has to a rather large degree become agricultural areas, but larger and smaller forests still exist. The region is characterised by a large wealth of trees and shrubs. The beech are the most dominant tree, but oak can also form smaller forests. Elm at one time formed forests, but have been heavily reduced due to Dutch Elm disease. Other important trees and shrubs in this zone include hornbeam, elder, hazel, fly honeysuckle, linden (lime), spindle, yew, alder buckthorn, blackthorn, aspen, European rowan, Swedish whitebeam, juniper, European holly, ivy, dogwood, goat willow, larch, bird cherry, wild cherry, maple, ash, alder along creeks, and in sandy soil birch compete with pine. Spruce is not native but between approximately 1870 and 1980, large areas were planted with it. During the last 40–50 years large areas of former spruce plantings have been replanted with deciduous forest.
Southern coniferous forest zone, also known as the boreo-nemoral region, is delimited by the oak's northern natural limit (limes norrlandicus) and the Spruce's southern natural limit, between the southern deciduous zone and the Taiga farther north. In the southern parts of this zone the coniferous species are found, mainly spruce and pine, mixed with various deciduous trees. Birch grows largely everywhere. The beech's northern boundary crosses this zone. Although in its natural area, also planted Spruce are common, and such woods are very dense, as the spruces can grow very tight, especially in this vegetation zone's southern areas.
The northern coniferous forest zone or the Taiga begins north of the natural boundary of the oak. Of deciduous species the birch is the only one of significance. Pine and spruce are dominant, but the forests are slowly but surely more sparsely grown the farther towards the north it gets. In the extreme north is it difficult to state the trees forms true forests at all, due to the large distances between the trees.
The alpine-birch zone, in the Scandinavian mountains, depending on both latitude and altitude, is an area where only a smaller kind of birch (Betula pubescens or B.tortuosa) can grow. Where this vegetation zone ends, no trees grow at all: the bare mountain zone.
Sweden had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.35/10, ranking it 103rd globally out of 172 countries.
Government and politics
Sweden has a history of strong political involvement by ordinary people through its "popular movements" (), the most notable being trade unions, the independent Christian movement, the temperance movement, the women's movement, and the intellectual property pirate movements. Sweden was the first country in the world to outlaw corporal punishment of children by their parents (parents' right to spank their own children was first removed in 1966, and it was explicitly prohibited by law from July 1979).
Sweden is currently leading the EU in statistics measuring equality in the political system and equality in the education system. The Global Gender Gap Report 2006 ranked Sweden as the number one country in terms of gender equality.
Constitutional framework
Sweden has four fundamental laws () which together form the Constitution: the Instrument of Government (), the Act of Succession (), the Freedom of the Press Act (), and the ().
The public sector in Sweden is divided into two parts: the legal person known as the State () and local authorities: the latter include Regional Councils () (renamed from county councils (landsting) in 2020) and local Municipalities (). The local authorities, rather than the State, make up the larger part of the public sector in Sweden. Regional Councils and Municipalities are independent of one another, the former merely covers a larger geographical area than the latter. The local authorities have self-rule, as mandated by the Constitution, and their own tax base. Notwithstanding their self-rule, local authorities are nevertheless in practice dependent upon the State, as the parameters of their responsibilities and the extent of their jurisdiction are specified in the Local Government Act () passed by the Riksdag.
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy, and King Carl XVI Gustaf is the head of state, but the role of the monarch is limited to ceremonial and representative functions. Under the provisions of the 1974 Instrument of Government, the King lacks any formal political power. The King opens the annual Riksdag session, chairs the Special Council held during a change of Government, holds regular Information Councils with the Prime Minister and the Government, chairs the meetings of the Advisory Council on Foreign Affairs (), and receives Letters of Credence of foreign ambassadors to Sweden and signs those of Swedish ambassadors sent abroad. In addition, the King pays State Visits abroad and hosts those incoming.
Legislative power is vested in the unicameral Riksdag with 349 members. General elections are held every four years. Legislation may be initiated by the Government or by members of the Riksdag. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation to a four-year term. The internal workings of the Riksdag are, in addition to the Instrument of Government, regulated by the Riksdag Act (). The fundamental laws can be altered by the Riksdag alone; only an absolute majority with two separate votes, separated by a general election in between, is required.
The Government () operates as a collegial body with collective responsibility and consists of the Prime Minister appointed and dismissed by the Speaker of the Riksdag (following an actual vote in the Riksdag before an appointment can be made) and other cabinet ministers (), appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the Prime Minister. The Government is the supreme executive authority and is responsible for its actions to the Riksdag.
Most of the State administrative authorities () report to the Government. A unique feature of Swedish State administration is that individual cabinet ministers do not bear any individual ministerial responsibility for the performance of the agencies within their portfolio; as the director-generals and other heads of government agencies reports directly to the Government as a whole; and individual ministers are prohibited to interfere; thus the origin of the pejorative in Swedish political parlance term ministerstyre (English: "ministerial rule") in matters that are to be handled by the individual agencies, unless otherwise specifically provided for in law.
The Judiciary is independent from the Riksdag, Government and other State administrative authorities. The role of judicial review of legislation is not practised by the courts; instead, the Council on Legislation gives non-binding opinions on legality. There is no stare decisis in that courts are not bound by precedent, although it is influential.
Elections
For over 50 years, Sweden had had five parties who continually received enough votes to gain seats in the Riksdag—the Social Democrats, the Moderate Party, the Centre Party, the Liberal People's Party and the Left Party—before the Green Party became the sixth party in the 1988 election. In the 1991 election, while the Greens lost their seats, two new parties gained seats for the first time: the Christian Democrats and New Democracy. It was not until elections in 2010 that an eighth party, the Sweden Democrats, gained Riksdag seats. In the elections to the European Parliament, parties who have failed to pass the Riksdag threshold have managed to gain representation at that venue: the June List (2004–2009), the Pirate Party (2009–2014), and Feminist Initiative (2014–2019).
Election turnout in Sweden has always been high by international comparison. Although it declined in recent decades, the latest elections saw an increase in voter turnout (80.11% in 2002, 81.99% in 2006, 84.63% in 2010, 85.81 in 2014) and 87.18% in 2018. Swedish politicians enjoyed a high degree of confidence from the citizens in the 1960s, However, that level of confidence has since declined steadily, and is now at a markedly lower level than in its Scandinavian neighbours.
Administrative divisions
Sweden is a unitary state divided into 21 regions () and 290 municipalities (). Every region corresponds to a county () with a number of municipalities per county. Regions and municipalities are both local government but have different roles and separate responsibilities. Health care, public transport and certain cultural institutions are administered by regional councils. Preschools, primary and secondary schooling, public water utilities, garbage disposal, elderly care and rescue services are administered by the municipalities. Gotland is a special case of being a region with only one municipality and the functions of region and municipality are performed by the same organisation.
Municipal and region government in Sweden is similar to city commission and cabinet-style council government. Both levels have legislative assemblies (municipal councils and region assemblies of between 31 and 101 members (always an uneven number) that are elected from party-list proportional representation at the general election which are held every four years in conjunction with the national parliamentary elections.
Municipalities are also divided into a total of 2,512 parishes (). These have no official political responsibilities but are traditional subdivisions of the Church of Sweden and still have some importance as census districts.
The Swedish central government has 21 County Administrative Boards (), which are responsible for regional state administration not assigned to other government agencies or local government. Each county administrative board is led by a County Governor () appointed for a term of six years. The list of previous officeholders for the counties stretches back, in most cases, to 1634 when the counties were created by Lord High Chancellor Count Axel Oxenstierna. The main responsibility of the County Administrative Board is to co-ordinate the development of the county in line with goals set by the Riksdag and Government.
There are older historical divisions, primarily the twenty-five provinces and three lands, which still retain cultural significance.
Judicial system
The courts are divided into two parallel and separate systems: The general courts () for criminal and civil cases, and general administrative courts () for cases relating to disputes between private persons and the authorities. Each of these systems has three tiers, where the top tier court of the respective system typically only will hear cases that may become precedent. There are also a number of special courts, which will hear a narrower set of cases, as set down by legislation. While independent in their rulings, some of these courts are operated as divisions within courts of the general or general administrative courts.
The Supreme Court of Sweden () is the third and final instance in all civil and criminal cases in Sweden. The Supreme Court consists of 16 Justices (), appointed by the Government, but the court as an institution is independent of the Riksdag, and the Government is not able to interfere with the decisions of the court.
According to a victimisation survey of 1,201 residents in 2005, Sweden has above-average crime rates compared to other EU countries. Sweden has high or above-average levels of assaults, sexual assaults, hate crimes, and consumer fraud. Sweden has low levels of burglary, car theft and drug problems. Bribe seeking is rare. A mid-November 2013 news report announced that four prisons in Sweden were closed during the year due to a significant drop in the number of inmates, with prison numbers in Sweden falling by around 1% a year since 2004.
Foreign relations
Throughout the 20th century, Swedish foreign policy was based on the principle of non-alignment in peacetime and neutrality in wartime. Sweden's government pursued an independent course of nonalignment in times of peace so that neutrality would be possible in the event of war.
During the early Cold War era, Sweden combined its policy of non-alignment and a low profile in international affairs with a security policy based on strong national defence. The function of the Swedish military was to deter attack. Beginning in the late 1960s, Sweden attempted to play a more significant and independent role in international relations. It involved itself significantly in international peace efforts, especially through the United Nations, and in support to the Third World/ Following the 1986 assassination of Olof Palme and with the end of the Cold War, Sweden has adopted a more traditional foreign policy approach. Nevertheless, the country remains active in peacekeeping missions and maintains a considerable foreign aid budget.
Since 1995 Sweden has been a member of the European Union, and as a consequence of a new world security situation the country's foreign policy doctrine has been partly modified, with Sweden playing a more active role in European security co-operation. In 2022, in response to Russia's invasion of Ukraine, Sweden moved to formally join the NATO alliance.
Military
The law is enforced in Sweden by several government entities. The Swedish police is a Government agency concerned with police matters. The National Task Force is a national SWAT unit within the police force. The Swedish Security Service's responsibilities are counter-espionage, anti-terrorist activities, protection of the constitution and protection of sensitive objects and people.
The (Swedish Armed Forces) are a government agency reporting to the Swedish Ministry of Defence and responsible for the peacetime operation of the armed forces of Sweden. The primary task of the agency is to train and deploy peacekeeping forces abroad, while maintaining the long-term ability to refocus on the defence of Sweden in the event of war. The armed forces are divided into Army, Air Force and Navy. The head of the armed forces is the Supreme Commander (, ÖB), the most senior commissioned officer in the country. Up to 1974, the King was pro forma Commander-in-Chief, but in reality it was clearly understood through the 20th century that the monarch would have no active role as a military leader.
Until the end of the Cold War, nearly all males reaching the age of military service were conscripted. In recent years, the number of conscripted males has shrunk dramatically, while the number of female volunteers has increased slightly. Recruitment has generally shifted towards finding the most motivated recruits. By law, all soldiers serving abroad must be volunteers. On 1 July 2010, Sweden ended routine conscription, switching to an all-volunteer force unless otherwise required for defence readiness. The total forces gathered would consist of about 60,000 personnel. This in comparison with the 1980s, before the fall of the Soviet Union, when Sweden could gather up to 1,000,000 servicemembers.
However, on 11 December 2014, due to tensions in the Baltic area, the Swedish Government reintroduced one part of the Swedish conscription system, refresher training. On 2 March 2017, the government decided to reintroduce the remaining part of the Swedish conscription system, basic military training. The first recruits began their training in 2018. As the law is now gender neutral, both men and women may have to serve.
Sweden decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. Swedish units have taken part in peacekeeping operations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Liberia, Lebanon, Afghanistan and Chad.
Economy
Sweden is the twelfth-richest country in the world in terms of GDP (gross domestic product) per capita and a high standard of living is experienced by its citizens. Sweden is an export-oriented mixed economy. Timber, hydropower and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy with a heavy emphasis on foreign trade. Sweden's engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports, while telecommunications, the automotive industry and the pharmaceutical industries are also of great importance. Sweden is the ninth-largest arms exporter in the world. Agriculture accounts for 2% of GDP and employment. The country ranks among the highest for telephone and Internet access penetration.
Trade unions, employers' associations and collective agreements cover a large share of the employees in Sweden. The high coverage of collective agreements is achieved despite the absence of state mechanisms extending collective agreements to whole industries or sectors. Both the prominent role of collective bargaining and the way in which the high rate of coverage is achieved reflect the dominance of self-regulation (regulation by the labour market parties themselves). When the Swedish Ghent system was changed in 2007, resulting in considerably raised fees to unemployment funds, a substantial decline in union density and density of unemployment funds occurred.
In 2010, Sweden's income Gini coefficient was the third lowest among developed countries, at 0.25—slightly higher than Japan and Denmark—suggesting Sweden had low income inequality. However, Sweden's wealth Gini coefficient at 0.853 was the second highest in developed countries, and above European and North American averages, suggesting high wealth inequality. Even on a disposable income basis, the geographical distribution of Gini coefficient of income inequality varies within different regions and municipalities of Sweden. Danderyd, outside Stockholm, has Sweden's highest Gini coefficient of income inequality, at 0.55, while Hofors near Gävle has the lowest at 0.25. In and around Stockholm and Scania, two of the more densely populated regions of Sweden, the income Gini coefficient is between 0.35 and 0.55.
In terms of structure, the Swedish economy is characterised by a large, knowledge-intensive and export-oriented manufacturing sector; an increasing, but comparatively small, business service sector; and by international standards, a large public service sector. Large organisations, both in manufacturing and services, dominate the Swedish economy. High and medium-high technology manufacturing accounts for 9.9% of GDP.
The 20 largest (by turnover) registered Swedish companies in 2007 were Volvo, Ericsson, Vattenfall, Skanska, Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB, Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget, Electrolux, Volvo Personvagnar, TeliaSonera, Sandvik, Scania, ICA, Hennes & Mauritz, IKEA, Nordea, Preem, Atlas Copco, Securitas, Nordstjernan and SKF. The vast majority of Sweden's industry is privately controlled, unlike many other industrialised Western countries.
An estimated 4.5 million Swedish residents are employed, and around a third of the workforce completed tertiary education. In terms of GDP per-hour-worked, Sweden was the world's ninth highest in 2006 at US$31, compared to US$22 in Spain and US$35 in the United States. GDP per-hour-worked is growing 2.5% per year for the economy as a whole and the trade-terms-balanced productivity growth is 2%. According to the OECD, deregulation, globalisation, and technology sector growth have been key productivity drivers. Sweden is a world leader in privatised pensions and pension funding problems are relatively small compared to many other Western European countries. A pilot program to test the feasibility of a six-hour workday, without loss of pay, will commence in 2014, involving the participation of Gothenburg municipal staff. The Swedish government is seeking to reduce its costs through decreased sick leave hours and increased efficiency.
The typical worker receives 40% of his or her labour costs after the tax wedge. Total tax collected by Sweden as a percentage of its GDP peaked at 52.3% in 1990. The country faced a real estate and banking crisis in 1990–1991, and consequently passed tax reforms in 1991 to implement tax rate cuts and tax base broadening over time. Since 1990, taxes as a percentage of GDP collected by Sweden have been dropping, with total tax rates for the highest income earners dropping the most. In 2010 45.8% of the country's GDP was collected as taxes, the second highest among OECD countries, and nearly double the percentage in the US or South Korea. Tax income-financed employment represents a third of the Swedish workforce, a substantially higher proportion than in most other countries. Overall, GDP growth has been fast since reforms—especially those in manufacturing—were enacted in the early 1990s.
Sweden is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum in its Global Competitiveness Report 2012–2013. Sweden is the top performing country in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index (GGEI). Sweden is ranked fourth in the IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2013.
Sweden maintains its own currency, the Swedish krona (SEK). The Swedish Riksbank—founded in 1668 and thus the oldest central bank in the world—is currently focusing on price stability with an inflation target of 2%. According to the Economic Survey of Sweden 2007 by the OECD, the average inflation in Sweden has been one of the lowest among European countries since the mid-1990s, largely because of deregulation and quick utilisation of globalisation.
The largest trade flows are with Germany, the United States, Norway, the United Kingdom, Denmark and Finland.
Energy
Sweden's energy market is largely privatised. The Nordic energy market is one of the first liberalised energy markets in Europe and it is traded in NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe and Nord Pool Spot. In 2006, out of a total electricity production of 139 TWh, electricity from hydropower accounted for 61 TWh (44%), and nuclear power delivered 65 TWh (47%). At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 13 TWh (9%) of electricity, while wind power produced 1 TWh (1%). Sweden was a net importer of electricity by a margin of 6 TWh. Biomass is mainly used to produce heat for district heating and central heating and industry processes.
Sweden joined the International Energy Agency in 1974, after the 1973 oil crisis strengthened Sweden's commitment to decrease dependence on imported fossil fuels. To protect against unexpected oil supply shocks and in accordance with international commitments made through the IEA, Sweden maintains a strategic petroleum reserve of at least 90 days of net oil imports. As of February 2022, Sweden's oil reserves totalled 130 days' worth of net imports. Sweden has moved to generate electricity mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. The use of nuclear power has been limited, however. Among other things, the accident of Three Mile Island prompted the Riksdag to ban new nuclear plants. In March 2005, an opinion poll showed that 83% supported maintaining or increasing nuclear power.
Sweden is considered a "global leader" in decarbonisation. Politicians have made announcements about oil phase-out in Sweden, decrease of nuclear power, and multibillion-dollar investments in renewable energy and energy efficiency. The country has for many years pursued a strategy of indirect taxation as an instrument of environmental policy, including energy taxes in general and carbon dioxide taxes in particular. Sweden was the first nation to implement carbon pricing, and its carbon prices remain the highest in the world as of 2020. This model has been shown to be particularly effective at decarbonizing the nation's economy.
Transport
Sweden has of paved road and of expressways. Motorways run through Sweden and over the Øresund Bridge to Denmark. Sweden had left-hand traffic ( in Swedish) from approximately 1736, but after the Riksdag passed legislation in 1963 changeover took place on 3 September 1967, known in Swedish as Dagen H.
The Stockholm metro is the only underground system in Sweden and serves the city of Stockholm via 100 stations. The rail transport market is privatised, but while there are many privately owned enterprises, the largest operators are still owned by the state. Operators include SJ, Veolia Transport, Green Cargo, Tågkompaniet and Inlandsbanan. Most of the railways are owned and operated by Trafikverket.
Most tram networks were closed in 1967. But they survived in Norrköping, Stockholm and Gothenburg, with Gothenburg tram network being the largest. A new tram line opened in Lund on 13 December 2020.
The largest airports include Stockholm–Arlanda Airport (16.1 million passengers in 2009) north of Stockholm, Göteborg Landvetter Airport (4.3 million passengers in 2008), and Stockholm–Skavsta Airport (2.0 million passengers). Sweden hosts the two largest port companies in Scandinavia, Port of Göteborg AB (Gothenburg) and the transnational company Copenhagen Malmö Port AB. The most used airport for a large part of Southern Sweden is Kastrup or Copenhagen Airport which is located only 12 minutes by train from the closest Swedish railway station, Hyllie. Copenhagen Airport also is the largest international airport in Scandinavia and Finland.
Sweden also has a number of car ferry connections to several neighbouring countries. This includes a route from Umeå across the Gulf of Bothnia to Vaasa in Finland. There are several connections from the Stockholm area across the Sea of Åland to Mariehamn in Åland as well as Turku and Helsinki on the Finnish mainland and beyond to Estonia and St Petersburg in Russia. Ferry routes from the Stockholm area also connect with Latvia and Poland across the Baltic Sea. The ferry ports of Karlskrona and Karlshamn in southeastern Sweden serve Poland and Lithuania. Ystad and Trelleborg near the southern tip of Sweden have ferry links with the Danish island of Bornholm and the German ports of Sassnitz, Rostock and Travemünde, respectively, and ferries run to Świnoujście, Poland, from both of them. Trelleborg is the busiest ferry port in Sweden in terms of weight transported by lorry. Despite the opening of the fixed link to Denmark, the Øresund Bridge, the busiest ferry route remains the short link across the narrowest section of the Øresund between Helsingborg and the Danish port of Helsingør, known as the HH Ferry route. There are over seventy departures a day each way; during peak times, a ferry departs every fifteen minutes. Ports higher up the Swedish west coast include Varberg, with a ferry connection across the Kattegat to Grenaa in Denmark, and Göteborg, serving Frederikshavn at the northern tip of Denmark and Kiel in Germany. Finally, there are ferries from Strömstad near the Norwegian border to destinations around the Oslofjord in Norway.
Sweden has two domestic ferry lines with large vessels, both connecting Gotland with the mainland. The lines leave from Visby harbour on the island, and the ferries sail to either Oskarshamn or Nynäshamn. A smaller car ferry connects the island of Ven in Øresund with Landskrona.
Public policy
Sweden has one of the most highly developed welfare states in the world. According to a 2012 OECD report, the country had the second-highest public social spending as a percentage of its GDP after France, and the third-highest total (public and private) social spending at 30.2% of its GDP, after France and Belgium. Sweden spent 6.3% of its GDP, the ninth-highest among 34 OECD countries, to provide equal access to education. On health care, the country spent 10.0% of its total GDP, the 12th highest.
Historically, Sweden provided solid support for free trade (except agriculture) and mostly relatively strong and stable property rights (both private and public), though some economists have pointed out that Sweden promoted industries with tariffs and used publicly subsidised R&D during the country's early critical years of industrialisation. After World War II a succession of governments expanded the welfare state by raising the taxes. A series of successive social reforms transformed the country into one of the most equal and developed on earth. The consistent growth of the welfare state led to Swedes achieving unprecedented levels of social mobility and quality of life—to this day Sweden consistently ranks at the top of league tables for health, literacy and Human Development—far ahead of some wealthier countries (for example the United States). A report from the United Nations Development Program predicted that Sweden's rating on the Human Development Index will fall from 0.949 in 2010 to 0.906 in 2030.
Sweden has been relatively quick to adopt neoliberal policies, such as privatisation, financialisation and deregulation, compared to countries such as France. The current Swedish government is continuing the trend of moderate rollbacks of previous social reforms. Growth has been higher than in many other EU-15 countries. Since the mid-1980s, Sweden has had the fastest growth in inequality of any developed nation, according to the OECD. This has largely been attributed to the reduction in state benefits and a shift toward the privatisation of public services. Nevertheless, it remains far more egalitarian than most nations.
Sweden adopted free market agricultural policies in 1990. Since the 1930s, the agricultural sector had been subject to price controls. In June 1990, the Riksdag voted for a new agricultural policy marking a significant shift away from price controls. As a result, food prices fell somewhat. However, the liberalisations soon became moot because EU agricultural controls supervened.
In 2015 and 2016, 69 per cent of the employed workers is organised in trade unions. Union density in 2016 was 62% among blue-collar-workers (most of them in the Swedish Trade Union Confederation, LO) and 75% among white-collar workers (most of them in the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employees, TCO, and the Swedish Confederation of Professional Associations, SACO). Sweden has state-supported union unemployment funds (Ghent system). Trade unions have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees. Sweden has a relatively high amount of sick leave per worker in OECD: the average worker loses 24 days due to sickness.
The unemployment rate was 7.2% in May 2017 while the employment rate was 67.4%, with the workforce consisting of 4,983,000 people while 387,000 are unemployed. Unemployment among youth (aged 24 or younger) in 2012 was 24.2%, making Sweden the OECD country with the highest ratio of youth unemployment versus unemployment in general.
Science and technology
In the 18th century, Sweden's scientific revolution took off. Previously, technical progress had mainly come from mainland Europe.
In 1739, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was founded, with people such as Carl Linnaeus and Anders Celsius as early members. Gustaf Dalén founded AGA, and received the Nobel Prize for his sun valve. Alfred Nobel invented dynamite and instituted the Nobel Prizes. Lars Magnus Ericsson started the company bearing his name, Ericsson, still one of the largest telecom companies in the world. Jonas Wenström was an early pioneer in alternating current and is along with Nikola Tesla credited as one of the inventors of the three-phase electrical system.
The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground. Tetra Pak was an invention for storing liquid foods, invented by Erik Wallenberg. Losec, an ulcer medicine, was the world's best-selling drug in the 1990s and was developed by AstraZeneca. More recently Håkan Lans invented the Automatic Identification System, a worldwide standard for shipping and civil aviation navigation. A large portion of the Swedish economy is to this day based on the export of technical inventions.
Swedish inventors held 47,112 patents in the United States , according to the United States Patent and Trademark Office. As a nation, only ten other countries hold more patents than Sweden.
Combined, the public and the private sector in Sweden allocate over 3.5% of GDP to research & development (R&D) per year, making Sweden's investment in R&D as a percentage of GDP the second-highest in the world. For several decades the Swedish government has prioritised scientific and R&D activities. As a percentage of GDP, the Swedish government spends the most of any nation on research and development. Sweden tops other European countries in the number of published scientific works per capita.
The European Spallation Source (ESS) was scheduled to begin initial operations in 2019 with construction completion scheduled for 2025. The ESS will give an approximately 30 times stronger neutron beam than any of today's existing neutron source installations. The MAX IV, costing some SEK 3 billion, was inaugurated on 21 June 2016. Both facilities have strong implications on material research. Sweden was ranked third in the Global Innovation Index in 2022 and second in 2023.
Waste management
Sweden is known for its efficient waste management system. Only 0.7% of the total household waste is disposed, and the rest is reused. Around 52% its waste is used for energy production (that is burnt) and 47% recycled. About two million tonnes of waste are imported from neighbouring countries to make profitable recycling products. As of 2023 report, Sweden generated 1.7 billion euros in 2020 (the highest so far was 1.98 billion euros in 2016) from recycling waste. The works are mostly executed through the public organisation, Swedish Waste Management (Avfall Sverige).
Taxes
Since the late 1960s, Sweden has had the highest tax quota (as percentage of GDP) in the industrialised world, although today the gap has narrowed and Denmark has surpassed Sweden as the most heavily taxed country among developed countries. Sweden has a two-step progressive tax scale with a municipal income tax of about 30% and an additional high-income state tax of 20–25% when a salary exceeds roughly 320,000 SEK per year. Payroll taxes amount to 32%. In addition, a national VAT of 25% is added to many things bought by private citizens. Certain items are subject to additional taxes, e.g. electricity, petrol/diesel and alcoholic beverages. , total tax revenue was 47.8% of GDP, the second-highest tax burden among developed countries, down from 49.1% 2006. Public sector spending amounts to 53% of the GDP. State and municipal employees total around a third of the workforce, much more than in most Western countries. Only Denmark has a larger public sector (38% of Danish workforce). Spending on transfers is also high. On average, 27% of taxpayers' money in Sweden goes to education and healthcare, whereas 5% goes to the police and military, and 42% to social security.
Pensions
Every Swedish resident receives a state pension. Swedish Pensions Agency is responsible for pensions. People who have worked in Sweden, but relocated to another country, can also receive the Swedish pension. There are several types of pensions in Sweden: occupational and private pensions, and national retirement. A person can receive a combination of the various types of pensions.
Demographics
The total resident population of Sweden was 10,377,781 in October 2020. The population exceeded 10 million for the first time on Friday 20 January 2017.
The average population density is just over 25 people per km2 (65 per square mile), with 1 437 persons per km2 in localities (continuous settlement with at least 200 inhabitants)., 87% of the population live in urban areas, which cover 1.5% of the entire land area. 63% of Swedes are in large urban areas. It is substantially higher in the south than in the north. The capital city Stockholm has a municipal population of about 950,000 (with 1.5 million in the urban area and 2.3 million in the metropolitan area). The second- and third-largest cities are Gothenburg and Malmö. Outside of major cities, areas with notably higher population density include the agricultural part of Östergötland, the western coast, the area around Lake Mälaren and the agricultural area around Uppsala.
Norrland, which covers approximately 60% of the Swedish territory, has a very low population density (below 5 people per square kilometre). The mountains and most of the remote coastal areas are almost unpopulated. Low population density exists also in large parts of western Svealand, as well as southern and central Småland. An area known as Finnveden, which is located in the south-west of Småland, and mainly below the 57th parallel, can also be considered as almost empty of people.
There are no official statistics on ethnicity, but according to Statistics Sweden, 2,752,572 (26%) inhabitants of Sweden were of a foreign background in 2021, defined as being born abroad or born in Sweden with both foreign-born parents. Of these inhabitants, 2,090,503 persons were born abroad and 662,069 persons were born in Sweden to parents born abroad. In addition, 805,340 persons had one parent born abroad with the other parent born in Sweden. Five minority groups are officially recognized by Sweden: Jews, Romani, Sámi, Finns, and Tornedalers.
Sweden has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 41.1 years.
Language
The official language of Sweden is Swedish, a North Germanic language, related and very similar to Danish and Norwegian, but differing in pronunciation and orthography. The dialects spoken in Scania, the southernmost part of the country, are influenced by Danish because the region traditionally was a part of Denmark and is nowadays situated closely to it. Sweden Finns are Sweden's largest linguistic minority, comprising about 5% of Sweden's population, and Finnish is recognised as a minority language. Owing to a 21st-century influx of native speakers of Arabic, the use of Arabic is likely more widespread in the country than that of Finnish. However, no official statistics are kept on language use.
Along with Finnish, four other minority languages are also recognised: Meänkieli, Sami, Romani, and Yiddish. Swedish became Sweden's official language on 1 July 2009, when a new language law was implemented. The issue of whether Swedish should be declared the official language had been raised in the past, and the Riksdag voted on the matter in 2005, but the proposal narrowly failed.
In varying degrees, a majority of Swedes, especially those born after World War II, understand and speak English, owing to trade links, the popularity of overseas travel, a strong Anglo-American influence and the tradition of subtitling rather than dubbing foreign television shows and films, and the relative similarity of the two languages which makes learning English easier. In a 2005 survey by Eurobarometer, 89% of Swedes reported the ability to speak English.
English became a compulsory subject for secondary school students studying natural sciences as early as 1849, and has been a compulsory subject for all Swedish students since the late 1940s. Most students also study one and sometimes two additional languages. Some Danish and Norwegian is also taught as part of Swedish courses for native speakers. Because of the extensive mutual intelligibility between the three continental Scandinavian languages, Swedish speakers often use their native language when visiting or living in Norway or Denmark.
Religion
Before the 11th century, Swedes adhered to Norse paganism, worshiping Æsir gods, with its centre at the Temple in Uppsala. With Christianisation in the 11th century, the laws of the country changed, forbidding worship of other deities until the late 19th century. After the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s, the authority of the Roman Catholic Church was abolished and Lutheranism became widespread. Adoption of Lutheranism was completed by the Uppsala Synod of 1593, and it became the official religion. During the era following the Reformation, usually known as the period of Lutheran orthodoxy, small groups of non-Lutherans, especially Calvinist Dutch, the Moravian Church and French Huguenots played a significant role in trade and industry, and were quietly tolerated. The Sami originally had their own shamanistic religion, but they were converted to Lutheranism by Swedish missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries.
With religious liberalisations in the late 18th century believers of other faiths, including Judaism and Roman Catholicism, were allowed to live and work freely in the country. However, until 1860 it remained illegal for Lutherans to convert to another religion. The 19th century saw the arrival of various evangelical free churches, and, towards the end of the century, secularism, leading many to distance themselves from church rituals. Leaving the Church of Sweden became legal with the so-called Dissenter Act of 1860, but only under the provision of entering another Christian denomination. The right to stand outside any religious denomination was formally established in the law on freedom of religion in 1951.
In 2000, the Church of Sweden was separated from the state. Sweden was the second Nordic country to disestablish its state church (after Finland did so in the Church Act of 1869).
At the end of 2022, 52.8% of Swedes belonged to the Church of Sweden; this number has been decreasing by 1-2 percentage points each year since 2001. Approximately 2% of the church's members regularly attend Sunday services. The reason for the large number of inactive members is partly that, until 1996, children automatically became members at birth if at least one of the parents was a member. Since 1996, only children and adults who are christened become members. Some 275,000 Swedes are today members of various Evangelical Protestant free churches (where congregation attendance is much higher), and due to recent immigration, there are now some 100,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians and 92,000 Roman Catholics living in Sweden.
The first Muslim congregation was established in 1949. Islam's presence in Sweden remained marginal until the 1960s, when Sweden started to receive migrants from the Balkans and Turkey. Further immigration from North Africa and the Middle East have brought the estimated Muslim population to 600,000. However, only about 110,000 were members of a congregation around 2010.
Health
Healthcare in Sweden is mainly tax-funded, universal for all citizens, and decentralised, although private health care also exists. The health care system in Sweden is financed primarily through taxes levied by regional councils and municipalities. A total of 21 councils are in charge of primary and hospital care within the country.
Private healthcare is a rarity in Sweden, and even those private institutions work under the mandated city councils. The city councils regulates the rules and the establishment of potential private practices. While care for the elderly or those who need psychiatric help is conducted privately in many other countries, in Sweden, publicly funded local authorities are in charge of this type of care.
Healthcare in Sweden is similar in quality to other developed nations. Sweden ranks in the top five countries with respect to low infant mortality. It also ranks high in life expectancy and in safe drinking water. In 2018, health and medical care represented around 11% of GDP.
Education
Children aged 1–5 years old are guaranteed a place in a public kindergarten ( or, colloquially, ). Between the ages of 6 and 16, children attend compulsory comprehensive school. In the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Swedish 15-year-old pupils score close to the OECD average. After completing the ninth grade, about 90% of the students continue with a three-year upper secondary school (gymnasium), which can lead to both a job qualification or entrance eligibility to university. The school system is largely financed by taxes.
The Swedish government treats public and independent schools equally by introducing education vouchers in 1992 as one of the first countries in the world after the Netherlands. Anyone can establish a for-profit school and the municipality must pay new schools the same amount as municipal schools get. School lunch is free for all students in Sweden, and providing breakfast is also encouraged.
There are a number of different universities and colleges in Sweden, the oldest and largest of which are situated in Uppsala, Lund, Gothenburg and Stockholm. In 2000, 32% of Swedish people held a tertiary degree, making the country fifth in the OECD in that category. Along with several other European countries, the government also subsidises tuition of international students pursuing a degree at Swedish institutions, although a recent bill passed in the Riksdag will limit this subsidy to students from EEA countries and Switzerland.
The large influx of immigrants to Swedish schools has been cited as a significant part of the reason why Sweden has dropped more than any other European country in the international PISA rankings.
Culture
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Sweden was seen as an international leader in what is now referred to as the "sexual revolution", with gender equality having particularly been promoted. Sweden has also become very liberal towards homosexuality, as is reflected in the popular acceptance of films such as Show Me Love. Since 1 May 2009, Sweden repealed its "registered partnership" laws and fully replaced them with gender-neutral marriage. Sweden also offers domestic partnerships for both same-sex and opposite-sex couples. Cohabitation () by couples of all ages, including teenagers as well as elderly couples, is widespread. As of 2009, Sweden is experiencing a baby boom.
Music
Historical re-creations of Norse music have been attempted based on instruments found in Viking sites. The instruments used were the lur (a sort of trumpet), simple string instruments, wooden flutes and drums. Sweden has a significant folk-music scene. The joik, a type of Sami music, is a chant that is part of the traditional Sami animistic spirituality. Notable composers include Carl Michael Bellman and Franz Berwald.
Sweden also has a prominent choral music tradition. Out of a population of 9.5 million, it is estimated that five to six hundred thousand people sing in choirs.
In 2007, with over 800 million dollars in revenue, Sweden was the third-largest music exporter in the world and surpassed only by the US and the UK. According to one source 2013, Sweden produces the most chart hits per capita in the world, followed by the UK and the US.
Sweden has a rather lively jazz scene. The Centre for Swedish Folk Music and Jazz Research has published an overview of jazz in Sweden by Lars Westin.
Architecture
Before the 13th century almost all buildings were made of timber, but a shift began towards stone. Early Swedish stone buildings are the Romanesque churches on the countryside. This would include the Lund Cathedral from the 11th century and the somewhat younger church in Dalby, but also many early Gothic churches built through influences of the Hanseatic League, such as in Ystad, Malmö and Helsingborg.
Cathedrals in other parts of Sweden were also built as seats of Sweden's bishops. The Skara Cathedral is of bricks from the 14th century, and the Uppsala Cathedral in the 15th. In 1230 the foundations of the Linköping Cathedral were made, the material was there limestone, but the building took some 250 years to finish.
Among older structures are also some significant fortresses and other historical buildings such as at Borgholm Castle, Halltorps Manor and Eketorp fortress on the island Öland, the Nyköping fortress and the Visby city wall.
Around 1520 King Gustav Vasa initiated grand mansions, castles and fortresses to be built. Some of the more magnificent include Kalmar Castle, Gripsholm Castle and the one at Vadstena.
In the next two centuries, Sweden was designated by Baroque architecture and later the rococo. Notable projects from that time include the city Karlskrona, which has now also been declared a World Heritage Site and the Drottningholm Palace.
1930 was the year of the great Stockholm exhibition, which marked the breakthrough of Functionalism, or as it became known. The style came to dominate in the following decades. Some notable projects of this kind were the Million Programme, offering affordable living in large apartment complexes.
The Ericsson Globe, located in Stockholm, is the largest hemispherical building on Earth. Its dome has a diameter of 110 metres (360 feet) and took two and a half years to build.
Media
Swedes are among the greatest consumers of newspapers in the world, and nearly every town is served by a local paper. The country's main quality morning papers are (liberal), Göteborgs-Posten (liberal), Svenska Dagbladet (liberal conservative) and Sydsvenska Dagbladet (liberal). The two largest evening tabloids are Aftonbladet (social democratic) and Expressen (liberal). The ad-financed, free international morning paper, Metro International, was founded in Stockholm, Sweden. The country's news is reported in English by, among others, The Local (liberal).
The public broadcasting companies held a monopoly on radio and television for a long time in Sweden. Licence-funded radio broadcasts started in 1925. A second radio network was started in 1954, and a third opened 1962, in response to pirate radio stations. Non-profit community radio was allowed in 1979 and in 1993 commercial local radio started.
The licence-funded television service was officially launched in 1956. A second channel, TV2, was launched in 1969. These two channels (operated by Sveriges Television since the late 1970s) held a monopoly until the 1980s when cable and satellite television became available. The first Swedish-language satellite service was TV3 which started broadcasting from London in 1987. It was followed by Kanal 5 in 1989 (then known as Nordic Channel) and TV4 in 1990. TV4 began its terrestrial broadcasts in 1992, becoming the first private channel to broadcast television content from within the country.
Around half the population are connected to cable television. Digital terrestrial television in Sweden started in 1999.
Literature
Sweden has many authors of worldwide recognition including August Strindberg, Astrid Lindgren, and Nobel Prize winners Selma Lagerlöf and Harry Martinson. In total seven Nobel Prizes in Literature have been awarded to Swedes.
The first literary text from Sweden is the Rök runestone, carved during the Viking Age c. 800 AD. With the conversion of the land to Christianity around 1100 AD, Sweden entered the Middle Ages, during which monastic writers preferred to use Latin. Therefore, there are only a few texts in the Old Swedish from that period. Swedish literature only began to flourish when the language was standardised during the 16th century. This standardisation was largely due to the full translation of the Bible into Swedish in 1541. This translation is the so-called Gustav Vasa Bible.
With improved education and the freedom brought by secularisation, the 17th century saw several notable authors develop the Swedish language further. Some key figures include Georg Stiernhielm (17th century), who was the first to write classical poetry in Swedish; Johan Henric Kellgren (18th century), the first to write fluent Swedish prose; Carl Michael Bellman (late 18th century), the first writer of burlesque ballads; and August Strindberg (late 19th century), a socio-realistic writer and playwright who won worldwide fame. The early 20th century continued to produce notable authors, such as Selma Lagerlöf, (Nobel laureate 1909), Verner von Heidenstam (Nobel laureate 1916) and Pär Lagerkvist (Nobel laureate 1951).
In recent decades, a handful of Swedish writers have established themselves internationally, including the detective novelist Henning Mankell and the writer of spy fiction Jan Guillou. The Swedish writer to have made the most lasting impression on world literature is the children's book writer Astrid Lindgren, and her books about Pippi Longstocking, Emil, and others. In 2008, the second best-selling fiction author in the world was Stieg Larsson, whose Millennium series of crime novels is being published posthumously to critical acclaim.
Holidays
Apart from traditional Protestant Christian holidays, Sweden also celebrates some unique holidays, some of a pre-Christian tradition. They include Midsummer celebrating the summer solstice; Walpurgis Night () on 30 April lighting bonfires; and Labour Day or May Day on 1 May is dedicated to socialist demonstrations. The day of giver-of-light Saint Lucia, 13 December, is widely acknowledged in elaborate celebrations which betoken its Italian origin and commence the month-long Christmas season.
6 June is the National Day of Sweden and has since 2005 been a public holiday. Furthermore, there are official flag flying day observances and a Namesdays in Sweden calendar. In August many Swedes have (crayfish dinner parties). Martin of Tours Eve is celebrated in Scania in November with parties, where roast goose and svartsoppa ('black soup') are served. The Sámi, one of Sweden's indigenous minorities, have their holiday on 6 February and Scania celebrate their Scanian Flag day on the third Sunday in July.
Cuisine
Swedish cuisine, like that of the other Nordic countries (Denmark, Norway and Finland), was traditionally simple. Fish (particularly herring), meat, potatoes and dairy products played prominent roles. Spices were sparse. Preparations include Swedish meatballs, traditionally served with gravy, boiled potatoes and lingonberry jam; pancakes; pyttipanna, a spiced fried hash of meat and potatoes originally meant to use up any leftovers of meat; lutfisk; and the smörgåsbord, or lavish buffet. Akvavit is a popular alcoholic distilled beverage, and the drinking of snaps is of cultural importance. The traditional flat and dry crisp bread has developed into several contemporary variants. Regionally important foods are the surströmming (a fermented fish) in northern Sweden and eel in southern Sweden.
In August, at the traditional feast known as crayfish party, kräftskiva, Swedes eat large amounts of crayfish boiled with dill.
Cinema
Swedish 20th-century culture is noted by pioneering works in the early days of cinema, with Mauritz Stiller and Victor Sjöström. In the 1920s–1980s, the filmmaker Ingmar Bergman and actors Greta Garbo and Ingrid Bergman became internationally noted people within cinema. More recently, the films of Lukas Moodysson, Lasse Hallström, and Ruben Östlund have received international recognition.
Sports
Sport activities are a national movement with half of the population actively participating in organised sporting activities. The two main spectator sports are football and ice hockey. Second to football, horse sports (of which most of the participants are women) have the highest number of practitioners. Thereafter, golf, orienteering, gymnastics, track and field, and the team sports of ice hockey, handball, floorball, basketball and bandy are the most popular in terms of practitioners.
The Swedish national men's ice hockey team, affectionately known as (English: Three Crowns), has won the World Championships nine times, placing them third in the all-time medal count. also won Olympic gold medals in 1994 and 2006. In 2006, became the first national hockey team to win both the Olympic and world championships in the same year. The Swedish national men's football team has seen some success at the World Cup in the past, finishing second when they hosted the tournament in 1958, and third twice, in 1950 and 1994.
Sweden hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics, Equestrian at the 1956 Summer Olympics and the FIFA World Cup in 1958. Other big sports events include the UEFA Euro 1992, 1995 FIFA Women's World Cup, 1995 World Championships in Athletics, UEFA Women's Euro 2013, and several championships of ice hockey, curling, athletics, skiing, bandy, figure skating and swimming.
See also
List of Sweden-related topics
Outline of Sweden
329 Svea
Notes
References
Further reading
Bagge, Sverre (2005). "The Scandinavian Kingdoms". In The New Cambridge Medieval History. Eds. Rosamond McKitterick et al. Cambridge University Press, 2005. .
Sweden . The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Durant, Colin (2003). Choral Conducting: philosophy and practice, Routledge, pp. 46–47. .
Einhorn, Eric and John Logue (1989). Modern Welfare States: Politics and Policies in Social Democratic Scandinavia. Praeger Publishers, 1989. .
Koblik, Steven (1975). Sweden's Development from Poverty to Affluence 1750–1970. University of Minnesota Press. .
Magocsi, Paul Robert (1998). Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples. University of Minnesota Press, 1998. .
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Sweden Agenda 21 – Natural Resource Aspects – Sweden. 5th Session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, April 1997.
Nordstrom, Byron J. (2000). Scandinavia since 1500. University of Minnesota Press, 2000. .
United States Department of State – Sweden
External links
Sweden. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Sweden from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Sweden profile from the BBC News
Key Development Forecasts for Sweden from International Futures
Study in Sweden – official guide to studying in Sweden
Wayback Machine Technological Waves and Economic Growth in Sweden 1850–2005
Sweden – Economic Growth and Structural Change, 1800–2000 — EH.Net Encyclopedia
vifanord – a digital library that provides scientific information on the Nordic and Baltic countries as well as the Baltic region as a whole
Public sector
Sweden.se — Sweden's official portal
The Swedish Parliament – official website
The Government of Sweden – official website
The Royal Court – official website of the Swedish Monarchy
News media
Radio Sweden – public service
Sveriges Television – public service
Dagens Nyheter
Svenska Dagbladet
The Local – Sweden's news in English – independent English language news site
Trade
World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Sweden
Travel
VisitSweden.com – official travel and tourism website for Sweden
Members of the Nordic Council
Member states of the European Union
Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean
Member states of the United Nations
Kingdom of Sweden
Scandinavian countries
Countries in Europe
States and territories established in the 12th century
Christian states
Countries and territories where Swedish is an official language
OECD members
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20in%20Singapore
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Death in Singapore
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Deaths in Singapore offset the population increase from live births. In 2007, 17,140 people in Singapore died from various causes. The death rate was 4.5 deaths per 1,000 of the population. There are strict regulations surrounding death and treatment of the body after death.
Legal definition of death
Under section 2A of the Interpretation Act, a person is considered as having died when there is either irreversible cessation of circulation of blood and respiration, or total and irreversible cessation of all functions of the brain. Irreversible cessation of the blood circulation and respiration is determined according to ordinary standards of current medical practice, while total and irreversible cessation of all brain functions is made in accordance with the following criteria:
Conditions to be satisfied before determining irreversible cessation of all brain functions. Before tests are carried out to determine if all the functions of a person's brain have irreversibly ceased, the following conditions must be satisfied:
the person's condition must undoubtedly be due to irremediable structural brain damage and the diagnosis of any disorder which can lead to the irreversible cessation of all functions of the person's brain must be fully established;
there must be no suspicion that the person's condition is due to depressant drugs, hypothermia or metabolic and endocrine factors; and
the person's cessation of spontaneous respiration is not caused by neuromuscular blocking agents or other drugs.
Criteria for determining irreversible cessation of all brain functions. To determine the irreversible cessation of all functions of the brain of a person, tests must be carried out with the result that:
the pupils are fixed and non-reactive to strong light;
there is no corneal reflex;
there is no spontaneous motor response to painful stimulus, excluding spinal reflexes;
there is no oculocephalic reflex;
there is no gag reflex or reflex response to tracheobronchial stimulation;
there is no vestibulo-ocular response on instillation of 50 cc of ice-cold water into each ear; and
there is no spontaneous respiration even with carbon dioxide tension at 50 mm or more of mercury.
Where there is still a corneal reflex or spontaneous motor response to painful stimulus but all other criteria are satisfied, or where any of the criteria cannot be performed but the remaining criteria are satisfied, the irreversible cessation of all brain functions can be determined by a combination of the criteria that have been satisfied and the performance of a supplementary test. These tests are cerebral angiography to confirm that there is no intracranial blood flow, and a radionuclide scan to confirm that there is no intracranial perfusion.
In addition, the Interpretation Act sets out other safeguards for the determination of death:
Cases where organ to be removed for transplant. Where an organ is to be removed for a transplant pursuant to the Human Organ Transplant Act or the Medical (Therapy, Education and Research) Act, from the body of a deceased person, the death must be certified by two medical practitioners:
who have not been involved in the care or treatment of the person;
who do not belong to the team of medical practitioners which will remove the organ from the body;
who have not been involved in selecting the proposed recipient of the organ; and
who will not be involved in the care or treatment of the proposed recipient during his or her hospitalization for the transplant.
Where the death was due to total and irreversible cessation of all brain functions, the two medical practitioners certifying the death must also possess certain prescribed postgraduate medical qualifications.
Other cases. In other cases, the determination of the total and irreversible cessation of all brain functions of a person must be certified by two medical practitioners who possess the prescribed postgraduate medical qualifications. At least one of them must not have been involved in the care or treatment of the deceased person.
Presumption of death of missing persons
When the question of whether a person is alive or dead arises, and it is shown that he was alive within 30 years, the burden of proving that he or she is dead lies on the person who affirms it. However, if it is proved that he or she has not been heard of for seven years by those who would naturally have heard of the person if he or she had been alive, the burden of proving that the person is alive shifts to the person who affirms this.
Any married person who alleges that reasonable grounds exist for supposing that the other party to the marriage is dead may apply to court to have it presumed that the other party is dead and to have the marriage dissolved. If the court is satisfied that such reasonable grounds exist, it may make an interim judgment of presumption of death and of divorce. In such proceedings, the fact that for seven years or more the other party to the marriage has been continually absent from the applicant, and the applicant has no reason to believe that the other party has been living within that time, is evidence that the missing person is dead until the contrary is proved.
Causes of death
As of 2017, the top 10 causes of death in Singapore were those set out in the table below:
Capital punishment
Capital punishment is legal in Singapore. The number of judicial executions has fluctuated widely depending on crime rates; at its highest point, according to unofficial statistics compiled by Amnesty International, about 408 people were hanged between 1991 and 2003; at its lowest point in 2010, none were executed. Between 2004 and 2011, the number of executions varied between none and 10. Hanging, which is used for all executions and are carried out in Changi Prison on Fridays at dawn, are by the long drop method, which severs the spinal cord.
Suicide
Suicide is a significant non-medical cause of death in Singapore. Attempted suicide is an offence punishable with jail under section 309 of the Penal Code.
Between 2000 and 2004, 1,700 people killed themselves, and in 2007 suicides amounted to about 2.2% of all deaths. For every suicide, there were seven non-fatal attempts.
It was reported in 2006 that suicide was one of the top causes of death of Singapore youths. In 2001, five children younger than 15 years took their lives, and 37 people between the ages of 15 and 25 did so.
Treatment of the body after death
When a person dies, a doctor will certify the cause of death if it is known and due to natural causes. He or she will then fill up a certificate of cause of death (CCOD) which will be given to the family of the deceased. If the doctor is unable to determine the cause of death, or the death is due to non-natural causes, the Criminal Procedure Code requires him to refer the case to the police. The police will provide a hearse to send the body to the Centre for Forensic Medicine (CFM) Mortuary at Block 9 of the Singapore General Hospital, which will then inform the family when to visit the mortuary.
At the CFM Mortuary, the family will view and identify the body of the deceased in the presence of a coroner, who reviews the case and determines if an autopsy is required. The family will be informed of the coroner's decision and the time to claim the body for the funeral by the investigation officer. If an autopsy is conducted and reveals that the death is unnatural, the police will conduct further investigations into the cause of death with the family's assistance. Once the investigations are complete, the family will be told to attend a coroner's inquiry at the Subordinate Courts. Only after that will they be able to claim the body.If the coroner decides that no autopsy is needed or if the cause of death is deemed to be natural and no foul play is suspected, the investigation officer will inform the family members to head down to collect the body. However, do take note that as there is only one location for the claiming of bodies for all autopsy cases, there might be a waiting time at the hospital itself.
After the family obtains the CCOD, they usually engage a funeral director (also known as an undertaker) who collects the body, embalms it if necessary, and delivers it to the wake. In addition, they have to decide whether the body is to be cremated or buried, and register the death. The funeral director also helps to make arrangements for the wake and funeral, according to the religious beliefs and wishes of the family.
Registration of death
When a person dies in a house, the death must be notified to the authorities within 24 hours by the occupier of the house in which to his or her knowledge the death took place, the relatives of the deceased present at his or her death or in attendance during the last illness of the deceased, or each person present at the death. If those persons fail to do so, another inmate of the house or the person causing the body of the deceased person to be buried.
When a person dies in a place which is not a house, or a dead body is found elsewhere than in a house, every relative of the deceased person having knowledge of any particulars required to be registered concerning the death, and every person present at the death, and every person taking charge of the body, and, if the death occurs in a ship or vessel the master or other person having charge of the ship or vessel, and the person causing the body to be buried must, within 24 hours after the death or finding of the body, give to the authorities such information that the informant has concerning the death that is required to be registered.
Burial
The Choa Chu Kang Cemetery Complex is the only cemetery in Singapore still accepting burials. Others, such as Bidadari Cemetery, have made way for redevelopment. Burials cost up to S$420 for children and $940 for adults. The complex is divided into cemeteries according to religion, and includes the Parsi, Jewish and Christian cemeteries.
On 1 November 1998, the NEA implemented a policy to limit the burial period of all graves to 15 years, due to a shortage of space in the cemeteries. After being buried for 15 years, graves are exhumed and the remains removed. If the religion of the deceased permits cremation, the exhumed remains are cremated and stored in government columbaria niches; otherwise, the remains are re-buried in smaller individual plots.
From 2017 onwards, as part of the expansion plans for Tengah Air Base, the cemetery will be reduced in size from 318ha to 100ha with around 80,500 Chinese and Muslim graves being exhumed.
Cremation
History
In the days of British rule, the number of Chinese burial grounds in Singapore increased very rapidly and the colonial government had little power to control burial spaces because it did not possess sanctions of sufficient strength. Clan associations met all the physical and social needs of the Chinese majority, and the result was the creation of segmented Chinese immigrant communities separated by kinship ties and operating independently of the state, each conducting their own death rites and running their own cemeteries. The local authorities began to view these cemeteries as hazardous sources of disease-causing vectors such as mosquitoes, as well as a form of land waste. There were urgent demands on space in land-scarce Singapore in the name of national development. In the words of E. W. Barker, then the minister for law, environment, science and technology, "The needs of Singapore's young population must require the use of sterilised land, for the economic and social good of all citizens of Singapore."
In the 1965 Master Plan, which was designed to guide land-use development in Singapore, cemeteries were identified as land "considered available for development", and cremation was mooted as a viable option to deal with the exhumed bodies from these burial grounds, and as a way to dispose of people who died. To encourage the population to adopt this relatively new way of treating the dead, the state employed the help of "funerary middlemen" who could erode the distrust of cremation because they were respected for their knowledge of death rites and disposal. In addition, the rallying cries of national development, the common good, and the country's future were used to encourage the populace to take up the idea of cremation and to abandon their insistence of traditional burial grounds.
In 1972, the state made it clear that it would close all cemeteries near and around the city area to "conserve land". State power over cemeteries was considerably strengthened by an alteration in the law allowing the public commissioner to "close cemeteries without assigning reasons for doing so". As an alternative means of managing the disposal of the dead, the state offered burial space at a state-owned public cemetery complex at Choa Chu Kang, although it made it clear that it considered cremation as the only viable long-term option. As various academics have pointed out, the clearance of ethnic burial grounds served more than a practical purpose as it signified the transferring of power from clan- and ethnic-based associations, which had previously run these burial grounds, to state organizations.
Crematoria and columbaria
The earliest government crematorium, situated at Mount Vernon, began operations in 1962 with only one funeral service hall and about four cremations a week. By 1995, it had three service halls and was averaging 21 cremations a day, with operations beginning every day at 9:00 am with cremations scheduled at 45-minute intervals until about 6:00 or 7:00 pm. The site includes a columbarium built in several phases, comprising niches arranged in numbered blocks which either feature Chinese-style green roofs, or housed within a nine-storey pagoda-style building. There also exists a two-storey "church-style" building.
Towards the end of the 1970s, the Mount Vernon complex, which was initially intended for the storage of ashes from recent deaths, could no longer cope with the scale of exhumation projects fuelling the demand for columbarium niches. Another crematorium and columbarium complex was built at Mandai, and this commenced operations in 1982, equipped with eight small and four medium-sized cremators and a total of 64,370 niches for the storage of cremated remains. Chinese voluntary associations such as Pek San Theng were allowed to build columbaria to house the remains of those exhumed from clan-owned cemeteries, and temples and churches were allowed to accommodate cremated remains. Mount Vernon Crematorium ceased operations on 30 June 2004.
The Mount Vernon columbarium complex was closed on 30 September 2018 as part of plans to build the Bidadari Estate, a housing estate, on the site of the nearby former Bidadari Cemetery.
Present
After a body is cremated, the family of the deceased can store the ashes at home or in a columbarium, or scatter them in the sea or at a specially built garden. There are three crematoria in Singapore. The Mandai Crematorium, the only government facility, is now operated by the National Environment Agency. The other two crematoria are privately operated; one is in the Kong Meng San Phor Kark See Monastery at Bright Hill Drive, Bishan, and the other is in Tse Toh Aum Temple at Sin Ming Drive.
Currently, sea burial can be done by scattering the ashes of the deceased in the sea at about south of Pulau Semakau. A proposed sea burial facility to be built at Tanah Merah by the end of 2019 was eventually cancelled. While still not a common choice, sea burial is slowly gaining popularity with people who do not wish to burden their family with paying their respects during festivals. It is also generally cheaper than placing ashes in an urn at a columbarium.
In-land ash scattering can also be done at the Garden of Peace, an ash scattering garden, located at Choa Chu Kang Cemetery Complex. Ashes are scattered at designated lanes, allowing the ashes to mix with the soil below. Watering equipment are provided to allow family members to mix the ashes with the soil.
There are three government columbaria and 57 private ones. The government-operated columbaria are at Mandai, Yishun and Choa Chu Kang. Private columbaria are operated by the Kong Meng San Phor Kark See Monastery, the Roman Catholic Church of Saint Mary of the Angels in Bukit Batok, and the Singapore Soka Association, among others. As with crematoria, there is a significant price difference between niches in private and government columbaria. A standard niche in any government columbarium costs lesser than a private niche at a private columbarium. The government columbaria allocate niches sequentially while private columbaria allow families to choose niche locations subject to availability, and pre-book niches before death.
There has been an increase in the number of Singaporeans pre-booking niches at private crematoria, even though some people consider talking about death and pre-booking a final resting place inauspicious. Reasons for pre-booking include wanting one's ashes to be close to those of loved ones, and hedging against higher prices for niches in future. The bodies of foreigners (regardless of where they die) can be cremated in Singapore, but their ashes have to be placed in private columbaria.
It has been observed that the architecture of government columbaria reflects the outlook of the Singaporean nation. The early columbaria were simple, with few aesthetic ornaments, just like early Singaporean housing flats. The later columbaria have more modern designs, with well-designed landscaped environments, and looking similar to contemporary HDB (Housing and Development Board) flats. These columbaria include the Chua Chu Kang Columbarium and the Mandai Columbarium, which was renovated and expanded in 2004 to accommodate approximately another 60,000 niches. The designs are more elaborate, and are often reminiscent of other structures people often encounter in everyday life. Comparisons have been drawn between the architecture of these columbaria and that of schools and condominiums, and hypotheses have been made that such are deliberate efforts to eliminate the sense of fear and dread traditionally associated with landscapes of death.
See also
Death penalty in Singapore
Notes
Further reading
– uses data on suicides from 1989 to 1998.
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External links
Association of Funeral Directors (Singapore), from the National Environment Agency website
Demographics of Singapore
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Hornswoggle
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Dylan Mark Postl (born May 29, 1986) is an American professional wrestler. He is best known for his time in WWE under the ring name Hornswoggle. He debuted in WWE in 2006, allied with Finlay. Hornswoggle won the Cruiserweight Championship in its first stint, and then was revealed as Vince McMahon's bastard son, and was exposed as the Anonymous Raw General Manager who had controlled the Raw brand from June 21, 2010, to July 18, 2011. He also competed in Impact Wrestling.
Professional wrestling career
Early career (2004–2006)
Postl started his career in the Fox Valley Wrestling Alliance (FVWA), under the ring name Hardcore Wonder. In 2005, Postl appeared with National Wrestling Alliance territory NWA Wisconsin as "The World's Sexiest Midget" Shortstack, where he won the NWA Wisconsin X Division Championship. He also won the SSW Tag Team Championship with Devin Diamond, from The Pretty Hott Thangs (Ryan Kross and Josh Maxim) on May 19, 2006, in Oak Creek, Wisconsin. He relinquished the title after signing a contract with World Wrestling Entertainment.
World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE (2006–2016)
Finlay's leprechaun and Cruiserweight Champion (2006–2007)
On May 26, 2006, Postl made his televised debut in Bakersfield, California on SmackDown as the character Little Bastard, the leprechaun partner of Northern Irish wrestler Finlay. After Finlay's victory over Paul Burchill, an extremely hyper, dirty, mysterious little man (Postl) in a leprechaun costume scurried out from under the ring and jumped on Burchill, laughing maniacally. Finlay pulled him off, only to slam him back down onto Burchill again and again. For the next few weeks, Postl continued to appear from under the ring after matches and attack Finlay's opponents. He soon became more and more aggressive and started attacking Finlay's opponents during matches, much to Finlay's dismay. At one point, he attacked Finlay, biting him when Finlay tried to stop him from attacking Gunner Scott. Little Bastard helped Finlay win the WWE United States Championship when he tossed him a shillelagh to knock out the Champion Bobby Lashley and pick up the win.
On February 23, 2007, the character's name was changed to Hornswoggle on WWE's website and all references to the name "Little Bastard" were removed. The meaning of “hornswoggle” is to swindle, cheat, hoodwink, or hoax. On the March 2 episode of SmackDown!, Hornswoggle attacked John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) and Michael Cole. Afterward, Finlay intimidated Cole, warning him to refer to Little Bastard as "Hornswoggle." On the March 30 episode of SmackDown!, Hornswoggle helped Finlay beat Mr. Kennedy by performing a senton bomb off a stepladder onto Kennedy, essentially copying Kennedy's move, the Kenton Bomb. SmackDown! announcers Michael Cole and JBL immediately referred to the move as the "Lepreton Bomb". During the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 23, Kennedy hit Hornswoggle with a Green Bay Plunge off of a ladder when Hornswoggle tried to interfere on the behalf on Finlay. On the April 6 episode of SmackDown!, Finlay attacked Kennedy after his match and challenged him to a handicap match with Hornswoggle as Finlay's partner. Before the match, Kennedy apologized for hurting Hornswoggle. Finlay accepted his apology and formed a team with Kennedy.
Hornswoggle won the WWE Cruiserweight Championship after he pinned Jamie Noble in a Cruiserweight Open at The Great American Bash. The other participants and commentators were unaware that he was a participant in the match until the referee counted the pin and awarded him the belt. Hornswoggle then began a storyline feud with Noble over the belt. The next week on SmackDown!, Hornswoggle retained the title when he defeated Noble by countout. He attacked Noble in the following weeks by shoving a pie in his face, spraying him with a fire extinguisher, pushing him into Kane and causing him to get chokeslammed, and locking him in a large box.
Vince McMahon's illegitimate son (2007–2008)
On the September 10 episode of Raw, the storyline involving Mr. McMahon's illegitimate son culminated with the reveal that Hornswoggle was the illegitimate son. Hornswoggle's feud with Noble ended on the September 28 episode of SmackDown! when Acting General Manager Vickie Guerrero forced Hornswoggle to surrender the Cruiserweight Championship (which was later retired), citing that his status as Mr. McMahon's son and his diminutive stature would eventually jeopardize his well-being. Mr. McMahon began giving Hornswoggle matches against competitors that were much larger than him to show his son "tough love." Hornswoggle was placed into a match against The Great Khali at Survivor Series. At Survivor Series, Khali defeated Hornswoggle by disqualification when Finlay attacked Khali on Hornswoggle's behalf, turning both Hornswoggle and Finlay face. This was the first time that Finlay appeared together with Hornswoggle since the beginning of the Hornswoggle and Mr. McMahon storyline. At Armageddon, Finlay defeated Khali with the help of Hornswoggle.
On the February 18 episode of Raw, Hornswoggle had a scheduled steel cage match against his father, Mr. McMahon. During this match, Hornswoggle was whipped with a leather belt by Mr. McMahon. Finlay tried to get involved, but was attacked and handcuffed to the ring ropes by JBL. Mr. McMahon left the ring and allowed JBL to beat up Hornswoggle while an enraged Finlay watched. Following the attack, as a part of the storyline, WWE.com announced that Hornswoggle had suffered internal injuries, including bleeding of the brain and spinal trauma. On the February 25 episode of Raw, JBL claimed that Hornswoggle was not McMahon's son, but "in reality [was] the son of Finlay". The next week on Raw, Finlay confirmed Hornswoggle was indeed his son, then was forced to watch helplessly as JBL assaulted Hornswoggle in his hospital bed. Hornswoggle returned to live television at WrestleMania XXIV, accompanying Finlay to the ring for his Belfast Brawl with JBL, once interfering by hitting JBL with a kendo stick, allowing Finlay to get the shot in with the shillelagh. JBL won the match by hitting Finlay with the kendo stick in the shins and following up with the Clothesline from Hell.
He made his in-ring return on the April 18 episode of SmackDown, defeating Matt Striker after a Tadpole Splash. As part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft, Hornswoggle was drafted to the ECW brand along with Finlay. At Night of Champions, Hornswoggle and Finlay challenged John Morrison and The Miz for the WWE Tag Team Championship, but failed to win.
Association with D-Generation X (2009–2010)
On April 13, 2009, Hornswoggle was drafted to the Raw brand, without Finlay, as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft. Hornswoggle then entered into a feud with Chavo Guerrero, in which they competed in a series of comedy gimmick matches each week determined by the weekly Guest Host for Raw (Texas Bullrope Match, Blindfold Match, Falls Count Anywhere, etc.). The program began on July 7, 2009 on WWE Superstars and continued on to Raw. Hornswoggle won every match in this feud.
Hornswoggle's next storyline began the October 26 episode of Raw, when after several weeks of wearing D-Generation X (D-X) clothing, Hornswoggle received legal notification that he was no longer allowed to wear it. Later on in the night, he got his revenge by helping the Raw guest hosts, Kyle Busch and Joey Logano, put D-X against each other and John Cena for the WWE Championship at Survivor Series. On the December 21 episode of Raw, Hornswoggle tried pressing charges against D-X for assault on him, but later dropped them when D-X agreed to make him D-X's official mascot. On the January 18, 2010, episode of Raw backstage, Hornswoggle and Triple H confronted Big Show, The Miz and Jon Heder. Triple H made the match a six-man tag team match: D-X and Hornswoggle against Big Show, The Miz and Heder which ended after Hornswoggle pinned Heder.
Brand switches and Anonymous Raw General Manager (2010–2011)
As part of the 2010 WWE Supplemental Draft on WWE.com, Hornswoggle was drafted back to the SmackDown brand. On October 8 episode of SmackDown, Hornswoggle was named the official mascot for the SmackDown team at Bragging Rights. On the July 9, 2012 episode of Raw, Hornswoggle was revealed as the Anonymous Raw General Manager, who previously ran the brand from June 2010 to July 2011.
On the season premiere of NXT Redemption, Hornswoggle was revealed as the pro for Titus O'Neil. After their tag team victory over Darren Young and Chavo Guerrero, Young attacked O'Neil. They later had a match against each other which Hornswoggle won. Hornswoggle was later confronted by O'Neil's previous NXT mentor, Zack Ryder. Ryder lured Titus out of the ring by pretending to attack Hornswoggle, but he quickly re-entered the ring and ambushed Titus as he climbed back in, cementing the victory. Weeks later, Hornswoggle was sent gifts from a secret admirer, assuming it to be Maryse. He responded by giving her gifts, only to be shot down. On July 26, AJ Lee revealed herself as the admirer by kissing him. AJ then accompanied Hornswoggle on both NXT and SmackDown. Sometime later, Hornswoggle became jealous of O'Neil hugging AJ and eventually sent her a letter ending their relationship, as he no longer wanted to be on NXT and preferred to stay on SmackDown.
Various alliances final storylines and departure (2011–2016)
On November 29, 2011, holiday edition of SmackDown, Hornswoggle won a battle royal, by lastly eliminating Sheamus, to receive a wish from Santa Claus (Mick Foley). With help from Sheamus, Hornswoggle wished for the ability to verbally communicate. With this ability, Hornswoggle became the special guest ring announcer for the David Otunga and Sheamus match on the following week's SmackDown. On January 6, 2012, episode of SmackDown he defeated Heath Slater in an Over-the-Top Rope Challenge. Later that month, Hornswoggle formed an alliance with Justin Gabriel, feuding with the former Intercontinental Champion Cody Rhodes and Heath Slater, he also accompanied Gabriel to the ring at the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view in a losing effort against United States Champion Jack Swagger. On March 23 episode of SmackDown, Hornswoggle was added to Theodore Long's WrestleMania XXVIII team as its personal mascot.
He made a return on October 12, 2012, when he was found with a Randy Orton doll. Ricardo Rodriguez wrecked it and continued looking for the real Orton. After a period of inactivity, he returned to Raw in November, associating himself with The Great Khali and Natalya. He was injured (storyline) by Big E Langston on January 11, 2013 episode of SmackDown, after Khali and Natalya lost to Dolph Ziggler and AJ Lee. He returned on March 17 episode of Raw, to celebrate St. Patrick's Day, only to be interrupted by Bad News Barrett.
On the April 15, 2014 episode of Main Event, Hornswoggle turned heel for the first time since 2007 after revealing himself as the mascot for 3MB (Heath Slater, Drew McIntyre and Jinder Mahal). In the following months, he faced El Torito numerous times, losing a WeeLC match at Extreme Rules (Postl says this was the best match of his career) and a hair match at Payback, resulting in his head being shaved. On June 12, 2014, McIntyre and Mahal were released by WWE, and ending 3MB. In July on Superstars, Hornswoggle accompanied Slater for his match with Adam Rose, and was kidnapped by the Rosebuds, who transformed him into a mini-Rose. On August 19 episode of Main Event, Hornswoggle joined his former rivals, Los Matadores (including El Torito), as their second valet. Hornswoggle donned a cow suit and was referred to as La Vaquita (meaning "the little cow"), to complement El Torito, who was dressed as a tiny bull. Los Matadores went on to be defeated by Heath Slater and Titus O'Neil. That same week, on Superstars, his name was tweaked to La Vaca (meaning "the cow"), when he teamed with El Torito to defeat Slater and O'Neil. On September 29 episode of Raw, Hornswoggle turned heel once again and became Slater and O'Neil's (Slater-Gator) mascot, the Mini-Gator. After the breakup of Slater-Gator, Postl took time off from WWE television to undergo arthroscopic shoulder decompression surgery in March 2015.
On September 28, 2015, WWE announced it had suspended Postl for 30 days for violating the company's Wellness policy. After not having made any appearances in WWE since then, Postl was released from WWE on May 6, 2016.
Sporadic appearances (2018–2020)
On April 27, 2018, Postl returned in the Greatest Royal Rumble event, eliminating Dash Wilder, before being eliminated himself by Tony Nese. On January 27, 2019, Postl made an appearance at Royal Rumble, chasing Zelina Vega during the Women's Rumble match. WWE contacted him to appear at Backlash 2020 in a pre-taped match between The Street Profits and Viking Raiders. Despite taping his part, his segment wasn't aired.
Independent circuit (2016–present)
Following his release from WWE, Postl returned to his hometown promotion ACW. Postl also signed to appear at a show co-promoted by Global Force Wrestling and WrestlePro under the ring name Swoggle and debuted for the promotion on June 11, facing Brian Myers. Swoggle won after Myers knocked down the referee and while the ref was down, Grim from Grim's Toy Show interfered against Myers with a full nelson slam. Swoggle did a tadpole splash on the incapacitated Myers and won by pinfall. On July 6, Chikara announced that Postl would be debuting for the promotion on July 23 under the ring name The Big Deal. On March 30 at WrestleCon, Postl, under the Swoggle ring name, defeated Grado.
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling / Impact Wrestling (2016–2017, 2019–2020)
On the December 15, 2016 episode of Impact Wrestling, titled Total Nonstop Deletion, Swoggle made an appearance as the partner of Rockstar Spud in the Tag Team Apocalypto match. After turning on Spud in the Tag Team Apocalypto, Swoggle would square off with Lashley and knocked himself out when he attempted a spear on Lashley. He would then appear on January 5, 2017, episode of Impact Wrestling, where he would defeat Rockstar Spud, causing Spud to quit. On January 19, episode of Impact Wrestling, he would then team up with Robbie E in a losing effort against Aron Rex and Spud. On April 27 episode of Impact Wrestling, Swoggle was paying Rockstar Spud some attention and ruffled Spud's hair in what was intended to be an amusing gimmick with the fans - however Spud took exception to this and as he was chasing Swoggle, the situation concluded with Swoggle running up the entrance ramp, after losing his trousers (pants). Later that same show, Swoggle would viciously attack Spud using a hammer, causing unknown leg injuries. On June 1, Spud returned to Impact, entering through the crowd and attacking Swoggle with a hammer, like Swoggle had done to him. On November 13, 2017, his profile was officially removed from Impact Wrestling's website confirming his departure from the company. Reportedly, Swoggle was never signed to a contract by Impact Wrestling.
Swoggle returned to Impact Wrestling at Bound for Glory 2019 where Swoggle competed in the Bound for Gold gauntlet match which was won by Eddie Edwards.
On October 24, 2020, Swoggle made another surprise return to Impact Wrestling at Bound for Glory 2020, where he competed in the Call Your Shot Gauntlet Battle Royal, which was won by Rhyno.
On the October 27 episode of Impact, Swoggle helped Tommy Dreamer in defeating Brian Myers in a hardcore match by hitting Myers with a low blow. Later, it was announced that Myers would face Swoggle in a match at Turning Point. At the event he lost against Myers.
On November 24, 2020, Swoggle appeared as AJ Swoggle, a parody of wrestler AJ Styles, and defeated Ethan Page with the help of Karl Anderson.
Ring of Honor (2019)
Swoggle competed November 3 at ROH Unauthorized, disguised as "Mini Delirious", the tag partner of Delirious. He unmasked after they lost to El Jefe Cobbo and El Villainisto, based on the match's stipulation. This was broadcast on TV on December 16.
All Elite Wrestling (2020)
Swoggle made a cameo on the November 18, 2020 episode of AEW Dynamite during The Inner Circle's trip to Las Vegas.
Boxing
Postl made his boxing debut on April 24, 2021, at Rough n Rowdy’s event. He was defeated by Jeremy Smith.
Autobiography
On May 1, 2018, it was announced that Postl was working on an autobiography with Ross Owen Williams, the writer of Bob Holly and Al Snow's autobiographies, and Ian Douglass, the writer of Dan Severn and Bugsy McGraw's autobiographies. It was advertised that the book would "delve into the physical and emotional challenges of being a little person in both a big person's world and, often, a large person's industry, as well as charting Dylan's emotional path to parenthood, and varied relationships within his own family." The book Life Is Short And So Am I was officially released by ECW Press on September 10, 2019, and it included forewords by Postl's close friends Kofi Kingston and Curt Hawkins.
WWE executive Stephanie McMahon posted her support for the book on Twitter on the day of its release. The book also received a public endorsement from Dolph Ziggler.
Film
Postl starred in the film Leprechaun: Origins, a reboot of the Leprechaun film series. Hornswoggle regularly appeared in the WWE web series The JBL and Cole Show, until its cancellation in June 2015.
In a 2022 interview regarding the controversy stemming from Peter Dinklage's statements towards the upcoming live-action remake of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs where he denounced Disney for perpetuating stereotypes associated with people with dwarfism, Postl voiced his disagreement with Dinklage where he, along with other dwarf actors, accused Dinklage of just virtue signaling and opined that Dinklage's condemnation of the Seven Dwarfs' portrayal, and Disney's replacement of them with anonymous "magical creatures" and portrayed by voice actors, would have deprived dwarf actors of a possible starring role in a film based on an established property, denouncing Dinklage as "hypocritical" and "selfish...trying to get roles away".
Filmography
Other media
Postl made his video game debut as Finlay's manager in WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009 and subsequently last appeared in WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2011.
Championships and accomplishments
Absolute Intense Wrestling
Absolute Intense Wrestling Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with PB Smooth
ACW Wisconsin
ACW Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Nick Colucci
Black Label Pro
BLP Tag Team Championship (1 time) with Ethan Page and Danhausen
Create-A-Pro
CAP Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Mark Sterling
DDT Pro-Wrestling
Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship (2 times)
Great Lakes Championship Wrestling
GLCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Heroes And Legends Wrestling
HLW Minis Championship (1 time)
NWA Wisconsin
NWA Wisconsin X Division Championship (1 time)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Rookie of the Year (2007)
Ranked No. 494 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2021
South Shore Wrestling
SSW Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Devin Diamond
Wisconsin Pro Wrestling
WPW Tag Team Championships (1 time) - with Nick Colucci
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Cruiserweight Championship (1 time, final)
Mini Royal Rumble (2008)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Worst Gimmick (2009)
Worst Feud of the Year (2009)
WrestleCrap
Gooker Award (2007) Paternity storyline with Vince McMahon
Gooker Award (2009) Feud with Chavo Guerrero
Luchas de Apuestas
References
External links
1986 births
American male professional wrestlers
D-Generation X members
Leprechauns in popular culture
Living people
Midget professional wrestlers
Professional wrestlers from Wisconsin
Professional wrestling authority figures
Professional wrestling managers and valets
21st-century professional wrestlers
WCW/WWE Cruiserweight Champions
Ironman Heavymetalweight Champions
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Barry Grant
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Barry Grant is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Brookside, played by Paul Usher. The character debuted on-screen during the first episode of Brookside, broadcast on 2 November 1982. Barry is one of the show's original characters and the only character to appear in the first and final episodes of Brookside. Usher decided to leave Brookside in 1984, but returned the following year and remained a regular cast member until 1995. He then returned for guest stints in 1997 and 2003. Actor Joe McGann was originally cast as Barry, but when McGann failed to gain an actors equity card, producers decided to recast the role to Usher. Barry is characterised as a "hard man" and constant law breaker. Writers transformed Barry into Brookside's long-standing villainous character. Despite his hard man characterisation, Barry has a special relationship with his mother Sheila Grant (Sue Johnston). He would do anything to protect Sheila and to the extent that it created problems with his father Bobby Grant (Ricky Tomlinson).
In his early years, writers portrayed a close friendship and double-act between Barry and Terry Sullivan (Brian Regan). Writers ended this when they created an affair between Barry and Terry's wife, Sue Sullivan (Annie Miles). Producers then turned Barry into a murderer when he kills Sue and her young son Danny, by pushing them off a scaffolding. The story helped celebrate Brookside's 1000th episode and was played out as a "whodunit" story, with viewers initially unaware that Barry was responsible. Another notable plot included scenes in which Barry threatens to kill a dog. The story created controversy with viewer complaints and news stories. Other stories include his association with gangster Tommy McArdle (Malcolm Tierney), his relationship with Tracy Corkhill (Justine Kerrigan) and her subsequent pregnancy. The character has proved popular with television critics and journalists, who often commented on Barry's numerous crimes and "bad boy" persona. Usher's performance was so memorable that Barry was still critiqued twenty years after Brookside was cancelled by Channel 4.
Casting
Actor Joe McGann was originally chosen to play the role of Barry. Brookside creator and executive producer Phil Redmond began workshopping the original cast, to see which actors built a rapport and could work well together on-screen. Only Sue Johnston was informed in advance of other cast members that she had secured a role but remained unaware as to which character she would play. All successful actors were invited to another audition on the Brookside set to perform improvisations in familial groups. McGann, Johnston, Ricky Tomlinson, Simon O'Brien and Shelagh O'Hara were grouped together and informed they were successful and would portray the Grant family. McGann was refused an actors equity card and producers had to recast the role with Paul Usher.
Usher received a letter inviting him to audition for the role of Barry. He attended three auditions and was successful in gaining the role after McGann could not continue. Usher was unemployed at the time of his audition. He told Richard McLaren from TV Guide that he was "desperate to work" and "went a bit over the top" in his first audition. Usher did not know anything about the role but they told him to sit down and talk about "thieving and robbing gear". Usher found the subjects easy and he won the role. On his first day of filming he feared that producers would drop him from the show. He told McLaren "I didn't really know what the part was about." Usher was the only cast member to appear in the first and last episodes of Brookside.
Development
Characterisation
When the series begins, Barry is in his mid-twenties and lives with his family consisting of his mother Sheila Grant (Johnston), father Bobby Grant (Ricky Tomlinson) and his two younger siblings Karen Grant (O'Hara) and Damon Grant (O'Brien). Prior to the series' debut, Channel 4 publicity described Barry as a twenty-three year old "football fanatic and a carpenter on a building site. He has a reputation as a hard-man." Barry is portrayed as different from the rest of his family. Early on in his story Barry gets involved in law-breaking scams, yet his mother, who is a devout Catholic is willing to ignore his behaviour. In the book Brookside: The Official Companion, show creator, Redmond explained that there was a special relationship between the two. Barry would do anything for Sheila to the extent it creates conflict with his father, Bobby. Writers portrayed Barry helping Sheila overcome her rape ordeal. He takes her shopping and encourages her to be brave. Bobby becomes more jealous of their bond because he had failed to help Sheila deal with her attack. Barry and Bobby find it difficult to tolerate one another and the latter views his son as a jobless "layabout". He believes that Barry has succumbed to Conservative propaganda and should find work and stop gallivanting. Barry rarely speaks to his father unless it is to argue with him. Bobby is a socialist and thinks that Barry's generation lack commitment. They are both jealous of one another's relationships with Sheila and writers often used it to create tension between them. Redmond wrote that "Sigmund Freud would have had a field day" studying the dynamic between the three characters. Barry is characterised as a "nihilist" and the type to start a fight with anyone who questions his behaviour.
Barry's association with gangster Tommy McArdle (Malcolm Tierney) during 1984 created problems for the Grants. Barry had nearly been caught committing crimes and his deals with Tommy brought his family "pain and despair". After five years on-screen, writers began to humanise Barry more. Redmond described a more "thoughtful and conscience" Barry, who had "mellowed with age". The change did not last as Barry became a source of evil in storylines. Originally depicted as Sheila's protector and a "Jack the lad" type character, with money making scams alongside his best friend Terry Sullivan (Brian Regan). Barry viewed himself as a "hard case" always willing to defend his family using violence. Stories which involved Barry with serious gangsters such as Tommy and Sizzler (Renny Krupinski) transformed the character into a sinister one. Usher was delighted with the changes and thought it made the character more complex. He told Geoff Tibballs, author of Brookside - The First Ten Years, that "I'm glad we're seeing the nasty side of Barry Grant, I wanted to make him more evil. He's a more interesting character than just a Mammy's boy." Writers had made him a "man of power" and to facilitate this they made him a property owner, purchasing the shops on Brookside Parade. The power Barry gains corrupts him and with stories involving shot gun toting threats and murder, they showed he was unpleasant and nasty. Barry became self-serving and bitter towards Sheila for moving in with Billy Corkhill (John McArdle). Another showing of his newfound wealth was having a celebrity opening of his restaurant. Producers hired Paul O'Grady for a cameo appearance as his drag queen persona Lily Savage for the opening.
Brookside producer Mal Young revealed that Usher was vocal about Barry's transformation into a "shady businessman". They changed his appearance opting to dress him in suits rather than jeans. However, Young was careful not to lose Barry's early characterisation entirely. He added "we've done it without losing the heart of Barry Grant. He's still Sheila Grant's son, the lad from Liverpool." Usher too was still wary of not losing Barry's conscience and wanted writers to showcase it more often. He explained that Barry is "very lonely and I reckon he goes through hell." Usher also believed that Barry "suffers" emotionally when he commits serious crimes. In 1994, Young said that Barry represented ten years of Margaret Thatcher's Britain. At time's Barry's characterisation made him Brookside's "hate figure". Usher told Jane Cameron from TV Quick that "at least it shows the audience think about him. Barry succeeds because he provokes a negative reaction."
Dog threat controversy
Brookside's creator and producer Phil Redmond wanted the show to include dramatic and controversial content. He also wanted a new story to get the public talking about Brookside again. He made a conscious effort to transform Barry from low level crook to full time gangster. Redmond decided a good was to portray Barry's descent into serious crime was to have him kidnap a pet dog belonging to an amusement arcade owner, Ma Johnson (Mary Cunningham). She owed money for protection and Barry kidnaps the dog with a sinister threat. Sizzler forces Barry to threaten to decapitate the dog unless Ma Johnson pays the money.
Redmond wanted the storyline to show that Sizzler was evil and out to hurt people. He believed that viewers found Sizzler comical and entertaining and that the dog scenes would rectify that. Redmond explained that it was controversial because animal abuse is frowned upon in British society. It was so controversial that most of those at Mersey TV fought with Redmond over the issue. When Redmond pitched his idea at a storyline conference, his team of writers rejected it and claimed it would not be possible to show a dog being killed on television. Redmond ignored their protests and went ahead with his plans. He added that writers just wanted to frighten the dog instead. Redmond said the plot was inspired by the film, The Godfather, which includes an infamous scene a gangster removes a horses head in revenge. He believed that Sizzler would own the film on video and think it was a brilliant idea to copy in his own revenge plan. Barry Woodward was tasked with writing the scenes and included the discussion of the gruesome act in his draft. When admin typed the episode up, they were unhappy with it and complained to Redmond. He told them to mind their own business. Then at rehearsals, the director tried to remove the scene. The cast then expressed their disapproval but Redmond remained adamant, but they tried again to stop the scene on the day of location filming. Then during the editing process, the scene was deleted. They had to re-edit it in and it was sent to Channel 4, who telephoned Redmond with their worries. He managed to talk them around and the episode was broadcast.
The scene in which Barry threatens the dog formed the cliff-hanger of the Friday night episode and complaints about the show were made. Redmond recalled that it was "expected" from "dog obsessed Britain". However, more people complained about the storyline than they did about Sheila's rape storyline. The next episode was not broadcast until days later, which revealed the dogs fate as Barry spares its life. Redmond recalled that "We showed that even hard-hearted Barry couldn't bring himself to harm a dog." Redmond found it difficult to deal with the fallout from the storyline. He claimed that a woman spoke to Brookside's head of publicity daily following the broadcast. He soon tired of her complaining and asked if she had seen the film, The Godfather. The woman claimed it was her favourite film but refused to accept any comparison between the two. She believed that killing a pet dog was worse than killing a horse. In 1999, Redmond recalled "I will now admit publicly, was a deliberate injection of shock therapy to a storyline chronicling Barry Grant's descent into serious crime. It was designed to remind viewers that although Barry was a loveable rogue and the gangsters he was involved with at the time were an entertaining bunch, he was still about to sell his soul to the devil."
Departure (1984)
In November 1984, Peter Holt from the Evening Standard reported that Usher had decided to leave Brookside to concentrate on his music career. They added that he would depart during the following Christmas episodes. Usher had also tired of the role and the public thinking he was similar to Barry. Usher told an Eleanor Levy from the Record Mirror that "I think I've just exhausted the character, the part's already there, it's written for you and there's nothing really to test your acting ability." In an interview with McLaren (TV Guide), Usher stated that he was exhausted because of the role and would not bother changing out of Barry's costumes when he got home. Barry's departure storyline featured Barry moving to live in the city of Wolverhampton. However, the actor returned to filming and re-joined the regular cast within one year. Usher later revealed that he had negotiated his contract with producers to include more holiday time. Each year Usher was allowed to have three months off and writers would send Barry overseas on a "dodgy business trip". Usher later stated that "it's hard work playing Barry and without taking a break each year, I wouldn't have been able to carry on for as long as I have."
Who killed Sue & Danny?
Barry begins an affair with Terry's wife Sue Sullivan (Annie Miles). Brookside fans reacted well to Barry and Sue's romance and viewership ratings began to rise. Mal Young decided to kill off Sue in a mystery whodunit murder storyline, following Miles' decision to leave the series. Brookside was nearing its 1000th episode and the production team wanted to create a memorable story to coincide with it. In addition, Young decided to kill off Sue's young son, Danny. Killing a child on-screen was controversial and had not been done before on a British soap opera. When the story was first pitched to writers, they believed it was too risky and they did not want to proceed. Young liked the reaction and decided that it would maximise interest in the show as they took it into the 1990s. To further add to the interest, Young wanted a "whodunit" narrative to keep the audience guessing. Only Young and Redmond knew that Sue and Danny would be murdered by Barry. They kept his identity a secret from Usher, the rest of the cast and the film crew. Young believed that in doing so, the story retained its authenticity as a mystery plot. The characters of Barry, Terry and Graeme Curtis were all dressed in white t-shirts, jeans and trainers. This narrowed the murderer down but kept the audience guessing.
Sue and Danny's death occurs after they are pushed from a scaffolding. When the scenes were filmed, a shot of Sue being grabbed showed that Barry could be the killer. A view of the killer's legs was included to allude that Terry was the killer. Then a scene showing a telephone revealed that it could have been Graeme. In addition an extra matching their physicality was filmed climbing stairs in-case it was a completely different character. This confused the crew, who demanded to know who Sue's killer was. Young did not reveal the culprit because he believed that the actor would portray their character more sinisterly. Young and Redmond knew the whodunit story would create increased complaints and fan mail. It was so successful that viewers had become invested in solving the mystery themselves. When the episode was broadcast, viewers recorded the episode and replayed it to try and identify the killer. Young received eighty letters who spotted that the jeans were Terry's and believed it could not have been Barry. Some viewers also printed off freeze-frames of what they believed the killer was wearing. Despite their findings, Young remained adamant that Barry would be revealed as Sue and Danny's killer.
When Barry was eventually revealed as the culprit, some viewers refused to accept it. Choosing Barry had worried Young because he feared the viewers would hate Barry. Viewers wrote in calling Barry a "bastard" but they often expressed their desire for him to remain in the show. Young told Tibballs that "I was concerned about how you retain sympathy for a murderer. People said he must be caught and put away, justice must be seen to be done. But it's a fact of life that murderers are walking around free. We always aim to be realistic so I thought, 'let's go for it'." Usher was also nervous about the reaction he would get from the general public. He had reservations about Barry murdering a child and asked Young if he was sure he wanted to proceed. Young added that the viewer reaction proved he made the correct decision and called Barry "an enigma" and likened him to the fictional character J. R. Ewing, who viewers love to hate.
The story had longevity providing Barry with related stories in the following years. On example was Barry's disgruntled lover Fran Pearson (Julie Peasgood) informing Terry that Barry had an affair with Sue. The revelation was long-awaited and producers wanted dramatic scenes for the reveal episodes. The main episode numbered 1049 became one of the show's most problematic. Young had envisioned violent reaction from Terry. His retaliation initially included throwing a chip pan of hot fat over Barry and threatening him with a knife. A series of blunders and objections from Channel 4 caused the content to change. Writers drafted the fight scenes but when it came to filming the episodes, miscommunication ruined Young's plans. Usher and Regan filmed the fight scene during one shoot for a Friday night episode. Their fight was supposed to continue and explore Barry's injuries from the hot fat. The following Monday night episode was filmed with a different director and crew. The two crews had not conversed and the second crew shot their episode with Barry having a knife cut instead of burns from hot fat. Young was upset with the edits and wanted to reshoot. Usher was unavailable for filming due to a holiday and could not be contacted.
Regan had to film new scenes by himself, including throwing a pan of hot fat onto the kitchen floor and pretending to approach Barry with a knife. The Independent Television Commission discovered that Brookside were planning to broadcast the violent knife scenes. They requested to view the episode and they decided that scenes with the knife could be broadcast on the Friday evening but not during the Sunday omnibus edition. However, when the witnessed the following episode in which Terry holds a knife to Barry's throat, they refused to allow it to be broadcast. This happened three days prior to its planned broadcast. Producers waited outside Usher's home until he returned from his holiday. They asked him to come straight to the studio and film new content. Two days prior they filmed new confrontation scenes and Barry's injuries now came from Terry trapping his hand in a door. They cut the scene, took it to be edited and managed to get it to Channel 4 the following morning.
In May 1992, writers created a special two-hander episode featuring only Barry and Terry. It was also the milestone 1100 episode and it featured Barry and Terry the confrontational "showdown" over Barry's secrets. On Barry's decision to confess to Terry, Usher stated "he certainly suffered over the death of Sue and Danny - that's why he finally had to tell Terry exactly what happened." Producers then gave Usher four months off work while the character was written out temporarily. On-screen Barry flees to Madrid and hides out while Terry comes to terms with the events. Barry decides he wants to return home but is worried that Terry will tell the police about Sue and Danny's deaths. Usher told TV Quick's Cameron that "relations between them are quite strained, to say the least." Barry invites Terry to visit him in Spain so that they can discuss what has happened. Usher was happy that producers decided to rest the character. He told Cameron that "it makes for good storylines when Barry disappears, and then comes back to cause even more trouble."
Tracy Corkhill
Barry begins a relationship with Tracy Corkhill (Justine Kerrigan). The relationship is awkward because Barry's mother and Tracy's father Billy are already in a relationship. Tracy moves out and gets a flat of her own and the pair find it easier to continue their affair. Their parents however are unhappy and try to convince them to split up. The story was developed over the next five months, with Tracy discovering that she is pregnant with Barry's child.
Departure and returns
In 1995, Usher decided to leave the show once again. This time his character abruptly left the show following a series of redemption plots for Barry. The character had proposed marriage to Emma, a kind Catholic woman who did not believe in sex before marriage. Barry even attended Mass and was shown regretting some of his earlier decisions. His departure storyline was abrupt as Barry suddenly disappears and Emma is portrayed as frantic and wondering why her fiancé has left her.
Lizzie Francke from The Guardian reported that Usher's quick exit was due to a disagreement between himself and producers. Francke stated that Usher was unhappy with changes to Barry's characterisation and he subsequently wanted to leave. A Brookside publicist told Francke that Usher was taking a break from the series and Barry's departure was pre-planned. Barry's departure was left open ended so a return would be easy. He had fled to Florida, but the story remained unexplained for two years. It was later confirmed that Usher had in fact quit the role.
In August 1997, it was announced that Usher had agreed to reprise the role once again. Usher initially agreed to a three-month contract, despite producers request he stay for one year. Of his return, a Brookside publicist stated that "he will be back just as he left, in his Armani suit, his four wheel drive and a bulge in his pocket - a gun." In addition, producers persuaded Johnston to reprise her role as Sheila for a special episode released on VHS video. The special, Brookside: The Lost Weekend was also designed to attract long-time viewers with the return of old characters such as Barry and Sheila. It explores Sheila's kidnapping and Barry's reaction. Of his return, Usher revealed that Barry would become more violent than ever. The character was once again written out of the series in January 1998. He leaves after he breaks Lindsey Corkhill's (Claire Sweeney) heart and returns to Wolverhampton to be with his family.
In 2003, Usher reprised the role to appear in the final episode of Brookside following its cancellation. His final story features fellow former character Lindsey. The episode was broadcast on 4 November 2003. Their return story reveals that Barry and Lindsey formed a relationship off-screen and they seek the blessing of Lindsey's father, Jimmy Corkhill (Dean Sullivan). However, Barry soon gets caught up in the drama on Brookside Close involving gangster Jack Michaelson (Paul Duckworth).
Reception
Writers from The Guardian have often critiqued the character. Neil Crossley branded Barry a "nefarious" character, Catherine Wilson believed he was a "garrulous" man and Hilary Bower viewed him as a "heart-throb". Gareth McLean said that "Barry Grant has always had women trouble. He tormented Jacqui Dixon, toyed with Lindsey Corkhill's affections and made Sue Sullivan take a tumble of some scaffolding to her death." Another Guardian writer assessed "from his early days as a cheeky youngster at number 5, Barry Grant developed into a money obsessed 'scally'. By the late 1980s he had become the villain at the head of a gangland empire." Lizzie Francke (also The Guardian) said that Barry has a "famous scowl" and branded him a "fickle" character. Discussing his alleged walk out, Francke added "if Usher wants to bargain with Redmond and co, at least there is the huge popularity of Barry in his favour." In 1991, Jim Shelley praised Brookside for returning to its classic story telling. He commented that the show "has shown sign of revival to returning to what it is good at (violent, tragi-comic crime stories), with the escapades of Barry Grant and the hapless Jimmy Corkhill." Shelley was later delighted with Barry's 1997 return and joked that it called for a street party and a public holiday. He quipped that by the end of the episode, Barry had already uttered his famous catchphrases (such as "You Wha?" and "You're jokin' aren'tya") and womanised a regular female character. Shelley later assessed that the era where Barry and Beth Jordache (Anna Friel) were prominent were the show's "golden days".
Another Guardian journalist analysed Barry and suggested he has a psychopathic disorder. They branded him "emotionally cold", inept of pleasure and living a solitary life. His "aloofness" is enjoyed by women who experience it as "exotic" and "different" but they fail to see that he cannot look after them. In addition they believed that Barry had never gotten over Damon's murder and replaced him with Terry. They opined that their friendship had homosexual undertones and that Barry expressed this by sleeping with Sue and later killing her. They added that Barry ultimately controlled and destroyed Terry. The writer concluded that "This man need to be locked up. It would take a long time to resolve this kind of conflict."
Journalists at the Evening Standard also ridiculed and praised the character. Lisa O'Carroll opined that Barry is "ruthless" and a "rogue". She added "Barry is still one of most popular characters, and his constant plotting and womanising means he can appear and disappear from the soap at will." Another journalist from the publication described Barry as an "all-round heartbreaker and baddie." In addition, fellow Evening Standard writer Nicholas Hellen branded him a "bad boy". Geoffrey Phillips was dissatisfied with "TV yobbery" and called for an end to it. Phillips' prime example of such yobbery was "Barry Grant in Brookside drinking straight from the milk bottle that he has just picked out of someone else's fridge." Seven years later, Phillips branded Barry a "swine" and launched a tirade stating that Barry "is a little crook with, from what we saw of it, a large pistol. His hair contains more than half the world's known oil reserves and his voice puts one in mind of nails being fed into a garden-shredder." Phillips later described Barry as a "local bad lad with come-to-bed eyes and gone-to-hell hairstyle." Phillips said that the never ending Who Killed Sue and Danny storyline was "like a packet of cornflakes: there always seems to be something more rattling around at the bottom." Another Evening Standard critic stated "many a female pulse has quickened" following Barry's return. They added that "his presence in Brookside ensures excitement if not an upturn in the level of genteel conversation. Still, we do not expect soft words from a man whose voice suggests a bag of nails going round in the spin-drier." In another review from the newspaper, Barry was described as having a low IQ. They added that "barmy Barry" has a "stretch-limo mouth", a "bubble-car brain" and is the type of man that "orangutan mothers" warn their daughters about.
A writer from TV Quick branded Barry "soap's biggest rotter". William Leith writing for The Observer branded Barry a "sneering, emotionally retarded criminal". Of the character's behaviour, Leith documented that "Barry would come on and stare meanly at people and steal things, and drive too fast, and have heartless sex; he was just like the slightly older boys who got the really good-looking girls when I was a teenager, and ended up as mechanics or penniless dreamers; he was a cheap male version of a short-skirted girl with a push-up bra." Kathryn Flett wrote that Barry was like the junior version Den Watts played by Leslie Grantham, a villainous character from the rival soap opera EastEnders. Barbara Ellen, also from The Observer said that by 1997, typical archetype males in soap opera had evolved from "blue-collar love-thugs with beer guts" such as Terry Duckworth (Nigel Pivaro) to "smouldering Heathcliff's" such as Barry and EastEnders David Wicks (Michael French). Noticing the void caused by Barry and David's departures from their respective shows, the Evening Standard's Phillips stated "love rats they may have been but, as pets, rodents are more fun than worms."
Mark Lawson from The Independent bemoaned the amount of criminal stories that were being created for Barry and EastEnders character Grant Mitchell (Ross Kemp), believing they were influencing society. Lawson opined that there were too many fires in Brookside, such Barry burning down Jimmy's shop. He added "are all seriously dangerous people, at a time when random or unusual violence is an almost weekly news story." From The Independent, Paul Vallely opined that Usher and Sweeney acted as "the emotional catalysts" of Brookside's final episode. By 1994, Barry was the longest-running character featured in the show. Gerard Gilbert observed Barry "metamorphosing from mean-bastard scally to mean-bastard entrepreneur." Their colleague Anthony Hayward called Barry a "Jack the Lad whose own money-making scams became more sinister and dangerous." A journalist from the Record Mirror said that Barry was "one of the most popular characters". Another stated that Barry was the "proverbial bad penny" and stated that his most memorable moment was being beaten up by Tommy McArdle. Richard McLaren from TV Guide branded Barry the "resident Brookside scally" and "wayward". His colleague Nick Fisher called Barry a "bad-boy-cum-heart-throb".
In the book Real Soap: Brookside, author Kay Nicholls likened Barry's early style to a "70s footballer, with a wardrobe that would shame Mr Byrite." She added he was not "heart-throb fodder" until writers transformed him into "Mr Smooth" and the show's "rogue". Nicholls believed that Barry assumed a role that "Al Pacino would be proud of." She wrote that Sue and Danny's murder was his most famous storyline and branded him an "evil bastard" for his treatment of Fran. In another description Nicholls concluded that he was "businessman Barry - briefcase in one hand, shotgun in the other."
Barry and Terry were referenced in the lyrics to the Blazing Saddles song titled "Free George Jackson", which was released in 1985. The character was featured in Channel 4's 2001 documentary Top Ten TV Villains. A Guardian reporter added that Barry was the "numero uno Merseyside Mafioso". In a 2001 Guardian feature profiling soap opera's highest moments, "bad Barry" murdering Sue made the list.
Barry's villainous reputation did not wane in the years after Brookside's cancellation. In 2019, Susannah Alexander from Digital Spy said that Barry was "villainous" and a "Brookside legend". Their colleague Justin Harp called Barry an "evil" character and Simon Timblick from Radio Times described him as the "baddie businessman". In July 2020, Sophie McCoid from the Liverpool Echo referred to Barry as a "Brookside legend". Claire Crick writing for What's on TV branded Barry the "Brookside baddie" who spent "two decades causing havoc". A reporter from Heart radio described Barry as one of the show's "most iconic villains". They called his biggest stories being his expulsion from school and his involvement with gangsters. They added that he "famously" killed Sue and Danny. In 2021, Katy Brent from Closer said that soap opera villains such as Coronation Street's Pat Phelan (Connor McIntyre) and Hollyoaks' Warren Fox (Jamie Lomas) "have nothing on the original soap bad boy, Barry." She added that "he once popped a gun up a rival's bottom when he tried to rape his girlfriend. You don't get that in Corrie. He was pretty phwoar as well."
References
Bibliography
Brookside characters
Fictional gangsters
Fictional murderers
Fictional businesspeople
Fictional construction workers
Television characters introduced in 1982
British male characters in television
Male villains
Fictional people from Liverpool
Fictional criminals in soap operas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentine%20Constitution%20of%201853
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Argentine Constitution of 1853
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The current Constitution of Argentina dates from 1853. The Constitution of Argentina of 1853 was approved in 1853 by almost all of the provincial governments at that moment (currently Argentina is made up of 24 jurisdictions of which 23 are provinces and one is an autonomous city) with the exception of Buenos Aires Province, which remained separate from the Argentine Confederation until 1859. After several modifications to the original constitution and the return of power to Buenos Aires' Unitarian Party, it was sanctioned in May 1, 1853 by the Constitutional Convention gathered in Santa Fe, and it was promulgated by the provisional director of the national executive government Justo José de Urquiza, a member of the Federalist Party. Following the short-lived constitutions of 1819 and 1826, it was the third constitution in the history of the country.
In spite of a number of reforms of varying importance, the 1853 constitution is still substantially the basis of the current Argentine juridical system. It was closely inspired by the juridical and political doctrines of the United States Federal Constitution. It established, for instance, a Republican division of powers, a high level of independence for the provinces, and a federal power controlled by a strong executive government yet limited by a bicameral national congress to balance the population's representation with equity among the provinces. It also drew from the previous constitutions as well as the pioneering works of eminent jurist Juan Bautista Alberdi.
The model has been frequently criticized by historians of the era. The introduction of a federal system had been characterized by several scholars as being unfeasible and unsuitable for Argentina. Others have charged the introduction with being overtly influenced by the United States Constitution, instead of earlier models found in Argentine history. More recently, the constitution has been criticized for placing great power in the presidency. Nevertheless, the historical importance of the constitutional project has been unquestionable, and virtually all disputes regarding the political theory and practice in modern Argentina include either positive or negative references to the political consequences of the 1853 constitution.
For the Generation of '80, the settlers of the first liberal conventions on Argentine historiography, the constitution represented a true foundational act that broke the long government of Juan Manuel de Rosas. The members of the Generation of '80 especially praised the fact that the Constitution established a European-style liberal political regime. However, at the time that it was sanctioned, it had been strongly opposed by some of them. For the UCR, of social-democrat tendencies, the constitution represented an unfulfilled political ideal against the oligarchic government Generation of the 1880s, perpetuated in power through electoral fraud. At the same time, for the nationalist movements of the 20th century, who criticized the liberal conventions and praised Rosas, the constitution had represented the renouncement of the national identity towards the ruin of liberalism. On different fronts, the discussion remains open, and has inspired several of the most important works of Argentine thought.
Background
Previous constitutional projects
The legal system that was accepted by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, formed after the May Revolution from the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, was one of the main concerns after the resignation of the last viceroy. Even though the more urgent concern of establishing sovereign control effective against the resisting Spanish royal forces put the organizational decisions of the republic on hold, much was discussed and written on the matter that would later be taken into account.
The formation of the Primera Junta, and its continuation in the Junta Grande, gave testimony to the disparity of interests between Buenos Aires and the other landlocked provinces. In part, such a division already existed during colonial times, when the port of Buenos Aires gave the city commercial interest far different from the artisanal and agricultural countryside.
Buenos Aires benefited from the flow of goods brought by ships from the United Kingdom, for which it paid with the taxes collected from the exportation of the country's agricultural production, that being mainly raw leather and minerals. The discrepancies between the merchants that brought industrialized goods from Britain and the businessmen of the provinces which lacked such industrial capacity, spurred debates in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata over the lack of modernization. With the Declaration of Independence in 1816, the first juridical bases had a marked Unitarian characteristic.
The first project to converge the successive attempts, that defined the different organs of the national executive power in the first years of organization, was the convocation in 1812 of the Assembly of the Year XIII, also known as the Constituent General Assembly; its purpose was to write the fundamental law for the national organization. It gathered on January 31 of 1813 and worked for over 2 years until 1815. It dictated the regulations for the administration, the statute for the executive power, and promulgated several norms of regulation for the legislature, that would be in use for the following years.
However, the assembly was unable to dictate the national constitution. There were 4 constitutional projects; one written by the Patriotic Society, another one by the assessorial commission designated by the Second Triumvirate, and two anonymous republican projects. These last two introduced the division of powers on the model of the French Revolution, even though they were still strongly centralist, delegating most of the public power to the hands of a central executive branch located in Buenos Aires.
This, added to the absence of some provincial deputies, prevented an agreement on the subject. The lack of definitions from the Assembly, after two years of deliberations, was one of the arguments from which Carlos María de Alvear proposed the creation of a temporal one-man regime, known as Directorio (Directorate). The Assembly voted favorably, but since it had no support from the civilian and military leaderships, it forced the creation of a project for the Congress of Tucumán of 1816.
The action of the congress in that sense was limited, though fruitful in other aspects; it declared independence on July 9, 1816. Deliberations regarding the form of government proved harder. In its struggle liberal thinkers compromised with a republican government, and those in favor of a constitutional monarchy. Among the latter was José de San Martín, who proposed to establish a descendant of the Incas on the national throne. The monarchic followers claimed it impossible to erect a republic without historically developed institutions, and that it would form an unstable and weak government, while its opponents pointed to the lack of inherited prejudices as one of the main reasons to attempt a democratic government.
The congress had to be moved to Buenos Aires at the beginning of 1817 after the threat of the Spanish royal forces advancing over the northern part of the country. On December 3 of that year, the provisory regulation was sanctioned. The provincial delegates considered that moving the congress to Buenos Aires was oriented to put pressure on the congressmen to secure benefits for the Buenos Aires porteño in the concluding constitutional text.
In 1819, these fears became true in the project of the Argentine Constitution of 1819, characterized by strong centralism around Buenos Aires. The text didn't even aboard the subject of the method of election of the Director of State, but guaranteed him wide competencies, including the designation of the provincial governments and the heads of the national administration.
The congress also ordered San Martín and Manuel Belgrano to return to the capital with their armies, to defend the authority of the Directory. Both generals refused to follow those orders. San Martín held his troops in Rancagua (present Chile) and dictated the Act of Rancagua, for which he ignored the authority of the Directory after such orders. Belgrano behaved differently, making a pact with the federal forces of José Gervasio Artigas and he and his Northern Army had put themselves under the orders of the governor of Córdoba. The tension was finally broken at the Battle of Cepeda of 1820 when the united tropes of the provinces defeated the Director José Rondeau. As a result, the Treaty of Pilar was signed, establishing a federally organized government in which Buenos Aires would be one of the 13 provinces.
Even though defeated in combat, the Unitarian idealism was kept vigorous in Buenos Aires. Bernardino Rivadavia, Minister of Governor Martín Rodríguez, redesigned the project of the constitution of 1819 in more republican terms: The Argentine Constitution of 1826 was approved by the legislature of Buenos Aires on September 1, 1826, but rejected by the rest of the provinces. The following years represented the temporal decline of the Unitarian and the rise of provincial Caudillos. They saw in the project of the constitution an administrative option to displace the Buenos Aires hegemony. The governors of Santiago del Estero, Córdoba and La Rioja, (Mariano Fragueiro, Juan Felipe Ibarra and Facundo Quiroga, respectively), at the beginning of the 1830, urged to create a representative assembly. This new assembly was to be directed by Quiroga, who even used the writings of the young author of Bases, Juan Bautista Alberdi, for the 1853 constitution project.
The first attempt of consent was achieved with the Federal Pact of 1831, signed by Buenos Aires, Entre Ríos, and Santa Fe, to which the rest of the provinces would eventually subscribe.
The main opposition to a constitutional assembly was from Buenos Aires, yet not from the literate citizens and Unitarian businessmen, but from the Buenos Aires caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas, who claimed it was too soon to seal a constitution. The assassination of Quiroga in Barranca Yaco put an end to the initiative of the caudillos of the interior.
The Federal Pact stipulated the formation of a Representative Commission with the seat in the city of Santa Fe. Each of the subscribed provinces would send a delegate with certain powers of decision, such as war and peace declarations, and the selection of the heads of the battalions. Delegates would also add voice to the national subjects decided by the Federative Congress, such as the country's administration, internal and foreign bossiness, and the range of each province's independence.
Many points of the Federal Pact were never followed; though it is mentioned by the 1853 constitution as one of the pre-existent pacts, it was not in effect during the Rosas hegemony who insisted on the inadequacy of a premature constitution. This attitude became evident in 1847 when Alberdi, from exile, invited the members of the exiled intellectual ambient to collaborate with Rosas to intercede for the desired constitution. Rosas seemed to completely ignore the petition, but other federal caudillos, especially Justo José de Urquiza, paid attention to it.
The political landscape in 1853
The 1853 constitution was elaborated immediately after the Battle of Caseros, which saw the defeat of Rosas, who held political control in Buenos Aires for two decades. The shift in the political landscape left Justo José de Urquiza in charge of the national business. On April 6, 1852, Urquiza had a meeting with governors Vicente López y Planes of Buenos Aires, Juan Pujol of Corrientes, and delegates of Santa Fe, where it was decided to call for a Constitutional Congress under the terms of the Federal Pact of 1831. The decision of opening the congress in August of the following year was communicated to the rest of the provinces.
Urquiza was aware of the strong opposition within the Buenos Aires elite to his mandate and any attempt of limiting the hegemony of the port city over the rest of the country. To calm that opposition, Urquiza gave Pujol and Santiago Derqui the assignment of elaborating a constitutional project that would be less harsh to the porteño interests. On May 5, he gathered with some of the most influential characters of Buenos Aires— among which were Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield, Valentín Alsina, Tomás Guido and Vicente Fidel López— to propose revival of the constitutional project of 1826 of Rivadavia, in exchange for support of his authority in front of the national government, but the project was rejected.
The definitive meeting with the provincial delegates took place in San Nicolás de los Arroyos on May 29. Deliberations lasted for two days before they signed the San Nicolás Agreement, which granted provisional Directorship of the Confederation to Urquiza, and set the opening of the constitutional convention for August, to which each province would send 2 representatives. The provinces that were directly represented were: Entre Ríos by Urquiza; Buenos Aires by López y Planes; Corrientes by Benjamín Virasoro; Santa Fe by Domingo Crespo; Mendoza by Pascual Segura; San Juan by Nazario Benavides; San Luis by Pablo Lucero; Santiago del Estero by Manuel Taboada; Tucumán by Celedonio Gutiérrez; and La Rioja by Vicente Bustos. The treaty was also adhered to by Catamarca, who also designated Urquiza as its representative, and Córdoba, Salta and Jujuy, who would ratify it later.
The Buenos Aires opposition reacted quickly. Alsina, Bartolomé Mitre, Vélez Sársfield and Ireneo Portela confronted López y Planes, who they considered had ideals too close to those of Urquiza. They denounced López y Planes' vote as having no validity and affirmed he had no attributions to sign it in name of the Buenos Aires government, and they argued the treaty jeopardized the rights of the province while giving despotic attributions to Urquiza. The following debates, known as the Jornadas de Junio, concluded with the resignation of López y Planes on June 2, 1852. The legislature elected Manuel Pinto to replace him, but Urquiza made use of the attributions given to him by the treaty to call a federal intervention that dissolved the provincial legislature and reestablished López y Planes at its head. When López y Planes resigned for the second time, Urquiza assumed the government of the province himself, naming a state council of 15 members as deliberating organ.
Urquiza personally controlled the government of the province until September, when he left to Santa Fe for the constitutional convention together with elected deputies Salvador María del Carril and Eduardo Lahitte, leaving General José Miguel Galán as provisional governor.
Three days later, on September 11, Mitre, Alsina, and Lorenzo Torres revolted against Galán's forces and restored the legislature. On September 22 they would revoke their adhesion to the treaty, and rejected the authority of Urquiza. They also sent José María Paz to extend the revolt to the provinces of the interior, who did not succeed, but they acquired certain support that prevented Urquiza from directly attacking the revolt, and forced him to negotiate with the revolters, sending Federico Báez to Buenos Aires for that purpose.
Buenos Aires recalled its deputies from the Constitutional Assembly and incited the other provinces to do the same. They received a negative response from the governments of the other provinces to cancel the assembly, and so Alsina and Mitre attempted to weaken Urquiza's position and power. They sent forces to attack the provinces of Entre Ríos, Santa Fe, and Córdoba. On November 21 an army under the command of Juan Madariaga attempted to take over the city of Concepción del Uruguay, but was repelled by the forces of Ricardo López Jordán, who quickly informed Urquiza of the situation. Also, Paz could not advance over Santa Fe, and Mitre didn't succeed in convincing Corrientes governor Pujol to attack Entre Ríos, for Pujol joined Urquiza.
Without the representatives of Buenos Aires but with the support of all the other provinces, the Constitutional Convention started its sessions in November 1852. The convention, which was held in Santa Fe followed the precedent set by the 1787 Philadelphia Constitution.
Constitutional delegates
The San Nicolás Agreement established equal representation for all provinces of the Confederation, with two delegates for each. This was one of the points of rupture with Buenos Aires, the most populated of all the provinces, which hadbsought representation proportional to population. Proportional representation would have granted Buenos Aires 18 delegates, a near majority.
The differences between provinces resulted in diverse delegates. Many did not have education in law but rather military, religious, or literary experience. Some of them had also been in exile during the government of Rosas, while others were politically active in that period. These differences would translate into discrepancies, such as the religious posture of the Constitution, and the problem of the Buenos Aires hegemony.
After Salvador María del Carril and Eduardo Lahitte left, the assembly as ordered by the Buenos Aires government installed after the revolt the members of the Constitutional Convention were:
Some of the delegates were not native to the provinces they represented, and others had not resided in them for a long time, which the opposition of Buenos Aires exploited, calling them alquilones (rentals).
The historical revisionism in Argentina has emphasised this, suggesting that these congressmen were not completely representative of the provincial population, to which others point out that the selection of the delegates of all the provinces was not precisely popular, since it was composed of jurists and intellectuals, many of which had been in the exile for years during the government of Rosas.
The president of the convention was Zuviría, who received his doctorate in law at the National University of Córdoba and was a participant in the redaction of the first constitution of its province on August 9, 1821. Domingo Crespo, governor of Santa Fe, inaugurated the sessions on November 20, 1852, in the absence of Urquiza, who was fighting the Buenos Aires forces. Zuviría then pointed out the difficulties the convention would have to face, especially regarding the armed confrontation with Buenos Aires, and the lack of a constitutional background. To this, Santa Fe delegate Manuel Leiva asserted that it was imperious to move forward with celerity, before the urgency of a constitution. After a tense deliberation, Leiva's position prevailed.
Elaboration of the Constitutional text
The commission in charge of the redaction for the project was composed of Leiva, Gutiérrez, Gorostiaga, Colodrero and Ferré.
Even though most provinces already had their own constitution which could have been used as a model, these were judged inconvenient for the national organization, for they followed a centralized model whereas the delegates wished to procure a federal organization.
The models to follow were the few available constitutions: the Constitution of the United States of 1787, the Spanish Constitution of 1812, the Constitution of Switzerland of 1832, the Chilean Federal Laws of 1826 and the Political Constitution of 1833, and the republican constitutions of France of 1793 and 1848, but also in the work of Juan Bautista Alberdi. Exiled in Chile, months before he had sent a project of constitution to Juan María Gutiérrez, and towards Rivadavia's Unitarian constitution of 1826, which was adapted to the federal form, but also kept several parts untouched.
Gutiérrez and Gorostiaga, as part of the Constitutional Business Commission, were in charge of the redaction of the fore-project.
Gutiérrez had already part of it through correspondence with Alberdi, to whom he suggested to include the second edition of his Bases, a developed project, to facilitate the constitutional work. The main job was in Gorostiaga's hands, who worked on it from December 25 to mid-February. Gorostiaga consulted mainly the Unitarian constitution of 1826 from which he took the sections on individual guarantees, the composition of the legislative, and the competence of the executive power. He also consulted the Constitution of the United States, from a poor but only available translation of Venezuelan military man Manuel García de Sena, and the work of Alberdi.
Once finished the project found the resistance within the commission by Leiva, Díaz Colodrero and Ferré, particularly on the status of the Catholic Church within the state, and the position of the Buenos Aires city.
The composition of the commission, in charge of the redaction of the text, was not very representative of the entire assembly. It had to be modified in the session of February 23 to let the project move forward, though there was a delay of two months due to the political situation. On March 9 Ferré and Zuviría, who had been sent to negotiate with the revolved porteños, made a pact to reinstitute the deputies of Buenos Aires to the Convention, with representation according to population. The negotiations though didn't finish positively, and after a long wait, the sessions were restarted on April 15 as requested by Urquiza, who pretended to have the full text by May.
The similarity of the constitutional text with that of the United States was not welcomed by all the congressmen; Zuviría read, at the inauguration of the sessions of April 20, a long speech against the indiscriminate application of foreign principles to a country whose organization, he said, was not habituated to it. He proposed instead to make a study of local institutions and use it as a base. Zuviría with Centeno, Díaz Colodrero and Friar Pérez, were the only ones to vote against the fore-project. The rest of the congressmen, either for ideologic reasons or for the political urgency of establishing a national constitution, decided to support the initiative of the commission; the text would be worked out in the following ten days.
The boycott started by the porteños revived an already traditional conflict between Buenos Aires and the other provinces, sharpened by the strong hand of Rosas who had governed the country favouring the porteños. One of the most controversial issues was the customs taxes, which with being Buenos Aires having the main deep-water port of the country, and the only one with active traffic of goods with Europe, were collected almost entirely in that city.
The negation of sharing those profits for the national finances had always been one of the main points of controversy between Urquiza and the oligarchy of Buenos Aires; at the same time, it confronted the interests of the businessmen of the city, supporters of a liberal commerce, and the artisans and small industries of the interior, who without any kind of protection or importations restrictions could not compete and develop.
Most of the constitutional delegates, especially Gorostiaga and Gutiérrez, urged to take measures in order to end the hegemony of the port city, federalizing the territory of the city of Buenos Aires, and separating it that way from the interests of the Buenos Aires Province.
At the same time a moderate group, headed by Zuviría and Roque Gondra, considered such federalization wouldn't be convenient, for it would upset the porteños and void any attempt of negotiation to pacifically reincorporate it into the Confederation. The major fraction affirmed that the opportunity to expose their reasons had already been rejected when Buenos Aires withdrew its representatives, and that the constitutional will would not hesitate to take arms against the very capital of the country if it were necessary for the future country's welfare.
After arduous negotiations they arrived at a compromise solution, in which Buenos Aires was made capital by the 3rd article, but tied to a special law, approved together with the constitution, to facilitate a possible future modification. Nevertheless, the affirmation of the sovereignty of the Convention over the territories of Buenos Aires and Buenos Aires Province was made explicit in several articles, including the 3rd, 32nd, 34th, and 42nd. The 42nd article states the election of senators and deputies also for the capital (federal district), the 64th stipulated for the National Congress the exclusivity of the legislation in the territory of the federal capital, the 83rd conceded to the President of the Nation the control over the capital, and the 91st stated there the residence of the National Supreme Court. The law for a federal capital was finally approved with prescriptions for the case of being unable to immediately set the capital in Buenos Aires, as indeed happened.
Another problematic issue was the Freedom of religion, to which a group of a few, though influential, delegates firmly opposed, headed by Centeno, Pérez, and strongly supported by Zuviría, Leiva and Díaz Colodrero. The arguments ranged from theological-juridical, for which Centeno affirmed the freedom of cult to be a natural right, to the pragmatic-historical, with Díaz Colodrero and Ferré stating that the existence of other cults could irritate the people and foment the apparition of new caudillos that would predicate in opposition to the constitution.
On the contrary, those more influenced by Alberdi and the ideas of the Generation of 1837 pleaded for the freedom of cults, pointing out that it would encourage immigration to Argentina, simplify the relations with foreign nations, and that the conscience was not a matter of legislation but of public acts.
The liberal sector prevailed 13 against 5, but the argument was dragged down to the abolition of religious privilege statutes; the obligation of professing the Catholic religion for all the state functionaries; and the conversion of the Native Americans.
Finally, it was decided that only the president had to be Catholic, a condition that was held until the constitutional reform of 1994.
The constitution
The final text consisted of a preamble and 107 articles, organized in two parts: one on the rights of the inhabitants, and one on the organization of the government.
The preamble was destined to affirm the legitimation of the Constitution, synthesizing the legislative and political program of the conventional delegates. To clear doubts about their interests it reminded them that the dictate of the constitution followed the pre-existing pacts subscribed by the provincial authorities; affirmed the project of guaranteeing the unity and inner peace and the formation of a common front towards the rest of the world; it stated the objective of populating the territory mentioning all men in the world who wish to inhabit the Argentine land; and invoked God's authority in a form acceptable both to religious persons and to illustrated deists.
Declarations, Rights and Guaranties
The 31 articles of the first part, entitled Declaraciones, Derechos y Garantías, established the fundament of the political regime; it is in this section that the difference with the 1826 constitution is most visible. It formally introduced the division of powers of the republican system, the political representation and federalism; it set the establishment of a federal capital; the authority of each province to dictate its own constitution and their autonomy in internal issues except in cases of insurrection or foreign attack; the political, judicial and customs union of the country; and the fundamental rights of the citizens.
Following the dispositions of the Assembly of 1813 who decreed the Law of Wombs, the constitution abolished slavery and the nobility titles, setting the juridical equality. The protection of the law extended to all the inhabitants of the country, not only to the citizens, in order to foment immigration; article 20th expressed it implicitly, and the 25th declared the official promotion of immigration.
The rights expressly recognized were gathered mainly in the 14th article, which instituted the freedom of work, navigation, commerce, residence and traveling, press, association, cult, education, and petition to the authorities. Other articles also detailed the protection of private property, the inviolability of the domicile, person, and mail, and the total freedom on private matters.
Various declarations of the first part were directly related to the national finances, and with challenging the Buenos Aires naval predominance. The 4th article nationalized the customs taxes income, the 9th and 10th reserved to the federal government the charge of rights and eliminated internal customs, and the 11th, 12th and 26th declared the freedom of transit.
Article 29, finally, transmitted the constitutional dispositions of the recent history, forbidding the concession of the sum of public power to any functionary, which had allowed Rosas to reach and sustain his second government.
Organization of the government
According to the republican system, the 76 articles of the second part established the division of the government into three independent powers: the legislative, executive and judicial. Only the last 7 brief articles were dedicated to the organization of the provincial governments, as they were to settle their own internal organization dictated by their own constitution.
Legislative power
The 32nd to 63rd articles contain the dispositions related to the legislative power. Its head is the Argentine Congress composed of a Senate, integrated by representatives of the provinces and the capital; and a Chamber of Deputies, that directly represent the Argentine people.
In Alberdi's project was explicitly stated that each deputy would represent a political entity that had chosen him—the province or the capital—and not the people directly, but this part was not included in the final text of the 1853 constitution.
Senators would be elected equitably, two for each province and the capital, with a capacity of one vote each. The deputies, on the other hand, would be assigned proportionally to the number of inhabitants of the province or the capital, considered electoral districts for this matter. The constitution didn't recognize in any way the existence of political parties, though very much likely to occur at the verge of the country's political organizations.
The incompatibilities inside the exercise of the legislative function extended to the priesthood's regular functions— in view of the vote of obedience that links the clerics with their superiors— and the activity in the executive power, as a ministry or any other positions alike, unless with special authorization. The constitution expressly dictated that the legislative function should be remunerated.
To avoid the influence of the executive power in the legislative activity of the congress, the legislators were granted immunity from judicial interrogation on subjects connected to their activity, and couldn't be arrested unless In flagrante delicto; only the congress itself could revoke such privileges and allow the investigation to take its course by a competent judge.
Only the chambers themselves could make decisions on the election, rights and titles of their own members; they were to elaborate the internal regulations and sanction the misconducts of their members.
For the sessions, it was required for the chambers to count with a minimum quorum of the absolute majority, though a session with a smaller number of members had the right to compel the presence of the absent.
A wider majority was required for the constitutional and regulatory reforms. The chambers had the power to question the ministers of the executive power, convoking them to present at them.
Both chambers had self-initiative on legislatorial matters, with a few exceptions. The approval of projects had to take place separately in both chambers; corrections and amends by one of the chambers had to be taken back to the chamber of origin for new voting, while the rejection of the project by one of the chambers forced it to be filed for the rest of the year.
Approved laws were given to the executive power for its promulgation; though they could be vetted by making use of its co-legislative power. Nevertheless, if less than two-thirds of the members of each chamber insisted on the approval of the law, the executive power had to forcefully promulgate it. At the redaction of the law, the phrase "The Senate and the Chamber of Deputies of the Confederation united in Congress sanction as law..." was forceful in the redaction of laws.
The ordinary sessions of the Congress gathered exceptionally in one single chamber called Legislative Assembly, took place from May 1 to September 30, and started with the presence of the president of the Nation.
The preparatory sessions incorporate the elected members, while the prorogation sessions are called by the chamber itself or the president to finalize the unconcluded matter at the end of the ordinary cycle.
The president can also call extraordinary sessions on an urgent matter during the period of recess.
Chamber of Deputies
The number of deputies was fixed to one per 20,000 inhabitants, or a fraction not smaller than 10,000; it was expressly authorized that these figures would be adjusted by the congress after each national census, though the relationship could only be incremented.
A transitory clause of the 34th article indicated a minimum of two deputies per province independent of its population; it assigned Buenos Aires city, Buenos Aires Province and Córdoba Province six deputies, four to the provinces of Corrientes and Santiago del Estero, three to Tucumán, Salta, Catamarca and Mendoza, and two to Santa Fe, San Juan, Entre Ríos, La Rioja Province, San Luis and Jujuy. Due to the absence of the representatives from Buenos Aires city until 1866, the chamber had only 38 deputies.
To qualify for the chamber, candidates had to be at least 25 years old and be Argentine citizens for at least four years. The clause demanding candidates to be born or stably reside in the province they represent wasn't added until the reform of 1860. De Ángelis's proposition of demanding candidates to practice a liberal profession or own lands was finally rejected.
The mandate of the deputies was to last for four years, with the possibility of reelection; the renovation of the chamber would take place by halves each 2 years; a transitory disposition set a casting of lots to choose the deputies that would have to leave their seats after two years in the first cycle of elections; what had to be repeated in other moments of the Argentine history, when the national congress was repeatedly dissolved by military governments during the 20th century.
The election of the deputies according to the constitution had to be done " by simple plurality of suffrages". The interpretation of this ambiguous phrase was a source of later disputes, but until 1912 predominated the doctrine that granted the party with the majority or first minority of votes designated the totality of the deputies for its legislative jurisdiction.
Later laws established an uninominal system of votes by circumscriptions, such as Law 4161/02 of "restricted suffrage"; the Law 8871/12 or Sáenz Peña Law for which the majority or first minority would have two-thirds of the seats, giving the rest to the following most voted party; the Law 14032/51 that again installed a uninominal system, and finally the proportional system of D'Hont.
The Chamber of Deputies had the exclusive power of initiative on laws regarding conscription and troupes recruiting, taxes, and would work as a prosecutor during impeachments against authorities of the three powers of the nations and the provincial governors, in which the Senate would act as the court. To approve a political trial, two-thirds of the chamber of deputies had to agree on the petition presented by one of its members.
The Senate
The election of the senators, and representatives of the provincial entities, corresponded to the legislatures created by the provincial governments, as well as that of the federal district of Buenos Aires city.
The electoral process was similar to the one for the presidential election, through an electoral college composed of electors directly voted by the people. The duration of the senatorial mandate was fixed to nine years, with the possibility of unlimited reelections, renewing the chamber by thirds every 3 years.
The Senate would hold two representatives of each province, regardless of its population; until 1860 26 senators from the 13 provinces excluding Buenos Aires Province and Buenos Aires City, comprised the chamber.
The requisites for the senatorial candidates were 30 years of age and six years of Argentine citizenship. The requisite of being born in, or resident of for at least 2 years, the electoral jurisdiction would be added in the 1860 constitutional reform. There was demanded an annual rent of 2,000 pesos fuertes, which some calculate to be equivalent to 3.3 kilograms of gold. It was an issue that became heavily discussed. Though it was finally approved, the lack of support and funds eventually led to its forgiveness. the presidency of the Senate corresponded to the vice-president of the Confederation, who could only vote in case of a tie.
This organization, in spite of the oligarchical characteristic of the minimal rent, differed greatly in the Unitarian project of 1819, that stipulated one senator per province and three for the Armed Forces, three for the Catholic Church, one for each university, and the former Supreme Directors of the Confederation after the finalisation of their mandates. It much closer resembled Alberdi's project of one senator per province with one substitute.
The Senate had exclusive competence in the initiatives of constitutional reform, and the judicial function during a political trial. Even though it didn't share with the president of the Nation faculties of foreign politics, as with the constitution of the United States from which the Argentine one was strongly inspired, the president needed the Senate's approval for declaring siege and for leaving the federal district.
It was also to be consulted in the designation of the ministers of the Supreme Court and the Federal Tribunals, the national ministers, and the higher positions of the Armed Forces and the representatives to the Vatican.
Transitory exercise of the Legislative Power
The first laws created under the application of the constitution were not dictated by the Congress but by the constitutional convention itself, as empowered by the San Nicolás Agreement. Among those laws were that of the federalization of Buenos Aires, the customs taxes, the free navigability and the statute of haciendas.
The Executive Power
Articles 71 to 90 contained the stipulations related to the executive power. Its control would rely on one single person with the title of "President of the Argentine Confederation". It had also a vice-president elected together with the president, who would become the head of the power in case of absence, incompetence or resignation of the president.
The requisites for the candidates to the presidency were similar to those for the Senate, with the additional conditions of being native Argentine citizens or child of a native citizen, and practice of the Catholic religion. The presidential mandate would last six years without the possibility of reelection until a whole presidential period had taken place, and under no circumstances could the mandate extend for more than six years since the original assumption date of the position.
The procedure for the presidential election was indirect; the electorate of each province would choose a number of delegates equal to twice the number of deputies and senators that that province could choose. The electors of each province would give their discretional vote for the candidate of their preference and would send a stamped copy of the resolution of the provincial electoral assembly to the Senate. Once received all the lists, the national legislative assembly would immediately elect by the suffrage plurally between the two most votes candidates, or more in case of a tie between the second places.
In case of not having a candidate with an absolute majority in the first instance, a ballotage would take place between the two most voted candidates. The quorum for this second election was three-quarters of the congressmen.
According to the first incise of the 90th article, the president was the supreme authority of the Confederation in what was called a presidential regime: the president need not answer for their actions to any superior authority, inside the mark given by the constitution, and did not require Congress approval for the exercise of the competent attributions. The president was also the chief of the Armed Forces, and head of the executive power of the city-designated federal capital of the nation.
The president also had co-legislative powers: besides the promulgation and sanction of laws dictated by the Congress, including the faculty of veto, the president was in charge of the expedition of appropriate regulations for the application of the law, called decrees, though respecting the spirit of originality of the law. The signature of treaties with other states was subscribed exclusively to the president, as well as the decision of following or not following the documents emitted by the Supreme Catholic Pontiff
With the authority in foreign politics, the president was in charge of naming the ambassadors and other ministers in charge of the negotiation with foreign institutions; the designation of the heads of the embassies required senatorial agreement —another sign of the influence of the constitution of the United States— but could decide the lower positions without the Senate's interference.
Therefore, the president was the authority in charge of the military business; able to command the Army, designate its officers — with agreement of the Senate for the higher ranks — call for parades, carte blanches, and declare war or siege in case of a foreign attack.
Regarding the judicial power, it was up to the president to designate the judges of the federal tribunals, but with the agreement of the Senate. The president had also the faculty of pardoning crimes convicted in federal jurisdiction, except in cases of political trial.
The president didn't have the ability to impose convictions, but could decree —in case of siege— temporal arrest or imposed transfer of persons, unless these preferred to abandon the national territory. Without the consent of the Congress, these measures became void ten days after being dictated.
As responsible for the national administration, the president was in charge of the collection of the national rent and its distribution, within the mark of the law of national budget; the president had also the faculty to grant licenses, and to inquire on any matter of the national administration.
The constitution was established as five ministries, for which the president could elect its ministers. These ministries were Domestic Affairs, Foreign Relationships, Economy, Justice, Cult and Public Instruction (Education), and War and Navy.
The ministerial referendum was necessary for the government decrees. Ministers were also obligated to give reports to the Congress at the opening of the sessions, of which they could also take part, though without the right of vote in order to avoid the incompatibility with the exercise of the legislative power.
Judicial Power
The organization of the judicial power is comprehended from articles 91 to 100. Given its short length, an important part of its definitions and form of organization was established by the legislative power in the sessions of the Congress, concerning most of the constitutional text to the organization and attributions of the National Supreme Court.
The judicial power was integrally under the control of the Supreme Court and the inferior tribunals for constitutional matters, related to federal laws, international treaties, or maritime jurisdiction.
It was explicitly stated that the president could have no knowledge of the judicial whereabouts. Also to the federal tribunals the matters between actors of different provinces, that implied foreign diplomats, or those in which the government of a province or the Confederation itself took part. Matters involving diplomats, provinces or powers of the provincial governments were only competence of the Supreme Court.
The constitution stipulated the regulations for jury trials for the penal matters; yet the proceedings were never regulated, and its implementation remains pendant even in the current Argentine constitution, who still conserves this redaction.
The only crime that the Constitution details is that of treason against the Confederation, defined as "To take arms against the Confederation, or [...] join its enemies providing them help or assistance". The punishment was to be decided by the Congress, and it was prohibited to impose sanctions on any other than the perpetrator.
The Supreme Court
The Supreme Court of Justice was composed by a tribunal of 9 judges, and two prosecutors. Its seat would be in the federal capital. It was demanded for the head of the Ministry of Justice to be a lawyer with at least eight years of experience, as well as the requisites of the candidates to the Senate.
The minister would take oath to the president of the court—exceptionally to the president of the Confederation at its conformation—and were unremovable except in cases of misconduct. The remuneration for the position would be set by law, but could not be reduced while in functions. The Court would be in charge of the determination of its own regulations.
The Supreme Court defined by the Constitution of 1853 never became reality, even though Urquiza designated in 1854 its members, among which were Facundo Zuviría and Martín Zapata. After the reform of 1860, the number of its members was to be decided by Law of the Congress rather than being constitutionally fixed.
The government of the provinces
The last seven articles of the Constitution detail the regime of the provincial governments. Its organization was only tied to the stipulations of the provincial constitutions, independently of the federal government.
At the same time, they conserved all the attributions that the national constitution hadn't expressly given the federal government. Among these were the legislation on commerce and navigation; the customs' impositions or weight rights; emission of currency unless delegation of the central government; the establishment of civil, commerce, penal and mining codes; citizenship legislation; a gathering of war troupes; and the direct actuation with foreign states, including the Vatican.
War actions between provinces or between a province and the federal state were illegitimate, and such conflicts were to be solved by the Supreme Court of Justice. The provinces were expressly empowered to promote, within the federal legislation, the development of their own territories.
The resulting regime was markedly federal, and this was one of the main reasons that Buenos Aires refused to subscribe to it. The legislative porteños rejected being on the same level as, what they qualified mockingly, the thirteen huts (for the thirteen provinces).
The incorporation of Buenos Aires to the Confederation required the suspension of the constitution and the resignation of the custom rights. This implied that for decades the president of the nation had to put up with the governor of Buenos Aires, who was the direct chief of the administration of the surrounding area, and meant that the presidential power often faced a wall of bureaucracy.
The federalization of Buenos Aires didn't effectively take place until 1880, when the League of Governors, headed by Julio Argentino Roca, finally imposed it by the use of arms, against the porteño Bartolomé Mitre. Nevertheless, by that time the provincial oligarchies had already adopted a profile similar to that of their Unitarian counterparts, with the development of the model of agricultural exportations, and the formation of extensive Latifundios (large estates) that would control the national economy during the following five decades. The possibility of developing models of provincial powers different from that of Buenos Aires was gone, and with it the effective federalism of the constitution.
The 1853 Constitution and Argentine political history
The 1853 constitution was a fundamental step towards Argentine unity. The events that followed gave it —as with all symbolically foundational moments— an importance that does not necessarily correspond with the actual impact it had at that time. It was, after all, rejected by Buenos Aires, and questioned by some of the most traditionalist constitutional delegates. Regardless, constitutional delegates were aware of its impact. Facundo Zuviría, in his speech following the original declaration, said "You have just exercised the most grave, most solemn, most sublime act that is given to a man in his moral life".
The biggest prize fell on Domingo Faustino Sarmiento and his contemporaries, who saw in the adoption of federalism a victory of their liberal principles.
When the historical revisionism —criticising the devastation of the national industry, the flourishing of large estates, and the internal colonialism resulting from the liberal politic of the Generation of '80— revised the origins of constitutional text, it referred to the same general criteria idea but in an inverse sense. Sarmiento and Roca describe the constitution as a means to modernise the country through free commerce, European immigration, the abolition of provincial political leadership, and the dislocation of the traditional cultures inherited from Spain and adapted during centuries to the local peculiarities.
On the other hand, revisionists see in that constitution the means of destruction of the national Argentine identity due to; the destruction of the national industry by the introduction of foreign companies, merchants and investors; the displacement of populations from their own lands and way of life by waves of immigrants and the consequent social and economical turbulence; and the restriction of political representation to the literate and mercantile bourgeois.
Both alternatives adopt the same structure, exposed with magistral rhetoric in Sarmiento's exhortation Civilization or Barbarism.
The revisionists didn't just revise history limited to the barbarian character of Sarmiento's civilization. That being a civilization that was founded from; the displacement of the aboriginals, the massive sacrifice of gauchos and morenos conscripted for the successive wars of the Triple Alliance and the Conquest of the Desert, the brutal accumulation of lands for the formation of latifundios or large estates for agricultural export, and the destruction of the emerging national industry and the systematic electoral fraud.
Historian José María Rosa pointed out the linguistic game of the lemma:
"Civilisation —related to our city—, was understood in an opposite sense: as of the foreigners; whereas Barbarism —from the Barbarians, that is foreigners— signified, in the liberal language, the Argentine in contraposition to the European."
J. M. Rosa, Análisis de la dependencia argentina, IV:36
Later authors, some of them close to revisionism, have nevertheless pointed out that by accepting the opposition of its general terms, revisionism lost the opportunity to re-evaluate the opposition on which it is based: the liberal porteño bourgeoises and that of the provincial capitals on one side, and the semi-literate rural population on the other. The Unitarian Doctors —Rivadavia, Echeverría, Alberdi— would represent the first option, of whose plumes would flow the constitution; the federal caudillos —Quiroga, Güemes, Rosas— the second, reluctant to fix once and for all the political bonds.
For these authors, the alternative reflects one of the clashes effectively existent in the Argentine politics of that time: between the illustrated classes, based on the principles of the theoretic right of the millenary European tradition; and the pragmatic provincial leaders, men of action rather than theory.
Given the intellectual ambient of the moment, in which the ideologists of the French revolutionaries had given place to the illumining positivism, it was natural that the thought of the first inclined for the defence of the liberal order, in which the abolition of the historical and traditional limits gave in for a new era of cooperation between people. The free market would give way to a specialisation of the countries in their areas of comparative advantage, resulting in the common improvement.
The interpretation that the revisionists make of this posture in terms of direct personal interest — the illustrated bourgeois was at the same time holder of the porteño commercial capital, that directly benefited from the importation of goods; in several instances the visible hand of foreign business interests influenced the invisible hand of the free market, offering support both economic and social to political elements which would be more amenable to their economic interests. The Marxist interpretations—that even though centred on explaining the logic of the event that took place rather than the individualities, haven't ignored this criterion— also leave several aspects unattended.
To understand the fractions that converged in the dictation of the 1853 constitution, two aspects have been distinguished that the conventional historiography has simplified in the dichotomy between Federals and Unitarians.
On the one hand, it is necessary to note that the high-class had several fractions in unstable equilibrium: the commercial bourgeois of the port, the cattle bourgeois of the Littoral Mesopotamia, the small bourgeois layers of the cities of the landlocked provinces; and on the other hand, to understand the process of economical and cultural world integration —since by then, 150 years before the common use of the word, the state problem had already the view of globalisation in virtue of the expansion of the world market in the European economical potencies— did not necessarily imply, as it did in the Argentine history, the complete abandonment of the national production, and therefore of the country's modernisation would have been taken place without the loss of the national identity. Even if the ideals of the 1853 constitution, and Alberdi's writings that served as its base, depended in great part on the project of integrating Argentina into the world processes, the compromise with the economic liberalism was not necessarily coded in them.
The expressed objective of the constitutional project, as that of the political projects exposed shortly before and after, was that of modernising the nation; which in an emerging state, meant little more than creating it.
An important part of the national thinkers considered that the project of modernisation imposed an almost total rupture with the Spanish colonial past; since Esteban Echeverría to Sarmiento and the Generación del '80, the search for the Argentine insertion in the modern world was based on the importation of theories, practices and even people.
Such a rupture demanded certain kinds of conditions and dispositions; the complementation of the European markets would benefit the merchants of the port and the higher classes, capable of consuming material and symbolic luxury goods that this commerce provided, but affecting the rural and lower classes, which were displaced from the productive system in which they were situated. Aware of this, the leaders most opposed to Rivadavia's program concealed the task of formation of the state as a 'restoration' of the state that Rivadavia's reforms had broken: therefore, Rosas's title of "Restaurateur of Laws" that referred not to the Positive laws of the Right of Indias, but to the Natural law of the traditional nationals. The problem of this view was the impossibility, for a long time in Rosas' period, of effectively developing the national state. The restoration of the order, that in previous years had dissolved in the successive confrontations between the caudillos and the hegemony of the new Buenos Aires metropolis, resulted in a paralyzing of the process of building a state.
When the sanction of the constitution broke that phase, and searching to introduce the new governmental system, the matter returned with all sharpness.
The position of Buenos Aires was obvious since the beginning: wealthy mainly because of the customs taxes income, and with its main productive bourgeois class compromised by the market exchange with Europe, it supported the unrestricted aperture.
The federal compromise of the provinces allowed to foresee a different future, still with the adoption of a governmental regime based fundamentally on foreign ideas. The definite fall of the federal idea would not be originated in the constitution but in the eventual resignation of provincial interests. In the Battle of Pavón, the leaders of the forces of the Littoral Mesopotamia preferred to join the commercial interests —being themselves great estate holders— rather than defending the formation of an internal consumer market.
Alberdi, usually considered liberal by revisionists and therefore an enemy of the country's interests, harshly criticized Urquiza from his exile, who left the national structure in the hands of the porteños, and of Mitre, who used in the years of the police war against the provinces and in this action the achieved triumph of extreme liberalism of the capital over the integrationist federalism of the provinces of the littoral.
Mitre's politic would eliminate the possibility of resistance from the provinces, making impossible Alberdi's, Andrade's and José Hernández's attempts to guarantee the union. When under Julio Argentino Roca's government a unified Argentina became a reality, it was at the expense of the disappearing of the social layout of the provinces and their productive capacity. The federal shape of the constitution was, during the years of modern Argentina, a simple coalition of the illustrated classes throughout the country. It would not be until immigration produced its effects and mobilized the masses against the oligarchy that this order would be altered.
Notes
References
Constitutions of Argentina
History of Argentina (1852–1880)
1853 in Argentina
1853 establishments in Argentina
1853 in law
1853 documents
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Poelcappelle
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Battle of Poelcappelle
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The Battle of Poelcappelle was fought in Flanders, Belgium, on 9 October 1917 by the British Second Army and Fifth Army against the German 4th Army, during the First World War. The battle marked the end of the string of highly successful British attacks in late September and early October, during the Third Battle of Ypres. Only the supporting attack in the north achieved a substantial advance. On the main front, the German defences withstood the limited amount of artillery fire achieved by the British after the attack of 4 October. The ground along the main ridges had been severely damaged by shelling and rapidly deteriorated in the rains, which began again on 3 October, turning some areas back into swamps.
Dreadful ground conditions had more effect on the British, who needed to move large amounts of artillery and ammunition to support the next attack. The battle was a defensive success for the 4th Army, although costly to both sides. The weather and ground conditions put severe strain on all the infantry involved and led to many wounded being stranded on the battlefield. Early, misleading information and delays in communication led Plumer and Haig to plan the attack of 12 October (the First Battle of Passchendaele) under the impression that a substantial advance had taken place at Passchendaele ridge when most of the captured ground had been lost to German counter-attacks.
Background
Strategic background
It was important that the British kept the initiative; an attack was being prepared by the British Third Army at Cambrai for late November. The troubles in the French Army stemming from the Nivelle Offensive in April and the forthcoming attack (the Battle of La Malmaison) on the Aisne, made it desirable that the large number of German divisions drawn from the French front should not return. At Verdun on 20 August, the French achieved a substantial success; there was no German counter-stroke or counter-offensive as the local had been sent to Flanders. By October 1917, many German divisions on the rest of the Western Front had been engaged in Flanders, some more than once; maintaining the pressure also constrained German operations on the Russian and Italian fronts. After the Battle of Broodseinde on 4 October, the first of the Black Days of the German Army, Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), believed that the 4th Army was close to collapse, due to the large number of Germans taken prisoner and encouraging intelligence gleaned from the battlefield.
Tactical developments
On 28 September, Haig met General Hubert Gough (Fifth Army) and General Herbert Plumer (Second Army) to explain his intentions. After the victories of 20 and 26 September, the fine weather, the disarray of the German defenders and the limited prospect of German reinforcements from the Russian front, Haig decided that the attack on 4 October would conclude the period of strictly limited advances. The following step would be a deeper advance, with provision made for exploitation. Haig wanted reserve formations of infantry, artillery, cavalry and tanks to be ready to extend a successful attack.
Gough and Plumer replied over the next couple of days, that they felt that Haig's proposals were premature and that exploitation would not be feasible until Passchendaele ridge had been captured from Passchendaele northwards to Westroosebeke. Gough and Plumer thought that this would probably take two more steps at three-day intervals and then another four days to repair roads over the captured ground. Haig considered that although a collapse of the German defence was a condition for exploitation of the attack due on 10 October, which was not guaranteed, he desired that arrangements be made. If the German defences did not collapse, the preparations would be available for a later date.
At another conference on 2 October, Haig announced that operations at Ypres would continue for as long as the weather permitted, that six fresh divisions were being moved from quiet fronts to the Fifth Army and that the Canadian Corps was being moved to the Second Army. Immediate exploitation, should the attack intended for 10 October succeed, was to be accomplished by each attacking division keeping its reserve brigade lightly equipped, accompanied by two batteries, two howitzer batteries and four field artillery brigades. If the infantry brigades conducting the morning attack reported a big success, their reserve brigades would continue the advance in the afternoon.
The reserve brigades of the attacking divisions of I and II Anzac corps were to reach Drogenbroodhoek in the south, beyond Broodseinde, Passchendaele station on the Morslede road in the centre and gain touch with the Fifth Army on the Westroosebeke road north of Passchendaele. A reserve division of each corps was to be ready behind the front, which the Director-General of Transportation, Major-General Philip Nash, undertook to have on the battlefield in 3½– if given three hours' notice. The divisions in corps reserve would be ready by the following morning to advance beyond the reserve brigades if German resistance crumbled. A cavalry division was given to each army to operate with the reserve divisions, two tank battalions were attached to the Second Army and a tank brigade to the Fifth Army to exploit the firmer going, should the advances take place.
Prelude
British preparations
In the early morning of 4 October, news arrived at British Headquarters (HQ) of the great success of the attack. Brigadier-General Charteris, Chief Intelligence Officer at General Headquarters, was sent from Haig's Advanced HQ to the Second Army HQ to discuss exploitation. Plumer did not agree that it was possible because eight more uncommitted German divisions were behind the battlefield and there were another six beyond them; Plumer preferred to wait until the expected German counter-attacks that day had been defeated. German artillery fire was still heavy and the and (defensive positions) behind the attack front could be occupied by the fresh German divisions. An attack on these defensive lines would need close artillery support, which would be impossible because the British artillery was behind a severely battered strip of muddy ground wide. As the magnitude of the victory became apparent, Plumer had second thoughts but by accepted that the moment had passed. Gough ordered the Fifth Army to advance further and then cancelled the instruction, after a local German counter-attack was reported to have pushed the 4th Division off
Rain fell again on 4 October, continued on 5 and 6 October then became a downpour on 7 October. On 5 October, General William Birdwood, commander of I Anzac Corps, told Plumer that the exploitation would not be possible as the Corps light railway and the Westhoek to Zonnebeke road could not carry forward all the artillery necessary. On 7 October, Haig cancelled the exploitation attack to the second objective (red line), intended for the afternoon of 9 October. The rain stopped that night and the ground began to dry on 8 October, until late afternoon when another downpour began. From 4 to 9 October, over of rain fell, during a month when average rainfall was . According to James Edmonds, the official historian, the Corps Chief Engineers and divisional Commanders Royal Engineers (CRE), considered that the ground conditions did not create serious transport difficulties to the front line until 4 October. In some places the going was good enough up to 12 October, except in some areas where the ground became impassable. The area behind II Anzac Corps, near the Steenbeek and its tributaries, was called "a porridge of mud" (sic). Duck-board tracks were extended to short of the front line, beyond which was a taped row of stakes illuminated with lamps at night; pack animals trampled many of the tracks and stakes into the mud.
Extension of the plank roads behind the two Anzac Corps proved impossible during the rain which began on 4 October, planks sinking or floating away. The field artillery of II Anzac Corps was not able to move forward as planned from west of the Steenbeek to the Zonnebeke–Winnipeg road. Platforms were improvised to keep them out of the mud but the failure to move left them from the morning objective, out of range of the German field artillery beyond Passchendaele. The field batteries for the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division were placed beyond Frezenburg, along the Zonnebeke road short of their intended positions. Conditions for the gunners deteriorated rapidly, with dugouts flooding in the rain. A sharp increase in illness led to breakdowns in the system of reliefs, just when the workload was at its highest. Instead of the usual pieces in the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division, one field brigade only got into action and the other was unable to fire until after the attack began.
The field guns of the 49th (West Riding) Division were still along the Wieltje–Gravenstafel road, west of the Steenbeek, with only a few forward on the other side behind Hill 35. Transport of ammunition by pack animal was only possible to guns kept within of roads. Journeys previously an hour-long took from 6 to 16 hours and the ammunition arrived coated with slime. The effect of the rain was not uniform and further north, in the area of XIV Corps and the French First Army, the ground had not been damaged as much by shell-fire. Despite considerable difficulty, the field artillery was moved to within of the final objective and ample ammunition and field stores were brought forward. XIV Corps had of three hundred and twelve 18-pounder guns in groups, one for each division, the Guards group having ; the medium and heavy artillery being grouped similarly.
Plan
The arrangements agreed by Haig, Gough and Plumer on 2 October, the effect of the victory of 4 October and the disarray of the German defenders, led to the attack planned for 10 October being advanced to 9 October, with a second attack being arranged for 12 October. Attacking a front of , it was intended to capture Passchendaele ridge in two stages. The first objective (red line) would be captured by a morning attack, which if successful and the cause of a general withdrawal by the Germans, would be followed-up by the reserve brigades of the attacking divisions, which would advance to the second objective (blue line) in the afternoon. On 7 October Haig cancelled the afternoon attack to the blue line due to the wet weather.
On the southern flank of the attack, X Corps was to attack to hold German reserves around Becelaere and Gheluvelt. To the north, I Anzac Corps was to advance on the right flank of the main attack, with the 1st and 2nd Australian divisions, the 4th and 5th Australian divisions being in reserve. Further north, II Anzac Corps with the New Zealand and 3rd Australian divisions in reserve, was to attack two objectives, the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division, advancing along the main ridge, north of the Ypres–Roulers railway to just short of Passchendaele village and the 49th (West Riding) Division on either side of the Ravebeek stream, up Wallemolen spur to the Bellevue pillboxes. If the first objectives were reached, the reserve brigades were to attack the second objectives in the afternoon. The second objectives were ahead of the red line, beyond the village and the main ridge, respectively. The reserve divisions were ready to move rapidly forward, by train from west of Ypres to continue the attack the next day.
On the Fifth Army front, XVIII Corps with a brigade each from the 48th (South Midland) Division and 11th (Northern) Division, was to advance up Poelcappelle spur and towards Westroosebeke on the main ridge. XIV Corps was to advance to the south edge of Houthoulst Forest with the 4th, 29th and Guards divisions, as the French First Army conformed on its left. Raids and artillery bombardments were arranged along the rest of the front to deceive the Germans as to the British objectives.
German preparations
Opposite I Anzac Corps the 233rd Division held the line, with the 220th Division as its counter-attack () division. To the north against II Anzac Corps, were the 195th Division and part of 16th Division, with the 20th Division and 45th Reserve Divisions as divisions; further north was the 227th Division. The 18th Division held near Poelcappelle and the 119th Division held Houthoulst Forest. The Germans were also hampered by the weather but as their positions were on the edge of the beaten zone, routes to their front line were in better condition until closer to the front. A German soldier wrote,
On 7 October, the 4th Army headquarters rescinded the policy of a reinforced front defence zone, to avoid another disaster like 4 October. Front line regiments were dispersed again, with their reserve battalions moved back behind the artillery protective line. More artillery was to be used against British artillery to protect the as they advanced. The were placed closer to the front line, to intervene as swiftly as possible once an attack commenced, despite the risk of being devastated by the British artillery. On 9 October, Ludendorff issued a memorandum to all Western Front divisions, complaining that were being misused. Dispersal, poorly timed attacks, disorganisation and poor co-ordination with the artillery had led to high casualties. Ludendorff emphasised that the reserve units of ground holding divisions, should conduct hasty attacks () to push attackers out of their area. units should not be used to reinforce ground-holding divisions for hasty counter-attacks but were to be used only for properly organised counter-attacks (). As far as possible the were to avoid casualties, unless lost ground was tactically important enough to recapture.
Battle
Second Army
In the X Corps area to the south, the 15th Brigade of the 5th Division attacked Polderhoek Château. The brigade reached the château ruins behind a creeping barrage and engaged the pillboxes in the vicinity but mud clogged many weapons. German machine-gun fire from Gheluvelt forced the brigade back to the start line and an attack that night was cancelled. Further north the 95th Brigade attacked astride the Reutelbeek, advanced past Cameron Covert and was then stopped by German machine-gun fire. (The 21st Division, between the 5th and 7th Division, was not part of the attack.) Two battalions of the 22nd Brigade of the 7th Division managed to assemble on time, despite the sodden ground and advanced at to the blue line, which had been the final objective of the 21st Division in the attack of 4 October. Within green flares on the objective (blue line) showed that it had been captured. A report arrived that the commanding ground around Reutel had been captured and that many Germans had been shot while fleeing. The advance had been held up at Juniper Cottage and German guns in a gap near Judge Copse also held up the infantry; a reserve platoon was sent up but was also unable to clear the Copse. Eventually two companies captured the area by attacking from the south-east. The Germans shelled the area all night and all next day but no counter-attack was attempted.
In the I Anzac Corps area north of X Corps, the 1st Australian Division raided Celtic Wood and only fourteen of returned unwounded. The 2nd Australian Division was to cover the right flank of the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division south of the Ypres–Roulers railway, by pivoting to its right. The 6th Australian Brigade on the right flank, attacked towards Daisy and Dairy woods on a front but were quickly stopped by German machine-gun fire; later in the afternoon the woods were outflanked from the north and the objective was reached. Two battalions of the 5th Australian Brigade advanced to the north-west end of the Keiberg Spur; the battalions were under strength and were unable properly to mop up German troops who had been by-passed. German reinforcements infiltrated behind the Australians, endangering them with encirclement. Before troops from the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division could come up, the Australian brigade withdrew with many casualties; during the withdrawal, British troops were seen advancing north of the railway. By the time reinforcements were ready to attempt another advance to support them, the British troops had also retired and the 5th Australian Brigade consolidated on the first objective.
The main attack was conducted by the II Anzac Corps. Two brigades each from 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division and the 49th (West Riding) Division, assembled behind Frezenberg and Potijze, about from the jumping off line. The brigades were expected to cover the distance in five hours but the dark, rain, state of the ground and fitful German artillery fire caused serious delays. Both divisions reported at that some battalions would not be ready for zero hour at and that all of the 197th Brigade on the right flank would be late. Staff officers were sent out to hurry on every man capable of going faster, rather than keeping units together. When the creeping barrage began, the troops who had arrived spread out and followed the barrage. The creeper was difficult to follow, because much of the field artillery was out of action, some of the rest fired inaccurately from unstable platforms and many high-explosive shells were smothered by the mud.
The battalions of the 197th Brigade, 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division on the right, advanced quickly on sandy going, despite lagging far behind the creeping barrage. German infantry from the 195th Division were found in shell holes and many were taken prisoner as the British reached the final objective (blue line) at a patrol finding Passchendaele village empty. Soon after arriving at the final objective, the rain stopped and in the better visibility, German machine guns and field artillery began to fire from the right flank. At noon, both flanks of the brigade were swung back to find neighbouring units, which the troops in the centre followed, under the impression that it was a general withdrawal and the brigade ended up at the red line. After stopping a German counter-attack in the late afternoon, the division withdrew slightly to gain touch with the 49th (West Riding) Division on the left and find cover from machine guns on the Bellevue Spur. The 198th Brigade on the left had to struggle through mud and flooded trenches, north of the Ravebeek. German machine-gun fire from the pillboxes at Bellevue away, stopped the infantry half way to the red line, despite a further attempt to advance by the supporting battalions.
The German pillboxes at Bellevue were able to fire on the 198th Brigade, because the attack by the 148th Brigade on the right of the 49th (West Riding) Division stalled in the swamp astride the Ravebeek, only a few parties getting across. The creeping barrage was thin and moved at in six minutes, far too fast for the infantry. The barrage was lost on the right flank at the marshy edges of the Stroombeek and German riflemen and machine-gunners fired through the British barrage, particularly from Bellevue and the Yetta Slopes. Peter Pan on the left was captured by the 146th Brigade and by the first objective (red line) had been reached. An attempt by following waves to leap-frog through the troops on the red line failed, due to the volume of fire from the Bellevue pillboxes. One attack got to within of Bellevue and a later attempt at a flanking attack was stopped by machine-gun fire. The attack on the Yetta Houses, was also raked by machine-gun fire and on the left stopped short of the objective.
The 147th Brigade was alerted and put on one hour's notice by and during the morning and troops from the supporting battalions of the attacking brigades filled gaps in the line. The final position reached was beyond the first objective, from which a line of posts ran from south of Wolf Farm to the eastern edge of Wolf Copse and from there to the south-east of Wolf Copse, with an advanced post south-east of the Copse. A support line was dug along the first objective and several small counter-attacks were seen off. Troops from a reserve battalion were sent up to the vicinity of Peter Pan and more troops occupied the old British front line. Around a company managed to work around Peter Pan and capture the pillboxes, which allowed the advance to continue up to a field of barbed wire, from Bellevue. More wire had been spread around the pillboxes, which were part of . More German machine guns had been hidden in shell-holes and after several attempts to advance, the troops dug in half-way up the slope.
The 146th Brigade found a bridge on the Gravenstafel road and got forward several hundred yards up the Wallemolen spur beyond the Ravebeek, before being stopped at by the machine guns in the Bellevue pillboxes and a field of uncut wire wide in front of the pillboxes, which obstructed all of the divisional front. At about a reconnaissance report from a contact patrol aircraft crew had the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division and 49th (West Riding) Division at the final objective. Despite the scepticism of the brigade staff officers, both divisions were ordered to push forward reserves to consolidate the line. In ignorance of the cause of the check, the divisional HQ sent forward the 147th Brigade and the rest of the supporting battalions of the attacking brigades, which were either pinned down or held back on Gravenstafel spur, as the cause of the check was realised. In the afternoon the 148th and 146th brigades were near the red line, having had The right of the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division rested on the railway beyond Keerselaarhoek below the main ridge, then north past Augustus Wood to the Ravebeek. The 49th (West Riding) Division line began in the valley at Marsh Bottom, then along the bottom of the Bellevue slopes above the Ravebeek, to Peter Pan and Yetta Houses, then on to the XVIII Corps boundary of the 144th Brigade of the 48th (South Midland) Division at Adler Farm. Small groups were isolated further up the Bellevue slopes, on the western edge of Wolf Copse, Wolf Farm and a cemetery on the northern boundary.
Fifth Army
In the XVIII Corps area, a brigade each of the 48th (South Midland) Division and 11th (Northern) Division, took 14½ hours on the night of to reach the front line through mud and rain. When the brigades attacked, they were swept by machine-gun fire from the fresh German 16th Division, which had crept forward in the dark and occupied shell-hole positions so close to the British jumping-off line, that the British barrage overshot them. The British infantry lost the barrage, which was as ineffective as elsewhere due to shells being smothered and moving at in four minutes, too fast for the conditions. The German counter-barrage arrived after seven minutes and was equally ineffective. The British destructive bombardment on German positions was much more damaging than the creeping bombardment and caused the Germans considerable casualties.
The German pillboxes were mostly untouched and a great amount of small-arms fire from them caused many British casualties from cross-fire and traversing fire. Positions dug into the ruins of Poelcappelle were used to fire in enfilade against the attackers. The British advance was stopped beyond the front line on the left, at the Brewery near Polcappelle, from where the troops withdrew to their jumping-off trenches to reorganise. As this retirement was seen, the survivors of other units on the left flank and in the centre conformed. On the right flank, the German defence had been far less determined and more ground could have been taken but for the failure on the left. The ground was consolidated and reinforcements were brought up between Pheasant Farm and Retour Crossroads. Prisoners reported many casualties in the German division opposite, due to it being fresh and willing to fight to hold its ground. After the fighting ended, both sides recovered wounded during a local truce.
In the XIV Corps area, the 4th Division attacked with one brigade on an front. The limited progress of the XVIII Corps attack to the south restricted the advance to just beyond Poelcappelle and a new line was consolidated beyond the Poelcappelle–Houthoulst road. On the left flank to the north, the final objective of the 29th Division was forward on the right and on the left. The attacking troops had moved up the night before in torrential rain, the Newfoundland Battalion on the left flank, taking 4½ hours, to travel to the front line. The advance was made in three stages, with an hour to consolidate behind standing and smoke barrages at the first and intermediate objectives. The rain stopped at midnight and the attack began at On the right, German machine guns at Olga Farm caused many casualties and a delay but the first objective was reached on time. The surviving troops advanced on Condé House by rushes from shell-holes and took when they reached it.
Fire from two German pillboxes stopped the advance and a German counter-attack began from the pillboxes. German infantry attacked in eight waves and the British engaged them with rifle and machine-gun fire. At the barrage for the advance to the third (final) objective began and smothered the remaining German infantry; German resistance collapsed and the final objective was reached at The left brigade advanced to the right of Bear Copse, which was specially bombarded by Stokes mortars, which induced the German garrison to surrender. The Broembeek was crossed by the Newfoundland Battalion, which advanced up the Ypres–Staden railway, captured German dugouts in the embankment and reached the first objective on time. The advance to the second objective found much reduced German resistance and the final objective further on was reached. A counter-attack was defeated at noon and then a retirement of was made, in the face of another counter-attack later in the afternoon; German infantry left the area vacant.
The Guards Division was to cross the Broembeek and close up to Houthoulst Forest, on a front from the Ypres–Staden railway, to the junction with the French army near Craonne Farm. Before the attack and enough wire to cover of front was carried forward by the pioneer battalion; much digging was done but the rain destroyed trenches as they were built. The two attacking brigades moved up late on 7 October in torrential rain, which stopped at midnight on and the morning dawned fine with a drying wind. The barrage came down prompt at and after four minutes began to creep forward at a rate of in eight minutes. Crossing the Broembeek was easier than expected, as the German infantry nearby surrendered readily.
Little German resistance was encountered on the right, except from a German pillbox at Egypt House, whence the Guards pulled their right flank back under sniper fire, as they waited for Newfoundland troops of 29th Division to come up. The left brigade bypassed a German strongpoint and reached the final objective, taking the strongpoint later in the afternoon. Consolidation was hampered by German snipers in Houthoulst Forest and German aircraft appeared over the new front line, which was forward on the Veldhoek–Vijwegen spur. No counter-attack was made until the evening, beyond the right flank on the 29th Division front, which withdrew a short distance. On the left of the Guards Division, German troops massing at the junction with the French 2nd Division to the north were dispersed by machine-gun fire from gunners, who had advanced to the final objective with the infantry and by British artillery fire.
Ire Armée
The French First Army, between the British Fifth Army to the south and the Belgian Army further north, attacked on 31 July, south of the inundations and advanced to the west of Wijdendreft and Bixschoote. On 1 August, the 51st Division on the left flank had captured ground from the Martjevaart and St Jansbeek to Drie Grachten. The axis of the French advance was along the banks of the Corverbeek, towards the south and south-eastern fringes of Houthulst Forest, the villages of Koekuit, Mangelaere, blockhouses and pillboxes, which connected the forest with the German line southwards towards Poelcappelle. On the left flank, the French were covered by the Belgian Army, which held the ground about Knocke and the Yser inundations. On 9 October, the French 2nd Division of I Corps, was to attack towards Houthulst Forest with the British XIV Corps attack on Poelcappelle. The French artillery subjected the German defences east and south-east of Houthulst Forest to a three-day bombardment. At a creeping-barrage began to move very slowly forwards over a "sea" of mud. The artillery-fire was so effective, that despite an extremely slow infantry advance, the French objectives were reached by with few casualties.
After crossing the flooded Broembeek at its confluence with the Steenbeek near St Jean, just before the point where the Steenbeek becomes the St Jansbeek, through a wide and shallow depression filled with mud, the 2nd Division captured the villages of St Jean, Veldhoek and Mangelaere on the outskirts of the forest and drove back the Germans from several fortified farms and pillboxes. The average depth of the advance was and was accomplished in four hours, despite the ground conditions, with fewer than I Corps took Despite rain, low cloud and high winds, French airmen had flown low, strafed German infantry and carried out tactical reconnaissance. On the right of the French, the Guards Division co-operated in the capture of Koekuit, having also crossed the mud of the Broembeek. German counter-attacks recovered a strongpoint at the north end of the French attack front, until expelled in by a local counter-attack. On the left flank of the Franco-British offensive, the attack was a complete success.
Air operations
The bright dry weather at Ypres during September ended and high winds, rain and low cloud obscured the battlefield on 4 October. Heavy rain fell on 7 and 8 October and severely hampered air operations and no artillery observation was achieved by the British from German artillery behind the Passchendaele Ridge and Gheluvelt Plateau was not detected and very little British counter-battery fire was achieved. Wire cutting by the artillery which did get into action was inadequate, in the areas where there was no ground observation. Little flying was attempted during 9 October but II and V brigade aircrews, managed fifteen contact and seventeen counter-attack patrols at very low level. The progress of the attack was reported with some accuracy and calls were made against German artillery and parties of infantry, artillery batteries were engaged for destruction and neutralisation. Over the XIV Corps area, aircraft from 9 Squadron flew through the barrage to observe the infantry advance and had five aircrew casualties. Aircraft of the army wing made reconnaissance flights over the German lines and shot down four German fighters, for one aircraft lost and one pilot wounded.
German 4th Army
The 233rd Division, opposite I Anzac Corps, did not need the support of the 220th () Division. To counter-attack the II Anzac Corps, the 16th Division and 195th Division in the front line were supported by parts of the 20th Division and 45th Reserve Division. The 240th () Division was sent forward at noon to support the 6th Bavarian Division near Polecappelle. The division moved forward on approach routes which were under an "enormous" weight of fire and managed to regain some captured ground. At the British attacked again, the battle eventually subsiding with minor gains of ground by each side. After numerous German counter-attacks during the night, except near Reutel in the south, opposite Passchendaele and near Houthoulst Forest in the north, the British were back on their start lines. The writers of , the German Official History, considered that the battle was a costly defensive success.
Aftermath
Analysis
On Passchendaele Ridge and the Wallemolen Spur, inadequate artillery support, the German pillboxes and extensive uncut barbed wire of the (Flanders I Position), rain, mud, shell-hole machine-gun nests and counter-attacks, led the attackers being forced back towards their start lines. The brigades from the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division and 49th (West Riding) Division of the II Anzac Corps began the attack exhausted from the conditions of the approach march and some units had not arrived when the attack began, although on the right of the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division, German troops surrendered readily to the depleted British battalions. In I Anzac Corps, the Australian divisions were understrength after the attack of 4 October and the strain of holding the front until the attack. From 30 September to 14 October, BEF shell consumption (most being fired at Ypres) fell from 2.5 million to 1.6 million by the field artillery, shells by the medium artillery and by the heavy artillery, although German accounts mention "heavy", "indescribably heavy" and "drumfire" bombardments.
The attacking troops were subjected to more German artillery fire than in recent battles, due to the reduced amount of counter-battery fire from the British artillery and inadequate air observation during the poor weather from 4 to 8 October. It places the rain had helped mask the advance but when it stopped, German machine-gunners and field artillery could see British and Australian infantry and inflicted many casualties. Many wounded soldiers were left stranded on the battlefield, under sniper fire, in the mud and rain. The battle was also costly for the Germans and Crown Prince Rupprecht wrote of the "oppressive superiority" of the British artillery, even though the 4th Army had fired of ammunition during the attack. Units had become mixed up, suffered "very high wastage" and "confusion reigns". Rupprecht and Kuhl feared that ground would have to be conceded, to delay the British by making them redeploy their artillery. In the north near Houthoulst Forest, the attack had forced back the German line up to and soldiers had been taken prisoner.
The strain was reflected in a 4th Army order by General Sixt von Armin on 11 October, acknowledging that although fresh ground holding divisions had defeated attacks, some British troops had advanced a considerable distance and ground had been lost, despite the intervention of . Armin noted that more German troops were trickling to the rear, even on quiet days and ordered that "the sternest measures" should be taken against them and be made public. Despite the difficulties and the cost, the German defenders had obtained a considerable defensive success but with the attack on 12 October (the First Battle of Passchendaele), the Battle of Poelcappelle caused a "crisis in command". German losses had risen which jeopardised the front and "mentally shocked" the survivors. With operations pending in Italy and an offensive expected from the French on the Aisne front, fresh divisions were not available for the 4th Army.
Casualties
The 7th Division had from 1 to 10 October. Edmonds noted in the 66th, 49th and 2nd Australian divisions and in the Fifth Army from 9 to 14 October (including the First Battle of Passchendaele on 12 October). In the Ravebeek valley in the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division area, some of the wounded drowned in shell-holes, which had filled with rain. On 12 October an Australian officer found,
The next day he reported that
The New Zealand Division found wounded of the 49th (West Riding) Division,
In 2014, Robert Perry wrote that Second Army casualties in the attack had been the 2nd Australian Division (I Anzac Corps) and about in the II Anzac Corps, in the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division and in the 49th (West Riding) Division. James Edmonds, the British official historian, quoted from the German Official History that German losses were very (considerable) and that the ordeal "bore no relation to the advantage obtained". Calculations of German losses by Edmonds have been severely criticised ever since. In volume XIII of (1942), the German official historians recorded including for the ten-day reporting period 1–10 October.
Subsequent operations
The 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division repulsed a counter-attack on 10 October. Numerous British divisional reliefs took place before 12 October and a dummy German raid was reported that morning. The First Battle of Passchendaele took place on 12 October. The attack took ground in the north but early gains around Passchendaele were mostly lost to German counter-attacks. The battle was a German defensive success, although costly to both sides. British attacks were postponed until the weather improved and communications behind the front had been restored. Two German divisions intended for Italy were diverted to Flanders, to replace "extraordinarily high" losses.
Victoria Cross
Corporal William Clamp, 6th Green Howards
Private Frederick Dancox, 4th Worcesters
Sergeant Joseph Lister, 1st Lancashire Fusiliers
Sergeant John Molyneux, 2nd Royal Fusiliers
Lance-Sergeant John Rhodes, 3rd Grenadier Guards
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
Encyclopaedias
Journals
Theses
Further reading
External links
A brief description of the battle – Australian War Memorial
A brief description of the main attack – Australian War Memorial
The Ypres Salient – Battle of Poelcappelle
Order of Battle – France and Flanders 1917, Battle # 98 – Order of Battle for the Battle of Poelcappelle
Conflicts in 1917
1917 in Belgium
Battles of the Western Front (World War I)
Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of World War I involving Australia
Battle honours of the Rifle Brigade
Battle honours of the King's Royal Rifle Corps
October 1917 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Broodseinde
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Battle of Broodseinde
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The Battle of Broodseinde was fought on 4 October 1917 near Ypres in Belgium, at the east end of the Gheluvelt plateau, by the British Second and Fifth armies against the German 4th Army. The battle was the most successful Allied attack of the Third Battle of Ypres. Using bite-and-hold tactics, with objectives limited to what could be held against German counter-attacks, the British devastated the German defence, prompted a crisis among the German commanders and caused a severe loss of morale in the 4th Army. Preparations were made by the Germans for local withdrawals and planning began for a greater withdrawal, which would entail the abandonment by the Germans of the Belgian coast, one of the strategic aims of the Flanders Offensive.
After the period of unsettled but drier weather in September, heavy rain began again on 4 October and affected the remainder of the campaign, working more to the advantage of the German defenders, being pushed back on to far less damaged ground. The British had to move their artillery forward into the area devastated by shellfire and soaked by the autumn rains, restricting the routes on which guns and ammunition could be moved, presenting German artillery with easier targets. At the Battle of Poelcappelle on 9 October, after several more days of rain, the German defence achieved a costly success, holding the approaches to Passchendaele village, the most tactically important ground on the battlefield.
Background
Tactical developments
The Battle of Broodseinde was the third of the developed form of British bite-and-hold attacks in the Flanders Offensive (Third Battle of Ypres), conducted by the Second Army (General Herbert Plumer). The unseasonal heavy rains in August had hampered British attempts to advance along the Gheluvelt Plateau more than German attempts to maintain their positions. The plateau ran along the southern edge of the Ypres Salient and formed an obstacle to further eastward attacks, preventing the Allies from advancing out of the salient. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) had transferred more guns and troops from the armies further south to reinforce the Second Army and force the Germans to defend the southern fringe of the plateau, diluting German artillery firepower. Broodseinde followed the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge on 20 September and the Battle of Polygon Wood on 26 September, which had captured much of the plateau and inflicted many casualties on the German defenders. The 4th Army had undertaken at least 24 counter-attacks since 20 September and several more after the Battle of Polygon Wood, particularly on 30 September and 1 October, when larger German methodical counter-attacks () had been costly failures.
On 28 September, Sir Douglas Haig had met Plumer and the Fifth Army commander General Hubert Gough to explain his intentions, in view of the victories of 20 and 26 September, the fine weather, disarray among the German defenders and the limited prospect of German reinforcements arriving from the Russian front. Haig judged that the next attack, due on 6 October, would conclude the period of strictly limited advances. The following step would be a deeper advance, with provision made for exploitation. Haig wanted XV Corps on the Belgian coast and the amphibious force of Operation Hush readied, in case of a general withdrawal by the Germans. Reserve formations of infantry, artillery, cavalry and tanks were to be made ready behind the Fifth and Second armies, to exploit a successful attack. Gough and Plumer replied over the next couple of days, that they felt that the proposals were premature and that exploitation would not be feasible until Passchendaele ridge had been captured as far north as Westroosebeke. Capturing the ridge would probably take two more steps at three-day intervals, followed by another four days to repair roads over the captured ground. Haig explained that although it was not certain that the attack due on 10 October could be exploited, he desired the armies to make the arrangements, since they could always be used at a later date.
Prelude
British preparations
The British tactical refinements had sought to undermine the German defence-in-depth, by limiting objectives to a shallower penetration and then fighting the principal battle against divisions as they counter-attacked, rather than against the local defenders. By further reorganising the infantry reserves, Plumer had ensured that the depth of the attacking divisions corresponded closer to the depth of the local German counter-attack reserves and their divisions, providing more support for the advance and consolidation against German counter-attacks. Divisions attacked on narrower fronts and troops advanced no more than into the German defence zone, before consolidating their position. When the Germans counter-attacked, they encountered a reciprocal defence-in-depth, protected by a mass of artillery like the British green and black lines on 31 July and suffered many casualties to little effect. The tempo of the British operations added to the difficulty the Germans had in replacing tired divisions through the transport bottlenecks behind the German front.
The Battle of the Menin Road Ridge on 20 September, was the first attack with the more limited territorial objectives developed since 31 July, to benefit from the artillery reinforcements brought into the Second Army area and a pause of three weeks for preparation, during which the clouds dispersed and the sun began to dry the ground. The shorter intervals between attacks since then had several effects, allowing less time for either side to prepare and the Germans had to take more risks on the rest of the Western Front, to replace tired and depleted divisions in Flanders. German troops and ammunition trains overloaded the rail network in west Flanders, while more German artillery escaped British counter-battery fire and less time was available for wire cutting and pillbox destruction, although the Germans generally left these to give battle in the open. The British artillery preparation before Polygon Wood on 26 September, began 24 hours before the infantry attack. No formal artillery preparation was conducted before 4 October, except for the normal heavy artillery counter-battery fire and destructive fire on German strong-points.
To mislead the Germans as to the date and time of the infantry attack, when a hurricane bombardment was to be fired at zero hour, "practice" barrages were begun on 27 September and increased to two barrages a day from 1 October. Despite practice barrages as a ruse, "a very reliable agent" informed the Germans that an attack was coming from as early as 1 October. The battle was almost called off when heavy rain began again on 2 October, turning parts of the ground into a morass. British military intelligence predicted the German defensive changes after the defeats of 20 and 26 September, in an intelligence summary of 1 October which led to the British being ready for (Operation High Storm), a big German counter-attack to recapture the area around Zonnebeke on 4 October.
Plan
The attack aimed to complete the capture of the Gheluvelt Plateau by the occupation of Broodseinde Ridge and Gravenstafel Spur. This would protect the southern flank of the British line and permit attacks on Passchendaele Ridge to the north-east. The attack was planned for 6 October, to give the II Anzac Corps time to prepare. Haig was anxious about the possibility of deteriorating weather and on 26 September, was able to order the date to be advanced by two days, because of the quick relief of V Corps by the II Anzac Corps north of the Ypres–Roulers railway. Twelve divisions were involved in the attack on a front. The original plan was to have the I Anzac Corps relieved after the Battle of Polygon Wood but the corps had fewer casualties and was fresher than expected and it remained in the front line.
The IX Corps was to attack with the 37th Division in the area beyond Tower Hamlets, south of the Ypres–Menin road, the X Corps was to attack with the 5th Division in the Reutelbeek valley, the 21st Division and 7th Division on a front further north up to Polygon Wood, to take Reutel and the ground overlooking the village. The two right flanking corps had guns and howitzers supported by and medium pieces. In the I Anzac Corps area, the 1st Australian Division objectives required an advance of , the 2nd Australian Division on fronts.
In the II Anzac Corps area, the 3rd Australian Division objectives were deep, also on a frontage and the New Zealand Division objectives were deep on a front. The first objective (red line) for the Anzac divisions was set just short of the crest of Broodseinde Ridge and the final objective (blue line) another beyond. The flanking corps conformed to this depth of advance and also attacked with one battalion for the first objective per brigade and two for the final objective, except in the II Anzac Corps, where two intermediate objectives were set for the 3rd Australian Division, because of the state of the ground with a battalion of each brigade for each objective.
The artillery plan had the first belt of creeping barrage beginning beyond the jumping-off tapes. After three minutes the barrage was to creep forward by lifts in four minutes for , when the machine-gun barrage would begin, then every six minutes to the protective line, beyond first objective. During the pause the barrage was to move further to hit German counter-attacks and then suddenly return. At minutes, it was to advance in lifts every eight minutes to the final objective. After another pause the barrage was to creep forward at hourly intervals for into the German defences. The defensive barrage by the first two belts from the field artillery was to stop at except for SOS fire and the two back belts of heavy and medium artillery at
German preparations
From the middle of 1917, the area east of Ypres was defended by six German defensive positions, the front line, (second position), (third position), (fourth position), (fifth position) and (under construction). In between the German defence positions lay the Belgian villages of Zonnebeke and Passchendaele. The German fortifications had been breached in several places since the start of the British assault on 31 July 1917. Ludendorff met the local commanders at Roulers on 29 September where the "complete breakdown" of the German defensive system was described to him; Ludendorff ordered a strengthening of forward garrisons by the ground-holding divisions. All available machine-guns including those of the support and reserve battalions of the front line regiments, were sent into the forward zone to form a cordon of four to eight guns every .
Ground holding divisions were reinforced by the regiment of each of the divisions, which were moved up behind each front division into the artillery protective line, which backed on to the forward battle zone, to launch earlier counter-attacks while the British were consolidating. The bulk of the divisions were to be held back and used for a methodical counter-attack () on the next day or the one after and for spoiling attacks between British offensives. These changes were incorporated in a 4th Army operation order of 30 September. Operations to inflict greater losses on British infantry under the instructions of 22 September were to continue, with more bombardment by field artillery and by using at least half of the heavy artillery ammunition allotment for observed fire on infantry positions, captured pillboxes, command posts, machine-gun nests, tracks and field railways. Gas bombardment was to be increased on forward infantry positions and artillery emplacements whenever the winds allowed. Every effort was to be made to induce the British to reinforce their forward positions, where the German artillery could engage them.
Between 26 September and 3 October, the Germans attacked and counter-attacked at least 24 times. On 1 October, two regiments from the 4th Reserve and the 8th divisions and the 4th Army under the command of General von Gabain (17th Division), attacked Polygon Wood. The attack began at in the area taken over from the Australians by X Corps. The 21st and 7th divisions and the neighbouring Australian battalion to the north forced most of the German infantry under cover in shell-holes and in no-man's-land, with massed small-arms fire. The German attack advanced a maximum of at Cameron Covert, for which the Infantry Regiment suffered An attempt to renew the advance after more artillery-fire failed. Operation High Storm (), a bigger German methodical counter-attack, intended to recapture the area around Zonnebeke which had been planned for 3 October, was postponed for a day.
Battle
Second Army
In IX Corps the 37th Division attacked with two brigades, the 19th Division on the right co-operating with an artillery and machine-gun barrage and a smoke screen. The right brigade pivoted on the southern flank amid much German small-arms fire but captured the first objective on the Tower Hamlets (Bassevillebeek) spur. German counter-attacks and fire from Joist Trench and Berry Cottage then pushed the right flank units back to their start line. The left brigade was fired on from a pillbox and Lewis Farm, which had been missed by the bombardment and which hindered an attack on dugouts along the north end of Gheluvelt wood. The brigade dug-in in short of the final objective, Tower Trench was captured but then abandoned, also due to the fire from Lewis Farm.
In X Corps, the 5th Division attacked with two brigades. By coincidence the German 19th Reserve Division was about to attack and was caught in the British bombardment. The right brigade was delayed by fire from the 37th Division area, believed to be from Lewis Farm and a defensive front was established facing the pillbox. The centre of the brigade were able to keep pace with the barrage and consolidated the objective by The battalion on the left attacked between the Scherriabeek and Reutelbeek towards Polderhoek Château, advancing with the assistance of a tank, before being halted and having to dig in. To the north, the left flank brigade was fired on from Cameron Covert and scattered pillboxes as it advanced. After a long delay Cameron Copse was captured with the help of three tanks moving down the Reutel road. The final objective at Juniper Hill was reached but was then abandoned, due to being exposed to machine-gun and artillery fire. The attackers sidestepped to the north of the Reutel road and linked with troops from the 21st Division. German troops counter-attacked eight times and regained Polderhoek Spur, leaving the new front line along the west of Cameron Covert and just short of Château Wood.
Two brigades of the 21st Division attacked at onto ground held by the German 19th Reserve Division, backed by part of the 17th Division, the division between the Menin Road and Polygon Wood. The going varied from marsh to hard ground, which could support the four attached tanks and caused shells to ricochet. The right brigade advanced under heavy machine-gun fire and took Joist Farm before being obstructed by marshy ground and pillboxes to the right. British bombing sections attacked the pillboxes and cut off Juniper Trench to reach the objective. Fire from a blockhouse at the east end of Reutel caused a delay until it was knocked out by a tank and a counter-attack from the south-east was dispersed around noon by artillery and small-arms fire. The left brigade crossed the Polygonebeek and captured a portion of Juniper Trench and a pillbox. At Judge Trench the brigade consolidated; a further advance came under fire from Judge Copse but was able to dig in and hold the ground. By most of the divisional objectives had been captured, giving observation to the south-east down the Reutel valley. Massed small-arms fire from the Polderhoek spur caused many casualties in the 64th Brigade on the right, which withdrew slightly to sheltered ground, without sacrificing the commanding position which protected the right flank of the Anzac Corps further north.
The right brigade of the 7th Division advanced against light resistance to the first objective (red line) but came under fire from machine-guns in the 21st Division area. As the neighbouring division came up the 91st Brigade was able to resume its advance towards In der Ster Cabaret until fire from Joiner's Rest held them up. Reinforcements allowed the final objective (blue line) to be taken. A defensive flank was formed along Jolting Houses road and Jetty Trench, meeting the 21st Division to the west of Reutel. The left brigade had an easy advance to the first objective. As the attack continued some troops crossed into the area of the 1st Australian Division, causing a gap but the German defenders were not able to exploit this and the final objective was reached. Occupation of the In Der Ster plateau gave the two divisions observation over the lower part of the valley, enfilading ground on which any counter-attack from the south against the 1st Australian Division must move.
The main attack was conducted by the two Anzac Corps. When the I Anzac Corps was ready to attack, a German artillery bombardment fell on it at causing many casualties. As the Australian divisions advanced at , they met the German 212th Infantry Regiment from the 45th Reserve Division and the 4th Guard Division in no-man's-land. The 1st Australian Division, advancing with two brigades, routed the Germans and continued the advance beyond . The right brigade advanced beyond the first objective and had to fall back behind the British protective barrage to consolidate. The left brigade picked its way through marshy ground and tree stumps in Romulus and Remus Woods, north of Molenaarelsthoek and then outflanked a group of blockhouses, some troops crossing into the 2nd Australian Division area.
The first objective was taken at German field guns opened fire from the Becelaere–Broodseinde–Passchendaele road and were attacked and captured. Fresh battalions continued the advance, were fired on from Retaliation Farm and a German headquarters in a shell-hole. The troops advanced about a third of the way up the road from Molenaarelsthoek to Beclaere until they were cleared. At the advance resumed to the final objective (blue line) which was consolidated and outposts established in front of it, despite long-range fire from the Keiberg spur and a small rise north east of Broodseinde village. Attempts were made by parties of German infantry to counter-attack at noon around Dame House, from Celtic Wood at and at Flint Farm at and two attempts to mass around at the Keiberg spur, to the south of Passchendaele village, which were stopped by artillery fire.
The 2nd Australian Division moved up to the front line during the night, amidst rain which began around midnight. Along with the 1st Australian Division it was caught in the German preparatory bombardment for (Operation High Storm) but this stopped when the British hurricane bombardment began at as the Australian advance began. The 6th and 7th Brigades had to pass either side of Zonnebeke Lake and saw German troops opposite them rise from shell-holes and begin to advance. The Australian troops began to fire on the move and destroyed the first German wave, at which those to the rear retreated back into the British creeping barrage, while others retired in stages through Zonnebeke. Germans hidden in the ruins were rushed by the following Australian battalion, before they could shoot many of the Australians who had passed beyond. The Australians had overrun German troops from the 45th Reserve and the 4th Guard divisions, having forestalled the German infantry attack and then took several field guns along the way. The battalions pressed on beyond the first objective and reached the final objective east of Broodseinde village. The left brigade met snipers in Zonnebeke and then more fire from a large number of machine-guns in Daisy Wood. The brigade chose an old British trench to consolidate, about short of the final objective.
In the II Anzac Corps area, the 3rd Australian Division had to assemble west of Hill 40 on the north side of the Ypres–Roulers railway, which had not been captured by the 3rd Division (V Corps) on 26 September. Delays in assembling were caused by German flares which illuminated the approaches to the hill. The division was to assemble its attacking battalions in widely spaced lines due to the state of the ground, intending that the troops behind the initial waves were to escape a German barrage by being far enough behind the British front line. These areas were found to be under fire when the troops arrived, so they were squeezed up like those in the other divisions. The attack began at with two brigades. The right brigade advanced quickly over the near crest, then paused on the first objective before advancing in section columns to the red line on the right, the left coming up after a delay caused by the Alma blockhouse and some pillboxes nearby.
The leading battalion of the 10th Brigade on the left had edged so far forward that when the advance began, it was from the pillboxes at Levi Cottages at the top of the rise, beyond which was a dip then the slope of Gravenstafel ridge. The pillboxes were quickly taken, followed by Alma and Judah House in the dip after a short delay. After a twelve-minute pause at this (first intermediate) objective, to give the New Zealanders on the left time to cross the boggy ground in their area, the two following battalions leapfrogged through, that of the right brigade taking many German prisoners from dug-outs along the railway embankment and reaching the red line quickly. After a delay caused by the British bombardment dwelling for nearly half an hour, the left brigade advanced up Gravenstafel Spur and then pressed on to silence several machine-guns in pillboxes on Abraham Heights. By all of the 3rd Australian Division was on the red line while "swarms" of German prisoners were taken by the brigade mopping-up behind the advanced troops.
At the advance resumed and after a pause to capture Seine pillbox, the right brigade crossed , which lay diagonally across its path and reached the final objective. The 10th Brigade on the left was held up by fire from machine-gun nests in the New Zealand Division area, until they were taken by a party from the supporting battalion. The advance resumed under heavy fire from positions in where the barrage had passed over. Troops on the right established several machine-gun posts and enfiladed the Germans further north while troops crossed into the New Zealand area and outflanked the German positions from the north. The final objective (blue line) was reached by and the ground consolidated.
The New Zealand Division continued the attack with two brigades on a front. The German bombardment which began at fell between the foremost New Zealand troops and their supporting battalions. The division had a hundred and eighty 18-pounders and sixty 4.5-inch howitzers for its creeping barrage in front of the four deeper barrages fired by sixty machine-guns and the II Anzac Corps medium and heavy artillery. When the infantry advance began, the German infantry who had assembled for their attack and been devastated by the British artillery barrage, were met after . The German survivors were dispersed, many being killed in bayonet-fighting or taken prisoner before the New Zealand infantry found that they could cross the morass around the Hanebeek more easily than expected.
The 4th Brigade on the right took Duchy Farm and Riverside easily, paused to capture Otto Farm and then reached the first objective (red line) and dug in. Fresh battalions resumed the advance, captured two pillboxes in Berlin Wood, two unexpected pillboxes and then captured Berlin Farm. The 1st Brigade attack on the left, veered north beyond the Hanebeek and was fired on from Aviatik Farm and Dear House, which were taken by a trench mortar and grenade attack. Fire from the Winzig, Albatross Farm and Winchester blockhouses, in the 48th (South Midland) Division area further north (and from the Bellevue spur up the Stroombeek valley), delayed the advance until they were captured. More pillboxes at Boetleer were taken by the left flanking battalion of the 4th Brigade and the red line (first objective) was reached. A position near Korek was attacked, despite being beyond the first objective and under British artillery fire. The advance to the final objective, between where it met the Ypres–Roulers railway, north to Kronprinz Farm on the Stroombeek began and a German battalion headquarters was captured in the Waterloo pillboxes. Calgary Grange and Kronprinz farm held out for a while longer but the final objective, after an advance of was reached and consolidated.
Fifth Army
In the XVIII Corps area, the 48th (South Midland) Division attacked with one brigade at Vale house and Winzig on the right fell quickly, then machine-gun fire slowed the advance and some New Zealand troops strayed across the divisional boundary, causing confusion around Albatross Farm and Wellington Farm. Once Wellington and Winchester Farms had been captured, the advance resumed to the Stroombeek. As night fell, the division relieved the New Zealanders in the divisional area and took more ground. In the centre, the division captured German posts west of the Stroombeek, before being held up by fire in the vicinity of York Farm. Eventually the advance was halted short of Vacher Farm. A renewal of the attack with reinforcements was not able to overcome German machine-gun fire. On the left, the attack was immediately hampered by massed machine-gun fire. Tweed House was captured and contact made with troops further north from the 11th (Northern) Division. Beck House was reached but further south the attackers were forced back. A resumption of the attack at was cancelled due to rain and poor light.
The 11th (Northern) Division had attacked at with two brigades and ten tanks of D Battalion, 1st Tank Brigade. On the right, the advance took Malta House and reached an intermediate line, where a small counter-attack was defeated. Fire from the church and the Brewery pillbox in Poelcappelle caused a delay but Gloster Farm was captured with the aid of two tanks and the red line (first objective) consolidated. Troops from the inner flanks of both brigades and several tanks entered Poelcappelle and then captured pillboxes beyond the east end. The left brigade had an easy advance to the intermediate line and then overcame small parties of German infantry concealed in shell-holes. A shelter was captured near the church in Poelcappelle amid sniper fire. Ferdan House was captured and the final objective consolidated. A defensive flank was thrown back to maintain touch with the 4th Division to the north, whose advance had been pushed back by German counter-attacks. A counter-attack in the 11th (Northern) Division area at was defeated and reinforcements allowed the new line to be established between the Steenbeek and the Langemarck–Winnipeg road.
XIV Corps guarded the northern flank of the attack. The 4th Division attacked with two brigades at The brigade on the right flank, took Kangaroo Trench but was held up on the first objective, by small-arms fire from Lemnos House. Troops on the extreme right combined with infantry of the 11th (Northern) Division to capture a pillbox on the Poelcappelle road. As they reached the next objective, Ferdan House was outflanked and the green line was consolidated amidst fire from 19 Metre Hill. The left brigade troops lost direction crossing the marshy ground about the Lauterbeek and were fired on from the flank as they reached a road beyond 19 Metre Hill. After an hours' pause the advance resumed but machine-gun fire stopped the attack and the ground already captured was consolidated. A German counter-attack at made good progress until reinforcements drove it back. A gap on the boundary with the 29th Division to the north was filled as dark fell and German infantry assembling for a counter-attack were spotted and dispersed by artillery fire. A line from Ferdan House to Kangaroo Huts, west of Tragique Farm and 19 Metre Hill was consolidated.
The 29th Division was to attack astride the Ypres–Staden railway and form a defensive flank overlooking the Broembeek, with troops from two brigades. The right brigade took Chinese House and the 't Goed ter Vesten Farm, as it formed a flank along the junction with the 4th Division further south. As a German counter-attack forced back elements of the 4th Division, the 29th Division troops stopped them with flanking machine-gun fire and drove them back, allowing the 4th Division to regain the lost ground. North of the railway several pillboxes were captured by the left brigade and observation posts established.
Air operations
Wind, rain and low cloud stopped long-range air operations and severely restricted the British air effort over the battlefield. British air observers sent 49 zone calls and observed artillery fire on 26 targets. (Zones were based on lettered squares of the army each map square was divided into four sections . The observer used a call-sign of the map square letter then the zone letter to signal to the artillery. All guns and howitzers up to able to bear on the target opened rapid fire using corrections of aim from the air observer.) Five battlefield reconnaissance flights, ten contact patrols and two counter-attack patrols of the ones attempted succeeded, particularly those of 4 Squadron and 21 Squadron, which observed the flares of the attacking troops at the first and final objectives on much of the front attacked and provided the infantry with a measure of air support, despite the weather.
German 4th Army
, (Operation High Storm) a methodical counter-attack () planned for 4 October, was intended to recapture as much of the ridge on Groote Molen (Tokio) spur as possible. The German troops had assembled for the when the British bombardment swamped them. Reserve Infantry Regiment 212 of the 45th Reserve Division, supported by the 4th Guard Division, was caught in the open along with regiments from the 4th Bavarian Division; the Bavarians tried to counter-attack the Australians, who had overrun the German attack. After 29 September, the bulk of the divisions were held back, battalions and a few regiments from the 8th and 22nd divisions at In der Ster, the 45th Reserve and 4th Bavarian divisions opposite Broodseinde Ridge and the 16th Division south of Poelcappelle.
The units were committed as reinforcements for the remnants of the front-holding divisions, suffering many losses from British artillery and machine-guns. The most successful counter-attack was made by an improvised force from the front-holding 19th Reserve Division and parts of the 17th Division, the local division, which advanced up Reutelbeek valley, took Reutel and Cameron Covert and reinforced Polderhoek Château, before being stopped by British artillery and machine-gun fire. Sparse and poorly aimed shell-fire, ineffective counter-attacks and disorganisation demonstrated the severity of the German defeat. The Germans had been reduced to a foothold on the Gheluvelt Plateau and the southern flank of Passchendaele Ridge had become vulnerable to attack.
Exploitation
As news arrived of the great success of the attack, Brigadier-General John Charteris, head of GHQ Intelligence, went from Haig's advanced headquarters to the Second Army headquarters to discuss the possibility of improvising exploitation of the victory. Plumer declined the suggestion, as eight fresh German divisions were behind the battlefield with another six beyond them. Plumer preferred to wait until the expected German counter-attacks had been defeated, as Haig had directed. German artillery fire was unsubdued and the defences of and could be garrisoned by the German divisions behind the front. An attack on these positions would need artillery support, which would be limited, given that the British field artillery was behind a severely battered strip of muddy ground deep, firing close to the limit of their range.
Later in the day, Plumer had second thoughts and ordered I Anzac Corps (Lieutenant-General William Birdwood) to push on to the Keiberg spur, with support from II Anzac Corps (Lieutenant-General Alexander Godley). Birdwood wanted to wait until artillery had been brought up and supply routes improved; Godley preferred to advance north-eastwards, towards Passchendaele village. Lieutenant-General Thomas Morland (X Corps) proposed an attack northwards, from In de Ster into the southern flank of the Germans opposite I Anzac Corps, which was opposed by Major-General Herbert Shoubridge the 7th Division commander, due to uncertainty and the many casualties in the 21st Division on his right flank. At Plumer decided that exploitation was not possible. At Gough had told the Fifth Army corps commanders to push on and to attack again at but when reports arrived of a repulse of the 4th Division at 19 Metre Hill on the junction of XVIII and XIV Corps, the attack was cancelled.
Aftermath
Analysis
The capture of the ridges was a great success and Plumer called the attack "... the greatest victory since the Marne" and , the German official history, referred to "... the black day of October 4". There had been an average advance of and the 3rd Australian Division moved forward up to . The X Corps divisions had managed to take most of their objectives about forward, gaining observation over the Reutelbeek valley but had relinquished ground in some exposed areas. The British artillery fired a standing barrage for two and a half hours while the infantry dug in undisturbed and German counter-attacks were dispersed with artillery fire.
Wet ground had caused some units to lag behind the creeping barrage, as well as reducing the effect of shells, many landing in mud and being smothered, although this affected German artillery equally. The British had great difficulty moving artillery and ammunition from the west end of the Gheluvelt Plateau to the eastern edge facing Passchendaele. Field guns closest to Passchendaele were from Broodseinde; for the battle of Messines, the safe maximum was for the 18-pounders and for the 4.5-inch howitzers.
Jack Sheldon wrote in 2007 that tired German units had been rushed back into action to fill gaps, despite the risks. The 4th Army report for 4 October was accurate but the OHL communiqué of 5 October was full of lies to obscure the magnitude of the defeat. In his diary entry for 4 October, Rupprecht wrote that the British advance had lengthened the front, which made the defence more difficult and that a counter-attack from Becelaere and Gheluvelt was necessary. In 2008, J. P. Harris wrote that the imminent German attack had backfired and that many of the extra men near the front line had been killed, the number German dead being unprecedented and the British took Most of the British objectives were captured by the combination of artillery and infantry and on the front of XVIII Corps twelve tanks had also been effective. The rains began again and the tactics being used by the British were unworkable in such conditions. Ammunition had to be carried further and in the mud was a Herculean task; accuracy and rate of fire were severely reduced in the poor visibility and unstable wooden platforms built to mount the guns as the ground turned to mud. In his anxiety to press on, Haig chose 8 October for the next attack, just when great care was needed adequately to prepare and although the attack was postponed for a day much of the field artillery was out of action.
In 2018, Jonathan Boff wrote that after the war the official historians, many of whom were former staff officers, ascribed the tactical changes in the wake of the defeat of 26 September and their reversal after the Battle of Broodseinde on 4 October, to Loßberg. The other German commanders were exculpated and a false impression created that OHL operated in a rational manner, when Ludendorff imposed another defensive scheme on 7 October. Boff called this narrative facile, because it avoided the problem faced by the Germans in late 1917. OHL sent orders to change tactics again days before Loßberg had issued orders to the 4th Army but he was blamed for them. Boff also doubted that all of the divisions in Flanders could act quickly on top-down demands for change. The 119th Division had been in the front line since 11 August and replied that the new tactics were difficult to implement without training. The tempo of British attacks and attrition meant that there was an increase of six divisions in the 4th Army by 10 October but that they were either novice divisions, deficient in training or veteran divisions with low morale after earlier defeats. The Germans were seeking tactical changes for an operational dilemma, because no operational answer existed. On 2 October, Rupprecht ordered the 4th Army HQ to avoid over-centralising command only to find that Loßberg had issued an artillery plan detailing the deployment of individual batteries.
Casualties
A German officer wrote that the ordeal in the swampy area in the dark and the fog, was indescribable. In volume XIII (1942) of the German official history, , the official historians recorded for the period The 45th Reserve Division suffered casualties and the 4th Guard Division 2,786. The British took prisoners, increasing the total to since 20 September. Second Army casualties for the week ending 4 October were the II Anzac Corps suffered including Zealanders to a newspaper article of 2008). The 21st Division suffered the highest loss in the Second Army. Fifth Army casualties for the week to 5 October were 3,305. Calculations of German losses by the British official historian have been severely criticised ever since.
Subsequent operations
On 5 October, the 21st Division captured a blockhouse and next day a reconnaissance by the 2nd Australian Division revealed Daisy Wood to be strongly held. On 7 October, parties from the 49th (West Riding) Division (II Anzac Corps) raided Celtic Wood and the 48th (South Midland) Division (XVIII Corps) was repulsed at Burns House and Vacher Farm. Celtic Wood was raided again by a battalion of the 1st Australian Division on 9 October. There was anxiety among the British commanders about wet weather affecting operations again, just as the Germans appeared to be close to collapse. The increased tempo of attack allowed by the systematic planning, the decentralisation of responsibility from army to corps and divisions and the reduction of much of the planning to a routine, led to the time between attacks being further reduced. As optimism at the possibility of advancing over the Passchendaele watershed increased, the faster attack preparations reduced the time available for artillery to prepare assaults and combined with the beginning of the autumn rains after 4 October, substantially to reduce British artillery support during the Battle of Poelcappelle on 9 October and the First Battle of Passchendaele on 12 October.
Victoria Cross
Acting Lieutenant-Colonel Philip Bent of the 7th Division, 1 October.
Nine Victoria Crosses were awarded during the Battle of Broodseinde, 4 October.
Acting Sergeant-Major James Ockendon of the 29th Division.
Acting Captain Clement Robertson of the Royal Tank Regiment.
Sergeant Charles Coverdale, from the 11th (Northern) Division.
Acting Corporal Fred Greaves of the 11th (Northern) Division.
Private Arthur Hutt from the 48th (South Midland) Division.
Sergeant Lewis McGee of the 3rd Australian Division.
Lance-Corporal Walter Peeler, from the 3rd Australian Division.
Acting Lieutenant Colonel Lewis Evans, of the 21st Division.
Private Thomas Sage from the 37th Division.
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
Journals
Theses
Websites
Further reading
External links
Second Army Summary of Operations 27/9/17 to 4/10/17
Battle of Broodseinde – a brief description of the battle
Battle of Broodseinde Ridge – a brief description of the main attack
The Ypres Salient – Battle of Broodseinde
Order of Battle – France and Flanders 1917, Battle # 9 Order of Battle for the Battle of Broodseinde
The New Zealand Division 1916–1919: A Popular History Based on Official Records (1921) Stewart, H.
1917 in Belgium
Conflicts in 1917
Battle honours of the King's Royal Rifle Corps
Battle honours of the Rifle Brigade
Battles of the Western Front (World War I)
Battles of World War I involving Australia
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of World War I involving New Zealand
Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
History of West Flanders
October 1917 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Polygon%20Wood
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Battle of Polygon Wood
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The Battle of Polygon Wood took place from 26 September to 3 October 1917, during the second phase of the Third Battle of Ypres in the First World War. The battle was fought near Ypres in Belgium, in the area from the Menin road to Polygon Wood and thence north, to the area beyond St Julien. Much of the woodland had been destroyed by the huge quantity of shellfire from both sides since 16 July and the area had changed hands several times.
General Herbert Plumer continued the series of British general attacks with limited objectives. The attacks were led by lines of skirmishers, followed by small infantry columns organised in depth (a formation which had been adopted by the Fifth Army in August) with a vastly increased amount of artillery support, the infantry advancing behind five layers of creeping barrage on the Second Army front.
The advance was planned to cover and stop on reverse slopes, which were easier to defend, enclosing ground which gave observation of German reinforcement routes and counter-attack assembly areas. Preparations were then made swiftly to defeat German counter-attacks, by mopping-up and consolidating the captured ground with defences in depth. The attack inflicted a severe blow on the German 4th Army, causing many losses, capturing a significant portion of , the fourth German defensive position, which threatened the German hold on Broodseinde ridge.
The drier weather continued to benefit the British attackers by solidifying the ground and raising mist which obscured British infantry attacks made around dawn. The mist cleared during the morning and revealed German (counter-attack) formations to air and ground observation, well in advance of their arrival on the battlefield. German methodical counter-attacks () from 27 September – 3 October failed and German defensive arrangements were changed hastily after the battle to try to counter British offensive superiority.
Background
Tactical developments
The preliminary operation to capture Messines ridge had been followed by a strategic pause as the British repaired their communications behind Messines ridge, completed the building of the infrastructure necessary for a much larger force in the Ypres area and moved troops and equipment north from the Arras front. After delays caused by local conditions, the Battles of Ypres had begun on 31 July with the Battle of Pilckem Ridge, which was a substantial local success for the British, taking a large amount of ground and inflicting many casualties on the German defenders. The Germans had recovered some of the lost ground in the middle of the attack front and restricted the British advance on the Gheluvelt Plateau further south. British attacks had then been seriously hampered by unseasonal heavy rain during August and had not been able to retain much of the additional ground captured on the plateau on 10, 16–18, 22–24 and 27 August due to the determined German defence, mud and poor visibility.
Haig ordered artillery to be transferred from the southern flank of the Second Army and more artillery to be brought into Flanders from the armies further south, to increase the weight of the attack on the Gheluvelt Plateau. The principal role was changed from the Fifth to the Second Army and the boundary between the two armies was moved north towards the Ypres–Roulers railway, to narrow the frontages of the Second Army divisions on the Gheluvelt Plateau. A pause in British attacks was used to reorganise and to improve supply routes behind the front line, to carry forward of ammunition above normal expenditure. Guns were moved forward to new positions and the infantry and artillery reinforcements practised for the next attack. The unseasonal rains stopped, the ground began to dry and the cessation of British attacks misled the Germans, who risked moving some units away from Flanders. The offensive had resumed on 20 September with the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge, using similar step-by-step methods to those of the Fifth Army after 31 July, with a further evolution of technique, based on the greater mass of artillery made available to enable the consolidation of captured ground with sufficient strength and organisation to defeat German counter-attacks. Most of the British objectives had been captured and held, with substantial losses being inflicted on the six German ground-holding divisions and their three supporting divisions. British preparations for the next step began immediately and both sides studied the effect of the battle and the implications it had for their dispositions.
Prelude
British preparations
On 21 September, Haig instructed the Fifth Army (General Hubert Gough) and Second Army (General Herbert Plumer) to make the next step across the Gheluvelt Plateau, on a front of . The I Anzac Corps (Lieutenant-General William Birdwood) would conduct the main advance of about , to complete the occupation of Polygon Wood and the south end of Zonnebeke village.
The Second Army altered its corps frontages soon after the attack of 20 September so that each attacking division could be concentrated on a front. Roads and light railways were built behind the new front line to move artillery and ammunition forward, beginning on 20 September; in fine weather this was finished in four days. As before Menin road, bombardment and counter-battery fire began immediately, with practice barrages fired daily as a minimum. Artillery from the VIII Corps (Lieutenant-General Sir Aylmer Hunter-Weston) and IX Corps (Lieutenant General Alexander Hamilton-Gordon) in the south conducted bombardments to simulate attack preparations on Zandvoorde and Warneton. Haig intended that later operations would capture the rest of the ridge from Broodseinde, giving the Fifth Army scope to advance beyond the ridge north-eastwards and allow the commencement of Operation Hush.
The huge amounts of shellfire from both sides had cut up the ground and destroyed roads. New road circuits were built to carry supplies forward, especially artillery ammunition. Heavier equipment bogged in churned mud so had to be brought forward by wagons along roads and tracks, many of which were under German artillery observation from Passchendaele ridge, rather than being moved cross-country. The I Anzac Corps had guns, one for every of front and many field artillery brigades with 18-pounder guns and 4.5-inch howitzers, which with the guns of the other attacking corps, were moved forward from Assembled forward of the artillery were heavy Vickers machine-guns of the divisional machine-gun companies, the creeping machine-gun barrage and guns for emergency barrages against German counter-attacks and to increase the barrage towards the final objective.
The frontages of VIII and IX Corps were moved northwards so that X Corps (Lieutenant-General Thomas Morland) could take over of front up to the southern edge of Polygon Wood, which kept the frontages of the two Australian divisions of I Anzac Corps to . The 39th Division took over from the 41st Division, ready to attack Tower Hamlets (at the top of the Bassevillebeek spur), the 33rd Division replaced the 23rd Division beyond the Menin road and the 5th and 4th Australian divisions replaced the 1st and 2nd Australian divisions in Polygon Wood. The Action of 25 September 1917 took place between the Menin road and Polygon Wood as the 33rd Division was taking over from the 23rd Division; for a time the German attack threatened to delay preparations for the British attack due the next day. Some ground was captured by the Germans and part of it was then recaptured by the 33rd Division. Plumer ordered that the flank guard protecting the I Anzac Corps on 26 September be formed by the 98th Brigade of the 33rd Division while the 100th Brigade recaptured the lost ground.
Plan
Dispersed and camouflaged German defences, using shell-hole positions, pillboxes, with much of the German infantry held back for counter-attacks, meant that as British units advanced and became weaker and disorganised by losses, fatigue, poor visibility and the channelling effect of waterlogged ground, they met more and fresher German defenders. The German defensive system had been more effective in the unusually rainy weather in August, making movement much more difficult and forcing the British to keep to duckboard tracks, easy to identify and bombard. Objectives were chosen to provide the British infantry with good positions from which to face German counter-attacks, rather than to advance with unlimited objectives. The Fifth Army had set objectives much closer than after 31 July and the Second Army methods of September were based on SS 144 The Normal Formation for the Attack (February 1917), reflecting the experience of the fighting in August and to exploit opportunities made possible by the reinforcement of the Flanders front with another before 20 September.
The methods based on the Second Army Note of 31 August had proved themselves on 20 September and were to be repeated. The extra infantry made available, by increasing the number of divisions and narrowing attack frontages, had greater depth than the August attacks. The leading waves of infantry were lightly equipped, further apart and followed by files or small groups ready to swarm around German defences uncovered by the skirmish lines. Each unit kept a sub-unit in close reserve, brigades a reserve battalion, battalions a reserve company and companies a reserve platoon. The manual (February 1917) reiterated the platoon organisation laid down in and recommended an attacking frontage of for a battalion, with wide intervals between each man, line and wave, to create a dispersed attack in depth. Where one or two objectives were to be captured, the first wave should advance to the final objective, with troops in following waves to mop-up and occupy the captured ground. Where more objectives were set, the first wave was to stop at the first objective, mop-up and dig in, ready to receive German counter-attacks, as following waves leapfrogged beyond them to the further objectives and did the same, particularly when enough artillery was present to provide covering fire for all of the depth of the attack.
The leap-frog method was chosen for the September attacks, whereas in July and August both methods had been used. Intermediate objectives closer to the front line were selected and the number of infantry attacking the first objective was reduced, since the German garrisons in the forward defended areas were small and widely dispersed. A greater number of units leapfrogged through to the next objective and the distance to the final objective was further reduced, to match the increasing density of German defences; the creeping barrage slowed as it moved towards the final objective. Particular units were allotted to mop-up and occupy areas behind the most advanced troops, to make certain that pockets of Germans overrun by the foremost troops were killed or captured, before they could emerge from shelter and re-join the battle. Increased emphasis was placed on Lewis-guns, rifle-fire and rifle-grenades. Hand-grenades were given less emphasis in favour of more rifle training. The proportion of smoke ammunition for rifle grenades and Stokes mortars was increased, to blind the occupants of German pillboxes as they were being surrounded. All units were required to plan an active defence against counter-attack, using the repulse of German infantry as an opportunity to follow up and inflict more casualties.
X Corps was to advance to create a defensive flank on the right, attacking with the 33rd and 39th divisions either side of the Menin road. The main attack was to be conducted by the I Anzac Corps with the 5th and 4th Australian divisions on the remainder of Polygon Wood and the southern part of Zonnebeke village. The Australian attack was in two stages, to the Butte and Tokio pillbox and after a one-hour pause for consolidation, a final advance beyond the and the Tokio spur. To the north, V Corps of the Fifth Army with the 3rd and 59th (2nd North Midland) divisions was to reach a line from Zonnebeke to Hill 40 and Kansas Farm crossroads, using the smoke and high explosive barrage (rather than shrapnel) demonstrated by the 9th (Scottish) Division on 20 September. A brigade of the 58th (2/1st London) Division, (XVIII Corps) was to attack up Gravenstafel spur towards Aviatik Farm. The relief of V Corps by II Anzac Corps, to bring the ridge as far north as Passchendaele into the Second Army area was postponed because the 1st and 2nd Australian divisions were still battle-worthy.
German preparations
Tower Hamlets spur overlooked the ground south towards Zandvoorde. The upper valleys of the Reutelbeek and Polygonebeek further north offered a commanding view of the German counter-attack assembly areas in the low ground north of the Menin road. The a large mound in Polygon Wood was part of the and had been fortified with dugouts and foxholes. The Butte gave observation of the east end of the Gheluvelt Plateau towards Becelaere and Broodseinde. By mid-1917, the area east of Ypres had six German defensive positions, the front position, the (second position), (third position), (fourth position), (fifth position) and (under construction). Between the German positions lay the Belgian villages of Zonnebeke and Passchendaele.
The German defences had been arranged in a forward zone, main battle zone and rearward battle zone and after the defeat of 20 September, the 4th Army tried to adapt its defensive methods to the British tactics. At a conference on 22 September, the German commanders decided to increase the artillery effort between battles, half for counter-battery fire and half against British infantry. The accuracy of German artillery fire was to be improved by increasing the amount of artillery observation available to direct fire during British attacks. Infantry raiding was to be stepped up and counter-attacks to be made more quickly. By 26 September, the ground-holding divisions had been reorganised so that their regiments were side by side, covering a front of about each, with the battalions one-behind-the-other, the first in the front line, one in support and the third in reserve, over a depth of . Each of the three ground-holding divisions on the Gheluvelt Plateau had an division in support, double the ratio on 20 September.
Action of 25 September 1917
On 25 September, a German attack on the front of the 20th (Light) Division (XIV Corps) was prevented by artillery fire but on the X Corps front, south of I Anzac Corps, a bigger German attack took place. Crown Prince Rupprecht had ordered the attack to recover ground on the Gheluvelt Plateau and to try to gain time for reinforcements to be brought into the battle zone. Two regiments of the 50th Reserve Division attacked either side of the Reutelbeek, with the support of and batteries of artillery, four times the usual amount of artillery for one division. The attack was made on a front, from the Menin road to Polygon Wood, to recapture pillboxes and shelters in the away. The German infantry had been due to advance at but the barrage fell short and the German infantry had to fall back until it began to creep forward at The German infantry managed to advance on the flanks, about near the Menin road and north of the Reutelbeek, close to Black Watch Corner, with the help of a number of observation and ground-attack aircraft and a box-barrage, which obstructed the supply of ammunition to the British defenders. Return-fire from the 33rd Division troops under attack and the 15th Australian Brigade along the southern edge of Polygon wood, forced the Germans under cover after they had recaptured several pillboxes near Black Watch Corner.
Battle
26 September
Second Army
In X Corps, the 19th (Western) Division of IX Corps provided flanking artillery fire, machine-gun fire and a smoke screen for the 39th Division, keeping a very thinly occupied front line, which received much German retaliatory artillery fire at first, which fell on unoccupied ground, then diminished and became inaccurate during the day. The 39th Division attacked at on 26 September with two brigades. The "Quadrilateral" further down Bassevillebeek spur, which commanding the area around Tower Hamlets was captured; the right brigade had been caught in the boggy ground of the Bassevillebeek and its two tanks in support got stuck near Dumbarton Lakes. Soon after arriving in the "Quadrilateral" it was counter-attacked by part of the German 25th Division and pushed back . The left brigade passed through Tower Hamlets to reach the final objective and consolidated behind Tower Trench, with an advanced post in the north-west of Gheluvelt Wood.
The right brigade of the 33rd Division advanced to recapture the ground lost in the German attack the day before and was stopped short of its objective, until a reserve company assisted and gained touch with the left brigade of the 39th Division to the south. On the left of the brigade the old front line was regained by and posts established beyond the Reutelbeek. The 98th Brigade on the left attacked with reinforcements from the reserve brigade at so as to advance with the troops at Black Watch Corner in action the previous day. At the brigade had gained Jerk House and met the 5th Australian Division to the north. A German barrage forced a delay until but the German bombardment increased in intensity and the advance lost the barrage, reaching only as far as Black Watch Corner. A reserve battalion was sent through the 5th Australian Division sector, to attack to the south-east at noon, which enabled the brigade to regain most of the ground lost the day before, although well short of the day's objectives. A German counter-attack at was driven off and more ground re-taken by the 100th Brigade on the right. A pillbox near the Menin road taken at was the last part of the area captured by the German attack the previous day to be re-taken. A German counter-attack at was stopped by artillery fire.
I Anzac Corps attacked with the 5th Australian Division on the right. In the 15th Australian Brigade the battalions were to advance successively but bunched up near the first objective and were stopped by pillboxes at the "racecourse" and fire from the 33rd Division area to the south. At the right-hand battalion dug in at the boundary with the 33rd Division and the other two advanced to the second objective by The left brigade assembled in twelve waves on a strip of ground deep and avoided the German barrage fired at which fell behind them and advanced through the fog almost unopposed to The Butte. At some pillboxes there was resistance but many German soldiers surrendered when they were rapidly surrounded. The Butte was rushed and was found to be full of German dugouts. Two battalions passed through at towards the second objective, a stretch of the and some pillboxes, until held up by fire from a German battalion headquarters on the Polygonebeek. A reserve battalion overran the dugouts and more pillboxes nearby, advancing to just beyond the final objective, at the junction with the 4th Australian Division to the north, taking and An attempted German counter-attack by part of the 17th Division was dispersed by artillery and machine-gun fire.
The 4th Australian Division assembled well forward and avoided the German barrage by squeezing up into an area deep and attacked at with two brigades. The right brigade attacked through a mist, took the first objective with only short delays to capture pillboxes but then mistakenly advanced into the standing barrage, which had paused for twice as long as usual, to assist the 3rd Division advance through muddier conditions to the north and had to be brought back until the barrage moved forward. The brigade reached the final objective from just short of the on the right and the edge of Zonnebeke on the left and gained touch with the 5th Australian Division further south. At air reconnaissance reported German troops east of Broodseinde ridge and at as the German force from the 236th Division, massed to counter-attack it was dispersed by artillery fire. The northern brigade advanced to the final objective against minor opposition, moving beyond the objective to join with the 3rd Division to the north, which had pressed on into Zonnebeke. Attempts by the Germans to counter-attack at and were stopped by the protective barrage and machine-gun fire.
Fifth Army
The southern boundary of the Fifth Army lay about south of the Ypres–Roulers railway, in the V Corps area. The 3rd Division attacked either side of the line at The right brigade met little resistance but was briefly held up when crossing the Steenbeek. The advance slowed under machine-gun fire from Zonnebeke station on the far side of the railway as troops entered Zonnebeke. North of the embankment, the left brigade attacked at in a mist and reached the first objective, despite crossing severely boggy ground, at The advance resumed and reached the western slope of Hill 40, just short of the final objective. A German counter-attack began at but was stopped easily. A bigger attempt at was defeated with rifle and machine-gun fire, as the British attack on Hill 40 resumed, eventually leaving both sides still on the western slope.
The 59th (2nd North Midland) Division attacked with two brigades, the right brigade advancing until held up by its own barrage, to take Dochy Farm at One battalion found a German barrage laid behind the British creeping barrage, creeping back with it, causing many casualties. The advance continued beyond the final objective to Riverside and Otto farms but when the protective barrage fell short, Riverside was abandoned. The left brigade advanced and took Schuler Farm, Cross Cottages, Kansas, Martha, Green and Road Houses then Kansas Cross and Focker pillboxes. As the brigade reached the final objective, Riverside, Toronto and Deuce Houses were captured. A German counter-attack between and pushed back some advanced posts, which with reinforcements were regained by
In the XVIII Corps area, the 58th (2/1st London) Division attacked with one brigade at In a thick mist some of the British troops lost direction and were then held up by fire from Dom Trench and a pillbox but after these were captured, the advance resumed until stopped at Dear House, Aviatik Farm and Vale House, about short of the final objective. A German counter-attack pushed the British back from Aviatik Farm and Dale House and an attempt to regain them failed. Another attack at reached Nile on the divisional boundary with the 3rd Division. German troops trickling forward to Riverside and Otto pillboxes were stopped by artillery and machine-gun fire.
Air operations
Aircraft of the Australian Flying Corps (AFC) flew over the infantry on contact patrol, the aeroplanes being distinguished by black streamers on the rear edge of their left wings. The crews called for signals from the ground by sounding a klaxon horn or dropping lights, to which infantry responded with red flares to communicate their position to be reported to the Australian divisional headquarters. The Royal Flying Corps (RFC) began operations on the night of when 100 and 101 squadrons attacked German billets and railway stations. Mist rose before dawn and ended night flying early; low cloud was present at when the infantry advanced, which made observation difficult. Contact-patrol and artillery-observers could see the ground and reported artillery batteries to British artillery. Fighters flying at about attacked German infantry and artillery; German aircraft tried the same tactic against British troops with some success, although five were shot down by ground fire. Six German aircraft were shot down by RFC and Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) pilots over the battlefield. Operations further afield were reduced due to the low cloud but three German airfields were attacked and an offensive patrol over the front line intercepted German bombers and escorts and drove them off.
German 4th Army
Despite difficulties at the extremities of the attack front, by mid-morning most British objectives had been gained and consolidated. The Germans launched several counter-attacks, with the divisions supported by the equivalent of ten normal divisional artilleries. Clearing weather assisted early observation of the German counter-attacks, most of which were repulsed by accurate, heavy, medium and field artillery and small-arms fire, causing many German casualties. At Zonnebeke a local counter-attack by the 34th Fusilier Regiment (3rd Reserve Division) was attempted around , with part of the 2nd battalion (in support) advancing to reinforce the 3rd Battalion holding the front line and the reserve battalion (1st) joining the counter-attack, after advancing west over Broodseinde ridge. The order reached the troops south of the Ypres–Roulers railway quickly, who attacked immediately. The companies south of Zonnebeke advanced and were overrun by British troops on the (Large Mill) spur and taken prisoner.
Closer to the railway, troops reached the lake near Zonnebeke church and were pinned down by a British machine-gun already dug-in nearby. The order to counter-attack was slow to arrive north of the railway and did not begin until I Battalion (in reserve) arrived. The battalion was able to descend the slope from Broodseinde covered by mist and smoke, which led to few losses but some units losing direction. The British barrage near the village caused many casualties but the survivors pressed on through it and at reached the remnants of the 3rd Battalion near the level crossing north of the village, just in time to hold off a renewed British attack short of their position, as stray German troops trickled in. By mid-morning the mist had cleared, allowing German machine-gunners and artillery to pin the British down around spur and Frezenburg ridge, forestalling a British attack intended for .
Around noon, British aircraft on counter-attack patrol began to send wireless messages warning of German infantry advancing towards the front that had been attacked. Similar reports from the ground began in the early afternoon. In the centre German infantry from the 236th Division, 234th Division and 4th Bavarian Division were advancing north of Becelaere–Broodseinde–Passchendaele Ridge, while the 17th Division advanced south of Polygon wood. British artillery immediately bombarded these areas, disrupting the German deployment and causing the German attacks to be disjointed. A German officer later wrote of severe delays and disorganisation caused to German units by British artillery-fire and air attacks. A counter-attack either side of Molenaarelsthoek was stopped dead at At German troops advancing around Reutel to the south were severely bombarded, as were German artillery positions in (Hollow Wood), ending the German advance. A German attack then developed near Polderhoek, whose survivors managed to reach the British infantry and were seen off in bayonet fighting. Observation aircraft found German troops massing against Tower Hamlets, on the Bassevillebeek spur and artillery and machine-gun barrages stopped the attack before it reached the British infantry.
At the Germans managed to organise an attack from Tower Hamlets to north of Polygon Wood; such German infantry as got through the barrages were "annihilated" by the British infantry. German counter-attacks were only able to reach the new front line and reinforce the remnants of the front divisions. The 236th Division () attacked south of the Ypres–Roulers railway and 4th Bavarian Division () for to the north, with field artillery and twelve aircraft attached to each division and the 234th Division in support. British counter-attack patrols easily observed the advance and as the lines of German troops breasted Broodseinde ridge at , a huge bombardment enveloped them. German field artillery with the infantry was hit by artillery-fire, which blocked the roads, causing delays and disorganisation. German infantry had many casualties, as they advanced down the slope in good visibility. The 236th Division lost so many men that it was only able to reinforce the troops of the 3rd Reserve Division, found east of the Zonnebeke–Haus Kathé road on Grote Molen spur, chasing a few Australian souvenir hunters out of Molenaarelsthoek.
The 4th Bavarian Division had to find a way across the mud of the Paddebeek, east of Kleinmolen Spur and suffered to reach the survivors of the 3rd Reserve Division from Polygon Wood to (Little Mill) and the 23rd Reserve Division from to St Julien. A British attack at and the German counter-attack over Hill 40 and coincided and both sides ended where they began. The units took up to two hours to cover one kilometre through the British barrages and arrived exhausted. The 17th Division had replaced the 16th Bavarian Division as the division covering Zandvoorde, just before the battle. At parts of the division advanced north-west towards Terhand and met the first layer of the British barrage, delaying the arrival of advanced units at their assembly areas until Orders to advance took until to arrive and the troops moved through crater fields and the British bombardment, dispersing to avoid swamps and the worst of the British artillery fire. Polderhoek was reached at but the troops were sky-lined near Polderhoek Château and hit by artillery and machine-gun fire from three sides; the counter-attack "withered away". A lull began at and after a quiet night, British and Australian troops occupied Cameron House and the head of the Reutelbeek valley, near Cameron Covert.
27–29 September
On 27 September in the X Corps area on the right flank, south of the Menin road, the 39th Division stopped three German counter-attacks against Tower Hamlets Spur with artillery-fire and on the night of 27/28 September, the division was relieved by the 37th Division. In the 33rd Division area, after a report that Cameron House had been captured by the Australians, a battalion of the 98th Brigade to the north, attacked towards the 5th Australian Division against determined German resistance, reaching the Australians at Cameron Covert at That night, the 33rd Division was relieved by the 23rd Division, which had received only two days' rest. On the morning of 27 September, the 76th Brigade and the 8th Brigade of the 3rd Division, east of Zonnebeke in the V Corps area, received orders to push on to the blue line atop Hill 40 but the attack failed. The 9th Brigade was ordered to complete the task on the evening of 28 September but at on 27 September, a German barrage fell on the positions of the division, especially at Hill 40. The 3rd Division repulsed a determined German attack with artillery, machine-gun and rifle-fire after severe fighting, particularly around Bostin Farm but the division, including the 9th Brigade, suffered many casualties to the German artillery and the attack due on 28 September was called off, since the reverse slope position on the west side of Hill 40 was more sheltered than the blue line along the top of the hill and was a suitable jumping-off line for the next attack. The Germans counter-attacked at least seven counter-attacks on 27 September and another seven times the next day.
Aftermath
Analysis
Each of the three German ground-holding divisions attacked on 26 September had an division in support, which was twice the ratio of 20 September. No ground captured by the British had been regained and the counter-attacks had managed only to reach ground held by the remnants of the front-line divisions. The German official historians recorded that the German counter-attacks found well-dug-in () infantry and in places, more British attacks. Albrecht von Thaer, the Chief of Staff of (the XII Saxon Corps headquarters) made a diary entry on 28 September that "We are living through truly abominable days" and that he had no idea what to do about the British limited-objective attacks and their devastating artillery support.
The British infantry had advanced over the "field of corpses" with few casualties and dug in. German counter-attacks had advanced through the British artillery-fire only to meet massed machine-gun fire and "collapse[d] in ruins". Thaer wrote that reinforcing the front line would only present more men to be annihilated but the practice of keeping them back for counter-attacks had been thwarted. Only masses of tanks could help but the German army had none; Loßberg did not know what to do and Ludendorff had no panacea either. For the first time, the number of divisions in the 4th Army was increased but ammunition consumption was unsustainable; even on quiet days, the 4th Army fired more shells than daily receipts of the army group and on days like 20 September, consumption doubled. On 28 September, Hindenburg decided to revert to holding the front line in more strength to resist an attack and to conduct after the British attack, rather than persist with futile and costly ; Loßberg issued new orders to the 4th Army on 30 September.
Second Army Intelligence estimated that ten divisional artilleries had supported the German troops defending the Gheluvelt Plateau, doubling the Royal Artillery casualties compared to the previous week. Major-General Charles "Tim" Harington, the Second Army chief of staff, warned in a memorandum that the maximum effort made by the 4th Army to hold ground between the Menin road and Zonnebeke, demonstrated the vital importance of the ground to the German defence. Another German attack on Tower Hamlets was spotted assembling and deluged with artillery-fire during the night of and repulsed. The effort made by the Germans to hold the ground captured on 25 September at the Reutelbeek and south of Polygon Wood showed the importance of the upper ends of the valley between Becelaere and Gheluvelt. The 3rd Reserve Division had experienced desertions and refusals of orders, the 50th Reserve Division was also thought to have suffered such casualties that the divisions would be relieved and that two divisions involved in the counter-attacks of 25 September had also suffered severely. The Germans could be expected to defend the Zandvoorde Ridge north of Becelaere with even greater determination to prevent the British from gaining observation over the assembly areas beyond it to the east.
Casualties
The British had being killed. In the Second army, the 39th Division suffered on 26 September, the 33rd Division killed, the 4th Australian Division suffered ( to Charles Bean, the Australian official historian, in 1941) the 5th Australian Division had ( and wounded from according to Bean). In the Fifth Army, the 3rd Division had the 59th Division and the 58th Division of whom killed. From 20 to 27 September, the 236th () Division suffered , the 234th Division had the 10th Ersatz Division the 50th Reserve Division and the 23rd Reserve () Division The 3rd Reserve Division, 17th () Division, 19th Reserve Division and 4th Bavarian () Division casualties are unknown; suffered casualties in September. In the German official historians recorded from to which James Edmonds, the British official historian, controversially added 30 per cent for lightly wounded in the second 1917 volume of History of the Great War (1948).
Subsequent operations
A lull followed until 30 September, when a morning attack by regiments of the fresh 8th and 45th Reserve divisions and the 4th Army , with flame-throwers and a smoke screen, on the 23rd Division (X Corps) front, north of the Menin road was defeated. Another German attempt at on 1 October, with support from ground-attack aircraft, pushed two battalions back ; three later attacks were repulsed. Further north the Germans attacked the 7th Division at and were stopped by artillery and small arms fire. A renewed attack at also failed and when preparations for a third attack were seen at Cameron Covert and Joist Trench, an artillery bombardment stopped all activity. Joist Farm was lost by the 21st Division during a German attack on Polygon Wood and Black Watch Corner and the line stabilised east of Cameron House. German attacks near the Menin road on the 37th Division front in IX Corps and the 5th Division (X Corps) on 3 October failed. On 30 September the Germans had conducted three counter-attacks, followed by five more on 1 October and another two on 3 October.
Commemoration
Though smaller than in 1917, Polygon Wood is still a large feature; the remains of three German pillboxes captured by the Australians lie deep among the trees but few trench lines remain. The Butte is still prominent and mounted on top of it is the 5th Australian Division memorial. There are two Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) cemeteries in the vicinity of Polygon Wood, the CWGC Polygon Wood Cemetery and the CWGC Buttes New British Cemetery. Within Buttes New British Cemetery is the CWGC New Zealand Memorial to the Missing.
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
Journals
Theses
Further reading
Translation of Meine Tätigkeit im Weltkriege 1914–1918, Berlin, Mittler und Sohn 1939
External links
Order of Battle – France and Flanders 1917, Battle # 98 – Order of Battle for the Battle of Polygon Wood
Historical facts on WWI in the Ypres region: Australian Embassy and Mission to the European Communities
Sketch of the German Butte de Polygon defences
Battle of Polygon Wood, 26 September 1917
Battle of Polygon Wood
YouTube video of Polygon Wood
Conflicts in 1917
1917 in Belgium
Battles of the Western Front (World War I)
Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battles of World War I involving Australia
Battle honours of the Rifle Brigade
Battle honours of the King's Royal Rifle Corps
September 1917 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Langemarck%20%281917%29
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Battle of Langemarck (1917)
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The Battle of Langemarck (16–18 August 1917) was the second Anglo-French general attack of the Third Battle of Ypres, during the First World War. The battle took place near Ypres in Belgian Flanders, on the Western Front against the German 4th Army. The French First Army had a big success on the northern flank from Bixschoote to Drie Grachten (Three Canals) and the British gained a substantial amount of ground northwards from Langemark to the boundary with the French.
The attack on the Gheluvelt Plateau on the right (southern) flank captured a considerable amount of ground but failed to reach its objectives. German counter-attacks recaptured most of the lost territory during the afternoon. The weather prevented much of the British programme of air co-operation with the infantry, which made it easier for German reserves to assemble on the battlefield.
An unusually large amount of rain in August, poor drainage and lack of evaporation turned the ground into a morass, which was worse for the British and French, who occupied lower-lying ground and attacked areas which had been frequently and severely bombarded. Mud and flooded shell holes severely reduced the mobility of the infantry and poor visibility hampered artillery observers and artillery-observation aircraft. Rainstorms and the costly German defensive success during the rest of August, led the British to stop the offensive for three weeks.
In early September, the sun came out and with the return of a breeze, dried much of the ground. The British rebuilt roads and tracks to the front line, transferred more artillery and fresh divisions from the armies further south and revised further their tactics. The main offensive effort was shifted southwards and led to success on the Gheluvelt Plateau on 20, 26 September and 4 October, before the rains returned.
Background
Strategic background
Artillery preparation for the Second Battle of Verdun, in support of the Allied offensive in Flanders, which had been delayed from mid-July began on 20 August, after an eight-day bombardment. Attacking on an front, the French captured Mort Homme, Hill 304 and The 5th Army could not counter-attack because its divisions had been sent to Flanders. Fighting at Verdun continued into September, adding to the pressure on the German army. The Canadian Corps fought the Battle of Hill 70 outside Lens on the British First Army front. The attack was costly but inflicted great losses on five German divisions and pinned down troops reserved for relief of tired divisions on the Flanders front. The strategy of forcing the German army to defend the Ypres salient, to protect the Belgian hinterland, the coast, railways and submarine bases, had succeeded. The French and Russians could make local attacks but needed more time to recuperate free of big German attacks. The British had forced the Germans into a costly defensive battle but the Fifth Army (General Hubert Gough) had struggled to advance since 31 July, due to the tenacity of the German defence and the unusually wet weather. Gough kept pressure on the 4th Army, to prevent the Germans from recovering and to enable Operation Hush on the coast, which needed the high tides due at the end of August.
Tactical developments
On 31 July 1917, Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig had begun the Third Battle of Ypres, to inflict unsustainable losses on the German army and to advance out of the Ypres Salient to capture the Belgian coast and end the submarine threat from Belgian bases to the southern North Sea and the Dover Straits. At the Battle of Messines Ridge (7–14 June) the ridge had been captured down to the Oosttaverne line and a substantial success had been gained at the Battle of Pilckem Ridge (31 July – 2 August). Ground conditions in August were poor, as the surface had been bombarded, fought over and partially flooded, at times severely so. Shelling had destroyed drainage canals in the area and the unseasonable heavy rain in August turned parts into morasses of mud and waterlogged shell-craters. Supply troops walked to the front on duck boards laid across the mud; carrying loads of up to they could slip into the craters and drown. Trees were reduced to blasted trunks, the branches and leaves torn away and corpses from earlier fighting were uncovered by the rain and shelling. The ground was powdery to a depth of and when wet had the consistency of porridge.
Brigadier-General John Davidson, Director of Operations at BEF HQ, submitted a memorandum on 1 August, urging caution on Haig and Gough. Davidson recommended that the preliminary operation by II Corps not be hurried; a full artillery preparation and a relief by fresh divisions should be completed before the operation. Tired and depleted units had often failed in such attacks; two fresh divisions were sent to II Corps. Two or three clear days were needed for accurate artillery-fire, especially as captured ground on the Gheluvelt plateau gave better observation. Captured German maps revealed the positions of their machine-gun emplacements, which being small and concealed, needed accurate fire by the artillery to destroy them. The capture of the black line, from Inverness Copse north to Westhoek, would be insufficient to protect an advance from the Steenbeek further north and large German counter-attacks could be expected on the plateau, given that it was the German defensive point of main effort ().
Weather
Except where shell-holes obstructed drainage, the ground in west Flanders dried quickly and became dusty after a few dry days. A 1989 study of weather data recorded from 1867 to 1916 at Lille, down the road from Ypres, showed August to be more often dry than wet, that there was a trend towards dry autumns (September–November) and that average rainfall in October had decreased over the previous fifty years. From 1 to 10 August, of rain fell, including in a thunderstorm on 8 August. During August 1917, of rain fell, of which fell on The month was so overcast and windless that water on the ground dried slower than usual. September had of rain and was much sunnier, the ground drying quickly, hard enough in places for shells to ricochet and for dust to blow in the breeze. In October, of rain fell, compared to the 1914–1916 average of and from there was another of rain and only nine hours of sunshine, little of the water drying; another of rain fell on 10 November.
Prelude
British preparations
Few of the pillboxes captured on 31 July had been damaged by artillery-fire. Before the attack, the 109th Brigade [36th (Ulster) Division] commander, Brigadier-General Ambrose Ricardo, arranged three-minute bombardments on selected pillboxes and blockhouses by the XIX Corps heavy artillery, with pauses so that artillery observers could make corrections to contradictory maps and photographs. It was discovered that on many of the targets, the shell dispersion covered hundreds of yards, as did wire-cutting bombardments. On 2 August, at the suggestion of Brigadier-General Hugh Elles, commander of the Tank Corps, it was decided that the surviving tanks were to be held back due to the weather, for use en masse later on, although some were used later in the month. The preliminary operation intended for 2 August was delayed by rain until 10 August and more rain delays forced the postponement of the general offensive from 4 to 15 August and then again to 16 August.
The 20th (Light) Division replaced the 38th (Welsh) Division on 5 August. The 7th Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry took over captured German trenches behind the front line on 5 August, which had been turned into the British reserve line and lost three men to shellfire while waiting for dark. On arrival at the support line forward and the front line another beyond, the battalion found that the front line consisted of shell hole posts with muddy bottoms strung along the Steenbeek, from the Langemarck road to the Ypres–Staden railway. British artillery was engaged in destructive bombardments of the German positions opposite and German artillery fire was aimed at the British infantry concentrating for the next attack. After heavy rain all night, the battalion spent 6 August soaked through and had two men being killed. On 7 August, there were , including twelve killed, before the battalion was relieved until 14 August. Training began for the next attack, planned from trench maps and aerial photographs. Each company formed three platoons, two for the advance, with two rifle sections in the lead, the Lewis-gun sections behind and the third platoon to mop up.
Training emphasised the need for units to "hug" the creeping barrage and to form offensive flanks, to assist neighbouring troops whose advance had been halted by the defenders. Infantry that got forward could provide enfilade fire and envelop German positions, which were to be left behind and mopped-up by reserve platoons. Every known German position was allocated to a unit of the left in the battalion, to reduce the risk of unseen German positions being overrun and the occupants firing at the leading troops from behind. While the Somersets were out of the line, the 10th and 11th battalions, the Rifle Brigade edged forward about beyond the Steenbeek, which cost the 10th Battalion On 15 August an attempt to re-capture the Au Bon Gite blockhouse, beyond the Steenbeek, which had been lost to a German counter-attack on 31 July, failed. It was decided that the infantry for the general attack, due on 16 August, would have to squeeze into the ground beyond the river in front of the blockhouse for the attack on Langemarck.
Operation Summer Night
Operation Summer Night () was a German methodical counter-attack () near Hollebeke in the Second Army area on the southern flank, which began at on 5 August. The 22nd Reserve Division had been relieved by the 12th Division and the 207th Division after its losses on 31 July. After a short bombardment, three companies of I Battalion, Infantry Regiment 62 of the 12th Division captured a slight rise north-east of Hollebeke, surprising the British, who fell back . The new German positions were on higher and drier ground and deprived the British of observation over the German rear, reducing casualties from British artillery-fire.
Further to the south, Reserve Infantry regiments of the 207th Division attacked Hollebeke through thick fog and captured the village, despite many casualties, taking at least Most of the British were in captured pillboxes and blockhouses, which had to be attacked one by one and at three signal flares were fired to indicate success. The Germans later abandoned Hollebeke and reoccupied the old A line, then withdrew to their start line because of the severity of British counter-attacks and artillery-fire. left the front-line ragged, with a gap between regiments which the British tried to exploit with attacks and counter-attacks, before the bigger British effort of 10 August against the Gheluvelt Plateau.
Capture of Westhoek
The Gheluvelt Plateau became a sea of mud, flooded shell craters, fallen trees and barbed wire. Troops were exhausted quickly by the weather, massed artillery bombardments and lack of food and water. The rapid relief of units spread the exhaustion through all the infantry, despite the front being held by fresh divisions. British artillery fired a preparatory bombardment from Polygon Wood to Langemarck but the German guns concentrated on the Plateau. The British gunners were hampered by low cloud and rain, which made air observation extremely difficult and shells were wasted on empty gun emplacements. The British 25th Division, 18th (Eastern) Division and the German 54th Division had relieved the original divisions by 4 August but the German 52nd Reserve Division was left in the line.
By 10 August the infantry on both sides of no man's land were exhausted. The 18th (Eastern) Division attacked on the right; some troops quickly reaching their objectives but German artillery isolated them around Inverness Copse and Glencorse Wood. German troops counter-attacked several times and by nightfall the Copse and all but the north-west corner of Glencorse Wood had been recaptured. The 25th Division on the left flank advanced quickly and reached its objectives by rushing the Germans in Westhoek. Snipers and attacks by German aircraft caused an increasing number of casualties; the Germans counter-attacked into the night and the British guns bombarded German troops in their assembly positions. The appalling weather and costly defeats began a slump in British infantry morale; lack of replacements began to concern the German commanders.
Plan
The attack was planned as an advance in stages, to keep the infantry well under the protection of the field artillery. II Corps was to reach the green line of 31 July, an advance of about and form a defensive flank from Stirling Castle to Black Watch Corner. The deeper objective was compensated for by reducing battalion frontages from and leap-frogging supporting battalions through an intermediate line, to take the final objective.
On the 56th (1/1st London) Division front, the final objective was about into Polygon Wood. On the right, the 53rd Brigade of the 18th (Eastern) Division was to advance from Stirling Castle, through Inverness Copse to Black Watch Corner, at the south-west corner of Polygon Wood, to form a defensive flank to the south. Further north, the 169th Brigade was to advance to Polygon Wood through Glencorse Wood and 167th Brigade was to reach the north-western part of Polygon Wood through Nonne Bosschen.
The 8th Division was to attack with two brigades between Westhoek and the Ypres–Roulers railway, to reach the green line on the rise east of the Hanebeek stream. Eight tanks were allotted to II Corps to assist the infantry. The artillery support for the attack was the same as that for 10 August, guns for the creeping barrage moving at in five minutes, with howitzers and placing standing barrages beyond the final objective. Eight machine-gun companies were to fire barrages on the area from the north-east of Polygon Wood to west of Zonnebeke.
XIX and XVIII corps, further north, were also to capture the green line, slightly beyond the German (third position). Each XIX Corps division had fourteen batteries for the creeping barrage, howitzer batteries and forty machine-guns for standing barrages, along with the normal heavy artillery groups. Each division also had a hundred and eight 18-pounders and howitzers for bombardment and benefited from supply routes which had been far less heavily shelled than those further south. In the XVIII Corps area, a brigade each from the 48th (South Midland) Division and 11th (Northern) Division with eight tanks each, was to attack from the north end of St Julien to the White House east of Langemarck.
The 20th (Light) Division planned to capture Langemarck with the 60th Brigade and 61st Brigade. The 59th Brigade was to go into reserve after holding the line before the attack, less the two battalions in the front line, which were to screen the assembly of the attacking brigades. The attack was to begin on the east bank of the Steenbeek, where the troops had of room to assemble, crossing over on wooden bridges laid by the engineers the night before the attack. The first objective (blue line), was set on a road running along the west side of Langemarck, the second objective (green line) was further on, at the east side of the village and the final objective (red line) was another ahead, in the German defences beyond Schreiboom. On the right, the 60th Brigade was to attack on a one-battalion front, with two battalions to leapfrog through the leading battalion, to reach the second and final objectives. The attack was to move north-east behind Langemarck, to confront an expected German counter-attack up the road from Poelcappelle, away, while the 61st Brigade, attacking on a two-brigade front, took the village shielded by the 60th Brigade. The manoeuvre of the 60th Brigade would also threaten the Germans in Langemarck with encirclement.
Au Bon Gite, the German blockhouse which had resisted earlier attacks, was to be dealt with by infantry from one of the covering battalions and a Royal Engineer Field Company. Artillery for the attack came from the 20th (Light) Division, 38th (Welsh) Division and the heavy guns of XIV Corps. A creeping barrage was to move at in four minutes and a standing barrage was to fall on the objective lines in succession as the infantry advanced. The first objective was to be bombarded for twenty minutes, as the creeping barrage moved towards it, then the second objective was to be shelled for an hour to catch retreating German soldiers, destroy defences and force any remaining Germans under cover. A third barrage was to come from the XIV Corps heavy artillery, sweeping back and forth with high explosive, from ahead of the foremost British troops, to stop German machine-gunners in retired positions from firing through the British barrage. Smoke shell was to be fired to hide the attacking troops, as they re-organised at each objective. A machine-gun barrage from was arranged, with half of the guns moving forward with the infantry, to add to their firepower. German troops were also to be strafed by British aircraft from low altitude. The French First Army was to extend the attack north, from the Kortebeek to Drie Grachten, aiming to reach the St Jansbeck.
German defences
The German 4th Army operation order for the defensive battle was issued on 27 June. German infantry units had been reorganised on similar lines to the British, with a rifle section, assault troop section, a grenade-launcher section and a light machine-gun section. Field artillery in the divisions had been organised into artillery assault groups, which followed the infantry to engage the attackers with observed or direct fire. Each infantry regiment of the 183rd Division, based around Westroosebeke behind the northern flank of Group Ypres, had a battalion of the divisional field artillery regiment attached. From mid-1917, the area east of Ypres was defended by six German defensive positions: the front position, (second position), (third position), (fourth position), (fifth position) and (under construction).
Between the German positions were the Belgian villages of Zonnebeke and Passchendaele. On 31 July, the German defence in depth had begun with a front system of three breastworks: each about apart, garrisoned by the four companies of each front battalion, with listening-posts in no-man's-land. About behind these works was the (artillery protective line), the rear boundary of the forward battle zone (). Companies of the support battalions, ( security detachments () to hold the strong-points and storm troops [] to counter-attack towards them), were placed at the back of the , half in the pill-boxes of the , to provide a framework for the re-establishment of defence-in-depth, once the enemy attack had been repulsed. Dispersed in front of the line were divisional sharpshooter () machine-gun nests called the strongpoint line (). Much of the north of the Ypres–Roulers railway, had fallen on 31 July.
The (second position) roughly corresponded to the British black line (second objective) of 31 July, much of which had been captured, except on the Gheluvelt Plateau. The line marked the front of the main battle zone (), which was about deep, behind which was the (third position) and most of the field artillery of the front divisions. In pillboxes of the were the reserve battalions of the front-line regiments. The leading regiment of an division was to advance into the zone of the front division, with its other two regiments moving forward in close support from support and reserve assembly areas, further back in the . divisions were accommodated behind the front line and at the beginning of an attack began their advance to assembly areas in the behind , ready to intervene in the , for (the instant-immediate counter-thrust).
Opposite the French First Army (), the Germans had counter-flooded the area between Dixmude and Bixschoote and fortified the drier ground around the waters to stop an attack across or around the floods. Drie Grachten (Three Canals) was the main German defensive fortification in the area, blocking the Noordschoote–Luyghem road at the crossing of the Yperlee Canal north of the Steenbeek. The area was beyond the confluence with the Kortebeek, where the rivers joined to become the St Jansbeek. From Luyghem, a road ran south-east to Verbrandemis and the road from Zudyschoote and Lizenie to Dixmude crossed the Yperlee at Steenstraat. The capture of Luyghem, Merckem and the road would threaten Houthoulst Forest, to the south of Dixmude and north of Langemarck. By 15 August, the French had closed up to Drie Grachten from Bixschoote to the south-east and Noordschoote to the south-west.
West of the Yperlee Canal, the bridgehead consisted of a semi-circular breastwork due to waterlogged soil. Reinforced concrete shelters were connected by a raised trench of concrete, earth and fascines, with a communication trench leading back to a command post. Several hundred yards along a communication trench on the north side of the road was a small blockhouse. Barbed wire entanglements had been laid above and below the water in front of the post and blockhouse astride the Noordschoote–Luyghem road. To the north was (the sluice) Redoubt and another pillbox lay to the south, on the west side of the Yperlee. The redoubts corresponded to the defences on the east bank of the canal and enclosed the flanks of the position above the inundations. Platforms gave machine-guns command of a wide arc of ground in front. On the east bank of the Yperlee was a rampart of reinforced concrete, behind and parallel with the canal, from opposite to the southern redoubt. Communication between the rampart and the defences of the Luyghem peninsula was via the raised road from Drie Grachten to Luyghem and two footbridges through the floods, one north and one south of the road. Every , were traverses with reinforced concrete shelters.
In an appreciation of 2 August, Group Ypres correctly identified the as the British objective on 31 July and predicted more attacks on the Gheluvelt Plateau and further north towards Langemarck. In the Group Ypres area, only the 3rd and 79th Reserve divisions remained battleworthy, the other four having suffered On 4 August, a assessment concluded that the British needed to force back the 52nd Division on the Gheluvelt Plateau, where the defensive scheme had the front regiment of each division backed by the other two regiments in support and in reserve behind the front line. Crown Prince Rupprecht expressed concern on 5 August, that the weather conditions were rapidly exhausting the German infantry. Casualties were about per division, lower than the average of on the Somme in 1916 but only because divisions were being relieved more frequently. Supplying troops in the front line was extremely difficult because the British were using more gas, which caught carrying parties by surprise; the 6th Bavarian Reserve Division had suffered casualties.
Battle
Fifth Army
II Corps
At the British creeping barrage began to move and the infantry advanced. German flares were seen rising but the German artillery response was slow and missed the attackers. In the 18th (Eastern) Division area, German machine-gun fire from pillboxes caused many losses to the 53rd Brigade, which was stopped in front of the north-west corner of Inverness Copse. Part of the brigade managed to work forward further north and form a defensive flank along the southern edge of Glencorse Wood. To the north, the 169th Brigade of the 56th (1/1st London) Division advanced quickly at the start but veered to the right around boggy ground, then entered Glencorse Wood. The German main line of resistance was in a sunken road inside the wood, where after a hard-fought and mutually costly engagement, the German defenders were overrun and the rest of the wood occupied. The leading waves then advanced to Polygon Wood.
The 167th Brigade also had a fast start but when it reached the north end of Nonne Bosschen, found mud deep, the brigade veering round it to the left but the gap which this caused between the 167th and 169th brigades was not closed. Another problem emerged, because the quick start had been partly due to the rear waves pushing up to avoid German shelling on the left of the brigade. The follow-up infantry mingled with the foremost troops and failed to mop up the captured ground or German troops who had been overrun. Isolated German parties began sniping from behind at both brigades. Part of one company reached the area north of Polygon Wood at about the same time as small numbers of troops from the 8th Division. The ground conditions in the 56th (1/1st London) Division area were so bad that none of the tanks in support got into action.
On the 8th Division front, the two attacking brigades started well, advancing behind an "admirable" barrage and reached the Hanebeek, where hand bridges were used to cross and continue the advance up Anzac Spur, to the green line objectives on the ridge beyond. Difficulties began on the left flank, where troops from 16th (Irish) Division had not kept up with the 8th Division. After reaching the vicinity of Potsdam Redoubt a little later, the 16th (Irish) Division was held up for the rest of the day. The check to the Irish left German machine-gunners north of the railway free to enfilade the area of 8th Division to the south. On the right flank, the same thing happened to the 56th (1/1st London) Division, which was stopped by fire from German strongpoints and pillboxes in their area and from German artillery concentrated to the south-east. After a long fight, the 8th Division captured Iron Cross, Anzac and Zonnebeke redoubts on the rise beyond the Hanebeek, then sent parties over the ridge.
XIX Corps
The 16th (Irish) Division and 36th (Ulster) Division attacked from north of the Ypres–Roulers railway to just south of St Julien. The divisions were to advance up the Anzac and Zonnebeke spurs, near the (third position). Providing carrying parties since the last week in July and holding ground from 4 August in the Hanebeek and Steenbeek valleys, which were overlooked by the Germans, had exhausted many men. From 1 to 15 August, the divisions had lost about a third of their front-line strength in casualties. Frequent reliefs during the unexpected delays caused by the rain spread the casualties and fatigue to all of the battalions in both divisions. The advance began on time and after a few hundred yards encountered German strong points, which were found not to have been destroyed by a series of special heavy artillery bombardments before the attack.
The 16th (Irish) Division suffered many casualties from the Germans in Potsdam, Vampire and Borry farms, which had not been properly mopped up, because of the acute the infantry shortage. The garrisons were able to shoot at the advancing Irish troops of the 48th Brigade from behind and only isolated parties of British troops managed to reach their objectives. The 49th Brigade on the left was also held up at Borry Farm, which defeated several costly attacks but the left of the brigade got within of the top of The 36th (Ulster) Division also struggled to advance, Gallipoli and Somme farms found to be behind a new wire entanglement, with German machine-guns trained on gaps made by the British bombardment, fire from which stopped the advance of the 108th Brigade. To the north, the 109th Brigade had to get across the swamp astride the Steenbeek. The infantry lost the barrage and machine-gun fire from Pond Farm and Border House forced them to take cover. On the left troops got to Fortuin, about from the start line.
XVIII Corps
The 48th (South Midland) Division attacked at with one brigade, capturing Border House and gun pits either side of the north-east bearing St Julien–Winnipeg road, where they were held up by machine-gun fire and a small counter-attack. The capture of St Julien was completed and the infantry consolidated along a line from Border House, to Jew Hill, the gun pits and St Julien. Troops were fired on from Maison du Hibou and Hillock Farm, which was captured soon after, then British troops seen advancing on Springfield Farm disappeared. At German troops gathered around Triangle Farm and at made an abortive counter-attack. Another German attack after dark was defeated at the gun pits and at a German counter-attack from Triangle Farm was repulsed.
The 11th (Northern) Division attacked with one brigade at The right flank was delayed by machine-gun fire from the 48th (South Midland) Division area and by pillboxes to their front, where the infantry lost the barrage. On the left, the brigade dug in west of the Langemarck road and the right flank dug in facing east, against fire from Maison du Hibou and the Triangle. Supporting troops from the 33rd Brigade were caught by fire from the German pillboxes but reached the Cockcroft, passed beyond and dug in despite fire from Bulow Farm. On the left flank, these battalions reached the Langemarck road, passed Rat House and Pheasant Trench and ended their advance just short of the White House, joining with the right side of the brigade on the Lekkerboterbeek.
XIV Corps
The 20th (Light) Division attacked with two brigades at The battalions of the right brigade leap-frogged forward on a one-battalion front over the Steenbeek and then advanced in single file, worming round flooded shell craters. Alouette Farm, Langemarck and the first two objective lines were reached easily. At the advance to the final objective began and immediately encountered machine-gun fire from the Rat House and White House. Firing continued until they were captured, the final objective being taken at as German troops withdrew to a small wood behind White House. The left brigade advanced on a two-battalion front and encountered machine-gun fire from the Au Bon Gite blockhouse before it was captured and was then fired on from German blockhouses in front of Langemarck and from the railway station. Once these had been captured, the advance resumed at despite fire from hidden parties of defenders and reached the final objective at under fire from the Rat House. German counter-attacks began around and advanced around Schreiboom, being driven back some distance later on.
The 29th Division to the north attacked at the same time with two brigades. On the right the first objective was reached quickly and assistance given to the 20th (Light) Division on the right. The Newfoundland Regiment passed through, being held up slightly by marshy conditions and fire from Cannes Farm. The Newfoundlanders continued, reached the third objective and then took Japan House beyond. The left brigade took the first objective easily and then met machine-gun fire from Champeaubert Farm in the French First Army sector and from Montmirail Farm. The advance continued to the final objective, which was reached and consolidated by Patrols moved forward towards the Broombeek and a German counter-attack at was stopped by artillery and small-arms fire. Langemarck and the (third position), north of the Ypres–Staden railway and west of the Kortebeek had been captured.
The French I Corps, on the northern flank of the Fifth Army, attacked from the army boundary north-west of Weidendreft, south of the hamlet of St Janshoek (Sint Jan), north of Bixschoote and the edge of the floods, to the Noordschoote–Luyghem road, which crossed the Yperlee at Drie Grachten (Three Canals). The German defences were more visible than those opposite the British and being above ground, were easier to destroy. The floods obstructed an attack but made it hard for the Germans to move reserves and the open country made French air observation easier. The I Corps objectives were the Drie Grachten bridgehead and the triangular spit of land between the Lower Steenbeek and the Yperlee (Ypres–Ijzer) Canal. The division on the right flank was to cross the Steenbeek and assist XIV Corps on the right, north-west of Langemarck. The Steenbeek was broad and deep here and was broader between St Janshoek and the Steenstraat–Dixmude road; from the Martjewaart Reach to the Yperlee Canal it was wide and deep. During the night of the the morning of 16 August, French aircraft bombed the German defences, bivouacs around Houthoulst Forest and Lichtervelde railway station away. French and Belgian air crew flew at a very low altitude to bomb and machine-gun German troops, trains and aerodromes and shot down three German aircraft.
I Corps crossed the Yperlee from the north-west of Bixschoote to north of the Drie Grachten bridge-head and drove the Germans out of part of the swampy Poesele peninsula but numerous pillboxes built in the ruins of farmhouses further back were not captured. The French crossed the upper Steenbeek from west of Weidendreft to a bend in the stream south-west of St Janshoek. Keeping pace with the British, they advanced to the south bank of the Broombeek. Mondovi blockhouse held out all day and pivoting on it, the Germans counter-attacked during the night of to get between the French and British. The attack failed and the next morning the troops on the army boundary had observation across the narrow Broombeek valley. Apart from resistance at Les Lilas and Mondovi blockhouses, the French had achieved their objectives of 16 August relatively easily. The German garrisons at Champaubert Farm and Brienne House held out until French artillery deluged them with shells, which induced the garrisons to surrender thirty minutes later. The French took more than numerous guns, trench mortars and machine-guns.
North and north-east of Bixschoote, the ground sloped towards the Steenbeek and was dotted with pillboxes. Just west of the junction of the Broombeek and Steenbeek the Les Lilas and Mondovi blockhouses were in the angle between the streams. The French artillery had bombarded the Drie Grachten bridgehead for several days and reduced it to ruins, the concrete works being easily hit by heavy artillery and on 16 August, the French infantry waded through the floods and occupied the area. On the Poelsele peninsula the German defenders resisted until nightfall before being driven back, as the French closed up to the west bank of the Martjewaart reach of the Steenbeek. North and north-east of Bixschoote, the French reached the west bank of the St Janshoek reach and surrounded Les Lilas. On the night of French airmen set fire to the railway station at Kortemarck, east of Dixmude.
On 17 August, French heavy howitzers battered Les Lilas and Mondovi blockhouses all day and by nightfall both strong points had been breached and the garrisons captured. The bag of prisoners taken since 16 August was more than with fifteen guns. From the southern edge of the inundations between Dixmude and Drie Grachten, the French line had been pushed forward to the west bank of the Steenbeek as far as the south end of St Janshoek. South of Mondovi blockhouse, the Steenbeek had been crossed and on the extreme right, the had swung northwards to the south bank of the Broombeek, eliminating the possibility of the Fifth Army being outflanked from the north. French engineers had worked in the swamps and morasses to repair roads, bridge streams and build wire entanglements, despite constant German artillery fire. The advance brought the French clear of the northern stretch of the (third position).
Air operations
Mist and cloud made air observation difficult on the morning of 16 August, until a wind began to blow later in the day but this shifted the smoke of battle over the German lines, obscuring German troop movements. Corps squadrons were expected to provide artillery co-operation, contact and counter-attack patrols but low cloud, mist and smoke during the morning resulted in most German counter-attack formations moving unnoticed. Flash spotting to find the positions of German artillery was much more successful than in previous attacks and many more flares were lit by the infantry when called for by the crews of contact aeroplanes. Army squadrons, Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) and French aircraft flew over the lines and attacked German aerodromes, troops and transport as far as the weather allowed.
V Brigade RFC tried to co-ordinate air operations over the battlefield with the infantry attack. Two Airco DH.5 aircraft per division were provided to engage any German strong points interfering with the infantry attack on the final objective. Two small formations of fighters were to fly low patrols on the far side of the final objective of the Fifth Army, from the beginning of the attack for six hours, to break up German attempts to counter-attack and to stop equivalent German contact-patrols. After six hours, the aircraft on low patrol were to range further east to attack troop concentrations. Aircraft from the corps and army wings were to attack all targets found west of Staden–Dadizeele, with the Ninth (Headquarters) Wing taking over east of the line. German aerodromes were attacked periodically and special ground patrols were mounted below over the front line, to defend the corps artillery-observation machines.
Attempts to co-ordinate air and ground attacks had mixed results; on the II Corps front, few air attacks were co-ordinated with the infantry and only a vague report was received from an aircraft about a German counter-attack, which was further obscured by a smoke-screen. On the XIX Corps front, despite "ideal" visibility, no warning by aircraft was given of a German counter-attack over the Zonnebeke–St Julien spur at which was also screened by smoke shell. To the north on the XVIII and XIV Corps fronts, the air effort had more effect, with German strong-points and infantry being attacked on and behind the front. Air operations continued during the night, with more attacks on German airfields and rail junctions.
German 4th Army
The troops of 169th Brigade, 56th (1/1st London) Division, which tried to follow the leading waves from Glencorse Wood, were stopped at the edge of Polygon Wood and then pushed back by a counter-attack by the German 34th Division around the troops ahead of them being overwhelmed. Later in the afternoon, the brigade was driven back to its start line by attacks from the south and east by a regiment of the 54th Division sent back into the line. The 167th Brigade pulled back its right flank as the 169th Brigade was seen withdrawing through Glencorse Wood and at the Germans attacked the front of 167th Brigade and the 25th Brigade of the 8th Division to the north. The area was under British artillery observation and the German attack was stopped by massed artillery fire. At the brigade withdrew to a better position in front of its start line to gain touch with 25th Brigade. German artillery fired continuously on a line from Stirling Castle to Westhoek and increased the rate of bombardment from noon, which isolated the attacking British battalions from reinforcements and supplies and prepared the counter-attack made in the afternoon.
As the German counter-attacks by the 34th Division on the 56th (1/1st London) Division gained ground, the 8th Division to the north, about ahead of the divisions on the flanks, found itself enfiladed as predicted by Heneker. At about reinforcements for Reserve Infantry Regiment 27 of the 54th Division from Infantry Regiment 34 of the 3rd Reserve Division, the local division, attacked over Anzac Farm Spur. SOS calls from the British infantry were not seen by their artillery observers, due to low cloud and smoke shell being fired by the Germans into their creeping barrage. An observation report from one British aircraft, failed to give enough information to help the artillery, which did not fire until too late at The German counter-attack pressed the right flank of the 25th Brigade, which was being fired on from recaptured positions in Nonne Bosschen and forced it back, exposing the right of the 23rd Brigade to the north, which was already under pressure on its left flank and which retired slowly to the Hanebeek stream. Another German attack at was not fired on by the British artillery, when mist and rain obscured the SOS signal from the infantry. The Germans "dribbled" forward and gradually pressed the British infantry back to the foot of Westhoek Ridge. That evening both brigades of the 8th Division withdrew from German enfilade fire coming from the area of the 56th (1/1st London) Division, to ground just forward of their start line.
At around the 16th (Irish) and 36th (Ulster) Divisions were counter-attacked by the reserve regiment of the 5th Bavarian Division, supported by part of the 12th Reserve () Division behind a huge barrage, including smoke shell to mask the attack from British artillery observers. Despite "ideal" weather, air observation failed as it did on the II Corps front. The forward elements of both divisions were overrun and killed or captured. By the corps commander, Lieutenant-General Herbert Watts, had brought the barrage back to the start-line, regardless of survivors holding out beyond it. At Gough ordered that a line from Borry Farm to Hill 35 and Hindu Cottage be taken to link with XVIII Corps. After consulting the divisional commanders, Watts reported that a renewed attack was impossible, since the reserve brigades were already holding the start line.
There were few German counter-attacks on the fronts of XVIII and XIV Corps, which had also not been subjected to much artillery fire before the attack, as the Germans had concentrated on the corps further south. Despite the "worst going" in the salient, the 48th (South Midland) Division got forward on its left, against fire from the area not occupied by 36th (Ulster) Division on its right; the 11th (Northern) Division advanced beyond Langemarck. The 20th (Light) division and the 29th Division of XIV Corps and the French further north reached most of their objectives without serious counter-attack but the Germans subjected the new positions to intense artillery fire, inflicting many losses for several days, especially on the 20th (Light) Division. The German army group commander, Crown Prince Rupprecht wrote that the German defence continued to be based on holding the Gheluvelt Plateau and Houthoulst Forest as bastions, British advances in between were not serious threats. Ludendorff was less sanguine, writing that 10 August was a German success but that the British attack on 16 August was another great blow. Poelcappelle had been reached and despite a great effort, the British could only be pushed back a short distance.
Aftermath
Analysis
The British plan to overcome the German deep battlefield, was based on a conventional attack in three stages but the artillery was able to arrange a fire plan which was far more sophisticated than in previous attacks. The creeping barrage preceded the infantry and in some places moved slowly enough for the infantry to keep up. New smoke shells were fired when the creeping barrage paused beyond each objective, which helped to obscure the British infantry from artillery observers and German machine-gunners far back in the German defensive zone, who fired at long range through the British artillery barrages. Around Langemarck the British infantry formed up close the German positions, too near to the German defenders for the German artillery to fire on for fear of hitting their infantry, although British troops further back at the Steenbeek were severely bombarded. British platoons and sections were allotted objectives and engineers accompanied troops to bridge obstacles and attack strong points. In the 20th (Light) Division, each company was reduced to three platoons, two to advance using infiltration tactics and one to mop up areas where the forward platoons had by-passed resistance, by attacking from the flanks and from behind.
In the II and XIX Corps areas, the foremost British infantry had been isolated by German artillery and then driven back by counter-attacks. At a conference with the Fifth Army corps commanders on 17 August, Gough arranged for local attacks to gain jumping-off positions for a general attack on 25 August. Apart from small areas on the left of the 56th (1/1st London) Division (Major-General Frederick Dudgeon), the flanks of the 8th Division and right of the 16th (Irish) Division, the British had been forced back to their start line by German machine-gun fire from the flanks and infantry counter-attacks supported by plentiful artillery. Attempts by the German infantry to advance further were stopped by British artillery-fire, which inflicted many losses. Dudgeon reported that there had been a lack of time to prepare the attack and study the ground, since the 167th Brigade had relieved part of the 25th Division after it had only been in the line for neither unit had sufficient time to make preparations for the attack. Dudgeon also reported that no tracks had been laid beyond Château Wood, that the wet ground had slowed the delivery of supplies to the front line and obstructed the advance beyond it. Pillboxes had caused more delays and subjected the attacking troops to frequent enfilade fire.
Major-General Oliver Nugent, the commander of the 36th (Ulster) Division, had used information from captured German orders and noted that German artillery could not bombard advancing British troops since German positions were distributed in depth and the forward zone was easily penetrated. The advance of supporting troops was much easier to obstruct but it was more important to help the foremost infantry. If counter-battery fire was insufficient, the covering fire in front of the advance was more important and counter-battery groups should change target. Nugent recommended that fewer field guns be used for the creeping barrage and that surplus guns should be grouped to fire sweeping barrages (from side-to-side) and that Shrapnel shells should be fuzed to burst higher up, to hit the inside of shell holes. Creeping barrages should be slower with more frequent and longer pauses, during which the barrages from field artillery and 60-pounder guns should sweep and search (move side-to-side and back-and-forth). Nugent suggested that infantry formations should change from skirmish lines to company columns on narrow fronts, equipped with a machine-gun and Stokes mortar and move within a zone, since lines broke up under machine-gun fire in crater-fields.
Tanks to help capture pillboxes had bogged down behind the British front-line and air support had been restricted by the weather, particularly by low cloud early on and by sending too few aircraft over the battlefield. Only one aircraft per corps was reserved for counter-attack patrol, with two aircraft per division for ground attack. Only eight aircraft covered the army front to engage German infantry as they counter-attacked. Signalling had failed at vital moments and deprived the infantry of artillery support, which had made the German counter-attacks much more formidable in areas where the Germans had artillery observation. The 56th (1/1st London Division) Division recommended that advances be shortened, to give more time for consolidation and to minimise the organisational and communication difficulties caused by the muddy ground and wet weather. Divisional artillery commanders asked for two aircraft per division, exclusively to conduct counter-attack patrols. With observation from higher ground to the east, German artillery-fire inflicted many casualties on the British troops holding the new line beyond Langemarck.
The success of the German 4th Army in preventing the Fifth Army from advancing far along the Gheluvelt Plateau, led Haig to reinforce the offensive in the south-east, along the southern side of Passchendaele Ridge. Haig transferred principal authority for the offensive to the Second Army (General Herbert Plumer) on 25 August. Like Gough after 31 July, Plumer planned to launch a series of attacks with even more limited geographical objectives, using the extra heavy artillery brought in from the armies further south, to deepen and increase the weight of the creeping barrage. Plumer intended to ensure that the infantry were organised on tactically advantageous ground and in contact with their artillery, when they received German counter-attacks. Minor operations by both sides continued in September along the Second and Fifth army fronts, the boundary of which had been moved northwards, close to the Ypres–Roulers railway at the end of August.
Casualties
The British official historian, James Edmonds, recorded British casualties for August, of whom been killed, with a claim that 37 German divisions had been exhausted and withdrawn. Calculations of German losses by Edmonds have been severely criticised ever since. By mid-August the German army had mixed views on the course of events. The defensive successes were a source of satisfaction but the cost in casualties was thought unsustainable. The German Official History recorded from 11 to 21 August, including and guns lost. Rain, huge artillery bombardments and British air attacks greatly strained the fighting power of the remaining German troops. In 1931, Hubert Gough wrote that and eight guns had been captured.
Subsequent operations
Gough called a conference for 17 August and asked for proposals on what to do next from the corps commanders. Jacob (II Corps) wanted to attack the brown line and then the yellow line, Watts (XIX Corps) wanted to attack the purple line but Maxse (XVIII Corps) preferred to attack the dotted purple line, ready to attack the yellow line with XIX Corps. Gough decided to attack in different places at different times, risking defeat in detail. Infantry tactics would be irrelevant if the artillery failed to suppress the German defenders as the infantry struggled through mud and waterlogged shell-holes.
On 17 August, a 48th (South Midland) Division (XVIII Corps) attack on Maison du Hibou failed; next day the 14th (Light) Division (II Corps) attacked with a brigade through Inverness Copse, although held up further north by fire from Fitzclarence and L-shaped farms. A German counter-attack forced the British half way back through the copse; with support from two tanks on the Menin Road, the British held on there, despite three more German attacks. In the XIV Corps area, the 86th Brigade of the 29th Division pushed forward and established nine posts over the Broombeek.
Action of the Cockcroft
On 19 August parties from the 48th (South Midland) Division (XVIII Corps) and a composite company of the 1st Tank Brigade, attacked up the St Julien–Poelcappelle road to capture the fortified farms, blockhouses and pillboxes known as Hillock Farm, Triangle Farm, Maison du Hibou, the Cockcroft, Winnipeg Cemetery, Springfield and Vancouver. The advance was covered by a smoke barrage and low-flying aircraft disguised the sound of the tanks. The infantry followed up when the tank crews signalled and occupied the strong points. Hillock Farm was captured at and fifteen minutes later Maison du Hibou was taken. Triangle Farm was overrun soon afterwards, when tanks drove the garrisons under cover from where they were unable to defend themselves.
A Female tank ditched from the Cockcroft at the crew dismounted their Lewis guns and dug in to wait for their infantry party. The tank crews suffered and the attacking infantry of the expected the Germans suffered about and were taken prisoner. On 20 August, a special gas and smoke bombardment was fired by the British on Jehu Trench, beyond Lower Star Post, on the front of the 24th Division (II Corps). The 61st (2nd South Midland) Division (XIX Corps) took a German outpost near Somme Farm and on 21 August the 38th (Welsh) Division (XIV Corps), pushed forward its left flank.
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
Encyclopaedias
Journals
Further reading
External links
Order of Battle – France and Flanders 1917, Battle # 98 – Order of Battle for the Battle of Langemarck
Conflicts in 1917
1917 in Belgium
Battles of the Western Front (World War I)
Ypres Salient
Battles of World War I involving Germany
Battle honours of the Rifle Brigade
Battle honours of the King's Royal Rifle Corps
Battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
Battles of World War I involving Australia
Battles of World War I involving New Zealand
Battles of World War I involving France
Battle of Passchendaele
1917 in France
August 1917 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malusi%20Gigaba
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Malusi Gigaba
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Knowledge Malusi Nkanyezi Gigaba (born 30 August 1971) is a South African politician who served as Minister of Home Affairs of the Republic of South Africa appointed by President Cyril Ramaphosa from 27 February 2018 until his resignation on 13 November 2018. He also held the post from 25 May 2014 to 31 March 2017 as appointed by former President Jacob Zuma. He previously served as Deputy Minister of Home Affairs, Minister of Public Enterprises and Minister of Finance in the government of South Africa. He is currently a member of the National Executive Committee of the African National Congress.
He was first elected to the National Assembly of South Africa in 1999 as Member of Parliament for the African National Congress. He resigned in 2001 but was elected to the National Assembly again in 2004. President Thabo Mbeki appointed him to the position of Deputy Minister of Home Affairs. President Jacob Zuma appointed Gigaba as Minister of Public Enterprises, succeeding Barbara Hogan in October 2010. He served in that position until 2014, when he was appointed Minister of Home Affairs. Gigaba was appointed Minister of Finance in March 2017 after the controversial dismissal of Pravin Gordhan.
In February 2018, Gigaba for the second time was appointed Minister of Home Affairs in the cabinet of Cyril Ramaphosa. He served until his forced resignation in November 2018, after mounting pressure for him to resign or for Ramaphosa to dismiss him. Minister of Transport, Blade Nzimande, was serving as Acting Minister of Home Affairs. Gigaba resigned as Member of the National Assembly on 15 November 2018.
Gigaba is known as a chief architect of state capture.
Early life
Gigaba is the second-born child of Reverend Jabulani Gigaba and Nomthandazo Gigaba. He has three sisters and a brother. Gigaba did his primary school education at Mathonsi Primary School in Mandeni around 1983, followed by high school education at Vryheid State High School in 1988. He attended Ethalana high school in the district of Umzinyathi where he attained his matric. He earned a bachelor's degree in education from the University of Durban-Westville (now part of the University of KwaZulu-Natal) in 1991, and a Master's degree in Social Policy.
Early political career
During this period Gigaba became involved in various student and youth organisations such as Congress of South African Students (COSAS), the South African Youth Congress (SAYCO), the South African Student Congress (SASCO) and Young Christian Students (YCS). Some of these organisations such as COSAS and SASCO were aligned to the banned African National Congress (ANC). It was his involvement in these organisations that laid the foundation for his activities in the ANC Youth League. Gigaba has also been active in youth organizations, and was elected president of the African National Congress Youth League three times in a row (1996, 1998, 2001).
When the ANC, Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), South African Communist Party (SACP) and other liberation movements were unbanned in 1990, he joined the African National Congress Youth League, SACP and the ANC. That same year he completed his Bachelor of Pedagogics at UDW, but continued pursuing a postgraduate degree. Gigaba became one of the founding members of the Education Students Society University of Durban-Westville in 1992. The following year (1993) he was elected as chairman of SASCO at the University Durban-Westville (UDW).
Later political career
In 2004 Gigaba was re-elected to Parliament where he became Deputy Minister of Home Affairs until October 2010. He was involved in a new visa system allowing easier legal flow of migration between South Africa and Zimbabwe.
In November 2010 he became the Minister of Public Enterprises and a leading figure in the South African Government responsible for a significant aspect of the governments infrastructure investment programmes through State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) such as the embattled Transnet and Eskom.
In May 2014, former president Jacob Zuma appointed Gigaba as Minister of Home Affairs.
On 31 March 2017, Gigaba was appointed Minister of Finance, replacing Pravin Gordhan, raising suspicions that he was deployed by Zuma to assist him in developing his allegedly corrupt relationship with the Guptas.
On 27 February 2018, Gigaba was removed from his position as the Minister of Finance and replaced by Nhlanhla Nene. On the same day Gigaba was appointed as Minister of Home Affairs by President Cyril Ramaphosa following the announcement of his new cabinet, replacing Ayanda Dlodlo.
On 13 November 2018, Gigaba resigned as Minister of Home Affairs and subsequently also as Member of the National Assembly on 15 November 2018.
Controversy
Dubai bank account
In 2014 it was reported that state security agents had investigated a mysterious offshore bank account opened in Gigaba's name, in Dubai, when he was still public enterprises minister.
Gigaba apparently told state security agents that the account was opened by one of his officials without his knowledge. But banking and security insiders have indicated that it is difficult, if not impossible, for anyone to open an offshore account using a person's name without their knowledge, and that this could amount to fraud. His spokesperson denied any connection with the account or knowledge of the investigation.
When Gigaba appeared before The Judicial Commission of Inquiry into Allegations of State Capture at parastatals in 2018 he denied holding any bank accounts in Dubai, and stated that he only had one account, with a local South African bank.
Visa regulations
At home affairs his reputation took a blow when he implemented arduous rules for those travelling with children, creating concerns around South Africa's tourism industry.
Prior to the announcement of the visa regulations, tourist arrivals into South Africa had been steadily growing. 2011 = 2,176,719 arrivals 2012 = 2,505,763 arrivals (15,1% growth) 2013 = 2,660,631 arrivals (6,1% growth) but this changed abruptly in the third quarter of 2014 – the in-person visa application requirement came into effect in June 2014. Since then, there has been a systematic decline in tourist arrivals.
From September to December 2014, Brazil was down by 37%, China by 46.9% and India by 14.4%, continuing into 2015. The June 2015 arrivals data from Statistics SA showed overseas arrivals down by 13%. At the same time competitors were up. According to SA Tourism R7.51bn of revenue has been lost to the country.
Fireblade Aviation
In a judgment relating to the Fireblade Aviation case on 27 October 2017, the North Gauteng High Court found that Gigaba had lied under oath during his tenure as Minister of Home Affairs. The court case related to Gibaba, then Home Affairs Minister, allegedly granting permission to the Oppenheimer family to operate a private terminal at OR Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg.
The judge called Gigaba's arguments "disingenuous, spurious and fundamentally flawed, laboured and meritless, bad in law, astonishing, palpably untrue, untenable and not sustained by objective evidence, uncreditworthy and nonsensical".
An appeal by Gigaba was heard in December 2017. Judge Tuchten concluded that "the Minister has committed a breach of the Constitution so serious that I could characterize it as a violation".
Gigaba then approached the Supreme Court of Appeal and the Constitutional Court concurrently. The Constitutional Court dismissed the application with costs, saying it was not in the interests of justice to hear the matter at that stage because the Supreme Court of Appeal had to rule on the matter first.
The Supreme Court of Appeal on 28 March 2018 dismissed Gigaba's application for leave to appeal against the judgment, saying there was no reasonable prospect of success.
Judge Malcolm Wallis said in his judgment that "there is nothing to suggest that the issues raised by the minister are of such a nature as to warrant the grant of leave to appeal notwithstanding the lack of prospects of success". The application was dismissed with costs.
Gigaba's application to the Constitutional Court for leave to appeal against a lower court ruling that he lied under oath was dismissed on 1 November 2018 "as it bears no prospects of success."
State capture
A pivotal point in the state capture project was the appointment of Malusi Gigaba as Minister of Public Enterprises in 2010. He exploited a loophole in the Public Finance Management Act that made it possible to use the procurement procedures of State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) to benefit selected contractors sanctioned by the Gupta Family network, this initiated the "repurposing" of State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) as vehicles for looting.
Gigaba is known as a chief architect of state capture, mainly because he purposely appointed key brokers of the state capture project to high level positions at State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) Transnet and Eskom.
In 2017, Organisation Undoing Tax Abuse laid charges of treason, corruption, extortion, fraud and theft against Gigaba.
Gupta family citizenship
Controversy was stirred in early 2015 when Gigaba fraudulently granted South African citizenship to members of the Gupta Family.
A Parliament portfolio committee on Home Affairs in March 2019 recommended that members of the Gupta Family be charged criminally, their South African citizenships cancelled and the information be passed to the Commission of Enquiry into State Capture.
Transnet
Gigaba was instrumental in appointing Iqbal Sharma, a known Salim Essa and Gupta Family associate, to the Transnet board and Brian Molefe, later a known Gupta Family intimate, as Transnet chief executive in 2011.
Gigaba attempted to elevate Sharma to board chair, but this was prevented by his Cabinet colleagues over concerns of Sharma's known close relationship with the Gupta Family.
A new structure, formally called the Board Acquisitions and Disposals Committee, was set-up to oversee and supervise large-scale infrastructure spending and tenders worth more than R2.5bn.
Sharma became chair of this committee, enabling Gupta-linked entities to begin benefiting from Transnet tender opportunities, most notably the R51bn tender for the purchase of 1 064 locomotives.
In July 2012, Transnet issued its tender for 1,064 freight locomotives; 599 electric and the rest diesel. This included R25-billion in tenders that were signed off by Molefe and awarded to CSR (China South Rail). CSR then paid Tequesta Group Ltd, a Gupta-linked shell company, R5.3 billion in consultancy fees.
Transnet was a key institution for the Gupta Family and associates. Procurement processes were flouted, tenders were unlawfully awarded, contracts were signed off and extended with no accounting to the board, and money was siphoned from Transnet to Gupta-linked companies.
A National Treasury investigation concluded that Gigaba had acted outside his authority and compromised the tender process, that Transnet officials had contravened the Public Financial Management Act and misrepresented facts to the board, and called on the Hawks to launch a corruption investigation into Transnet's board members, as well as for criminal investigations into Gupta associates and businesses linked to the inflated R54 bn locomotive procurement deal.
Eskom
One of Gigaba's first moves in 2011 was to overturn a procurement decision on which the Eskom executive and board had signed off – the replacement of Koeberg Nuclear Power Station's steam generators. Soon after, Gibaba removed the board.
Most of the new appointees had no corporate or electricity sector experience. New board members included Gupta business associates: former Oakbay director Mark Pamensky, Mineral Resources Minister Mosebenzi Zwane's advisor Kuben Moodley, and Nazia Carrim, wife of a relative of close Gupta associate Salim Essa.
The governance of Eskom was captured and repurposed - the next period was the scaling up of grand corruption, with the Gupta Family managing complex brokering and money laundering.
The most notable examples include Eskom's facilitating and financing of the Guptas' acquisition of Glencore's Optimum Coal Holdings as a supplier to Eskom.
While Glencore was driven into business rescue, the Guptas' firm Tegeta benefited from an Eskom guarantee (R1.6bn), a large and unusual pre-payment (R600m) and additional lucrative coal contracts. The guarantee and pre-payment income enabled the Gupta family to buy Optimum Coal Holdings.
Further instances of Gupta-favoured coal contracts and the squeezing out of large coal miners were revealed in Parliament's inquiry report published on 28 November 2018.
The report conclusions included: 'The Committee finds that the Executive arm of government represented by the two former ministers – Gigaba and Brown – was grossly negligent in carrying out its responsibility as the sole Shareholder of Eskom. and 'recommends that the two former Public Enterprises ministers Gigaba and Brown must make presentations to the Zondo Commission in order to share insights into the roles they played as Shareholder representatives during the period of corruption and corporate capture that flourished at Eskom.
South African Airways
In 2012 Gigaba delayed support for a turnaround strategy for South African Airways (SAA) put forward by then board chair Cheryl Carolus, causing financial damage to the airline.
After Carolus resigned, Gigaba brought back Vuyisile Kona as both acting CEO and board chair after a meeting at the Guptas' Saxonwold house with Rajesh Gupta, Duduzane Zuma, and Ace Magashule's son Tshepiso.
During 2017, SAA was bailed out with a payment of R5-billion, including a portion of R3-billion that was meant to settle SAA's debt with Citibank. Another R5-billion payment to SAA was due at the end of March 2018, a month after Gigaba announced a VAT increase.
The reason for these costly failures in SoEs is poor corporate governance, whose seeds sprouted when Minister Gigaba was at the helm of the Department of Public Enterprises. Poor understanding of government's oversight role as a shareholder, lack of strategic perspective, and absence of a developmental mindset are other factors that undermine effective governance of SoEs.
Zondo Commission
The Zondo Commission of Inquiry into State Capture in South Africa heard evidence that implicated Malusi Gigaba in a number of instances of alleged improper conduct. These included:
Interference in state-owned enterprises: Gigaba was accused of interfering in the appointment of board members and executives at state-owned enterprises, including Eskom, Transnet, and Denel. Witnesses alleged that he had used his authority to remove or appoint individuals who were aligned with his own interests or those of the Gupta family, a wealthy business family that was at the center of the state capture scandal.
Irregular procurement practices: The Commission heard evidence that Gigaba had approved a number of contracts and tenders without following proper due diligence or competitive bidding processes. In some cases, these contracts were awarded to companies with close ties to the Gupta family or other politically connected individuals, resulting in overpayments and other irregularities.
Misuse of public funds: The Commission also heard evidence that Gigaba had used public funds for personal purposes, including the purchase of luxury goods such as clothing and watches. He was also accused of using state resources to fund lavish travel expenses for himself and his family.
Dishonesty and perjury: During his testimony before the Commission, Gigaba was accused of lying under oath and providing misleading information. He was also accused of altering a classified report that was used in a court case involving a company owned by the Gupta family, in an attempt to protect their interests.
Overall, the Zondo Commission's findings suggested that Gigaba had acted improperly and had failed to uphold the principles of good governance and accountability. While Gigaba denied any wrongdoing, the Commission's evidence was seen as credible and compelling by many observers. The hope is that by exposing and addressing these types of alleged abuses of power, South Africa can move towards greater transparency, accountability, and integrity in its government institutions.
Personal life
Gigaba was married to Thabong Nxumalo; they divorced in 2010. He has children from his first marriage. He married Nomachule "Norma" Mngoma in 2014. Gigaba's former mistress Buhle Mkhize and his wife Nomachule "Norma" Gigaba (née Mngoma) have engaged in several spats on social media, eventually leading to confirmation of the affair.
A video of Gigaba performing a solo sexual act went viral on social media. Gigaba apologized for the incident in a series of tweets.
References
External links
Official site at the South African Ministry of Home Affairs
Zimbabwean starves outside home affairs
Sowetan deputy minister meets brother of deceased
Official site at the Parliament of South Africa
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1971 births
African National Congress politicians
Finance ministers of South Africa
Living people
Members of the National Assembly of South Africa
Ministers of Home Affairs of South Africa
People from Eshowe
University of Durban-Westville alumni
Zulu people
Controversies in South Africa
Corruption in South Africa
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5060914
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rules%20of%20the%20Eurovision%20Song%20Contest
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Rules of the Eurovision Song Contest
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A detailed set of rules and obligations which all participating broadcasters and participants in the annual Eurovision Song Contest () must uphold is produced annually ahead of each edition of the international song contest. These rules are drafted by the contest organisers, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), and approved by the contest's Reference Group, and typically outline which songs may be deemed eligible for entry, the format of the contest, the voting system employed to select a contest winner and how the results of this vote are presented to the televised audience, the overall values of the contest, and distribution and broadcasting rights through television, radio and streaming services.
Since the contest's inaugural edition in 1956, the rules upon which the event has been organised and contested have changed over time.
General format
The Eurovision Song Contest is an international song competition held among broadcasting networks representing primarily European countries. Each participating broadcaster submits an original song to represent their respective country which is performed on live television and radio and transmitted via the European Broadcasting Union's Eurovision and Euroradio networks, hosted by one of the participating countries in an auditorium in a selected host city. Following all entries each participating country casts votes for their favourite performances from the other countries, and the song which has received the most points at the end of the programme is declared the winner.
Each contest typically consists of three live television shows held over one week in May. Two semi-finals are held on the Tuesday and Thursday of "Eurovision week", followed by a final on the Saturday. All competing countries compete in one of the two semi-finals, with the exception of the host country of that year's contest and the "Big Five" countries—, , , and the —who receive an automatic berth in the final as the contest's biggest financial contributors. All remaining competing countries are split randomly across the two semi-finals, and the 10-highest scoring countries in each semi-final qualify for the final; 26 countries in total therefore compete in the final each year unless the host country is also part of the "Big Five", in which case 25 countries would compete in the final for that year.
The votes each country provides to determine the overall winner consists of two parts: television viewers and radio listeners in each country can vote for their favourite song through telephone and SMS voting or by voting through the official Eurovision app, with all votes tallied to create a public "top 10" for that country; a selected jury of five music professionals is also appointed by each country's participating broadcaster, who rank all entries in the shows to determine their "top 10" songs. Each country then provides two sets of points representing the views of the public and jury, with each set containing the points 1-8, 10 and 12, with the highest ranked song receiving 12 points. The semi-final qualifiers are solely determined by the public vote.
The contest is a non-profit event, with financing for each year's event typically raised through a mandatory participation fee from each participating broadcaster, which varies for each country depending on its size and viewership, as well as contributions from the host broadcaster and the host city, and commercial revenues from any contest sponsorships, ticket sales for the live shows, televoting revenues and merchandise.
Eligibility to participate in the contest is limited to active members of the EBU, which consist of member broadcasters from states which fall within the European Broadcasting Area or are member states of the Council of Europe. Associate member broadcasters may also be allowed to compete in the contest, should they receive approval from the contest's Reference Group.
Organisation
The contest is organised by the EBU, together with the participating broadcaster of the host country, and is overseen by the Reference Group on behalf of all participating broadcasters, who are each represented by a nominated Head of Delegation. The Head of Delegation for each country is responsible for leading their country's delegation at the event, and is their country's contact person with the EBU. A country's delegation will typically include a Head of Press, the contest participants, the songwriters and composers, backing performers, and the artist's entourage, and can range from 20 to 50 people depending on the country. The Heads of Delegation will typically meet in March before the contest is held, to receive detailed information about the shows, the venue, stage design, lighting and sound to best prepare their entry for the contest, as well as details on the event organisation, such as transportation and accommodation during the event.
Scrutineers and Executive Supervisors
The contest's voting procedure is presided over by a scrutineer nominated by the EBU, who is responsible for ensuring that all points are allocated correctly and in turn. This role has been a consistent feature of the contest since its first edition, and has evolved into the present-day role of the Executive Supervisor, who is also responsible for overseeing the organisation of the contest on behalf of the EBU, enforcing the rules and monitoring the TV production during the live shows. Since 2011, the Executive Supervisor has been assisted by an Event Supervisor, who oversees and coordinates other matters related to the event on behalf of the EBU.
The table below outlines the holders of the posts of Executive Supervisor and Event Supervisor in the contest's history:
Reference Group
The Reference Group is the contest's executive committee and works on behalf of all participating countries in the contest. The group of broadcast executives and producers from various EBU member organisations meets four to five times a year, and its role is to approve the development and format of the contest, secure financing, control the contest's branding, raise public awareness, and to oversee the yearly preparations of the contest with the host broadcaster.
The composition of the Reference Group consists of a Chairperson, three elected members from among the Heads of Delegations, the Executive Producer(s) of the host broadcaster from the upcoming host country as well as the two previous hosts, up to another two invited members with relevant competence and experience, and the contest's Executive Supervisor. The elected Chairperson typically comes from an EBU member broadcaster which does not participate in the contest, therefore allowing a degree of neutrality to the role.
the current membership of the Reference Group is as follows:
Bakel Walden (Chairperson; SRG SSR)
Martin Österdahl (EBU Executive Supervisor)
Ebba Adielsson (Executive Producer ; SVT)
Rachel Ashdown (Lead Commissioner ; BBC)
Simona Martorelli (Executive Producer ; RAI)
Claudio Fasulo (Executive Producer 2022; RAI)
Carla Bugalho (Deputy Executive Producer ; RTP)
Felix Bergsson (elected member; RÚV)
Alexandra Wolfslast (elected member; NDR)
(elected member; RTVE)
Tomislav Štengl (invited member; HRT)
Song and artist eligibility
The rules of the contest set out which songs may be eligible to compete. As the contest is for new compositions, and to prevent any one competing entry from having an advantage compared to the other entries, the contest organisers typically set a restriction on when a song may be released commercially for it to be considered eligible. Rules in recent years have typically seen this date set as the first day of September of the year before the contest is to be held, however this date has varied, and in the contest's history this has been as late as a few weeks before the contest is held. Previously, songs were not allowed to be released commercially in any other country than that which it represented until after the final, however this criterion is no longer in place, and with the advancement in technology and the growth of Internet streaming, songs are regularly published online and released globally, and are now promoted via the Eurovision official website and social media platforms ahead of the contest.
No restrictions regarding the song duration were originally enacted when the contest was first founded, however following heavy protests over the , which lasted for minutes, a new rule was implemented, requiring each competing song to have a maximum duration of three minutes; a rule that still applies.
No rule has ever been implemented to limit the nationality or country of birth of the competing artists; many competing countries with a small population, such as and , were regularly represented by artists and composers from other countries, and several winning artists in the contest's history have held a different nationality or were born in a different country to that which they represented in the contest.
Each competing performance may only feature a maximum of six people on stage, and may not contain live animals. Since , all performers must be aged at least 16 on the day of the final; this rule was introduced after two artists in the were 11 and 12 years old on the day of the contest, which elicited complaints from some of the other participating countries. This rule's introduction means that Sandra Kim, who won the contest for in at the age of 13, would remain the contest's youngest winner until the rule is changed. No performer may compete for more than one country at the contest in a given year.
Live music
Live music has been an integral part of the contest since its first edition. The main vocals of the competing songs must be sung live on stage, however other rules on pre-recorded musical accompaniment have changed over time.
The orchestra was a prominent feature of the contest from 1956 to 1998. Pre-recorded backing tracks were first allowed in the contest in 1973, but under this rule the only instruments which could be pre-recorded had to also be seen being "performed" on stage; in 1997, this rule was changed to allow all instrumental music to be pre-recorded, however the host country was still required to provide an orchestra. In 1999, the rules were changed again, making the orchestra an optional requirement; the host broadcaster of the , Israel's IBA, subsequently decided not to provide an orchestra as a cost saving measure, meaning that all entries would use a backing track for the first time in the contest's history. The present-day rules of the contest now specify that all instrumental music should be pre-recorded, with no live instrumentation allowed, making the return of the orchestra for competing acts impossible under the current rules.
Before 2020, all vocals were required to be performed live, with no natural voices of any kind or vocal imitations allowed on backing tracks. The at the 1999 contest was sanctioned after the contest for including synthesised male vocals in defiance of this rule, with Croatia subsequently penalised through the docking of their score at that year's contest by 33% for the purposes of calculating their five-year points average for use in determining which countries would be relegated in future contests. Ahead of the , in an effort to make the contest more flexible to change following the cancellation of the 2020 edition and to facilitate modernisation, recorded backing vocals were permitted as an optional addition. An example of this is Iceland's 2021 entry "10 Years", which used a choir in the bridge of the song. Delegations are still free to provide live backing vocals if they prefer, and all lead vocals performing the melody of the song, including by the lead vocalist(s) and any supporting vocalists, must still be performed live.
Language
As Eurovision is a song contest, all competing entries must include vocals and lyrics of some kind; purely instrumental pieces have never been allowed. Presently competing entries may be performed in any language, be that natural or constructed, however the rules on the language(s) in which a country's entry may be performed have varied over the course of the contest's history.
From 1956 to 1965, there were no rules in place to dictate which language a country may perform in, however all entries up to 1964 were performed in one of their countries' national languages. In broke with this tradition by being performed in English; a new language rule was subsequently introduced for the for all competing countries, preventing entries from being performed in any language other than one of the relevant country's officially recognised national languages.
The language rule was first abolished in , allowing all participating countries to sing in the language of their choice, but was reintroduced ahead of the . However, as the process for choosing the entries for and had already begun before the rule change was announced, they were permitted to perform in English for that year's edition. The language rule was abolished once again in 1999, resulting in 14 of that year's 23 competing entries featuring English lyrics. The large majority of entries at each year's contest are now performed in English, given its status as a lingua franca; at the , only four songs did not contain any English lyrics. Following Salvador Sobral's victory in that year's contest with a song in Portuguese, the saw an increased number of entries in another language than English, a trend which was repeated in . In , the first, second, and third places were all won by non-English songs for the first time since 1995.
The freedom of language has, however, provided opportunities for artists to perform songs which would not have been possible previously, with a number of competing entries in this millennium having been performed in an invented language, and artists have also used this linguistic freedom to perform in languages other than English which are also not official languages of their country.
As the contest is presented in both English and French, at least one of the contest's hosts must be able to speak French as well as English.
Running order
The order in which the competing countries perform had historically been decided through a random draw, however, since , the order has been determined by the contest's production team, and submitted to the EBU Executive Supervisor and Reference Group for approval before being announced publicly. This change was introduced to provide a better experience for television viewers, making the show more exciting and allowing all countries to stand out by avoiding cases where songs of similar style or tempo were performed in sequence. Under the current method, during the semi-final allocation draw, each country competing in a semi-final is drawn into either the first half or second half of that semi-final; once all songs have been selected the producers will then determine the running order for the semi-finals. Semi-final qualifiers make a draw at random during the winners' press conference to determine whether they will perform during the first or second half of the final; the automatic finalists will also randomly draw their competing half in the run-up to the final, except for the host country, whose exact performance position is determined at random in a separate draw. The running order for the final is then decided following the second semi-final by the producers. The running orders are decided with the competing songs' musical qualities, stage performance, prop and lighting set-up, and other production considerations taken into account.
The process change in 2013 led to a mixed reaction from fans of the contest, with some expressing concern over potential corruption in allowing the producers to decide at which point each country would perform, while others were more optimistic about the change. The order in which competing countries perform is considered an important factor in the potential of winning the contest, and statistical analysis on this subject has been shown to corroborate that in a random draw songs which perform later in the contest have a better chance of being scored highly. Performing second in the final is particularly considered detrimental to a country's chances of winning the contest, and no song performing in this position has ever won the contest in its history. However, of the current appearing positions, numbers 16, 25 and 26 in the running order have never won either. Position 17 has won the most, with seven times.
Voting
Various voting systems have been used in the history of the contest to determine the placing of the competing songs. The current system has been in place since 2023, which works on the basis of positional voting. Each country awards two sets of points: one set is based on the votes of each country's professional jury, consisting of five music professionals from that country; and a second set is based on the views of the general public in the competing countries conducted through telephone and SMS voting or via voting conducted through the official Eurovision app. Each set of points consists of 1–8, 10 and 12 points to the jury and public's 10 favourite songs, with the most preferred song receiving 12 points. In the semi-finals, each country awards one set of points based on the votes cast by that country's viewing public, while in the final, each country awards two sets of points, with one set awarded each by the viewers and the professional jury. Since 2023, viewers in non-participating countries are also able to vote during the contest, with those viewers able to cast votes via an online platform, which are then aggregated and awarded as one set of points from an "extra country" for the overall public vote. National juries and the public in each country are not allowed to vote for their own country, a rule first introduced in 1957.
Historically, each country's points were determined by a jury, which has at times consisted of members of the public, music professionals, or both in combination. With advances in telecommunication technology, and in response to criticism regarding some jury picks for the contest winner, televoting was first introduced to the contest in 1997 on a trial basis. At , broadcasters in Austria, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom allowed their viewing public to determine their votes for the first time, and from televoting was extended to almost all competing countries. The was the first to make televoting mandatory for all competing countries, however each country was obligated to provide a "backup jury", which would be used in case of voting failure, or if the number of votes registered did not pass a set threshold to be considered valid. A jury was reintroduced for the final of the , with each country's points comprising both the votes of the jury and public in an equal split. This mix of jury and public voting was expanded into the semi-finals from 2010, and was used until 2023, when full public voting was reintroduced to determine the results of the semi-finals. The mix of jury and public voting continues to be used in the final.
The current voting system is a modification of that used in the contest since 1975, when the "1–8, 10, 12 points" system was first introduced. Until 2016, each country provided one set of points, representing the votes of either the country's jury, public or, since the 2009 final, the votes of both combined.
Presentation of the votes
Since 1957, each country's votes have been announced during a special voting segment as part of the contest's broadcast. After each country's votes have been calculated and verified, and following performances during the interval, the presenter(s) of the contest will call upon a spokesperson in each country in turn to invite them to announce the results of their country's vote in English or French. This spokesperson is typically a musician, broadcaster or journalist who is well known in their country, and previous spokespersons have included former Eurovision artists and presenters. Prior to 1994 the announcements were made through telephone lines from the countries of origin, with the audio piped through into the auditorium for the audience to hear and over the television transmission; the saw the introduction of satellite links for the voting, which has allowed the spokespersons to be seen visually by the audience and TV spectators.
The votes from each country are tallied via a scoreboard, which typically shows the total number of points each country has so far received, as well as the points being given out by the country currently being called upon by the presenter(s). The scoreboard was first introduced in 1957; voting at the first contest was held behind closed doors, but taking inspiration from the UK's Festival of British Popular Songs which featured voting by regional juries, the EBU decided to incorporate this idea into its own contest. This scoreboard was historically situated physically to the side of the stage and was updated manually as each country gave their votes; a graphical representation of this scoreboard was first introduced at the , which in recent contests is able to sort itself to place the country with the most votes at the top.
Historically, each country's spokesperson would announce sequentially the number of points being given to a specific country, which would then be repeated by the contest's presenter(s) in both English and French. With the increase in the number of competing countries, and therefore the number of countries voting in the final, the voting sequence soon became a lengthy process. From 2006, to save time, only each country's 8, 10 and 12 points were announced by their spokesperson, with points 1–7 displayed on-screen and then automatically added to the scoreboard. Since the introduction of the new voting system in 2016, the spokespersons now announce only their country's 12 points, with their 8 and 10 points now also being shown and added automatically.
From 1957 to 1962, the order in which the participating countries announced their votes was in reverse order of the presentation of their songs; from 1963 to 2003, countries were called upon in the same order in which they presented their songs, with the exception of the 1974 contest, where a drawing of lots was used to decide the order in which countries were called upon. With the introduction of semi-finals in 2004, a new system to determine the order of voting was required to account for the countries which failed to qualify for the final: in 2004, the countries were called upon in alphabetical order according to their two-letter ISO country codes; and in 2005, the votes of the non-qualifying semi-finalists were announced first, in the order in which they performed in the semi-final, followed by the finalist countries in the order in which they performed in the final. From 2006 to 2010, similar to 1974, a separate draw was held to determine the voting order; this draw was scrapped in 2011, and a new logarithmic system was implemented which used the jury votes submitted following the "jury final" dress rehearsal in an attempt to ensure the winner did not become apparent early on in the voting sequence, and subsequently to create a more suspenseful and exciting experience for the viewers.
Since 2016, the voting presentation begins with each country's spokespersons being called upon in turn to announce the points of their country's professional jury. Once the jury points from all countries have been announced, the contest's presenter(s) will then announce the total public points received for each finalist, with the votes for each country being consolidated and announced as a single value. From 2016 to 2018, the public points were announced in order from last to first, with the country with the lowest total score announced first; since 2019, these points have been announced in order according to their placing by the juries, with the country that received the fewest points from the juries receiving their public points first. The full televoting results, and the votes of each country's jury and individual jury members, are published on the official Eurovision website after the show; each country's individual televoting points are also typically displayed on-screen towards the end of the show by that country's broadcaster.
Ties for first place
Since 1970, the rules of the contest have outlined how to determine the winning act in cases where two or more countries have the same number of points at the end of the voting. The method of breaking a tie has changed over time, and the current tie-break rule has been in place since 2016. In this event, a combined national televoting and jury result is calculated for each country, and the winner is the song which has obtained points from the highest number of countries.
The first tie-break rule was introduced following the 1969 contest, when four of the sixteen countries taking part—France, Spain, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom—all finished the voting with an equal number of votes. As there was no rule in place to break the tie, all four were declared joint winners. This result led to complaints from a number of other competing countries, and several countries refused to take part in the 1970 edition of the contest in protest.
To date, on only one occasion since 1969 has there been a tie for first place: in , the entries from and had received 146 points each at the end of the voting. The tie-breaking rule in place at the time specified that the country which had received the most sets of 12 points would be declared the winner; if there was still a tie, then the 10 points received, followed by 8 points, etc. would be used to break the tie. Both France and Sweden had received four sets of 12 points, however as Sweden had received more individual 10 points than France, Sweden's Carola was declared the winner.
Validation and observation
A number of steps have been established to ensure that a valid voting result is obtained and that transparency in the vote and results is observed.
Each country's professional jury, as well as individual jury members, must meet a set criteria to be eligible, regarding professional background, and diversity in gender and age. A set criteria against which the competing entries should be evaluated is published by the EBU, and all jury members pledge in writing that they will use this criteria when ranking the entries, as well as stating that they are not connected to any of the contestants in any way that could influence their decision. Additionally, jury members may only sit on a jury once every three years. Each jury member votes independently of the other members of the jury, and no discussion or deliberation about the vote between members is permitted.
Since 2004, the televoting in each country has been overseen by the contest's official voting partner, the German-based Digame. This company gathers all televotes and, since 2009, jury votes in all countries, which are then processed by the company's Pan-European Response Platform, based out of their Voting Control Centre in Cologne, Germany. This system ensures that all votes are counted in accordance with the rules, and that any attempts to unfairly influence the vote are detected and mitigated. The entire voting process is overseen by independent observers from an external auditing company, which came from professional services firm Ernst & Young starting with the 2019 contest.
Broadcasting
Participating broadcasters from competing countries are required to air live the semi-final in which they compete, or in the case of the automatic finalists the semi-final in which they are required to vote, and the final, in its entirety, including all competing songs, the voting recap which contains short clips of the performances, the voting procedure or semi-final qualification reveal, and in the final the reprise of the winning song. Since 1999, broadcasters who wished to do so were given the opportunity to provide advertising during short, non-essential hiatuses in the show's schedule.
On a number of occasions participating broadcasters have been forced to delay or postpone broadcast of one or more live shows due to mitigating circumstances: in 2000, the contest was interrupted in the to provide emergency news coverage of the Enschede fireworks disaster, which meant a televote could not be held and the country's backup jury was used to provide the country's points; and in 2012, Albania broadcast the first semi-final, in which they were competing, deferred to provide coverage of the Qafa e Vishës bus accident. In both of these cases no sanctions were levied against the broadcasters due to the emergency nature of the incidents, however in 2009, when Spain deferred broadcast of the second semi-final to provide continuing coverage of the Madrid Open tennis tournament, the EBU announced that sanctions would be levied against the Spanish broadcaster RTVE.
The contest was first produced in colour in 1968, and has been broadcast in widescreen since 2005, and in high-definition since 2007. Ultra-high-definition broadcasts were tested for the first time in 2022.
Archive status
An archiving project was initiated by the EBU in 2011, aiming to collate footage from all editions of the contest and related materials from its history ahead of the contest's 60th edition in 2015. In collaborating with member broadcasters, the EBU now holds all editions of the contest except for the 1956 and 1964 editions, of which only the winners reprises exist on video.
The first contest in 1956 was primarily a radio show, however cameras were present to broadcast the show for the few Europeans who had a television set; any video footage which may have been recorded has since been lost over time, however audio of the contest has been preserved and a short newsreel of the winning reprise has survived. Conflicting reports of the fate of any video footage of the in Copenhagen have been recanted over the years: one claim is that footage of the contest was destroyed in a fire at the studios of Danish broadcaster DR in the 1970s, with no footage from other broadcasters known to exist; other claims include that footage of the contest was lost when the tape was wiped by DR management for use in recording new programming, or that DR did not record the show at all due to a lack of available tape recorders. As with the 1956 contest, audio recordings of the 1964 contest, and some footage of the opening sequence and winning reprise have survived.
The copyright of each individual contest from 1956 to 2003 is held by the respective organising host broadcaster for that year's contest; copyright for contests held from 2004 onwards is held centrally by the EBU.
Rule changes by year
First contest – each of the seven competing countries were obliged to hold a national selection final to choose their entries. All countries sent two songs each. Contestants were recommended to keep their songs under .
Each country would only send one song from this year on. After Italy's song lasted 5 minutes and 9 seconds, rule changes were introduced to limit the maximum song length to 3 minutes – which still applies. The voting was made public for the first time. Each of the ten jurors awards a single point to their favourite song - so in theory a country could be awarded all 10 points, although the highest tally allocated under this system was 9 by the Danish jury for France's winning song in and the Belgian jury for Ireland's winning song in . Juries are no longer allowed to vote for their own country, after being allowed to in 1956.
The convention of the winning country being invited to host the following year's contest is introduced. However, several countries declined the opportunity in subsequent years.
Professional publishers or composers were no longer allowed in the national juries.
The voting system changes. Each country had 10 jury members who awarded their three favourite songs 3, 2, and 1 points in order. Previously each of the ten jury members awarded 1 point to their favourite song.
The jury size is doubled to 20 and the points awarded were 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1.
The jury size reverts to 10, and points are now 5, 3 and 1. It becomes possible for a unanimous jury to award all 9 points to one song – but this never occurred. It was also possible to give 6 and 3 points to two songs; this happened only in 1965, when the Belgian jury gave 6 points to the United Kingdom and 3 points to Italy.
Countries must now sing in one of their national languages after Sweden's entrant sung in English.
The scoring system reverts to the one used between 1957 and 1961.
Following a four-way tie in the 1969 contest, a tie-break rule was introduced with provision for a sing-off and a show of hands from the juries to elect a winner.
Another voting system change is introduced. Each country had two jury members, one under 25 and one over 25. They each awarded 1 to 5 points for each song. This created an issue where some juries gave fewer points out than others. The rule permitting groups of up to six performers on stage was introduced. Previously, entrants could only perform solo or as a duet.
The rule forcing countries to sing in one of their national languages is relaxed – however this is only in place for four years. For the first time, music played on backing tracks was allowed, although any instrument heard on one had to be seen on stage as well.
The scoring system used between 1957 and 1961 and between 1967 and 1970 is restored for a third time.
A scoring system reminiscent of the current system is introduced. Each jury would now give 12 points to the best song, 10 to the second best, then 8 to the third, 7 to the fourth, 6 to the fifth and so forth until the tenth best song received a single point. Unlike today, the points were not announced in order (from 1 up to 12), but in the order the songs were performed.
As the cost of staging the contest increases, a new rule was introduced that, in future, each participating broadcaster would have to pay a part of the cost of staging the contest.
Countries must again revert to singing in their own national languages. Belgium and Germany had already chosen English-language songs before the announcement of this rule change, so were granted permission to keep their songs in English.
The jury spokesperson now reads the points out in numerical order (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 and 12) rather than in song order.
As the number of countries reached a record of 22, the EBU imposed a limit on the number of countries competing. Although set at 22, this limit has varied slightly over the years.
Following the closeness of the result at the contest, the tie break rule was amended. If a tie was to occur the winner would be declared by whichever received the most 12 points; if that still failed to separate them, the one with the most 10 points would be declared the winner. If there is still a tie, the same process is used with the 8 points, and so on until there is no longer a tie.
Following Sandra Kim's win for at the age of just 13 and controversy over two performers in 1989 being just 11 and 12 years old, a restriction on the competitors' ages was introduced. The minimum age is now 16 at the time of the event.
After the breakup of Yugoslavia, a pre-qualifying round was introduced.
Relegation had to be introduced to accommodate the ever-increasing number of countries wishing to compete. Initially the bottom seven countries from 1993 would be relegated from 1994 contest. The relegation rules would change slightly over subsequent years.
The number of countries that can compete is increased to 23.
After controversy over a pre-selection procedure (similar to 1993) which resulted in being omitted from the contest, the selection procedure changed to allow only the countries with the best average scores over the previous four years.
Following the appearance of a Macintosh computer on stage the previous year during Gina G's performance for the United Kingdom, the rule on backing tracks was relaxed, so that countries were free to use any combination of live and recorded music of their choice without the requirement for any instruments to be seen on stage.
Televoting was trialled in five countries and would become the preferred method of voting from .
Restrictions are lifted again allowing countries to sing in any language.
The use of a live orchestra was dropped as a way to conserve money for the show; since then, all songs have used pre-recorded backing tracks.
The "Big Four" rule is introduced giving France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom automatic entry in the contest regardless of previous performance. In , Italy returned to the competition, becoming a "Big Five" member.
The number of countries that can compete is increased to 24.
The number of countries that can compete is increased to 26.
Relegation rules, which had varied slightly since 1994, were dropped and a semi-final was introduced. 24 countries compete in the final. Countries eliminated in the semi-final were still allowed to vote on the final, so the convention of reading the scores in both French and English was dropped. The spokesperson would now read the score in one language with presenters repeating in the other language.
Jury spokespersons no longer read out all the points from 1 up to 12. Instead the scores up to 7 points are displayed briefly before the spokesperson reads out their 8, 10 and 12 point allocations.
With a record entry of 43, a second semi-final was introduced. Juries were used to allocate a wild-card place in the final from each of the semi-finals. 25 countries now compete in the final.
After criticism of the voting system after the contest, changes in the voting procedure were made with the re-introduction of a national jury alongside televoting (split 50/50). This format would be extended to the semi-finals in 2010.
Televoting is open from the first song until the end of the voting.
The 15-minute televoting window is restored due to criticism of the voting method after the 2011 contest. 26 countries now compete in the final, due to Italy's return in 2011. A new upper limit of only 20 votes per phone number is imposed.
The format of the jury/televoting result is changed slightly in that all songs are now ranked instead of being given a score in each method. This is then merged and the ten highest ranked songs receive points in the usual manner. Also, for the first time, the running order in all three shows is determined by producers of the show instead of a random draw, which is supposed to give each song competing a fair chance of success.
The EBU considers the possibility of inviting countries outside of the European Broadcasting Area or the Council of Europe to participate in future editions of the contest. The first of such "guest nations" was Australia in 2015. This also increases the number of countries competing in the final to 27.
A new voting system is introduced. Entries now receive one set of points from the jury and one set of points from televoting. First, the jury votes are announced in the usual way, giving 1 up to 12 points but with only the 12 points being read by the spokesperson. Then, the televotes are read by the presenters, starting with the country receiving the fewest televote points and ending with the country that received the most televote points, so the winner is not known until the end of the show. In addition, the number of countries competing in the final is reduced back to 26 as Australia now competes in the semi-final.
The rankings of individual jurors in each country are combined using an exponentially weighted formula.
The order of the televoting presentation is changed. Instead of presenting the televoting results in order of fewest to most points, the points are given in the order of the final jury voting ranking, meaning the country with the fewest jury points receives its televote points first, and the winner of the jury votes hears its final score last.
Pre-recorded backing vocals are permitted in an effort to introduce flexibility following the cancellation of the 2020 edition and to facilitate modernisation.
Re-introduction of full televoting for the semi-finals and introduction of online voting by viewers in non-participating countries for all shows, with their votes aggregated and awarded as one set of televoting points.
Chronology
See also
Voting at the Eurovision Song Contest
References
Further reading
Eurovision Song Contest
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/167th%20%281st%20London%29%20Brigade
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167th (1st London) Brigade
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The 167th (1st London) Brigade was an infantry formation of the British Territorial Army that saw active service in both the First and Second World Wars. It was the first Territorial formation to go overseas in 1914, garrisoned Malta, and then served with the 56th (London) Infantry Division on the Western Front. In the Second World War, it fought in the North African and Italian campaigns in the Second World War.
Origin
The Volunteer Force of part-time soldiers was created following an invasion scare in 1859, and its constituent units were progressively aligned with the Regular British Army during the later 19th Century. The Stanhope Memorandum of December 1888 introduced a Mobilisation Scheme for Volunteer units, which would assemble in their own brigades at key points in case of war. In peacetime these brigades provided a structure for collective training.
The West London Brigade was one of the formations organised at this time. Brigade Headquarters was at 93 Cornwall Gardens in Kensington and the commander was retired Lt-Gen Lord Abinger (subsequent commanders were also retired, Regular officers). The assembly point for the brigade was at Caterham Barracks, the Brigade of Guards' depot conveniently situated for the London Defence Positions along the North Downs. The brigade's original composition was:
West London Brigade
1st Volunteer Battalion, Royal Fusiliers
2nd Volunteer Battalion, Royal Fusiliers
3rd Middlesex Rifle Volunteer Corps
2nd Volunteer Battalion, Middlesex Regiment
11th (Railway) Middlesex Rifle Volunteer Corps
17th Middlesex Rifle Volunteer Corps
Supply Detachment, Army Service Corps
Bearer Company, Medical Staff Corps
The West London Brigade was redesignated the 1st London Brigade in the reorganisations following the Second Boer War.
Territorial Force
This organisation was carried over into the Territorial Force (TF) created under the Haldane Reforms in 1908, the 1st London Brigade joining the 1st London Division. All of the Volunteer Battalions in the Central London area became part of the all-Territorial London Regiment and were numbered sequentially through the London brigades and divisions:
1st London Brigade
1st (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment (former 1st VB, Royal Fusiliers)
2nd (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment (former 2nd VB, Royal Fusiliers)
3rd (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment (former 11th Middlesex RVC, 3rd VB, Royal Fusiliers)
4th (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment (former 1st Tower Hamlets RVC, 4th VB, Royal Fusiliers, from East London Brigade)
The 3rd Middlesex RVC and 2nd VB Middlesex Regiment became the 7th and 8th Battalions Middlesex Regiment respectively in the Home Counties Division, while the 17th Middlesex RVC became the 19th Battalion, London Regiment (St Pancras) in the 2nd London Division.
Brigade HQ was at Friar's House, New Broad Street (the HQ of 1st London Division). On the outbreak of war in August 1914 the brigade commander was Colonel The Earl of Lucan, a former Regular officer.
First World War
The division was mobilised on the outbreak of the First World War in early August 1914 and, when asked to serve overseas (as, according to the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907, Territorial soldiers were not obliged to serve overseas), most of the men of the division volunteered. Those who didn't, together with the many recruits, were formed into 2nd Line battalions, the 2/1st London Brigade, part of 2/1st London Division, which later became 58th (2/1st London) Division. The battalions adopted the prefix '1/' (1/4th Londons, for example) to distinguish them from the 2nd Line battalions, which adopted the '2/' prefix (2/4th Londons).
However, between November 1914 and April 1915, most of the battalions of the division were sent overseas either to reinforce the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) on the Western Front or to overseas postings such as Malta (in the case of the 1/1st London Brigade) so as to relieve to Regular Army troops for service in France and Belgium and so, as a result, the 1st London Division was broken up.
In early February 1916, however, the War Office authorised the 1st London Division to be reformed, now to be known as 56th (1/1st London) Division. Consequently, the brigade was reformed in France in February 1916, now as the 167th (1/1st London) Brigade, but with mostly different units, except the 1/1st and 1/3rd Londons (both original battalions of the brigade), and both the 1/7th and 1/8th battalions of the Middlesex Regiment, both of which had previously been part of the Middlesex Brigade of the Home Counties Division and had served in Gibraltar before returning to England and fighting in France.
The brigade served for the rest of the First World War in the trenches of the Western Front in Belgium and France, fighting a diversionary attack, alongside 46th (North Midland) Division, on the Gommecourt salient, to distract German attention away from the Somme offensive a few miles south in July 1916. In March 1917, the 56th Division pursued the German Army during their retreat to the Hindenburg Line in March 1917, Arras, Langemarck, Passchendaele, Cambrai, First Arras, Albert and the Hundred Days Offensive. The First World War finally came to an end with the signing of the Armistice of 11 November 1918. By the end of the war the 56th Division had suffered nearly 35,000 casualties.
Order of battle
The brigade was composed as follows during the war:
1/1st (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment (Royal Fusiliers) (left May 1915, rejoined February 1916)
1/2nd (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment (Royal Fusiliers) (left February 1915)
1/3rd (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment (Royal Fusiliers) (left May 1915, rejoined February 1916, left January 1918)
1/4th (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment (Royal Fusiliers) (left January 1915)
1/7th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (from February 1916)
1/8th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment (from February 1916)
167th Machine Gun Company, Machine Gun Corps (formed 22 March 1916, moved to 56th Battalion, Machine Gun Corps 1 March 1918)
167th Trench Mortar Battery (formed 14 June 1916)
4th Battalion, North Staffordshire Regiment (from 7 October until 15 November 1917)
Due to a shortage of manpower in the BEF, British infantry brigades serving on the Western Front were reduced from four to three battalions throughout early 1918. Therefore, the 1/3rd Londons were, in early January, transferred to 173rd (3/1st London) Brigade of 58th (2/1st London) Division where they absorbed the 2/3rd Battalion and were renamed the 3rd Battalion once again. In February the 1/1st Londons absorbed the 2/1st Battalion and were renamed the 1st Battalion.
Commanders
The following officers commanded 167th Brigade during the war:
Brigadier-General F. H. Nugent (5 February 1916)
Lieutenant-Colonel E. J. King (acting, 22 July 1916)
Brigadier-General G. H. B. Freeth (27 July 1916)
Lieutenant-Colonel P. L. Ingpen (acting, 20 July 1917)
Brigadier-General G. H. B. Freeth (23 July 1917)
Lieutenant-Colonel R. H. Husey (acting, 26 April 1918)
Brigadier-General G. H. B. Freeth (6 May 1918)
Between the wars
Disbanded after the war, the brigade, along with the rest of the division, was reformed in the Territorial Army (formed on a similar basis to the Territorial Force) as the 167th (1st London) Infantry Brigade, again with the same composition as it had before the First World War, of four battalions of the Royal Fusiliers. The brigade had its headquarters in Birdcage Walk, London, at the Regimental Headquarters of the Scots Guards. In 1922 they dropped the 'battalion' from their title becoming, for example, 1st City of London Regiment (The Royal Fusiliers).
Throughout the second half of the 1930s there was a need to increase the anti-aircraft defences of the United Kingdom, particularly so for London and Southern England. As a result, in 1935, the 4th (City of London) Battalion, London Regiment (The Royal Fusiliers) was converted into an artillery role, transferring to the Royal Artillery and converted into 60th (City of London) Anti-Aircraft Brigade, Royal Artillery and becoming part of 27th (Home Counties) Anti-Aircraft Group, 1st Anti-Aircraft Division (formed by conversion of the Headquarters of 47th (2nd London) Infantry Division). They were replaced in the brigade by the 10th London Regiment (Hackney) from the 169th (3rd London) Infantry Brigade. The battalion was previously known as the 10th (County of London) Battalion, London Regiment (Hackney). After the 47th Division was disbanded the 56th Division was redesignated as the London Division and the brigade became 1st London Infantry Brigade.
In 1938, after most of its battalions were posted away or converted to other units, the London Regiment ceased to exist and was disbanded. As a result, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd battalions became the 8th, 9th and 10th battalions, respectively, of the Royal Fusiliers and the 10th London Regiment (Hackney) became the 5th (Hackney) Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment. In the same year the 10th (3rd City of London) Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment) was transferred to the Royal Artillery, becoming 10th (3rd City of London) Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (69th Searchlight Regiment) but remained part of the Royal Fusiliers until 1940. In 1938 when all British infantry brigades were reduced to three battalions, in August, the 5th (Hackney) Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment was transferred to 161st (Essex) Infantry Brigade of the 54th (East Anglian) Infantry Division and were replaced in the brigade by the London Irish Rifles (Royal Ulster Rifles) from 3rd London Infantry Brigade, previously the 18th London Regiment (London Irish Rifles) and, in 1908, the 18th (County of London) Battalion, London Regiment (London Irish Rifles). Again in 1938 the division was converted and reorganised as a motorised infantry division.
Second World War
The Territorial Army, and therefore the brigade and the rest of the division, was mobilised between late August and early September 1939, and the German invasion of Poland began on 1 September, and the Second World War officially began two days later, after Britain and France declared war on Germany. Mobilised for full-time war service, the brigade was brought up to War Establishment strength in late October 1939 with large drafts of militiamen, men had been called up earlier in the year with the introduction of conscription in the United Kingdom and had just completed their basic training.
The division was destined not to be sent to France to join the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) but instead remained in the United Kingdom under Home Forces in a home defence role and was sent to Kent in April 1940 to come under command of XII Corps. Like most of the rest of the British Army after the events of Dunkirk, the division spent most of its time in an anti-invasion role training to repel an expected German invasion.
In July 1940, after receiving the 35th Infantry Brigade from the recently disbanded 12th (Eastern) Infantry Division, the division was reorganised as a standard infantry division and later in the year, on 18 November, the division was redesignated and converted into the 56th (London) Infantry Division and, on 28 November, the brigade was renumbered again as the 167th (London) Infantry Brigade. In the same month the 1st Battalion, London Irish Rifles was transferred to 168th (London) Infantry Brigade and was replaced by 15th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers, a hostilities-only battalion raised only a few months before, making the brigade, temporarily, an all-Royal Fusiliers brigade. However, the 15th Fusiliers were posted elsewhere in February 1941 and replaced by 7th Battalion, Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry, a battalion created in September 1940, by the redesignation of 50th (Holding) Battalion.
In November 1941 the brigade was sent to Suffolk and in July 1942 was preparing for a move overseas and was inspected by General Sir Bernard Paget, at that time Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces, and also His Majesty King George VI. The 56th Division, now composed largely of a mixture of Territorials, Regulars and wartime volunteers, left the United Kingdom on 25 August 1942, moving to Iraq and, together with 5th Infantry Division, became part of III Corps under the British Tenth Army, came over underall control of Persia and Iraq Command. The brigade left for Egypt on 19 March 1943 and covered the journey by road, arriving there on 19 April 1943, and was then ordered to Tunisia, a distance covering about 3,200 miles.
The division came under command of X Corps, part of the British Eighth Army, and saw only comparatively minimal service in the Tunisia Campaign, which ended in mid-May 1943 with the surrender of over 230,000 German and Italian soldiers, a number equal to Stalingrad the year before, who would later become prisoners of war. However, the 167th Brigade had been blooded, and all three battalions had suffered over 100 casualties each. Unable to see service in Operation Husky (the Allied invasion of Sicily), the brigade was destined to see almost two years service mountain warfare in the Italian Campaign and began training in amphibious warfare.
Now under command of Lieutenant General Mark Wayne Clark, the youngest three-star general in the U.S. Army, and his U.S. Fifth Army, the 167th Brigade, with most of 56th Division (minus the 168th Brigade, temporarily replaced by 201st Guards Brigade), landed at Salerno on 9 September 1943, D-Day, where they were involved in tough fighting almost from the landing, with the 8th Royal Fusiliers in particular being battered by German Tiger tanks. Throughout the fighting the brigade, supported by A Squadron of the Royal Scots Greys, had suffered heavy casualties (roughly 360 per battalion) and, after being relieved by other units, secured the Salerno beachhead and later advanced up the spine of Italy, crossing the Volturno Line and later fought at Monte Camino and crossed the Garigliano river in January 1944. With the rest of the Allied Armies in Italy (AAI), however, the brigade, by now very tired and below strength, was held up by the formidable German defences known as the Gustav Line (also the Winter Line).
In January 1944, the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill envisioned an attempt to outflank the Winter Line, by way of an amphibious assault near Anzio, to capture Rome, the current objective which was being fought for in the Battle of Monte Cassino. As a result, after fighting at the Bernhardt Line and crossing the Garigliano, the division was pulled out of the line, and was transferred to Naples, to come under command of U.S. VI Corps. Arriving at Anzio on 12 February, they were almost immediately involved in heavy combat in the Battle of Anzio in very tough and severe fighting to secure the beachhead, and sustained very heavy losses, which could not easily be replaced. In late March the division was relieved by the 5th British Division and moved to Egypt to rest, refit, retrain and absorb replacements, after sustaining devastating casualties and enduring terrible conditions similar to those of the trenches of the Western Front during the First World War. By the time they were relieved, casualties in the brigade, and the rest of 56th Division, by now very weak, had been so severe that one unit, the 7th Battalion, Oxford and Bucks Light Infantry, were reduced to 60 all ranks, less than a company, from an initial strength of almost 1,000 officers and men. Both Royal Fusiliers battalions had also suffered heavy casualties. In particular was the case of the 8th Battalion when, on 16 February during a heavy counterattack, X Company, was reduced to only one officer and 20 men. All that remained of Y Company was merely a single officer and 10 other ranks, after being heavily attacked by German infantry and Tiger tanks, which had fought against the battalion at Salerno. The battalion had, overall, suffered nearly 450 casualties at Anzio, more than half the strength of the battalion. During the fighting on 18 February, the worst day of the counterattack, Second lieutenant Eric Fletcher Waters was killed and his son, Pink Floyd star Roger Waters, wrote a song in his memory–When the Tigers Broke Free–which describes the death of his father.
Whilst in Egypt the 167th Brigade, which had been reduced to less than 35% effective strength, and division were both reinforced and brought up to strength largely by retrained anti-aircraft gunners of the Royal Artillery who had been transferred to the infantry, and had now found their original roles largely redundant, due largely to the absence of the Luftwaffe. While they were there the brigade was inspected, again, by General Sir Bernard Paget, now Commander-in-chief (C-in-C), Middle East Command, and who had inspected the division nearly two years earlier, shortly before the 56th ("The Black Cats") departed for overseas service.
The 56th Division, now commanded by Major-General John Yeldham Whitfield, returned in July to Italy, where they were inspected by another man who had also inspected them two years prior, H.M. The King George VI. Almost as soon as it arrived the brigade, now under Eighth Army command, found itself fighting on the Gothic Line, throughout the summer, in Operation Olive (where Eighth Army suffered 14,000 casualties, at the rate of nearly 1,000 a day) at the Battle of Gemmano, where the brigade and division suffered particularly heavy casualties. Due to these heavy losses suffered by the division (nearly 6,000) in August and September and a severe lack of British infantry replacements in the Mediterranean theatre (although large numbers of anti-aircraft gunners were being retrained as infantry, they had only began their conversion in August and would not available until, at the earliest, October), the 8th Royal Fusiliers and 7th Ox and Bucks were both reduced to cadres and transferred to the 168th (London) Brigade, which was being disbanded, with the surplus personnel of the 8th Royal Fusiliers transferring to the 9th Battalion and most of the men of 7th Ox and Bucks transferring to fill gaps in the 2/5th, 2/6th and 2/7th battalions of the Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) of the 169th (Queen's) Brigade. They were replaced in the brigade by 1st Battalion, London Scottish and 1st Battalion, London Irish Rifles, both from the 168th Brigade, although 1st London Irish had originally been with 167th Brigade at the outbreak of war. This, however, was not actually enough to keep them at full strength and the battalions were placed on a reduced establishment of only three rifle companies. With the autumn rains and the oncoming winter, and no hope of a successful offensive in either weather, the Fifth and Eighth Armies reverted to the defensive and began preparing for an offensive on the Germans in the spring, scheduled for 1 April 1945.
In April–May 1945 the brigade and division, with the rest of 15th Army Group, took part in the Spring 1945 offensive in Italy, where the 56th Division fought alongside 78th Battleaxe Division in the Battle of the Argenta Gap. The offensive effectively ended the Italian Campaign, and the brigade ended the war in Austria with the Eighth Army.
Order of battle
167th Infantry Brigade was constituted as follows during the war:
8th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (merged into 9th Bn 23 September 1944)
9th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers
1st Battalion, London Irish Rifles (Royal Ulster Rifles) (left 4 November 1940, rejoined 23 September 1944)
1st London Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company (formed 11 May 1940 until 27 November 1940, when renamed)
167th (London) Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company (renamed 28 November 1940, joined 56th Reconnaissance Battalion January 1941)
15th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (from 9 November 1940, left 13 February 1941)
7th Battalion, Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry (from 14 February 1941, left 23 September 1944)
1st Battalion, London Scottish (Gordon Highlanders) (from 23 September 1944)
Commanders
The following officers commanded 167th Brigade during the war:
Brigadier C.R. Britten (until 11 July 1941)
Brigadier J.C.A. Birch (from 11 July 1941 until 21 June 1943)
Brigadier C.E.A. Firth (from 21 June 1943 until 29 January 1944)
Brigadier J. Scott-Elliott (from 29 January until 27 October 1944, again from 7 November to 17 December 1944, and from 11 January 1945)
Lieutenant Colonel J.R. Cleghorn (Acting, from 27 October until 7 November 1944)
Lieutenant Colonel A.T. Law (Acting, from 17 December 1944 until 11 January 1945)
Post-war
The division was disbanded in Italy after the war in 1946. It was reformed in 1947 as the 56th (London) Armoured Division in the reorganisation of the Territorial Army. However, the 167th Brigade was not reformed until 1956 when 56th Division was rereganised as an infantry division once more. As 167 (City of London) Infantry Brigade it had the following organisation:
Honourable Artillery Company (infantry battalion)
8 Battalion, Royal Fusiliers
City of London Yeomanry (Rough Riders) (converted to infantry)
332 Signal Squadron, Royal Corps of Signals
56th Division was disbanded in 1961.
Notes
References
Ian F.W. Beckett, Riflemen Form: A Study of the Rifle Volunteer Movement 1859–1908, Aldershot: Ogilby Trusts, 1982, .
John K. Dunlop, The Development of the British Army 1899–1914, London: Methuen, 1938.
D.K. Edwards, A History of the 1st Middlesex Volunteer Engineers (101 (London) Engineer Regiment, TA) 1860–1967, London, 1967.
Cliff Lord & Graham Watson, Royal Corps of Signals: Unit Histories of the Corps (1920–2001)
H.R. Martin, Historical Record of the London Regiment, 2nd Edn (nd)
R. Money Barnes, The Soldiers of London, London: Seeley Service, 1963.
Ray Westlake, Tracing the Rifle Volunteers'', Barnsley: Pen and Sword, 2010, .
Infantry brigades of the British Army in World War I
Infantry brigades of the British Army in World War II
Military units and formations established in 1908
Military units and formations disestablished in 1919
Military units and formations established in 1920
Military units and formations disestablished in 1946
Military units and formations in London
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASD%20Sorrento
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ASD Sorrento
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A.S.D. Sorrento 1945 is an Italian association football club from Sorrento, Italy, which was founded as Sorrento Calcio in 1945. Currently the club plays in the Serie C Group C, the third tier of Italian club football.
The team lost its affiliation to the FIGC, after being declared bankrupt by a court in Torre Annunziata in September 2016. Since this verdict, Sorrento Football Club was founded by the merger of Atletico Sorrento 5 and Sant'Antonio Abate. The club re-registered to compete in the Eccellenza Campania in 2016–17.
The club has spent most of its history in the lower regions of the Italian football system. Sorrento reached as high as Serie B during the early 1970s, where they recorded their overall highest finish with a 19th place in the 1971–72 season. In addition to this and the championships they have won at lower levels, Sorrento have also won the Serie D Italian Cup.
History
The club was founded in 1945 and after playing lower divisions, they earned the right to be enrolled into the Promozione Campania league for the 1949–50 season. Sorrento finished bottom of the league, in a season which was dominated by stronger local rivals such as Avellino and Casertana.
Under the name Flos Carmeli, which is a Roman Catholic reference to the Blessed Virgin Mary meaning Faith, Love, Obedience and Service, the club returned to the league during the mid-1950s. This time their positioning was more stable, and they had a new ground in the form of Stadio Italia. The name of the Sorrentine club was changed back to the original Sorrento Calcio in 1957.
In the late 1960s, Sorrento began to become far more successful on the field, they achieved successive promotions. First they won Promozione Campania by three points and then in their debut Serie D season of 1968–69 they were champions on goal difference, after finishing level on points with Torre del Greco side Turris.
1970s league success
The side from the province of Naples experienced Serie C level football for the first time in the 1969–70 season. Sorrento achieved a respectable 4th-place finish above more famous clubs such as Lecce and Messina, as well as regional rivals Salernitana and Avellino. In the following season, Sorrento improved further and were crowned champions of Serie C; just one point above Salernitana to clinch the title.
With players such as Giuseppe Bruscolotti in the squad, Sorrento were entered into Serie B for the 1971–72 season. It was considered a huge achievement for the small provincial side to reach the division in the first place; many of the teams who they played against had a larger stadium capacity than the entire population of Sorrento.
Although they finished second from bottom and were relegated by the end of the season, Sorrento recorded several very good results. The most impressive was a 4–0 victory against Brescia on 30 April 1972. They also beat Livorno twice, and Bari 1–0 away.
After their relegation Sorrento were unable to bounce back, instead being forced to battle it out in Serie C during the 1970s from then on; the highest position they were able to end a season with was a 4th place in 1975–76 sandwiched between Bari and Messina. For 1978–79 the league system was slightly reorganised and the club were placed into Serie C2; the fourth level of Italian football. A runners-up spot was achieved in 1984–85, where Sorrento finished just one point behind champions Licata of Sicily; the runners-up spot was enough to give Sorrento promotion up into Serie C1.
Decline
Sorrento were relegated from Serie C1, at the bottom of the table during their first season, for the rest of the 1980s Sorrento were down in Serie C2. A further slide came in 1989–90 when they were put down into Campionato Interregionale (today's equivalent is Serie D), it is presumed this was due to financial reasons as Sorrento actually finished 5th in Serie C2 the season prior to that.
The now deflated Sorrento were relegated from the Interregionale league in 1990–91 with a 15th-place finish, the club was put into the Promozione Campano league. They missed out on promotion to Boscoreale, the following season Sorrento finished as runners-up to Gragnano and were thus not promoted once more. Finally at the third attempt, Sorrento Calcio achieved their promotion out of the Promozione Campano league via winning the championship of 1993–94.
Revival: mid-1990s onwards
The club were now in Eccellenza Campania and spent their first three seasons in the league within the top 7 places. Under the coaching of Amato, Sorrento were victorious and crowned Ecellenza winners in 1997–98. They were entered into C.N.D. (which was the name of what is today Serie D), Sorrento were consistent in their first two seasons back in the league, ending the seasons 5th and 6th respectively.
2001–02 was a blip on the map for the Sorrento Calcio revival, they finished 14th, tied on points with a club that was relegated that season; Internapoli. The club managed to turn things around in following seasons, and by 2005–06 achieved a double, they were crowned champions of Serie D and also won the Coppa Italia Serie D.
Sorrento competed in Serie C2 during the 2006–07 season, they were crowned champions beating out Benevento by one point; Francesco Ripa finished as the league's top scorer with 23 goals.
From 2007–08 to now
Sorrento competed in the Italian 3rd division during the 2007–08 season and managed to maintain their status by finishing in 10th place 10 points away from the relegation positions. Their status in the division was further consolidated in the following season although the side only finished 1 point above the relegation positions in 11th place. This position was improved upon in the 2009–2010 season where the team finished in 9th position, although again only 3 points above a relegation place. This season saw the arrival of Paulinho who scored 15 goals in 33 games on loan from Livorno, it was the following season, however, when he would really hit the headlines and achieve cult status in Sorrento.
2010–11 season
At the start of the 2010–11 season, Sorrento were top of the table Serie C1 by November, and faced a strong possibility of promotion to Serie B. This was largely due to the goals scored by Paulinho Betanin who had weighed in with 24 league goals (in 29 games) by the end of the season. Promotion was not forthcoming, however, and by finishing the season in second place Sorrento qualified for the play-offs. Betanin was injured for the final games of the season and did not feature in the play-offs. For the semi-final they drew Hellas Verona and were unlucky to lose the first leg 2–0 away at the Bentegodi. The second leg saw a 1–1 draw at Stadio Italia and by losing 3–1 on aggregate Sorrento did not qualify for the play-off final. While Sorrento had not played well enough over the two legs to reach the final, the second leg was marred by controversy. According to a local newspaper the visiting fans of Hellas Verona (a team strongly associated with hooliganism in Italy) disrespected the minute's silence for fallen Italian soldiers in Afghanistan and proceeded to shout racist chants at Sorrento's Senegalese player Niang. Following the game, as recounted in the local newspaper Positano, many local shops were apparently the scene of violence as the Verona fans rampaged the streets. Sorrento failed in their bid for promotion to serie B.
2011–12 season
It had a two-point deduction for the start of the involvement in a match fixing scandal involving Juve Stabia. This was a separate issue from the scandal that involved the higher profile Italian clubs in 2011. Despite this deduction Sorrento performed well for much of the 2011–2012 season and by February 2012 lay in 5th place, with star striker Ciro Ginestra leading the way with 13 goals in 22 games. The local derby at home vs Avellino also saw a return for the club legend Paulinho who was in the stands for the game and was greeted like a returning king by the tifosi. Ginestra went on to score 21 goals in the Lega Pro, becoming Capocannoniere, including two goals against Pro Vercelli on the penultimate game of the season.
The team failed in their second successive year to gain promotion to Serie B, however, despite finishing 4th and qualifying for the play-offs. They drew Carpi Carpi for the two-legged semi final and lost the first leg 1–0 at home. The second leg was played away at Carpi in Emilia Romangna on 27 May 2012, and although Sorrento triumphed 1–0 (goal by Carlini), it was not enough to see them through to the play-off final. As Carpi had finished higher in the league than Sorrento they were awarded a place in the final and Sorrento were confined to the Lega Pro for a further season. The Manager Ruotolo expressed his regret at the result and that Sorrento and their fans deserved better.
2012–13 season
On 8 June 2012, twelve days after the play-off defeat, disaster struck the club as the incumbent president Mario Gambardella announced his decision to step down with immediate effect and for the club to be placed into the hands of the Mayor of the town Giuseppe Cuomo. He cited the then difficult financial situation as the reason behind his decision to step down. This came as a massive shock to the club and due to these unplanned and extreme circumstances many players (including Ginestra) and the manager left the club over the course of the summer. The club managed to stay afloat and to register for the 2012–2013 season thanks to the financial backing of its sponsors and the guidance of Cuomo, but there was serious doubt over whether the club would be able to continue unless a new president was found. After a turbulent few weeks Sorrento emerged with a new president, but the crisis had caused problems with them as tenants of Stadio Italia in Sorrento and until this could be cleared up Sorrento Calcio would have to play their home games at the Simonetta Lamberti stadium the home of neighbours Pro Cavese in Cava de' Tirreni. The club presented its new manager Giovanni Bucaro to the fans and media on 21 July 2012 at the Hotel Continental in Sorrento. Sorrento Calcio began their season with a 0–0 draw at home to Gubbio. The season was not a success and the Rossoneri found themselves in 15th position out of 16 at the end of the season which led them to play in the play out round. After a two-leg contest against Prato, Sorrento lost 2–1 on aggregate and were relegated from the Lega Pro Prima Divisione to the Seconda Divisione.
2013–14 season
Following their relegation from the Lega Pro, Sorrento played the 2013–2014 season in Group I of the Serie D. In June there was speculation that the club could be bought by one time owner of Juve Stabia, Franco Giglio. Giglio would indeed go onto acquire the club, but not until June 2015, the following year.
On 24 July 2013 Sorrento hired Luca Chiappino who had been the youth team manager at Genoa. The season did not start well but Sorrento did spend some time in the top half of the table. Chiappino did not last long, however, and on 25 November he was sacked after the decisive defeat to Martina Franca after 3 wins, 3 draws and 7 defeats which left the Rossoneri fourth from bottom and in the relegation zone. The club then turned to Giovanni Simonelli, the manager that had brought them success only a few years before. He was appointed on 27 November 2013. After a 4th consecutive defeat in February 2014, Simonelli felt the team deserved more luck over the course of the four games, especially with regards refereeing decisions. However, he said the players and the club had to believe in themselves to get out of this difficult run. Despite finishing 9th and missing out on promotion to the Lega Pro Primera Divisione by one point, Sorrento found themselves in the play out round. The play out match saw Sorrento Calcio relegated from the Lega Pro C2/B following a 4-3 aggregate loss to Arzanese.
2014–15 season
The 2014–2015 season was similarly disappointing, with the club hovering around the relegation zone for much of the year. They managed to finish 14th which led to them playing in the relegation play out match. They played Battipagliese in a match which they lost 2–1. This resulted in their 3rd consecutive relegation, this time down to the Eccellenza Campania. In terms of ownership, the on-off-on-off acquisition by Giglio was finally completed in June 2015. Explaining this delay of about a year in making his investment, Giglio stated that the decline in attendance figures and financial issues at the club had affected his decision.
2015–16 season
Sorrento began the 2015/2016 season in the Eccellenza Campania. This was a truly disastrous campaign for the Rossoneri who finished bottom of the league table after having failed to win a single game, drawing 5 and losing the other 25. The club went bankrupt.
2016–17 season
A new club was soon created and it bought F.C. Sant'Antonio Abate. Mario Turi was appointed manager at the start of the season and initially did well. However, he was replaced in December 2016 by Maurizio Coppola.
As of 24 January 2017 they currently lie in 2nd place and on course for a play off position, having won 10 of their 17 games.
2017–18 season
Having failed to gain promotion in season 16/17, Sorrento began the season in the Eccellenza Campania once again. They finished 1st in Group B and subsequently gained promotion to Serie D Group H.
2018–19 season
Season 18/19 was Sorrento's first season back in Serie D. They began the season with a 1-0 home win against Gragnano, and went on to achieve 12 wins, 7 draws & 15 losses throughout the season. Sorrento finished the campaign in 10th place.
2019–20 season
After a mid-table finish the year before, Sorrento began the season once again in Serie D Group H. They started poorly, gaining just one point from their opening three fixtures. Sorrento's form did improve, however, and they started to pick up more and more points. A notable 7–0 victory over Casarano was achieved in round 24 which placed Sorrento firmly in 3rd place and on course to achieve a promotion play-off spot for Serie C. However, the COVID-19 pandemic took hold as it did everywhere, and Italy ended up one of the worst-affected countries in the world. Serie D was called early as a result, with Sorrento finishing 3rd after 26 matches. Due to the early finish, though, Sorrento did not get to compete in the promotion play-offs, meaning they remained in Serie D for season 20/21.
2020–21 season
Sorrento began the season with a 2–1 home win against A.C.D. Nardò on 27 September 2020, and went on a 6-game unbeaten run. The club was impacted by the COVID pandemic mid-season meaning they had to postpone a number of games. They played on 10 January 2021 and then not again until 10 February 2021, meaning they had to play catch up on numerous rescheduled matches. As of 1 April 2021, Sorrento sit 10th of 18 teams in Serie D Group H on 31 points.
Current squad
Club badge, colours and kits
Sorrento's main colours are red and black - hence the nickname Rossoneri (Italian for the red & blacks). Their home kit is often red and black stripes, similar in style to AC Milan - a partner club of Sorrento who, until recently, made use of Sorrento's academy and good record and producing young talent such as Ciro Immobile. Sorrento's away kits are often white or occasionally yellow. 'Zeus' are Sorrento's main technical sponsors and exclusively produce the Rossoneris shirts. The Mediterranean Shipping Company are long-time sponsors of Sorrento, and their yellow 'MSC' logo can be found as the main sponsor on Sorrento's shirts.
The Sorrento Calcio shield was historically used for many years until the club's bankruptcy in September 2015. When the team was re-founded as A.S.D Sorrento in 2016, other badges had to be created and used. The first maintained the 'shield' shape but included a mermaid and the name "Football Club Sorrento" - the historic five diamonds were relegated to the bottom of the badge. The second badge was a slightly different shape, simply saying "Sorrento" across the top with the five diamonds across the middle.
In March 2021 it was announced that the "shield comes home". The newly formed Sorrento United 1945 - Supporters' Trust had bought ownership of the bankrupt Sorrento Calcio brand and granted exclusive use of the old badge to the club free of charge. The significance of the return of the old, historic badge is felt throughout the support as it had been a symbol of the club for many years, and fans feel as though the identity of Sorrento has been restored. Soon after the return of the shield, Sorrento announced a new kit for 2021 which drew inspiration from Sorrento kits of the 1980s by reverting to thinner black stripes and reinstating the Sorrento Calcio badge.
Stadium
Sorrento play their home matches at Stadio Italia, located by the port.
The stadium was renovated in 2003 and has a capacity of 3,600.
Staff
Manager: Pino La Scala
Assistant Manager: Marco Attanasio
Trainer: Salvatore D'Andrea
Goalkeeping Coach: Ferdinando Uliano
Physio: Giancarlo Colonna
Doctor: Epifano D'Arrigo
Masseur: Marco Gargiulo
Masseur: Francesco Ostieri
Managerial history
Honours
Serie C: 1
Champions: 1970–71
Serie C2: 1
Champions: 2006–07
Runners-up: 1984–85
Serie D: 2
Champions: 1968–69, 2005–06
Coppa Italia Serie C: 1
Champions: 2008–09
Coppa Italia Serie D: 1
Champions: 2005–06
Eccellenza Campania: 1
Champions: 1997–98
Promozione Campania: 2
Champions: 1967–68, 1993–94
Runners-up: 1992–93
Notable former players
(this list only contains players who have made appearances for their respective national sides or who have made notable contributions to management)
Andrey Galabinov
Ciro Immobile
Florian Myrtaj
Massimo Rastelli
Claudiu Răducanu
Gennaro Ruotolo
References
Football clubs in Italy
Football clubs in Campania
Association football clubs established in 1945
Serie B clubs
Serie C clubs
Serie D clubs
Sorrento
1945 establishments in Italy
Coppa Italia Serie C winning clubs
2016 establishments in Italy
Phoenix clubs (association football)
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5061107
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow%20Monorail
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Moscow Monorail
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The Moscow Monorail () is a monorail line located in the North-Eastern Administrative Okrug of Moscow, Russia. It runs from the Timiryazevskaya via Fonvisinskaya and VDNHa metro stations to Sergeya Eisensteina street. The monorail line currently has six stations. Planning of the monorail in Moscow started in 1998. This was a unique project for Russian companies, which did not have prior experience in building monorails. 6,335,510,000 rubles (about US$240 million) were spent by the city of Moscow on the monorail construction.
On 20 November 2004, the monorail opened in "excursion mode." On 10 January 2008, the monorail's operation mode was changed to "transportation mode" with more frequent train service. Ticket prices were reduced from 50 rubles ($2.00) to 19 rubles ($0.80), which was the standard fare for Moscow's rapid transport at that time; as of 2012, ticket prices still matched the standard fare, but multi-ride passes could not be used between systems. In April 2012, one of Moscow's transport officials announced that he believed that the system should be closed down and dismantled in the future. However, on 3 October 2012, the vice mayor of Moscow said that the Moscow Monorail would not be closed because of lack of public transportation and very busy highways in that particular part of the city.
Since 1 January 2013, all metro tickets have been valid for the monorail. Interchange from the Metro to the Monorail and vice versa is free for 90 minutes after entering the Metro or Monorail.
The Moscow Metro operates the monorail, which in 2016 officially became the Line 13 of the network.
History
Planning
In the 1990s, Moscow's streets were suffering from traffic congestion by private cars, which significantly interfered with public transport. This situation renewed interest in the monorail which could unload ground public transport. Estimates were published in the media that showed that building monorails would be 5-7 times cheaper than building new underground metro lines.The decision to start monorail planning in Moscow was made by the Mayor of Moscow Yury Luzhkov after consultations with Yury Solomonov, the head of state-run Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology (MITT) and Luzhkov's close associate. (Luzhkov and Solomonov jointly patented 19 inventions, including patent RU 2180295 "Monorail transport system". In 1999, Solomonov directed Luzhkov's mayoral election campaign.) MITT previously developed military technology but had no prior experience in monorail design. At the end of the 1990s, MITT urgently needed funding and looked for contracts from the Government of Moscow.
On 17 July 1998, Luzhkov tasked MITT, the Office of Transport and Communications and Moskomarchitechtura (NIiPI General Plan of Moscow) to draft the Moscow Monorail program and to prepare a preliminary technological and economical justification for the development of monorail routes in Moscow. These tasks were formulated in a short decree 777-RP "On the financing of project works on monorail transportation". MITT received 1.4 million rubles from Moscow budget. Deputy Premier of Moscow Government B.V. Nikolsky was assigned to supervise the project.
On 2 September 1998, Luzhkov signed a decree 996-RP "On the design and construction of new types of high-speed transportation in Moscow" which justified the development of monorail lines in Moscow. The decree stated that traditional public transportation could not handle the increasing passenger loads and that cardinal solution to that problem would be possible only through the development of new types of high-speed transportation that meet modern ecological and economical requirements, are comfortable and could be integrated with traditional transportation. The decree instructed the Office of Transport and Communications and the state-run Moscow Institute of Thermal Engineering to continue work on the Moscow monorail transportation and to draft the layout of monorail lines by the first quarter of 1999. Luzhkov's decree proposed three monorail lines: from Novogireevo metro to Nikolo-Archangelskoe cemetery, from the metro Vykhino to Zhulebno district and from Krylatskoe to Krasnaya Presnya. However, these proposed lines were later canceled. Again, B.V. Nikolsky supervised the project.
On 16 February 1999, the decree 108-PP established an open joint-stock company Moscow Monorail. The company was co-founded by the Department of State and the municipal property of Moscow City which acted on behalf of the Government of Moscow and had a 25% + 1 share. The total starting capital of Moscow Monorail was 100 million rubles. Vladimir Grigorievich Sister, the prefect of the North-Eastern Administrative Okrug, represented the Government of Moscow in the company. General supervision over the decree implementation was conducted by B.V. Nikolsky. On 3 August 1999, Luzhkov's decree 738-RP established a commission for the supervision of the monorail works in the North-Eastern Administrative Okrug. Sister became the commission head.
By the first quarter of 2000, an experimental monorail test set was built at the MITT campus. Several trains were purchased from the Swiss company Intamin. The decree 49-PP specified the rules, regulations and parameters for the construction of the Moscow Monorail.
Design
The monorail had been planned to run from the M8 highway overpass to Severyanin railway station, but later the project was changed to connect two nearby metro stations (Timiryazevskaya and Botanichesky Sad) with the All-Russia Exhibition Centre. At that time, Moscow competed for hosting Expo 2010 and a modern monorail could improve the image of the exhibition site. This idea was finalized on 13 March 2001 in the Moscow Government decree 241-PP. On 21 June, tasks were assigned to the companies contracted to prepare the monorail project:
The development plan of the North-East Administrative Okrug prioritized the construction of the monorail linking metro stations Botanichesky Sad and Timiryazevskaya. This line was planned to be long and to have nine stations. On 25 December 2001, it was decided that the monorail construction would be accomplished in two stages. The first stage would be the construction of the route from the metro station Timiryazevskaya to the All-Russia Exhibition Centre. On 22 May 2001, the Government of Moscow announced that this line would open in the second quarter of 2003. The Government of Moscow also emphasized the uniqueness of the object and the lack of experience of Russian companies in such constructions. On 31 January 2002, it was decided that the monorail depot would be established at the territory of the Bauman tram depot where the Museum of Urban Passenger Transport had been located. To clear the space for the monorail subdivision of the depot, the museum exposition was first moved to a tram repair factory and then to a newly constructed building that opened in Strogino District on 10 September 1999.
Construction
In August 2001, the construction began at Fonvizina street. The area was prepared for the construction, trees cut on the path of the future monorail and test drilling conducted. On 22 September, a prototype frame was built for the first pillar. At that time, the exposition trains were moved from the Bauman tram depot to the tram repair factory. On 2 February 2002, the tram track between VVTs and Ostankino was closed and a temporary one-way reversal circle was built for tram routes 11 and 17.
Monorail train design had to be refined because the trains acquired from Intamin showed unsatisfactory performance in winter conditions. The refinement consisted of the installation of a linear engine that was engineered by the scientific centre "TEMP" (electromagnetic passenger transport). The Moscow Government documents called the monorail line being built "experimental".
By the end of June, the construction of the monorail line over Academician Korolev Street' tramway was finished and the station construction began. The station was to be named Ulitsa Akademika Korolyova. On 15 October, tram service was restored on the route from All-Russia Exhibition Centre to the Ostankino TV center. In December, supports were installed throughout the route and the construction sites of all stations were defined. In April 2003, construction of Timiryazevskaya station began with the installation of support beams and building a rail switch.
The decree 866-PP issued by the Moscow Government on 14 October 2003 described in detail the procedure of launching the monorail and provided the technical parameters. The deadline of 24 October was set to form the acceptance committee. On 11 November, the name of the MMTS Expocentre terminal was changed to "Ulitsa Sergeya Eisensteina". On 21 November, special construction codes were established that restricted digging trenches, laying utilities, construction of building foundations, tunnelling works and other interferences in the strip of land adjacent to the monorail. The borders of this strip were demarcated as from the monorail supports. Restrictions were also imposed on work that lowers the groundwater within from the monorail.
In November 2003, most stations were nearing completion, and the rail construction was almost completed. In December, the first test runs of rolling stock were conducted.
The monorail opening had been planned for the beginning of February 2004, but was delayed until 23 February. On 19 February, an acceptance certificate for the monorail was signed by the committee. On 21 February, during a trial run near Ulitsa of the Academic Koroleva, one of the trains ripped off of the third rail. Due to the accident, the monorail opening was delayed again.
On 20 April 2004, a decree "on the additional measures on the construction of the Moscow Monorail" 746-RP was issued. This decree rescheduled a number of construction deadlines from 2003 to 2004. In May, three trains were test run and the opening was delayed again for no given reason.
On 11 November, information surfaced that the only work that remained to be accomplished before the line could be launched in an excursion mode was the installation of the automated control system. On the same day, Dmitry Gayev, director of the Moscow Metro, presented the line to the media.
Excursion mode
On 20 November 2004, the monorail carried its first passengers. At that time the monorail was running two trains at 30-minute intervals while the only boarding and exiting station was Ulitsa Sergeya Eisensteina. The monorail ran from 10:00 to 16:00, by the suggestion of Moskovsky Metropoliten. On 29 November, Timiryazevskaya station was opened for boarding and exiting. The cost for one ride during the excursion period was 50 rubles for adults, 25 rubles for students (6 years of age or older) of universities, institutes and colleges and free rides for children under six years of age (later changed to seven).
At the beginning of 2005, a project for the continuation of the route was approved and the costs of that project were estimated. In July, the travel time from Timeryzevskaya to Ulitsa Sergei Eisensteina was cut down to about 22 minutes, the line's operating hours were extended to encompass 8:00 to 20:00 and the stations Vystavotchny Tsentr and Teletsentr were opened for passenger boarding and exiting. On 6 February, electrical equipment near Vystavochny Tsentr station caught fire, with no injuries. Based on previous experience, the monorail was closed until 11 February, due to concern of a possible high voltage leak near the accident area.
On 7 May and 1 June, two accidents involving damage of the third rail happened. Repair work in both cases took several days. It was decided to perform additional monorail reliability checks which suspended its opening until Q2 2006.
The last station was opened on 1 September 2006. On 19 and 20 October, the trial was conducted to assess the readiness of the line to have six trains en route simultaneously. According to the monorail staff, these trials showed the lack of sufficient reliability of the rolling stock. Because of this, the launch of the transportation mode is delayed to Q1 2007.
During the off-hours of 26 December 2006, approximately of trolley cable was damaged between stations Vystavochny Tsentr and Ulitsa Sergeya Eisensteina. The damaged site was repaired quickly and, on 30 December, the line continued operation. Trolleys may have been damaged by an excavator or other heavy equipment. On 27 December, the repaired EPS 01 train was accepted for service and soon cannibalized for spare parts.
Budget complaints
In the beginning of 2007, Alexander Lebedev filed claims with the prosecutor of Moscow in regards to his beliefs that the government was making inefficient choices on budget matters in regards to the monorail. A deputy later published a large section of the complaint in a newspaper.
The period of time that the monorail was in excursion mode launched several complaints against the Moscow Government that were similar to Lebedev's. The highpoint of the complaints was on 20 August, when Dmitry Gayev, answering a question about expansion asked by journalists, said: "This line still does not have any expansion plans, but this does not mean we have to shut it down. This monorail is experimental in nature and is in an experimental regime. Monorails have the right to live, and anything on the territory of Moscow has the right to live, but there is no plan for expansion.". The media took this to mean that the experiment with the monorail had ended, and that there would be no more plans to develop rapid monorail transit systems in the capital.
Transition to transportation mode
In the first quarter of 2007, work was considered to be done on fixing minor problems encountered in the semi-automatic control system. Discussion about the transition began in December after the addition of bridges connecting the platforms at normal stations to ease emergency flow. Also in December, a certificate was signed stating that the current owners of the monorail would be willing to transfer ownership to the Moscow government.
Transportation mode
Stations opened for regular passenger service from 6:50 to 23:00 on 1 January 2008 and the line started working in transportation mode on 10 January. Transit time was 9 minutes to 22 minutes, with between two and five monorails simultaneously running. Crew sizes decreased to only the driver, the fare was ₽19 per trip and student tickets became available. The monorail carried 37,871 passengers in the first week of transportation mode, with daily use was of 5,700-6,200 passengers on weekdays and 7,000 on weekends. and reaching 12,000 per day by February. Daily monorail usage for 2008 averaged 9,600 passengers per day.
In November 2008, the maximum number of operating trains on the line increased 20% from 5 to 6, and a new schedule came into effect from 1 December.
Average daily usage in 2009 reached 11,200 passengers per day, reflecting a 17.3% increase from the previous year, and waiting times between trains that year fell by 20 seconds to 6:35 minutes. A round trip on the line was 39:40 minutes.
The Moscow City Government expanded in July 2008 the list of categories that entitled people to free use of the monorail services.
Flat fare rose in 2010 to ₽26, the same as the Moscow Metro's, and tickets subsequently became valid on each transport mode from 1 January 2013. Transfers from the metro to the monorail and vice versa are free for 90 minutes upon entering either one.
Return to excursion mode
Moscow Metro boss Dmitry Pegov stated in December 2016, that the monorail would "operate essentially in excursion mode" from 2017; intervals between trains would increase to 15 minutes in peak hours, and to 20–25 minutes at other times.
Stations
The monorail shares a unified station coding system with Moscow Metro.
The average travel time between Timiryazevskaya and Ulitsa Sergeya Eyzenshteyna stations is 17 minutes.
Infrastructure
Each station on the monorail was built separately. Each station consists of two levels, with stair, escalator and elevator access between the two. Five of the six stations are built on an "island" principle, meaning that there is only one platform, with trains approaching on either side of the platform. However, Úlitsa Akadémika Korolyóva is built on a split island design. Instead of trains approaching from either side of one platform, there are two platforms, with trains approaching on only one side of each.
Management of the monorail line can be carried out automatically from the computer control room located in the Bauman train depot. Also at each station there are Station Dispatch rooms, so that rolling stock can be controlled remotely from the station. Currently, the monorail trains operate in a semiautomatic mode, where the electronic system controls the trains. There is also a manual mode in which the operator at the depot controls the trains. The monorail is powered by seven substations, one for each station and one for the depot.
Criticism
The criticism in the media is primarily about the system design (low speed and capacity), the route of the monorail and the idea of elevated platform transport (it is alleged that a tram can have the same capacity and speed).
For example, the journalist Alexandr Lebedev noted:
The amount of space per person on the monorail (either 200 people with 5 people per meter squared or 290 people at an average of about 8 people per meter squared) has been criticized as too little space for something deemed an "alternative to the light metro". For example, journalist Elena Komarova wrote in 2006 that:
However, the quote ignores the fact that the people per meter squared statistics listed above work out to about 50,000 people per day, which, taking into account the current capacity loads in the Moscow Metro, comes close to the hourly capacity loads of the Butovskaya Line. If the fact that the existing number of rolling stock held by the Monorail and dimensions of the rolling stock built for the first section of the depot is taken into account, such statistics do not match the potential of at least eight times, because (according to data on the company's website) trains can be made up of 10 cars (just like current Moscow Subway lines), and subway lines usually have 42-44 trains running per hour, which would satisfy the monorail's passenger traffic of 38 thousand people, per hour in both directions (or 23 thousand an hour under the existing six-car arrangement), which means the monorail can at least handle the same amount of traffic as the "Light Metro" and could possibly handle the daily volume of the Filyovskaya metro line.
Supporters of the project state that the current above-ground Moscow transport lines, along with the highways, are in very poor condition, and the construction of another Metro line would be too expensive and would lower the land values in the area where construction would be taking place due to the amount of noise.
Other problems
Along with financial problems, the closure of the Moscow Museum of Mass Transit for the construction of the monorail depot was criticized. The exhibits were moved into a tram repair station and are now not accessible to the public. Other residents complained about the change of the skyline after the construction of the Academica Koroleva Road station — they believe that the monorail track is not aesthetically pleasing and blocks the view across the street of the same name.
Planned closure and conversion
A Moscow City government official stated in 2012 that the entire monorail would likely be closed and dismantled as it was unprofitable and did not perform to expectations. The same official also cited the monorail's poor design as another reason behind the closure plans.
A 10 September 2015 article in Russian press stated that there are plans to shorten the monorail by almost half to , from its current , by demolishing the section from Ostankino to Rostokino depot. The monorail's remaining, section is to subsequently undergo renovation and made accessible, while a tram line will replace the demolished section.
Other reports in September 2015 stated, however, that it was not clear if the Moscow city government would close only part of the monorail or completely shutter it.
Moscow city officials announced in May 2017 plans to shut down the monorail and replace with tram service. Plans stipulate dismantling part of its elevated structure starting in 2018, and converting the standing remainder to handle tram tracks.
By the end of 2018 Moscows government stated that monorail will not be shut down.
By August 2020, reports of imminent closure were again circulating.
See also
List of monorail systems
Trams in Moscow
References
External links
Official website of MMTS
The photos of MMTS on The Monorail Society website
A gallery on public-transport.net
Monorails
Linear motor metros
Buildings and structures in Moscow
Monorails in Russia
Moscow Monorail
People Porter people movers
Railway lines opened in 2004
Electric railways in Russia
Rapid transit in Russia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20is%20beautiful
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Black is beautiful
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Black is beautiful is a cultural movement that was started in the United States in the 1960s by African Americans. It later spread beyond the United States, most prominently in the writings of the Black Consciousness Movement of Steve Biko in South Africa. Black is beautiful got its roots from the Négritude movement of the 1930s. Negritude argued for the importance of a Pan-African racial identity among people of African descent worldwide.
The movement aims to dispel the racist notion that black people's natural features, such as skin color, facial features, and hair, are inherently ugly. The movement also encouraged men and women to stop trying to eliminate African-identified traits by attempting to lighten or bleach their skin. John Rock was long thought to be the first person to coin the phrase "black is beautiful"—during a speech in 1858—but historical records indicate that he never actually used the specific phrase on that day. Bill Allen, a freelance writer for advertising agencies, claimed he coined the phrase in the 1950s.
The phrase “Black is beautiful” is meant to uplift the emotional and psychological well-being of black people. It promotes the Black culture and identity, where the Black past is seen as an inspirational source of cultural pride. It affirms the beauty of Black people's natural features, such as their variety of skin colors, hair styles and textures, as well as physical characteristics.
This movement began in an effort to counteract the racist notion in American culture that features typical of Black people were less attractive or desirable than those of White people. Research indicates that the idea of blackness being ugly is highly damaging to the psyche of African Americans, manifesting itself as internalized racism. This idea made its way into black communities themselves and led to practices such as paper bag parties: social events which discriminated against dark-skinned African Americans by only admitting lighter-skinned individuals.
History
While the Black Is Beautiful movement started in the 1960s, the fight for equal rights and a positive perception of the African-American body started much earlier in American history. This movement took form because the media and society as a whole had a negative perception of the African-American body as being only suitable for slave status. The Black Is Beautiful movement was based around a fight for an equal perception of the black body to help undo all the negative ideas brought about by a history based in white supremacy.
Literature
The Black is Beauty movement, which emerged during the 1960's and 1970's, had a profound impact on black literature by challenging and redefining prevailing standards of beauty, identity, and representation. There were a great number of ways the movement impacted black literature such as
Reclaiming Black Aesthetics. The Black is Beauty movement sought to challenge Eurocentric beauty standards that had marginalized and denigrated black features and aesthetics. This movement encouraged black writers to embrace and celebrate their African heritage, including physical features, hairstyles, and cultural expressions.
Empowering Black Identity: The movement emphasized the importance of embracing and affirming black identity. Black writers responded by exploring themes of self-acceptance, self-love, and cultural pride in their works. One prominent example is Toni Morrison's novel "The Bluest Eye" (1970), which delves into the damaging effects of colorism and societal beauty standards on a young black girl named Pecola. Through Pecola's story, Morrison challenges the notion of beauty as solely defined by white standards, highlighting the importance of self-acceptance.
Centering Black Women: The Black is Beauty movement placed a strong emphasis on the beauty and strength of black women. It celebrated their unique features, promoted self-confidence, and addressed the specific struggles they faced such as conforming to a certain beauty standard and being harassed and humiliated for their own natural features.
Black literature had reached a turning point at this time and many of the writers of this era were releasing works that were themed with Black Beauty. For example, in Maya Angelou's iconic autobiography "I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings" (1969), she explores her journey of self-discovery and acceptance of her own physical appearance, reclaiming her blackness as beautiful. In her collection of essays titled "Sister Outsider" (1984), Audre Lorde discusses the intersections of race, gender, and identity. Her works empower black women by highlighting their resilience, beauty, and the importance of self-expression. In "For Colored Girls Who Have Considered Suicide/When the Rainbow Is Enuf" by Ntozake Shange (1975), this groundbreaking choreopoem combines poetry, music, and dance to depict the lives of black women. It celebrates their beauty, resilience, and unique experiences while addressing the challenges they face in a society that often devalues their beauty and worth.
Publications like the Negro Digest supported the black cultural revolution and urged readers to connect with their African heritage and learn traditional African languages.
In 1969, Elizabeth Catlett published Negro Es Bello II. The title translates from Spanish into “black is beautiful.” The black panthers and black face on the cover represent black pride and power.
These examples represent a fraction of the works influenced by the Black is Beautiful movement in black literature. The movement challenged beauty standards, empowered black identity, countered narratives of inferiority, centered black women, cultivated black consciousness, and expanded the literary canon to create a more diverse and inclusive representation of black experiences.
Fashion
On January 28, 1962, a fashion show staged by photojournalist Kwame Brathwaite titled, "Naturally ‘62: The Original African Coiffure and Fashion Extravaganza Designed to Restore Our Racial Pride & Standards," held in the basement of the Harlem Purple Manor would prove to be the kickstart to the Black is Beautiful movement. The main attractions of the pageant were the Grandassa Models, who were a group of local activists turned models within Harlem made up of Clara Lewis, Black Rose, Helene Nomsa Brath, Priscilla Bardonille, Mari Toussaint, Esther Davenport, Wanda Sims, Beatrice Cramston, and Jean Gumbs. The women came out clad in clothes and jewelry inspired by their African heritage, while showcasing their natural hair and skin. At the time, this was considered extremely taboo, as Black women were not ever put in the forefront of mainstream fashion. Even in Black magazines such as Ebony, models were expected to be light-skin and wear designs and brands created by white people. The theme of the fashion show, self-pride, helped to propel the show to something much bigger than what it originally was, putting on multiple shows all around America. The showcase of the African-inspired attire and jewelry was a message to the Black community to take pride in where they came from. The Grandassa Models, along with Kwame and his brother, Elombe Brathe, essentially helped to popularize the term “Black is Beautiful” following the major success of their creation and caused it to evolve from a fashion show into a mainstream movement to honor Afro-centric culture and features.
African Prints
Following the Civil Rights Movement, African Americans wore Kente cloth and Dashiki to represent black politics, black power and pride in African heritage. In the early 1970s, kente and dashiki clothing grew popular in the United States.
Black community and movement leaders, like Stokely Carmichael and Kathleen Cleaver wore African prints.
Impact and legacy
The pageant was a huge success and its legacy can be seen everywhere to this day. It made African-Americans more confident in their natural and cultural looks and made it common practice to dress in Afro-inspired clothing and jewelry. The dashiki was worn by civil rights activists like Malcolm X and used to exemplify the phrase Black is Beautiful. It made it more possible for darkskin models to pave a way for themselves in the industry. It also proved to have a massive impact amongst pop culture and fashion icons. Supermodels Bethann Hardison and Iman (model) set out to continue what Kwame Brathwaite started and created the Black Girls Coalition in 1988, an advocacy group for Black models to find work. Business mogul and megastar Rihanna cited Kwame's photos of the Grandassa Models as the inspiration for her initial Fenty collection, which released in 2019, stating "When I was coming up with the concept for this release, we were just digging and digging and we came up with these images – they made me feel they were relevant to what we are doing right now..."
Hair and beauty
The movement focused on natural hairstyles such as the “Afro”. Different natural hair textures, skin tones, and afrocentric physical features were appreciated and encouraged. Natural Hairstyles represented pride in African heritage and political/cultural allegiance to the coinciding Black Power movement. African American wore their hair with grooming tools such as the Afro pick. Some picks were molded with a raised black fist at the top.
Prior
During the 1950s and early 1960s, hair straightening was seen as good grooming. Natural, kinky, curly styles were not worn very often (in their natural state). Prior to the 1960s African American beauty standards consisted of long hair and lighter skin. Different skin tones and hair textures weren’t celebrated as beautiful in mainstream. Previously hair straightening, skin lightening, and bleaching were marketed. That marketing and production didn’t stop but by the time the movement came, those practices were options instead of necessities.
Advertising
Caroline R. Jones, one of the first female African American advertising figures at the company, J. Walter Thompson, was in charge of creating a hypothetical black female cosmetics campaign. More brands began to widen the lipstick, powder, foundation, and blush shades in order to cater to darker skin tones. In 1969, it was reported that over half a dozen new cosmetics lines for black women had emerged in the last five years.
Brands sold their products with pro-black advertising. TCB Naturals, a hair care line with “Let beauty go to your head… Everything is beautiful.” Pond’s 1979 cold cream tagline was "I wear my face proudly.” Zuri, a makeup brand had “For the women of color” and “Beauty comes in many colors.” These advertisements featured black women and appealed to the black female consumers. Advertisements for products enhancing and celebrating natural hairstyles and afros featured black men, women, children, families, and couples. Brands such as Luster’s S Curl, Carefree Curl, Classy Curls had featured advertisements. The Johnson Products company was a black owned company that launched the infamous Afro Sheen line of shampoos, conditioners, and sprays, with hair straightening products as well. James Brown ditched his conk, a popular straightened hairstyle worn by African American men, for an afro after releasing “Say It Loud - I’m Black And I’m Proud!” Marcus Garvey, a political activist once said “Don’t remove the kinks from your hair! Remove them from your brains!”
Results
According to a 1960s Newsweek poll, nearly 70% of northern Black people and 40% of southern Black people under thirty approved of afros. Activist Angela Davis styled her hair in an afro during the Black Power movement that followed. Davis wore it as a sign of black power and rebellion against white beauty standards. Kathleen Cleaver, an activist and former spouse to the early leader of the Black Panther Party, also wore her hair in an afro.
Willie Lee Morrow, a hair care products businessman, invented the Afro pick in the 1960s, originally calling it the Afro Tease. Hairdresser Lois Liberty Jones and journalist John Henry Jones published All About Natural in 1971. The book showed a variety of different afro styles. The book took a stance against hair straightening and endorsed Clairol hair products. The book also discussed the history of African American hair.
Musicians of the time such as Diana Ross and Jimi Hendrix were well known for their afros. Natural hairstyles like the afro were deemed as unprofessional. The larger afros, mostly worn by women, were considered the more feminine afro compared to men’s afros because they took more effort in maintaining.
Impact
In 1971, the Philadelphia Commission on Human Rights received complaints from black women that got fired or sent home for the wearing their natural afro at work. A hair discrimination case in 1976, Jenkins v. Blue Cross Mutual Hospital Insurance, was held in favor of Jenkins. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit ruled against the employer for bias against afros. This was ruled under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act.
Controversy
Sexualization/Fetishization
The oppression of black people with beauty extended far beyond skin color. Sexuality and body components were a huge fascination for owners and colonizers who sought to purchase slaves from other owners. One of the more prominent figures, Sara Baartman, was an enslaved worker who was fetishized by many for her enormous buttocks, causing her to become a source of attraction. In 1810, Baartman was subjected to a contract that would allow her to travel to various places to perform for other audiences. She was said to be illiterate, which prevented her from understanding the contract, but nevertheless agreed. Her body and buttocks were highly exhibited to wealthy people, with others being allowed to grope or touch her. A drawing of her titled “A Pair of Broad Bottoms”, was created to recognize her larger exterior in the presence of the wealthy, bigger rich men. Nicknamed the “Hottentot Venus”, she was widely recognized and sought out by viewers for her shows, which saw her dancing and playing various instruments to garner attention for herself. Her celebrity would die out due to familiarity in different places with different ethnicities. She would become celebrated again due to her appearances at large parties. She passed away at the age of 26 years old. Before her death, she agreed to a painting of herself that would be replicated for many times afterwards. This picture remains an iconic photo that resembles the many phallocentric shapings of black women, heavily depicted throughout the history of music, television, and now into mainstream media as it continues to grow.
Fetishization was shared along both genders, with men having experienced the negative effects of their skin tone in degrading stereotypes. Black men have been subject of interest as well, falling into the male gaze due to expectations regarding size and body. Dating back to the early 20th century, years before the Civil Rights movement and age of hip-hop, young, and older black men were sought after as savages and brutes, consumed by ill-minded behaviors that threatened white supremacist and white maidens (3). As a result, the “White Women’s Protection Ordinance” was a new rule enacted deliberately to punish black people for the attempted rape of a European women. Artist Robert Mapplethorpe was often chastised for the portrayal of the black body in obscene gestures and images visualized to the public. The criminalization of black people for interracial relationship had become another sought after technique to undermine black individuals and their self-esteem in procreating with those outside their ethnicities. Emmett Till was a focal point of drawback for these chains of events, due to his untimely death by the hands of white masters for allegedly eyeing and making remarks towards a white woman.
Colorism
The Black is Beautiful movement has had to overcome many obstacles to get to the point it is at today. One of the many discriminatory practices and/or mindsets that the movement tries to dispel is the ideology of colorism. Colorism got its roots in slavery; It was used as a tool to create separation between fairer skinned Europeans and darker skin enslaved Africans. This method of discrimination would prove to be very successful in its attempt to engrave itself into the world consciousness. Colorism would end up taking heavy influence in black communities due to its hierarchical system in which lighter skinned black people would be considered closer in proximity to white thus giving them more power in society. With the strive to be white ever growing in the world black people would find ways to change themselves so they could assimilate into white society. One of which would be a learned attraction to lighter skinned individuals.
Contrary to popular belief, individuals' attraction to one another is not entirely based on one's preferences. Society has a large part in how we see one another; so when it comes to finding a partner these societal pressures take influence. Negative stereotypes would consider darker skinned people as barbaric or animalistic thus making them unattractive. Due to the fact that whiteness was the goal for many black people when finding a partner they would look for someone who could provide them with lighter skinned kids. Not only did the societal pressures affect the way people looked at each other, it also affected how people saw themselves. Black people all over the world were learning to hate themselves for things they can't and shouldn’t have to control. This self hate would cause many darker skinned people to use damaging chemicals like to whiten their skin. These practices were toxic to not only their skin but to their minds as well. Despite skin bleaching seeming dramatic, it was just one of many ways black people would try to cope with their existence within a white supremacist society.
The Black is Beautiful movement sought to challenge colorist narratives by promoting the beauty of all shades of blackness. The movement encouraged black individuals to embrace their own unique beauty and identity, rather than striving to fit into a narrow definition of beauty that was based on white standards. This included embracing natural hair textures, styles, and colors, as well as celebrating diverse skin tones and features. The movement also recognized the importance of self-love and self-acceptance in combating the harmful effects of colorism. By promoting messages of self-love and self-acceptance, the movement sought to counteract the self-hate that had been ingrained in black communities for years. Today, the Black is Beautiful movement continues to inspire and empower individuals to embrace their own unique beauty and identity. Through social media and other online platforms, individuals are able to share their stories and experiences, and to celebrate the diversity and richness of black culture. By rejecting harmful societal hierarchies based on skin color, the movement is helping to build a more inclusive and equitable society for all.
The exploitation of Baartman & others took interest in the black community, opening the discussion to challenge beauty standards among races and cultures alike. With new mainstream events like twerking arising, originating from West African dances known as mapouka, it has been a controversial debate within the community regarding its use and how often black people are objectified for the dance move. The discussion of stereotypes regarding black woman as promiscuous and voyeuristic have paved the way for progressive movements that take pride in black beauty, regarding the black is beautiful movement. Its nature continues to shape the discussion and made formed today in defending black people and their body.
To combat the colorism in black magazines like Ebony, Kwame Brathwaite used techniques to enhance and deepen how black skin would look on camera. His models were of different skintones. He said, “There was lots of controversy because we were protesting how, in Ebony magazine, you couldn’t find an ebony girl.”
Misrepresentation
Naturally '62, a fashion show designated in New York, had featured black women that decided to repel against Western beauty standards; instead deciding to represent themselves and natural hair in the wake of a new outcry for black representation. Ebony & fashion magazines had shown a low tolerance for featuring darker-skinned tones, an issue that the community sought to protest through releasing afro pride hair, along with natural bodies that did not objectify black women in comparison to western women. The beauty system, during this time, mostly appealed towards European standards that valued lighter skin and straightened hair that sold more towards white audiences than others.
The effects of misrepresenting black people weighted onwards beyond the community and into hip-hop, with black men finding more obsession and attraction when associating themselves with masculine ideals. Muscular body, shirtless, and tattoos were often associated with attractiveness and masculinity in black men, often being commodified for toxic traits more than any other culture.
See also
African-American culture
Afro
Black nationalism
Black pride
Cornrows
Dreadlocks
Natural hair movement
Negro É Lindo
Racial transformation
African-American beauty
References
Further reading
Blasius, Marc and Shane Phelan, eds. We Are Everywhere: A Historical Sourcebook of Gay and Lesbian Politics. (Routledge, 1997). .
African-American culture
Beauty
Black Power
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture%20of%20Pittsburgh
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Culture of Pittsburgh
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The Culture of Pittsburgh stems from the city's long history as a center for cultural philanthropy, as well as its rich ethnic traditions. In the 19th and 20th centuries, wealthy businessmen such as Andrew Carnegie, Henry J. Heinz, Henry Clay Frick, and nonprofit organizations such as the Carnegie Foundation donated millions of dollars to create educational and cultural institutions.
Architecture
The Frank Lloyd Wright masterpiece Fallingwater is about an hour's drive from Downtown Pittsburgh. The North Shore has an 1895 neogothic church, Calvary Methodist, with an interior designed by Louis Comfort Tiffany. The church's stained glass windows are some of the largest and most elaborate work Tiffany ever created. The Church of the Immaculate Heart of Mary in Pittsburgh, an opulently decorated edifice with elaborate Old World flourishes is one of the finest examples of the so-called Polish Cathedral style, dominating the skyline over Polish Hill. The Allegheny County Courthouse (1886), designed by H.H. Richardson, is a unique and influential building. At 42 stories, the University of Pittsburgh's Cathedral of Learning (1937) is the second tallest collegiate building in the world. The tallest skyscraper in Pittsburgh is the triangular U.S. Steel Tower. Both Acrisure Stadium (2001) and PNC Park (2001) are designed to give fans a view of the city skyline.
Conventions
The David L. Lawrence Convention Center, located on the south bank of the Allegheny River, is able to accommodate all sizes of conventions, exhibitions and conferences. Certified with a Gold rating by the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design initiative, the building is considered the first ever "green" convention center and world's largest "green" building.
Film
The region has hosted over 1,000 film and television works since the first production was filmed in the city in 1898. Since 1990 the Pittsburgh Film Office has marketed the greater southwestern Pennsylvania region as a great location for movie, television and commercial productions. The PFO has assisted more than 102 feature films and television productions to southwestern Pennsylvania to generate an economic impact of more than $575 million for the region.
Pittsburgh Filmmakers teaches media arts and runs three "arthouse" movie theaters and since 1981 the Three Rivers Film Festival has brought national attention to local talent and artists of the region.
Theatre
The Pittsburgh Playhouse at Point Park University has four resident theatre companies. Other theater companies include Bald Theatre Company, barebones productions, Bricolage Production Company, City Theatre, Jewish Theatre of Pittsburgh, Quantum Theatre, Phase 3 Productions, Prime Stage Theatre, Pittsburgh Public Theater, Attack Theater, Unseam'd Shakespeare Company, Terra Nova Theatre Group, Cup-A-Jo Productions, Hiawatha Project, 12 Peers Theater, Organic Theater Pittsburgh, Three Rivers Theatre Company, Carrnivale Theatrics, Theatre Sans Serif, The Summer Company, Throughline Theatre Company, No Name Players, Pittsburgh Musical Theater, Caravan Theatre of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera, Pittsburgh Playwrights Theatre Company, Stage Right, and Pittsburgh Irish and Classical Theatre. The Pittsburgh New Works Festival utilizes local theatre companies to stage productions of original one-act plays by playwrights from all parts of the country. Similarly, Future Ten showcases new ten-minute plays. Saint Vincent Summer Theatre, Off the Wall Productions, Mountain Playhouse, and Stage Right! in nearby Latrobe, Carnegie, Jennerstown, and Greensburg, respectively, employ Pittsburgh actors and contribute to the culture of the region.
August Wilson, one of the best known playwrights of his generation, was a Pittsburgh native. The majority of his plays are set in the city as well including the two he won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama for (Fences (play) and The Piano Lesson).
Friday Nite Improvs, an improv show at the University of Pittsburgh's Cathedral of Learning, is Pittsburgh's longest-running theatre show. It has produced a number of professional writers and actors.
Since 1991, the Gene Kelly Awards have honored students in drama in the region, giving a platform to some who have gone on to both theater and film careers.
Cuisine
Traditional Pittsburgh foods reflect the city's multicultural heritage, especially that of the European immigrants of the early 20th century. While these immigrant populations introduced dishes such as pierogis to the city, they are now enjoyed by Pittsburghers in general. Other Pittsburgh food specialties were developed in the city. In general, these dishes are still popular because for many years, they satisfied the hearty appetite of the archetypal Pittsburgher: the hard-working, blue-collar steelworker.
Cabbage rolls –(aka Halupki)– Beef, pork, rice, green pepper, wrapped in cabbage and baked with sauerkraut and tomato soup or juice.
Chipped Ham – (aka Chipped Chopped Ham) thinly-sliced processed ham, from Isaly's since 1933.
City Chicken – cubes of pork and/or veal baked or fried on a wooden skewer.
Clark Bar – chocolate candy bar; developed in the city in 1917.
Essie's Original Hot Dog shop - an Oakland staple since 1960.
Halušky – noodles with fried cabbage (Polish), or cottage cheese (Slovak).
Iron City Beer – native brew; with a shot of whiskey, a boilermaker; with a shot of Imperial, an imp-n-arn.
Italian sausage – with grilled peppers and onions.
Kielbasa – eastern European sausages.
Pepperoni roll - an Italian American snack made of soft white bread with pepperoni and cheese in the middle. Various shops in the Strip District as well as Giant Eagle sell this snack in Pittsburgh.
Pierogi – Polish dish, pasta dough filled with potato and cheese, onion or sauerkraut.
Primanti Brothers – sandwich with fries and coleslaw in it.
Sarris Candies - chocolates and ice cream originating in Canonsburg
Teutonia Männerchor - Deutschtown (East Allegheny) German food.
Wholey's – Founded in 1912 in Pittsburgh's market square and now located on Penn Ave; Wholey's serves a wide variety of seafood and a famous fish sandwich. The Wholey company has been the anchor and main attraction of the historic "strip District" for over 60 years.
Restaurants/nightlife
Pittsburgh is home to several night spots.
2014 best restaurants
2003 news feature
2003 news remembrance feature
1998 feature on seafood
1994 news feature and a chefs feature from 1994
News feature on the "new" Hofbrau
1984-85 dining guide
Listing of nightspots from 1978
Listing of nightspots from 1950, May 1950 and July 1950.
Listing of nightspots from 1949 and another.
Listing of nightspots from 1937 and August 1937.
Hofbrau feature from 1934
Gardens and parks
In addition to numerous large and small neighborhood parks, Pittsburgh has five large city parks covering hundreds of acres:
Schenley Park in the Oakland and Squirrel Hill neighborhoods. This park contains Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens.
Frick Park in the Squirrel Hill and Regent Square neighborhoods
Highland Park is in the neighborhood of the same name. This park contains the Pittsburgh Zoo and PPG Aquarium.
Riverview Park on the Northside, home to the historic Allegheny Observatory.
Grand View Scenic Byway Park circling the Mt. Washington and Duquesne Heights neighborhoods.
Several other parks and gardens are in Pittsburgh:
The National Aviary
Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens
Pittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium
Libraries
The city has an extensive library system, both public and university. Most notable are the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh and the University of Pittsburgh's University Library System.
Many local history materials are available on-line at Historic Pittsburgh, a collection that includes materials from the University of Pittsburgh's University Library System, the Library & Archives of the Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania at the Senator John Heinz Pittsburgh Regional History Center, and the Carnegie Museum of Art. Pittsburgh History is an on-line service maintained by the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh.
Literature
With the leadership of native Samuel Hazo the city hosted a poetry forum. Pittsburgh is also renown for its deep and enduring literary culture.
Pittsburgh literary history goes back to the early 20th century, with dozens of prominent authors, the city for a time was considered more closely identified with literature than with steel.
Music
The Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra performs in Heinz Hall, which also plays host to other events throughout the year. The Benedum Center and Heinz Hall provide venues for numerous musicals, lectures, speeches, and other performances, including Pittsburgh Opera. Pittsburgh is also home to one of the few professional brass bands in the world, the River City Brass Band. Other musical arts groups include the Pittsburgh Youth Symphony Orchestra (PYSO) and the River City Youth Brass Band. The Mendelssohn Choir of Pittsburgh is an acclaimed semi-professional choir, with performances that are usually free to the public. The Teutonia Männerchor, founded in 1854 and based in East Allegheny (Deutschtown) furthers choral singing in German and folk dancing.
The Pittsburgh New Music Ensemble (PNME) is an American ensemble dedicated to the performance of contemporary classical music. And the Renaissance and Baroque Society of Pittsburgh hosts early music concerts of artists from across the country.
Jazz
Pittsburgh became an important gateway between the north, south, east and west of the U.S., playing a strong role in the development of jazz. Jazz came to the city's African American neighborhoods after 1925. The Hill District became known as "Little Harlem" from the 1920s until the early 1950s. There were hundreds of jazz venues in the community, which later helped to promote the emergence of bebop, the most famous was probably the Crawford Grill which nightly attracted top national talent.
A number of influential musicians emerged from the city. Mary Lou Williams, Ahmad Jamal, Erroll Garner, and Billy Strayhorn, who was Duke Ellington's primary musical collaborator for 28 years, came from the city's East End regions of Homewood and East Liberty. A number of musicians came from communities outside the city, including: Maxine Sullivan (Homestead), Sonny Clark (Herminie) and Earl "Fatha" Hines (Duquesne). Vocalist and bandleader Billy Eckstine was one of the first musicians to be paid a $1 million recording contract.
Trumpeter Roy Eldridge, drummer Kenneth Spearman "Klook" Clarke, and influential bassist Ray Brown were born in the city; singer Lena Horne was raised in Pittsburgh. Bassist Paul Chambers, also born in Pittsburgh, played on two of the most important albums in jazz history: Miles Davis' Kind of Blue (1959) and John Coltrane's Giant Steps (1960).
Other noted jazz musicians include: Eric Kloss, Dodo Marmarosa, Walt Harper, Tommy and Stanley Turrentine, Horace Parlan, pianist, Nathan Davis, guitarist George Benson, and drummers Art Blakey, Roger Humphries and Jeff "Tain" Watts. A young Lena Horne also spent her formative years learning jazz and blues in the city's Hill District.
Popular music
Pittsburgh's role in popular music began with native Stephen Foster and his enduring classics of the 1800s. So influential was Foster's works that he has been called the "Father of American music", has had five films made of his life, has heavily influenced such talents as Nellie Bly and Jackie Gleason and has had two of his songs chosen as state anthems (Kentucky and Florida) as well as the annual selections of Churchill Downs.
Pittsburgh is perhaps most associated for the plethora of Doo Wop artists that were produced during the 1950s and 1960s, thanks in part to local legendary disc jockey Porky Chedwick playing songs that in most other major markets wouldn't risk being played. Several groups such as the Del-Vikings, The Marcels, The Vogues and The Skyliners exemplify the regions doo-wop contributions. During this same era notable solo acts such as Henry Mancini, Perry Como and Bobby Vinton came out of the region to reach world fame in the industry. A years long engagement at the city's William Penn Hotel also launched the national career of Lawrence Welk.
During the 1970s and 1980s rock era Pittsburgh had a major role in the success of both Wild Cherry and their most popular song/album Play That Funky Music (inspired by a fan's plea to them during a performance at the North Side's 2001 Club in 1976), and being the home to Bret Michaels, known for his fame in the band Poison. Both Joe Grushecky and Donnie Iris achieved one-hit wonder fame and lasting regional rock fame.
Several notable bands emerged from Pittsburgh in the 1990s, including Rusted Root, The Clarks, Don Caballero, and the punk rock bands Anti-Flag and Aus-Rotten. Rusted Root and The Clarks appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman. Formed in 1999, the garage rock group Modey Lemon toured the U.S. and internationally, gaining favorable reviews. Singer Christina Aguilera, a student at North Allegheny Intermediate High School, debuted locally at the 1999 Lilith Fair, before going on to sell over 43 million albums worldwide.
In the 2000s, Anti-Flag produced five albums, signed to RCA Records and appeared several times on the Vans Warped Tour. Rapper Wiz Khalifa, who signed to Warner Bros. Records but left without releasing an album, topped the iTunes singles chart by the end of the decade. Mashup/laptop music artist Girl Talk (Gregg Gillis) found mainstream success. His 2006 album Night Ripper gained favorable reviews and Feed the Animals (2008) topped year end album lists in national media.
Since 2010, solo acts such as natives Jackie Evancho, Slimmie Hendrix, Wiz Khalifa, Daya (singer), and Mac Miller have achieved worldwide fame. Josh Groban was trained in Pittsburgh, having attended Carnegie Mellon University.
While it has historically been low-key, Pittsburgh's Hardcore/Metal scene has also gained international attention since the early 2010s, as witnessed by the critical success of the band Code Orange. Other extreme bands from Pittsburgh include Signs Of The Swarm and Those Who Fear.
Dance
Pittsburgh Dance Council and the Pittsburgh Ballet Theater host a variety of dance events. Polka, folk, square and round dancing have a long history in the city and are celebrated by the internationally famous Duquesne University Tamburitzans, a multicultural academy dedicated to the preservation and presentation of folk songs and dance.
Museums and art
Pittsburgh has several visual arts museums, including the Andy Warhol Museum, dedicated to the works of Pittsburgh native Andy Warhol. The Carnegie Museum of Art is home to works by artists including Edgar Degas, Vincent van Gogh, Claude Monet and Robert Adam, along with galleries of sculpture, modern art, the Heinz Architectural Center, a large film and video collection, and various traveling exhibits. Installation art is featured outdoors at ArtGardens of Pittsburgh. The Pittsburgh Center for the Arts shows contemporary art and provides resources for Western Pennsylvania artists.
The town's history museum is the Heinz History Center with an annual attendance of 130,000.
The Carnegie Museum of Natural History, located in Oakland, has extensive dinosaur collections on display, including the most complete Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton ever discovered, and an Egyptian wing. The building may be distinguished by a life-size statue known as, "Dippy the Diplodocus" to the right of the main entrance. Other dinosaur statues are visible around the Pittsburgh area, these were decorated by artists nationwide and sold as a benefit to the Carnegie Museums. The Carnegie Science Center, located in the North Side near PNC Park and Heinz Field, is more technology oriented.
The Children's Museum of Pittsburgh, located on Pittsburgh's Northside, has a variety of interactive exhibits and programs for children and families including a multimedia art studio, Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, water area and theater for performances.
Recreation
Close by the Phipp's Conservatory is the Schenley Park Golf Course, a public golf links. Kennywood Park is widely regarded by rollercoaster enthusiasts to have some of the best rollercoasters in the world, including several early 20th century wooden coasters: the Racer, the Thunderbolt, and the Jackrabbit. A water park owned by Kennywood, Sandcastle, is another local amusement park.
Counter-culture
Pittsburgh has recently gained attention as a burgeoning center for counter-culture. The annual Pennsic War, the Society for Creative Anachronism's largest re-enactment of pre-17th-century Europe, is hosted nearby. Anthrocon, the world's largest anthropomorphics convention (better known as furry convention), returns every summer to the David L. Lawrence Convention Center. The Pittsburgh Cacophony Society is also very active, and in 2008, the Pittsburgh Burning Man community launched a winter regional burn event called Frostburn.
See also
Cultural District, Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh Film Office
Pittsburgh Cultural Trust
Three Rivers Arts Festival
Teutonia Männerchor
Pittsburgh Three Rivers Regatta
Pittsburgh Center for the Arts
Pittsburgh Newspapers
Media in Pittsburgh
List of radio stations in Pittsburgh
Sports in Pittsburgh
Immaculate Heart of Mary in Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh Parking Chair
References
External links
Pittsburgh Cultural Guide
The Pittsburgh Cultural Trust
Pittpunk
Pittsburgh Music History
Wall St. Journal feature
Teutonia Männerchor
Huffington Post feature
Business Journal feature on the Lotus Club
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/31%20March%20incident
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31 March incident
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The 31 March incident () was a political crisis within the Ottoman Empire in April 1909, during the Second Constitutional Era. Occurring soon after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, in which the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) had successfully restored the Constitution and ended the absolute rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (), it is sometimes referred to as an attempted countercoup or counterrevolution. It consisted of a general uprising against the CUP within Istanbul, largely led by reactionary groups, particularly Islamists opposed to the secularising influence of the CUP and supporters of absolutism, although liberal opponents of the CUP within the Liberty Party also played a lesser role. The crisis ended after eleven days, when troops loyal to the CUP restored order in Istanbul and deposed Abdul Hamid.
The crisis began with a mutiny among elite Macedonian troops of the Istanbul garrison on the night of 12–13 April (R.C. 30–31 March) 1909, sparked by agitation from Muslim fundamentalists, low morale and officerial mismanagement. The unrest spiralled out of control as religious students and other elements of the city's garrison joined the insurrection, converging on Ayasofya Square to demand the re-establishment of Sharia. The CUP-aligned government of Grand Vizier Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha responded ineffectually, and by the afternoon of 13 April its authority in the capital had collapsed. The Sultan accepted Hilmi Pasha's resignation and appointed a new cabinet free from the CUP's influence under Ahmet Tevfik Pasha. Most CUP members fled the city for their power base in Salonika (modern Thessaloniki), while Mehmed Talaat escaped with 100 deputies to San Stefano (Yeşilköy), where they proclaimed the new ministry illegal and attempted to rally secularists and minorities in support of their cause. For a brief period the two rival authorities in Istanbul and Aya Stehano each claimed to represent the legitimate government. These events triggered the Adana massacre, a month-long series of anti-Armenian pogroms organised by local officials and Islamic clerics in which 20,000 to 25,000 Armenians, Greeks and Assyrians were killed.
The uprising was suppressed and the former government restored when elements of the Ottoman Army sympathetic to the CUP formed an impromptu military force known as the Action Army (), which entered Istanbul on 24 April after failed negotiations. On 27 April, Abdul Hamid, accused by the CUP of complicity in the uprising, was deposed by the National Assembly and his brother, Mehmed V, made sultan. Mahmud Shevket Pasha, the military general who had organised and led the Action Army, became the most influential figure in the restored constitutional system until his assassination in 1913.
The precise nature of events is uncertain; differing interpretations have been offered by historians, ranging from a spontaneous revolt of discontents to a secretly planned and coordinated counter-revolution against the CUP. Most modern studies disregard claims the sultan was actively involved in plotting the uprising, emphasising the CUP's mismanagement of troops in the build up to the mutiny and the role of conservative religious groups. The crisis was an important early moment in the empire's process of disintegration, setting a pattern of political instability which continued with military coups in 1912 and 1913. The temporary loss of power led to radicalisation within the CUP, resulting in an increasing willingness among unionists to utilise violence. Some scholars have argued that the deterioration of ethnic relations and erosion of public institutions during 1908–1909 precipitated the Armenian genocide.
Background
The educational reforms during Abdul Hamid II's reign (1876–1909) had led to an increased diffusion of liberal political thought from Western Europe among young Ottoman professionals and military officers. A loosely organised underground movement of reformists known as the Young Turks emerged to press for the restoration of a constitutional monarchy and political reform. These demands were partly inspired by the Young Ottomans, a secret society of intellectuals which had forced Abdul Hamid to enact a liberal constitution during the brief First Constitutional Era (1876–1878).
In July 1908, a secret revolutionary organisation called the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) led an insurrection in the empire's Balkan provinces which compelled the sultan to restore the constitution of 1876, in what became known as the Young Turk Revolution. The CUP, internally divided and lacking an agreed political program, did not take over government; instead it chose to influence the unsteady parliamentary regime from a distance and its Central Committee remained based in Salonika. The CUP cautiously undertook to restrict the sultan's powers and by early August 1908 it had overseen the transfer of navy and army ministerial appointments away from the sultan to the office of the grand vizier. The sultan's palace staff were reduced and replaced with CUP members who monitored Abdul Hamid's official correspondence. Meanwhile, the interim government of Kâmil Pasha carried out a series of democratic and administrative reforms, abolishing the secret police and rescinding press censorship powers, permitting free political campaigning ahead of a general election held during November and December. Abdul Hamid opened the new parliamentary session on 17 December.
Throughout 1908, as events continued to unfold in Istanbul, the Ottoman Empire lost large portions of its European territory. This was due to both encroachments by foreign powers and the activity of the empire's ethnic minorities: Austria annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria declared independence, and Greece seized Crete. These losses dampened the popular elation that had followed the re-establishment of parliament, while open political debate brought existing cleavages to the surface. Muslims saw the new government as impotent in the face of pressure from European powers, while government promises to reclaim the lost territories upset minorities who hoped for greater autonomy or independence. One of the greatest threats came from supporters of Islamism, who agitated against the secular nature of the new constitution and equality for non-Muslims, arguing that the adoption of Western technology did not need to be accompanied by a move away from Islamic law. This view was widely held throughout Ottoman society and Islamists may have enjoyed the private support of Abdul Hamid, despite his proclamations in favour of the new constitution.
Military revolt
Prelude
In October 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress arranged for the transfer of three seasoned sharpshooter () battalions of the Third Army Corps from Salonika to Istanbul in response to increased political tension in the city and concerns over the loyalty of its regular garrison, the First Army Corps. The Third Army's officers – graduates of the prestigious Ottoman Military College trained in modern military techniques – had played an instrumental role in the 1908 revolution. Upon their arrival in Istanbul, the well-connected officers began to play an important role within the capital's political and social scene, attending CUP political functions, banquets and theatrical performances. With their officers increasingly absent, discipline within the sharpshooter battalions began to break down. A generational divide exacerbated the poor relationship between the officers and their men, as opponents of the CUP within the military expressed unhappiness with entrusting the empire's leadership to "yesterday's school children", the young CUP officers recently graduated from military academies, at the expense of more experienced officers who had climbed the ranks. The situation worsened when the newly elected parliament announced its intention to retire a significant part of the officer corps, with cuts disproportionately affecting non-commissioned officers.
In late October, authorities arranged for the transfer of Albanian troops seen as hostile to the new regime out of Istanbul. Many of these soldiers were soon due to be discharged, and upon receiving orders for deployment to Yemen a portion refused and demonstrated for the immediate termination of their contracts. Troops from the fourth battalion were sent to suppress the protests by force and a second riot among Albanian troops in March was again put down by troops, who fired into the riotous crowd of Albanians with machine guns. These events severely damaged morale among the sharpshooters. In February 1909, Grand Vizier Kâmil Pasha moved to weaken the CUP's grip on power by appointing his own candidates as Ministers of War and Navy. In response, the CUP orchestrated a confidence vote against his cabinet, forcing him to resign. On 14 February 1909, the CUP's preferred candidate, Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha, was appointed the new grand vizier. Rumours spread within the city that the CUP would use the troops to depose Abdul Hamid, or that Kâmil Pasha had attempted to order them back to Macedonia. As a consequence of these machinations, the battalions became increasingly politicised and, to the frustration of ordinary soldiers, seen as a tool of the CUP.
Discontent among the soldiers was further stirred up by Muslim fundamentalists. Islamists in Istanbul were led by a charismatic mystic from Cyprus called Hafiz Derviş Vahdeti, who may have belonged to the Bektashi Order. Vahdeti established the , also known as the Mohammedan Union Party, and set up a newspaper called Volkan (Volcano in English) in November 1908 to spread anti-secularist rhetoric and campaign against the government. Religious conservatives portrayed the restored 1876 constitution as sacrificing Islamic traditions in order to curry favour with Western states and attacked the new general assembly for giving minorities and Christians within the empire greater influence, issues which resonated with soldiers who had recently been fighting separatists in the Balkans. Attempts by the CUP to introduce new officers and training regimen into the First Army Corps resulted in less time for soldiers to undertake ablution and prayer, allowing Islamists to present the CUP and its officers as irreligious, even atheistic, free masons from Macedonia. Although Abdul Hamid refused to provide financial support for the movement and newspaper, figures connected with the palace purportedly supported Vahdeti and one of the sultan's sons, Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin, was a member of the Mohammedan Union. The society held its first mass rally on 3 April at the Hagia Sophia; its agitation for the restoration of Sharia gained widespread support, including from soldiers stationed in the city.
On 6 April, Hasan Fehmi, a prominent opposition journalist, was shot and killed as he crossed Galata Bridge in Istanbul. The assassination went unsolved but many in the city speculated that the CUP had been responsible. Protests by Islamic conservatives and seminary students over the killings led to unrest among soldiers in the city's main barracks.
Mutiny
Early on the morning of 13 April, troops of the fourth regiment based at the Tashkishla barracks mutinied, locking up their officers and marching onto the streets to call for the reinstatement of Sharia and for the CUP to be disbanded. Religious students joined the mutinying soldiers outside the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, before marching to the parliamentary building. Hilmi Pasha's government was in a state of confusion, and fearful of the repercussions of ordering remaining loyal troops against the protestors, it sent the Chief of Police instead to hear the crowd's requests. Six demands were prepared by the spokesmen of the mutineering soldiers: the return of Sharia law, the banishment of some CUP parliamentarians from Constantinople, the replacement of Ahmed Rıza (the CUP President of the Chamber of Deputies), the replacement of some CUP officers and the removal of the Grand Vizier along with the Ministers of War and Navy. By the afternoon the government's authority in the capital had collapsed, and faced with this ultimatum Hilmi Pasha and his cabinet resigned. The Sultan swiftly appointed Ahmet Tevfik Pasha as grand vizier.
Marshal Ethem Pasha, the War Minister of the new cabinet went to see the troops at Meydanı, gave them praise and told them that their requests would be fulfilled. The victory was celebrated by the soldiers and religious students. During the revolt, the CUP was targeted in a pogrom with protestors killing 20 people, mainly army officers, and two parliamentarians mistaken for Ahmet Rıza and Hüseyin Cahit (Yalçin), the editor of the CUP newspaper Tanin. Protestors also burned a few CUP offices such as those belonging to Tanin.
Political crisis
After the failed countercoup, members of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) either went into hiding or fled Constantinople. As a result, the Chamber of Deputies lacked enough members for a parliamentary session. Ismail Kemal, an Ahrar deputy, managed to gather some parliamentarians and officially announced that the constitution and Sharia law would be preserved, responding to the requests of the troops. Kemal briefly became President of the Ottoman National Assembly and led it to recognize a new government by Abdul Hamid II. He urged his constituency in Vlorë to acknowledge the new government, and Albanians from his hometown supported him, even raiding the arms depot to back the sultan with weapons if needed. Albanian clubs also expressed support for quelling the uprising, while Prenk Bib Doda, leader of the Mirdita, offered assistance from his tribe, driven by fears that the Hamidian regime could return, rather than being loyal to the CUP. During the countercoup, Isa Boletini and several Kosovo Albanian chieftains offered military assistance to the sultan. In response, the Sultan promised to bring back the rule of religion if he were to be reinstated. The situation in Constantinople remained under the control of Dervish Vahdeti for 11 days.
After being driven out of the capital, Mehmed Talaat, an Edirne deputy and CUP member, escaped with 100 deputies to Ayastefanos (Yeşilköy) and established a counter government, declaring the new government in Constantinople as illegal. Within Istanbul, the leadership of the Liberal Party attempted unsuccessfully to maintain control of events and prevent the rebellion from taking an anti-constitutionalist course in support of Abdul Hamid. Conflicts arose within the Islamic clergy, with higher-ranking ulama united in the Society of the Islamic Scholarly Profession opposing the uprising, while some imams (hocas) supported it. From 16 April onward, the ulama publicly denounced the revolt.
The CUP managed to retain its influence in the provinces, particularly in Macedonia, and took immediate countermeasures. They organized public demonstrations in towns across the provinces and sent numerous telegrams to the palace and parliament, successfully convincing a significant portion of the population in Macedonia that the constitution was in danger. The historian Erik-Jan Zürcher has commented that the CUP was largely successful in its propaganda, and was able to convince a significant portion of the population of Macedonia that the constitution was in peril.
Formation of the Action Army
From 15 April the CUP began preparations for a military operation against the rebels. It appealed to Mahmud Shevket Pasha, commander of the Ottoman Third Army based in Selanik (modern Thessaloniki) to quell the uprising. With support from the commander of the Ottoman Second Army in Edirne, Mahmud Shevket combined the armies to create a strike force called the "Action Army" (). The force numbered 20,000–25,000 regular troops, reinforced with volunteer units, mostly Albanians led by Major Ahmed Niyazi Bey. The eleventh Reserve (Redif) Division based in Selanik composed the advance guard of the Action Army and the chief of staff was Mustafa Kemal Pasha.
In short time CUP members Fethi Okyar, Hafız Hakkı and Enver Bey returned from their international posts at Ottoman embassies and joined Mahmud Shevket and his military staff prior to reaching Istanbul. The Action Army's troops were transported by train to Çatalca and Hademköy, and then to Ayastefanos (also referred to as San Stefano; modern Yeşilköy). It was secretly agreed there that Abdul Hamid would be deposed for his brother Reşad. A delegation was sent to Army headquarters by the Ottoman Parliament that sought to stop it from taking Istanbul through force. The response was negative and the delegation then went to Ayastefanos and made a call for colleagues to unite with them. Both parliamentary chambers convened as a National Assembly (meclis-i umumi-i milli) at the Yachting Club building of Ayastefanos on 23 April and thereafter. Qemali had left the city prior to the Action Army arriving at Constantinople and he fled to Greece.
The Sultan remained in the Yildiz and had frequent conferences with Grand Vizier Tewfik Pasha who announced: Negotiations continued for six days. The negotiators were Rear Admiral Arif Hikmet Pasha, Emanuel Karasu Efendi (Carasso), Esad Pasha Toptani, Aram Efendi and Colonel Galip Bey (Pasiner). Finally, at the moment when the conflict showed signs of extending to the public, the Salonikan troops entered Istanbul.
Rebellion suppressed
Early on the morning of 24 April the Action Army began to occupy Istanbul, with the operation directed by Ali Pasha Kolonja. There was little meaningful resistance, with the exception of Tașkışla and Taksim barracks; by four o'clock of the afternoon the remaining rebels surrendered.
There was fierce street fighting in the European quarter where the guard houses were held by the First Army Corps. There was heavy fire from troops in the Tashkishla barracks against the advancing troops. The barracks had to be shelled and almost destroyed by the artillery located on the heights above the barracks before the garrison surrendered after several hours fighting and heavy losses. Equally desperate was the defence of the Taksim barracks. The attack on the Taksim barracks was led by Enver Bey. After a short battle they gained control of the palace on 27 April.
Under martial law and following the defeat of the rebellion two courts martial sentenced and executed the majority of the rebels which included Dervish Vahdeti. Albanians involved in the counterrevolutionary movement were executed such as Halil Bey from Krajë which caused indignation among conservative Muslims of Shkodër. Some Liberal (Ahrar) political leaders were arrested and British pressure resulted in their freedom. A government investigation later cleared Qemali of any wrongdoing. Sultan Abdul Hamid was deserted by most of his advisors. The parliament discussed the question as to whether he would be permitted to remain on the throne or be deposed or even be executed. Putting the Sultan to death was considered unwise as such a step might rouse a fanatical response and plunge the Empire into civil war. On the other hand, there were those who felt that after all that had happened it was impossible that the parliament could ever again work with the Sultan.
On 27 April the Assembly held a meeting behind closed doors under the presidency of Said Pasha. In order to remove the Sultan, a fatwa was needed. So, a fatwa drawn up in the form of question and was given to scholars to answer and sign. A scholar by the name of Nuri Efendi was brought to sign the fatwa. Initially, Nuri Efendi was unsure whether three crimes raised in the question were carried out by Abdul Hamid. He initially suggested that it would better to ask the Sultan to resign. It was insisted that Nuri Efendi sign the fatwa. However Nuri Efendi continued to refuse. Finally, Mustafa Asim Efendi convinced him and so the fatwa was signed by him and then it was signed by the newly appointed Sheikh ul Islam, Mehmed Ziyâeddin Efendi, legalising it. The fatwa complete with the answer was now read to the assembled members: Then the Assembly unanimously voted that Sultan Abdul Hamid should be deposed.
Allegations of foreign support
Some writers have accused the British, led by Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice (1865–1939), Chief Dragoman of the British Embassy, of being the hidden hand behind a reactionary religious uprising. The British government had already supported actions against constitutionalists in an attempt to mute the effect of increasing German sympathizers in the Ottoman Empire since the 1880s. According to these sources, this countercoup was directed specifically against the CUP's Salonica (Thessaloniki) branch, which had outmatched the British-sympathizing Monastir (Bitola) Branch.
Outcome
The failure of the counter-coup allowed the Committee of Union and Progress to regain power and form a new government. As a result of this incident, the position of the Grand Vizier changed, with Ahmet Tevfik Pasha assuming the role. The constitution was restored for the third time (after earlier attempts in 1876 and 1908), and both parliamentary chambers convened to depose Abdul Hamid II. Four CUP members composed of one Armenian, one Jew and two Muslim Albanians went to inform the sultan of his dethronement, with Essad Pasha Toptani being the main messenger saying "the nation has deposed you". Some Muslims expressed dismay that non Muslims had informed the sultan of his deposition. Abdul Hamid was replaced by his younger brother, who took the name Mehmed V. The sultan directed his anger toward Essad Pasha Toptani, whom he considered a traitor due to his family's ties to royal patronage, such as his gains in privileges and key positions in the Ottoman government. Albanians involved in the counterrevolutionary movement were executed such as Halil Bey from Krajë which caused indignation among the conservative Muslims of Shkodër.
Following the 31 March Incident, the CUP took measures to suppress the interests of ethnic minorities within Ottoman society. Societies advocating for minority rights, such as the Society of Arab Ottoman Brotherhood, were outlawed, and publications with radical Islamic rhetoric were prohibited.
Under the multi-religious "balancing policies" of the CUP which aimed to achieve "Ottomanisation" by promoting Ottoman nationalism over ethnic or religious nationalism among the Empire's diverse subjects. These measures stirred some nationalist sentiments among non-Turkish populations, contributing to a national identity that resisted conservative Islam.
Memorial
The Monument of Liberty () was erected 1911 in Şişli district of Istanbul as a memorial to the 74 soldiers killed in action during this event.
See also
Kapp Putsch
Turkish War of Independence
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Politics of the Ottoman Empire
Rebellions against the Ottoman Empire
Enver Pasha
1909 in the Ottoman Empire
Military coups in the Ottoman Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20World%20War%20I%20Memorial%20%28Washington%2C%20D.C.%29
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National World War I Memorial (Washington, D.C.)
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The National World War I Memorial is a national memorial commemorating the service rendered by members of the United States Armed Forces in World War I. The 2015 National Defense Authorization Act authorized the World War I Centennial Commission to build the memorial in Pershing Park, located at 14th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C. The park, which has existed since 1981, also contains the John J. Pershing General of the Armies commemorative work. In January 2016, the design commission selected the submission "The Weight of Sacrifice", by a team consisting of Joseph Weishaar, Sabin Howard, Phoebe Lickwar, and GWWO Architects, as the winning design, which is expected to be completed by 2024.
In 2016, DAVID RUBIN Land Collective replaced Forge as landscape architects for the project. Growing pressure to preserve M. Paul Friedberg’s design for Pershing Park while acknowledging the extent of the park as the national memorial required a balanced approach inserting new elements of commemoration and managed change of the original modernist construct. (CFA Records). Although the project had met “concept approval” previously, in an effort to describe a thoughtful memorial while revivifying the urban park, a new concept was developed for approval by the agencies with oversight. Where the winning proposal erased a significant portion of the park, the new proposal led by DAVID RUBIN Land Collective struck a balance to ensure both modernist park and memorial could be read simultaneously. Over the course of 39 months, the design team presented alternates negotiating memorial and park elements, resulting in a holistic urban park memorial that met the needs of all parties, including the World War I Commission.
On September 19, 2020, Dr. Libby O’Connell, representing the World War I Commission, and David A. Rubin, founding principal of DAVID RUBIN Land Collective, presented the revised design to the US Commission of Fine Arts for final approval, and the new concept was able to move forward through construction.
On April 16, 2021, the U.S. flag was raised at the memorial and President Joe Biden spoke at a virtual ceremony opening it to the public.
Pershing Park
The Pershing Park site was originally occupied by a variety of 19th-century structures until about 1930, when the federal government took legal title to the block and demolished the structures on it. Legislation officially designating the plot as Pershing Square subsequently was adopted by Congress in 1957. Development of the square proved controversial, as different groups offered competing proposals for memorials to John J. Pershing, who had served as General of the Armies in World War I. These disagreements led to inaction, and by 1962 the square remained bare and often cluttered with trash. In September 1963, District of Columbia officials finally planted grass and flower beds to temporarily beautify the square.
In November 1963, the President's Council on Pennsylvania Avenue proposed a master plan for the redevelopment of Pennsylvania Avenue NW from the White House to the United States Capitol. The master plan proposed constructing a National Plaza (also called the Western Plaza), which would have required the demolition of Pershing Square, the Willard Hotel north of the square, and the two blocks of buildings and streets east of these tracts. The American Legion, among others, kept pushing for a grand statue of Pershing for the square, but all plans for the park were suspended until the Pennsylvania Avenue master plan could be finalized.
National Plaza was never constructed. Instead, a much smaller Freedom Plaza was built which did not require the demolition of Pershing Park (as the square was now known). Designs for a statue and memorial to Pershing and for the larger park were finalized in the 1970s, and Pershing Park constructed simultaneously with Freedom Plaza from 1979 to 1981. The park was slightly enlarged due to the realignment of Pennsylvania Avenue NW along the area's north side. Pershing Park formally opened to the public at 11:45 AM on May 14, 1981. The American Battle Monuments Commission paid the $400,000 for the park.
Pershing Park contains a statue of General Pershing by Robert White, as well as memorial walls and benches behind the statue describing Pershing's achievements in World War I. The sculpture was dedicated in October 1983.
The park also has a fountain, a pond (which turned into an ice rink in the winter), and flower beds. Pershing Park is owned by the government of the District of Columbia, but administered by the National Park Service as an official unit of the park system (managed under the agency's National Mall and Memorial Parks administrative group).
More than 400 demonstrators were illegally arrested in Pershing Park in September 2002 during anti-globalization protests against the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.
National World War I Memorial
In 1931, the people of the District of Columbia erected the District of Columbia War Memorial on the National Mall to honor individuals from the District who had served in the U.S. armed forces in World War I. But the largest of the country's World War I memorials was the Liberty Memorial, a tall tower with an artificial burning pyre atop it, located in Kansas City, Missouri. A Memorial Court surrounded the tower, with a Memory Hall (dedicated to the memory of Kansas Citians who died in the war) on the east and a Museum Building on the west. Ground was broken on the memorial on November 1, 1921, and it opened on November 11, 1926. But no national memorial commemorating World War I was erected over the next 70 years, which upset World War I veterans.
The Liberty Memorial suffered from neglect over the years, and the tower was closed to the public in 1994. A $102 million renovation and expansion effort began in 2000, and the memorial reopened in 2006. The expansion, which added a museum space, a research center, a theater, a cafeteria, and modern storage for the museum's extensive collection, opened in 2006.
The National World War I Museum
With the 2000 Liberty Memorial renovation under way, Senator Kit Bond (R-Missouri) introduced a resolution (S.Con.Res. 114) giving official federal recognition to the Liberty Memorial as "America's National World War I Museum". The designation was only honorific, but it did not pass.
In 2004, with the National World War II Memorial about to open in Washington, D.C., Representative Karen McCarthy (D-Missouri) introduced legislation (H.Con.Res. 421) to designate the Liberty Memorial as "America's National World War I Museum". In the Senate, Senator Jim Talent (R-Missouri) sought agreement to amend S. 2400, the Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2005, with identical language. Talent's amendment was unanimously adopted on June 15, 2004, and the bill passed both houses of Congress. President George W. Bush signed the legislation into law on October 28, 2004 ().
Early legislative efforts to create a National World War I Memorial
The push for a national World War I memorial arose from the successful effort to establish the National World War II Memorial. Legislation to establish the National World War II Memorial was introduced in 1987, and after several unsuccessful efforts passed Congress on May 12, 1993. It was dedicated on May 28, 2004. In fall 2000, Jan Scruggs, CEO of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund, proposed rededicating the District of Columbia War Memorial in honor of all World War I veterans. Scruggs claimed that a member of Congress was working on legislation to effect the change, but no bill was introduced in the 106th Congress or the three successive Congresses.
In 2008, the American Legion called for conversion of the District of Columbia War Memorial as well. To give added impetus to the effort, local attorney Edwin Fountain formed the World War I Memorial Foundation to solicit funds and lobby for the effort. D.C. Council member Jack Evans (in whose ward the D.C. War Memorial was located) and Eleanor Holmes Norton, D.C.'s Delegate to Congress, became honorary trustees of the foundation.
In 2007, Representative Ted Poe (R-Texas) met Frank Buckles, the last surviving American veteran of World War I. Buckles expressed his dismay that there was no national World War I memorial, and Poe began to champion his cause. Poe introduced legislation the next year, titled the Frank Buckles World War I Memorial Act (H.R. 6696), that authorized the American Battle Monuments Commission to either take over the District of Columbia War Memorial or to build a new one on the same site. The bill also established a World War I Memorial Advisory Board to assist in raising funds to build the memorial. Referred to committee, the bill died there after senators Kit Bond and Claire McCaskill (D-Missouri) grew concerned that the "new" memorial would compete with the Liberty Memorial in their state. McCaskill and Rep. Emanuel Cleaver introduced legislation (H.R. 7243 and S. 3589) to designate the Liberty Memorial as the National World War I Memorial. Separately, Bond and Cleaver introduced legislation (H.R. 6960 and S. 3537) to establish a World War I Centennial Commission to develop and implement programs to commemorate the centennial of World War I. These bills all died in committee, as did McCaskill's (S. 760) and Bond's (S. 761) reintroductions in 2009. Cleaver combined the two bills as H.R. 1849, which passed the House but was never taken up by the Senate.
Separately, Senator John Thune (R-South Dakota) introduced legislation (S. 2097) to allow Fountain's World War I Memorial Foundation to take over the D.C. War Memorial and re-establish it as the National World War I Memorial. Efforts to rename the D.C. War Memorial gained support when the D.C. Council voted in 2009 to support the Thune bill. Hearings were held on Thune's bill, at which Frank Buckles (now 108 years old) testified. Representatives from the National Park Service also testified in favor of the bill, noting that there was no longer any room on the National Mall for a major memorial. But it, too, died in committee, as did Poe's companion legislation in the House (H.R. 482).
Creating the World War I Centennial Commission
Legislation finally passed in the 112th Congress, compromising by designating both sites as national memorials, as suggested in 2008 by attorney Edwin Fountain. Senator Thune offered his support for this in December 2009.
Much activity preceded passage of the final bill. On February 1, 2011, Senator John D. Rockefeller IV (D-West Virginia) introduced compromise legislation (S. 253) which (a) established a World War I Centennial Commission and (b) designated both the Liberty Memorial in Kansas City and the District of Columbia War Memorial in Washington, D.C., as National World War I Memorials. Rockefeller's bill authorized the World War I Memorial Foundation to raise funds and oversee the transformation of the D.C. memorial. But citizens of the District of Columbia were increasingly opposed to losing their hometown memorial. The Rhodes Tavern-D.C. Heritage Society, a prominent local historic preservation organization, advocated turning Pershing Square into the memorial, as a commemorative statue to General Pershing already occupied the site. The World War I Memorial Foundation opposed the Pershing Square site as too isolated by busy D.C. streets and argued that being off the National Mall diminished the importance of the war. The foundation also opposed any new designation for the Liberty Memorial for the same reason.
On February 27, Frank Buckles died of natural causes, generating an outpouring of emotion, including an effort to have him lie in state in the United States Capitol rotunda. On March 8, Rep. Poe introduced the Frank Buckles World War I Memorial Act (H.R. 938) again, but this time it matched Rockefeller's bill that designated both memorials and created a centennial commission. This represented an agreement by the Missouri delegation, Thune, and Poe. As with his 2009 bill, Poe's new effort authorized the World War I Memorial Foundation to raise funds, design the memorial, and oversee its erection. Poe's bill was referred to the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform and the House Committee on Natural Resources. On January 24, 2012, the Natural Resources Subcommittee on National Parks, Forests and Federal Lands held hearings on the bill.
Opposition to the takeover of the D.C. War Memorial was growing. On July 8, 2011, Del. Norton introduced H.Res. 346, a non-binding resolution which expressed the sense of the House of Representatives that the District of Columbia War Memorial should remain dedicated solely to the residents of the District of Columbia. Norton's change in position came about after she came to perceive the redesignation of the memorial as a diminishment of the District of Columbia, similar to the lack of voting rights for District residents. D.C. Mayor Vincent C. Gray and the Association of the Oldest Inhabitants of the District of Columbia also opposed the redesignation effort.
With time running out in the 112th Congress, and less than two years before the start of the World War I centennial, on September 10, 2012, Rep. Poe introduced the World War I Centennial Commission Act (H.R. 6364), which established the World War I Centennial Commission to oversee World War I centennial commemorations, programs, and observances. The bill also designated the Liberty Memorial as the "National World War I Museum and Memorial", a symbolic designation to improve its national prominence prior to the war centennial. In June 2012, Poe agreed to abandon his effort to redesignate the District of Columbia War memorial, and Del. Norton agreed to support construction of a national World War I memorial on the National Mall. Instead, his bill authorized the World War I Memorial Foundation to create a new commemorative work on at Constitution Gardens, on the north side of the National Mall between the Vietnam Veterans Memorial and the Washington Monument. During markup of the bill by the Committee on Natural Resources on December 5, 2012, the bill was amended to reduce the acreage allotted to and for the memorial to be erected on any federal land within the District of Columbia (including the National Mall). The bill was unanimously approved by the committee, It passed the House on a voice vote on December 12. Senator McCaskill offered an amendment in the nature of a substitute which removed the designation of the Liberty Memorial as the National World War I Museum and Memorial, and removed the authority to build a memorial in Washington, D.C. The Senate approved the amended bill on December 21. A conference committee agreed to the Senate's changes. On December 31, the House approved the Senate-amended bill. President Barack Obama signed the legislation into law (P.L. 112-272) on January 14, 2013, only establishing the United States World War I Centennial Commission.
Creating two National World War I Memorials
By summer 2012, D.C. officials, Norton, and their congressional supporters were pushing for a national World War I memorial at Pershing Park. The D.C. Council passed a nonbinding resolution to that effect in June. Norton's shift in attitude came after National Park Service officials convinced her that allowing construction on the Mall would severely weaken the Commemorative Works Act, to which a 2003 amendment had all but banned new memorials on the Mall. Meanwhile, discussion among members of Congress had turned toward giving the World War I Centennial Commission authority to build the new memorial. The centennial commission also concluded that there was no room on the Mall to build a memorial.
Rep. Poe reintroduced his memorial legislation (H.R. 222) on January 14, 2013, but it was never acted on. The World War I Memorial Act of 2014 (S. 2264; H.R. 4489), was introduced by McCaskill in the Senate and Cleaver in the House. Similar to the Poe legislation, the bills designated the Liberty Memorial as "a 'World War I Museum and Memorial'" and authorized a World War I Memorial in Washington, D.C, as "a 'World War I Museum and Memorial.'" They authorized the World War I Centennial Commission (rather than the World War I Memorial Foundation as in Poe's bill) to oversee design and construction of this memorial, and specified that it should be built in Pershing Park (rather than the Mall). The bills specifically barred the National World War I Memorial from interfering or encroaching on the D.C. memorial, which won them the backing of Delegate Norton, D.C. Council chair Phil Mendelson, and the World War I Centennial Commission—which had recommended the site. The memorial would cost about $10 million and retain the Pershing commemorative work already at the site. Edwin Fountain, now a member of the World War I Centennial Commission, pledged an open design competition and said that the commission would seek to have the memorial completed by November 11, 2018—the centennial of the closing date of the war.
Both bills were bitterly opposed by the World War I Memorial Foundation. Its president, David DeJonge, pressed for construction on the National Mall. Construction at Pershing Park, he said, "will contribute to a systematic extinction to the memory of World War I ... I think [this] is a grievous error."
With action on both the bills stalled, time was running out in the 113th Congress for action. McCaskill and Cleaver believed that if a memorial was to be built in time for the anniversary of the end of the war, authorization of a D.C. memorial could no longer wait. Cleaver and Poe met at the end of 2013, and Poe agreed to abandon his proposal so that a memorial could be built in time for the war's centennial. Cleaver conceived the idea of inserting the bill's language into the must-pass National Defense Authorization Act. When it (H.R. 4435) reached the House floor in May, Cleaver and Poe successfully co-sponsored an amendment to insert the memorial language into the bill. On December 2, the language of S. 2264/H.R. 4489 was again inserted into the defense bill as Subtitle J of Title XXX of Division B of H.R. 3979, the Carl Levin and Howard P. "Buck" McKeon National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2015. H.R. 3979 had passed the House on March 11, and the Senate on April 7. After extensive debate and amendments, the House adopted the measure on December 3, and the Senate on December 12. President Obama signed the legislation into law on December 19, 2014 (). With passage of the bill, the World War I Memorial Foundation suspended its effort to place the memorial on the National Mall.
Design competition
On May 20, 2015, the World War I Centennial Commission launched a design competition for the National World War I Memorial in Washington, D.C. The competition for the memorial, which the commission said should cost $21 million to $25 million, contained two phases. In Phase I, any member of the public from any country could submit a sketch and 250-word design proposal (along with a $100 submission fee) by July 21, 2015. A jury would select the three to five best entries, each of which would receive a $25,000 honorarium. The finalists, who would be announced on August 4, 2015, would proceed to Phase II, where they would pair with a professional design firm to flesh out their design and present it formally to the Commission. The commission hoped to have a ground-breaking on November 11, 2017 (Veterans Day).
The memorial site drew criticism in August 2015. Architect M. Paul Friedberg, who designed Pershing Park, told the Stars and Stripes that he was deeply upset by plans to destroy or radically change the park and threatened legal and other actions to have it preserved. Landscape architect Charles Birnbaum, founder and president of the Cultural Landscape Foundation, called Pershing Park Friedberg's "seminal work", and began a petition to have the park added to the National Register of Historic Places.
The jury was selected by members of the World War I Centennial Commission. The members of the jury were:
Ethan Carr, Ph.D., FASLA – professor of landscape architecture at the University of Massachusetts Amherst
Maurice Cox, FAIA – architect and urban design and planning expert
Benjamin Forgey – journalist, author, and former architecture critic for The Washington Post.
Harry G. Robinson III, FAIA – Dean Emeritus of the School of Architecture and Design at Howard University and former chairman of the United States Commission of Fine Arts
John F. Shortal, Ph.D. – Brigadier General in the United States Army (retired) chief historian for the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Allison Williams, FAIA – architect and design director for AECOM
Jennifer Wingate, Ph.D. – Associate Professor of Fine Arts at St. Francis College
On August 19, 2015, the jury announced the five finalist designs for the memorial. They were:
"An American Family Portrait", by STL Architects, Chicago, Illinois.
"Heroes Green", by Counts Studio, Brooklyn, New York City, New York.
"Plaza to the Forgotten War", by Johnsen Schmaling Architects, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
"The Weight of Sacrifice", by Joseph Weishaar of Brininstool+Lynch, Chicago, Illinois.
"World War One Memorial Concept", by Kimmel Studio, Annapolis, Maryland.
Design reviews
In early November 2015, the Centennial Commission submitted the five finalist designs to the Commission of Fine Arts for its advice and approval. But the agency had strong criticisms of each of the designs. In a letter to the commission, Commission of Fine Arts Secretary Thomas Luebke wrote that "the competition designs appear to proceed from the underlying assumption that the existing park design is a failure, whereas its problems are the direct result of inadequate maintenance. They commented that many features of the park—such as the berms and other topographical elements which help create a sheltered space at the center of the park and which are eliminated in most of these schemes—are the very characteristics of the design that make the existing park an appropriate setting for a contemplative memorial. Thus, they criticized the competition program for understating the value and importance of the existing park design, and they encouraged conceiving of the project as a new memorial within an existing park." Washington City Paper reporter Kriston Capps noted that "none of the five finalist designs comes close to complying with the wishes of the CFA", but that it was still too early to say if the design process needed to be restarted.
The National Capital Planning Commission, the other federal agency with approval authority over the memorial, was scheduled to review the five designs on December 3, 2015.
The five finalists made formal submissions to the Centennial Commission in December 2015. In January 2016, it selected "The Weight of Sacrifice", by Joseph Weishaar, a 25-year-old architect who graduated from the University of Arkansas. He developed the design while he was an intern. Also selected was sculptor Sabin Howard, landscape architect Phoebe Lickwar (FORGE Landscape Architecture), and GWWO Inc./Architects.
Commission of Fine Arts approval
On July 19, 2018, the Commission of Fine Arts gave its approval to a modified memorial design. The changes replaced the existing fountain with a stand-alone wall featuring high-relief sculptures facing east. A cascade down the western side of the wall fed a scrim (which replaced the existing pool). The CFA required Sabin to revise his sculpture design 18 times over 18 months before it gave final approval. Design approval by the NCPC and other agencies was still pending.
By Veterans Day 2018, the Centennial Commission said it had raised $20 million of the projected $40 million cost of the memorial. The organization was still aiming to dedicate the memorial in November 2021. In December 2019, it was announced that the memorial had received its building permit and work was set to begin. The first phase of the project includes rebuilding the existing park, with the addition of a peace fountain, pool basin, multiple berms and plazas and groves of trees. Rockville-based Grunley Construction Co. is the project's general contractor.
Groundbreaking
On November 9, 2017, the World War I Centennial Commission held a ceremonial groundbreaking event at Pershing Park. United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs David Shulkin, D.C. Mayor Muriel Bowser, U.S. Army Chief of Staff Gen. Mark A. Milley, and others participated in the groundbreaking.
Sabin Howard is sculpting 38 figures for a bronze relief that is 10% larger than life-size in his studio in New Jersey. Each figure takes 600 hours of work, even with 3D-printed armatures. The design, A Soldier's Journey, shows the story of a soldier who leaves his family, sees combat and the loss of comrades, and returns to his family after receiving medical care. It expected to be completed in fall 2023 or spring 2024.
See also
List of national memorials of the United States
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Official website of the National Park Service
U.S. World War One Centennial Commission
Pershing Park – National Park Service
1957 establishments in Washington, D.C.
Federal Triangle
Parks in Washington, D.C.
Monuments and memorials in Washington, D.C.
World War I memorials in the United States
National Memorials of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soulton%20Hall
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Soulton Hall
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Soulton Hall is a Tudor country house near Wem, England. It was a 16th century architectural project of Sir Rowland Hill, publisher of the Geneva Bible. Hill was a statesman, polymath and philanthropist, later styled the "First Protestant Lord Mayor of London" because of his senior role in the Tudor statecraft that was needed to bring stability to England in the fall out of the Reformation. The building of the current Soulton Hall, undertaken during the tumult of the Reformation, is therefore associated with the political and social work required to incubate the subsequent English Renaissance.
Soulton Hall is understood to be constructed in an elaborate set of humanist codes drawing together concepts from classical antiquity, geometry, philosophy and scripture. It is further understood that the building influenced the architecture of many later buildings of similar style.
With a hidden chapel in its basement, a priesthole, and bookcases hidden within its thick walls to hide heretical documents, Soulton Hall is likely to have served as a base for the conspiracy which led to the publication of the Geneva Bible, which bears the name of Rowland Hill on its frontispiece as publisher.
The grounds of the hall contain archaeology of a lost theatre. Emerging scholarship links the manor to Shakespeare, and in particular the play As You Like It which concerns the estate of a character called "Old Sir Rowland".
Mentioned in the Norman Domesday Book, Soulton has housed a manor since late Anglo Saxon times, and a "lost castle" rediscovered in 2021 undergoing a multi-season archaeological investigation by DigVentures.
The modern manor incorporates a working farm pioneering various sustainable agriculture approaches, and also houses a series of contemporary monuments including standing stones and long barrow burial site.
Sir Rowland Hill's renaissance hall
The present hall building was constructed between 1556 and 1560 by Sir Rowland Hill, but is only the corps de logis (private block) of a much bigger palace complex subsequently muted and lost in intervening stages of development. It is constructed of brick, produced at the site, with Grinshill stone dressings.
Hill was the first Protestant Lord Mayor of London in 1549, and, as Sheriff of London. Hill was the coordinator of the Geneva Bible project and an enthusiastic patron of the arts, in particular drama. He has been linked with the character of Old Sir Rowland in Shakespeare's As You Like It. He was also involved in the case which established Parliamentary Privilege.
House of state, literary connections and inspiration
Soulton was acquired by Hill and his protégé Thomas Leigh in 1556 from Thomas Lodge. Lodge's son, also called Thomas Lodge, would have been familiar with the woods at Soulton. Lodge Jr was the writer and dramatist, who wrote prose tale of Rosalynde, Euphues Golden Legacie, which, printed in 1590, from which William Shakespeare took inspiration when writing his pastoral comedy 'As you like it'.
Hill was a close associate of Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton (whose grandson Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton was the dedicatee of Shakespeare's sonnets) to the point of attending the private burial with the family on his death.
The third Earl's wife Elizabeth Vernon is associated with Hill via her grandfather, who shared his childhood with Rowland Hill with them both being baptised at Hodnet within a couple of years of each other, and both families having stationed links to the area. Another Vernon, Margaret Vernon, a daughter of George Vernon, was the wife of Sir Thomas Stanley, whose family reputedly patronised Shakespeare, and is and is also associated with the writer to whom their epitaphs have been attributed to the writer in St Bartholomew's Church in Tong, Shropshire.
Within the building are traces of older Tudor or medieval building phases on the site, with timber materials re-used from predecessors of the manor's various halls. Examples of simple pargeting can be seen within the building.
To the east of the hall is what is now a walled garden, accessed by steps from the terrace on the north, or by a Tudor gate to the north.
At the front of the hall is a Pillared forecourt, again part of the 1550s design concept.
Clandestine features
Geometric code
Cosmati pavement and Rombic dodecahedrons
The Tudor hall's unusual quoining relate to Anglo-Saxon architecture, while incorporating other features at that time only seen in the architecture of Corpus Christi College Cambridge. This together with its unusual strict geometry and the mathematical relationship between the hall and walled garden, represent a geometric philosophical allegory seen in stately architecture as diverse as the Anglo-Saxon Mercian royal crypt at Repton, and the Coronation Theatre of Henry III at Westminster Abbey with the Cosmati Pavement at its centre.
The geometry is understood, as stated by James D. Wenn include commentary on sacred geometry:
Soulton’s sermon in stones concerns the geometry of the rhombic dodecahedron — a solid that has certain ‘perfect’ characteristics, including that it can fill space (as cubes can), and is the 3D projection of a 4D Platonic Solid called the hyperdiamond. The former characteristic lends it an allegorical quality, because the concept of a civilised person fitting into a society, often represented by cubes, is made a little more complex and nuanced. Everybody can fit into a harmony, but it may take some patience — indeed, tolerance — to find the right fit. The connection to the fourth spatial dimension invokes ideas of God’s power beyond the constraints of time, as discussed by ancient theologians such as Boethius.
Even before Boethius, these ideas were discussed in ancient Greek philosophy. Plato’s book Timaeus sought to reflect the harmony of the natural world, and by the invention of the Atlantis story (which later inspired Bacon), attempted to encourage civic harmony, too.
Representation of Holy Amandal
Soulton is thought to have been copied by Francis Bacon when he built Verulam House. It is further thought that the construction of Soulton Hall (with its lost pyramidal roof) is done to represent a Holy Almandal.
Ellusis
The whole precinct of the hall and linked courts to the north, east and south is matched to the geometry of the Telesterion at Ellusis, giving a compound of 55 yards square. This shows conscious engagement with those Greek mysteries. At Soulton a nine grid is laid over the precinct to give compartments of 55 foot squares. The current hall itself if 55 foot cubed: a number which recurs at the Washington Monument, amongst other places. These observations were first made in modern times by James D. Wenn.
Parker connection
These features of the hall's design may have been influenced by the scholarship of Hill's contemporary, historian and protestant theologian Matthew Parker of Cambridge.
Concealed chapel
The basement of the house contains a room called the 'Ædicule'; a concealed chapel in the east front (which is the only truly symmetrical face of the 1550s design and is intended to conjure Solomon's Temple).
The central position of this room was prioritised so strongly that its doorway interrupts a load-bearing wall supporting the hall above, thus requiring that other walls had to be reinforced. It is the only room in the building to have a central window.
The house's alignment is taken from this room which addresses the range of dates possible for the celebration of Easter.
Dancing pavement
To the south of the current hall is a cobbled yard of Victorian date (1847). It is based on similar patterns seen at the preserved Tudor Hall at Plas Mawr it is likely the design was taken from Tudor features within the hall lost during subsequent renovations. Scholars have interpreted this as a dancing pavement linked to some of the ideas of harmony explored by Ptolemy.
Priest hide
There is a priest hide on the principle floor of the house in the south west corner of the building in a turret containing several chimneys, in the interior of the room (believed to be Sir Rowland Hill's studiolo). It is not known whether this hiding place was ever used but provides evidence of early intent to use the building as a safehouse, from the time of its construction. More associated with the hiding of Catholics during the reign of Elizabeth I of England, the early date of the priest hole's inclusion in the architecture at Soulton combined with Rowland Hill's position suggests they were more likely intended for use to hide prominent protestants such as Matthew Parker from the inquisitions of Mary I. Uniquely among protestant leaders Parker did not flee England yet somehow survived. His whereabouts, and that of his library during this time have always been a matter of speculation. It has thus been inferred that Parker may have been sheltered at Soulton by Rowland Hill, with whom he was later associated, not least by both being Commissioners for Ecclesiastical Causes at the dawn of Elizabeth I's reign.
The history of the priest-hole has been memorialised by the addition of a modern plaque which says: Behind this tablet lies a space believed to have been intended to be used to hide scholars and priests from the authorities during the turmoil of the sixteenth century.
This memorial honours all who have suffered persecution for their beliefs.
On the beams in this room there are also quotations from Michel de Montaigne.
Epidaurus Court, a Tudor theatre space
A theatre court, modelled on the Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus, was built by Hill in the precinct of the house to the east of the current hall: the hall itself forms the theatre screen.
This was completed by 1560 and therefore predates Teatro Olimpico and the Elizabethan Theatres such as The Globe and The Rose.
Parlours in the basement and Rithmomachia Floor
Some of the basement rooms retain their original Tudor treatment, including flooring, indicating that these were 'polite' rooms, rather than service spaces.
One of these rooms (The Rithmomachia Room) contains in the tiles a games board for Rithmomachia, which is an early European bard game also known as The Philosopher's Game, an account of which Sir Rowland Hill printed with the title The most ancient and learned Playe, called the Philosopher's Game invented for the honest recreation of Students and other sober persons, in passing the tedious of tyme to the release of their labours, and the exercise of their Wittes.
Other features
Curtilage buildings
The broader precinct incorporates a number of 18th-century farm buildings constituting a 'model farm' from the Regency Era Age of Improvement. Most intact among these is a linear range now known as Soulton Court bearing a 1783 datestone relating to later work, but incorporating an earlier manorial hall or courtroom of unknown date prior to the mid-1600s.
This courtroom is traditionally associated with an aborted witch trial of the 17th century.
Restoration door case
In 1668 a semi-circular door case bearing the marital coat of arms of Thomas Hill, a descendant of Sir Rowland's and a friend of Samuel Pepys was added above the front door.
Lost buildings
A dovecot once existed to the south west of the garden wall which was dismantled by the end of the 1800s.
An octagonal horse engine existed in the 1780s buildings just outside the base court to the north west.
Landscape gardens
The landscape across the current farm and beyond to Hawkstone was recruited by Hill to make allegorical references to scripture.
Symbols
Coat of arms
The arms of Thomas Hill, sometime high sheriff of Shropshire were added above the senior door in 1668.
Flag and badge
The house flag is a square teal banner with an eight-pointed star inside a circle, with looping garlands between the points of the star: three of these garlands are shaded and five are not. This symbol is taken from the preserved Dancing Pavement on the site and found in documents in the hall's archive.
Linked buildings
In the region
The house of Bachegraig/Bach-y-Graig is understood to be 'the first brick house in Wales', built by Sir Rowland Hill's associate Richard Clough has been argued to have been based on Soulton Hall. That house is acknowledged to the be in an Antwerp style by Flemish craftsmen and were the first brick houses in Wales. While Clough's house has been demolished it shows important features in the Soulton design that were altered in later phases.
The architectural and political project that Sir Rowland Hill instigated is understood to have continued to yield fruits in the immediate area, Hawkstone Abbey Farm and Hawkstone Hall are both buildings taking stylistic cues from the building. Attingham Park, also a Hill house, is also thought to be within the wider cultural project.
The house is historically associated with St Mary's Church, Edstaston: the name of the house and family is carved into the church porch in the 1600s signifying their patronage.
In London
The historian James D. Wenn has noted a close connection with Sir Christopher Wren's St Mary Abchurch, which is the same size and shape.
In the United States
Some affinity both architectural, and by family connections has been attributed to Soulton with various early colonial American buildings, in particular Rosewell (plantation) in Virginia.
History
Saxon and earlier
Within the manor is evidence of Bronze Age habitation, and some signs of Neolithic activity.
The name of the manor is Saxon and means either 'settlement with a plough' or 'settlement with reeds' or possibly 'settlement in/near a gully' .
The manor of Soulton existed at the time of the Domesday Book in 1086 (see: PASE Domesday) and is recorded as "Svltune". The Domesday Book records the manor as having previously been freely held by Brihtric — most likely the same Brihtric who was the brother of Eadric Streona the Ealdorman of Mercia from 1007 to 1017. Both Brihtric and Eadric were slain by King Cnut on Christmas Day, 1017.
Based on its Domesday Book entry there are likely to have been buildings on or near to the site of the extant hall prior to the Norman Conquest, but these have yet to be identified archaeologically.
Post-Norman
A Norman (possibly Adulterine) castle was constructed approximately 300 meters to the north-east of the extant hall either during the Anarchy of the early 1100s, or later, certainly by the 1250s.
The location is marked by a mound which can still be seen. This site is located around the point at which the roadway crosses a narrow gap in some wet terrain which would likely have had a strategic reason for establishing a fortification in that location. This building is believed to have burnt down at some point in the late 14th century.
A grant of the manor in 1299 indicates that some of the ancient marker posts marking the boundary with Wales formed part of the boundary of the manor.
The manor supported the clergy of the King's Chapel of St Michael in Shrewsbury Castle.
Post-1556
Civil War
In September 1642, Charles I passed within sight of Soulton Hall, and subsequently set up a temporary capital at Shrewsbury.
In 1643, the first Parliamentary garrison in Shropshire was declared at nearby Wem. On 17-18 October, the Royalists responded by sending a large force to the district, described as follows:3 cannon, 2 drakes, one great mortarpiece that carried a 30ln. bullet, had 120 odd wagons and carriages laden with bread, biskett, bare and other provisions and theire armye being formydable as consistynge of neer 5,000.The Royalist attackers only formed up on one side, approaching Wem only from Soulton Road. The engagement does not seem to have been seriously interested in taking Wem with the commander, Lord Capel, light-heartedly smoking his pipe half a mile from the town on that road. The town was not taken and the manoeuvre lasted less than a day resulting in this couplet.The women of Wem and a few musketeers.
Beat the Lord Capel and all his Cavaliers.
Immediately after the engagements around Soulton, Charles I disbanded his temporary headquarters in Shropshire and made for Oxford.
The Battle of Edge Hill, followed a few days later on 23 October 1642. After this incident it is further recorded the houses of the family "[were] pillaged, and ransacked by the rebel [parliamentarians]", and after this that family had to go into hiding in the Hawkstone landscape and caves.
The following February of 1643, Price Rupert is recorded as being repeatedly in the district.
Restoration
In the late 17th century Soulton had passed to Thomas Hill, who attended Oriel College, Oxford matriculating in 1662, and went on to be made High Sheriff of Shropshire in 1680. He was later made a commissioner in an act of Parliament in 1698. He was buried in Wem Church with his wife Elizabeth, a member of the Corbet family.
Another member of the family, Richard Hill was admitted to Grays Inn in 1657.
Soulton Hall became the venue of an abortive witch trial some time around 1660. The suspected witch under accusation by local townsfolk of Wem was brought before Thomas Hill of Soulton, as justice of the district. The accused was spared any judicial processing as a witch and that allegation was dismissed, in contrast to the harsh persecutions of the time.
Eighteenth century and later
There are records that Benjamin Franklin was in communication with the family and was aware of the place.
There is an 1801 bridge on which Thomas Telford worked on the B5065, known as Soulton Bridge.
There are also the remains of a water mill active from at least the 1300s until the mid-to-late 1800s near Soulton Wood.
The manor is still owned by the wider family of the original family of Sir Rowland Hill via female descent.
Culture
In 1483, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham was arrested on the edge of the manor following the failure of Buckingham's rebellion. This incident is referred to by William Shakespeare in the play Richard III, in ACT IV, scene iv.
Filming
There is periodic filming at the manor, including recently of BBC Countryfile .
Contemporary drama and live performance
In 2020, during the crisis in live performance and theatre resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, outdoor performance was reintroduced to Soulton. The National Youth Theatre (NYT) gave their first live in person performance since the restrictions following the lockdown that was brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic. The play was a new, specially devised work called The Last Harvest In 2021, the NYT returned with a performance of Animal Farm.
In October 2021 Soulton Hall hosted an immersive performance of the Old English epic poem Beowulf, together with a selection of shorter pieces of Old English and Old Welsh poetry, by early medieval living history/reconstructive archaeology group Thegns of Mercia, titled Beowulf at the Barrow. The performance took place around the site, with the historic Moot Hall representing the great hall Heorot, and the Soulton Long Barrow representing the dragon's lair and Beowulf's own burial mound, serving as venue for the final sections of the poem.
Public affairs
Michela Gove visited as Secretary of State for DEFRA in 2017.
In 2021, during the North Shropshire by-election, the various candidates and media were headquartered at the manor.
Dance
An eighteenth century dance, the Soulton Jigg, is linked to the manor and published in John Walsh's 1740 "The Second Book of the Compleat Country Dancing-Master".
Material from the Soulton collection concerning its dancing pavement was loaned to the inaugural John Weaver Festival of Dance, (marking the 350th anniversary of the birth of the Shropshire-born "Father of English ballet").
Literaturary and other publishing
The manor is referenced in the following books:
Regenesis: Feeding the World Without Devouring the Planet by George Monbiot
Wilderland and Hill and Dale, both by Andrew Fusek Peters
Riding Out by Simon Parker
How to Love Animals by Henry Mance
Stones of the Magi by James D. Wenn (forthcoming)
First Christmas by Katherine E. Smith
Poetry
Merlin Fuhcher is the poet in residence.
Archaeology
The manor includes various protected archaeology.
An official excavation with DigVentures took place in June 2019. The excavation of a mound (a scheduled ancient monument) revealed the existence of a structure which might be a castle from the 13th to 15th centuries, according to an archaeologist. As the dig continued, medieval artifacts were also unearthed, including an ampulla, a necklace, cups, bowls, and jug handles. These have been dated to circa 1250.
Heritage status
Soulton Hall is a listed building, along with its walled gardens, pillared forecourt and carved stone work. Soulton Bridge, crossing Soulton Brook is a Grade I listed structure, built in 1801 by Thomas Telford.
An ongoing project to improve the presentation of the hall and its history was begun in 2022 by the Ashton family with advice and guidance from architectural history consultant James Wenn of Byrga Geniht, involving re-furnishing rooms to a state more representative and sensitive to their Tudor heritage.
As part of this inscriptions have been added to the entry-way which encourage visitors toward consideration of the building's themes.
A plaque at the entrance to the hall reads:Now, my co-mates and brothers in exile,Hath not old custom made this life more sweetThan that of painted pomp? Are not these woodsMore free from peril than the envious court?'Here feel we not the penalty of Adam...And this our life, exempt from public haunt,Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,Sermons in stones, and good in everything.
- William Shakespeare, 'As You Like It', Act II, Scene 1. The Forest of Arden
It is believed that affairs of state that took place at Soulton in the time of Sir Rowland Hill, in the sixteenth century, inspired Shakespeare to write this play and shaped several others.
Gold lettering above the door reads:
UT ROSA FLOS FLORUM, SIC EST ISTA DOMUS DOMORUM
[As the rose if the flower of flowers, so this is the house of houses]Similar inscriptions can be found in the Chapter House of York Minster. and Westminster Abbey.
The connections of the building to the Classical philosophy and geometry of Ancient Greece are represented with an insctription from Isocrates echoing a 1600s carving on what is now Shrewsbury Library.
ἐὰν ᾖς φιλομαθής, ἔσει πολυμαθής,[If you loving learning you will become wise]
There is a banner for St Erkenwald in the studiolo.
Contemporary monuments
Long Barrow
A modern long barrow, Soulton Long Barrow, has been constructed on farmland north of Soulton Hall. Begun in 2017, the site became operational in 2019. The new monument was covered on an episode of BBC Countryfile, being visited by Matt Baker and Ellie Harrison in April 2019.
Standing stones
Three megalithic limestone standing stones are located on the access route to the barrow. These were added to the approach route to the barrow in autumn 2017. The stone for these monoliths, as with the barrow itself came from Churchfield Quarry, Oundle, near Peterborough. There is no deliberate alignment beyond way-marking for these standing stones. In 2020, a standing stone, with an alignment to the setting sun on the winter solstice, was added to the ritual landscape to acknowledge the suffering of the families impacted by the Coronavirus pandemic.
Farm
There is a farm at the manor, including Soulton Wood.
The farm practices no-till farming. This was covered in an episode of BBC Countryfile in April 2019 with Matt Baker.
Research cooperation between Harper Adams University and Oxford University looking at the results of cultivation on Soil ecology, which used DNA sequencing of the soil biome has been hosted on the farm.
The woodland is largely oak with some cherry and ash. In total the woodland covers about 50 acres and it is designated ancient woodland. Material from the wood was supplied for repair of the House of Commons after bomb damage in the Second World War.
Gallery
Spellings
Before the modern spelling of 'Soulton', a wide variation in spelling can be observed:
Suletune (Domesday Book, 1086)
Suleton' (Curia Regis Rolls 1200; Rotuli Hundredorum, 1255)
Soleton (Assize Rolls, 1271–2; Feudal Aids 1284-5A)
Sulton' (Assize Rolls 1271–2, 91–2)
Sulton (Feudal Aids 1431, 1470, 84; Calendar of Close Rolls Preserved in the Public Record Office, 1703; Shropshire Parish Registers, 1809)
Solton' (1334, The Shropshire Lay Subsidy Roll of 1 Edward III)
Sowton (Saxton's Map of Shropshire, 1695 The County Maps from William Camden's Britannia 1695 by Robert Morden)
Soughton; 1672, The Shropshire Hearth-Tax Roll of 1672)
Soulton (1677, Shropshire Parish Register)
Saulton (artifacts at the building, 1800s)
See also
Listed buildings in Wem Rural
Hawkstone Park
Hawkstone Hall
Weston-under-Redcastle
Old Market Hall, Shrewsbury
Sudeley Castle
National Youth Theatre
Worshipful Company of Mercers
Mathew Parker
Rosewell
References and further reading
An excursion from Sidmouth to Chester in the summer of 1803 (1803) by Edmund Butcher. Whittingham.
Antiquities of Shropshire, Vol. 10 (1860) by Robert William Eyton. J.R. Smith,.
The Castles & Old Mansions of Shropshire (1868) by Frances Stackhouse Acton. Leake and Evans.
Memorials of Old Shropshire (1906) by Thomas Auden. Bemrose & Sons.
Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, Volume 40 (1919). Shropshire Archaeological and Natural History Society.
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Held at Philadelphia (1939). American Philosophical Society. 1939
Burke's Guide to Country Houses: Reid, P. Herefordshire, Shropshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire (1978) by Mark Bence-Jones, and Peter Reid. Burke's Peerage.
The Tudor and Stuart Legacy, 1530-1730 (1989) by Lawrence Garner. Swan Hill.
The World of the Country House in Seventeenth-century England (1999) by John Trevor Cliffe. Yale University Press.
Hills of Hawkstone (2005) by Joanna Hill. Phillimore & Co Ltd.
Shropshire (Pevsner Architectural Guides: Buildings of England) (2006) by John Newman. Yale University Press.
Design and Plan in the Country House: From Castle Donjons to Palladian Boxes (2008) by Andor Gomme, Austin Harvey Gomme, and Alison Maguire. Yale University Press.
References
External links
History page of official Soulton Hall website, retrieved 29 November 2013
Country houses in Shropshire
Grade II* listed buildings in Shropshire
Manor houses
Theatres in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports%20in%20Pittsburgh
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Sports in Pittsburgh
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Sports in Pittsburgh have been played dating back to the American Civil War. Baseball, hockey, and the first professional American football game had been played in the city by 1892. Pittsburgh was first known as the "City of Champions" when the Pittsburgh Pirates, Pittsburgh Panthers football team, and Pittsburgh Steelers won multiple championships in the 1970s. Today, the city has three major professional sports franchises, the Pirates, Steelers, and Penguins; while the University of Pittsburgh Panthers compete in a Division I Power Five conference, the highest level of collegiate athletics in the United States, in both football and basketball. Local universities Duquesne and Robert Morris also field Division I teams in men's and women's basketball and Division I FCS teams in football. Robert Morris also fields Division I men's and women's ice hockey teams.
Pittsburgh's major teams have seen great success, with the MLB's Pirates winning 5 World Series titles, the NHL's Penguins winning 5 Stanley Cups, and the NFL's Steelers winning a tied league record 6 Super Bowls. The Pittsburgh Panthers have also been successful in the NCAA with 9 national championships in football and 2 in basketball.
The flag of Pittsburgh is colored with black and gold, based on the colors of William Pitt's coat of arms; Pittsburgh is the only city in the United States in which all professional sporting teams share the same colors. The city's first National Hockey League (NHL) franchise, the Pittsburgh Pirates, and that team's non-NHL predecessor, the Pittsburgh Yellow Jackets, wore black and gold as their colors in the 1920s. The colors were adopted by founder of the Pittsburgh Steelers, Art Rooney, in 1933. In 1948, the Pittsburgh baseball Pirates switched their colors from red and blue to black and gold. Pittsburgh's second NHL franchise, the Pittsburgh Penguins, wore blue and white, due to then-general manager Jack Riley's upbringing in Ontario. In 1979, after the Steelers and Pirates had each won their respective league championships, the Penguins altered their color scheme to match, despite objections from the Boston Bruins, who have used the black and gold combination since the 1935-36 NHL season.
In 1975, late Steelers radio broadcaster Myron Cope invented the Terrible Towel, which has become "arguably the best-known fan symbol of any major pro sports team." Cope was one of multiple sports figures born in Pittsburgh and its surrounding area; others include golfer Arnold Palmer, Olympian Kurt Angle, and basketball player Jack Twyman. Pittsburgh is also sometimes called the "Cradle of Quarterbacks" due to the number of prominent players of that position who hail from the area, including NFL greats Jim Kelly, George Blanda, Johnny Unitas, Joe Namath, Dan Marino, and Joe Montana.
Professional team sports
The City of Pittsburgh has had various professional sports franchises throughout its history and today is home to three teams competing at the highest professional level in their respective sports: the Pittsburgh Pirates of the MLB, the Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL, and the Pittsburgh Penguins of the NHL.
Major League Professional Teams
Minor League Professional Teams
Top Tier Amateur Teams
Baseball
Prior to 1876, three amateur Pittsburgh baseball teams—the Enterprise, the Xanthas, and the Olympics—competed, most often at Recreation Park. On April 15, 1876, Recreation Park was the site of a game between the Xanthas and the Pittsburgh Alleghenies (alternately spelled "Alleghenys"), an unrelated forerunner to the "Alleghenys" team which would later be renamed the Pirates. The Alleghenies won the game 7–3. The 1877 squad was the most successful yet, finishing within 1 game of the pennant in the International Association; only a Canadian team had a better record, allowing the city potential bragging rights for being the best American team that season.
1882 marked the first "major league" and fully professional season for the Pittsburgh Alleghenies (Pirates) and in 1887, the Alleghenies moved from American Association to the National League after owner William Nimick became frustrated over a contract dispute. The Pirates were purchased in 1900 by Barney Dreyfuss, who would go down in history as the "Father of the modern World Series" and its precursor, the Chronicle-Telegraph Cup, both of which saw the Pirates participate in the inaugural series. He recruited Hall of Famers Fred Clarke and Pittsburgh native Honus Wagner and built the first concrete and steel (first "modern") baseball stadium, Forbes Field. Under Dreyfuss, the Pirates won pre-World Series world titles in 1901 and 1902, National League pennants from 1901–1903, 1909, 1925 and 1927 and World Series in 1909 and 1925. The 1902 squad set major league records for winning percentage and even today is the second most winning team ever fielded in the sport. The franchise won the World Series three more times— in 1960, 1971, and 1979. In 1960, the team became the first to win a World Series on a walk-off home run, hit by Bill Mazeroski, and they remain the only team to win on a walk-off homer in the decisive seventh game. In 1979, the Pirates repeated the accomplishment of their own 1925 World Series team, coming back from a three-games-to-one deficit, winning three games in a row when facing elimination, for the title. Thus the Pirates became (and they currently remain) the only franchise in the history of all sports to win world titles more than once when coming back from a 3-1 deficit. The 1979 Pirates also are unique in that they are the only team in all sports to have players who captured all four MVP awards: Seasonal (Willie Stargell, co-MVP with Keith Hernandez), All Star Game (Dave Parker), NLCS (Willie Stargell), and World Series (Willie Stargell) within a single season. Since 1970 the team has won their division and qualified for the playoffs nine times: six in the 1970s, and three times in a row from 1990 to 1992. Pirate players have won the league MVP award in 1960 (Dick Groat), 1966 (Roberto Clemente), 1978 (Dave Parker), 1979 (Willie Stargell), 1990 (Barry Bonds), 1992 (Barry Bonds), and 2013 (Andrew McCutchen) and the Cy Young Award in 1960 (Vernon Law) and 1990 (Doug Drabek). In 2001, the team opened PNC Park on the city's North Shore, regularly ranked as one of the top three baseball parks in the country.
In addition to the Pirates, the Pittsburgh Stogies, Pittsburgh Burghers and Pittsburgh Rebels played in various leagues from 1884 to 1915. The Rebels won the pennant in 1912 and finished just a half game shy of a pennant in 1915. The Pittsburgh Keystones, Homestead Grays (playing in the city limits), and Pittsburgh Crawfords played in the Negro leagues. With players including Josh Gibson and Cumberland Posey the Grays won 12 league titles—the most by any Negro league team—including nine consecutive from 1937 to 1945. The Crawfords finished their eight-year existence with a .633 winning percentage, with a line-up including Gibson, Cool Papa Bell, and Satchel Paige and claimed four straight league titles from 1933 until 1936, with the 1935 team judged by some as the greatest one to ever take the field in the Negro leagues, or perhaps in baseball period. Just as they initially played in the first "modern" ballpark in the majors (Forbes Field), Crawfords owner Gus Greenlee constructed the first steel and concrete "modern" stadium in the Negro leagues, with Greenlee Field opening in the Hill District on April 29, 1932.
Basketball
Pittsburgh South Side won Western Pennsylvania Basketball League and Central Basketball League titles in 1904, 1907 and 1913, coming in second place in 1908, 1911 and 1915. The "Black Fives" league enjoyed success in the city with Monticello-Loendi winning national championships in 1912, and four in a row from 1920–23. The Pittsburgh Pirates from 1937–39 and Pittsburgh Raiders in 1944–45 continued professional basketball in the city in the National Basketball League. Pittsburgh had one of the founding members of what became the NBA, the Pittsburgh Ironmen however only played a single season 1947–48 before folding. The Pittsburgh Renaissance (or Rens) played from 1961 until 1963 in the ABL, posting the city's best record in almost 40 years when they finished 2nd in 1962.
The most lasting legacy of pro roundball in Pittsburgh was the Pittsburgh Pipers-Pittsburgh Condors of the American Basketball Association from 1967 until 1972. In the first ABA World Championship in 1968, the Pipers defeated the New Orleans Buccaneers, which were owned by Harry Connick Sr.
After the ABA Pipers/Condors folded in 1972 the city hosted the Pittsburgh Piranhas of the CBA in the mid-1990s. The franchise made it to the championship round in the 1994–95 season. Taking the series into the 6th game the Piranhas lost by a basket in the final seconds (92-94) by what they claimed was an ineligible player, the CBA denied a replay game in what would have been Pittsburgh's second pro-basketball world title. In the late 2000s the Pittsburgh Xplosion, a development league team owned by former NBA player Freddie Lewis, played in a revamped ABA/CBA at Mellon Arena and the Petersen Events Center before ceasing operations prior to the 2008–09 season because of the economic recession. Another professional basketball team, the Pittsburgh Phantoms of the American Basketball Association, played during the 2009–10 season and held their games at the Carnegie Library of Homestead, but folded prior to the following season.
Hockey
First played in Pittsburgh in 1895, ice hockey grew in popularity after the Duquesne Gardens opened in 1899. In 1901 the Western Pennsylvania Hockey League (WPHL), a semi-professional ice hockey league based in Pittsburgh in the early 1900s, may have been involved in the first trade involving professional hockey players. In 1907, the WPHL was the first league to openly hire hockey players. The league played its games in three Pittsburgh hockey arenas, the Gardens, the Schenley Park Casino and the Winter Garden at Exposition Hall. The Casino, which was destroyed by a fire in 1896, had the first artificial ice surface in North America, was the first place in Pittsburgh where organized ice hockey was played and had the most modern indoor lighting system of the time era, that consisted of 1,500 incandescent lamps, 11 arc lights and 4 white calcium lights. In 1905–1907, the city was represented in the International Professional Hockey League, the first fully professional hockey league, by the Pittsburgh Professionals.
The Gardens housed the largest indoor rink in the world and was home to the city's first NHL franchise, the Pittsburgh Pirates, from 1925 to 1930. The Gardens also was home to the Pittsburgh Shamrocks and the Pittsburgh Yellow Jackets of the International Hockey League as well as the Pittsburgh Hornets of the American Hockey League.
In 1961, Pittsburgh Civic Arena was constructed for use of the Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera. Founded, by Jack McGregor and Peter Block as part of the 1967 NHL expansion, the Pittsburgh Penguins have played home games in downtown Pittsburgh since their inception—first at the Civic Arena, and since 2010 at PPG Paints Arena. The Penguins won back-to-back Stanley Cup championships in 1991 and 1992. The franchise recorded their third Stanley Cup in 2009. The teams included players Mark Recchi, Kevin Stevens, Jaromír Jágr, and Mario Lemieux. Lemieux holds multiple franchise records and was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1997. He suffered from multiple injuries, including Hodgkin's lymphoma, throughout his career. In 1999, Lemieux purchased the Penguins and saved the franchise from bankruptcy. He returned to play one year later as the first player/owner of the modern era. The Penguins, led by top point scorers Evgeni Malkin and Sidney Crosby, returned to the Stanley Cup finals in 2008 and won the franchise's third Cup in 2009. The franchise recorded their fourth Stanley Cup in 2016 and their fifth Stanley Cup in 2017.
Football
On November 12, 1892, Pudge Heffelfinger was paid $500 to participate in an American football game for the Allegheny Athletic Association. With this transaction, Heffelfinger became the first person to be paid to play football. The first professional football game was held at Recreation Park in Pittsburgh. Heffelfinger scored the game's only points as the Allegheny Athletic Association defeated the Pittsburgh Athletic Club, 4–0. The early professional football era was also represented in Pittsburgh, by top athletic association teams in the Western Pennsylvania Professional Football Circuit. The Duquesne Country and Athletic Club, was the top pro team in the state in 1898 and 1899. The first ever pro football all-star game was played at Exposition Park between the Duquesne Country and Athletic Club and a collection of players from several teams in the area on December 3, 1898. Duquesne won the game 16–0. Later the Homestead Library & Athletic Club, fielded the top pro team in the state in 1900 and 1901. In 1902 the top players in the area, mainly from the Duquesne Country and Athletic Club line-up, formed the Pittsburgh Stars of the first National Football League. The Stars were suspected of being financed by Barney Dreyfuss and William Chase Temple, the owners of baseball's Pittsburgh Pirates. The team featured baseball players in the line-up including Christy Mathewson, a future Hall of Fame pitcher with the New York Giants and Fred Crolius, and outfielder with Pirates. The team won the league's only championship in 1902.
In 1933, as the oldest of nine children Art Rooney, who had been raised on the North Side of Pittsburgh, founded the Pittsburgh Steelers. Originally nicknamed the Pirates, the team later changed their name to the Steelers, to represent the city's heritage of producing steel. The Steelers' first season with a winning record came in 1942. However, they lost their first playoff game in 1947. In 1969, the Steelers hired head coach Chuck Noll who strategically drafted players in order to improve the team. Three years later, in the first playoff game at Three Rivers Stadium Pittsburgh's rookie running back Franco Harris returned an errant pass that bounced off an opposing player for a game-winning touchdown in a play that later became labeled the Immaculate Reception. In 1974, the Steelers won their first Super Bowl in franchise history—a feat which they would repeat in 1975, 1978, and 1979 to become the first NFL franchise to win four Super Bowls. In 1992, Noll was succeeded by Bill Cowher, who led the franchise to its fifth Super Bowl victory in 2005. Mike Tomlin succeeded Cower and led the Steelers to an NFL record sixth Super Bowl victory in 2008. As of 2009, the Steelers have 18 members in the Pro Football Hall of Fame. In October 1964, Ernie Stautner, who played on the Steelers from 1950 to 1963, became the only Steelers' player to have his number—70—retired. Charles "Mean Joe" Greene had his number -75- retired in 2014. In 2008, ESPN.com ranked Steelers' fans as the best in the NFL, citing their "unbelievable" sellout streak of 299 consecutive games. Steelers Chairman Dan Rooney, son of founder Art Rooney, became the majority owner of the Steelers in November 2008 along with his son Art II, after they bought all of the shares of two of his four brothers.
Outside of the NFL, the city was represented by the Pittsburgh Americans of the second American Football League in 1936 and 1937. It was also briefly represented by the Pittsburgh Maulers of the United States Football League, in 1984, and the Pittsburgh Gladiators (which later became the Tampa Bay Storm), of the Arena Football League from 1987 until 1990. A second Arena Football League team, the Pittsburgh Power, played in the Consol Energy Center from 2011 until 2014.
In addition, Pittsburgh has also been home to women's full-contact football teams. The Pittsburgh Passion were founded in 2002 as members of the National Women's Football Association, then played in the Independent Women's Football League, and then Women's Football Alliance. The Passion play their home games at West Allegheny High School in nearby Imperial. The team went 12–0 and won a national title in 2007 as members of the NWFA. The Pittsburgh Rebellion were members of the Legends Football League during the 2017 season with home games at the downtown Highmark Stadium.
The "most established area minor-league football team" the Pittsburgh Colts are members of the North American Football League's Regional American Football League.
The United States Football League (2022) announced that the league would be relaunching in April 2022 and that the Pittsburgh Maulers would be returning
Soccer
Pittsburgh Riverhounds SC are members of the USL Championship (second division) and play at Highmark Stadium.
The Riverhounds are one of the oldest professional soccer clubs in the United States operating outside of MLS; the only two older clubs are fellow USL Championship side Charleston Battery and USL League One's Richmond Kickers, both of which were founded in 1993. Like their counterparts, the Steelers, Penguins and Pirates, the Riverhounds are a full-time professional club, and many of their current and former players have represented their countries in international play.
Historic teams such as the suburban Harmarville Hurricanes won the U.S. Open Cup, U.S. Soccer's national championship, with Harmarville winning in 1952 and 1956 and reaching the final in 1953. Pittsburgh area teams Gallatin and Morgan Strasser also won the Open Cup in its earlier years, but since the end of the 1950s, only the Riverhounds have advanced as far as the quarterfinals, which they achieved in 2001 and 2023. The amateur club Pittsburgh Beadling has contested for regional and national titles for over 100 years, winning the National Amateur Cup in 1954, though Beadling now operates primarily as a youth club.
Aldo Donelli, better known as a Duquesne University Football player and coach played soccer with a number of clubs in the 1920s and 1930s and was a member of the United States men's national soccer team during the 1934 FIFA World Cup. He is a member of the National Soccer Hall of Fame. In a 4–2 qualifying victory over Mexico in Rome, Italy on May 24, he tallied all four times, becoming the first American to score his first three international goals with the senior team in the same match.
The region's interest in soccer continues as modern stars such as natives Justin Evans, Meghan Klingenberg, Don Malinowski, John Stollmeyer, A. J. Wood and Marvell Wynne II have all achieved international success.
Rugby
The Pittsburgh Forge Rugby Club are rugby union team based in South Side Pittsburgh. The club formed in 2018 when the Pittsburgh City RC and the Pittsburgh Highlanders combined to form the Forge. The Pittsburgh Forge currently fields two competitive men's senior sides and one competitive women's side. The men currently participate in the Midwest Competition Region (NCR1) at the Division II and Division III levels, and the women also play in the Midwest Competition Region at the Division II level.
The Pittsburgh Sledgehammers are a rugby league team based in Cheswick, Pennsylvania (outside of Pittsburgh) which was formed in 2010 and plays in the AMNRL competition.
The Pittsburgh Harlequins are a rugby union team also based in Cheswick. The Pittsburgh Harlequins Rugby Club was founded in 1973 by a group of University of Pittsburgh law students. The organization has an active roster of 45 players and an alumni roster inclusive of more than 70 seasons of play. The Harlequins Rugby Club is a Division I member of the Mid-Atlantic Rugby Football Union. Over 300 active players wear the Harlequin jerseys every year at the Division 1 men's, Under 19, and Under 14 levels. In 1995, the Founders Field Center for Athletic Leadership was developed to support the Harlequins Men's and Youth programs. The 12 acre Founders Field facility includes lighting, irrigation, a clubhouse, locker rooms, concessions, and parking.
Major league professional championships
Pittsburgh Steelers (NFL)
6 Super Bowl titles
1974 (IX)
1975 (X)
1978 (XIII)
1979 (XIV)
2005 (XL)
2008 (XLIII)
Pittsburgh Penguins (NHL)
5 Stanley Cup titles
1991
1992
2009
2016
2017
Pittsburgh Pirates (MLB)
5 World Series titles
1909
1925
1960
1971
1979
Homestead Grays (NNL)
3 Negro World Series titles
1943
1944
1948
Pittsburgh Pipers (ABA)
1 ABA Finals title
1968
Individual sports and recreation
Golf
Golf has deep roots in the area with the region boasting the oldest course in continuous use in the nation: Foxburg Country Club dating from 1887. The suburban Oakmont Country Club has hosted the U.S. Open championships more than any other course in the nation (9) along with two U.S. Women's Open championships, three PGA Championships, and eight U.S. Amateurs.
Such golf legends as Arnold Palmer, Jim Furyk and Rocco Mediate learned the game and began their careers on Pittsburgh area courses. Suburban courses such as Laurel Valley Golf Club and the Pittsburgh Field Club have hosted PGA Championships (1937, 1965), the Ryder Cup (1975), LPGA Championships (1957–1958), Senior Players Championships (2012–2013) and the Senior PGA Championship (2005).
Local courses have sponsored annual major tournaments for 39 years:
Pennsylvania Open 1920–1940 (even years)
Dapper Dan Open 1939–1949
Pittsburgh Open 1956
Pittsburgh Senior Classic 1993–1998
84 Lumber Classic 2001–2006
Mylan Classic 2010–2013
The region has deep roots in golf, boasting the oldest continuous country club in the U.S. at Foxburg, dating back to 1887.
The suburban Oakmont Country Club has hosted the U.S. Open Championships more than any other course at nine, and thus the Pittsburgh metro area more than any other metro. Oakmont has also hosted two U.S. Women's Open championships, three PGA Championships, and eight U.S. Amateurs. Other area courses such as Laurel Valley Golf Club and the Pittsburgh Field Club have hosted PGA Championships, the Ryder Cup, LPGA Championships and Senior PGA Championships.
The region has hosted annual PGA Tour events such as the 84 Lumber Classic (2001–2006) at Mystic Rock, the Dapper Dan Open 1939–49, the Pittsburgh Open (1950s), the Tri State Open (1980s), the Pittsburgh Senior Classic (1993–1998) and since 2010 the annual Mylan Classic.
Golf greats such as Arnold Palmer, Jim Furyk, Rocco Mediate and others hail from the region.
Fishing
Since the 1960s the city has focused on revitalizing its rivers, hosting the Bassmaster Classic and the Forrest Wood Cup in the 2000s and seeing a boom in local fishing participation. Among the variety are Catfish and Trout.
Rowing/Rafting/Kayaking
Pittsburgh is the host city for both the annual Three Rivers Regatta (since 1977) and the annual Head of the Ohio (since 1987) races and events. The University of Pittsburgh, Carnegie Mellon University and Duquesne University as well as several area high schools have long standing rowing teams.
In 2010 National Geographic named the city to its top six of "Best Cities for Kayaking". Kayak Pittsburgh is the largest river recreation rental in the area located on the North Shore on the Allegheny River.
Suburban Ohiopyle State Park offers some of the best white-water rafting in the country.
Trails/Camping/Biking
Pittsburgh has multiple mountain biking areas close to the city in area parks and in the surrounding suburbs. Frick Park has biking trails and Hartwood Acres Park has many miles of single track trails. A recent project, "Rails to Trails", has converted miles of former railroads to recreational trails, including a Pittsburgh-Washington, D.C. bike/walking trail. Kayaking is popular on the city's three rivers.
Pittsburgh and its region are internationally known for its extensive and varied trail system. Such assets as the Three Rivers, Ohio River, Youghiogheny River, Beaver River, Indian Creek, Panhandle, Laurel Highlands, Rachel Carson, Five Star and Montour offer stunning, natural, suburban and urban views of the metropolitan area. The Great Allegheny Passage provides an all natural-trail (non motorized) link to Washington, D.C., while the North Country Trail passes through the northern suburbs of the city and connects Bismarck, North Dakota to the Plattsburgh, New York area, with such cities as Duluth, Minnesota and Buffalo, New York in its path.
Within the urban core of the city and its immediate surroundings the Steps of Pittsburgh offer an urban hiking experience. "Urban oasis" parks that bring the wilds of nature into the middle of the urban core and feature over a mile of trails within their individual boundaries include: Point State, Frick, Highland, Schenley, Riverview, Grandview, South Side, Riverfront, Three Rivers, Point of View, and Roberto Clemente.
Large 500–2,000 acre suburban parks that feature several miles of diverse trails each are plentiful throughout the metropolitan area.
Northern suburbs: North, Hartwood Acres, Harrison Hills, Deer Lakes, Moraine, McConnells Mill
Southern suburbs: South, Round Hill, Ohiopyle,
Western suburbs: Settler's Cabin, Hillman, Raccoon Creek.
Eastern suburbs: Boyce, White Oak, Renziehausen, Keystone, Laurel Mountain, Laurel Ridge, Laurel Summit, Linn Run, Forbes
For hikers/trailblazers that desire a historical or cultural element to nature the metropolitan area offers the Fort Necessity National Battlefield, Bushy Run Battlefield, the Bear Run conservancy containing both Fallingwater and Kentuck Knob, the smaller yet hikable Meadowcroft Rock Shelter features pre-Columbian archeology. The large urban parks described earlier such as Schenley Park includes several historical/cultural sites including Phipps Conservatory and proximity to Schenley Plaza, the Cathedral of Learning, Hillman Library and the Frick Gallery. Riverview includes the Allegheny Observatory and Point includes the Fort Pitt Museum and the remains of Fort Duquesne.
For true environmentalists and wildlife fans the metro area includes the Jennings Environmental Education Center, as well the Allegheny Islands State Park, Ohio River Islands National Wildlife Refuge and Ohioplye for hiking and water sports.
Tennis
Such teams as the Pittsburgh Triangles have built a small but loyal fan base for tennis in the region, being a perennial championship contender in the 1970s and winning a world title in 1975. Generations later the region still has deep tennis roots with the year-round all-weather Mellon Park Tennis Center being a world class facility for the sport, and helping to develop natives such as Bjorn Fratangelo, Bonnie Gadusek, Donald Johnson and Gretchen Magers in succeeding in international competition and rankings.
From 1979 to 1984 the city also hosted a yearly international tournament, the Pittsburgh Open.
Skiing/skating
Seven Springs Mountain Resort, Hidden Valley, Pennsylvania, Wisp Ski Resort and Boyce Park offer skiing with both PPG Place and North Park offering ice skating. In 2011, the Pittsburgh Penguins created a new public rink in the South Side neighborhood's Southside Works called "Penguin Pond".
Year round ice skating and skating events can be enjoyed at indoor area rinks including the Rostraver Ice Garden, Island Sports Center, IceoPlex at Southpointe and Bladerunners Ice Complex.
Such notable olympians as natives Kristi Leskinen, Kylie Gleason, Suna Murray, Ron Robertson, Mike Seibert, Suzanne Semanick, Jamie Silverstein and Taylor Toth have trained and began their careers at area facilities.
Youth sports
Youth football
Suburban league, Big East youth football league
Penn Trafford, Woodland Hills, Greater Latrobe, Jeannette, PHMFA, Arken, Franklin Regional, Plum, Mckeesport, Gateway
College sports
There are several universities within the city that field athletic teams in NCAA Division I including the University of Pittsburgh (often referred to as "Pitt"), Duquesne University and Robert Morris University. Of these, Pitt is the only school that is a member of the so-called "Power Five" conferences that are primary partners in the College Football Playoff structure (the Atlantic Coast Conference). Other universities in Pittsburgh that field athletic teams include Carnegie Mellon University (Division III), Chatham University (Division III), Point Park University (NAIA), and Carlow University (NAIA).
Football
College football in Pittsburgh dates back to the University of Pittsburgh which first organized a football team in 1889 and played its first sanctioned game in 1890. In the first half of the 20th century, Pitt, Duquesne, and Carnegie Tech (now called Carnegie Mellon) all fielded football squads that made "major" bowl game appearances from the 1920s through the 1930s. These appearances included Duquesne in the 1933 and 1936 Orange Bowl, Carnegie Tech in the 1938 Sugar Bowl, and the University of Pittsburgh appearing in four Rose Bowls (1927, 1929, 1932, 1936) as well as nearby Washington and Jefferson College in the 1922 Rose Bowl. In particular, Pitt was a national power during this era, claiming 8 national championships under the guidance of coaching legends such as Pop Warner and Jock Sutherland. More recently, the Panthers won another National Championship in 1976 and competed for several more through the 1980s. Multiple inductees into the College Football Hall of Fame played at Pitt, including Dan Marino, Tony Dorsett, Mike Ditka, and Larry Fitzgerald. Pitt is the only university in Western Pennsylvania to still play college football at the highest level, the Football Bowl Subdivision, while Duquesne and Robert Morris have football teams that compete in the Football Championship Subdivision, and Carnegie Mellon fields a Division III football team.
Basketball
Three Pittsburgh universities, the University of Pittsburgh, Duquesne University, and Robert Morris University, compete in NCAA Division I basketball. Pitt and Duquesne are the traditional basketball powers in the city, but all three universities have made multiple appearances in the National Invitation Tournament and NCAA tournament. Pitt claims two pre-NCAA tournament National Championships in 1928 and 1930 while Duquesne won the NIT title in 1955, its second straight trip to the NIT title game. Since the 2000–2001 season, a team from the region has always reached a post-season tournament, with Pitt having won multiple Big East Conference championships and having appeared in nine consecutive NCAA Tournaments, advancing to the Sweet 16 four times and the Elite Eight once. In the years 1941, 1964, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1989, 1992 and 2008, two of the city's universities sent teams to tournaments; in 2009 and 2010, all three universities earned bids to post season tournaments.
Pitt women's basketball has also made recent appearances in the NCAA tournament. A rivalry game between Pitt and Duquesne, termed the City Game, is played annually between the two schools' men's and women's basketball teams, as well as their baseball teams.
Other collegiate sports
Along with college football and men's and women's basketball, the area universities compete in many additional sports. The University of Pittsburgh also fields NCAA Division I teams in baseball (its oldest sport. first played in 1869), cross country, gymnastics, track and field, soccer, softball, swimming and diving, tennis, volleyball, and wrestling. The Duquesne Dukes, in addition to many of the sports above, also participates in Division I lacrosse, golf, and rowing. Robert Morris University fields Division I teams in men's and women's hockey, among other sports.
Major Events
Annual events
Pittsburgh also hosts several annual major sporting events, including the:
Three Rivers Regatta (Since 1977)
Pittsburgh Vintage Grand Prix (Since 1983)
Dirty Dozen Cycle Race (Since 1983)
Pittsburgh Marathon (Since 1985)
Great Race 10K (Since 1985)
Head of the Ohio Regatta (Since 1987)
Three Rivers Classic (Since 2012)
Great Pittsburgh Soap Box Derby
Mckeesport Pa
The city's vibrant rivers have attracted annual world title competitions of the Forrest Wood Cup in 2009 and the Bassmaster Classic in 2005.
Annual events continue during the winter months at area ski resorts such as Boyce Park, Seven Springs, Hidden Valley and Wisp as well as ice skating at PPG Place and North Park.
Rivers
A Formula-1 ChampBoat Series race, the Pittsburgh Three Rivers Regatta, which is the largest inland regatta in the country during July at Point State Park. There is also an annual large rowing regatta, the Head of the Ohio, which was founded in 1987 and is one of the largest inland regattas in the United States.
Motorsports
The Pittsburgh Vintage Grand Prix, the last remaining vintage automobile race run on city streets in the United States, is held annually at Schenley Park.
Running
For 30 years Pittsburgh has also hosted a large 10K and 5K road race, the Richard S. Caliguiri City of Pittsburgh Great Race, which attracts nearly 10,000 athletes and has been ranked as a Top 20 Multi-Race Events by USA Track & Field's publication On The Roads. In addition, the 28th Pittsburgh Marathon will be hosted in the city in May 2018.
Basketball
Pittsburgh was previously home to the first national high school all-star basketball game, The Dapper Dan Roundball Classic, from 1965 to 1992, prior to its move to Detroit and later Chicago. It has long been home to the City Game between Pitt and Duquesne.
Cycling
Since 1983 the Dirty Dozen Cycle Race has been held in the city.
Awards banquet
Since 1936 the Dapper Dan Charities, a civic sports organization founded in part by a former editor Pittsburgh Post-Gazette has hosted an annual local and national celebrity and sport star dinner first at the William Penn Hotel then at the Hilton ballrooms and more recently at the David L. Lawrence Convention Center.
Other events
Pittsburgh has its own cricket league conducted by Pittsburgh Cricket Association which was founded in 2005. The league features about 16 teams and the games are held at linbrook park and edgebrook field.
The Pittsburgh Cricket Association, revived in 2004 from the long dormant 1882 Pittsburgh Cricket Club charter, comprises 16 active teams and more than 250 members.
PCA is a 501(c)(3) non-profit corporation organized for charitable purposes to further the sport of cricket in Pittsburgh and surrounding areas. The specific purposes for which this corporation is organized are: To promote, encourage, foster and cultivate interest in the sport of cricket; To initiate, sponsor, promote and carry out plans, policies and activities that would further the development and advancement of cricket in Pittsburgh and North Eastern PA; To develop, foster and train amateur athletes for representation in state, national and international cricket competitions; to promote building of facilities for other non-traditional sports like badminton, table tennis and rugby.
Tennis: Historically the Pittsburgh Triangles of the 1970s played tennis at the Civic Arena, winning the WTT championship in 1975. The arena also hosted the Pittsburgh Open tennis tournament from 1979 until 1984. The year-round facilities at Mellon Park Tennis Center currently serve the city.
Gaelic football: Teams such as the Celtics (men's) and Banshees (women's), founded in 1976 and 2002, respectively. The Celtics won the Midwest title in 2002, 2006, and won both the midwest and National titles in 2011. The Banshees won the Midwest title in 2004, 2005, and both the midwest and Junior B shield national title in 2011.
Roller derby: Steel City Derby Demons of the WFTDA.
Dodgeball: NDL's Pittsburgh Punishers.
People
Multiple professional athletes were born or raised in the Pittsburgh area. Major League Baseball players Ken Griffey Sr., his Hall of Fame son Ken Griffey Jr., and Hall of Famer Stan Musial were born in Donora, Pennsylvania. Hall of Fame inductee, player and manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates, Honus Wagner was born and raised in Chartiers. Major League outfielder Tito Francona and pitcher Doc Medich were born in Aliquippa. Super Bowl winning coaches Bill Cowher and Mike Ditka were born in Pittsburgh and Carnegie respectively. Super Bowl winning quarterback Joe Namath and Heisman Trophy winner Tony Dorsett were born in Beaver Falls and Rochester respectively. 3 Time Super Bowl MVP Joe Montana is from New Eagle. Jim Kelly from East Brady was the leading QB of the Buffalo Bills to 4 straight Super Bowl appearances. Johnny Unitas, National Football League's most valuable player in 1959, 1964 and 1967 is from Pittsburgh as well. Owner of the Dallas Mavericks, Mark Cuban and Basketball Hall of Fame member Jack Twyman were born in Pittsburgh. Olympic gold medalists Swin Cash and Kurt Angle, the latter of whom went on to become a major star in professional wrestling, were born in McKeesport and Pittsburgh respectively. Professional golfers Rocco Mediate and Arnold Palmer were born in Greensburg and Latrobe respectively. Author Jim O'Brien, who was born in Pittsburgh, has authored 20 books about Pittsburgh sports.
Cradle of quarterbacks
The Pittsburgh region also has developed many notable athletes that have gone on to outstanding careers in professional sports. The region has produced a multitude of NFL quarterbacks, giving Western Pennsylvania the nickname "Cradle of Quarterbacks". Dan Marino, Joe Montana, Joe Namath, Jim Kelly, Johnny Unitas, Bruce Gradkowski, Marc Bulger, George Blanda, Johnny Lujack, Jeff Hostetler, Gus Frerotte, Willie Thrower, Warren Heller, Johnny Gildea, Tyler Palko, Alex Van Pelt, Sandy Stephens, Terry Hanratty, Mike McMahon, Major Harris, Matt Cavanaugh, Chuck Fusina, Rod Rutherford, Ted Marchibroda, Babe Parilli, John Hufnagel, Tom Sherman, Richie Lucas, Boyd Brumbaugh, Scott Zolak, Ed Matesic, Tom Clements, Coley McDonough, Charley Seabright and former Pittsburgh Steelers quarterback Charlie Batch all hail from within a 50-mile radius of the city.
Former professional franchises
*The championships listed for the teams are the highest possible achievement in their respective leagues for each season. For baseball seasons prior to the advent of the World Series in 1903 and the Negro World Series in 1942, National League Championships and Negro National League Championships are listed.
Professional venues
Pirates
Exposition Park I (1882)
Exposition Park II (1883)
Recreation Park (1884–1890)
Exposition Park III (1891–1909)
Forbes Field (1909–1969)
Three Rivers Stadium (1970–2000)
PNC Park (2001–present)
Steelers
Forbes Field (1933–1963)
Pitt Stadium (1958–1970)
Three Rivers Stadium (1970–2000)
Heinz Field/Acrisure Stadium (2001–present)
Penguins
Civic/Mellon Arena (1967–2010)
Consol Energy Center/PPG Paints Arena (2010–present)
Notes
References
Further reading
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luciano%20Moggi
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Luciano Moggi
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Luciano Moggi ( born 10 July 1937) is a former Italian association football administrator and convicted fraudster. He was a club executive for Roma, Lazio, Torino, Napoli, and Juventus, leading them to win six leagues (five with Juventus and one with Naples), three Coppa Italia (with Roma, Torino, and Juventus), five Supercoppa Italiana (four with Juventus and one with Napoli), one UEFA Champions League, one Intercontinental Cup, one UEFA Super Cup, and one Intertoto Cup (all with Juventus), as well as winning one UEFA Cup with Napoli. He has since become a freelance journalist and commentator.
In May 2006, Moggi was involved in the sports scandal that became known as Calciopoli, which remains a much debated and controversial topic due to the one-sided focus on Juventus and Moggi, an issue that was cited in the Naples sentence about the criminal trial. The related Calciopoli trials in Naples, which revealed the implications of many other clubs who could not be put on trial due to the statute of limitations and were not weighted in the Moggi sentences, absolved him of some related offences and reached the appeal sentence in December 2013 with a sentence of 2 years and 4 months in prison. His remaining charges related to Calciopoli were cancelled without a new trial due to the statute of limitations by Italy's Supreme Court of Cassation in March 2015. In March 2020, Moggi appealed to the European Court of Human Rights for the conduct of the trials.
Biography
Moggi was born into a modest family in Monticiano, in the province of Siena, at the time Kingdom of Italy, on 10 July 1937. He had a passion for football from an early age, playing for forty days in Akragas in the 1963–64 Serie C season. He left school at the age of 13. After middle school, he worked at the Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane, settling in Civitavecchia and playing as a stopper in teams of lower categories. In the late 1960s, dissatisfied with his work and tired of playing football without income, Moggi envisioned a future as a talent scout, particularly in minor football. His son, Alessandro Moggi, works as an agent for several football players and managers. He is head of GEA World, a consortium of football agents and managers, which were ranked the first by volume from 2002 to 2006.
Career
Moggi worked as a railway station caretaker until the early 1970s, when he met Italo Allodi, then Juventus' managing director, who appointed him to minor roles at the club. Before being called as chief managing director by Juventus in 1994, he worked for and collaborated with several teams, such as Roma, Lazio, Torino, and Napoli, where he won several league, domestic, and confederal titles.
Early years at Juventus and Roma
After entering senior football in the 1970s for Juventus under general manager Allodi, Moggi organized a network of scouts looking for young talent in suburban fields. Among his footballers are the sixteen year old Paolo Rossi in 1972, Claudio Gentile in 1973, and Gaetano Scirea in 1974. A few years later, Moggi took on a more important role, and he also established contacts with the other teams to start negotiations until he was forced to change companies due to the break with then-Juventus president Giampiero Boniperti.
Moggi's next job was at Roma of the new president Gaetano Anzalone. Thanks to the help of some journalists, it was Moggi who came forward and got to know Anzalone, who decided on his job as transfer market consultant in 1977. During his period at Roma, which won the 1979–80 Coppa Italia, Moggi acquired Roberto Pruzzo, who was blown right to Boniperti's Juventus. His departure from Roma occurred a few days after Dino Viola, the new president, learned that, on the eve of the match against Ascoli, Moggi had been having dinner with Claudio Pieri, the match referee. It was 25 November 1979 and the tenth matchday of the 1979–80 Serie A that was being played; Roma won the match 1–0 and the president of Ascoli, Costantino Rozzi, was upset about a refeering that, in his view, was in favour of Roma. In the locker room, Rozzi met Viola, to whom he said his criticism of Moggi, seen in a restaurant in the company of the referee and the two linesmen. Moggi described it as a casual event. Viola used the episode as a pretest to release Moggi, telling him he wanted a sporting director who lived in Rome, even though Moggi lived in the Rome metropolitan area of Civitavecchia.
Lazio, Torino, Napoli, Roma, and Juventus
After the 1980 Italian football betting scandal, which came to be known as Totonero and in which he was not involved, Moggi was hired as general manager by Lazio to relaunch it. After two years, he resigned with the club still in Serie B. In 1982, he moved at Torino of president Sergio Rossi and managing director Luciano Nizzola. He suffered the protests of the fans due to the underwhelming market hits completed, such as the Argentine Patricio Hernández, or missed ones, such as the Yugoslav Safet Sušić. He remained at Torino for five years with mixed results. On 29 May 1987, he resigned from his position.
On 22 June 1987, Moggi moved at Napoli of Corrado Ferlaino and Diego Armando Maradona immediately after the victory of their first scudetto, succeeding Allodi. Napoli won the 1989 UEFA Cup final, the 1989–90 Serie A, and the 1990 Supercoppa Italiana. In March 1991, Moggi resigned due to incompatibility with Ferlaino. He then returned at Torino under president Gian Mauro Borsano, and the club reached the 1992 UEFA Cup final, which was lost due to the away goals rule, and won the 1993 Coppa Italia final due to the same rule. In 1994, he was investigated together with his collaborator Luigi Pavarese for sporting offenses and aiding and abetting prostitution for referees during the 1991–92 UEFA Cup matches. Borsano and the accountant Giovanni Matta testified that it was Moggi who personally took care of the hospitality of the referees and linesmen, and of providing them with prostitutes for the home games, while the services were paid for by Torino through black funds. The sentence was one of acquittal because Pavarese assumed all the responsibilities, while on the sporting side the fraud could not exist as sporting fraud did not apply to UEFA matches, and UEFA quickly closed its investigation.
Once he left Torino, Moggi returned at Franco Sensi's Roma. In 1994, he moved at Juventus under the managing director Antonio Giraudo and where he would be described by Gianni Agnelli as "the king's groom, who must know all horse thieves". The twelve years with Juventus were the most successful of his entire management career and placed him among the most important football managers at national and international level. Juventus won five leagues (plus one revoked and one left unassigned), one UEFA Champions League, one Intercontinental Cup, one UEFA Super Cup, one Intertoto Cup, one Coppa Italia, and four Supercoppa Italiana. He also reached three Champions League finals, one UEFA Cup final, and two other finals of Coppa Italia.
Moggi remained at Juventus until May 2006 when he resigned, saying: "They killed my soul." He was linked to a judicial investigation in the sports field known as Calciopoli. Some telephone tapping of an investigation filed by the court of Turin were published in some newspapers, the folders of which had been sent to Franco Carraro, then president of the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) and himself involved in the scandal but came out unscattered not without controversy, in which some managers inquired with the referee designator Pierluigi Pairetto, then-referee delegate for UEFA, on the names of some referees who had to be drawn to referee the matches of the next Champions League. A scandal then broke out, which led to the resignation of Moggi and the other two managers, for an investigation that theorized the crime of criminal association aimed at sports fraud. According to the allegations, Moggi had singular relationships with some people who gravitated around Italian sports journalism, with the aim of putting the work of referees and clubs in a good or bad light. Turin's public prosecution office had earlier rejected the charges by the prosecution.
Calciopoli
In May 2006, Moggi was linked as the central figure in Calciopoli, a vast referee lobbying scandal spanning the professional top two Italian football leagues. Daily newspaper la Repubblica published the contents of several wiretappings in which Moggi, along with the country's former referee nominator Pierluigi Pairetto, was said to assign referees to specific matches, including many in which Juventus was not a participant. Moggi received a five-year ban from football and a recommendation to the FIGC president that he be banned for life from membership of the FIGC at any level. This was controversial because he and Giraudo (both from Juventus) were the sole executives to be banned for life, which came a few months before their five-year ban expired. As summarized by Carlo Garganese for Goal.com, "[the FIGC sentence] stated perfectly clearly that no Article 6 violations (match-fixing/attempted match-fixing breaks the sixth article of the sporting code) were found within the intercepted calls and the season was fair and legitimate, but that the ex-Juventus directors nonetheless demonstrated they could potentially benefit from their exclusive relationship with referee designators Gianluigi Pairetto and Paolo Bergamo. There were, however, no requests for specific referees, no demands for favours and no conversations between Juventus directors and referees themselves." Juventus had been absolved in the ordinary justice proceedings, and the courts ruled that Moggi acted in his self-interest to help Lazio and Fiorentina, which is why Juventus was absolved of wrongdoings and was not liable by other clubs; Moggi said that he did not care about Fiorentina and Lazio but that Carraro did, citing his own wiretaps in which Carraro asked to help them.
As early as 2010, when many other clubs were implicated and Inter Milan, Livorno, and Milan liable of direct Article 6 violations in the 2011 Palazzi Report, Juventus considered challenging the stripping of their scudetto from 2006 and the non-assignment of the 2005 title, dependent on the results of Calciopoli trials connected to the 2006 scandal. On 8 November 2011, Naples court issued the first conclusion of the criminal case against Moggi and the other football personalities involved, sentencing him to jail for five years and four months for criminal association. In December 2013, Moggi's sentence was reduced to two years and four months for being found guilty of conspiring to commit a crime; the earlier charge of sporting fraud was dismissed, owing to the statute of limitations. On 23 March 2015, in its final resolution, Italy's Supreme Court of Cassation ruled that Moggi was acquitted of "some individual charges for sporting fraud, but not from being the 'promoter' of the 'criminal conspiracy' that culminated in Calciopoli." Nevertheless, the remaining charges of Moggi were cancelled without a new trial due to the statute of limitations.
When Moggi's conviction in criminal court in connection with the scandal was partially written off by the Supreme Court, Juventus sued the FIGC for €443 million for damages caused by their 2006 relegation. Then-FIGC president Carlo Tavecchio offered to discuss reinstatement of the lost scudetti in exchange for Juventus dropping the lawsuit. On 9 September 2015, the Supreme Court released a 150-page document that explained its final ruling of the case, based on the controversial 2006 sporting sentence, which did not take in consideration the other clubs involved because they could not be put on trial due to the statute of limitations, and it would be necessary to request and open a revocation of judgment pursuant to Article 39 of the Code of Sports Justice. Despite his remaining charges being cancelled without a new trial due to the statute of limitations, the court confirmed that Moggi was actively involved in the sporting fraud, which was intended to favour Juventus and increase his own personal benefits according to La Gazzetta dello Sport. As did the Naples court in 2012, the court commented that the developments and behavior of other clubs and executives were not investigated in depth. In 2016, the TAR tribunal rejected the request of compensation promoted by Juventus. On 15 March 2017, Moggi's lifetime ban was definitively confirmed on final appeal.
Moggi continues to make observations on the Serie A on Italy's newspapers, as well as sports and local television channels, such as Sportitalia and Telecapri Sport. Since 2011, he collaborates with Radio Manà Manà. In March 2020, having exhausted appeals in Italy's courts, Moggi appealed to the European Court of Human Rights for the conduct of the trials, including the lack of time given to the defence in the 2006 sporting trial, among other issues; Giraudo's was accepted in September 2021.
Proceedings
Calciopoli trials were much debated and controversial since their beginning in 2006. While supporters of the prosecution cite the sentences as evidence, there remains controversy and unclear aspects. Several observers and commentators feel that Moggi was made a scapegoat, cited inconsistencies in the sentences, such as Juventus being absolved and the league not being fixed but the club was relegated to Serie B, including the lack of investigation into other clubs and executives, and argue that only Moggi and Juventus paid, and that it was disproportionate, since unlike other clubs and executives, who could not be put on trial due to the statute of limitations, they were never charged of Article 6 violations (Inter Milan, Livorno, and A.C. Milan were the clubs charged of Article 6 violations by the prosecutor Stefano Palazzi in 2011), the one about illicits that is ground for relegation. No judge returned evidence to affirm that the 2004–05 Serie A was fixed as charged by the prosecution; the chief prosecutor had to change the charge to that of anticipated crime for something that was not committed, and Moggi's charge, as written in the Naples sentence, which did not take in consideration the thousands of thousands wiretaps that were publicly released by Moggi's legal team in 2010 and were available to the investigators back in 2006 but were not used, was not that he fixed matches or leagues but that his behavior was close enough to "the limit of the existence of the crime of attempt", hence the conviction.
Some observers alleged that Calciopoli and its aftermath were also a dispute within Juventus and between the club's owners, who wanted to get rid of Moggi, Giraudo, and Roberto Bettega, whose shares in the club increased. Whatever their intentions, it is argued they condemned Juventus, firstly when lawyer Carlo Zaccone asked for relegation and point-deduction, refn|In later years, Zaccone clarified he made that statement because Juventus were the only club risking more than one-division relegation (Serie C), and he meant for Juventus (the sole club to be ultimately demoted) to have equal treatment with the other clubs; and secondly when Luca Cordero di Montezemolo retired the club's appeal to the Regional Administrative Court (TAR) of Lazio, for which then FIFA president Sepp Blatter and then CONI president Gianni Petrucci thanked John Elkann and Montezemolo, and that could have reduced Moggi's charges and cleared the club's name and avoid relegation, after FIFA threatened to suspend the FIGC and barring all Italian clubs from international play. This amounted, as recounted by Corriere della Sera journalist Mario Sconcerti, to "a sort of public plea bargain" and guilty admission. Calciopoli judge Piero Sandulli stated that the GEA World ruling dismantled the prosecution, and commented: "We punished the violation of internal rules in 2006. Basically, our sentence highlighted above all bad habits, not classic illicit acts. It had to be made clear that what was in the wiretapping is not to be done. It was an ethical condemnation. The criminal trial evaluates other things."
Sports justice
In the sports sentence, the Federal Appeal Commission (CAF), a FIGC judicial court, stated that Juventus was not responsible for Fiorentina avoiding relegation, and that Moggi and Giraudo operated independently of Juventus and its owners. In addition, the court ruled that there was no evidence of match fixing or a Moggi system, as was reported by La Gazzetta dello Sport. Finally, referee selections were done in accordance with the rules of the FIGC, phone calls made by Moggi to referee designator Paolo Bergamo did not constitute in itself a sporting illicit, and there was no organization of targeted yellow cards. Nonetheless, the sentence stated that "though Moggi didn't exercise his ability to condition matches, he still possessed the ability", and even though there were no Article 6 violations against Juventus, it introduced the much-disputed illecito associativo ("associative illicit") violation, which resulted in the club's relegation; the given motivation was that "Juventus' advantage was evidenced by their position in the standings at the end of the season."
In July 2006, the FIGC's Court of Justice confirmed a five-year ban for Moggi, with a proposal to ban him for life. In response to the sentence, he said: "I am not bitter for myself, but for the teams implicated and for their supporters. No match was fixed, no referees were favored. It is why Juventus and the other clubs, but especially the fans, are frustrated by this sentence." In 2010, the FIGC banned Moggi for life. In response, he said: "I don't know anything, I don't know what it means, they should be ashamed after what came out. I speak for myself, Giraudo, for those who suffer from this situation, they should expel Carraro." Moggi then went on to say: "I have never said that everyone is guilty and therefore there is no one to blame. There is a practice, you have to ban Carraro when he says in wiretaps that you have to save Fiorentina and Lazio." He commented: "I hope that in a short time the state authorities will decide to intervene, perhaps with an institutional control body, on the federal atrocities that have been committed and are continuing to be committed against me." He wondered "why the sports judges, having to have condemned me on the basis of a handful of interceptions, despite knowing that there were many others, did not continue to investigate as was their duty, and only in these days have realized their faults and their omissions, which surprisingly claim to conclude with the statute of limitations for Moratti and company, and a ban for the undersigned, as they would never have dared to doeven in the Banana Republic." On 9 July 2011, the Federal Court confirmed his ban. In 2012, CONI confirmed Moggi's lifetime ban. The TAR of Lazio rejected the request for suspension of the provision of the High Court of Sports Justice. In 2016, the TAR rejected the appeal, definitively confirming the foreclosure from any position in the context of Italian sport. On 15 March 2017, Italy's Council of State judged inadmissible the appeal filed by Moggi against the lifetime ban due to lack of jurisdiction of the state judge.
Criminal justice
GEA World
Moggi was charged of criminal association aimed at unlawful competition through threats and private violence as part of the investigation into the GEA World company. According to the prosecution, he and his son, Alessandro Moggi, as well as Franco Zavaglia, were the promoters of the system of power that would have led GEA to exercise a dominant function in the world of football. The indictment stated that the three would have created GEA to "acquire the largest number of sports attorneys, through them, obtain a contractual power capable of decisively affecting the football market, to influence the management of players and consequently that of various teams in the football league". In 2009, the X section of the Rome Court sentenced Moggi to 1 year and 6 months' imprisonment for private violence against the football players Manuele Blasi, who was induced to leave his sports manager, Stefano Antonelli, to go to GEA, and Nicola Amoruso, on similar grounds.
In the appeal process, both he and his son were acquitted, together with all the other members of GEA, of the charge of criminal conspiracy aimed at unlawful competition, as the request for a sentence of 4 years and 8 months by the attorney general Alberto Mussel was rejected. The sentence of the appeal trial of 25 March 2011 reduced the sentence to one year's imprisonment due to the statute of limitations of the facts relating to Amoruso; it also sentenced Moggi to pay damages against the prosecutor Stefano Antonelli and the FIGC, and confirmed the acquittal for the charge of criminal association. The one-year sentence would not have been served as it was covered by the 2006 pardon. On 15 January 2014, the trial ended with the annulment "for incorrect application of the law" without a new trial due to the statute of limitations for the one-year sentence for private violence established in the second instance and the confirmation of the acquittal verdict issued in the two previous instances with regard to the accusation of criminal conspiracy aimed at unlawful competition.
Naples Court of Appeal and Supreme Court of Cassation
In October 2008, chief prosecutor Giuseppe Narducci was quoted in court as saying: "Like it or not, no other calls exist between the designators and other directors." During the criminal trials in Naples, the legal team of Moggi released a number of wiretaps showing that Inter Milan, Milan, and many other Italian clubs and executives not previously investigated in 2006 were involved in referee lobbying. Moggi's lawyer Maurilio Prioreschi asked the court to take in consideration that between 2006 (the year of the first sentences) and 2011 (the year of the sentence on Moggi's lifetime ban) numerous hearings were held during the criminal trial in Naples, from which wiretaps involving other club executives that, according to Moggi's legal defence, would drop the basic assumption of the 2006 sporting conviction, namely that relating to the conditioning of the referees thanks to the preferential treatment by the referee designators towards Moggi and Juventus, which in turn led to the sporting offence. Many of those wiretaps formed the body of Palazzi's report, with which the FIGC's chief prosecutor intended to refer many executives and clubs for violations of the Code of Sports Justice, a circumstance that was prevented only by the statute of limitations. The court's Disciplinary Commission purposely ignored this defensive argument, and arguing that it was a reassessment of the facts not permitted at that time, no importance was given to the conduct of those other clubs and executives that had just emerged during the criminal trial. According to the FIGC's Court of Justice, as explained in its judgment of appeal in regards to the term attualizzare ("actualize"), the court was there not to expand the evidence on which the first judgment was based but rather to ascertain whether at that time those established facts were still serious enough to justify a lifetime ban; it concluded that this ruling must be expressed exclusively "on the basis of the sentences rendered" against Moggi, and cannot take into consideration any comparative judgment with conducts possibly attributable to other subjects of the FIGC law. The court stated that to have a reassessment of the facts of Calciopoli, it would be necessary to request and open a revocation of judgment pursuant to Article 39 of the Code of Sports Justice.
On 8 November 2011, Moggi was sentenced in the first instance by the Naples Court to 5 years and 4 months in prison (in addition to the five-year ban and lifetime ban) for promoting the criminal conspiracy On 17 December 2013, in the appeal process, the sentence was reduced to 2 years and 4 months. On 24 March 2015, the Supreme Court of Cassation annulled the verdict of conviction in the second instance without a new trial, as the crime of criminal conspiracy was extinguished by the statute of limitations, and of two charges of sports fraud due to the non-existence of the crime, as well as the rejection of the appeal for some charges of sports fraud, which were extinguished by the statute of limitations in 2012.
Moggi's reactions
Moggi always declared himself innocent, and in his appeals to the European Court of Human Rights stated that "if they give me a pardon, I renounce it. Pardon is for those who are guilty, I'm not guilty [of the 'criminal association' charge], I didn't do anything [criminal]. They weren't angry at me, they were angry at Juventus because it won too much." About his actions, Moggi stated that they were criticizable, and he was wrong from an ethical standpoint but did not commit any illicit; he said that "[t]he sports court, at the end of the trial, ruled as follows: 'Regular championship, no match altered.' Therefore Juventus [is] exempt from crimes referred to in Art. 6. The final ruling of the ordinary justice instead spoke of 'early consummation' crimes, which are nothing more than the fruit of hypotheses and inferences of that prosecutor who in the courtroom had asserted 'there were no other phone calls, if not those of the suspects in the trial', while the [Italian Football] Federation Prosecutor asserted that 'Inter Milan was the club that risked most of all for the illegal behavior of its President Facchetti." About the Swiss sim cards, Moggi stated that he used them to circumvent "those [such as Inter Milan and Inter Milan's Telecom] who intercepted us", with reference to transfer operations. He commented: "We had bought Stanković and we also had the contract ready to be presented to the [Italian Football] Federation. After two months the player and his agent disappeared, we found them at Inter Milan." About the wiretaps, Moggi said that he never intruded on the designation of referees, and spoke of incomplete wiretaps for the prosecution. Moggi also reiterated that "[t]hey accused me of going to the referees' locker room but that's not true; others did. Paparesta's kidnapping never happened, it was just a joke."
Moggi maintained that political, economic, and sporting power is in Milan and Rome, not in Turin, a criminal association really existed but it was not his, and was in Milan and Rome, headed by then-FIGC president Franco Carraro, and that then-Milan's vice-president Adriano Galliani held the most power and was in conflict of interest, as he was also Lega Calcio president. In 2014, Andrea Agnelli, who became president of Juventus in 2010, stated: "Moggi represents a beautiful and important part of our history. We are the country of Catholicism and forgiveness. We can also forgive people, can't we?" Moggi responded: "Nice words. I thank Andrea Agnelli, but I don't need forgiveness. If anything, I deserve praise for [the 16 trophies won on the pitch for the club]. ... There were twenty clubs and they behaved in the same way but only Juve paid because it bothered." In response to the final verdict in 2015, which came after six hours of delibaration, Moggi said: "We mucked about for nine years and that's not nice because this abnormal trial has come to nothing. Just a lot of expense. In nine years, it has been established that the championship was by the book, the draws were by the book and there were no conversations about designations." He said that it merely let the courts off the hook, not him, and vowed to turn to the European courts in hopes to have his ban from football world lifted.
About the allegations of altered leagues, Moggi responded: "There's only one reality. When I was at Juve, we won two consecutive league titles at most. From 2000 to 2004, they were won by Lazio, Milan, and Roma. Lazio won because of the flood at the stadium with a 74-minute suspension of the [Perugia–Juventus] match. This was something that never happened before. Roma also won thanks to the Nakata case. They made us lose championships for irregular things, at that moment Juve was the weak side." In regards to the controversial 2000 Perugia–Juventus match, to which he regretted not having the team retire and go home, Moggi criticized the match's referee Pierluigi Collina. Collina was particularly liked before and during Calciopoli by Milan's and Rome's clubs, had the same Milan's sponsor, and secretly met with Galliani, who selected him as referee designator due to being Lega Calcio president, at Milan's Leonardo Meani's restaurant. While he would be unaffected by Calciopoli, he was found to be close to Milan, of which he shared the same sponsor (Opel) without the consent of the FIGC's then-referee association president Tullio Lanese, leading to his resignement and retirement, after which he said he was a Lazio supporter. Observers agree that rules were violated. Moggi said: "I was accused of being the great manipulator in football, so explain to me how I managed to lose a championship by playing the decisive match in a pool. The truth is that Juve should have left, instead we remained there at the mercy of those who decided and when we took the field we were no longer there. [Collina] certainly spoke to someone on the phone: who it was, we will never know. I'm just saying that by regulation the suspension can't last more than 45 minutes: instead Collina waited almost double." In later years, he further commented: "As it happens, it then comes out of the wiretaps that Collina goes to talk to Galliani and says: 'I will come at midnight, I enter the back door so they don't see me.' If Milan couldn't win, they didn't want Juventus to win either." Carlo Ancelotti, Juventus coach from 1999 to 2001 and Milan coach at the time of Calciopoli, testified in 2010 that he found the Perugia match to be "an odd fact".
About Silvio Berlusconi, Moggi said: "I thanked him and I thank him for his esteem for me, maybe I reserve him a criticism for what he didn't do to the Calciopoli explosion: he knew that innocent people would be penalized, obviously for him too it was a priority to demolish Juventus' domain." Moggi also said that Berlusconi wanted him at Milan, and during a private meeting to discuss the matter revealed to him that "the FIGC possessed some of [Moggi's] wiretaps without any criminal value, of which Galliani (then-vice-president of Milan and president of Lega Calcio), Carraro (then-president of the FIGC), [and] General Pappa, head of the investigations office of the FIGC, were also aware." Moggi stated that those same wiretaps were made public just a few days after. Moggi had earlier said that Galliani made Calciopoli come out because Berlusconi wanted him at Milan. In regard to the dispute between the FIGC and Juventus, Moggi responded to then-FIGC president Carlo Tavecchio: "From the trials, it turns out that there has been no alteration of the championship, there has been no alteration of the referee grids, even 30 referees were acquitted of the charges. I've helped some of these acquitted referees, I've helped many financially. Poor boys, I felt sorry for them, they didn't know how to pay the lawyer. They were ruined by Calciopoli." About the Supreme Court's sentence, Moggi reiterated his innocence of the criminal association charge, and added: "The Supreme Court speaks of power. But power isn't a crime. I had power because I worked well, it was power because of the quality of the work [as general director] I did." Apart from Milan, Moggi said that he was also sought by Inter Milan. Citing Gianni Agnelli's quote that "the king's groom must have known all the horse thieves", Moggi discussed how "Agnelli said that because during my time it was full of sons of bitches. And he wanted an expert, one who could stand up to these here. For me it's a compliment."
Other proceedings
In April 2007, the documents relating to the charge against Moggi of kidnapping referee Gianluca Paparesta were sent to the Reggio Calabria prosecutor's office; in the end, the prosecutor filed the case because "the fact does not exist". On 21 January 2009, the preliminary hearing judge (GUP) in Milan acquitted Moggi of the charge of defamation against Inter Milan. Moggi was accused of having defamed Inter Milan as he said that they had saved themselves by negotiating the case of the false passport of Álvaro Recoba without relevant consequences, unlike what happened to Juventus in the Calciopoli case. Gabriele Oriali, at the time an Inter Milan executive, negotiated a sentence of 6 months' imprisonment for receiving stolen goods and forgery. The GUP of Milan considered that Moggi's words were only "expression of the right to criticize, at best imprecise, but not criminally relevant".
On 14 May 2009, the justice of the peace of Lecce acquitted Moggi and referee Massimo De Santis of the charge of sports fraud and match-fixing related to the Lecce–Juventus and Lecce–Fiorentina matches of the 2004–05 Serie A, as sanctioned by the sporting judgements. In particular, the judge established that "the fact described has not been proven in any way" and that "the Judge also does not consider the sentences rendered by the sports justice bodies fully usable since the latter judgment is structurally different from the ordinary judgement. Nor is it believed that the telephone interceptions referred to in the course of the proceedings can have probative value, since they cannot be used in a proceeding other than the one in which they are ordered."
On 24 November 2009, Moggi, along with Giraudo, Roberto Bettega, and Juventus, was acquitted of the charges concerning the management of the club's accounts "because the fact does not exist". Prosecutors had asked for three years in prison for Moggi. On 14 September 2010, Moggi, along with Giraudo, Bettega, Jean-Claude Blanc, and Giovanni Cobolli Gigli, was acquitted of the charge of tax violations on Juventus' financial statements from 2005 to 2008. Turin's judge Eleonora Montserrat Pappalettere accepted the dismissal request presented by the same public prosecutor's office Turin and closed the case opened by an investigation by the Guardia di Finanza. On 11 November 2010, Juventus withdrew the lawsuit against Moggi, Giraudo, and Bettega presented within the same process for the financial statements of the club's old financial management.
On 11 November 2011, the monocratic judge of Rome sentenced Moggi to 4 months' imprisonment and to pay damages of €7,000 to Franco Baldini, who received threats during a trial in which he had to testify. In June 2012, Moggi was sentenced to pay the court costs for the civil lawsuit for defamation brought against Carlo Petrini and Kaos publisher in the light of some sentences in the book Calcio nei coglioni. According to the court of Milan, those sentences are not defamatory but deducible from the report of the Carabinieri also disseminated by the newspapers on the 2005 Offside investigation.
In July 2015, Moggi was acquitted by the Milan court of the charge of defaming former Inter Milan president Giacinto Facchetti in a television broadcast. Moggi had publicly accused Facchetti "of having also requested and obtained special treatment in the refereeing of Inter Milan's matches". The judge dismissed the lawsuit and acquitted Moggi, finding "with certainty a good truthfulness" in his statements and citing the existence of "a sort of lobbying intervention on the part of the-then president of Inter Milan towards the referee class ... , significant of a relationship of a friendly [and] preferential type, [with] heights that are not properly commendable." The sentence was upheld on appeal in 2018, and passed judgment in 2019.
In May 2016, Moggi was sentenced to a €1,000 fine and separate damages for defaming Carabinieri officer Attilio Auricchio, who investigated Calciopoli. The judge made the conditional suspension of the sentence conditional on the payment of a provisional amount of €20,000.
Personal views and politics
Amid homophobic statements in the Croatian Football Federation, Moggi was quoted as saying in 2010 of gay footballers that "[a] homosexual can't fulfil the job of a footballer. I wouldn't put one under contract and if I discovered I had one, he would fly immediately." In 2013, he declared his intention to run for Italy's Chamber of Deputies as part of Stefania Craxi's Italian Reformists list in Piedmont 1 within the centre-right coalition. Ahead of the 2016 Turin municipal election, he declared his intention to vote for Piero Fassino of the centre-left coalition. He also said that he always voted Sergio Chiamparino for mayor of Turin, and that if he made an electoral list in Turin with Gianluigi Buffon, they would win.
In popular culture
In 2021, Moggi was featured in an episode of Netflix's documentary series Bad Sport about Calciopoli.
Books
Explanatory notes and quotes
References
Further reading
1937 births
AS Roma
Italian sporting directors
Juventus FC directors
Living people
People from the Province of Siena
People involved in the 2006 Italian football scandal
SS Lazio
SSC Napoli
Torino FC non-playing staff
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation%20in%20Pittsburgh
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Transportation in Pittsburgh
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Transportation in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania is different than in many other major American cities. A large metropolitan area that is surrounded by rivers and hills, Pittsburgh has an infrastructure system that has been built out over the years to include roads, tunnels, bridges, railroads, inclines, bike paths, and stairways; however, the hills and rivers still form many barriers to transportation within the city.
Roads and infrastructure
The high number of freeze/thaw cycles during the winter is sometimes blamed for the difficulty of maintaining local roads.
Streets
Pittsburgh is home to several notable streets. Roslyn Place is a small wooden-paved cul-de-sac located in the Shadyside neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The street was built in 1914 in the Nicolson Pavement style and is home to the historic Roslyn Place district.
Canton Avenue is the steepest officially recorded public street in the United States.
East Carson Street has one of the largest concentrations of 19th-century homes, which has prompted outsiders to call the neighborhood the City's Georgetown. It includes many bars and restaurants as well as residences.
Grant Street is the main government and business corridor in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is home to the global headquarters of U.S. Steel, Koppers Chemicals, Federated Investors, and Oxford Development. It also is home to the seat of Allegheny County, City of Pittsburgh and the regional Federal Government offices. It is part of the Pittsburgh Central Downtown Historic District.
Expressways
The main highway connecting Pittsburgh to the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-76) on the east is I-376, known to locals as the "Parkway East." It includes the locally-notorious Squirrel Hill interchange, where unusual traffic patterns and the adjoining tunnel often cause traffic congestion. Several accidents have involved tall trucks getting stuck against the tunnel roof. Also part of I-376 is the "Parkway West," which leads from downtown Pittsburgh to the Pittsburgh International Airport's main terminal and leads into the contiguous Airport Parkway and Southern Expressway. I-279, known as the "Parkway North," runs north of the city to merge with I-79. It connects the city with the North Hills and the Cranberry area. There is no "Parkway South".
I-579, or the "Crosstown Boulevard," is a spur off of I-279 that alleviates downtown and North Shore traffic headed north or south and to events at either the convention center or the PPG Paints Arena.
North of the city, the Parkway North and a short section of Interstate 579 over the Veterans Bridge have reversible high occupancy vehicle HOV lanes for rush-hour commuting, which require a minimum of two occupants per vehicle for use; no electric/hybrid vehicle "HOV OK" program has yet been made available. On August 25, 1995, six people were killed in a head-on collision on the HOV lanes after PennDOT employee William Dean Snyder failed to follow procedures. Snyder maintained open the traffic gates for both directions simultaneously.
Belt system
Unlike many other major U.S. cities, Pittsburgh lacks a dedicated contiguous beltway surrounding the city. I-76 (Pennsylvania Turnpike), I-79, and I-70 form a roughly triangular-shaped "beltway," but the distance of these roads from the city center and the need to exit and enter each leg in order to continue circling the city render them impractical as a beltway; commuters are forced to use secondary roads to go from suburb to suburb. The Allegheny County Belt System is an attempt at dealing with this without building additional infrastructure. The Pittsburgh Wayfinder System is a similar system that aims to guide travelers to popular destinations and services in the city proper.
Bridges and tunnels
Pittsburgh is a city of bridges: over 2,000 bridges dot the landscape of Allegheny County. The southern entrance to Downtown is through the Fort Pitt Tunnel and then over the Fort Pitt Bridge.
The Panhandle Bridge, a former railroad bridge, carries Pittsburgh Regional Transit's Blue and Red (formerly 42S/47L) light rail lines across the Monongahela River. Other notable bridges are Fort Duquesne Bridge, the Liberty Bridge, and The Three Sisters.
Notable tunnels include two interstate highway tunnels on I-376, Fort Pitt Tunnel and Squirrel Hill Tunnel; major traffic tunnels Armstrong Tunnel and Liberty Tunnels; the light rail tunnel, Mt. Washington Transit Tunnel, the Schenley Tunnel, the Wabash Tunnel and Corliss Tunnel.
Regional mass transit
Local public transportation is coordinated by Pittsburgh Regional Transit, the 14th-largest urban mass transit system in the United States. It services , including all of Allegheny County and portions of Armstrong, Beaver, Washington, and Westmoreland counties. PRT maintains a network of intracity bus routes, two inclines on Mt. Washington above Downtown (mostly a tourist attraction rather than a means of commuting), and a light rail/busway system. The transit agency discontinued its commuter rail system, the PATrain, in 1989, However, A New Line To Arnold Has Been Proposed Since 2009.
Pittsburgh Light Rail
The light rail network is a direct descendant of the original streetcar system, which once numbered dozens of lines and included interurban routes to neighboring cities such as Washington and Charleroi. The current network comprises five routes on of track, operated by modern articulated light rail vehicles. Although most is on dedicated right-of-way, including the Mt. Washington Transit Tunnel, trains still street run in the Beechview neighborhood. Once across the Monongahela River trains enter a subway to serve Downtown Pittsburgh. Since March 2012, the North Shore Connector has extended service across the Allegheny River, via tunnel, to such destinations as PNC Park, Heinz Field, and Rivers Casino.
Pittsburgh Bus Rapid Transit
PAT operates over 800 buses on both standard routes and bus rapid transit routes in Allegheny County. The latter use high-speed articulated buses that run at grade and above ground on their own right-of-way with platform stations, much like a rail system. In some instances, such as the Mount Washington tunnel, these buses travel along paved sections of the light rail line. There are currently three routes: the South Busway, from downtown to the southern part of Allegheny County, the Martin Luther King Jr. East Busway, from the Amtrak station to the eastern suburbs, and the West Busway, to the western suburbs. Future plans include extending the West Busway to the Pittsburgh International Airport.
All light rail/busway stations outside the downtown have PAT station shuttles that serve the surrounding neighborhoods, and sections of the metropolitan area not served by the light rail/busway system, including most of the northern suburbs, have regular PAT bus routes. The mass transit systems of Beaver, Fayette, Lawrence, Washington, and Westmoreland counties (including Mid Mon Valley Transit Authority) operate their own commuter shuttles to and from the city; the private company Myers Coach Line operates commuter service from Butler County. The mass transit system of Monongalia County, West Virginia also provides connections to Pittsburgh. In early 2005 the Southwestern Pennsylvania Commission proposed combining Pittsburgh Regional Transit, then known as Port Authority, with the nine surrounding metro counties transit agencies.
Intercity passenger bus and rail
Grant Street Transportation Center
Megabus, Greyhound Lines, and Fullington Trailways connect Pittsburgh with distant cities by bus; Greyhound and Fullington Trailways buses stop at the Grant Street Transportation Center intercity bus terminal. Popular destinations include Philadelphia, New York City, and Washington, D.C.
Pittsburgh Union Station
Two Amtrak trains serve Penn Station: the Pennsylvanian to New York City via Philadelphia, and the Capitol Limited between Washington, D.C. and Chicago, which uses CSX from Washington to Pittsburgh's outer perimeter, the AVR on the P&W Subdivision through the Panther Hollow Tunnel in the university district, and NS from the AVR interchange through Penn Station to Chicago.
Airports
Pittsburgh International Airport
The city is served by Pittsburgh International Airport in suburban Findlay Township, Pennsylvania, formerly a hub and key focus city for US Airways.
Other Pittsburgh area airports
General aviation is served by the Allegheny County Airport. Its terminal is of a 1920s art-deco design. It once hosted Charles Lindbergh and handles 139,000 private and corporate-jet flights a year.
A secondary reliever airport is in the eastern suburb of Latrobe, Pennsylvania. Over the last few decades the Arnold Palmer Regional Airport has been served by 2-3 daily flights from US Airways, Northwest Airlines/Delta Air Lines, and presently Spirit Airlines, as well as serving as a general aviation hub for east hills communities.
Other area airports include:
North Metro:
Butler County Airport
Zelienople Municipal Airport
Rock Airport
New Castle Municipal Airport
Lakehill Airport
South Metro:
Allegheny County Airport
Rostraver Airport
Joseph A. Hardy Connellsville Airport
Washington County Airport
East Metro:
Pittsburgh-Monroeville Airport
Greensburg Jeannette Regional Airport
Indiana County-Jimmy Stewart Airport
West Metro:
Beaver County Airport
Eddie Dew Memorial Airpark (Ohio)
Jefferson County Airpark (Ohio)
Herron Airport (West Virginia)
Wheeling Airport (West Virginia)
Pedestrians and bicycling
Trails
Pittsburgh has a thriving cycling community despite steep hills and variable weather. Efforts have been made to incorporate the bicycle into the transportation system. The Three Rivers Heritage Trail encompasses all the trails in the city. The Eliza Furnace Trail, known locally as the "Jail Trail", stretches from Downtown (at the Allegheny County Jail) to the East End region, where trail access can be found along some roads. The North Shore Trail spans from the Alcosan plant along the Ohio River and continues along the Allegheny River to Millvale. The Southside Trail follows the Monongahela River and beyond Baldwin Borough connects to McKeesport via the Great Allegheny Passage. This trail, in connection with the C&O Canal Trail, forms a continuous motorist-free route from Point State Park in Pittsburgh to Washington, D.C. PAT has installed bike racks on all buses and it allows bikes on its subway/busway system at all times.
Bike Pittsburgh (BikePGH) is the local bicycle advocacy group and is working to make Pittsburgh increasingly safe, accessible, and friendly to bicycle transportation. The non-profit bike collective,Free Ride, recycles bicycles and bike parts, teaches bicycle construction, and has programs to sell or earn a rebuilt bicycle. Additionally, bicycles can be borrowed at two places along the Heritage Trail through the Friends of the Riverfront/Dasani Blue Bikes program.
In 2014, the City began installing segregated bike lanes, which provide greater physical safety to the biker.
On September 6, bike lanes that stretch from Downtown Pittsburgh to the 16th Street Bridge on Penn Avenue were installed. In order to accommodate these bike lanes, the Westbound lane of Penn Avenue was removed, making it one way. Other segregated bike lanes were installed on Schenley Drive in Oakland, and Saline Street in Greenfield.
The "Healthy Ride" bicycle-sharing system entered service in Spring, 2016, supplied by Nextbike. Price is $2 per half-hour, or $12 or $20 per month.
Inclines and staircases
Two inclines ascend Mount Washington: Duquesne Incline and Monongahela Incline. Pittsburgh had considerably more inclines and the Monongahela Incline was paralleled by a freight incline.
Pittsburgh has more public staircases (737) than any other city in the United States, followed by Cincinnati and San Francisco. Many of these staircases have street names, and lead to hillside neighborhoods that can be difficult to access by car in winter.
Freight Railroads
During the heyday of the steel industry, Pittsburgh was among the largest rail centers not only in the nation, but the world. For many years, the multiple rail crossings in the suburb of Port Perry at the mouth of Turtle Creek on the Monongahela River and adjacent to the Edgar Thomson Works and Duquesne mills, was the highest concentration of freight traffic in the world. Even today, with river traffic included, Port Perry is often very near or at the top of the list. The Conway Yard to the west of the city along the Ohio River was the largest rail yard in the world from 1956 until 1980. From the beginning of the industrial era in America through its collapse in the 1980s, Pittsburgh was a key market for the nation's largest and most important railroads (most notably the Pennsylvania Railroad [the largest company in the world for much of the 20th century], and the New York Central Railroad [via the Pittsburgh & Lake Erie], Baltimore & Ohio and Pittsburgh & West Virginia). Despite the near-complete collapse of heavy industry in the Northeast, Pittsburgh remains an extremely important link in the nation's rail network.
Current railroads in Pittsburgh include:
Class I railroads
Norfolk Southern (NS)
Norfolk Southern operates the former assets of Conrail, composed of the Pennsylvania Railroad, instrumental in the formation of modern Pittsburgh. NS operates three lines through Pittsburgh:
the original line, the Pittsburgh Line, from U.S. Steel's Edgar Thomson Steel Mill in Braddock, PA, over the Allegheny River near Downtown Pittsburgh, into Island Ave Yard where it becomes the Fort Wayne Line;
the Mon Line, along the south bank of the Monongahela River from West Brownsville, PA, to Island Ave Yard, formerly the Pittsburgh, Virginia and Charleston Railroad. This line is used by coal trains from southern Pennsylvania and trains with over-height cars that cannot fit under the roof of Penn Station on the Pittsburgh Line, accessing it via a branch just east of Braddock to the Port Perry bridge. The Mon Line joins the Fort Wayne Line at Island Ave Yard after crossing the Ohio River on the Ohio Connecting (OC) Railroad bridge;
the Conemaugh Line, along the north shore of the Allegheny River, serving several coal branch lines and power plants. Operations are centered on a small yard in Etna, PA.
On the Mon and Pittsburgh lines over 60 trains a day pass through the city.
CSX
CSX operates the former Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (B&O) and the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad (P&LE). Many of the old B&O lines have been removed or are unused. Formerly an important part of the B&O system, Glenwood Yard is leased and operated by the Allegheny Valley Railroad for local jobs. The yard used to give access to the B&O's Grant Street Station in Downtown Pittsburgh. The building has been rebuilt into a PNC Bank building and the old right-of-way is now a bike path. The B&O main line, which cuts north and under across Pittsburgh by the Schenley Tunnel, is now used by the AVR. The 33rd Street Railroad Bridge over the Allegheny River is still used: AVR trains connect with Norfolk Southern's Pittsburgh Line about a mile east of Penn Station. CSX freight trains use the former P&LE through McKeesport, PA, and Braddock, PA, before crossing the Mononghela River into Homestead, PA. The P&LE line and the Mon Line run side by side until the Mon Line crosses the Ohio Connecting Railroad Bridge at McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania. On an average day, the P&LE line carries about 30–35 trains.
Class II railroads
Wheeling & Lake Erie
The Wheeling & Lake Erie is a regional railroad incorporated in 1990 after the Norfolk and Western Railway sold trackage from the original Wheeling & Lake Erie Railroad.
Wheeling and Lake Erie R.R.
Bessemer & Lake Erie
The Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad runs north from the North Bessemer Yard in Penn Hills to Conneaut, Ohio. In 2004, the B&LE was purchased by Canadian National Railway.
Class III railroads
Allegheny Valley Railroad
The Allegheny Valley Railroad runs mostly on former Pennsylvania Railroad and Baltimore & Ohio Railroad lines.
AVR (Allegheny Valley Railroad)
Pittsburgh and Ohio Central Railroad
The Pittsburgh and Ohio Central Railroad operates former Pennsylvania Railroad trackage on the Chartiers Branch and the Panhandle Route to the southwest.
Union Railroad
Union Railroad mainly serves the last remaining steel mills in the city. It has interchanges with the B&LE at North Bessemer.
See also
References
Pittsburgh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obed%20Hussey
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Obed Hussey
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Obed Hussey (1792–1860) was an American inventor. His most notable invention was a reaping machine, patented in 1833, that was a rival of a similar machine, patented in 1834, produced by Cyrus McCormick. Hussey also invented a steam plow, a machine for grinding out hooks and eyes, a mill for grinding corn and cobs, a husking machine, a machine for crushing sugar cane, a machine for making artificial ice, a candle-making machine, and other devices. However, he devoted the prime of his life to perfecting his reaping machine.
Although the Hussey reaper was ultimately surpassed in the marketplace by the reaping machines of Cyrus McCormick, Hussey was the first person to make, patent, and sell such a machine in the United States. His machine was first in that it was first to be patented and had been worked in at least eight states before McCormick's machine had left the valley of Virginia. Moreover, Hussey's cutting mechanism, the combination of a reciprocating knife and slotted guard fingers, became, with some further modifications, the standard one for use in harvesting machinery.
Early life to 1820s
Obed Hussey was born in 1792 to a Quaker family in Maine, but moved at an early age to the island of Nantucket. Little is known of his early life, but as a young man, he sailed on whaling ships to the Pacific Ocean, where he was among the crew who would row after the whales. It may have been during a whaling trip that he lost the sight of one eye.
Whaling remained an occupation for Hussey into his thirties. From July 1820 to April 1823, he served on the crew of the whaleship Atlas on a voyage from Nantucket to the South Seas. During this voyage, off the coast of Chile late in the day on January 14, 1821, Hussey was aboard a whaleboat pursuing a sperm whale when the whale stoved in the whaleboat. He and the other crew members were thrown into the sea, but managed to stay afloat by hanging onto the partially submerged wreckage of the boat. The Atlas was too far away to be aware of what had happened and darkness soon fell. The crew were rescued only when a search boat from the Atlas happened upon them despite the darkness. Hussey kept journals detailing these experiences.
The Hussey reaper
Initial development: 1831–1842
By 1831, Hussey was at work on his reaping machine, spending at least part-time at an agricultural implements factory in Baltimore. However, the hilly landscape of Maryland made it an unsuitable location for a field trial, so when the machine was ready, Hussey took it to Ohio, where he had a supporter in Cincinnati who provided both financing and manufacturing facilities. Working in Cincinnati during the winter of 1832-1833, Hussey rebuilt his reaping machine there, completing it in time for the harvest of 1833. On July 2, 1833, Hussey exhibited his machine before the Hamilton County Agricultural Society near Carthage, Ohio, where it performed successfully. Hussey patented his machine later that year, on December 31, 1833.
In the spring of 1834, Mechanics' Magazine gave coverage to Hussey's reaper. That report was seen by Cyrus McCormick, who promptly wrote a letter to the editor claiming that he had invented and field-tested a reaping machine in 1831 and that use of the principles of the machine by others was an infringement of his rights. Thus began a fierce rivalry between Hussey and McCormick that would last more than a quarter of a century.
There had been unsuccessful attempts by others to build reaping machines before Hussey and McCormick. These included thirty-three English and twenty-two American inventions, as well as two French and one German. In the United States, seventeen patents for harvesting machines had been granted before that of Hussey, the earliest in 1803; however, Hussey's was the first "really practical" reaping machine to be patented.
As for McCormick, although he built and used a reaper in 1831, he did not patent it until 1834, about six months after Hussey's patent, nor had he sold reapers to others. Instead, after obtaining the patent, McCormick turned his attention to other business matters, selling no reapers until at least 1839. As of 1834, McCormick's reaper was still marginal, while Hussey's machine was a viable reaper.
Hussey gave successful demonstrations of his machine in 1834 in New York state and in 1835 in Missouri, New York state, and possibly also in Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana. In 1836, Hussey reapers achieved results in Maryland that enhanced Hussey's reputation. In 1837, he had some reapers manufactured in Maryland and up to six of them were sold there, while other Hussey machines were built in Cincinnati and marketed in Ohio, Indiana, and Missouri.
In August 1838, Hussey moved to Baltimore and that city became the home of the Hussey reaper. Also that year, his machine won praise from the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture and performed successfully elsewhere. For the 1839 harvest, ten or twelve machines were made and it was introduced in Delaware. Hussey also received favorable press notices that year.
For the 1840 harvest, Hussey made thirty-six machines with some gearing alterations, but, he said, "the credit of the machine suffered a retrograde." He also introduced the machine in Virginia. His market declined for the next three years, selling only two in 1843. In 1841, Virginia planters gave the Hussey machine mixed reviews, though it continued to be viewed favorably in the Genesee Valley of New York state.
The 1842 season brought increased competition from the Cyrus McCormick reaper and Hussey was able to sell only 10 machines, despite offering two models, the smaller of which was priced slightly below McCormick's. Nevertheless, Hussey's reaper "held first place" among all reapers in use prior to 1843.
The first "War of the Reapers" and its aftermath: 1843–1850
Early in 1843, Hussey wrote a letter to the editor of Southern Planter, published in March of that year, in which he noted the attention McCormick's reaper had been given and expressed the intention of entering his reaper into contests with McCormick's; this marked the beginning of the first "war of the reapers."
The field of battle was to be a farm near Richmond, Virginia in the region of the lower James River.
The contest was planned for June 30, 1843, but on June 27, Hussey learned that McCormick was operating his machine in the area, so Hussey brought his reaper to the same field and challenged McCormick to a competitive trial. With a small crowd of neighbors looking on, McCormick began cutting first. Before Hussey got started, a shower drenched the wheat. Hussey's machine could not cut the wet wheat, leaving McCormick the winner of this impromptu meet.
Hussey's luck continued to work against him for the main competition on June 30. Because a bridge had been swept away by high water, Hussey was unable to get his better, larger machine to the contest field. Instead, Hussey put his lesser, smaller machine up against McCormick's and it was unable to cut as much grain. McCormick was judged the winner, but under the circumstances, the jurors had reservations and Hussey protested the award.
One of the jurors invited an additional match in his fields the following week. The fields included some areas with tangled wheat. McCormick refused to try his machine there, while Hussey, this time with his larger machine, put his reaper to the task. The result was that he broke his sickle and rake. No winner was declared; nevertheless, the owner of the field concluded that Hussey's machine was better for use in heavy wheat. Hussey sold only two reapers following these contests, while McCormick sold twenty-nine.
In 1844, Hussey sought to show that his machine could cut hemp in Kentucky, and in 1845, Hussey reapers were used in the middle seaboard states, New York, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and probably in Ohio and Kentucky. However, during this period, Hussey focused on the eastern markets, where his machine was especially in use as a mower. In 1846, Hussey introduced his reapers in Champaign County, Ohio and arranged for local manufacture of his machines. Various testimonials from 1845 to 1850 report positive results for his reapers.
In the late 1840s, Hussey gained ground in the eastern seaboard states partly because McCormick's 1846 reapers suffered from poor workmanship in Virginia.
Hussey sold 50 or 60 reapers in 1850, and they were well received from Pennsylvania south to North Carolina. Hussey's machine of 1850 cut grass well, while McCormick's did not.
Thus, by 1850, the reaper of Obed Hussey "had proved its worth." By that year, however, many new competitors had entered the field because the original patents of both Hussey and McCormick had expired; both men were then forced to compete with their own ideas.
The second "War of the Reapers" and the 1850s
The first world's fair, an international exhibition of industrial arts known as the Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, was planned for London in 1851. Hussey and McCormick both sought to expand their markets by displaying their reapers at this event, held at the newly-constructed Crystal Palace, a nineteen-acre conservatory of iron and glass, beginning May 1.
On July 24, a head-to-head trial of reapers by Hussey and McCormick, as well a third of English design, was held. Hussey and McCormick were both absent and Hussey's machine was operated by an agent who had never seen it work. When its cutter clogged, the operator did not know how to clear it, nor did he know how to adjust its platform, resulting in a failure of the rake. The English machine was also unsuccessful, but McCormick's reaper performed well enough to cut an estimated twenty acres a day.
At a second trial on August 6, while Hussey was in France, Hussey's reaper again did not work well; McCormick, who was present for this trial, was awarded a Grand Council Medal.
Hussey protested that the trials were unjust. He began demonstrating his machine in England and, with his personal supervision, it performed efficiently; his reputation revived. Another contest was set for 25 and 27 September 1851. Hussey's machine performed better and Hussey gained considerable prestige. Later that season, Hussey exhibited before Prince Albert, who then ordered two machines. Also in 1851, a Hussey machine made in England reached Austria.
Hussey again went to England in 1852 to promote his reaper. He had success in at least two contests early in the 1852 harvest, but when he took his reaper to Scotland, the Scottish juries awarded prizes to their own. Hussey returned to England for several months in 1853 and was apparently satisfied with his success. By 1855, however, the McCormick reaper had been adapted to English conditions and English buyers had shifted toward McCormick's machine. Nevertheless, by the late 1850s, Hussey had manufacturers in the British Isles making a version of his machine. These Hussey machines, priced lower than McCormick's, gained increasing favor, especially in Scotland.
In 1855, Hussey attended another world's fair, the International Exposition in Paris. This and the 1856 Agricultural Congress, also in Paris, provided opportunities to demonstrate Hussey's reaper in France. Hussey achieved a "gratifying measure of success," but was unable to win the top awards, which went to McCormick. In 1857, a Hussey machine made in Vienna was defeated by a McCormick machine in a field trial in heavy rye near Budapest.
During this same period back in the United States, the rivalry between Hussey and McCormick had continued. Hussey won a contest with McCormick during the 1852 Ohio harvest, while trials in Geneva, New York were inconclusive. Hussey gained ground in Maryland when McCormick failed to appear for a planned contest there. In 1853, Hussey received two votes to McCormick's one in a Virginia trial, while another maker's machine received two votes as well. Hussey's machine also held its own in a North Carolina match in 1854. That year Hussey also won a bronze medal at the New York Crystal Palace and a premium at the Pennsylvania Agricultural Society.
In 1855, Hussey's factory in Baltimore produced 521 reaping machines, its maximum annual output, up from 385 in 1854. In the following years, however, his output declined, with annual totals of 163, 95, 19, 10, and 24, respectively, for the years 1856 through 1860. Between 1848 and 1860, McCormick manufactured more than ten times as many reaping machines as did Hussey, and by 1857, Hussey was no longer a serious competitor in the harvest field.
Patent matters
Hussey's 1833 patent, good for a term of fourteen years, was scheduled to expire at the end of 1847. In 1845, he contacted the patent commissioner about obtaining an extension, but was advised to delay the application for renewal until near the end of the original term. He did so, but apparently not knowing that he was required to apply for a renewal at least thirty days before expiration of the patent, he waited until just ten or twelve days before the expiration date. Having missed the legal deadline for a renewal through the patent office, Hussey could get a renewal only through an appeal to Congress for an extension.
Meanwhile, Hussey had secured patents for an improvement to the reaping machine: "his famous open-back guard fingers." Patented on August 7, 1847, this improvement involved leaving openings at the back end of the slot in the guards for the escape of particles of straw or grass that might get in between the blades and guards. This served to prevent choking of the blades in the guards. Hussey saw his 1847 improvements as "perfecting" his reaper.
In 1848, Cyrus McCormick also faced the expiration of his original patent and he sought an extension through the patent office. Hussey and others opposed this extension. Hussey took the position that he opposed McCormick's extension as a matter of self-defense, because McCormick had petitioned Congress against Hussey's extension. On March 29 of that year, the patent office denied McCormick's application for an extension.
The denial of McCormick's extension by the patent office meant that both Hussey and McCormick could get extensions of their original reaper patents only through Congress. Hussey's case for renewal was in part that he had not received sufficient compensation from his invention; rather than earning profit from his 1833 patent, Hussey had spent the fourteen-year term of the patent working to perfect his invention "without any return for time and labor," leaving him "at the very door of poverty." Bills that would have extended Hussey's patent were introduced in 1848, 1854, and 1856, but the matter ultimately was tabled. McCormick also was unable to win an extension through Congress.
In April 1857, Hussey obtained a reissue of his 1847 patent covering an open-back guard finger in combination with a vibrating scallop-edged cutter. He then sued McCormick, claiming infringement of the 1847 patent and seeking damages and an injunction to prevent further sales of the McCormick reaper. On September 19, 1859, the court ruled in favor of Hussey, finding that Hussey was the first inventor of the combination of the open-slotted guard finger and scalloped cutter, awarding damages of $80,000, and ordering McCormick to pay licensing fees to Hussey.
Also in 1859, Hussey sold his 1847 patent rights for $200,000. The buyer was a "syndicate of patent lawyers" who adapted the invention into a mowing-machine.
In 1861, after Hussey's death, his heirs successfully obtained an extension of his 1847 patents. Various manufacturers paid royalties to the Hussey heirs during the following years.
Hussey the man: personal characteristics
Admiring descriptions of Obed Hussey, "one of nature's noblemen," are readily available. It has been said that he:
"was warm hearted, genial and companionable."
"maintained a reputation for uprightness and probity."
was "inventive, poetic, and as whimsical as the weather."
was "[e]xtremely sensitive, modest and unassuming, generous almost to a fault.".
had a "great amiability of disposition and kindness of heart which made him many friends."
Moreover, he was "highly educated, cultured and refined; a philosopher as well as a writer of both poetry and prose, of more than ordinary ability." His writings included four journals chronicling whaling voyages and two manuscript volumes of poetry.
In matters of religion, Hussey was a Quaker who maintained his affiliation throughout his life. Records show that he transferred his membership from Quaker meeting to Quaker meeting when he changed his residence.
While in his personal life Hussey may have been "the picture of Quaker beneficence" and "without an enemy in the world," his business adversaries saw him as "a fiercely tenacious, one-eyed devil" who "must be watched with caution." In this context, at least, his modesty has been called a myth and his "common reputation for lack of aggressiveness" has been said to be "disproved by almost every move of his career." Nevertheless, observers have concluded that Hussey was not skilled in matters of business, citing his reluctance to incorporate into his machine any features he did not personally invent and his failure to make much money from his invention.
Hussey's strength was as an inventor and in that regard he was called a "genius," albeit an "erratic" one. He worked incessantly at his inventions throughout his life.
Marriage and children
In 1856, Hussey married Eunice B. Starbuck, a 24-year-old who had also grown up on Nantucket. They had two daughters. The family resided in Baltimore.
Death
On 4 August 1860, a Saturday, Hussey, on a trip to visit friends and family in Boston and Portland, was traveling by train from Boston to Portland, accompanied by his wife, their infant daughter, and a servant. As was the practice at the time, the train carried no water for passengers, but instead made stops where passengers could get off the train and get water. At such a stop in Exeter, New Hampshire, Hussey got off the train to retrieve some water for the child of a fellow passenger. While he was off the train, it started up unexpectedly. Hastily attempting to reboard the train, Hussey took a misstep, fell between two cars, and was run over.
The train was stopped but he had been killed instantly. His body was taken back on the train and was accompanied by his family, in great distress, on to Portland, later to be removed to Baltimore,
where he was buried at Green Mount Cemetery.
Notes
References
Canine, Craig. Dream Reaper: The Story of an Old-Fashioned Inventor in the High-Tech, High-Stakes World of Modern Agriculture. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995.
Casson, Herbert N. The Romance of the Reaper. New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1908.
Gies, Joseph. "The Great Reaper War," Invention and Technology, Winter 1990, Volume 5, Issue 3.
Greeno, Follett L. Obed Hussey, Who, of All Inventors, Made Bread Cheap. Rochester, N.Y.: Rochester Herald Pub. Co., 1912.
Hutchinson, William T. Vol. 1: Cyrus Hall McCormick: Seed-Time, 1809-1856, New York & London: The Century Co., 1930. Vol. 2: Cyrus Hall McCormick: Harvest, 1856-1884, New York & London: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1935.
Lyons, Norbert. The McCormick Reaper Legend: The True Story of a Great Invention. New York: Exposition Press, 1955.
McDonough, John J. And God Created Great Whales: Whales and Whaling in the Manuscript Collections of the Library of Congress. Washington: Library of Congress, 2001.
Miller, Merritt Finley. The Evolution of Reaping Machines. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1902.
Steward, John F. The Reaper: A History of the Efforts of Those Who Justly May Be Said to Have Made Bread Cheap. New York: Greenberg, 1931.
External links
Obed Hussey Biography (1792-1860), How Products Are Made (accessed 13 Sep 2018).
Obed Hussey, Encyclopædia Britannica. (accessed 21 Sep 2018).
19th-century American inventors
1792 births
1860 deaths
Accidental deaths in New Hampshire
People from Nantucket, Massachusetts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant%20Governor%20%28Canada%29
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Lieutenant Governor (Canada)
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In Canada, a lieutenant governor (; French [masculine]: , or [feminine]: ) is the representative of the King of Canada in the government of each province. The Governor General of Canada appoints the lieutenant governors on the advice of the Prime Minister of Canada to carry out most of the monarch's constitutional and ceremonial duties for an unfixed period of time—known as serving "At Her Excellency's pleasure"—though five years is the normal convention. Similar positions in Canada's three territories are termed "Commissioners" and are representatives of the federal government, not the monarch directly.
The offices have their roots in the 16th and 17th century colonial governors of New France and British North America, though the present incarnations of the positions emerged with Canadian Confederation and the British North America Act in 1867, which defined the viceregal offices as the "Lieutenant Governor of the Province acting by and with the Advice the Executive Council thereof." The posts still ultimately represented the government of Canada (that is, the Governor-General-in-Council) until the ruling in 1882 of the Lord Watson of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the case of Maritime Bank v. Receiver-General of New Brunswick, whereafter the lieutenant governors were recognized as the direct representatives of the monarch. The Constitution Act, 1982 provides that any constitutional amendment that affects the office of the lieutenant governor requires the unanimous consent of each provincial Legislative Assembly as well as the House of Commons and the Senate.
History
The position of lieutenant governor has existed in Canada since before Confederation in 1867. In 1786, the post of Governor-in-Chief of British North America was created as a central viceregal office overseeing the British colonies of Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Province of Quebec, whose governors then became lieutenant governors, though that of Quebec was occupied simultaneously by the governor-in-chief. This structure remained in place until the partitioning in 1791 of the Province of Quebec into Upper Canada and Lower Canada, which then each had an office of lieutenant governor. The Governor in chief continued to be the lieutenant governor of Lower Canada.
In 1867, when Canada was created as a federal state, it had four provinces, each with their own lieutenant governor. Under the British North America Act, 1867, the Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia and Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick continued essentially as before. New positions of Lieutenant Governor of Ontario and Lieutenant Governor of Quebec were created for the new provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Thereafter, when other colonies joined Canada, their governors became lieutenant governors, while the creation of new provinces out of Rupert's Land and the Northwest Territories—which each had their own lieutenant governors—led to the establishment of new viceregal posts.
Beginning immediately after confederation, the Dominion government and the Colonial Office in London considered the lieutenant governors as representatives of, and subordinate to, the governor general in Ottawa, reflecting the view of John A. Macdonald and the Earl of Derby, who set up the Constitution Act, 1867, so as to have the lieutenant governors appointed by the governor general, and who expected that Royal Assent would be given in the name of the governor general, rather than the . This was a deliberate constitutional choice in reaction to the American Civil War, which had proven a potent "disastrous outcome of the doctrine of states' rights" that characterized American federalism. A ruling by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1882 altered this view, establishing that the lieutenant governors represented the Queen in the provinces as much as the governor general did in the federal jurisdiction. Nevertheless, unlike in the Australian federation formed in 1901, lieutenant governors remain selected on the advice of the federal prime minister rather than the provincial premiers, and federal governments remain theoretically capable of disallowing provincial legislation, whether from the reservation by a lieutenant governor or not.
Selection and appointments
Unlike the federal viceroy, the Canadian lieutenant-governors have been since 1867, if not Canadian-born, at least long-time residents of Canada and not of the peerage, though a number, up until the Nickle Resolution in 1919, were knighted. While required by the tenets of constitutional monarchy to be nonpartisan during their time in office, lieutenant-governors have frequently been former politicians and some have returned to politics following their viceregal service. Canadian lieutenant governorships have also been used to promote women and minorities into a prominent position: The first female viceroy in Canada was Pauline Mills McGibbon, Lieutenant Governor of Ontario from 1974 to 1980, and many women have since served in both that province and others. There have been two Black (Lincoln Alexander and Mayann E. Francis) and several Indigenous lieutenant governors. Norman Kwong, Lieutenant Governor of Alberta from 2005 to 2010, was Chinese-Canadian and David Lam, the Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia from 1988 to 1995, was Hong Kong-Canadian. Former Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec Lise Thibault used a wheelchair, while David Onley, the former Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario, had polio as a child and used crutches or a scooter.
The lieutenant-governors are appointed by the Governor General of Canada on the advice of the prime minister. There is no constitutional requirement or consistent practice for the Prime Minister to consult with the province's premier on the appointment of the lieutenant governor.
Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a lieutenant-governor-designate. Though there may therefore be variations to the following, the appointee will generally travel to the legislative assembly building in the provincial capital, where a guard of honour awaits to give a general salute. From there, the party is led by the speaker of the legislative assembly to the legislative chamber, wherein all justices of the province's superior court, members of the legislative assembly, and other guests are assembled. The governor general's commission for the lieutenant-governor-designate is then read aloud, and the required oaths are administered to the appointee by either the governor general or a delegate thereof; the three oaths are: the Oath of Allegiance, the Oath of Office as lieutenant-governor, and the oath as keeper of the province's great seal. With the affixing of their signature to these three solemn promises, the individual is officially the lieutenant governor, and at that moment the Viceregal Salute is played and a 15-gun salute is conducted outside. The lieutenant governor then receives the insignia of the province's order or orders. Since the appointment in 1956 of John J. Bowlen as Lieutenant Governor of Alberta, newly installed lieutenant governors will, at some point in the first year of their mandate, be invited to a personal audience with the monarch.
Though incumbents are constitutionally mandated to serve for at least five years, unless the federal parliament agrees to remove the individual from office, the lieutenant-governors still technically act at the governor general's pleasure, meaning the prime minister may recommend to the governor general that a lieutenant governor remain in the Crown's service for a longer period of time, sometimes upwards of more than ten years. A lieutenant governor may also resign and some have died in office.
The governor general also has the power to appoint a person as "administrator", to act in the place of a lieutenant-governor who is unable to act, for example due to illness or absence from the province. Since 1953, the practice has been that the chief justice of the province has a standing appointment to act as administrator. If the position of lieutenant governor is vacant, for example due to the death of the lieutenant governor, the administrator is not able to act until a new lieutenant governor is appointed.
This situation arose in Saskatchewan in 1978, when the Lieutenant Governor, George Porteous, died suddenly on February 6, 1978. The administrator, Chief Justice Culliton, declined to exercise any powers of the Lieutenant-Governor, on the basis that he had no power to act when the office was vacant. The federal Department of Justice and the Prime Minister's Office took the same position. As a result, the Saskatchewan Government could not recall the prorogued Legislative Assembly, nor pass any orders-in-council to proclaim statutes in force, pass regulations, or exercise any other statutory powers requiring an order-in-council. This situation lasted until the federal government appointed Porteous's successor, Irwin McIntosh, on February 22, 1978.
Role
As the Canadian monarch is shared equally amongst the ten provinces of Canada, as well as the federal realm, and the sovereign lives predominantly outside Canada's borders, a lieutenant governors' primary task is to perform the sovereign's constitutional duties on his or her behalf, acting within the principles of parliamentary democracy and responsible government as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance, and as a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. The office is the core of authority in a province.
For the most part, the powers of the Crown are exercised on a day-to-day basis by elected and appointed individuals, leaving the lieutenant-governors to perform the various ceremonial duties the sovereign otherwise carries out when in the country; at such a moment, a lieutenant-governor will decrease his or her public appearances, though the presence of the monarch does not undermine any lieutenant-governor's ability to perform governmental roles.
Constitutional
Though the monarch retains all executive, legislative, and judicial power in and over Canada, the lieutenant governors are permitted to exercise most of this, including the Royal Prerogative, in the sovereign's name, as laid out in various acts in the constitution, though most revolve around the original clauses in section V of the Constitution Act, 1867. While they continue to be appointed by the governor general, the lieutenant governors are considered to be direct representatives of the sovereign. In a province, it is thus the lieutenant governor who is required to appoint persons to the executive council (or cabinet) and convention dictates that the lieutenant governor must further draw from them an individual to act as premier—in almost all cases the member of the legislative assembly who commands the confidence of the legislature. This group of ministers of the Crown is theoretically tasked with tendering to the viceroy guidance on the exercise of the Royal Prerogative, an arrangement called the -in-Council or, more specifically, the Governor-in-Council, in which capacity the lieutenant governor will issue royal proclamations and sign orders in council. The Governor-in-Council of both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are also specifically tasked to appoint in the King's name the judges of the courts of probate. The advice given by the cabinet is, in order to ensure the stability of government, typically binding; the viceroy may, in exceptional circumstances, invoke the reserve powers, which remain the Crown's final check against a ministry's abuse of power.
The lieutenant-governor alone is also constitutionally mandated to summon the legislature. Beyond that, the viceroy carries out the other conventional parliamentary duties in the sovereign's stead, including reading the Speech From the Throne and proroguing and dissolving parliament. The lieutenant-governor also grants royal assent in the King's name; legally, granting royal assent (making the bill law), withholding royal assent (vetoing the bill), or reserving the bill for the signification of the governor general's pleasure. If the governor general withholds royal assent, the sovereign may within two years disallow the bill, thereby annulling the law in question.
R. MacGregor Dawson opined that, following Confederation, the lieutenant-governors diverged from the governor general in that they continued to demonstrate a power independent of the Cabinet and parliament; lieutenant-governors had variously dismissed governments, refused the advice of ministers, and insisted on the creation of royal commissions. Altogether, lieutenant-governors had also withheld Royal Assent to bills 28 times and reserved bills for the consideration of the governor general 71 times. The last example of the former was in 1945 and the latter in 1961. Relations between lieutenant governor and Cabinet have also at times been strained by ministers' unwillingness to openly acknowledge the authority of a federal appointee, often recommended by a federal prime minister who adhered to different political beliefs.
Ceremonial
With most constitutional functions lent to cabinet, a lieutenant governor acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion, carrying out some of the ritual duties normally associated with heads of state and thus symbolizing the sovereignty of the provinces within confederation. The provincial viceroys have been said to be, outside of Quebec, "a focus of community ideals and a reinforcement of provincial identity."
The lieutenant governor hosts members of the Canadian Royal Family, as well as foreign royalty and heads of state, and is also tasked with fostering national unity and pride. One way in which this is carried out is travelling the province and meeting with residents from all regions and ethnic groups, some of whom a lieutenant governor will induct into the province's orders and present to others medals and decorations. This travel takes place mostly within a lieutenant governor's province, the viceroys rarely performing state duties anywhere else in Canada, and never internationally, unless it is on behalf of the monarch in a federal capacity; it has been argued that the provincial representatives of the should start to undertake trips to represent their province abroad. In the exercise of these duties, the lieutenant governors may sometimes receive advice from the Department of Canadian Heritage Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Promotion Program. During a provincial election, a lieutenant governor will curtail these public duties, so as not to appear as though they are involving themselves in political affairs.
The viceroys themselves also offer awards, such as the Lieutenant Governor's Award for Outstanding Service to Rural Saskatchewan, the Lieutenant Governor's Nova Scotia Talent Trust Award, and the Lieutenant Governor's Award for Excellence in Architecture, awarded in New Brunswick, and the Heritage Canada Foundation also presents the Lieutenant Governor's Award, presented to an individual or group who has achieved an outstanding result in heritage conservation in the province in which the Heritage Canada Foundation's annual conference is held. Further, the lieutenant governors (as well as the territorial commissioners) present the Vice-Regal and Commissioners' Commendation to individuals who offer their service—paid or volunteer—to the viceregal offices. It was originally intended to be a distinction in place of appointment to the Royal Victorian Order, regularly granted to those who aided the monarch or governor general with distinction, but nominees from the lieutenant governors were frequently overlooked by staff at Rideau Hall. After 1984, suggestions from the lieutenant governors' offices for membership in the Royal Victorian Order were more readily accepted and the Vice-Regal and Commissioners' Commendation became an award for one or more commendable acts benefiting the viceroy.
Symbols and protocol
As the personal representative of the monarch, a lieutenant-governor follows only the sovereign in the province's order of precedence, preceding even other members of the Royal Family. Though the federal viceroy is considered Primus inter pares amongst his or her provincial counterparts, the governor general also takes a lower rank to the lieutenant-governors in the provincial spheres; at federal functions, the governor general, as the King's representative in the country, precedes the lieutenant-governors. An incumbent lieutenant governor is also entitled to the use of the style His or Her Honour, and is granted the additional honorific of The Honourable for their time in office and for life afterwards.
Traditionally, lieutenant governors were entitled to wear first-class court uniform. Today, the practice continues in some provinces, such as Nova Scotia, Alberta, and British Columbia. Since 1999, lieutenant-governors have been entitled to wear a special badge of office.
Per the orders' constitutions, the lieutenant-governors, except for that of Quebec, serve as the chancellor of their province's order. They also upon installation automatically become a Knight or Dame of Justice and a Vice-Prior in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem. All of these honours are retained following an incumbent's departure from office, with the individual remaining in the highest category of the order, and they may also be further distinguished with induction into other orders or the receipt of other awards.
The Viceregal Salute—composed of the first six bars of the Royal Anthem ("God Save the ") followed by the first and last four bars of the national anthem ("O Canada")—is the salute used to greet a lieutenant-governor upon arrival at, and mark his or her departure from most official events. To mark a viceroy's presence at any building, ship, airplane, or car in Canada, the relevant lieutenant-governor's flag is employed. Excepting those of Quebec and Nova Scotia, the present form of most provincial viceroyal flags was adopted in 1980 and consists of a blue field bearing the shield of the province's coat of arms surrounded by ten gold maple leaves—each symbolizing one province—surmounted by a St. Edward's Crown. In a provincial jurisdiction, the lieutenant governor's flag takes precedence over all other flags, save the king's standard, and is also, along with all flags on Canadian Forces property, flown at half-mast upon the death of an incumbent or former lieutenant governor.
Incumbents
Lieutenant governors
Commissioners
Spelling
In the Canadian context, there are numerous, and not mutually agreeable, notions regarding hyphenation and capitalization of the position title. Various acts in the Canadian constitution and numerous provincial websites typically indicate Lieutenant Governor of [Province] (upper case and no hyphen), likely due to the primacy of those positions in their respective jurisdictions. The Canadian Style indicates Lieutenant-Governor (upper case with hyphen), though lieutenant-governors (lower case and hyphenated) when pluralized. The Guide to Canadian English Usage equivocates somewhat, indicating upper case only when used in and associated with a specific provincial lieutenant governor or name (e.g., Lieutenant-Governor Lincoln Alexander), not generally, and varied use. In French, the term is always hyphenated, and varies slightly by gender. Also, as governor is the main noun in the title, it is the word that is pluralized; thus, it is lieutenant governors, rather than lieutenants governor.
See also
Commissioner § Canadian territories
Governors of the Australian states
Lieutenant governor (United States)
Notes
References
Works cited
Monarchy in Canada
Westminster system in Canada
Viceroys in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermot%20O%27Hurley
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Dermot O'Hurley
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Dermot O'Hurley (c. 1530 – 19 or 20 June 1584)—also Dermod or Dermond O'Hurley: —was the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cashel during the Tudor conquest of Ireland. After being held and tortured in Dublin Castle, Archbishop O'Hurley was put to death, officially for high treason, but in reality as part of the religious persecution of the Catholic Church in Ireland by Queen Elizabeth I and her officials. He is one of the most celebrated of the 24 formally recognized Irish Catholic Martyrs, and was beatified by Pope John Paul II on 27 September 1992.
Early life
O'Hurley was born into the Gaelic nobility of Ireland, either in or near Emly, County Tipperary, around the year 1530. His father, William, was the O'Hurley clan's Chief of the Name and Bailiff of Emly, with duties similar to a Tacksman, for James FitzGerald, 14th Earl of Desmond. Dermot's mother was Honora Ni Brien, a descendant of the O'Brien dynasty of Thomond. Both sides of the Archbishop's family claimed descent from the royal derbhfine of the Dál gCais, one of the most powerful Irish clans in the history of Munster or of Gaelic Ireland. The future Archbishop had one sister named Honora Ni Hurley. The "William Oge O'Hurley" listed among the Desmond rebels to be pardoned is believed to have been the Archbishop's brother. He also had much younger brother named Andrew O'Hurley, whom, as of 1642, was over 80 years old, blind, paralyzed, and living in Portugal.
The future Archbishop is believed to have received his early education at a Cathedral school overseen by his kinsman, Bishop Thomas O'Hurley, in the monastery founded by Saint Ailbe of Emly. The O'Hurley family later moved to Lickadoon Castle, Ballyneety, County Limerick, where O'Hurley was educated by tutors and then sent to Flemish Brabant to study at the University of Leuven. In 1551 he graduated with a Master of Arts degree, then a doctorate of Law and was appointed a professor of philosophy in one of that university's greater colleges, where he remained for 15 years and acquired a reputation for his commentaries on Aristotle. In 1574 he was appointed a professor of canon and civil law in the Faculty of Law of Reims University by Louis de Guise, at which he spent 4 years.
Fugitive archbishop
In 1570 Pope Pius V excommunicated Queen Elizabeth I of England in the papal bull Regnans in Excelsis. This led to the Second Desmond Rebellion in 1579–83, which was still in progress when O'Hurley was required to travel to Ireland. On 11 September 1581, while still a layman, he was appointed Archbishop of Cashel by Pope Gregory XIII. He was ordained and consecrated and set out on his mission in 1583. Through its elaborate spy system, the government in Dublin Castle had immediate knowledge of Dermot's appointment to the See of Cashel, and Elizabeth's spies and priest hunters were soon on his tracks.
Although it was later claimed by Lord Justices Adam Loftus and Henry Wallop in their letters to Sir Francis Walsingham that Archbishop O'Hurley had been employed by the Roman Inquisition, this is not sustainable by other evidence. For example, a 33-line work of praise poetry in Renaissance Latin, which was composed to celebrate Dermot O'Hurley's promotion to the Episcopate, confirms that he had always been merely a theology professor.
O'Hurley's voyage was fraught with danger because of the state of war between the Pope and England, but he accepted the risks involved and arranged for a sea captain from Drogheda to smuggle him from the French port of Le Croisic into Ireland. Archbishop O'Hurley disembarked upon Holmpatrick Strand in what is now Skerries, County Dublin in the autumn of 1583 and was met by a priest named Fr. John Dillon, who accompanied him to Drogheda, where they lodged in a hostelry.
Archbishop O'Hurley's letters, which had been sent via a different ship, were intercepted by English pirates, who handed the letters over to the Lord Justices in Dublin.
After being advised by a resident of Drogheda that Lord Justices Loftus and Wallop already knew their location, Archbishop O'Hurley and Fr. Dillon decided to leave for Slane Castle, where they were concealed by Thomas Fleming, 10th Baron Slane, at one point inside a priest hole. Archbishop O'Hurley also covertly travelled from Slane Castle to Cavan to visit with some fellow priests whom he had known while living in Catholic Europe. At the time, Cavan town and County Cavan was the territory of the Clan O'Reilly. However, O'Hurley was recognised during a visit to Slane Castle by the Baron's first cousin, Lord Chief Justice Sir Robert Dillon.
According to Philip O'Sullivan Beare, "A grave question was started at dinner, in the presence of the squint-eyed Robert Dillon, one of the Queen's judges. The heretics, giving each his own opinion, freely proceeded to such extreme folly, that Dermot, who was present, and long kept silent lest he should betray himself, could not any longer stand their rashness, and so, to the great astonishment of all, he easily refuted the silly doctrines of the heretics, with an air of authority, and great eloquence and learning. Hereupon Dillon was led to surmise that this was some distinguished person who might greatly obstruct heresy."
Once his suspicions were aroused, Sir Robert Dillon made inquiries, eventually uncovered the real identity of his cousin's houseguest, and immediately informed Dublin Castle. Baron Slane was immediately summoned by Lord Justices Loftus and Wallop and, under pain of severe penalties, agreed to arrest Archbishop Dermot O'Hurley.
Meanwhile, the Archbishop had already left Slane Castle and was staying with Thomas Butler, 10th Earl of Ormond, a Protestant, referred to as "Black Thomas" () (lit. "Thomas the Black", fig. "Thomas the Puritan"), who was then the Lord Treasurer of Ireland.
As his nickname suggests, the Earl was a Protestant and had played a role in ending the Second Desmond Rebellion through scorched earth and total war that triggered a State-imposed famine, which killed an estimated third of Munster's population. At the same time, however, the Earl's entire family, his Old English tenants, and all the Irish clans subject to his leadership were Catholic Recusants, who were covertly being allowed religious toleration. Meanwhile, Loftus, Wallop, and many other officials in Dublin Castle, greatly envied the Earl's favour with the Queen and kept him accordingly under constant surveillance in the hopes of implicating him in illegally tolerating Catholicism or in anything else that that might construe as high treason. Despite the extremely high risk, however, the Earl of Ormond seems to have agreed to conceal and protect Archbishop Dermot O'Hurley, as long as he avoided matters other than his religious ministry and remained within the confines of County Tipperary.
While a guest at the Earl's still extant Elizabethan Manor House at Carrick-on-Suir, the Archbishop wrote a letter to Dr. Miler Magrath, the former Franciscan Friar who had become the Protestant Church of Ireland's Archbishop of Cashel. In the letter, Archbishop O'Hurley both requested a meeting and suggested nonviolent mutual religious toleration of one another's competing apostolates. The Earl of Ormond, to whom O'Hurley had assigned the delivery, did not trust Rev. Dr. Magrath and secretly kept the letter, which still survives at the Bodleian Library at Oxford University (MS Carte 55, fol. 546).
Immediately after making a pilgrimage to Holy Cross Abbey near Thurles in September 1583, Archbishop O'Hurley was met at Ormonde Castle by Baron Slane. The Baron explained the imminent danger to both himself and his family and in return, the Archbishop voluntarily agreed to travel with him and surrender at Dublin Castle.
During their journey, the conversation turned to the recent conversion to Anglicanism by Rt.-Rev. Peter Power, the Roman Catholic Bishop of Ferns. Archbishop O'Hurley commented about his former colleague, "Many who are lions before the battle are timid stags when the hour of trial comes. Lest this prove true of me, I daily pray to our good Lord for strength; for 'let him that thinketh himself to stand look lest he fall.'"
The unwritten laws governing hospitality were considered sacred among the Gaelic nobility of Ireland and were just as important to Gaelicised Hiberno-Normans like the Earl of Ormond. The Earl is alleged to have felt insulted by the arrest of a guest in his house who was under his protection. Later emigre chronicler Philip O'Sullivan Beare considered the Archbishop's arrest to be so heinous of an insult under the traditional code of conduct that the Earl should have raised the clans subject to him and taken up arms against Baron Slane and the Lord Justices. Even though the Earl chose not to take up arms, O'Sullivan Beare does credit him with doing everything he possibly could to save Archbishop O'Hurley from the executioners. Other more recent historians, however, believe that the Earl of Ormond may secretly have colluded with Baron Slane and played just as central of a role in arranging the Archbishop's arrest.
Imprisonment and torture
On 8 October 1583 Archbishop O'Hurley was handed over by Baron Slane to Lord Justices Wallop and Loftus and imprisoned in Dublin Castle. Under orders from both Loftus and Wallop, Edward Waterhouse, a senior member of the Irish Privy Council, conducted a series of interrogations of the Archbishop between 8 and 20 October 1583. The Archbishop admitted that he had been asked by the Cardinal Protector of Ireland to deliver sealed letters to the Rebel Earl and the other leaders of the Second Desmond Rebellion. O'Hurley explained, however, that he had chosen to leave those letters in France, as, "he would not meddle", in matters other than his religious mission, which, as he repeated insisted, was purely a peaceful one. Finding these results unsatisfactory, Loftus and Wallop wrote to Sir Francis Walsingham on 20 October 1583, seeking further instructions.
In his response, Walsingham ordered both Justices to use, "torture or any other severe manner of proceeding" against the Archbishop, "to gain his knowledge of all foreign practices against Her Majesty's States."
In response, Loftus and Wallop wrote back upon 10 December that they lacked the necessary instruments of torture and recommended instead that Archbishop O'Hurley be transferred to the Tower of London. Instead, Walsingham ordered them to extract information from O'Hurley, "not only of any practice or disturbance pretended against the Land in particular, but also of any foreign conspiracy against Her Majesty in England or any other part of her dominions". Loftus and Wallop were ordered to try gentle persuasion at first, but if that failed, to "put him to the torture... which was to toast his feet against the fire with hot boots."
According to Philip O'Sullivan Beare, "First he was brought before Adam, the Chancellor, and Henry, the Treasurer, and civilly and kindly invited to follow the tenets of the heretics, and promised large rewards on condition of abjuring his sacred character; relinquishing the office received from the Pope, and (O villainy!) entering upon the Archbishopric under the Queen's authority. He told them that he was bound and resolved never to desert the Church, Faith, or Vicar of Christ Jesus for any consideration. Then the Chancellor and Treasurer endeavoured to deceive him by cunning arguments, straining every nerve to establish the truth of their falsehoods. Dermot, not relishing this, especially as he was not allowed to reply to their nonsense, bade them, stupid and ignorant men (such was his high spirit), not to offer ridiculous and false doctrines to him, an Archbishop, and Doctor of celebrated academies. Then the heretics, filled with anger, exclaimed: 'If we cannot convince you by argument, we will make you quit this your false law and embrace our religion, or feel our power.'"
On 7 March 1584, Archbishop O'Hurley was accordingly subjected to the boiling boot by Edward Waterhouse. His bare feet were imprisoned in iron boots, filled with oil and water, that were slowly heated over a fire until the water boiled away both skin and flesh left the Archbishop's bones partially exposed. To the even greater fury of Loftus and Wallop, however, O'Hurley refused to embrace Protestantism, "confess" to any political offenses, and still stubbornly declined to "cooperate" in framing the Earl of Ormond for high treason against the Queen. Instead, Archbishop O'Hurley was heard to repeatedly cry out, "Jesus, Son of David, have mercy upon me"!
After the torture was finally ceased on fear that the executioner might be punished for accidentally killing the Archbishop without orders, O'Hurley was returned to his cell inside Dublin Castle and received medical treatment from a fellow priest named Fr. Charles MacMorris.
When the Archbishop had recovered enough to sit up and to limp a little, the Queen's officials sent visitors into Dublin Castle, including Thomas Jones, the Anglican Bishop of Meath, offering O'Hurley a high position within the Church of Ireland hierarchy in return for taking the Oath of Supremacy. Even his only sister, Honora Ni Hurley, according to David Rothe "was induced to go in and tempt him to apostatise and she urgently besought him to yield; but he, frowning on her, ordered her to fall at his knees and humbly beg pardon of God and absolution for so grave a crime against God, so hurtful to her own soul, and so abhorred by her brother."
According to surviving correspondence between Dublin and Whitehall, Queen Elizabeth I was reluctant to dispense with a fair trial under English Law, but her mind was changed by Sir Francis Walsingham at the urging of Loftus and Wallop, who alleged that a public trial would allow the Archbishop to make an "impudent and clamorous denial" of the charges against him. Loftus and Wallop also feared that a public trial by jury might result in an acquittal for "treasons committed in foreign parts against Her Majesty" owing to the lack of evidence that a crime had been committed and to the widespread Catholic sympathies within the Pale.
On 28 April 1584, a direct order was sent from Walsingham on behalf of the Queen, expressly forbidding the further use of torture, while also adding that it was the Queen's pleasure that Archbishop O'Hurley, "being so notorious and ill a Subject", should be executed.
Martyrdom
Upon learning that the Earl of Ormonde, by whose influence and power they feared Dermot O'Hurley's life would be saved, was coming to Dublin Castle to congratulate new Lord Deputy Sir John Perrot, Loftus and Wallop decided to put the Archbishop to death as soon as possible. On 19 June 1584, Loftus and Wallop, with Perrot's permission, tried the Archbishop before a drumhead military tribunal, where the Papal Bull documenting his consecration to the Episcopate, his letters of introduction, and other documents were presented as evidence against him. Loftus and Wallop then issued a death warrant to the Knight Marshal, with orders to, "do execution", upon Archbishop Dermot O'Hurley. In the early morning of 19, or 20, June 1584, O'Hurley was taken out of the Bermingham Tower in Dublin Castle at dawn. Despite efforts at both silence and secrecy, the Archbishop's fellow Catholic prisoners took notice and called out that O'Hurley was innocent. Rev. Power, the former Bishop of Ferns, who, after learning of O'Hurley's constancy, had returned to Catholicism and once again had again been imprisoned, too, "called out aloud that he rather deserved that fate for the scandal he had formerly given, but that Hurley was an innocent and holy man. Upon which the jailer severely flogged him and the others, and so reduced them to silence."
As Lord Justice Henry Wallop and three or four guards went before him, the Archbishop was drawn on a hurdle through the Garden Gate, or Postern Gate, in the city walls of Dublin to be hanged in a willow forest, either in St Stephen's Green or at Hoggen Green. The usual location of the gallows in Elizabethan era Dublin was at Lower Baggot Street (), formerly called Gallows Road; where Fitzwilliam Street and Baggot Street now intersect and between Fitzwilliam Street and Pembroke Street.
The execution party was taken by surprise by the arrival of a group of Dublin city worthies, who had come to Hoggen Green to shoot an archery match. In his speech from the gallows, the Archbishop proclaimed,
After also "forgiving his torturers with all his heart", Archbishop O'Hurley was hanged, allegedly from a noose woven out of willow branches in order to further prolong his sufferings by causing a slow death from strangulation. Afterwards, like other Elizabethan era execution victims, Archbishop O'Hurley was cast into a mass grave located in a nearby field. His body was secretly exhumed, placed in a wooden urn by London-born Recusant William Fitzsimon, and reburied under cover of darkness in consecrated ground at St. Kevin's Church, Camden Row, Dublin. Many miracles are said to have been wrought at his gravesite, which has remained a site of pilgrimage ever since.
Legacy
As word of his execution spread, O'Hurley was immediately revered as a martyr by Catholics throughout Europe. Several accounts of his life and death were printed and reached a wide audience.
Exiled English Recusant poet Richard Verstegan wrote a detailed Renaissance Latin account of Archbishop O'Hurley's martyrdom in the volume Theatrum crudelitatum Hæreticorum nostri temporis ("Theatre of the Cruelties of the Heretics of our Time"), which was published at Antwerp, in the Spanish Netherlands in 1587. Historian J.J. Meagher has written of Verstegan, "He enhanced his account with an engraving which was a composite representation of the three Irish martyrs, Dermot O'Hurley, Patrick O'Healy, and Conn O'Rourke. The printed word helped considerably to propagate and preserve the reputation of martyrdom. There were at least eight editions of Verstegan's Theatrum up to 1607, and these contributed in no small way to maintaining the fama martyrii overseas. Moreover, John Bridgewater, an English priest, reprinted word for word Verstegan's account of the martyrdom in 1588."
Detailed accounts of Archbishop O'Hurley's life and death were also written and published by Philip O'Sullivan Beare, David Rothe, Luke Wadding, Richard Stanihurst, Anthony Bruodin, John Lynch, John Coppinger, and John Mullin.
Archbishop Adam Loftus, through his daughter Anne Loftus, who married Sir Henry Colley, was the ancestor of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, who was baptized in 1767 by a Church of Ireland clergyman at St. Kevin's Church in Camden Row. It was ultimately the Duke of Wellington who, as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 1829, forced a bill granting Catholic Emancipation in the British Isles through Parliament and persuaded a highly reluctant King George IV to grudgingly grant the bill Royal Assent. Sir Henry Wallop, on the other hand, is the ancestor of every subsequent Earl of Portsmouth. On 20 June 1584, the same day as O'Hurley's execution, the Archbishop's torturer, Edward Waterhouse, was knighted by Sir John Perrot inside Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, officially because Waterhouse, "dispended yearly more than a thousand marks."
Also following Catholic Emancipation in 1829, interest in Archbishop O'Hurley was rekindled by the republication of Bishop David Rothe's Analecta Sancta and Philip O'Sullivan Beare's Historiae Catholicae Iberniae Compendium. According to J.J. Meagher, "The reawakened reputation of martyrdom was further strengthened in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries by the historical works and critical editions of manuscripts published by Patrick F. Moran and others."
In 1904, the hierarchy of the Catholic Church in Ireland began an investigation into Archbishop O'Hurley's life and death, as well as those of the other Irish Catholic Martyrs. One of the most valuable resources was found to be the documents and letters written by the men, like Wallop and Loftus, who tortured and executed him and which had been examined in the Public Record Office in London. In response, Archbishop O'Hurley, whose life and martyrdom had been found to be one of the most meticulously documented and was therefore seen as one of the most promising Causes for Roman Catholic Sainthood, was declared a Servant of God.
In the 12 February 1915 Apostolic decree In Hibernia, heroum nutrice, Pope Benedict XV formally authorized the introduction of Archbishop O'Hurley's Cause for Roman Catholic Sainthood. During a further Apostolic Process held at Dublin between 1917 and 1930, the evidence surrounding 260 alleged cases for martyrdom were further investigated, after which the findings were again submitted to the Holy See.
On 27 September 1992, O'Hurley was beatified by Pope John Paul II, alongside 16 other Irish martyrs. Following his Beatification, a memorial plaque was installed by the Dublin City Council at St Kevin's Churchyard, at the insistence of local activist James O'Doherty.
Folklore
According to Burke's 1879 History of the Irish Lord Chancellors, "Multitudes of pilgrims for three centuries flocked to his tomb, which the fancy, perhaps the superstition, of the people clothed with many legends." For example, in local Irish folklore, ghost stories about passersby on dark and stormy nights seeing Archbishop Dermot O'Hurley offering the Tridentine Mass in black Requiem vestments upon a makeshift altar over his grave in St. Kevin's churchyard are commonly told. It is said, when the Archbishop reaches the moment of Transubstantiation and the Raising of the Host, that both O'Hurley and the altar disappear and only darkness remains.
In popular culture
The Recusant poet Richard Verstegan composed an Elizabethan English elegy about the Archbishop's martyrdom, entitled "Slane's Treason; or The Fall of the Baron of Slane." The poem was set to music by celebrated Richard Cruise, the official harpist to the Earl of Ormond, and became widely popular, both among Hiberno-English-speaking Recusants throughout The Pale and even among the Irish clans throughout Gaelic Ireland.
See also
Margaret Ball
Oliver Plunkett
Francis Taylor (martyr)
References
Sources
External links
Dermot O'Hurley, Dictionary of Irish Biography
1530s births
1584 deaths
16th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in Ireland
16th-century Roman Catholic martyrs
16th-century venerated Christians
24 Irish Catholic Martyrs
Academic staff of the Old University of Leuven
Beatifications by Pope John Paul II
Christian clergy from County Tipperary
Counter-Reformation
Executed people from County Tipperary
Executed writers
Gaels
Irish beatified people
Irish ghosts
Irish torture victims
Martyred Roman Catholic bishops
Old University of Leuven alumni
People educated by school in County Tipperary
People executed by the Kingdom of Ireland by hanging
People executed for treason against Ireland
People executed under Elizabeth I as Queen of Ireland
People from Emly
People of Elizabethan Ireland
People of the Second Desmond Rebellion
Reims University (1548–1793)
Roman Catholic archbishops of Cashel
Post-Reformation Roman Catholic bishops in Ireland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8th%20Armoured%20Brigade%20%28United%20Kingdom%29
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8th Armoured Brigade (United Kingdom)
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The 8th Armoured Brigade was an armoured brigade of the British Army formed in August 1941, during the Second World War and active until 1956. The brigade was formed by the renaming of 6th Cavalry Brigade, when the 1st Cavalry Division based in Palestine (of which it was part) converted from a motorised formation (having been horse-mounted until January 1940) to an armoured unit, becoming 10th Armoured Division.
North Africa
Operation Supercharge
In February 1942, the 8th Armoured Brigade moved to the Khatatba region of the Western Desert. After a period of training, the Brigade first went into action at the end of August 1942 at Bir Ridge at the Battle of Alam el Halfa. The Second Battle of El Alamein lasted from 23 October to 5 November 1942 and was a watershed in the Western Desert Campaign. the Allied victory at El Alamein ended Axis hopes of occupying Egypt, controlling access to the Suez Canal and gaining access to Middle Eastern oil fields. The defeat at El Alamein marked the end of Axis expansion in Africa. Following the First Battle of El Alamein, which had stalled the Axis advance, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery took command of the British Eighth Army from Claude Auchinleck in August 1942.
For the first night of the offensive, Montgomery planned that four infantry divisions from Lieutenant-General Oliver Leese's XXX Corps would advance on a front, to an objective codenamed the Oxalic Line, over-running the forward Axis defences. The Royal Engineers would clear and mark two lanes through the minefields, through which the armoured divisions from Lieutenant-General Herbert Lumsden's X Corps would pass to gain the Skinflint Report Line, where they would check and report their progress, and the Pierson Bound, where they would rally and temporarily consolidate their position in the Axis defences until the infantry battle had been won. Commanded by Brigadier Edward C. N. Custance, the 8th Armoured Brigade was equipped with and when it took part in Operation Supercharge, better known as the Battle of El Alamein.
Order of Battle, October 1942
3rd Royal Tank Regiment
Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry
Staffordshire Yeomanry
1st Battalion, Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment)
1st Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery
97th (Kent Yeomanry) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery
The Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry found a gap in the Axis defences and an attack was made that broke through and started the rout of the Afrika Korps. The Brigade was then ordered to find the southern flank of the Axis defences. Driving across country it moved into the desert reaching the coast road at Galal and the German retreat was cut in two. Here, the Brigade destroyed a large number of enemy guns and transport without loss and took 1,000 prisoners.
Early in November, the Brigade reached the defences of Mersa Matruh and was ordered to halt; the rest of Eighth Army moved past. The 10th Armoured Division was ordered back to Egypt taking, 1st Royal Horse Artillery (1st R. H. A.) with them, leaving the 8th Armoured Brigade to become an independent brigade. At the end of November, the brigade came under the command of the 7th Armoured Division, the famous Desert Rats and was involved in the battles around El Agheila. This battle opened the road past Marble Arch to Nofaliya, which was entered without opposition.
On 15 January, the attack on the Buerat–Bungem line was launched. Then followed battles against a series of rear-guard positions at Wadi Zem Zem, where anti-tank guns and tanks were dug in on the reverse slope, Sedada and Tarhuna, where the hilly nature of the country assisted Axis delaying tactics. Tarhuna was the first civilian-occupied town to be captured by the brigade and it was surrendered by the Burgomaster to the Staffordshire Yeomanry. On 23 January, the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment entered Tripoli in the wake of the 11th Hussars. On 24 January, a composite force consisting of the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry, 1st Buffs, 5th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery and 7th Medium Regiment RA advanced to the Zavia area, south-west of Tripoli. The Brigade was then rested before starting the campaign in Tunisia.
Tunisia and the Mareth Line
The Brigade took advantage of new equipment and it became normal for the brigade to allocate infantry companies to armoured regiments, forming Armoured Regimental groups. At the start of operations at the Mareth Line, the Brigade was formed as follows:
On 14 March 1943, the Brigade passed from the command of XXX Corps to the New Zealand Corps, joining the 2nd New Zealand Division, the Free French, General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque's forces from Chad (L Force) and the 1st Free French Brigade.
Following the failure of the frontal attack on the Mareth Line during the Tunisia Campaign by XXX Corps, an attempt was made by the New Zealand Corps to outflank the Axis positions in Operation Supercharge II. Initially unsuccessful, the 1st Armoured Division was despatched to reinforce this "Left-Hook". On 26 March, the brigade was launched towards El Hamma and penetrated deep into the Switch Line. Having gained all their objectives, the brigade drove through the gap and the Axis forces, pressed by a fresh frontal attack and in danger of being encircled, withdrew some north-westwards to defensive positions around Wadi Akarit.
At the Battle of Wadi Akarit, which occurred from the brigade first came up against the Tiger I (Panzerkampfwagen VI Tiger I). The Brigade, still supporting 2nd New Zealand Division, was next involved in the battles at Enfidaville and Takrouna. Following the capitulation of the Axis forces in North Africa on 13 May, the Brigade slowly made its way back to the Nile delta and then was transferred to Britain, arriving on 9 December 1943. After an extended leave, the brigade reassembled in the New Year and was informed of its role in the forthcoming invasion of Normandy.
The high level of experience gained by the brigade in North Africa contrasted with many of the other armoured units earmarked for the invasion; some of whom had not seen action since the fall of France in 1940. In an attempt to equalise the level of experience across the brigades, an exchange of units took place in February 1944, the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment was exchanged with the 29th Armoured Brigade, part of the inexperienced 11th Armoured Division, for the 24th Lancers and the Staffordshire Yeomanry was exchanged with the 27th Armoured Brigade for the 4th/7th Royal Dragoon Guards. Shortly thereafter, Brigadier Bernard Cracroft assumed command of the brigade, which now comprised:
Order of Battle D-Day
4th/7th Royal Dragoon Guards (4/7 DG)
24th Lancers (24L)
Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry (SRY)
147th (Essex Yeomanry) Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery
12th Battalion, King's Royal Rifle Corps
168th (City of London) Light Field Ambulance
552nd Company Royal Army Service Corps
8th Armoured Brigade Workshops R.E.M.E.
265th Forward Delivery Squadron.
While the staffs were involved in the planning of the invasion, the men took part in intensive training exercises.
Operation Overlord (D-Day)
Gold Beach
Gold Beach was the Allied codename for the centre invasion beach during the Allied invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944. It lay between Omaha Beach and Juno Beach, was 8 km wide and divided into four sectors. From west to east they were How, Item, Jig, and King.
The landing area was defended by elements of Generalleutnant Wilhelm Richter's 716th Static Infantry Division and the 1st Battalion of the 916th Infantry Regiment, which had been detached from Generalleutnant Dietrich Kraiss's 352nd Infantry Division.
Gold Beach was allocated to the British Second Army's XXX Corps. The actual assault was to be made by 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, which had been reinforced with 56th Independent Infantry Brigade and supported by the 8th Armoured Brigade. The Division's primary objective was to seize the town of Bayeux, the Caen-Bayeux road, and the port of Arromanches; the secondary objectives being to make contact with the Americans landing at Omaha Beach to the West and the Canadians landing at Juno Beach to the East.
The 231st Infantry Brigade, followed by the 56th Infantry Brigade, landed in the west, with DD tanks from the Nottinghamshire Yeomanry (Sherwood Rangers) in support. The assault battalions were the 1st Battalion, Hampshire Regiment on Jig Green (west side) and the 1st Battalion, Dorset Regiment on Jig Green (east side).
The 69th Infantry Brigade, followed by 151st Infantry Brigade, landed in the east with DD tanks from the 4th/7th Royal Dragoon Guards in support. The assault battalions were the 5th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment on King Red and the 6th Battalion, Green Howards on King Green.
The Landings
H-Hour for the Gold beach landing was set for 0725 hours. For the first time in history, tanks were to lead an assault from the sea on all sectors of the beaches. The secret of the "Duplex Drive" had been well kept, for the German appreciation was that they would have no tanks thrown against them during the first five hours. Unfortunately, the sea conditions in the 50th Division sector were adjudged too rough and the tanks were not launched 2 miles out as planned, but a couple of hundred yards from the shore. In spite of this, the 4/7 DG lost 5 and the SRY 8 in the breakers. Throughout the day both Regiments had all three squadrons continually committed, supporting in turn 231st Infantry Brigade, 151st Infantry Brigade and 69th Infantry Brigades. Night fell with all objectives obtained, all tanks committed and no reserves on shore.
Operation Perch
Following the failure of the British 3rd Infantry Division to capture Caen on 6–7 June, the new plan envisioned I Corps and XXX Corps striking south to encircle the city and for the landing of the 1st Airborne Division, codenamed Operation Wild Oats. I Corps would form the eastern pincer, XXX Corps the western and the paratroopers would land between the two to complete the encirclement of the city and to prevent any German withdrawal from Caen. The 51st (Highland) Infantry Division from I Corps was to push south out of the Orne bridgehead to capture the town of Cagny six miles southeast of Caen. 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division and 8th Armoured Brigade were ordered to strike south from their lodgement created on 6 June to capture the town of Bayeux (another D-Day objective which had not been captured) and then capture the town of Tilly-sur-Seulles. Once Tilly-sur-Seulles had been captured, the 7th Armoured Division would pass through the 50th (Northumbrian) and push south to capture the town of Villers-Bocage before turning east to capture the town of Évrecy.
During the remainder of the month, the brigade was deployed in support of 49th and 50th Divisions. Fighting was almost continuous in the area from Rauray, Vendes, Tessel Wood and Fontenay, Lingèvres, Cristot and Le Parc du Bois Londes.
Casualties were heavy and 124 tanks were put out of action in 25 days. The brigade claimed 86 tanks and Self Propelled Guns destroyed, knocked out or captured during the same period. One of the casualties during the early fighting in Normandy was the English war poet, Captain Keith C. Douglas, killed by mortar fire on 9 June.
Race for the Seine and beyond
Order of Battle 1944–1945
4th/7th Dragoon Guards (4/7 DG)
13th/18th Hussars (13/18 H)
Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry (SRY)
147th (Essex Yeomanry) Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery
12th (Queen's Westminsters) Battalion, King's Royal Rifle Corps (K.R.R.C.)
The 13th/18th Hussars had now joined the Brigade from the disbanded 27th Armoured Brigade, replacing the disbanded 24th Lancers. Brigadier Erroll Prior-Palmer, the former commander of the disbanded 27th Armoured Brigade, assumed command of 8th Armoured Brigade.
The orders for the next battle were being given out. The Brigade, less 13th/18th Hussars, was to support the 43rd (Wessex) Division. The 13th/18th Hussars were to support the 50th (Northumbrian) Division, whose objective was the ridge known as Butte du Mont a Vent, ground which dominated that over which the rest of the Brigade were to fight. The 13/18 H and 50th Division captured Amaye-sur-Seulles, while the SRY, with the 7th Battalion, Hampshire Regiment mounted on their tanks, captured Jurques. La Bigne and Loisonniers were also both secured and, in fighting around Le Plessis Grimault, the Brigade captured a Tiger II.
Under the command of 50th Northumbrian, the 4/7 DG were involved in very heavy fighting in the capture of St Pierre La Vieille. The drive south to Conde sur Noireau or Operation Black-water followed. The continuous fighting in support, alternately, of two divisions had its effect; casualties had been heavy. The 5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards and the 86th (East Anglian) (Hertfordshire Yeomanry) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery who, like the Essex Yeomanry, had Sexton self-propelled 25 pounders, were placed under command.
On 17 August, again under 43rd Division, the Sherwood Rangers were involved in the crossing of the River Noireau. By the evening of the 17th, the infantry had joined them in the St Honorine area, well beyond the river, and a great battle which had lasted for nineteen days and had caused many casualties, came to an end.
Crossing the Seine
The 4th/7th Royal Dragoon Guards carried out an operation to clear the forest of Laigle and then pressed on to the Seine at Vernon. For three whole days the remainder of the Brigade remained static. The river-crossing operation that followed was mounted from a point 120 miles west of the river. The 43rd Division completed the approach march in 36 hours, crossing the 200-yard wide river from the centre of Vernon within 2 hours of their arrival. The assault, led by the tanks of the 4/7 DG on rafts, was launched at 1900hrs on 25 August under an intense artillery barrage and smoke screen. Other tanks drove down all streets leading to the West bank at zero hour, opening fire at point blank range across the river.
Casualties in men and equipment were considerable, but within 72 hours the bridgehead was over 4 miles deep and the Royal Engineers had constructed a 680-foot folding bridge over which the remaining tanks of the 4/7 DG were able to cross.
Now the Brigade was again to be given an independent role. Instructions from General Horrocks were to cross the river immediately, to fork right and open up the route to the Somme for the Guards Armoured Division.
The SRY, 12th K.R.R.C and 13/18 H were moved across on the afternoon of 28 August, at the same time the 4/7 DG reverted to Brigade command. At dawn on the 29th, the Brigade advanced. The axis lay along the valley of the tributary river Epte towards Dangu and Gisors, the road dominated by high ground on both sides. The SRY made a left flanking attack through the Bois de Baquet to come in behind the enemy at St Remy, the 13/18 H reached Dangu by nightfall. The next morning the 4/7 DG took the lead and entered Gisors unopposed.
On 31 August, the Brigade joined up with 11th Armoured Division on the Somme at Amiens and next morning the Brigade crossed on a narrow bridge to the west of Amiens and continued the advance on the left of the 11th Armoured Division. By evening, the 13/18 H were through Doullens, where a rearguard action had been fought at the crossing of the river Authie. The 4/7 DG had experienced some fighting at Vignacourt and Canapples on the left but, by evening, they too were up to the Authie.
XXX Corps continued its advance, with Guards Armoured Division to the right and 11th Armoured Division to the left. A column composed of 8th Armoured Brigade, with 50th Reconnaissance Regiment and the 9th Durham Light Infantry under command, provided left flank protection. Two squadrons of the 4/7 DG and two companies of the 12th K.R.R.C reached the centre of Lille, the fourth biggest town in France, without further enemy opposition.
Beyond Brussel and Antwerp
While Brussels and Antwerp had been liberated by the Guards Armoured Division and 11th Armoured Division, German troops were reported moving east in northern Belgium. The 8th Armoured Brigade, with elements of 50th Northumbrian Division, were deployed to form a flank guard screen between Lille and Ghent.
On 7 September, orders were received for the Brigade to march with all speed to the Albert Canal at Beringen, where they were to support the Guards Armoured Division in an attempt to turn the left flank of German 719th Division, who were holding the north bank. The Sherwood Rangers were placed under the command of 50th Northumbrian Division to assault across the Canal further west at Gheel. By midday on 8 September, the leading elements of the 4/7 DG and 12th K.R.R.C were over the canal. The Brigade was now stood down for the first period of rest since D-Day.
Market Garden
Operation Market Garden (17–25 September 1944) was intended to secure a series of bridges over the main rivers of the German-occupied Netherlands to allow rapid advance by armoured units through large-scale use of airborne forces.
The operation was initially successful, with the capture of the Waal bridge at Nijmegen on 20 September. But it was a failure overall, since the planned Allied advance across the Rhine at Arnhem had to be abandoned. The British 1st Airborne Division did not secure the bridge at Arnhem and, although they managed to hold out near the bridge far longer than planned, the British XXX Corps failed to relieve them.
After four days of rest, the Brigade moved off after the Guards Armoured Division, who were to link up with the Airborne forces that had dropped at Eindhoven, Grave, Nijmegen and Arnhem in operation "Market Garden". A night march brought the 4/7 DG to Nijmegen, where the bridges over the Waal had been captured the previous day by the 82nd Airborne Division supported by the Guards Armoured Division.
On the evening of 23 September, B Sqn of the 4/7 DG, carrying troops from the 5th Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry on their tanks, formed a column and having broken the ring round the Nijmegen bridge moved at speed round the west of Elst for the north edge of "The Island" opposite Arnhem. The plan succeeded and, shortly after dark, the leading Troop made contact with the Polish paratroops, who were on the south bank of the Neder Rijn, and the much needed stores and ammunition were handed over in DUKWs.
The 13/18 H was involved in operations against the village of Elst with the 4th Wiltshire Regiment, and also in the clearing of ground to the West with 130th Infantry Brigade. To the southeast of Nijmegen, the SRY made history, in company with the US 82nd Airborne Division, by capturing the village of Beek and establishing itself as the first British troops to enter Germany.
The Brigade now became responsible for the "Western Approaches"; the 12th K.R.R.C. and 43rd Reconnaissance Regiment were deployed in defence along an extended front, which was subject to frequent raids.
October was spent on the defensive, which included blunting the German counterattack against the Nijmegen salient. On 18 October, the formation handed over the responsibilities for the "Western Approaches" to the US 101st Airborne Division and took over a similar responsibility on the "Western Approaches" to Nijmegen. Throughout the period, one regiment supported the 43rd Division to the southeast of Nijmegen overlooking the Reichswald Forest, one regiment remained with the US 101st Airborne Division and the third rested west of the town.
The line held by 8th Armoured Brigade stretched approximately 15 miles along the Maas and the Waal. The troops consisted of the 12th K.R.R.C., 43rd Reconnaissance Regiment, a Sqn of the RAF Regiment and members of the Dutch Resistance.
At the conclusion of the battle, the Brigade now became Corps mobile reserve.
Into Germany
Operation Clipper
Operation Clipper was the code name for an assault on the Siegfried line. It was conducted by the British XXX Corps (which included the U.S. 84th Infantry Division) to reduce the Geilenkirchen salient between 18 and 22 November 1944. The operation was carried out by two divisions, the 43rd (Wessex) Division, and the 83rd Infantry Division (United States) (Railsplitters) supported by the brigade. Extensive use was made of specialised tanks, Sherman Crab 'Flails' of the Lothians and Border Horse to clear minefields, Churchill Tank 'Crocodiles' to attack pillboxes and Grant Canal Defence Light tanks to assist night operations. Heavy rain hampered operations in particular armoured mobility. Despite all original objectives not being taken, the purpose of the attack was achieved, allowing US forces room to manoeuvre as part of Operation Queen.
Operation Blackcock
Operation Blackcock was the code name for the clearing of the Roer Triangle formed by the towns of Roermond, Sittard and Heinsberg. It was conducted by the British Second Army between 14 and 26 January 1945. The objective was to drive the German 15th Army back across the Rivers Rur and Wurm and move the frontline further into Germany. The operation was carried out under command of Lieutenant General Neil Ritchie's XII Corps, by three divisions, the 7th Armoured Division, the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division and the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division. The operation, named after the Scottish black male grouse, is relatively unknown despite the sometimes fierce battles that were fought for each and every village and hamlet within the "Roer Triangle".
The brigade was now under the command of XII Corps. The next operation, known as "Blackcock", was to begin as soon as the ground, by now completely snow-covered, would carry tanks. Its object was to destroy all German troops east of the Koer between Roermond, Geilenkirchen and Sittard. The SRY was to support the 52nd (Lowland) Division in a frontal attack, while the rest of the brigade, with the 155th Infantry Brigade under command, was to operate independently under 7th Armoured Division. The plan was to follow close on the heels of the 7th Armoured Division, break-out at the northern end of the line and then to turn sharp right, coming down behind all the German positions confronting the 52nd (Lowland) Division.
The 4/7 DG fought their way forward throughout the night of the 18 and crossed the brook with success, by morning they were on the outskirts of Konigsbosch. Further efforts were made to cross throughout the day but they had to be abandoned due to enemy resistance. The operations of the 4/7 DG with the 4th Battalion, King's Own Scottish Borderers in the rear of the German line had great effect and the frontal attack by 52nd (Lowland) Division met with little resistance. On the evening of 19 January the SRY made contact with the 4/7 DG.
The remainder of the brigade was withdrawn and came under command of the 52nd (Lowland) Division, and the 13/18 H were pushed through to exploit the success of the other two regiments.
Reichswald Forest
The Reichswald Forest lies in Germany, to the east of Nijmegen and between the Rivers Rhine and Maas. The area is wooded and liable to flooding. In 1945, the winter had been wet and the German defenders had allowed the rivers to flood, thus negating the Allied advantages in armour and manpower. They had also had some weeks to prepare their defences and towns had been turned into fortresses.
The Brigade reverted to the command of XXX Corps and moved north via Turnhout. Within a week, the concentration of troops was complete and at 0530 hours on the morning of 8 February the greatest bombardment in history was opened up. Every type and size of weapon took part in a bombardment, which lasted five hours. The Brigade's tanks fired an average of 300 rounds per gun. Progress was made on all fronts for the first six miles. but 53rd (Welsh) Division failed to capture Cleves and the important Marterborn feature. The 43rd Division, with the 8th Armoured Brigade in support, was brought up and, after a fight, Cleve was in British hands. The 4/7 DG and the 214th Infantry Brigade fought through Marterborn to the ground overlooking the Cleve – Goch Railway.
The German reaction was to blow the dykes along the Rhine and masses of water swept across the flat valley, subsidiary dykes burst and the link with Nijmegen, the road through Kranenburg, was flooded to a depth of 3 feet.
To the east of the Cleve, during four days and four nights, the Brigade supported each Infantry Brigade of the 43rd Division in turn in a continuous assault on the position. On the fifth day, the German resistance broke and the 4/7 DG with 214th Infantry Brigade took over 1,000 prisoners.
The Brigade, together with the 53rd (Welsh) division, began operations on 24 February to drive southeast astride the river Niers and to capture Weeze. Under difficult going, a halt was called until the 51st (Highland) Division and British 3rd Division came up level. Two days later, a further assault upon the Weeze defences was launched, supported by flame-throwing tanks. By dark, the town was surrounded on three sides and during the night patrols entered the outskirts.
The Brigade, less 13/18 H, and with 1st Battalion, Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry under command advanced through Weeze by early afternoon and entered Kevelaer early next morning and the 4/7 DG with 1st Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry pushed on to Geldern. On the outskirts of Geldern, the 4/7 DG and B Coy, 12th King's Royal Rifle Corps encountered tank fire on the outskirts of Geldern and then discovered that their opponents were the leading elements of the Ninth United States Army. This constituted the first link-up between the British and American forces.
The following day the Brigade was informed they were required for Operation "Plunder", the crossing of the Rhine.
Operation Plunder
Commencing on the night of 23 March 1945, Operation Plunder was the crossing of the Rhine river at Rees, Wesel, and south of the Lippe Canal by the British Second Army, under Lieutenant-General Sir Miles Dempsey (Operation Turnscrew, Operation Widgeon, and Operation Torchlight), and the US Ninth Army, (Operation Flashpoint), under Lieutenant General William Simpson. XVIII US Airborne Corps, consisting of British 6th Airborne Division and US 17th Airborne Division, conducted Operation Varsity. All of these formations were part of the 21st Army Group under Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery. This was part of a coordinated set of Rhine crossings.
The 8th Armoured Brigade now had four Armoured Regiments, as the Staffordshire Yeomanry returned under Brigade command after they had converted to Duplex Drive tanks under the 79th Armoured Division. The Brigade was to support 51st (Highland) Division in the Rhine crossing.
On 23 March, at 2100 hours, the leading elements of 51st (Highland) Division crossed the Rhine in assault craft just north of Rees. They were followed by the DD tanks of C Sqn, Staffordshire Yeomanry. The remainder of the Regiment crossed at first light and were up with the infantry before any enemy counter-attack could be launched. On the evening of 24 March, the 4/7 DG began to cross, followed in the next two days by the 13/18 H and the SRY. On 27 March, Brigade HQ, 12th K.R.R.C. and the Essex Yeomanry made the crossing. For seven days the Brigade then supported 51st (Highland) Division, 43rd Division and the 9th Canadian Infantry Brigade, who were involved in fighting within the bridgehead. On 28 March, Ijsselburg was captured and the road from Anhoh to Gendringen was in allied hands.
On 30 March, the Brigade moved forward with 4th Somerset Light Infantry in Kangaroo personnel carriers under command. By evening, the outskirts of Varsseveld were reached and 12th K.R.R.C. were in Silvolde.
The next objective was to seize a crossing of the Twente Canal at Lochem. At dawn on 31 March, a battle took place at Ruurlo, but the advance continued to Lochem and the Brigade covered 25 miles during the day. The next objective was to capture crossings south of Delden. The 12th K.R.R.C. advanced towards Delden, and the next day linked up with the forward troops of 4th Canadian Armoured Division advancing from their bridge-head over the Twente Canal. The advance continued with the objective being Bremen, still over 100 miles distant. The Brigade was next deployed to support 214th Infantry Brigade with 13/18 H and 129th Infantry Brigade with 4/7 DG. The SRY was placed in reserve with 130th Infantry Brigade.
On 11 April, 130 Infantry Brigade and the SRY took the lead and two days later were on the outskirts of Kloppenburg, where fighting continued into the night before the town fell. The last main road from Bremen to the Netherlands had been severed. On the same day the 8th Armoured Brigade, with 4/7 DG, 12th K.R.R.C. and Essex Yeomanry, was placed under command of British 3rd Infantry Division, which was some 75 miles away to the east. The SRY and 13/18 H were left with 43rd (Wessex) Division.
3rd Division were engaged with the enemy in the numerous villages south of Bremen and on 15 April a series of attacks began. After several days of fighting, 3rd Division had captured all the ground south of the flooded area. It was now decided to cross the Weser upstream at Verden, where a bridge had been secured, and to attack Bremen from the east. The 52nd (Lowland) Division were to attack with their left on the river, while 43rd Division were to be on their right supported by 8th Armoured Brigade, less 4/7 DG who were to remain with 3rd Division.
On 4 May, Brigade HQ was at the village of Rhadereistedt, when the following message was received from the Commander XXX Corps: ‘’Germans surrendered unconditionally at 1820 hours. Hostilities on all Second Army front will cease at 0800 hours tomorrow 5 May 45. NO repeat NO advance beyond present front line without orders from me.’’
Occupation of Hannover
The 8th Armoured Brigade was to proceed south and take over Hannover from the United States Army. Brigade HQ moved to the city on 17 May, the Regiments on 19 May, and the Brigade took over the responsibility for Hannover Stadtkreis and Landkreis on 22 May, from the US 84th Infantry Division.
Hannover which had housed 475,000 inhabitants was now 75% destroyed and still held 300,000 Germans. All rail lines were severed and canals were filled with bridge wreckage, all important roads were cratered. A critical food situation was not simplified by the lack of officials, all prominent Nazis having decamped.
When some order had been restored, it was found that the Brigade was responsible for 45,000 displaced persons of 22 nationalities in 361 camps. All were in rags and hungry, sanitation was a thing of the past and most of their huts were suffering from bomb damage. In addition, there were 2,000 Polish former prisoners of war, whose condition was hardly better than the displaced persons, and 22,000 German prisoners of war.
To replace losses and changes, the 107 Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment R.A., 113 Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment R.A, 5th Reconnaissance Regiment and 4th (Durham) Survey Regiment R.A. came under command of the Brigade. The Staffordshire Yeomanry returned to the Brigade and the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry also rejoined the formation at Hannover. The 13th/18th Hussars had left to join 5th Infantry Division in a permanent post-war role of Divisional Cavalry.
Soon the news was received that the Brigade was to disband and that the Yeomanry Regiments were to pass into a state of "suspended animation". At the end of January, the 12th Battalion, The King's Royal Rifle Corps disbanded and during February all ranks of the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry and the Staffordshire Yeomanry were posted away or discharged. The Headquarters disbanded on 20 March 1946.
After the reformation of the Territorial Army in 1947, it joined the 49th Armoured Division as 8th (Yorkshire) Armoured Brigade. The Brigade left the 49th Division in 1956, and later disbanded.
Order of battle, Second World War
The Brigade was composed as follows during the war:
Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry (until 30 August 1945)
Staffordshire Yeomanry (until 13 February 1944)
Royal Scots Greys (until 30 June 1942)
3rd Royal Tank Regiment (from 12 July 1942 until 6 February 1944)
24th Lancers (from 8 February 1944 until 29 July 1944)
4th/7th Royal Dragoon Guards (from 27 February 1944)
13th/18th Royal Hussars (from 29 July 1944)
1st Battalion, Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment) (from 14 March 1942 until 17 June 1943)
7th Battalion, Rifle Brigade (Prince Consort's Own) (from 1 July 1943 until 3 November 1943)
12th (Queen's Westminsters) Battalion, King's Royal Rifle Corps (from 11 March 1944)
Commanders
The following officers commanded the
Brigade during the war:
Brigadier L.S. Lloyd (until 2 October 1941)
Colonel R.C. Cooney (acting, from 2 to 21 October 1941)
Brigadier E.C.N. Cunstance (from 21 October 1941 until 24 January 1943)
Brigadier C.B.C. Harvey (from 24 January 1943 until 4 October 1943)
Brigadier O.L. Prior Palmer (from 4 October 1943 until 12 November 1943)
Colonel R.C. Joy (acting, from 12 November 1943 until 10 January 1944)
Brigadier J.H. Anstice (from 10 January 1944 until 18 March 1944)
Brigadier H.F.S. Cracroft (from 18 March 1944 until 3 July 1944)
Colonel A.D.R. Wingfield (acting, from 3 to 18 July 1944)
Lieutenant Colonel R.G. Byron (acting, from 18 to 29 July 1944)
Brigadier G.E. Prior Palmer (from 29 July 1944)
Order of battle, 1947
Yorkshire Hussars, York
Queen's Own Yorkshire Dragoons, Doncaster
East Riding of Yorkshire Yeomanry, Hull
45th (Leeds Rifles) Royal Tank Regiment
Major Formations 8th Armoured Brigade served under
North Africa
Eighth Army
X Corps
XXX Corps
New Zealand Corps
10th Armoured Division
7th Armoured Division
2nd New Zealand Division
North West Europe
Second Army
XXX Corps
XII Corps
50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division
49th (West Riding) Infantry Division
43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division
52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division
3rd Infantry Division
See also
British Armoured formations of World War II
List of British brigades of the Second World War
Notes
References
External links
http://www.warlinks.com/armour/8th_armoured/chapter_1.html
https://web.archive.org/web/20080621202423/http://warchronicle.com/staffsyeo/historiantales_wwii/northafricareg.htm
https://web.archive.org/web/20080423181344/http://warchronicle.com/units/British/contents.htm
Armoured brigades of the British Army
Armoured brigades of the British Army in World War II
Military units and formations established in 1941
Military units and formations disestablished in 1956
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand%20evaluation
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Hand evaluation
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In contract bridge, various bidding systems have been devised to enable partners to describe their hands to each other so that they may reach the optimum contract. Key to this process is that players evaluate and re-evaluate the trick-taking potential of their hands as the auction proceeds and additional information about partner's hand and the opponent's hands becomes available.
Hand evaluation methods assess various features of a hand, including: its high card strength, shape or suit , , fit with partner, quality of suits and quality of the whole hand. The methods range from basic to complex, requiring partners to have the same understandings and agreements about their application in their bidding system.
Basic point-count system
Most bidding systems use a basic point-count system for hand evaluation using a combination of high card points and distributional points, as follows.
High card points
First published in 1915 by Bryant McCampbell in Auction Tactics (page 26), the 4-3-2-1 count for honours was not established by computer analysis (as is sometimes rumoured) but was derived from the game Auction Pitch. Although 'Robertson's Rule' for bidding (the 7-5-3 count) had been in use for more than a dozen years, McCampbell sought a more "simple scale of relative values. The Pitch Scale is the easiest to remember. (Those ... who have played Auction Pitch will have no difficulty in recognizing and remembering these values.)"
Called the Milton Work Point Count when popularized by him in the early Thirties and then the Goren Point Count when re-popularized by Work's disciple Charles Goren in the Fifties, and now known simply as the high-card point (HCP) count, this basic evaluation method assigns numeric values to the top four honour cards as follows:
ace = 4 HCP
king = 3 HCP
queen = 2 HCP
jack = 1 HCP
Evaluating a hand on this basis takes due account of the fact that there are 10 HCP in each suit and therefore 40 in the complete deck of cards. An average hand contains one quarter of the total, i.e. 10 HCP. The method has the dual benefits of simplicity and practicality, especially in notrump contracts. Most bidding systems are based upon the premise that a better than average hand is required to open the bidding; 12 HCP is generally considered the minimum for most opening bids.
Limitations
The combined HCP count between two balanced hands is generally considered to be a good indication, all else being equal, of the number of tricks likely to be made by the partnership. The rule of thumb for games and slams in notrump is as follows:
25 HCP are necessary for game, i.e. 3 NT
33 HCP are necessary for a small slam, i.e. 6 NT
37 HCP are necessary for a grand slam, i.e. 7 NT
A simple justification for 37 HCP being suitable for a grand slam is that it is the lowest number that guarantees the partnership holding all the aces. Similarly 33 HCP is the lowest number that guarantees at least three aces.
Although mostly effective for evaluating the combined trick-taking potential of two balanced hands played in notrump, even in this area of applicability the HCP is not infallible. Jeff Rubens gives the following example:
Both East hands are exactly the same, and both West hands have the same shape, the same HCP count, and the same high cards. The only difference between the West hands is that two low red cards and one low black card have been swapped (between the heart suit and the diamond suit, and between the spade suit and the club suit, respectively).
With a total of 34 HCP in the combined hands, based on the above-mentioned HCP-requirement for slam, most partnerships would end in a small slam (12 tricks) contract. Yet, the left layout produces 13 tricks in notrump, whilst the right layout on a diamond lead would fail to produce more than 10 tricks in notrump. In this case, the difference in trick-taking potential is due to duplication in the high card values: in the bottom layout the combined 20 HCP in spades and diamonds results in only five tricks. Because such duplication can often not be detected during bidding, the high card point method of hand evaluation, when used alone, provides only a preliminary estimate of the trick-taking potential of the combined hands and must be supplemented by other means for improved accuracy, particularly for unbalanced hands.
Accordingly, expert players use HCP as a starting point in the evaluation of their hands, and make adjustments based on:
refinements to the HCP valuation for certain holdings,
the use of additional point values for hand shape or distribution (known as distribution points), and
bidding techniques to determine the specifics of any control cards held by partner.
Collectively, these more effectively evaluate the combined holdings of a partnership.
Refinements
For aces and tens
The 4-3-2-1 high card point evaluation has been found to statistically undervalue aces and tens and alternatives have been devised to increase a hand's HCP value.
To adjust for aces, Goren recommended deducting one HCP for a hand without any aces and adding one for holding four aces. Some adjust for tens by adding 1/2 HCP for each. Alternatively, some treat aces and tens as a group and add one HCP if the hand contains three or more aces and tens; Richard Pavlicek advocates adding one HCP if holding four or more aces and tens.
For unguarded honours
Goren and others recommend deducting one HCP for a singleton king, queen, or jack.
Alternative scale
Marty Bergen claims that with the help of computers, bridge theorists have devised a more accurate valuation of the honors as follows:
ace = 4.5 HCP
king = 3 HCP
queen = 1.5 HCP
jack = 0.75 HCP
ten = 0.25
Note that this scale keeps the 40 high card point system intact. The scale may seem cumbersome, but if one considers the ace and ten honors "hard" and the queen and jack honors "soft" it is much easier to accurately count high card points by using the familiar 4-3-2-1 system and then adjusting. One can see that the ace and queen have something in common in that they are both "off" by a half point. The jack and ten are also both "off" by a quarter point. So for example, a hand with one of each honor (A, K, Q, J, 10) would be counted as 10 HCP. Since the hard and soft values are equal (the ace and queen cancel out, and the jack and ten cancel out), there is no adjustment. On the other hand, to take an extreme example, a hand with four aces and four tens (no kings, queens, or jacks) would be counted at 16 HCP at first, but since it holds eight hard values and no soft values, it is adjusted to 19 HCP.
Bergen's “computer” scale appears to be identical to the “high card value of the Four Aces System” found on the front inside cover and on page 5 of the 1935 book, The Four Aces System of Contract Bridge by (alphabetically) David Burnstine, Michael T. Gottlieb, Oswald Jacoby and Howard Schenken. The Four Aces' book (Jacoby may have written most or all of it) gives the simpler 3-2-1- version of the progression. Dividing Bergen's numbers by 1.5 produces exactly the same numbers published by the Four Aces seven decades earlier:
* Bergen ace = 4.5 ÷ 1.5 = 3 Four Aces Count
* Bergen king = 3.0 ÷ 1.5 = 2 Four Aces Count
* Bergen queen = 1.5 ÷ 1.5 = 1 Four Aces Count
* Bergen jack = .75 ÷ 1.5 = ½ Four Aces Count — Q.E.D.
Distributional points
In order to improve the accuracy of the bidding process, the high card point count is supplemented by the evaluation of unbalanced or shapely hands using additional simple arithmetic methods. Two approaches are common – evaluation of suit length and evaluation of suit shortness.
Suit length points
At its simplest it is considered that long suits have a value beyond the HCP held: this can be turned into numbers on the following scale:
5-card suit = 1 point
6 card suit = 2 points
7 card suit = 3 points ... etc.
A hand comprising a 5-card suit and a 6-card suit gains points for both, i.e., 1 + 2 making 3 points in total. Other combinations are dealt with in a similar way. These distribution points (sometimes called length points) are added to the HCP to give the total point value of the hand. Confusion can arise because the term "points" can be used to mean either HCP, or HCP plus length points. This method, of valuing both honour cards and long suits, is suitable for use at the opening bid stage before a trump suit has been agreed. In the USA this method of combining HCP and long-card points is known as the point-count system.
Suit shortness points
Once a trump suit has been agreed, or at least a partial fit has been uncovered, it is argued by many that ruffing potential as represented by short suits becomes more significant than long suits. Accordingly, in a method devised by William Anderson of Toronto and popularized by Charles Goren, distribution points are added for shortage rather than length.
When the supporting hand holds three trumps, shortness is valued as follows:
void = 3 points
singleton = 2 points
doubleton = 1 point
When the supporting hand holds four or more trumps, thereby having more spare trumps for ruffing, shortness is valued as follows:
void = 5 points
singleton = 3 points
doubleton = 1 point
Shortage points (also known as support points or dummy points) are added to HCP to give total points.
Combination Count
This method uses both lengths and shortages in all situations. The hand scores two shortage points for a void and one for a singleton, and this total is added to the usual length count: one point is added for each card in a suit beyond four.
An alternative approach is to create a distributional point count of a hand to be added to HCP simply by adding the combined length of the two longest suits, subtracting the length of the shortest suit, and subtracting a further five. On this basis 4333 hands score -1 and all other shapes score a positive distributional count.
Summary
When intending to make a bid in a suit and there is no agreed upon trump suit, add high card points and length points to get the total point value of one's hand. When intending to raise an agreed trump suit, add high card points and shortness points. When making a bid in notrump with intent to play, value high-card points only.
Supplementary methods
The basic point-count system does not solve all evaluation problems and in certain circumstances is supplemented by refinements to the HCP count or by additional methods.
Control count
The control count is a supplementary method that is mainly used in combination with HCP count to determine the trick-taking potential of fitting hands, in particular to investigate slam potential. The use of control count addresses the fact that for suit contracts, aces and kings tend to be undervalued in the standard 4–3–2–1 HCP scale; aces and kings allow declarer better control over the hands and can prevent the opponents from retaining or gaining the lead.
The control count is the sum of the controls where aces are valued as two controls, kings as one control and queens and jacks as zero. This control count can be used as "tie-breakers" for hands evaluated as marginal by their HCP count. Hands with the same shape and the same HCP can have markedly different slam potential depending on the control count.
In the above examples, both West hands are the same, and both East hands have the same shape and HCP (16). Yet, the layout above represents a solid slam (12 tricks) in spades, whilst the layout below will fail to produce 12 tricks. The difference between the East hands becomes apparent when conducting a control count: in the top layout East has two aces and two kings for a total of six controls, whilst in the bottom layout has one ace and two kings for a total of four controls.
The interpretation of the significance of the control count is based upon a publication by George Rosenkranz in the December 1974 issue of The Bridge World. Rosenkranz defined "the expected number of controls in balanced hands" at specific HCP counts as 'control-neutral' in a table similar to the consolidation shown on the left; having more controls is deemed 'control-rich' and having less is 'control-weak'.
The table can be used as tie-breaker for estimating the slam-going potential of hands like the above two East hands. Whilst the top East hand counts 16 HCP, in terms of controls (6) it is equivalent to a hand typically 1–2 HCP stronger, whereas the bottom East hand, also counting 16 HCP, is in terms of controls (4) more equivalent to 12–13 HCP.
If West opens the bidding with 1, both East hands should aim for at least game (4), the partnership having the minimum 26 total points typically required for a game contract in the majors. Despite the spade suit fit, both East hands have marginal slam potential based on their 16 HCP count alone. On the top layout the control-rich East (an upgraded 17–18 HCP) should explore slam and be willing to bypass 4 in doing so, whilst on the bottom layout the control-weak East (a downgraded 12–13 HCP) should be more cautious and be prepared to stop in 4 should further bidding reveal West lacking a control in diamonds.
Having determined the degree of interest in exploring slam possibilities, the methods and conventions to determine which controls (aces, kings and even queens) are held by the partnership include: the Blackwood convention, the Norman four notrump convention, the Roman Key Card Blackwood convention and cuebids.
In his book "The Modern Losing Trick Count", Ron Klinger advocates the use of the control count to make adjustments to the LTC hand evaluation method (see below).
Negative/positive features
Certain combinations of cards have higher or lower trick taking potential than the simple point count methods would suggest. Proponents of this idea suggest that HCP should be deducted from hands where negative combinations occur. Similarly, additional points might be added where positive combinations occur. This method is particularly useful in making difficult decisions on marginal hands, especially for overcalling and in competitive bidding situations. In lieu of arithmetic addition or subtraction of HCP or distributional points, 'plus' or 'minus' valuations may be applied to influence the decision.
Negative features worth less than the HCP suggest:
Honour doubletons K-Q, Q-J. Q-x, J-x unless in partners suit. Although Samuel Stayman recommended deducting one HCP for K-Q, K-J, Q-J,Q-x,J-x Q-x-x, J-x-x holdings, this is now considered extreme.
Honour singletons; some exempt the singleton ace but others consider it inflexible in play.
Honour combinations not accompanied by a small card.
Honours in opponents' suit when deciding to support partner's suit.
Honours in side suits when deciding to overcall.
The club suit when opening because it allows opponents to overcall more easily.
The next suit above RHO's suit when overcalling (unless a very good suit) which gives opponents information but does not cut into their bidding space.
Honours in suits shown by LHO.
Positive features worth more than the HCP suggest:
Honours in long suits.
Two or three honours in long suits (better).
Honour sequences in long suits (best).
Honours in partner's suit when deciding to support it.
Honours in own suit when deciding to overcall.
Two or three intermediate cards in a suit (8, 9 10) especially if headed by honours.
The spade suit when opening ... makes overcalling more difficult.
The next suit below RHO's suit when overcalling reduces the opponents' bidding space.
Honours in suits shown by RHO.
Defensive/attacking values
Certain combinations of cards are better in defence and others are more valuable in attack (i.e. as declarer). There is some overlap with the concept of negative and positive points.
Defensive values that suggest a hand should defend:
Honours in shortish side suits, e.g. Kxx.
Honours and/or length in opponents suit.
Lack of honours in own suit.
Attacking values that suggest a hand should play a contract as declarer or dummy:
Honours in own suit (the more the better).
Lack of defensive values.
This concept is sometimes stated as the "Offence-Defence Ratio" (ODR) of a hand. For example, a suit KQJ10987 will take 6 tricks with this as the trump suit but maybe none in defence; it has a high ODR. If the same cards are randomly scattered through different suits, they are about equally likely to take tricks in attack or defence. Point count or the Losing Trick Count indicate how many tricks a hand is likely to make in offence; a hand with high ODR will tend to be more distributional, with lower HCP, and take less tricks in defence than a hand with the same number of losers but a low ODR. There is no precise numerical statement of the ODR.
Methods to help with opening bids and overcalls on marginal hands
Rule of 22
Add together the number of HCP in the hand, and the number of cards in the two longest suits, and the number of quick tricks in the hand. If the resultant number is 22 or higher, then an opening bid is suggested [the choice of which bid depends on partnership agreement]. In 3rd seat the requirement may be lowered to 19. Quick tricks are: AK=2, AQ=1.5, A=1, KQ=1, Kx[x]=0.5 [singleton K=0]. This formula for evaluating opening bid strength is referred to by Ron Klinger as "Highly Cutie" [HI-LE QT]: HIgh card points + LEngth count + Quick Tricks. The method attempts to improve the widely accepted 'Rule of 20' by emphasizing the importance of defensive values in a one-level opening hand, and by assigning greater value to honor cards that work together in the same suit than to honors that are split between suits.
Rule of 20
Add together the number of HCP in the hand, and the number of cards in the two longest suits. If the resultant number is 20 or higher and most of the high cards are in the long suits, then an opening bid is suggested (the choice of which bid requires further analysis). As an example, a hand containing 11 HCP and 5–4–2–2 shape would qualify for an opening bid because the resultant number would be 20 (11 + 5 + 4) whereas 11 HCP and 4–4–3–2 shape would not (11 + 4 + 4 = 19). This method gives very similar results to length points as above except for a hand containing 11 HCP and 5–3–3–2 shape which gives 19 on the Rule of 20 (insufficient to open) but 12 total points by adding 1 length point to the 11 HCP (sufficient to open). Experience and further analysis are needed to decide which is appropriate.
Rule of 19
Identical to the Rule of 20 but some expert players believe that 20 is too limiting a barrier and prefer 19.
Suit Quality Test (SQT)
The SQT evaluates an individual suit as a precursor to deciding whether, and at what level, certain bids should be made. This method is generally considered useful for making an overcall and for making a preemptive opening bid; it works for long suits i.e. 5 cards at least, as follows:
Add together the number of cards in the suit and the number of high (honour) cards in the suit. For this purpose high cards are considered to be A, K, Q, J and 10 but the J and 10 are only to be counted if at least one of the A, K or Q are present. The resultant number determines the level at which the particular bid should be made (Klinger 1994) according to this scale:
7 = a one level bid
8 = a two level bid
9 = a three level bid .... etc.
An alternative way to look at this is that the bid should be to the level of the number of tricks equal to the SQT number.
This method was originally proposed as a way of enabling overcalls to be made with relatively few HCP but with little risk. It can also be used to determine whether a hand is suitable for a preemptive bid.
Methods to help when a fit has been discovered
Paraphrasing Crowhurst and Kambites (1992), "Experts often sail into an unbeatable slam with only 25 HCP whereas it would never occur to most players to proceed beyond game".
For example, holding with the auction shown on the left, they point out that the bidding indicates at least 6/3 in spades and 5/3 in diamonds. If partner has 3 aces (easily discovered), a grand slam (13 tricks: 6, 1, 5, 1) is likely. This grand slam can easily be bid despite the partnership holding around 29 HCP only (12 in hand above plus 17 in the hand bidding the jump shift (1 – 3)). At lower levels it is harder to be as precise but Crowhust & Kambites advise "With a good fit bid aggressively but with a misfit be cautious". Some of the methods that follow are designed to use arithmetic in the evaluation of hands that fit with partner's.
Losing-Trick Count (LTC)
Once a trump fit has been found, this alternative (to HCP) method is used in situations where shape and fit are of more significance than HCP in determining the optimum level of a suit contract. The "losing-tricks" in a hand are added to the systemically assumed losing tricks in partners hand (7 for an opening bid of 1 of a suit) and the resultant number is deducted from 24; the net figure is the number of tricks a partnership can expect to win when playing in the agreed trump suit.
The basic method assumes that an ace will never be a loser, nor will a king in a 2+ card suit, nor a queen in a 3+ card suit, thus
a void = 0 losing tricks.
a singleton other than an A = 1 losing trick.
a doubleton AK = 0, Ax or KQ = 1, Kx = 1, xx = 2 losing tricks.
a three card suit AKQ = 0, AKx = , AQx = 1, KQx = 1 losing trick.
a three card suit Axx = 1, Kxx = 2, Qxx = 2, xxx = 3 losing tricks.
suits longer than three cards are judged according to the three highest cards; no suit may have more than 3 losing tricks.
A typical opening hand, e.g. AKxxx Axxx Qx xx, has 7 losers (1+2+2+2=7). To calculate how high to bid, responder adds the number of losers in their hand to the assumed number in opener's hand (7). The total number of losers is subtracted from 24. The answer is the total number of tricks available to the partnership, and this should be the next bid by responder. Thus following an opening bid of 1:
partner jumps to game with no more than 7 losers in hand and a fit with partner's heart suit (3 if playing 5-card majors) ... 7 + 7 = 14 subtract from 24 = 10 tricks.
With 8 losers in hand and a fit, responder bids 3 (8+7=15 which deducted from 24 = 9 tricks).
With 9 losers and a fit, responder bids 2.
With only 5 losers and a fit, a slam is likely so responder may bid straight to 6 if preemptive bidding seems appropriate or take a slower forcing approach.
LTC refined
Thinking that the method tended to overvalue unsupported queens and undervalue supported jacks, Eric Crowhurst and Andrew Kambites refined the scale, as have others:
AQ doubleton = loser according to Ron Klinger.
Kx doubleton = 1 losers according to others.
AQJ = loser ... not one.
KQJ = 1 loser.
AJ10 = 1 loser according to Harrison-Gray.
KJ10 = 1 losers according to Bernard Magee.
QJ10 = 2 losers.
Qxx = 3 losers (or possibly 2.5) unless trumps, or unless partner has bid the suit.
Subtract a loser if there is a known 9-card trump fit.
In his book The Modern Losing Trick Count, Ron Klinger advocates adjusting the number of loser based on the control count of the hand believing that the basic method undervalues an ace but overvalues a queen and undervalues short honor combinations such as Qx or a singleton king. Also it places no value on cards jack or lower.
Bernard Magee also points out that the LTC can overvalue doubletons. A hand with two doubletons will usually have more immediate losers than one with a singleton and 3 cards in the other suit. The older "shortage points" method values the second hand type higher.
New Losing Trick Count (NLTC)
Main article New Losing Trick Count
Extending these thoughts, most experts agree that basic LTC undervalues Aces and overvalues Queens. In addition, many believe that worthless singletons and doubletons are generally overvalued. Recent insights on these issues have led to the New Losing Trick Count (The Bridge World, May 2003). For more precision, this method utilizes the concept of half-losers and, more important, distinguishes between 'Ace-losers', 'King-losers' and 'Queen-losers.' Considering only the three highest ranking cards in each suit:
missing Ace = three half-losers (1.5 losers)
missing King = two half-losers (1.0 loser)
missing Queen = one half-loser (0.5 losers)
Adopters of NLTC should note that all singletons, except singleton A, are counted as three half-losers (1.5 losers), and all doubletons that are missing both the A and K are counted as five half-losers (2.5 losers). Like basic LTC, no suit contains more than three losers, so with NLTC, three small cards in a suit are counted as six half-losers (3.0 losers).
A typical opening bid is assumed to have 15 or fewer half-losers, or 7.5 losers, which is half a loser more compared to basic LTC. NLTC also differs from LTC in the fact that it utilises a value of 25 (instead of 24 with basic LTC) in determining the trick-taking potential of two partnering hands. Hence, in NLTC the expected number of tricks equates to 25 minus the sum of the losers in the two hands (i.e. half the sum of the half-losers in both hands). So, 15 half-losers opposite 15 half-losers leads to 25-(15+15)/2 = 10 tricks.
Similar to basic LTC, users may employ an alternative formula to determine the appropriate contract level. The NLTC alternative formula is 19 (instead of 18 with basic LTC) minus the sum of the losers in the two hands (i.e. half the sum of the half-losers in both hands) = the suggested contract level to which the partnership should bid. So, 15 half-losers opposite 15 half-losers leads to 19-(15+15)/2 = 4-level contract. Players already familiar with this formula will recognize the difference between 25 (total projected tricks) and 19 (projected contract level) as the number of tricks required by declarer to secure a "book", which is 6.
There is no evidence that this method is better than the original losing trick count.
Law of Total Tricks, Total Trumps Principle, TNT (Total Number of Trumps = Total Number of Tricks)
For shapely hands where a trump fit has been agreed, the combined length of the trump suit can be more significant than points or HCP in deciding on the level of the final contract. It is of most value in competitive bidding situations where the HCP are divided roughly equally between the partnerships.
Bridge: TNT and Competitive Bidding (1981) was probably the first major book on this topic. In the introduction the authors acknowledge Jean-René Vernes as the first writer to delve into the TNT (Total Number of Tricks) Theory. This book and these authors are little known in North America. What a shame! They touch several aspects of TNT that are rarely mentioned by others. Chapter Four on Total Distribution is worth the price (if you can locate a used copy of this out-of-print book). Page 19 carries a key table that may not be printed elsewhere.
The Law of Total Tricks states that "On every hand of bridge, the total number of tricks available is equal to, or very close to, the total number of cards in each side's longest suit". Total tricks is defined as the sum of the number of tricks available to each side if they could choose trumps.
The Total Trumps Principle is derived from the Law of Total Tricks and argues that this is more often than not a winning strategy, "Bid to the contract equal to the number of trumps you and your partner hold (and no higher) in a competitive auction".
In 2002, Anders Wirgren called the accuracy of the "law" into question, saying it works on only 40% of deals. However, Larry Cohen remains convinced it is a useful guideline, especially when adjustments are used properly. Mendelson (1998) finds that it is "accurate to within one trick on the vast majority of hands"
Methods to help with strong hands
Hands with relatively solid long suits have a trick taking potential not easily measured by the basic pointcount methods (e.g. a hand containing 13 spades will take all 13 tricks if spades are trumps, but will only score 19 on the point count method, 10 HCP + 9 length point). For such hands, playing tricks is deemed more suitable. Responding to such hands is best made considering quick tricks.
Quick Tricks
Quick tricks are similar to, but not the same as, Honor Tricks in the Culbertson system. They are calculated suit by suit as follows:
2 quick tricks = AK of the same suit
1 quick tricks = AQ in the same suit
1 quick trick = A
1 quick trick = KQ in the same suit
quick trick = Kx (not K singleton)
This method is used when replying to very strong suit opening bids such as the Acol 2 where 1 quick tricks are needed to make a positive response (Klinger 1994).
Playing Tricks
For relatively strong hands containing long suits (e.g. an Acol 2 opener), playing tricks are defined as the number of tricks expected, with no help from partner, given that the longest suit is trumps. Thus for long suits the ace, king and queen are counted together with all cards in excess of 3 in the suit; for short suits only clear winner combinations are counted:
A = 1, AK = 2, AKQ = 3
KQ = 1, KQJ = 2
An Acol strong 2 of a suit opening bid is made on 8 playing tricks (Landy 1998)
More advanced methods
Zar Points
This statistically derived method for evaluating Contract Bridge hands was developed by Zar Petkov. It attempts to account for many of the factors outlined above in a numerical way.
Visualisation
A key differentiator between the bidding effectiveness of experts versus laymen is the use of hand visualisation during all stages of bidding.
In his book The Secrets of Winning Bridge, Jeff Rubens advises to focus on just a few hands that partner might be holding, and more particularly on perfect minimum hands compatible with the bidding. This means that in order to reach an informed decision in, for example, deciding whether a hand is worth an invitation to game or slam, a player should 'visualise' the most balanced distribution with the minimum HCP partner might have with the high cards selected such that these fit precisely with your own hand. He advises that "your hand is worth an invitation to game (or slam) if this perfect minimum holding for partner will make it a laydown".
Rubens gives the following example:
QJ2
A32
KQJ54
A3
Partner opens 1. A minimum hand compatible with the bidding would have no more than 12 HCP, and be relatively balanced (i.e. 5332). The hand would be perfect if partner's points were solely located in spades and diamond. So a perfect minimum would be:
AK543
654
A2
542
Such a perfect minimum would give a solid slam in spades whereas reliance on HCP would not indicate a slam possibility. This is the advantage of the 'visualisation' method.
References
Citations
Also: 1950, 1954
,
Further reading
— (2009) The Modern Losing Trick Count: Bidding to Win at Contract Bridge (13th impression). London: by Cassell in association with Peter Crawley, pp. 143. .
, .
External links
Advanced hand evaluation theory by Thomas Andrews
Guidelines for hand evaluation for beginners – Karen's Bridge Library
Basic hand evaluation for opening one-bids – Karen's Bridge Library
Basic hand evaluation criteria – Pattaya Bridge Club
Jeff Goldsmith website for software hand evaluators based on approaches by Kaplan and Rubens and by Danny Kleinman
Environmental factors affecting hand evaluation – BridgeHands
Hand Evaluation articles and ideas
A General Method for Valuing Bridge Hand Distributions
Hand Evaluation – Marty Bergen
Contract bridge
Contract bridge bidding
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaplasticity
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Metaplasticity
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Metaplasticity is a term originally coined by W.C. Abraham and M.F. Bear to refer to the plasticity of synaptic plasticity. Until that time synaptic plasticity had referred to the plastic nature of individual synapses. However this new form referred to the plasticity of the plasticity itself, thus the term meta-plasticity. The idea is that the synapse's previous history of activity determines its current plasticity. This may play a role in some of the underlying mechanisms thought to be important in memory and learning such as long-term potentiation (LTP), long-term depression (LTD) and so forth. These mechanisms depend on current synaptic "state", as set by ongoing extrinsic influences such as the level of synaptic inhibition, the activity of modulatory afferents such as catecholamines, and the pool of hormones affecting the synapses under study. Recently, it has become clear that the prior history of synaptic activity is an additional variable that influences the synaptic state, and thereby the degree, of LTP or LTD produced by a given experimental protocol. In a sense, then, synaptic plasticity is governed by an activity-dependent plasticity of the synaptic state; such plasticity of synaptic plasticity has been termed metaplasticity. There is little known about metaplasticity, and there is much research currently underway on the subject, despite its difficulty of study, because of its theoretical importance in brain and cognitive science. Most research of this type is done via cultured hippocampus cells or hippocampal slices.
Hebbian plasticity
The brain is "plastic", meaning it can be molded and formed. This plasticity is what allows you to learn throughout your lifetime; your synapses change based on your experience. New synapses can be made, old ones destroyed, or existing ones can be strengthened or weakened. The original theory of plasticity is called "Hebbian plasticity", named after Donald Hebb in 1949. A quick but effective summary of Hebbian theory is that "cells that fire together, wire together", together being the key word here which will be explained shortly. Hebb described an early concept of the theory, not the actual mechanics themselves. Hebbian plasticity involves two mechanisms: LTP and LTD, discovered by Bliss and Lomo in 1973. LTP, or long-term potentiation, is the increase of synapse sensitivity due to a prolonged period of activity in both the presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron. This prolonged period of activity is normally concentrated electric impulses, usually around 100 Hz. It is called "coincidence" detection in that it only strengthens the synapse if there was sufficient activity in both the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells. If the postsynaptic cell does not become sufficiently depolarized then there is no coincidence detection and LTP/LTD do not occur. LTD, or long-term depression, works the same way however it focuses on a lack of depolarization coincidence. LTD can be induced by electrical impulses at around 5 Hz. These changes are synapse specific. A neuron can have many different synapses all controlled via the same mechanisms defined here.
The earliest proposed mechanism for plastic activity is based around glutamate receptors and their ability to change in number and strength based on synapse activity. Glutamate binds two main receptor types: AMPA receptors (AMPARs) and NMDA receptors (NMDARs). These are named after drugs that bind to the receptors: alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), respectively, but they both bind glutamate. When a glutamatergic synapse releases glutamate it binds to any AMPA and the NMDA receptors present in the postsynaptic membrane. The AMPA receptors are ionotropic receptors that are responsible for fast synaptic transmission. In a nutshell the NMDA receptors evoke a response in the cell only when sufficient glutamate has been transmitted to cause that cell to depolarize enough to unblock the NMDA receptor. Sufficient depolarization in the membrane will cause the magnesium cation blockade in the NMDA receptors to vacate, thus allowing calcium influx into the cell. NMDA receptors are "coincidence detectors". They determine when the presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron are linked in time via activity. When this occurs, NMDA receptors become the control mechanism that dictates how the AMPA and NMDA receptors are to be rearranged. The rearrangement of AMPA and NMDA receptors has become the central focus of current studies of metaplasticity as it directly determines LTP and LTD thresholds. However, some evidence indicates that G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are responsible for controlling NMDA receptor activity, which suggests that NMDAR-mediated changes in synaptic strength are modulated by the activity of GPCRs. There is large amounts of research focused on finding the specific enzymes and intracellular pathways involved in the NMDAR-mediated modulation of membrane AMPA receptors. Recent biochemical research has shown that a deficiency in the protein tenascin-R (TNR) leads to a metaplastic increase in the threshold for LTP induction. TNR is an extracellular-matrix protein expressed by oligodendrocytes during myelination.
Synaptic states
Research in 2004 has shown that synapses do not strengthen or weaken on a sliding scale. There are discrete states that synapses move between. These states are active, silent, recently silent, potentiated, and depressed. The states which they can move to are dependent on the state that they are in at the moment. Thus, the future state is determined by the state gained by previous activity. For instance, silent (but not recently silent) synapses can be converted to active via the insertion of AMPARs in the postsynaptic membrane. Active synapses can move to either potentiated or depressed via LTP or LTD respectively. Prolonged low-frequency stimulation (5 Hz, the method used to induce LTD) can move an active synapse to depressed and then silent. However, synapses that have just become active cannot be depressed or silenced. Thus there is state-machine-like behavior at the synapse when it comes to transitions. However, the states themselves can have varying degrees of intensity. One active-state synapse can be stronger than another active-state synapse. This is, in theory, how you can have a strong memory vs. a weak memory. The strong memories are the ones with very heavily populated active synapses, while weak memories may still be active but poorly populated with AMPARs. The same research has shown that NMDA receptors themselves, once thought to be the control mechanism behind AMPA receptor organization, can be regulated by synaptic activity. This regulation of the regulation mechanism itself adds another layer of complexity to the biology of the brain.
Synaptic tagging
Recent research has found a mechanism known as synaptic tagging. When new receptor proteins are being expressed and synthesized they must also be transported to the synaptic membrane, and some sort of chemical messaging is required for this. Their research has shown that activation of cAMP/PKA signaling pathways is required for LTP induction due to its "tagging" nature. It was even shown that simple pharmacological activation of cAMP/PKA pathways was sufficient for the synapse to be tagged, completely independent of any sort of activity.
NMDA receptors
The NMDA receptor is made up of three subunits: GluN1 (formerly NR1), a variable GluN2 (formerly NR2) subunit, and a variable GluN3 (formerly NR3) subunit. Two GluN2 subunits in particular have been the subject of intense study: GluN2A and GluN2B. The GluN2B subunit not only is more sensitive to glutamate and takes longer to desensitize, but also allows more calcium entrance into the cell when it opens. A low GluN2A/GluN2B ratio is generally correlated with a decreased threshold of activation caused by rearing animals in light-deprived environments. This has been shown experimentally via light deprivation studies in which it was shown that the GluN2A/B ratio declined. The threshold can be increased in some situations via light exposure. Studies of this nature were used to find the critical period for formation of the visual system in cats. This shifting ratio is a measurement of LTD/LTP threshold and thus has been posited as a metaplasticity mechanism.
Gliotransmitters
Glial cells not only provide structural and nutritional support for neurons, but also provide processing support via chemicals known as gliotransmitters. Gliotransmitters include glutamate, ATP, and, more recently, the amino acid D-serine. Once thought to be glycine itself, D-serine serves as a ligand in the glycine site of NMDARs. D-serine is synthesized by astrocytes and is heavily co-localized with NMDARs. Without D-serine there can be no NMDA-induced neurotoxicity, or almost any NMDA response of any kind. Due to this evidence it is clear that D-serine is an essential ligand for the NMDA receptors. An essential factor in this research is the fact that astrocytes will vary their coverage of neurons based on the physiological processes of the body. Oxytocin and vasopressin neurons will have more NMDA receptors exposed due to astrocyte activity during lactation than during normal functioning. This research took place mostly in cells from the hypothalamic supraoptic nucleus (SON). Due to synaptic plasticity being almost completely dependent on NMDAR processing, dynamic astrocyte NMDAR coverage is by nature a metaplasticity parameter.
Synaptic homeostasis
Homeostatic plasticity manages synaptic connections across the entire cell in an attempt to keep them at manageable connection levels. Hebbian methods tend to drive networks into either a maximized state or a minimized state of firing, thus limiting the potential activity and growth of the network. With homeostatic mechanisms in place there is now a sort of "gain control" which allows these Hebbian methods to be checked in order to maintain their information processing abilities. This kind of modulation is important to combat intense lack of neural activity, such as prolonged sensory deprivation (in this study in particular it is light-deprivation affecting visual cortex neurons) or damage caused by stroke. Synaptic scaling is a mechanism in place to hold synapse sensitivity at normalized levels. Prolonged periods of inactivity increase the sensitivity of the synapses so that their overall activity level can remain useful. Chronic activity causes desensitization of the receptors, lowering overall activity to a more biologically manageable level. Both AMPA and NMDA receptor levels are affected by this process and so the overall "weight" of each synaptic connection (refined by Hebbian methods) is maintained while still increasing the overall level of activity over the entire neuron. It has been shown that both the presynaptic and the postsynaptic neuron are involved in the process, changing the vesicle turnover rate and AMPA receptor composition respectively.
Recent research has found that the calcium-dependent enzyme CaMKII, which exists in an alpha and beta isoform, is key in inactivity-dependent modulation. A low alpha/beta ratio causes an increased threshold for cellular excitation via calcium influx and thus favors LTP.
Memory formation
There are several different stages of sleep, but only two separate types, REM (or rapid-eye movement) and NREM (non-rapid eye movement). NREM sleep is characterized by slow-wave neuronal activity known as theta waves, or delta waves. These slow-wave oscillations occur at very low frequencies, between 0.5 and 4.5 Hz.
A recent hypothesis has come to the surface, integrating sleep and something known as synaptic homeostasis.
The hypothesis comes in four parts:
Wakefulness is associated with synaptic potentiation;
Synaptic potentiation is tied to the regulation of slow-wave activity in sleep;
Slow-wave activity is associated with synaptic depression;
Synaptic downscaling is tied to the beneficial effects of sleep.
Wakefulness is associated with synaptic potentiation: Potentiation is happening all the time: through the many hours we spend reading useless information, or encountering something longer than 5 minutes, i.e. that random person who stood in front of us at the grocery store. Everything that we see, read, or focus on, is being potentiated somewhere in our brain.
Synaptic potentiation is tied to the regulation of slow-wave activity in sleep: Whenever a particular area in our brain receives extensive potentiation from our day, the affected area undergoes more slow-wave activity than its neighbors do.
In essence, the amount of potentiation we receive during our day, effects the type of sleep we get at night. If we spend all day sick and lying in bed, not much potentiation is happening. Sure, the colors of the walls, curtains, bed sheets, etc. but that isn't surprisingly interesting. The amount of slow-wave oscillation activity that would be present at night would not be extensive in the slightest.
Slow-wave activity is associated with synaptic depression: Synaptic depression is the other side to synaptic potentiation. If LTP is formed from strongly depolarizing stimuli, or high frequency stimuli, then long-term depression, LTD, is formed from prolonged periods of very weak stimuli or very low frequency stimulus. The hypothesis proposes that the slow wave activity is enough to evoke LTD, or downscaling, of the cells.
Synaptic downscaling is tied to the beneficial effects of sleep: This is what ties it all together. LTD from the synaptic downscaling of the slow wave activity causes just the right amount of reduction to our neuronal firing patterns. The prolonged LTD from sleep would allow for all the non-essential LTP that took place during our day to become forfeit. It helps reduce the amount of synaptic noise that is created when so much potentiation happens during the day.
What does this all mean?: The idea is LTP is occurring all the time during wakefulness. All of this information flow and storage will eventually become too much, and that is why we sleep. The point of sleep is to downgrade and eliminate some of the synaptic potentials that are not necessary from throughout our day. What one was wearing on the third Tuesday last February is irrelevant, but knowing one's middle name isn't. Extensive LTP has been put in place to remember one's middle name, and therefore that synaptic pathway would not be so easily forgotten, whereas what one was wearing on that one particular day received so little potentiation it can be forgotten in a day or two. A lot of potentiation on a certain topic would help facilitate that memory, making it "more important" in the 'eyes of the cortex' so it is not forgotten.
What else may be involved
The circadian rhythm taking hold is responsible for the feeling of fatigue. Our body naturally starts to shut down, around the time that the sun starts to take its dip into the horizon. The primary chemical for this happening is melatonin, so it would seem natural to wonder if melatonin has some effect on learning and memory formation as well. Every animal that sleeps also exhibits some bodily concentration of melatonin. When studying the effects of sleepiness on fish, it was found that any significant amount of melatonin causes a "dramatic decrease" in learning and memory formation.
This study was performed at night under bright lights, to inhibit the release of natural amounts of melatonin and learning behaviors were conducted. The authors also gave a drug to the fish to help block the effects of melatonin and then studied their behavioral patterns on memory formation and retrieval. It was found that in the daytime when melatonin was artificially administered, the fish's ability to learn new material was at its lowest.
As one stays awake for a long time, so much extra potentiation has already happened from the waking day, and trying to force more LTP isn't going to help anything. Too much extra information is floating around, and the neurons can't handle all of the extra activity. In addition, however, as the night starts to loom, the circadian rhythm begins to take effect and the body naturally begins to release stores of melatonin. This increase in melatonin reduces the ability to learn and facilitate new memories. The ability for melatonin to suppress memory formation is very significant, however. The melatonin would work in conjunction with the LTD during slow oscillations during sleep, to keep individuals from potentiating unwanted, or unneeded, information from their day.
Is sleep the only thing that matters in this synaptic homeostasis hypothesis? In February 2002, two separate articles were published on the discovery of a receptors' involvement in synaptic homeostasis. Bone morphogenetic proteins, BMPs, were originally found to cause a differentiation in bone formation; however, they have recently been discovered necessary for synaptic regulation. It was noticed that when there were mutations in the BMP type II receptor, more commonly known as wishful thinking or wit for short, the sizes of synaptic clefts were significantly reduced, as well as the synaptic output in the studied species.
The amount of neurotransmitters that were stored and released by these cells was also found to be exceedingly lacking, so further studies were conducted. When the wit receptor is activated, a particular protein known as LIMK1 becomes active as well.
Eaton and Davis also studied the synaptic footprints of the cells. The synaptic footprints are indications that a synapse was once there, but no longer contains the axon terminus, and therefore the synaptic footprints are located in the postsynaptic cell in the dendrites. In mutated wit receptors, the amount of synaptic footprints was increased by almost 50%, indicating that the BMP receptor and its cellular counterpart, the LIMK1 protein, are significantly responsible for growth of a cell.
Why is any of this important, and what does it mean? Significant amounts of LTP would be required if we are to keep our already formed memories. During sleep, the slow wave oscillations cause an overall synaptic depression throughout the brain, where only the stronger neuronal pathways are kept from the previous day's LTP. There is a second requirement, however, if we are to keep our neuronal synapses. The wishful thinking receptor also has to be active if the synapses are to be kept. If a newly formed synapse is the result from some potentiation from the day, then presumably that synapse would not have had the time to form the wit pathways from the cell. Without wishful thinking activation, the synapses are much more prone to destruction and would likely get removed, likewise, very heavily potentiated pathways would be much more likely to be kept, as BMP activation would very likely be prevalent.
Endocannabinoids
Research in 2004 has shown that endocannabinoid release from the postsynaptic neuron can inhibit activation of the presynaptic neuron. Type 1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1Rs) are the receptors on the presynaptic neuron responsible for this effect. The specific ligand is thought to be 2-arachidonyl glycerol, or 2-AG. This has mainly been found in GABAergic synapses and thus has been termed inhibitory long term depression (I-LTD). This effect has been found to be extremely localized and accurate, meaning the cannabinoids do not diffuse far from their intended target. This inhibition of inhibitory neurotransmission primes proximal excitatory synapses for future LTP induction and is thus metaplastic in nature.
Neuronal adaptation mechanism
A new mechanism has been proposed that concerns the innate excitability of a neuron. It is quantified by the size of the hyperpolarization in mV due to K+ channels re-opening during an action potential. After any sort of learning task, particularly a classical or operant conditioning task, the amplitude of the K+ hyperpolarization, or "after hyperpolarization (AHP)", is greatly reduced. Over time this AHP will return to normal levels. This normalization does not correlate with a loss of memory but instead a loss of learning potential.
References
Neurophysiology
Neuroplasticity
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20lacrosse%20case
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Duke lacrosse case
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The Duke lacrosse case was a widely reported 2006 criminal case in Durham, North Carolina, United States in which three members of the Duke University men's lacrosse team were accused of rape. The three students were David Evans, Collin Finnerty, and Reade Seligmann. The accuser was Crystal Mangum, a student at North Carolina Central University who worked part-time as a strip tease dancer. She alleged that the rape occurred at a party hosted by the lacrosse team, held at the Durham residence of two of the team's captains, and where she had worked on March 13, 2006.
Investigation and resolution of the case sparked public discussion of racism, sexual violence, media bias, and due process on campuses. The former lead prosecutor, Durham County District Attorney Mike Nifong, ultimately resigned in disgrace, and was disbarred, and briefly imprisoned for violating ethics standards.
On April 11, 2007, North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper dropped all charges, declaring the three lacrosse players "innocent" and victims of a "tragic rush to accuse".
Cooper described Nifong as a "rogue prosecutor"; the district attorney withdrew from the case in January 2007 after the North Carolina State Bar filed ethics charges against him. In June 2007, Nifong was disbarred for "dishonesty, fraud, deceit and misrepresentation", making him the first prosecutor in North Carolina disbarred for trial conduct. Nifong served one day in jail for lying about sharing DNA tests (criminal contempt); he had not given results to the defense team. The lab director said it was a misunderstanding and Nifong claimed it was due to weak memory.
While DNA analysis did not show evidence from any of the men she accused, Mangum continued to insist she was sexually assaulted that night. She was not charged for her allegations.
Cooper noted several inconsistencies between Mangum's accounts of the evening, and the alibis offered by Seligmann and Finnerty, which was supported by forensic evidence. The Durham Police Department was strongly criticized for violating their own policies by allowing Nifong to act as the de facto head of the investigation; using an unreliable suspect-only photo identification procedure with Mangum; pursuing the case despite vast discrepancies in notes taken by Investigator Benjamin Himan and Sgt. Mark Gottlieb; and distributing a poster that appeared to presume the suspects' guilt shortly after the allegations were made public.
Seligmann, Finnerty, and Evans brought a civil lawsuit against Duke University, which was settled. The university paid approximately $20 million to each claimant. The claimants also sought further unspecified damages and called for criminal justice reform laws in a federal civil rights lawsuit filed against the City of Durham and its police department.
Timeline of events
Events at the house
In March 2006, Crystal Mangum, a student at North Carolina Central University, had been working part-time as a stripper. She was divorced and supported two children. Although Mangum claimed that she had only recently taken up stripping, further investigating revealed that she had worked at strip clubs since at least , during which time she was arrested for attempting to run over a police officer in a taxi she had stolen. The incident report stated that she had been lap dancing at a strip club that evening.
On March 13, 2006, the lacrosse team held a party at 610 North Buchanan Boulevard, a house owned by Duke University and used as the off-campus residence of the lacrosse team's captains. The team intended for the party to be compensation for having to remain on campus during spring break, due to their competition schedule, and alcohol was consumed. Several players were unaware that strippers had been hired, and only after their arrival were they asked to contribute to the strippers' fees.
A team captain contacted Allure, an escort service, and requested two white strippers. However, the two women who had arrived, Mangum and Kim Mera Roberts (aka Kim Mera Pittman), were black and biracial (half-black/half-Asian), respectively. Before arriving at the party, Mangum, by her own admission, had consumed alcohol and Flexeril (a prescription muscle relaxant). Mangum and Roberts traveled to the party separately. Roberts drove herself and arrived first, and Mangum was later dropped off by a man.
According to the team captains, while the strippers were dancing, a player asked if the women had any sex toys. Roberts responded by asking if the player's penis was too small. The player brandished a broomstick and suggested that she "use this [as a sex toy]". At this exchange, the women stopped their performance, and left the living room, shutting themselves in the main bathroom of the house. While the women were still in the bathroom, players Reade Seligmann and Collin Finnerty left the house. When the women eventually came out, Mangum began roaming around the yard, half-dressed and shouting.
According to Mangum, the women were coaxed back into the house with an apology, at which point they were separated. She asserts that she was dragged into a bathroom and raped, beaten, and choked for a half hour. Later, police received a 9-1-1 call from a woman complaining that white men had gathered outside of the house where the party took place, had called her racial slurs, and threatened to sodomize her with a broomstick.
Some of the party attendees expressed displeasure that the strippers had delivered a very short performance, despite being paid several hundred dollars apiece to perform. The team captain who had hired the strippers tried to convince the women to go back inside and complete the performance. Both women returned inside, but upon being approached by the player who had earlier brandished the broomstick, again refused to perform, and once again locked themselves in the bathroom. By this point, a number of the party guests had left. House residents, including player David Evans, asked the remaining guests to leave because they were concerned that the noise would cause neighbors to complain to police. When the strippers left the bathroom, and the house, for the second time, a resident locked the door so they (and the guests who had left the house) could not return.
Around 1:00a.m., while attempting to leave the party, Mangum and Roberts called the partygoers "short dick white boys", and jeered about "how he couldn't get it on his own and had to pay for it". One player responded, "We asked for whites, not niggers." Mangum and Roberts departed in Roberts's car. Roberts called 9-1-1 and reported that she had just come from 610 North Buchanan, and a "white guy" had yelled "nigger" at her from near the East Campus wall. The party ended shortly thereafter and everyone, including the residents, left the house. Police returned to the house later, as a result of Roberts' complaint, but did not receive an answer at the door; a neighbor confirmed that an earlier party had ended.
After departure
As Roberts drove away with Mangum, the two women began to argue. Roberts stopped the car and attempted to push Mangum out. When that failed, Roberts drove Mangum to a nearby Kroger supermarket, went inside, and told a female security guard that a woman was refusing to leave her car. The guard walked to the car and asked Mangum to leave, but Mangum remained in the vehicle. The guard later said she had not smelled alcohol on Mangum's breath, but thought she might have been under the influence of other drugs. At 1:22a.m., the guard called 9-1-1 to report that Mangum was refusing to leave a vehicle that did not belong to her. Police arrived, removed Mangum from the car, and questioned her.
As Mangum had no identification, would not talk to police, was having difficulty walking, and seemed severely impaired, police took her to Durham Center Access, a mental-health and substance-abuse facility, for involuntary commitment. During the admission process, she claimed that she had been raped prior to her arrival.
Mangum was transferred to Duke University Medical Center. Examination of her skin, arms, and legs revealed no swelling, no abnormalities, and three small cuts on her right knee and right heel. When asked, she specifically, and repeatedly, denied receiving any physical blows by hands. Further examination showed no tenderness in the back, chest, and neck. There was, however, diffuse swelling of her vagina. Mangum later claimed that she had performed using a vibrator, for a couple in a hotel room, shortly before the lacrosse team party. This activity, or a yeast infection, could have caused the swelling. Investigators did not note any other injuries in the rest of the report.
McFadyen e-mail
A couple of hours after the party ended, Ryan McFadyen, a member of the lacrosse team, sent an e-mail to other players saying that he planned to have some strippers over, kill them, and cut off their skin while wearing his Duke-issue spandex and ejaculating.
The e-mail began:
To whom it may concern, tomorrow night, after tonights show, ive decided to have some strippers over to edens 2c. all are welcome.. however there will be no nudity. I plan on killing the bitches as soon as the[y] walk in and proceding to cut their skin off while cumming in my duke issue spandex . . all in besides arch and tack [two of his teammates] please respond
Some of the players suggested the e-mail was intended as humorous irony. Administrators asserted the e-mail was in imitation of Patrick Bateman, the protagonist in the Bret Easton Ellis novel American Psycho, which was read and lectured upon in more than one Duke class, as evidenced by the e-mail responses from other players. One wrote, "I'll bring the Phil Collins," a reference to the American Psycho book and film. Police released the McFadyen e-mail but refused to release the following e-mail exchanges, leaving the impression that the McFadyen e-mail was intended as a serious threat. McFadyen thereafter received a thousand death threats in one week.
The e-mail led many people to assume guilt on the part of the players. McFadyen was not charged with any crime, but he was temporarily suspended from Duke, with the university citing safety concerns. He was invited back to Duke to continue his studies later that summer.
Investigation and prosecution
Arrests and investigation timeline
On March 14, 2006, the day after the party, the Durham Police Department (DPD) began their investigation into the rape allegations by interviewing Mangum and searching 610 North Buchanan pursuant to a warrant. The three team captains who lived at the house, including Evans, voluntarily gave statements and DNA samples to police and offered to take lie detector tests. The police turned down the offer.
The DPD made their investigation public on March 15, when Sgt. Mark Gottlieb, the police supervisor, posted on a digital community bulletin board that they were investigating the rape of a young woman by three males at 610 North Buchanan on March 13, and asking anyone in the area who saw or heard anything unusual to contact Investigator Benjamin Himan.
Between March 16 and 21, police showed Mangum photo arrays in an attempt to have her identify her attackers. Each photo array contained photographs only of lacrosse team members. This did not follow the DPD's recommended policy of including photos of individuals not regarded as potential suspects (known as "fillers"). Mangum identified Seligmann as someone who attended the party, but not as an attacker, and did not identify Evans at all despite seeing his photo twice.
On March 27, Durham County District Attorney Mike Nifong received his first briefing on the case from Gottlieb and Himan. Within a few hours of receiving the briefing, Nifong made his first public statement on the case. Over the following week, Nifong by his own estimate gave fifty to seventy interviews and devoted more than forty hours to reporters. After that he continued to make statements, albeit less frequently. Many of these statements concerned the team members' alleged failure or refusal to provide information to law enforcement authorities, their invocation of their constitutional rights, or consisted of Nifong's own opinions that a crime had occurred, that it was racially motivated, and that one or more lacrosse players were guilty.
Mangum was shown another photo array containing only photos of the 46 white lacrosse team members, including members who had not attended the party. There were no fillers included. The photos were shown to Mangum as a PowerPoint presentation, with each photo projected individually to her, rather than the pictures being arrayed together. For the first time, Mangum identified photos of Seligmann, Evans, and Finnerty as her attackers. She also identified at least one other photo as being a player who was present at the party; further investigation showed he had not been there.
On April 10, an attorney retained by one of the lacrosse players stated that time-stamped photographs existed which showed that Mangum was already injured when she arrived at the party, and was visibly impaired. Players' attorneys announced that DNA testing by the North Carolina state crime lab had failed to connect any members of the Duke men's lacrosse team to the alleged rape.
Seligmann and Finnerty were arrested and indicted on April 18 on charges of first degree forcible rape, first degree sexual offense and kidnapping. The same day, search warrants were executed on Finnerty and Seligmann's dorm rooms. Seligmann reportedly told multiple teammates, "I'm glad they picked me", alluding to a solid alibi in the form of ATM records, photographs, cell phone records, an affidavit from a taxi driver, and a record of his DukeCard being swiped at his dorm.
DNA Security Inc. (DSI), a private company engaged by Nifong to perform a second round of DNA testing, produced an incomplete report. It contained an analysis of DNA found on false fingernails discarded by Mangum in the bathroom trash bin, and concluded that 2% of the male population, including Evans, could not be excluded from a match with the fingernail DNA. DSI director Brian Meehan later testified that, pursuant to an agreement with Nifong, he had deliberately withheld information from the lab's report.
On May 15, 2006, former team captain and 2006 Duke graduate Evans was also indicted on charges of first-degree forcible rape, sexual offense and kidnapping. Just before turning himself in at the Durham County Detention Center, he publicly declared his innocence and his expectation of being cleared of the charges within weeks.
Court documents revealed that Roberts, in her initial statement, had said she was with Mangum the entire evening except for a period of less than five minutes. After hearing Mangum claim she was sexually assaulted, Roberts called those claims "a crock".
On December 22, 2006, Nifong dropped the rape charges against all three lacrosse players after Mangum told an investigator a different version of events and said she was no longer sure about some aspects of her original story. The kidnapping and sexual offense charges were still pending against all three players.
On December 28, 2006, the North Carolina bar filed ethics charges against Nifong over his conduct in the case, accusing him of making public statements that were prejudicial to the administration of justice and heightened public condemnation of the accused, and of engaging in conduct involving dishonesty, fraud, deceit, or misrepresentation. The 17-page document accused Nifong of violating four rules of professional conduct, listing more than 100 examples of statements he made to the media.
On January 12, 2007, Nifong sent a letter to North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper asking to be taken off the case. The following day, January 13, Cooper announced that his office would take over the case.
On January 24, 2007, the North Carolina State Bar filed a second round of ethics charges against Nifong for a systematic abuse of prosecutorial discretion that was prejudicial to the administration of justice by his withheld DNA evidence to mislead the court.
On March 23, 2007, Justin Paul Caulfield, a legal analyst for the sports magazine Inside Lacrosse, stated on Fox News that the charges against Evans, Finnerty, and Seligmann would soon be dropped. While the North Carolina Attorney General's Office first disputed the report, on April 11, 2007, it announced that it had dismissed all charges against the three lacrosse players.
Cooper also took the unusual step of declaring the accused players innocent. He announced that Mangum would not be prosecuted, stating that investigators and attorneys who had interviewed her thought "she may actually believe the many different stories that she has been telling ... it's in the best interest of justice not to bring charges".
On April 12, 2007, the attorney general, in declaring Seligmann, Finnerty, and Evans innocent, described Nifong as a "rogue prosecutor".
DNA tests
Shortly after the party, the prosecution ordered 46 of the 47 lacrosse team members to provide DNA samples, although some members had not attended the event. The sole black member of the team was exempt because Mangum had stated that her attackers were white. On April 10, 2006, the district attorney announced that DNA testing by the state crime lab did not connect any of the 46 tested team members to the alleged rape.
After the initial tests by the state crime lab, prosecutor Nifong sought the services of a private laboratory, DNA Security, Inc. (aka DSI) of Burlington, North Carolina, to conduct additional tests. DNA from multiple unidentified males had been found in forensic evidence from Mangum and upon the rape kit items that had been tested, but none matched any of the lacrosse players. Nifong falsely represented to the court and the public that DNA had been found only from a single male source, Mangum's boyfriend.
In a motion made on December 15, 2006, defense attorneys argued that the DNA analysis report written by DSI and provided to them by Nifong's office was incomplete, because it omitted information showing that none of the genetic material from several men found on Mangum matched any DNA sample from the lacrosse team. Brian Meehan, the director of DSI who wrote the misleading report, testified that his lab did not try to withhold information, but acknowledged that the decision not to release the full report violated the lab's policies. Meehan testified that after discussions with Nifong, he decided to withhold the names of the persons excluded by the DNA testing (all 46 tested members of the lacrosse team) to protect the privacy of players not implicated in the case. But two players (Reade Seligmann and Collin Finnerty) had already been indicted for rape more than three weeks prior to the release date of the report. Meehan was later fired in October 2007 based on his actions in this case.
DNA was also taken from all surfaces of three of Mangum's false fingernails retrieved from the trash in the party house bathroom (widely but inaccurately reported as DNA taken only from the "underside" of a single fingernail). According to DNA Security, the fingernail DNA showed some characteristics similar to lacrosse player David Evans's DNA. However, the match was not conclusive, as 2% of the male population (including Evans) could not be excluded based on the sample. In addition, because Evans lived in the house, defense attorneys contended that any DNA present might have come from the tissue paper, cotton swabs, or other hygiene-related trash that had been in the garbage can along with the fingernail. This was confirmed later by Attorney General Cooper's investigation: "to the extent that Evans's DNA could not be excluded, the SBI experts confirmed that the DNA could easily have been transferred to the fingernails from other materials in the trash can".
Nifong contended that lack of DNA evidence is not unusual and that 75–80% of all sexual assault cases lack DNA evidence. Rape victims often delay reporting by days or weeks, inadvertently destroying DNA evidence. However, in this case, Mangum had a rape-kit exam administered only hours after the end of the party, so experts believed that it was unlikely that there ever had been DNA evidence implicating any player.
Nifong was tried for ethics violations on June 14, 2007. That day, the complete DNA findings were revealed during defense attorney Brad Bannon's testimony. According to conservative estimates, the lab had discovered at least two unidentified males' DNA in Mangum's pubic region; at least two unidentified males' DNA in her rectum; at least four to five unidentified males' DNA on her underpants; and at least one identified male's DNA in her vagina.
Collin Finnerty previous incident
In November 2005, Finnerty and two of his Chaminade High School lacrosse teammates were charged with misdemeanor simple assault in Washington, D.C., following an altercation with a Washington man outside a Georgetown bar. Finnerty was accused of threatening and taunting the man.
Although the man alleged that Finnerty had pushed and threatened him, the man was punched by a third party (a friend of Finnerty), who admitted to the punch. Witnesses later testified that Finnerty had been hit in the head by a friend of the alleged victim. Although the man alleged that Finnerty and his companions had called him "gay" (among other derogatory names), the incident was not prosecuted as a hate crime. Finnerty was initially accepted into a diversion program for first offenders, allowing for the simple assault charge to be dismissed upon his completion of community service.
But, after Finnerty was charged in Durham, the Washington, D.C. prosecutor cancelled his diversion agreement and proceeded to trial on the assault charge.
Finnerty was convicted and sentenced to six months' probation. Afterward, he was repeatedly threatened by Judge John H. Bayly, Jr. with confinement. Once after an anonymous blog post falsely accused him of violating an order that prohibited him from being in Georgetown; and again after he was absent from home and missed an obligatory curfew in order to be in Durham to work on his defense there. But he had cleared this absence with the judge. According to R.B. Parrish, this treatment was similar to attempts by the government to pressure witnesses to testify in a certain manner. On December 28, 2006, shortly after the Durham rape charges against Finnerty were dropped, Judge Bayly ended Finnerty's probation.
In January 2007, Finnerty's assault conviction was vacated (by an order signed by Bayly) and his record was cleared.
Defense and media questioning
Credibility of Crystal Mangum as accuser
Possible intoxication and mental state
Lawyers for the Duke lacrosse players have said that Mangum was intoxicated with alcohol and possibly other drugs on the night of the party. By the accuser's own admission to police, she had taken prescription Flexeril and drank "one or two large-size beers" before she went to the party.
The Attorney General's office later noted that Mangum had taken Ambien, methadone, Paxil, and amitriptyline, although when she began taking these medications is uncertain. She had a long history of mental problems and reportedly was diagnosed with bipolar disorder.
Inconsistencies in Mangum's story
Over the course of the scandal, police reports, media investigations, and defense attorneys' motions and press conferences brought to light several key inconsistencies in Mangum's story.
Some of the questions about her credibility were:
Durham police said that Mangum kept changing her story and was not credible, reporting that she initially told them she was raped by 20 white men, later reducing the number to three.
Another police report states that Mangum initially claimed she was groped, rather than raped, but changed her story before going to the hospital.
On December 22, 2006, Nifong dropped the rape charges after Mangum stated that she was penetrated from behind but that she did not know with what. In North Carolina, penetration with an object is considered sexual assault, not rape.
On January 11, 2007, several more inconsistencies came to light after the defense filed a motion detailing her interview on December 21, 2006. For example, she changed details about when she was attacked, who attacked her, and how they attacked her:
In the new version from the December 21 interview, Mangum claims she was attacked from 11:35 p.m. to midnight, much earlier than her previous accusations. This new timing was before the well-documented alibi evidence for Reade Seligmann that placed him away from the house. However, the defense said that during this new timing, Seligmann was shown to be on the phone with his girlfriend during the height of the attack. Additionally, Mangum received an incoming call at 11:36 p.m. and somebody stayed on the line for 3 minutes, which would be during the party, according to the new timetable.
The new statement contradicted time-stamped photos that show Mangum dancing between 12:00 and 12:04 a.m. If the revised statement time was true, it would mean that the two women stayed at the party for nearly an hour after the supposed attack. Kim Roberts left with Mangum at 12:53 a.m. In her April statement, Mangum said they left immediately after the attack.
Mangum changed the names of her attackers, claiming they had used multiple pseudonyms.
She also changed her description of Evans. She previously said that she was attacked by a man who looked like Evans with the addition of a mustache. Later she said this assailant had a five o'clock shadow.
Mangum claimed that Evans stood in front of her, making her perform oral sex on him. Previously, she stated that Seligmann did this. In the latest statement, she said that Seligmann did not commit any sex act with her, and that he had said that he could not participate because he was getting married. Although he has a girlfriend, there is no evidence that they were engaged or planning marriage.
North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper said Mangum told many different accounts of the attack. In one account, she claimed she was suspended in mid-air and was being assaulted by all three of them in the bathroom. Cooper said this event seemed very implausible because of the small size of the bathroom. According to a 60 Minutes investigation, Mangum gave at least a dozen different stories.
The News & Observer, North Carolina's second largest newspaper, conducted its own investigation. It determined that Mangum gave at least five different versions of the incident to police and medical interviewers by August 2006.
At one point, Mangum said that both Evans and Finnerty helped her into her car upon departure. However, a photo shows her being helped by another player. Electronic records and witnesses reported that Evans and Finnerty had already left before she did. Upon seeing the photo, Mangum claimed that it must have been doctored or that Duke University paid someone off.
Mangum did not consistently identify the same three defendants in the photo lineups. Media reports have disclosed at least two photo lineups that occurred in March and April in which she was asked to recall who she saw at the party and in what capacity. In the March lineup, she did not choose Dave Evans at all. During these two sessions, she identified only Brad Ross with 100% certainty as being at the party. After being identified, Ross provided police investigators with indisputable evidence that he was with his girlfriend at North Carolina State University before, during, and after the party - through cell phone records and an affidavit from a witness.
Other credibility issues
The Duke defense lawyers or media reports have indicated:
The second stripper who performed at the house, Kim Roberts, said that Mangum was not raped. She stated that Mangum was not obviously hurt. Likewise, she refuted other aspects of Mangum's story including denying that she helped dress Mangum after the party and saying that they were not forcefully separated by players as Mangum had reported.
DNA results revealed that Mangum had sex with a man who was not a Duke lacrosse player. Attorney Joseph Cheshire said the tests indicated DNA from a single male source came from a vaginal swab. Media outlets reported that this DNA was from her boyfriend. However, it was later revealed that DNA from multiple males who were neither the lacrosse players nor Mangum's boyfriend had been found, but that these findings had been deliberately withheld from the Court and the defense.
She had made a similar claim in the past which she did not pursue. On August 18, 1996, the dancer – then 18 years old – told a police officer in Creedmoor she had been raped by three men in June 1993, according to a police document. The officer who took the woman's report at that time asked her to write a detailed timeline of the night's events and bring the account back to the police, but she never returned.
The strip club's security officer said that Mangum told co-workers four days after the party that she was going to get money from some boys at a Duke party who had not paid her, mentioning that the boys were white. The security guard did not make a big deal of it because he felt that no one took her seriously.
Mangum was arrested in 2002 for stealing a cab from a strip club where she had been working. She led police officers on a high-speed chase before she was apprehended, at which point her blood alcohol level was more than twice the legal limit. She was sentenced to three weekends in detention.
Durham Police Department's actions
Lawyers and media have questioned the methods of the photo identification process, and have argued that the police supervisor in the case, Sgt. Mark Gottlieb, has unfairly targeted Duke students in the past.
Photo identification
Lawyers and media reports alike suggested the photo identification process was severely flawed. During the photo identifications, Mangum was told that she would be viewing Duke University lacrosse players who attended the party, and was asked if she remembered seeing them at the party and in what capacity. Defense attorneys claimed this was essentially a "multiple-choice test in which there were no wrong answers", while Duke law professor James Earl Coleman Jr. posits that "[t]he officer was telling the witness that all are suspects, and say, in effect, 'Pick three.' It's so wrong."
U.S. Department of Justice guidelines suggest including at least five non-suspect filler photos for each suspect included, as did the Durham Police Department's own General Order 4077, adopted in February 2006.
Ross (the only player she identified as attending the party with 100% certainty during both procedures) provided police investigators with evidence that he was with his girlfriend at North Carolina State University before, during, and after the party through cell phone records and an affidavit from a witness. Another person whom the accuser had identified in April also provided police with evidence that he did not attend the party at all. In regards to Seligmann's identification, Mangum's confidence increased from 70% in March to 100% in April. Gary Wells — an Iowa State University professor and expert on police identification procedures — has asserted that memory does not improve with time.
According to the transcript of the photo identification released on The Abrams Report, Mangum also stated that David Evans had a mustache on the night of the attack. Evans's lawyer stated that his client has never had a mustache and that photos as well as eyewitness testimony would reveal that Evans has never had a mustache.
Accusations of intimidation tactics
Defense lawyers suggested police used intimidation tactics on witnesses. On May 11, Moezeldin Elmostafa, an immigrant taxi driver who signed a sworn statement about Seligmann's whereabouts that defense lawyers say provides a solid alibi, was arrested on a 2½-year-old shoplifting charge. Arresting officers first asked if he had anything new to say about the lacrosse case. When he refused to alter his testimony, he was taken into custody. An arrest and conviction would have destroyed his chance for citizenship and could have led to his deportation. Elmostafa was subsequently tried on the shoplifting charge and acquitted, after a grainy security tape proved that a security guard who was the prosecution's chief witness had "misremembered" events.
Police also arrested Mangum's former husband, Kenneth McNeil; her boyfriend, Matthew Murchison; and another friend, with the disposition of their own separate cases entirely in the hands of District Attorney Nifong. The daughter of Durham's police chief was arrested on an old warrant, and the chief himself remained absent from duty and invisible to the press for most of the case.
Supervisor
The News & Observer suggested that the supervisor of the lacrosse investigation, Sgt. Mark Gottlieb, had unfairly targeted Duke students in the past, putting some of his investigational tactics into question. Gottlieb has made a disproportionate number of arrests of Duke students for misdemeanor violations, such as carrying an open container of alcohol. Normally, these violations earn offenders a pink ticket similar to a traffic ticket.
From May 2005 to February 2006, when Sgt. Gottlieb was a patrol officer in District 2, he made 28 total arrests. Twenty of those arrests were Duke students, and at least 15 were handcuffed and taken to jail. This is in stark contrast to the other two officers on duty in the same district during that same 10-month period. They made 64 total arrests, only two of which were Duke students. Similarly, The News & Observer charges that Gottlieb treated non-students very differently. For example, he wrote up a young man for illegally carrying a concealed .45-caliber handgun and possession of marijuana (crimes far more severe than the Duke students who were taken to jail committed), but did not take him to jail. Residents complimented Gottlieb for dealing fairly with loud parties and disorderly conduct by students.
Duke's student newspaper, The Chronicle, depicted other examples of violence and dishonesty from Sgt. Gottlieb. It published that one student threw a party at his rental home off-East Campus before a Rolling Stones concert in October 2005. The morning after the concert, at 3 A.M., Sgt. Gottlieb led a raid on the home with nine other officers while the students were half asleep. It reported that one student was dragged out of bed and then dragged down the stairs, that all seven housemates were put in handcuffs, arrested, and taken into custody for violating a noise ordinance and open container of alcohol violations. Sgt. Gottlieb reportedly told one student, an American citizen of Serbian descent, that he could be deported. Other stories include the throwing of a 130 pound male against his car for an open container of alcohol violation, refusing the ID of a student since he was international, searching through a purse without a warrant, refusing to tell a student her rights, and accusations of perjury.
Prosecutor Nifong's actions
Possible political motivation
At the time the rape allegations were made in March 2006, Mike Nifong was in the midst of a difficult Democratic primary election campaign to keep his position as Durham County District Attorney, facing strong opposition. It was understood that if Nifong lost the primary, he would very likely lose his job. Some commentators have opined that Nifong's prosecution of the Duke lacrosse players and his many statements to the media were driven by his political strategy to attract African-American voters. The primary was held on May 6, 2006, and Nifong won by a slim margin of 883 votes. Results showed Nifong won the primary on the basis of strong support from the black community. Nifong went on to win the general election in November 2006, although by a lower margin than usual for Democratic candidates in Durham County at that time.
Prosecution's chief investigator
Nifong hired Linwood E. Wilson as his chief investigator. During Wilson's private detective career, at least seven formal inquiries into his conduct were performed. In 1997, Wilson was reprimanded by the state commission. After his appeal of the decision was rejected, he allowed his detective license to expire. In response to criticism, Wilson stated that no one had ever questioned his integrity. On June 25, 2007, shortly after Nifong's disbarment and removal from office, it was reported that Nifong's replacement, interim district attorney Jim Hardin Jr., fired Wilson from his post.
Wider effects
Effects on Duke faculty
Mike Pressler, the coach of the lacrosse team, received threatening e-mails and hate calls, had castigating signs placed on his property, and was the frequent victim of vandalism in the aftermath of the accusations. On April 5, 2006, he resigned (later revealed to have been forced) shortly after the McFadyen e-mail became public. Through his lawyer, he stated that his resignation was not an admission of wrongdoing on his part. On the same day, Richard H. Brodhead, president of Duke University, suspended the remainder of the lacrosse season.
Other Duke faculty members (sometimes referred to as the Group of 88 or the "Gang of 88") have been criticized for their "Social Disaster" letter as well as individual comments and reactions which created a perception of prejudgment.
Effect on Duke students
Shortly after the party, the University's president warned in a school-wide e-mail of threats of gang violence against Duke students. Other Duke students claimed they had been threatened. Mobs protested outside the house that had been the site of the party, banging pots and pans at early hours of the morning.
Photographs of lacrosse team members had been posted prominently around Durham and on the Duke University campus with accompanying captions requesting that they come forward with information about the incident.
Media policies regarding identity revelation of accusers and accused
Fox News was the sole national television news outlet to reveal Mangum's photo following the dismissal of the case, although MSNBC and 60 Minutes revealed her name. Several major broadcasters did not publish Mangum's name at any point, including ABC, PBS, CNN, and NBC.
Publication of Mangum's identity
Partially obscured photos of Mangum at the party were broadcast by The Abrams Report on cable news channel MSNBC and by local television affiliate NBC 17 WNCN in North Carolina. On April 21, 2006, outspoken talk-radio host Tom Leykis disclosed Mangum's name during his nationally syndicated talk-radio program. Leykis has disclosed identities of accusers of sexual assault in the past. On May 15, 2006, MSNBC host Tucker Carlson disclosed Mangum's first name only on his show, Tucker. Court records presented by the defense revealed Mangum's name.
On April 11, 2007, several other mainstream media sources revealed or used Mangum's name and/or picture after the attorney general dropped all the charges and declared the players innocent. These sources include: CBS, The News & Observer, WRAL, all The McClatchy Company's newspapers (which includes 24 newspapers across the country), Fox News, The Charlotte Observer, the New York Post, Comedy Central's The Daily Show (airdate April 12, 2007) and MSNBC.
Effect on community relations
The allegations have inflamed already strained relations between Duke University and its host city of Durham, with members of the Duke lacrosse team being vilified in the press and defamed on and off campus. On May 1, 2006, the New Black Panthers held a protest outside Duke University. The case drew national attention and highlighted racial tensions within the Durham area.
Jesse Jackson and Rainbow/PUSH involvement
In 2006, Jesse Jackson promised the Rainbow/PUSH Coalition would pay the college tuition for Mangum. Jackson said the tuition offer would still be good even if Mangum had fabricated her story.
Aftermath
Mike Nifong
On June 16, 2007, the North Carolina State Bar ordered Nifong disbarred after the bar's three-member disciplinary panel unanimously found him guilty of fraud, dishonesty, deceit or misrepresentation; of making false statements of material fact before a judge; of making false statements of material fact before bar investigators, and of lying about withholding exculpatory DNA evidence.
Following the state bar's announcement, Nifong submitted a letter of resignation from his post as Durham County district attorney, that would have become effective in July 2007. However, on June 18, Durham Superior Court Judge Orlando Hudson ordered that Nifong be immediately removed from office.
On August 31, 2007, Nifong was held in criminal contempt of court for knowingly making false statements to the court during the criminal proceedings. Durham Superior Court Judge W. Osmond Smith III sentenced Nifong to one day in jail, which he subsequently served.
Crystal Mangum
On December 15, 2006, it was reported that Mangum was pregnant and the judge in the case ordered a paternity test.
In May 2008, Mangum graduated from North Carolina Central University with a degree in police psychology.
On August 22, 2008, a press release announced the planned publication in October 2008 of a memoir by Mangum, The Last Dance for Grace: The Crystal Mangum Story.
The press release indicated the book "can't and doesn't deal with the complex legal aspects of the case" but that "the muddling of facts about Crystal's life, along with North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper's desire to settle the dispute over open file discovery, swallowed the case whole". Defense attorney Joseph Cheshire responded to the news by saying that if the book was truthful, "I think it would be fabulous, and I don't think anybody would think badly about her in any way, shape or form", but that if the memoir did not acknowledge the falsity of her allegations against the players, that he would advise them to initiate civil action against her. Her book was published later that year. In it, she continued to contend that she had been raped at the party and that the dropping of the case was politically motivated. The book outlined her earlier life, including a claim that she was first raped at the age of 14.
In November 2013, she was found guilty of second-degree murder after she stabbed boyfriend Reginald Daye, who died 10 days after. She argued that she acted in self-defense, fearing that Daye would kill her. She was sentenced to 14 to 18 years in prison.
Reade Seligmann, Collin Finnerty, and David Evans
On June 18, 2007, Duke University announced that it had reached a settlement with Seligmann, Finnerty and Evans. No details of the settlement were disclosed.
Duke reportedly agreed to pay $60 million to the three accused (with each player receiving $20 million) subject to confidentiality requirements. Seligmann's attorney told the New York Daily News that the settlement was "nowhere near that much money".
Seligmann enrolled as a student at Brown University in the fall of 2007, and was an important part of Brown reaching the 2009 NCAA lacrosse tournament as well as a number 10 national ranking. He became an active fundraiser and supporter for the Innocence Project. He graduated from Brown in 2010 and from Emory University School of Law in 2013. He has stated that his experience during the Duke lacrosse case motivated him to attend law school and pursue a legal career.
Finnerty enrolled at Loyola College in Maryland, leading the team in scoring as the Greyhounds qualified for the 2010 NCAA lacrosse tournament. Finnerty graduated from Loyola in May 2010.
David Evans, who had already graduated from Duke before being charged, received an MBA from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania in May 2012.
Duke men's lacrosse team
In January 2007, lacrosse team member Kyle Dowd filed a lawsuit against Duke University and against a visiting associate professor and member of the Group of 88, Kim Curtis, claiming he and another teammate were given failing grades on their final paper as a form of retaliation after the scandal broke. The case was settled with the terms undisclosed except that Dowd's grade was altered to a P (for "Pass").
Professor Houston Baker, who continued to accuse Dowd and the others of being "hooligans" and "rapists", called Dowd's mother "the mother of a farm animal" after she e-mailed him. Duke Provost Peter Lange responded to Baker, criticizing Baker for prejudging the team based on race and gender, citing this as a classic tactic of racism.
Duke's athletic director at the time, Joe Alleva, who forced lacrosse coach Mike Pressler's resignation, faced criticism for his handling of this case. In 2008, Alleva announced he was leaving Duke for the athletic director position at Louisiana State University. The lacrosse team, reinstated for the 2007 season, reached the NCAA Finals as the #1 seed. The Blue Devils lost to the Johns Hopkins University Blue Jays in the championship, 12–11.
In May 2007, Duke requested that the NCAA restore a year's eligibility to the players on the 2006 men's team, part of whose season was canceled. The NCAA granted the team's request for another year of eligibility, which applies to the 33 members of the 2006 team who were underclassmen in 2006 and who remained at Duke in 2007. Four of the seniors from 2006 attended graduate school at Duke in 2007 and played for the team. In 2010, the final year in which the team included fifth-year seniors (freshmen in 2006), Duke won the NCAA Lacrosse Championship beating Notre Dame, 6–5 in overtime, to give the school its first lacrosse championship.
On June 7, 2007, it was announced that lacrosse coach Mike Pressler and Duke had reached a financial settlement. Pressler was later hired as coach by Division II (now Division I) Bryant University in Rhode Island. In October 2007, Pressler filed suit seeking to undo the settlement and hold a trial on his wrongful termination claim on the grounds that Duke spokesman John Burness had made disparaging comments about him. After Duke failed in an attempt to have the case dismissed, the matter was settled in 2010 with Duke apologizing in a press release but refusing to comment regarding any compensation to Pressler.
Duke University
On September 29, 2007, Duke President Brodhead, speaking at a two-day conference at Duke Law School on the practice and ethics of trying cases in the media, apologized for "causing the families to feel abandoned when they most needed support."
On July 12, 2010, Duke demolished the house where the party had taken place, 610 North Buchanan Boulevard, after it had sat unoccupied for the four years following the Duke lacrosse case.
Sgt. Mark Gottlieb
In July 2014, Sgt. Mark Gottlieb committed suicide in DeKalb County, Georgia, where he had worked as a paramedic.
Lawsuits filed by players
On September 7, 2007, it was reported that the three accused players (Seligmann, Finnerty, and Evans), who had already settled with Duke University, planned to file a lawsuit for violations of their civil rights against the city of Durham and several city employees, unless the city agreed to a settlement including payment of $30 million over five years and the passage of new criminal justice reform laws. The city's liability insurance covers up to $5 million.
Lawyers cited three main areas of vulnerability for the city:
The suspect-only photo identification procedure given to Mangum.
Vast discrepancies in notes taken by Investigator Benjamin Himan during his March interview with Mangum and Sgt. Gottlieb's notes in July
The release of a CrimeStoppers poster by the police shortly after the allegations that a woman "was sodomized, raped, assaulted and robbed. This horrific crime sent shock waves throughout our community."
Durham declined the settlement offer and on October 5, 2007, the three accused players filed a federal lawsuit alleging a broad conspiracy to frame them. Named in the suit were Nifong, the lab that handled the DNA work, the city of Durham, the city's former police chief, the deputy police chief, the two police detectives who handled the case and five other police department employees. The players were seeking unspecified damages, and also wanted to place the Durham Police Department under court supervision for 10 years, claiming the actions of the police department posed "a substantial risk of irreparable injury to other persons in the City of Durham". According to the suit, Nifong engineered the conspiracy to help him win support for his election bid. Nifong reportedly told his campaign manager that the case would provide "'millions of dollars' in free advertising".
On January 15, 2008, the city of Durham filed a motion to remove itself as a defendant, arguing it had no responsibility for Nifong's actions. On the same day, Nifong filed for bankruptcy. On May 27, 2008, Judge William L. Stocks lifted the stay from Nifong's bankruptcy filing and ruled that the plaintiffs' lawsuit could go forward.
On March 31, 2011, Judge James Beaty issued a ruling on the Evans et al. case, upholding claims against Nifong and his hired investigator Wilson for conspiracy to commit malicious prosecution in the course of their investigation; the city of Durham for negligence; Nifong, Wilson, and police investigators Gottlieb and Himan for malicious prosecution, concealment of evidence, and fabrication of false evidence. However, the players' civil rights claims, which constituted the bulk of their Complaint, were dismissed on the grounds that the applicable civil rights laws pertained only to persons of African-American descent.
Plaintiffs contend that they have alleged race discrimination as white plaintiffs. However, the § 1985 claims based on this *971 contention fails for two reasons. First, the Supreme Court and Fourth Circuit have indicated an intent to limit the protections of § 1985 to discrimination against "those classes of persons who are, so far as the enforcement of their rights is concerned, 'in unprotected circumstances similar to those of the victims of Klan violence.'" Buschi, 775 F.2d at 1258 (quoting United Bhd. of Carpenters, 463 U.S. at 851, 103 S.Ct. at 3368); see also Cloaninger v. McDevitt, No. 106cv135, 2006 WL 2570586 (W.D.N.C. Sept. 3, 2006) ("As recognized by the controlling law in the Fourth Circuit, the only class of persons protected by Section 1985(3) are African Americans.") (citing Harrison, 766 F.2d at 161-62); Stock v. Universal Foods Corp., 817 F. Supp. 1300, 1310 (D.Md.1993) (dismissing § 1985(3) claim because plaintiff, as a white male, was not a member of a class that has suffered historically pervasive discrimination); Blackmon v. Perez, 791 F. Supp. 1086, 1093 (E.D.Va.1992) (dismissing § 1985(3) claims by white plaintiffs because "plaintiffs do not represent a class of persons who [do] not enjoy the possibility of []effective state enforcement of their rights" (internal quotations omitted)).
On December 17, 2012, the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals rejected all of the players' federal claims in Evans v. Chalmers
Case No. 11-1436 (C.A. 4), holding:
To recapitulate, we hold as follows. We reverse the district court's denial of all defendants' motions to dismiss the federal claims alleged against them. We reverse the court's denial of the City's motion for summary judgment as to the state common-law claims alleged against it. We affirm the court's denial of Officers Gottlieb and Himan's motions to dismiss the state common-law malicious prosecution claims alleged against them. We reverse the court's denial of the officers' motions to dismiss all other state common-law claims. We dismiss for lack of appellate jurisdiction the City's appeal of the state constitutional claims alleged against it. Finally, we remand the cases for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
The only claims to survive this decision were state constitutional claims. Judge J. Harvie Wilkinson III concurred, ruling:
A few additional observations may underscore the overblown nature of this case. Plaintiffs have sought to raise every experimental claim and to corral every conceivable defendant. The result is a case on the far limbs of law and one destined, were it to succeed in whole, to spread damage in all directions.
On October 7, 2013, the United States Supreme Court denied the Petition for Certiorari filed by Seligmann, Finnerty, and Evans, declining to review the decision of the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals.
On May 16, 2014, the three accused lacrosse players and the City of Durham settled their long-running lawsuit. Seligmann, Finnerty, and Evans agreed to dismiss their lawsuit and received no monetary compensation whatsoever. The city agreed to make a $50,000 grant to the North Carolina Innocence Inquiry Commission.
Lawsuit filed by non-accused players and their families
On February 21, 2008, the families of 38 of the lacrosse team's 47 members who were not accused filed a 225-page lawsuit against Duke University, the Duke University Hospital, the city of Durham, and various officials of each organization for multiple claims of harassment, deprivation of civil rights, breach of contract and other claims.
A Duke University spokesperson responded that "we have now seen the lawsuit and as we said before, if these plaintiffs have a complaint, it is with Mr. Nifong. Their legal strategy – attacking Duke – is misdirected and without merit. To help these families move on, Duke offered to cover the cost of any attorneys' fees or other out-of-pocket expenses, but they rejected this offer. We will vigorously defend the university against these claims." The city never released an official response to the suit. The lawsuit against the university was settled out of court in 2013. Neither side would discuss the details of the settlement.
ESPN documentary: Fantastic Lies
The 2016 documentary film Fantastic Lies, which centered around the case and its aftermath, was part of ESPN's 30 for 30 film series. It premiered on March 13, 2016, 10 years to the day after the lacrosse players hosted the house party where Mangum claimed she was raped.
Among the journalists invited to contribute was ESPN college basketball analyst and Duke graduate Jay Bilas, who in his other capacity as a practicing attorney later wrote a letter to the university administration criticizing their handling of the entire situation and describing president Brodhead as "incapable of effectively leading Duke into the future." Crystal Mangum was approached by the film crew to tell her side of the story and agreed to do so, but prison officials would not allow her to be filmed. None of the players involved in the case appeared in the film, but Reade Seligmann's parents and Colin Finnerty’s father did.
See also
Racial hoax
Tawana Brawley rape allegations
A Rape on Campus
References
Further reading
Until Proven Innocent: Political Correctness and the Shameful Injustices of the Duke Lacrosse Rape Case by Stuart Taylor Jr. and KC Johnson (2007);
It's Not About the Truth: The Untold Story of the Duke Lacrosse Rape Case and the Lives It Shattered by Don Yaeger & Mike Pressler (2007);
A Rush to Injustice: How Power, Prejudice, Racism, and Political Correctness Overshadowed Truth and Justice in the Duke Lacrosse Rape Case by Nader Baydoun and R. Stephanie Good (2007);
The Duke Lacrosse Case: A Documentary History and Analysis of the Modern Scottsboro by R. B. Parrish (2009);
Party Like a Lacrosse Star by Paul Montgomery (2007);
The Last Dance for Grace: The Crystal Gale Mangum Story by Crystal Gale Mangum & Edward Clark (2008);
External links
Collected stories from The (Raleigh, N.C.) News & Observer
"Duke Rape Scandal" Photo Gallery via Court TV
Video: Duke Jurors Speak (Grand Jury)
Exclusive: Duke Lacrosse Grand Jurors Speak Out - ABC News
Complete transcript and audio of Duke University President Richard Brodhead's Apology and Address on the Ethics and Practice of Trying Cases in the Media - AmericanRhetoric.com
2006 hoaxes
2006 in lacrosse
2006 in North Carolina
2007 in North Carolina
Campus sexual assault
African-American-related controversies
Crime in North Carolina
Duke Blue Devils men's lacrosse
Duke University
False allegations of sex crimes
History of Durham, North Carolina
Hoaxes in the United States
March 2006 events in the United States
Mass media-related controversies in the United States
Race and law in the United States
Racial hoaxes
Sports scandals in the United States
21st-century American trials
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google%20Health
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Google Health
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Google Health was a project by Google designed as an attempt to create a repository of health records and data (personal health record services) in order to connect doctors, hospitals and pharmacies directly. The project was introduced in 2008 and discontinued in 2012. Google Health was restarted in 2018 but appeared to be discontinued in 2021 and was officially called an "effort" rather than a separate division as of 2022.
History
Google Health (2008–2012)
Google Health was the name given to a 2008–2012 version of a service, which allowed Google users to volunteer their health records—either manually or by logging into their accounts at partnered health services providers—into the Google Health system, thereby merging potentially separate health records into one centralized Google Health profile. Volunteered information could include "health conditions, medications, allergies, and lab results". Once entered, Google Health used the information to provide the user with a merged health record, information on conditions, and possible interactions between drugs, conditions, and allergies. Google Health's API was based on a subset of the Continuity of Care Record.
The original Google Health was under development from mid-2006, under ex-chief health strategist Roni Zeiger. In 2008, the service underwent a two-month pilot test with 1,600 patients of The Cleveland Clinic. Starting on May 20, 2008, Google Health was released to the general public as a service in beta test stage. On September 15, 2010, Google updated Google Health with a new look and feel.
On June 24, 2011, Google announced it was retiring Google Health on January 1, 2012; data was available for download through January 1, 2013. The reason Google gave for abandoning the project was the lack of widespread adoption. In 2012, Roni Zeiger left Google.
Google Health (2018–2021)
Google Health in 2018 was the name given to a team working within Google, rather than a service or application, following a similarly named web service in 2008–2012.
In 2018, during a process codenamed "Tuscany," teams across the company combined into the new Google Health group. This included artificial-intelligence research teams Google Brain and DeepMind, as well as health teams from Nest Labs, the connected-home company Google bought in 2014.
Starting in November 2018, David Feinberg was appointed lead. In 2019, it was announced they wanted more searchable medical records and to "improve the quality of health-focused search results across Google and YouTube". Google Health also appeared to focus on health-related artificial intelligence research, clinical tools, and partnerships for other healthcare tools and services.
Later in 2018, Google reorganized their healthcare efforts, and as a result DeepMind Health became part of Google Health. They began a non disclosed project called Project Nightingale, a partnership with Ascension, a large Catholic health care system in the United States. The project was headed by David Feinberg, hired in November 2018 and his oversight included Google Fit, health-oriented features in Google Search, G Suite for healthcare businesses, AI-based health research offerings, and Alphabet subsidiaries DeepMind Health, Verily, and Calico. At the 2019 HLTH health care conference, Feinberg announced Google Health is working on improvements with the search functions in electronic health records (EHR) and to improve health-related search results across their platforms.
In 2020, there were four areas of focus:
Consumer tools : included work on search and maps to surface authoritative information. This group was formally moved out of Google Health and parceled into the Search division and FitBit division in 2021.
Clinician tools : in partnerships with doctors and clinicians
Imaging and diagnostics
Research group
In 2021, the imaging, diagnostics and research groups appeared to be consolidated as the Health AI group.
Google Health reportedly struck up deals to work with large health systems such as Ascension and Stanford Medicine, but talks with other major health companies and organizations including CVS Health and the Gates Foundation had "fallen apart along the way".
In February 2020, Google Health had more than 500 employees. In August 2021, Google reorganized the health projects and teams.
Fitbit and consumer health
In November 2019, Google announced plans to acquire Fitbit, with the company adding that "Fitbit health and wellness data will not be used for Google ads." The European Data Protection Board voiced privacy concerns in February 2020 about mass aggregation of data. In August 2020, EU regulators announced plans for an anticompetition probe into the deal. The acquisition was completed in January 2021. Later in 2021, a portion of the consumer health efforts of Google Health were formally moved into the FitBit division.
A personal health record app allowing users to rate their health records and share them with others appeared to be under development and real world testing in 2021.
COVID-19 pandemic
"A quarter of Google Health's life has been spent during the coronavirus pandemic, and it's helped focus its search ambitions, partnerships with health officials, and collaboration across the company," chief health officer Karen DeSalvo said in August 2020. She described YouTube, Maps, Google Assistant, and Google search wanting to guide consumers on their healthcare experience, called the "Discovery to Action Pathway". This included searching for local testing sites, looking for doctors, and setting up an appointment.
In April 2020, Julie Black, Director of Product Management for Google Health, announced virtual care entries on Google Maps for medical businesses. Searches for "immediate care" would also show widely-available virtual care platforms like Live Health Online, AmWell and Doctor on Demand.
In August 2020, Google announced an partnership with and investment in AmWell, a telemedicine company. The two companies aim to use their technology capabilities for TeleHealthcare including artificial intelligence and collaboration tools. Google Cloud will also invest $100 million in Amwell.
Exposure Notifications System (ENS)
In 2020, Apple and Google announced changes to their operating systems that would enable exposure notification for users. Chief Health Officer Karen DeSalvo noted that privacy concerns had led to the approach using Bluetooth-based proximity signals rather than GPS location tracking. In the UK, an NHS-developed app saw some adoption resulting in 1.7M exposure notifications. However, as of 2022, adoption of apps using Apple and Google’s exposure notification system had never gone above single digits for most states in the U.S.
Other countries had elected not to use the Google framework has opted for location tracking. Instead, some had special laws previously created for the public health emergency, allowing government use of location tracking and transaction databases by government authorities. In South Korea, authorities using cellphone location data had identified 60,000 people near a mass-exposure event in Itaewon. Affected individuals were notified, with some asked to self-quarantine, resulting in only 246 cases from the exposure. Privacy advocates expressed concern over the use of location data in this way.
Google Health Studies app
In late 2020, Google introduced a Google Health Studies app for Android phones, appearing to rival Apple’s ResearchKit and Research App. The first studies on the Health Studies app focus on respiratory illness like COVID-19. Google deployed federated learning in an effort to improve privacy and security in its Health Studies app.
The Google Health Studies app was introduced amidst news that a competing Apple Research app had inadvertently collected more health data than requested. The Apple study had unintentionally collected 30 days of additional data, which was not requested as part of the study. According to emails to study participants, extra data had reportedly been deleted and was never accessed by Apple.
Google Health (2021-current)
Google Health continues to operate today as a "company-wide effort" led by Google's Chief Health Officer, Karen DeSalvo.
According to the company, "there is no "Google Healthcare" division or platform within Google today," although it is unclear why the company is remarking on "Healthcare" versus "Health" as an effort, brand, product, or organization.
Another initiative officially described as "company-wide efforts" at Google is the Google News Initiative.
At the same time, as of 2023, there have been reports of a platform offering that non-company partners have referred to publicly as "Google Health". In March 2023, the CEO of Meditech, an electronic health record company, referred to Google Health as a product with features including "search and summarization capabilities."
Partners
Google Health's current partners include Apollo Hospitals, Aravind Eye Hospital, Ascension, CIDRZ, Mayo Clinic, Northwestern Medicine, Rajavithi Hospital, Sankara Nethralaya, and Stanford Medicine.
The original Google Health (2008–2012), like many other Google products, was free to use for consumers. Unlike other Google services, however, Health contained no advertising. Google did not reveal how it planned to make money with the service, but a Wall Street Journal article said that Google "hasn't ruled [advertising] out for the future." Google filed in 2007, U.S. Patent Application #20070282632, "Method and apparatus for serving advertisements in an electronic medical record system".
Google Health (from 2008 to 2012) imported medical and/or drug prescription information from the following partners: Allscripts, Anvita Health, The Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Blue Cross Blue Shield of Massachusetts, The Cleveland Clinic, CVS Caremark, Drugs.com, Healthgrades, Longs Drugs, Medco Health Solutions, Quest Diagnostics, RxAmerica, and Walgreens. In January 2010, the Withings WiFi Body scale enables Google Health users to seamlessly update their weight and other data to their online profiles. Users whose health records reside with other providers had to either manually enter their data or pay to have a Google Health partner perform the service. MediConnect Global was one such partner; for a fee, they would retrieve a user's medical records from around the world and add them to his or her profile.
In 2009, in response to demand for added convenience, Google Health began establishing relationships with tele-health providers that will allow their users to sync the data shared during tele-health consultations with their online health records partnerships have been formed with the following companies: MDLiveCare and Hello Health.
Privacy concerns
Google Health (2008–2012)
The original Google Health was an opt-in service, meaning it could only access medical information volunteered by individuals. It did not retrieve any part of a person's medical records without his or her explicit consent and action. However, it did encourage users to set up profiles for other individuals. According to its Terms of Service, Google Health is not considered a "covered entity" under the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996; thus, HIPAA privacy laws do not apply to it.
In a 2008 article covering the original Google Health's launch, the New York Times discussed privacy issues and said that "patients apparently did not shun the Google health records because of qualms that their personal health information might not be secure if held by a large technology company." Others contend that Google Health may be more private than the current "paper" health record system because of reduced human interaction.
Google Health (2018–present)
DeepMind Health and NHS
In 2017, DeepMind, a Google-owned company, was found to have not complied with UK data protection laws, according to the UK Information Commissioner’s Office. The health unit of DeepMind had been formed in early 2016. DeepMind acquired a task management app called Hark developed by Dominic King and Lord Ara Darzi at Imperial College. Deepmind Health was also developing an app with the NHS Royal Free Hospital called Streams that helped monitor patients with acute kidney injury. The ICO said that patients were not notified correctly about how their data was being used. The DeepMind Health team noted the appointment of David Feinberg at Google in November 2018, and later officially joined Google Health in late 2019.
University of Chicago
In June 2019, University of Chicago, its medical center, and Google were sued in a potential class-action lawsuit about patient record sharing. A federal judge dismissed the patient data privacy lawsuit on September 4, 2020. The class action suit had been filed by plaintiff Matt Dinerstein and represented by attorney Jay Edelson.
The University noted that class action attorney Edelson had a potential conflict of interest, as an investor in a competing company, Quant HC. According to a legal motion filed in 2019, Edelson and his law partners allegedly "funded, organized, and served as officers and directors of" Quant HC, a company founded by Edelson’s spouse, a physician at University of Chicago. Quant HC, produced medical software called ECART, and received $600,000 of initial investment from Edelson and his wife from its founding in 2012.
Ascension Health
In 2018, Project Nightingale started the partnership with Ascension, one of the largest United States health care systems. Ascension health system and Google described the partnership including infrastructure modernization, transitioning to productivity and collaboration tools, and exploring artificial intelligence / machine learning applications and tools for doctors and nurses.
In November 2019, Google engineers were reported to have had access to medical records held by Ascension as they were building products and as a result, the US government opened up an investigation on the partnership. From December 2019 to March 2020, a group of U.S. Senators asked for more information about the project, and how sensitive health information was protected.
Legal observers, however, had noted that there had probably not actually been any HIPAA federal privacy law violations, citing a business associate agreement between Google and Ascension in line with what HIPAA allowed. Other health data experts commented that companies such as IQVIA, UnitedHealth Optum Labs, and Symphony Health, IBM Watson Health (Truven Health) "reap the profits of selling the healthcare data while the people from whom it's collected have no control over how it's used. Nor do they get any compensation for it." For example, IQVIA, a large pharmaceutical research and marketing conglomerate noted that they have data on over 600 million patients in their public 10-K financial filings.
Other media coverage noted that while Google had done nothing illegal, questions remained on what other uses Google intended. Google executive Tariq Shaukat wrote in an official statement that the data would be used in extending tools to doctors and nurses to improve care, writing: "We aim to provide tools that Ascension could use to support improvements in clinical quality and patient safety." The official post was later amended to clarify that Ascension patient data would not be combined with Google consumer data, stating "In accordance with HIPAA and the BAA we sign with our customers, patient data cannot be used for any other purpose than for provisioning the tools specific to the customer."
Comparison to Facebook hospital data projects
The stated commitment by Google to not combine data stood in contrast to the health records activities by Facebook.
While Google noted they would not combine health data with consumer data, Facebook had reportedly sought to combine hashed electronic health record data with consumer data. The secretive Facebook "Building 8" project, led by cardiologist Freddy Abnousi, sought to "combine what a health system knows about its patients (such as: person has heart disease, is age 50, takes 2 medications and made 3 trips to the hospital this year) with what Facebook knows (such as: user is age 50, married with 3 kids, English isn't a primary language, actively engages with the community by sending a lot of messages)."
Fitbit acquisition and the European Commission
In August 2020, as Google began acquisition of FitBit, the European Commission began investigating Google's potential uses of data collected from Fitbit's health tracking hardware. The Commission expressed concerns about competition, the effects of combining data from FitBit and Google in the digital healthcare sector, and potential effects of interoperability of rivals' wearables with Google's Android operating system for smartphones.
Competitors and related companies
Google's parent company Alphabet, Inc. has also been active in the healthcare industry with the companies Verily, Calico, and DeepMind. In July 2020, sister company Verily was described as acting "largely independent of one another", while Verily chief executive officer Andrew Conrad reportedly wanted to end the "rivalry" between the two companies and collaborate more closely.
On December 7, 2011, MediConnect Global announced a similar capability that allows displaced Google Health users to transfer their personal health records to a MyMediConnect account.
Google Health was a personal health record (PHR) service with numerous competitors, including other proprietary PHR systems and open-source such as Microsoft's HealthVault, Dossia, and the open-source Indivo project.
In the United States hospital market for electronic health records (EHR) in 2018, Epic, Cerner, MEDITECH, and CSPI (Evident Thrive) had the top market share at 28%, 26%, 9%, and 6%. For large hospitals with over 500 beds, Epic and Cerner had over 85% market share in 2019.
Microsoft
On July 18, 2011, Microsoft released a tool that lets Google Health customers transfer their personal health information to a web-based Microsoft HealthVault account. HealthVault had partnered with American Heart Association, Johnson & Johnson, and Allscripts. In November 2019, Microsoft HealthVault was shut down and it was suggested users migrate their records to Get Real Health and FollowMyHealth.
Health (Apple)
In 2014, Health (Apple) a health informatics mobile application was announced. HealthKit is the accompanying developer application programming interface (API).
Facebook
In 2019, Roni Zeiger announced he would be joining Facebook as the Head of Health Strategy. The same year in 2019, Facebook announced its project called Preventive Health, a digital tool to connect patients with healthcare providers and sends reminders for health concerns based on age and gender.
In 2017, Facebook had been working on a "top-secret" project headed by Freddy Abnousi to take anonymous medical data and using a common computer science cryptographic technique called "hashing" in order to match individuals. Alleged this information would only be used for the medical research community. Additionally there had been the idea of building virtual profiles of patients that included their medical conditions, as well as their social and economic factors.
Facebook health privacy concerns
In 2020, privacy issues surfaced for Facebook Groups health communities. Breast cancer advocate Andrea Downing raised privacy concerns about Facebook’s closed health communities. She noted that for closed groups like the BRCA Sisterhood group, members' personal information was supposed to only be visible to other members. A cybersecurity researcher found that developers, marketers and others could download the membership lists of Facebook groups for thousands of diseases and conditions, from Alcoholics Anonymous to survivors of sexual assault. As a result, a complaint was filed with the Federal Trade Commission, claiming that Facebook "deceptively solicited patients to use its 'Groups' product to share personal health information about their health issues."
Amazon
In 2018, Amazon, JPMorgan, and Berkshire Hathaway formed a joint venture called Haven Healthcare to create a new type of health insurance. The three founding companies dissolved Haven in February 2021.
In 2019, Amazon launched a beta program as an extension of a traditional health insurance plan called, Amazon Care, offering both virtual and in-person healthcare. They have tele-medicine via an app, chat and remote video, as well as follow-up visits and prescription drug delivery via home or office.
References
External links
Video: HLTH conference, David Feinberg, Head of Google Health from 2019, via YouTube
Telehealth
Electronic health record software
Internet properties established in 2008
Internet properties disestablished in 2012
Health
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s%20Edinburgh%20Rifles
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Queen's Edinburgh Rifles
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The Queen's Edinburgh Rifles was a brigade of Rifle Volunteers raised in the county of city of Edinburgh in 1859. It later formed two battalions of the Royal Scots, which fought in World War I at Gallipoli, in Palestine and on the Western Front. The two battalions combined between the world wars before being converted into an air defence regiment of the Royal Artillery (RA). This served in Anti-Aircraft Command during World War II and continued in the postwar Territorial Army (TA) until 1961, when its successors were converted into Royal Engineers (RE).
Volunteer Force
The enthusiasm for the Volunteer movement following an invasion scare in 1859 saw the creation of many Rifle Volunteer Corps (RVCs) composed of part-time soldiers eager to supplement the Regular British Army in time of need. The 1st City of Edinburgh RVC comprised 21 different companies raised in that city between 31 August 1859 and November 1860 under the command of James Moncrieff, MP for Edinburgh (later 1st Lord Moncrieff), as Lieutenant-Colonel Commandant. Nine of these companies were professional by background (lawyers, accountants, civil servants, university men and merchants), four were drawn from miscellaneous interests (Freemasons, Total abstainers, the Highland Society of Edinburgh), two were citizens' companies, two were lower middle class (tailors and bankers' clerks) and four were artisan companies:
1st (Advocates) Company, formed 31 August 1859, disbanded 1868
2nd (1st Citizens) Company, formed 31 August 1859
3rd (Writers to the Signet) Company, formed 31 August 1859, disbanded 1868
4th (Edinburgh University) Company, formed 31 August 1859
5th (Solicitors before the Supreme Court) Company, formed 31 August 1859
6th (Accountants) Company, formed 31 August 1859
7th (Bankers) Company, formed 31 August 1859
8th (1st Artisans) Company, formed 31 August 1859
9th (2nd Artisans) Company, formed 31 August 1859
10th (Civil Service) Company, formed 7 October 1859
11th (3rd Artisans) Company, formed 7 December 1859
12th (Freemasons) Company, formed 7 December 1859, reorganised as 12th (Water of Leith) Company 1861
13th (4th Artisans) Company, formed 7 December 1859
14th (2nd Citizens) Company, formed 8 December 1859
15th (1st Merchants) Company, formed 21 December 1859
16th (Total Abstainers) Company, formed 29 February 1860
17th (2nd Merchants) Company, formed 11 May 1860
18th (High Constables) Company, formed 25 May 1860
19th (5th Artisans) Company, formed 8 November 1860
1st (Highland) Company formed 31 August 1859
2nd (Highland) Company formed 18 May 1860
3rd (Highland) Company formed 23 July 1860
The author R. M. Ballantyne was appointed Ensign in No 13 (4th Artisans) Company, and then promoted to be Captain of No 9 (2nd Artisans) Company in July 1860, resigning in July 1863. He rejoined the corps in 1867 as Captain of No 15 (1st Merchants) Company, but resigned again at the end of 1869. His brother John was one of the first officers appointed to the corps, being commissioned as ensign in No 2 (1st Citizens) Company and then selected as Captain of No 14 (2nd Citizens) Company on its formation, before resigning in June 1860.
The first six companies were self-supporting, the members paying for their own uniforms, equipment and arms, while No 7 Company composed of bank clerks, No 15 (1st Merchants) and No 19, mainly tailors, received financial support from their employers. The other artisans paid for their uniforms by instalments and their company expenses were met by public subscriptions. The three Highland Companies came from the Highland Society of Edinburgh. Interest in No 12 Company, the Freemasons, soon fell away and by 1861 it had almost ceased to exist. The novelist Catherine Sinclair came forward with funds and No 12 Company was reorganised, recruited mainly from the Water of Leith district.
In 1865 the unit received the title of 1st Queen's Edinburgh Rifle Volunteer Brigade (1st QERVB). A 2nd City of Edinburgh RVC had been formed in 1862 as one company of Highlanders raised from W.D. Young's Ironworks at Fountainbridge with William D. Young himself as captain. On 23 February 1867 this unit was increased to three companies, but simultaneously was included in the 1st QERVB as the 4th, 5th and 6th (Highland) Companies.
No 16 Company had been formed by John Hope entirely from men who had 'signed the pledge' as total abstainers. Hope then decided to raise a complete corps of abstainers from Edinburgh and on 27 May 1867 the 3rd City of Edinburgh RVC of two companies was formed with Hope in command. Most of his recruits (and the cap badge) were taken from No 16 Company, and the 3rd RVC remained administratively attached to the 1st QERVB for several years. The unit, known locally as 'John Hope's Water Rats', grew to six companies by 1880, when it was renumbered as the 2nd Edinburgh RVC. It became the 4th Volunteer Battalion of the Royal Scots in 1888, and the 6th Battalion, Royal Scots in 1908.
The 1st QERVB continued to grow, adding a 7th (Highland) Company on 27 December 1867 from natives of Caithness living in Edinburgh. Nos 1 and 3 Companies were disbanded in 1868 but on 19 March 1869 a new No 20 Company was formed and the brigade divided into two battalions: 1st Battalion comprised Nos 2, 4, 5. 6, 7, 10, 18 and 1st to 7th Highland Companies; 2nd Battalion comprised Nos 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19 and 20 Companies. It was the largest RVC in the Volunteer Force. The unit established its Headquarters (HQ) at Forrest Hill drill hall, Edinburgh, in 1872, and enlarged the building in 1905. In common with other Edinburgh Volunteer units, it used a rifle range at Hunters Bog in Holyrood Park.
J.H.A. Macdonald, later Lord Kingsburgh, Lord Advocate of Scotland, was commissioned as a Lt-Col in the brigade in 1864 and became Lt-Col Commandant in 1882. He was one of the leading Volunteer advocates of drill reform, author of On the Best Detail Formation for the New Infantry Tactics (1873) and Commonsense on Parade or Drill without Strings (1886). In 1885 he organised a spectacular night assembly of the brigade, which resulted in 500 new recruits. In 1886 a Mounted Infantry detachment was formed and an affiliated cadet corps was formed at Merchiston Castle School.
Localisation
Under the 'Localisation of Forces' scheme introduced in 1872 by the Cardwell Reforms, the 1st QERVB was grouped with the 1st Regiment of Foot (the Royal Scots), the Edinburgh Light Infantry Militia and a number of RVCs from neighbouring counties into Brigade No 62. When these were combined into a single regiment under the Childers Reforms, the 1st QERVB provided two Volunteer Battalions of the Royal Scots from 1 July 1881. The 2nd Battalion formed a Mounted Rifle company in March 1886. On 1 April the unit was designated the Queens Rifle Volunteer Brigade Royal Scots, when it was split into three battalions: 1st Battalion with A-I Companies (previously Nos 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 18 and 1–3 Highland); 2nd Battalion A–H Companies (previously Nos 8, 9, 11–16); 3rd Battalion A–H Companies (previously Nos 4, 17, 19, 20 and 4–7 Highland).
The Stanhope Memorandum of December 1888 introduced a Mobilisation Scheme for Volunteer units, which would assemble in their own brigades at key points in case of war. In peacetime these brigades provided a structure for collective training. Under this scheme the QRVB was included in the Forth Brigade under the command of Col J.H.A. Macdonald, based at 51 Hanover Street, Edinburgh, later at Surgeons' Hall. In 1902 the Forth Brigade was split into the 1st and 2nd Lothian Brigades, with the QVRB in the 1st Brigade based at the QRVB Drill Hall in Forrest Road, later at 28 Rutland Street.
2nd Boer War
A contingent from the brigade served in the Volunteer Service Companies of the Royal Scots alongside the Regulars in the Second Boer War, and others with the Scottish Volunteer Cyclist Company and the City of London Imperial Volunteers. In all, 245 members of the brigade served in the war, earning its first Battle honour: South Africa 1900–02.
In 1900, during the 2nd Boer War, the Government provided support (army pay and allowances, with separation allowances for families) for longer than usual summer training camps for the Volunteers. This allowed the Queen's Edinburgh Rifle Brigade to camp for 28 days instead of the usual week, and to concentrate on progressive training. From 1902 to 1906 the brigade provided one battalion to the 32nd Brigade of the field army for 13 days' annual training, the remainder staying with 1st Lothian Bde.
Recruitment soared during the Boer War and the brigade underwent further enlargement in 1900, with the addition of I Company (recruited from Colinton) for 3rd Battalion, and the expansion of the Mounted Infantry detachment to three sections. In 1875 the brigade's highland companies had been ordered to discontinue Highland dress, but in 1900 a complete new Highland Battalion of eight kilted companies was formed in Edinburgh. This was detached from the brigade the following year and became independent as 9th (Highlanders) Volunteer Battalion, Royal Scots.
In 1905, Sir Robert Cranston, as one of the lieutenant-colonels of the brigade (as well as its Honorary Colonel, ex officio, as Lord Provost of Edinburgh), participated in meetings with H. O. Arnold-Forster, Secretary of State for War, over the future of the Volunteer Force. George Watson's Boys' College formed an affiliated cadet corps in 1905.
Territorial Force
When the Volunteers were subsumed into the new Territorial Force (TF) under the Haldane Reforms of 1908, the three battalions of the brigade were reorganised to form the 4th and 5th Battalions of the Royal Scots, both granted the subtitle 'Queen's Edinburgh Rifles' in March 1909. A Company of the brigade's 3rd Bn, the old No 4 (Edinburgh University) Company, became the Edinburgh University contingent of the Senior Division of the Officers' Training Corps (OTC) and the Merchiston Castle and George Watson's Cadet Corps joined the Junior Division of the OTC.
The two battalions remained in the Lothian Brigade, which did not join any of the TF's new infantry divisions but continued independently in its coast defence role.
World War I
Mobilisation
On the outbreak of war on 4 August 1914, the Lothian Brigade mobilised at Edinburgh as part of Scottish Coastal Defences.
Almost immediately, TF units were invited to volunteer for Overseas Service. On 15 August 1914, the War Office issued instructions to separate those men who had signed up for Home Service only, and form them into reserve units. On 31 August, the formation of a reserve or 2nd Line unit was authorised for each 1st Line unit where 60 per cent or more of the men had volunteered for Overseas Service. The titles of these 2nd Line units would be the same as the original, but distinguished by a '2/' prefix, and a 2nd Lothian Brigade was formed from these units. 3rd Line training units were formed in 1915. The only TF battalion of the Royal Scots that did not immediately form a 2nd line was the 6th Bn, which instead provided two companies of reinforcements to bring 1/4th Bn up to war establishment. 3rd Line or Reserve battalions were later added to provide drafts to the battalions overseas, but the number of recruits from Edinburgh began to dry up and drafts were often unavailable. In preparation for the Gallipoli Campaign, 1/5th Royal Scots left 1st Lothian Bde on 10 March 1915, and 1/4th Bn on 24 April, being replaced by their 2nd Line battalions.
1/4th (QER) Royal Scots
On leaving 1st Lothian Bde the 1/4th (QER) Bn Royal Scots (1/4th RS) joined the Scottish Rifles Brigade in the Lowland Division, which were shortly afterwards numbered as 156th Bde and 52nd Division. The division was at Larbert under orders to proceed to Gallipoli, and on 22 May the battalion entrained for Liverpool where it embarked on the Empress of Britain. The battalion sailed on 24 May via Gibraltar and Malta, arriving on 3 June at Alexandria in Egypt where it went into camp.
Gallipoli
The battalion re-embarked on the Empress of Britain on 8 June and reached Mudros Bay three days later. C Company was then sent aboard the Carron for Cape Helles, followed by A and B Companies aboard HMS Reindeer. The latter vessel was badly damaged in a collision with HMS Immingham and had to return, the men being transhipped to the French Moulooya and then back to the Empress of Britain. A and B Companies with HQ finally sailed again on 14 June aboard HMS Basilisk, accompanied by D Company aboard HMS Grasshopper. They landed at 'W' Beach and moved about a mile inland to begin digging communication tenches under shellfire. The battalion moved up into the front line where it relieved the 1/5th (QER) Bn (see below) for a five-day spell of duty, during which Quartermaster-Sergeant J. Dewar (1914 winner of the King's Prize at the National Rifle Association meeting at Bisley Camp) and Company Sergeant-Major (CSM) D. Lowe distinguished themselves by picking off Turkish snipers.
1/4th Battalion returned to the front line on 27 June to take part in the next day's attack on trenches H12A and H12 (the Battle of Gully Ravine) in which 156th Bde was attached to 29th Division. After a bombardment by warships and the artillery ashore, 29th Division attacked at 11.00. 1/4th Royal Scots on 156th Bde's left had the task of assaulting trenches H12 and H12A on the eastern side of Gully Ravine. The battalion had a 12-man bombing party, but two-thirds of the improvised Jam tin grenades failed to go off. Each man had a tin rectangle on his back to reflect the sun and indicate their position to the artillery – but 156th Bde was allocated none of the available artillery support. Packed into inadequate jumping-off trenches, the brigade suffered heavily from retaliatory shellfire before it went 'over the top' at 11.02. C and D Companies advanced towards H12A, with A Company following up, all suffering heavy casualties from enfilade fire, including most of the officers. Pipe-Major Andrew Buchan, rifle in hand, led forward one party until hit for the third time he died on the parapet of the trench. After a stiff bayonet fight, this trench was captured. B Company diverged half right and charged the enfilading trench, then a party under CSM Lowe moved on to establish a foothold in the second objective (H12) and prepare it for defence, joined by the battalion machine guns. The battalion's casualties were 15 officers killed or died of wounds (including the Commanding Officer (CO), Lt-Col S.R. Dunn, TD, who died on a hospital ship), 204 other ranks (ORs) killed or missing, seven officers and 141 ORs wounded.
The battalion was relieved the following day and was then attached to 88th Brigade in 29th Division alongside the 1/5th (QER) Bn. It formed X and Y Companies in a composite battalion with the 1/7th Bn (Z Company), which had started as a half battalion, having lost two companies in the Quintinshill rail disaster before embarkation, and had since also lost heavily at Gully Ravine.
On 12 July the battalion supported 1/4th Royal Scots Fusiliers during the attack on Trenches E10 and F12 (the action at Achi Baba Nullah); its casualties were 27 ORs killed and missing, and 47 wounded. The weakened battalion was engaged in fatigue duties at 'W' Beach until 11 August when 14 officers (including a new CO, Col A. Young, VD, a former officer of the QEVRB) arrived as reinforcements and the temporary amalgamation with 1/7th Bn ended. 1/4th Battalion then began to take its turns in the firing line and in the reserve line, though at one point it held of trench for four days with an effective rifle strength of only 62 men. Sickness kept many men out of action: in October, of 12 officers and 330 ORs, the effective strength was only 181. On 4 November Col Young went to hospital and the 1/4th RS once again formed a composite battalion with the 1/7th Bn, under the command of Lt-Col W.C. Peebles of 1/7th. The combined battalion seized a Turkish trench on 15 November with few casualties and held it against a counter-attack, but was not involved in any of 52nd Division's other major actions before the decision was made to evacuate the Helles positions.
Preparations for evacuation were made during early January while the force ashore was slimmed down. 4th/7th Royal Scots formed part of the rearguard, which made its way down to 'V' Beach after dark on 8 January. The battalion was evacuated by lighters and on 9 September sailed aboard HMS Prince George for Mudros. Of the battalion that had originally landed, only the medical officer and 148 ORs remained on the strength.
Egypt
After the evacuation of Helles the 52nd (L) Division moved back to Egypt. After reinforcement and concentration it went to El Qantara and on 2 March 1916 it took over part of No 3 Section of the Suez Canal defences. No 3 or Northern Section of the Canal defences had its outer flank anchored on the Mediterranean. Running inland were a series of redoubts manned by 1/4th RS and the rest of the infantry with machine guns and backed by artillery. On the night of 3/4 August a German and Turkish force attacked the position (the Battle of Romani), but 1/4th RS and saw little action. The attack was driven off by the British artillery. and the ANZAC Mounted Division, then the defenders moved to the counter-attack, though the pursuit bogged down in the appalling desert conditions of Sinai.
Palestine
After months of preparation the Eastern Expeditionary Force (EEF) crossed the Sinai Desert at the end of 1916 and prepared to invade Palestine, beginning the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. 52nd (L) Division was held in reserve during the 1st Battle of Gaza (26–27 March 1917) and was not committed. There followed several weeks of preparation for the 2nd Battle of Gaza. The first phase of the attack was carried out on 17 April, with 52nd (L) Division tasked with taking Ali Mansur and the adjoining hills. 156th Brigade was in reserve at Wadi Ghuzze, moving up during the night. On 19 April 156th Bde was ready to attack Mansura at 07.30 after a 2-hour bombardment, with 1/4th RS in the centre under the command of Lt-Col F.H. Goldthorpe. However, 155th (South Scottish) Bde got held up and 156th was pinned down, lying in the open for 5–6 hours and suffering casualties from shellfire before falling back at the end of the day. The battle ended on 20 April with both sides digging in, the 1/4th RS having suffered casualties of 1 officers and 13 ORs killed, 6 officers and 110 ORs wounded, and 4 ORs missing.
52nd (L) Division spent months digging defences, suffering a steady trickle of casualties from shellfire and in raids. 4th Royal Scots (the '1/' prefix was dropped now that the 2nd and 3rd Line battalions had been disbanded, see below) was now commanded by Lt-Col A.M. Mitchell. Several times the battalion sent patrols out into No man's land with a field telephone, then, having located the position of a Turkish standing patrol, called down artillery fire on it. By the autumn of 1917 the EEF had been revitalised by the arrival of Sir Edmund Allenby as commander-in-chief, and the next operation (the 3rd Battle of Gaza) was much better planned and successful. While the Desert Mounted Corps swept round the Turkish flank, 52nd (L) Division down on the coast carried out a direct attack on the strong el Arish position to pin the Turks. 4th Royal Scots was given the daunting task of crossing of No man's land and then storming the central and eastern portion of the formidable el Arish redoubt and the associated 'Little Devil' trench system. The troops practised this attack over trench models for days before the attack went in on 2 November. The first phase of the night attack on 'Umbrella Hill' had died down before 4th RS moved out in the dark to its jumping-off position from the redoubt. Followed by supporting and carrying companies of the 8th Bn Cameronians (Scottish Rifles), and preceded by two tanks (one of which immediately broke down), 4th RS launched its attack at 03.00 as the British artillery pounded the objective. The battalion advanced 'with magnificent steadiness' in four waves on a frontage of under Turkish artillery fire (the remaining tank was hit and burned out after it had crossed the first two lines of trenches). The infantry crossed four lines of trenches, the following waves 'mopping up' the defenders as they advanced, and then they steadily cleared the 'Little Devil' trenches and dugouts, despite losses from landmines. The objective was carried by 03.55, but counter-attacks had to be held off until daybreak. Daylight showed that the furthest trench was untenable, so the battalion moved back a little to the higher ground from which they could deny these trenches to the enemy. Furher counter-attacks came in at the end of the day, but the position was held. When the battalion was relieved that night it had lost about 200 casualties, which had risen to 240 by the end of the battle on 7 November.
The Turks withdrew to defend the Wadi el Hesi, with 52nd (L) Division well up in pursuit. 156th Brigade was left marching in the rear as the rest of the division stormed the wadi and led the pursuit up the coast towards Junction Station. 4th Royal Scots under Lt-Col Mitchell distinguished itself in a successful attack on a Turkish rearguard position at 'Brown Hill' near Burkah, NE of Gaza City on 11 November. The hill was strongly entrenched, but the battalion advanced under Shrapnel shell fire with one company echeloned back to protect the flank. Rushing forward in small parties, the assault wave gathered in the shelter of a wadi at the foot of the hill, and then attacked under covering fire from artillery and machine guns. Having taken the position the Royal Scots discovered a second untouched Turkish line hidden on the reverse slope; they were counter-attacked from this line and pushed part-way back down the hill, but led the reinforcing 2/3rd Gurkha Rifles back up the hill to capture the position before the end of the day. The battalion, already weak, lost 3 officers and 49 ORs killed, 4 officers and 157 ORs wounded.
The EEF now began its advance on Jerusalem. 52nd (L) Division had to negotiate a poor road through the hills beyond Beit Liqya in heavy rain to join the Battle of Nebi Samwil. 156th Brigade filed along the track in full view of the Turks and under shellfire as they moved up to relieve the Yeomanry Mounted Division. 4th Royal Scots under Lt-Col Mitchell was detached to move west of El Burj to extend 155th Bde's line to try to contact 54th (East Anglian) Division. The two brigades were now strung out in a very thin line and it was too rocky to dig trenches. Lt-Col Mitchell reported that the gap to the 54th Division was wide, but El Burj was held against Turkish attacks during 28 and 29 November until 155th Bde was relieved by the 3rd Australian Light Horse Bde and 4th Royal Scots could rejoin its own brigade. After breaking this counter-offensive, the EEF captured Jerusalem on 11 December.
52nd (L) Division's next operation was the tricky passage of the Nahr el Auja to launch the Battle of Jaffa. A patrol of 4th RS crossed on a tarpaulin boat built by the Royal Engineers to reconnoitre the position on the night of 13/14 December. The assault troops of the division then practised using similar canvas boats on a village pond, then at 22.30 on the evening of 20 December, in heavy rain, the first assaulting waves of 156th Bde went forward under cover of an artillery barrage and established a bridgehead. Bridging was made difficult by the flooded river, but the Royal Engineers got the follow-up battalions including 4th Royal Scots across by raft. Accompanied by a section of the brigade machine gun company and a Stokes mortar the battalion attacked 'Slag Heap Farm' and captured it without serious difficulty. By 06.00 the brigade was digging in on a strong line, ready for any counter-attack, but none came: the Turks had been completely surprised, and were in full retreat. The advance was renewed up the coast on the morning of 22 December, with fire support from HMS Grafton and gunboats. 156th Brigade advancing in the centre came under shellfire, but casualties were few. Before nightfall, 52nd (L) Division reached the castle of Arsuf overlooking the Plain of Sharon, where it halted. The Official History describes the passage of the Auja as 'one of the most remarkable feats of the Palestine Campaign'. 4th Royal Scots suffered only 5 ORs killed, 1 officer and 21 ORs wounded.
Western Front
In the early part of 1918 the 52nd (L) Division remained in the lines near Arsuf. Then on 24 March it was warned for a transfer to the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) on the Western Front. The division's units sailed from Alexandria between 4 and 11 April, and landed at Marseilles by 17 April. The division was concentrated near Abbeville on 23 April. On 29 April it moved to Aire and continued training. On 6 May it moved to the Vimy area and took over front line trenches. On 31 July it moved up to Arras to join in the Hundred Days Offensive.
On 22 August, 156th Bde was ordered to attack the following morning (the Second Battle of the Somme). Only half the promised number of lorries arrived, and some companies of 4th RS had to march through the night to their jumping-off point south of Mercatel, and there was no time for reconnaissance. The battalion marched straight into action, behind a heavy artillery barrage but without the three tanks that were supposed to accompany them. The attack was a surprise, and the battalion advanced through the wrecked villages, taking all their objectives by 06.45. The tanks then caught up and went out to exploit the ground in front, followed by a company of 4th RS, after which the position was consolidated.
The Battle of the Scarpe began on 26 August. 4th Royal Scots attacked north of the Cojeul River and advanced steadily until they reached the outer defences of the Hindenburg Line. On 2 September (the Battle of Drocourt-Quéant Line)
4th Royal Scots moved against the tremendously strong defences at the Quéant end of the Drocourt-Quéant Switch Line and took their objectives with amazing ease. The left of the battalion captured the Moulin Sans Souci windmill, and Lt-Col Mitchell pushed his reserve company into the gap to work along the Hindenburg Line trenches. From 22 to 26 August 4th RS lost 27 ORs killed and 10 missing, 3 officers and 114 ORs wounded, and 3 officers and 98 ORs gassed as the Germans deployed large quantities of Mustard Gas. The battalion was then rested until late September.
It was brought back into the line on 20 September facing a well-fortified section of the Hindenburg Line on the Canal du Nord. The British held Moeuvres, and the Germans had been counter-attacking the village. They made another attack against 7th RS on 21 September, but at the end of the day four platoons of 4th RS rushed and captured the Germans' strongpoint at E14 Central. Fighting continued around these positions after 4th RS had been relieved.
156th Brigade's role in the great Battle of the Canal du Nord was to attack across the canal, then turn to its right and clear the trenches to the south-east. The British barrage came down at 05.00 on 27 September and the German guns immediately replied on the forming-up trenches. Nevertheless, 4th RS under Lt-Col Mitchell led 156th Bde off at 05.30 as the barrage began to move forwards. They had no tanks because the banks of the dry canal were an obstacle, and on reaching the canal realised that a frontal assault would be very costly, so the battalion reorganised to work round the left flank. Corporal Foggo dashed forwards and threw two Mills bombs into a pillbox that held them up, and the men scrambled down into and across the canal. By 09.55 the battalion had reached their objective. The battalion's losses in defending Moeuvres were 6 officers and 81 ORs, and in forcing the Canal du Nord lost another 11 officers and 96 ORs.
52nd (L) Division took part in the pursuit after the Canal du Nord, before 4th RS were rested from 7 to 27 October. Then on 28 October the battalion went back into the line north east of St Amand for the Final Advance in Artois. The division had closed up to the Mons–Condé Canal by 8 November, when it became known that the Germans had abandoned the water defences. The code word 'Hunt' was issued, and 156th Bde crossed in canvas boats to begin the pursuit. By 10 November the brigade was clearing German rearguards from Herchies, near Mons. When the Armistice with Germany came into effect at 11.00 on 11 November the division had reached the Nimy–Jurbise road.
After the Armistice the troops were employed in training and clearing up the area. Demobilisation proceeded and between the end of January and end of May 1919 the division's units were reduced to cadres and returned to the UK. The 1/4th Bn was officially disembodied on 24 May 1919.
1/5th (QER) Royal Scots
The 1/5th (QER) Battalion, Royal Scots, joined 88th Bde in 29th Division at Leamington on 11 March 1915. It was the only TF battalion in what was otherwise a Regular Army formation composed of battalions brought back to the UK from around the British Empire following the outbreak of war. The battalion entrained for Avonmouth Docks on 21/22 March where it embarked on the Caledonia and the Melville and sailed via Malta to Alexandria where it disembarked on 2 April and went into camp. It re-embarked on 6 April aboard the Dongola, Haverford, Kingstonian, Marquette, and Melville for Mudros, where it joined the British forces gathering for the Landing at Cape Helles. After lying anchored off Tenedos the force began landing at 07.00 on 25 April. Two companies of 1/5th Bn landed at V Beach at 12.30 without casualties and moved forward to the support trenches. The other two companies landed later to provide working parties on the beach, unloading stores under fire and suffering casualties. One of the advanced companies was moved up into the firing line on 26 April and the battalion joined in the general advance against Achi Baba Ridge the following afternoon. By 08.00 on 28 April the battalion had suffered heavy casualties, including the CO, Lt-Col J.T.R. Wilson wounded, and had to be withdrawn from the advanced positions. The battalion was moved to the left where it began building a redoubt, and then moved back to reserve positions.
On 7 May, during the operations around Krithia Nullah, 1/5th RS were able to rush the Turkish strongpoint of Fir Tree Wood; it was then lost to a counter-attack, but 88th Bde had recovered it by the end of the day. Overall, however the fighting was inconclusive. 88th Brigade again took terrible casualties in the Battle of Gully Ravine on 28 June (see above). At one point Second lieutenant Herbert James of the 4th Bn Worcestershire Regiment found some platoons of 1/5th RS without any officers and led them into the first line of Turkish trenches, for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross.
The attack of 28 June was the last major action at Gallipoli for the 1/5th RS. Reduced to less than a company's strength and with no drafts from home, it was evacuated to Mudros in July for rest and was replaced in 29th Division by the Royal Newfoundland Regiment from the 1st Lothian Bde. Rebuilt to half-battalion strength, about 300 men, the 1/5th RS returned to the Gallipoli Peninsula in August for two more spells of trench duty, including being in reserve for 88th Bde's attack on 6 August and the Battle of Scimitar Hill, before being withdrawn to Egypt in October. On 10 March 1916 the battalion embarked at Port Said for France to join the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) on the Western Front.
5th/6th Royal Scots
After arriving in France on 22 March the weak 1/5th RS was assigned to Line of communication (LoC) duties in April 1916. Then on 15 May it was amalgamated with the 1/6th Royal Scots to form the 5th/6th Bn. Having contributed large drafts to the 1/4th (QER) Bn, 1/6th Bn did not leave the Lothian Bde until 5 September 1915 and went to Egypt where it joined the Western Frontier Force (WFF) on 20 November. After serving with the WFF in the Senussi Campaign it was sent to France on 27 February 1916 for LoC duties on the Western Front. 1/6th arrived at Marseilles on 15 May 1916 and was immediately amalgamated with 1/5th.
On 29 July the combined 5th/6th RS joined 14th Bde in 32nd Division. The 32nd was a Kitchener's Army formation that had been bolstered by the Regular 14th Bde. It had suffered heavy casualties on the First day of the Somme (1 July) and 5th/6th Royal Scots replaced one of its shattered battalions.
At dawn on 16 November, 14th Bde took over an ill-defined section of line forming a defensive flank to the attacks being made in the Battle of the Ancre Heights. Following a fall of snow and chilling rain, the brigade was ordered to push the flank forward towards 'Ten Tree Alley' when the rest of the division attacked on 18 November. Little headway was made in this last gasp of the Somme offensive.
The division took part in minor operations along the Ancre in January and February 1917, and then followed the German retreat to the Hindenburg Line (Operation Alberich) in March and April. During this pursuit the 32nd Division carried out the British Army's first open warfare operation on the Western Front since 1914. By nightfall on 1 April, 14th Bde had reached Holnon Wood. At 05.00 on 2 April it put in a successful attack and captured this large wood.
In June the division was moved to the Flanders coast to support an expected breakthrough at Ypres that never came. However, the Germans put in a spoiling attack at Nieuport (Operation Strandfest) on 10–11 July, preceded by three days of bombardment. 14th Brigade was not closely engaged, and a planned counter-attack was abandoned.
The Germans launched their Spring Offensive (Operation Michael) south of Arras in March 1918 and 32nd Division was sent to the area as reinforcements. On 3 April, 14th Bde took part in the night attack to recapture Ayette, and on 5 April the final attempt to relaunch Operation Michael was defeated at the Battle of the Ancre. During May and June, which was quiet on the British front, the 5th/6th RS carried out raids.
The Allied Hundred Days Offensive began on 8 August with the Battle of Amiens. 32nd Division was in reserve on the first day, though 5th/6th RS was briefly engaged. 14th Brigade then led the division's attack on 11 August, with 5th/6th RS and 1st Dorset Regiment in front. As soon as they advanced they came under heavy fire, but they got close to the village of Damery with the help of two tanks that went through the village twice. The attack was then halted to avoid heavier casualties. The brigade was in reserve for 32nd Division's attack on 23 August.
On 28 August during the Battle of the Scarpe 14th Bde attacked at 05.00 and advanced unopposed towards its first two objectives: 5th/6th RS's advance was described as 'a procession', and by the end of the day the brigade had observation over the Somme Valley. Soon after dawn the next day they had pushed right up to the river. 5th/6th Royal Scots was then pulled out of the line, but it returned to cross the Somme Canal and river on 5 September. At 10.30 one company waded across at the site of Brie bridge, despite machine gun fire; it then cleared Brie, bombing the dugouts, while a second company crossed by a temporary footbridge. The two companies then established a line beyond the village, and the division passed through later in the day.
There was then another rest until the Battle of St Quentin Canal began on 29 September. Facing the most formidable part of the Hindenburg Line on the St Quentin Canal, 5th/6th RS did not go into action until 1 October, once the line had been breached. At 16.00 they were directed against the key position in the German second line, the village of Sequehart, just north of St Quentin. The village changed hands four times until on 3 October the battalion, which had specifically asked for another chance to take the village, succeeded in holding it, despite heavy shelling and two more counter-attacks.
By early November the army had closed up to the Sambre–Oise Canal. The Battle of the Sambre opened on 4 November. Two platoons of 5th/6th RS were given the task of attacking le Donjon two minutes after Zero Hour behind special barrage, and if possible to obtain a crossing over the canal. Finding themselves unable to follow the assigned path through the marsh, the two platoons the half the battalion followed the 1st Dorsets across a floating bridge; le Donjon fell at 10.45. At 13.30 the 5th/6th RS and 1st Dorsets advanced to establish the bridgehead defences: the opposition was so negligible that no barrage was required.
The advance continued, with the division capturing Grand-Fayt on 6 November and Avesnes on 8 November, which it was occupying on 11 November when the Armistice came into force. 32nd Division was chosen as part of the occupation force (the British Army of the Rhine) and advanced to the Meuse between Dinant and Namur, where it became the reserve to the army in Germany. On 3 February 1919 the division took over the southern sector of the Cologne bridgehead, but by then the remaining TF units were being demobilised. and 5th/6th Royal Scots left for home between 25 February and 19 March. It was disembodied on 12 November 1919.
2/4th and 2/5th (QER) Royal Scots
After formation in September 1914 2/4th (QER) Bn went to Penicuik in February 1915 and both transferred from 2nd Lothian Bde to 1st Lothian Bde at Peebles to replace their 1st Line battalions. They left in October and November 1915 to join 195th Bde in 65th (2nd Lowland) Division. In November 1915 the infantry battalions in the 64th (2nd Highland) and 65th (2nd Lowland) Divisions were reorganised and numbered sequentially, the 2/4th, 2/5th and 2/6th Royal Scots temporarily combining as No 19 Battalion; by May 1916 they had reverted to their previous regimental designations, but 2/5th remained merged with 2/4th.
195th Brigade was stationed at Dunfermline during the winter of 1915–16. In March 1916, 65th (2nd L) Division moved into England and joined Southern Army (Home Forces), 195th Bde being quartered in Essex around Billericay and then from July at Terling. In January 1917 the division moved to Ireland to relieve 59th (2nd North Midland) Division, which had been the first TF formation to serve in that country. 2/4th Battalion was stationed at Fermoy.
During 1917 the 2nd Line TF battalions in 65th (2nd Lowland) Division were progressively replaced by Graduated Battalions of the Training Reserve; in August 1917 the 2/4th Royal Scots was disbanded and was replaced by 217th Graduated Bn.
3/4th and 3/5th Royal Scots
The 3rd Line battalions of the Queen's Edinburgh Rifles were formed as training units at Peebles in May 1915 and moved to Loanhead and Galashiels respectively in November. They were designated as the 4th and 5th Reserve Bns, Royal Scots, on 8 April 1916 and were at Stobs Military Camp in May. On 1 September 1916, while they were at Catterick Camp in North Yorkshire, the 4th Reserve Bn absorbed the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th Reserve Bns. It also absorbed the 9th (Highland) Reserve Bn in June 1917. The combined battalion moved back to Edinburgh, in the Edinburgh Special Reserve Brigade, in November 1917, then to Haddington in April 1918, and was at Cupar in the Forth Garrison at the end of the war. It was disbanded on 28 June 1919 in Glasgow.
6th Scottish Provisional Battalion
In 1915 the Home Service men of the 4th, 5th and 6th Royal Scots were combined into 6th Scottish Provisional Battalion, which joined the Lothian Brigade (redesignated the Scottish Provisional Brigade and later 1st Provisional Brigade) on 22 May. In April 1916 the 1st Provisional Bde moved from Scotland to Kent to take over coastal defence duties. The Military Service Act 1916 swept away the Home/Foreign service distinction, and all TF soldiers became liable for overseas service, if medically fit, and the remaining provisional battalions were reorganised, but the 6th Provisional Bn had already been disbanded and its men dispersed.
Interwar
The TF was reconstituted on 7 February 1920 and the 52nd (Lowland) Division and its units began to reform. The 4th and 5th (QER) Battalions did guard duty during the coal strike of April 1921. After the TF was reorganised as the Territorial Army (TA), the two battalions reformed in 1921 as a single 4th/5th (Queen's Edinburgh Rifles) Bn, Royal Scots, and absorbed 10th (Cyclist) Bn, Royal Scots at Linlithgow as A Company. The combined battalion formed part of 155th (East Scottish) Bde in 52nd (L) Division.
AA Conversion
During the 1930s the increasing need for anti-aircraft (AA) defence for Britain's cities was addressed by converting a number of TA infantry battalions into AA units. The 4th/5th (QER) Royal Scots was one of the battalions selected, becoming a Royal Artillery searchlight (S/L) regiment on 1 November 1938 while remaining affiliated with the Royal Scots. It was designated 4th/5th (Queen's Edinburgh) Bn The Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment) (52nd Searchlight Regiment) and consisted of HQ, 405, 406, 407 Companies based at Forrest Road. At the same time, the TA was doubled in size following the Munich Crisis, so A Company at Linlithgow was separated to become the basis for 14th (West Lothian Royal Scots) Light AA Regiment, RA.
World War II
52nd (Queen's Edinburgh, Royal Scots) Searchlight Regiment
The regiment formed part of 3 AA Division covering Scotland. In February 1939 the existing AA defences came under the control of a new Anti-Aircraft Command. In June a partial mobilisation of TA units was begun in a process known as 'couverture', whereby each AA unit did a month's tour of duty in rotation to man selected AA and searchlight positions. On 24 August, ahead of the declaration of war, AA Command was fully mobilised at its war stations. 4th/5th Royal Scots (52nd S/L Rgt) became part of 52nd Light Anti-Aircraft Brigade, which was formed in August 1939 with responsibility for all of 3 AA Division's S/L provision.
As part of the Forth defences, 52nd Searchlight Regiment was engaged in the first air raid against the UK during World War II, when German aircraft attacked the Royal Naval Dockyard at Rosyth near the Forth Bridge on 16 October 1939. During the Phoney War period there were a number of other attacks on the naval bases of Scotland before the Luftwaffe turned its attention to the campaigns in Norway and France and the Low Countries.
In February 1940 the regiment sent a cadre of 5 officers and 27 ORs to 222nd Searchlight Training Regiment, RA, at Norton Manor Barracks near Taunton, where, with a similar cadre from 51st (Highland) Anti-Aircraft Battalion, Royal Engineers, they formed a new 474th Searchlight Battery, Royal Artillery, from new conscripts and volunteers. This independent battery served wit AA Command and later provided artificial illumination, or 'Monty's Moonlight', for night operations by 21st Army Group during the campaign in North West Europe in 1944–45.
In August 1940 the RA took over all the S/L regiments in AA Command, after which the regiment was designated 52nd (Queen's Edinburgh, Royal Scots) Searchlight Regiment, RA, and the companies were termed batteries.
Eastern Scotland largely escaped air attack during the Battle of Britain. In November 1940, at the height of The Blitz, a new 12 AA Division was formed to take over responsibility for western Scotland (including Glasgow and the Clyde) while 3 AA Division (including 52 LAA Bde and 52nd S/L Rgt) retained responsibility for eastern Scotland. The regiment remained in 52 AA Bde and 3 AA Division for the next year.moving to positions in the Scottish Borders.
The regiment supplied another cadre of experienced officers and men to 237th S/L Training Rgt at Holywood, County Down, where it provided the basis for a new 535 S/L Bty formed on 14 November 1940. This battery later joined 56th (5th Battalion, Cameronian Scottish Rifles) S/L Rgt. On 11 February 1941 52nd S/L Rgt was joined by 531 S/L Bty formed on 14 November at 235th S/L Training Rgt at Ayr from a cadre provided by 56th S/L Rgt. By December 1941, 408 S/L Bty had transferred to 53rd S/L Rgt (5th Bn Royal Northumberland Fusiliers)
130th (Queen's Edinburgh, Royal Scots) Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment
By 1942, AA Command had more than enough S/L units, but was still seriously short of light anti-aircraft (LAA) gun units, and began a programme of converting S/L units (which also had the benefit of saving manpower). In March 52nd S/L Rgt was converted to the LAA role as 130th (Queen's Edinburgh, Royal Scots) LAA Rgt, the batteries becoming 406, 407 and 426 LAA Btys. After training it remained in 52 AA Bde in 3 AA Division, stationed in Aberdeenshire.
In August 1942, 3 AA Divisional HQ moved south to help control the AA units brought in to defend against Luftwaffe 'hit and run' attacks on the South Coast of England. Simultaneously, 52 AA Bde HQ left AA Command to mobilise for the landings in North Africa (Operation Torch). 130th LAA Regiment moved to 51 AA Bde in a new 6 AA Group that took over responsibility for Scotland in October. By now the regiment had been joined by 446 LAA Bty, transferred from 95th LAA Rgt.
The regiment moved to 67 AA Bde in 3 AA Group in Dorset in April 1943, and then to 2 AA Group in South East England, first in 5 AA Bde, then to 71 AA Bde.
Operation Diver
130th LAA Regiment was stationed on the Kent coast, in the so-called 'Hellfire Corner' where Cross-Channel shelling from German guns was frequent. In November 1943 2 AA Gp was ordered to plan for the expected onslaught of V-1 flying bombs (codenamed 'Divers') against London, to which it responded by planning a thick belt of Heavy AA (HAA) gun positions across the likely flight path, backed by LAA guns. Meanwhile, 2 AA Gp also had to deal with a sharp increase in Luftwaffe air raids trying to reach London during the winter of 1943–1944 (the so-called 'Little Blitz'), in which the regiment was heavily engaged. However, AA Command was being forced to release manpower for overseas service, particularly the Allied invasion of Normandy, Operation Overlord, and many AA regiments lost one of their four batteries; by March 1944, 446 LAA Bty had been disbanded.
Once 'Overlord' began on 6 June (D-Day) the shelling of Hellfire Corner increased in intensity.
The first V-1 missiles were launched against London a week after D-Day, and Operation Diver was activated. 2 AA Group's batteries left their 'Overlord' sites and moved to pre-planned sites across the 'funnel' of V-1 flightpaths. However, the results were disappointing, and the HAA gun belt was moved to the coast and interlaced with LAA guns to hit the missiles out to sea. This new belt was divided into six brigade sectors, with 71 AA Bde taking charge of one. The guns were constantly in action and their success rate against the 'Divers' steadily improved, until over 50 per cent of incoming missiles were destroyed by gunfire or fighter aircraft. This phase of Operation Diver ended in September after the V-1 launch sites in Northern France had been overrun by 21st Army Group.
A new phase of Operation Diver began when the Luftwaffe began launching V-1s from aircraft over the North Sea. AA Command had to reorganise its defences, stripping guns from existing sites and moving them to the coast of East Anglia, which entailed enormous reorganisation. As the Luftwaffe and V-1 threat to the UK diminished, AA Command was forced to transfer men and units to infantry duties. 130th LAA Regiment avoided all the shuffling and disbandments, remaining with 71 AA Bde in 2 AA Gp throughout the Diver offensive and until the end of the war. After the war it transferred to 28 (Thames and Medway) AA Bde in 1 AA Gp as demobilisation proceeded.
Postwar
When the TA was reconstituted on 1 January 1947, the regiment reformed at Edinburgh as 587 (Queen's Edinburgh, Royal Scots) LAA Rgt. It formed part of 62 AA Bde (the former 36 (Scottish) AA Bde).
When AA Command was disbanded on 10 March 1955 there was a major reduction in the number of AA units in the TA. 587 LAA Rgt amalgamated with R Bty of 471 (Forth) HAA Rgt, 514 (West Lothian, Royal Scots) LAA Rgt and 519 (Dunedin) LAA Rgt to form a new 432 LAA Rgt with the following organisation:
P (Queens Edinburgh, Royal Scots) Bty – from 587 LAA
Q (West Lothian, Royal Scots) Bty – from 514 LAA
R (City of Edinburgh) Bty – from 471 HAA
S (Dunedin) Bty – from 519 LAA
A further reduction in 1961 saw 432nd LAA Rgt transferred to the Royal Engineers (RE) and joined with 585 (Edinburgh) and 586 Independent Field Squadrons, to form 432 (City of Edinburgh) Corps Engineer Regiment (except Q (West Lothian, Royal Scots) Bty, which joined 445 (Cameronians) LAA Rgt). When the TA was converted into the TAVR in 1967, 432 Engineer Regiment was reduced to a single 104 (City of Edinburgh) Field Squadron in 71 (Scottish) Engineer Regiment. It was disbanded in 1999.
Uniform, Insignia and Bands
The original uniform worn by the Queen's Edinburgh Rifles was a long tunic and trousers in dark Volunteer grey with black braiding and a low black-peaked cap. The three original Highland companies wore black-laced grey doublets and kilts of Black Watch ('Government') tartan with different bonnets for each of the three companies. Each of the original 21 QER companies had a different cap badge. The cut of the tunic was later changed to match that of the Rifle Brigade, and the original low peaked cap was replaced first (1862) by a Shako with a black ball-tuft, next (1875) by a Busby with black plume and then (1895) by a black Astrakhan fur busby matching the Rifle Brigade. In 1900–1901 the brigade adopted a drab felt hat; this was prohibited in 1902 but a drab service dress with light green Austrian knot and trouser piping was adopted for marching and drill order, with a drab felt hat (with black plume for the mounted infantry). The grey uniform was retained for full dress until 1908 when the battalions adopted the scarlet uniform tunic with blue facings of the Royal Scots. The regimental tartan was Hunting Stuart, while the pipers wore Royal Stewart tartan.
In 1943, 130th LAA Rgt adopted as its regimental flash a silhouette of the Royal Scots' other ranks' cap badge in black cloth, the colour commemorating the black braiding of the QER. In 1947, 587th LAA Rgt adopted a black silhouette of a Thistle head on a brown square; this was officially approved as its regimental flash on 9 November 1951 and worn until 1955.
The 1st City of Edinburgh RVC formed a band early in its history, adopting the regimental march of the Rifle Brigade, I'm Ninety-Five. The early QER Highland companies each had two pipers, and the corps also had a bugle band.
Honorary Colonels
From the formation of the 1st QERVB the Lord Provost of Edinburgh served ex officio as its Honorary Colonel. From 1873 additional honorary colonels were added:
James Moncreiff, 1st Baron Moncreiff, lt-col commandant 1859–73, appointed 17 May 1873
D. Davidson, CB, lt-col commandant 1873–82, appointed 28 June 1882
Gen Viscount Wolseley, Adjutant-General to the Forces and future Commander-in-Chief of the British Army, appointed 24 April 1889
John Macdonald, Lord Kingsburgh, VD, lt-col commandant 1882–92, appointed (to 5th Bn Royal Scots) 5 June 1901
Memorials
All Royal Scots who died in World War I are commemorated by the memorial gates unveiled at the regimental depot, Glencorse Barracks, Penicuik, in 1927. These were designed by J.A. McWilliam, a member of the QER.
The 4th/5th Battalion's colours from 1925 to 1938 are preserved in the Royal Scots Regimental Museum at Edinburgh Castle.
A memorial Masonic Lodge, Queen's Edinburgh Rifles (The Royal Scots) No 1253, was established on 3 February 1921, under the Grand Lodge of Scotland, to commemorate those members who died in World War I. A lodge room was established in 1925 at the Forrest Road drill hall which also served as a Territorial Army headquarters and as a building for the University of Edinburgh Officer Training Corps. The Lodge now meets in Portobello but maintains its role as a memorial lodge.
Notes
References
Army Council Instructions Issued During January 1916, London: HM Stationery Office, 1916.
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 1: The Regular British Divisions, London: HM Stationery Office, 1934/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2a: The Territorial Force Mounted Divisions and the 1st-Line Territorial Force Divisions (42–56), London: HM Stationery Office, 1935/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 2b: The 2nd-Line Territorial Force Divisions (57th–69th), with the Home-Service Divisions (71st–73rd) and 74th and 75th Divisions, London: HM Stationery Office, 1937/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, .
Ian F.W. Beckett, Riflemen Form: A Study of the Rifle Volunteer Movement 1859–1908, Aldershot: Ogilby Trusts, 1982, .
Gregory Blaxland, Amiens: 1918, London: Frederick Muller, 1968/Star, 1981, .
A. Michael Brander, Famous Regiments Series: The Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment), London: Leo Cooper, 1976, .
David L. Bullock, Allenby's War: The Palestine-Arabian Campaigns 1916–1918, London: Blandford Press, 1988, .
Burke's Peerage, Baronetage and Knightage, 100th Edn, London, 1953.
Basil Collier, History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series: The Defence of the United Kingdom, London: HM Stationery Office, 1957/Uckfield: Naval & Military, 2004, .
Col John K. Dunlop, The Development of the British Army 1899–1914, London: Methuen, 1938.
Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium, 1916, Vol I, London: Macmillan,1932/Woking: Shearer, 1986, .
Brig-Gen James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1917, Vol II, Messines and Third Ypres (Passchendaele), London: HM Stationery Office, 1948/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1992, .
Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1918, Vol II, March–April: Continuation of the German Offensives, London: Macmillan, 1937/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1995, .
Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1918, Vol IV, 8th August–26th September: The Franco-British Offensive, London: Macmillan, 1939/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1993, .
Brig-Gen Sir James E. Edmonds & Lt-Col R. Maxwell-Hyslop, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1918, Vol V, 26th September–11th November, The Advance to Victory, London: HM Stationery Office, 1947/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1993, .
Capt Cyril Falls, History of the Great War: Military Operations, Egypt and Palestine, Vol II, From June 1917 to the End of the War, London: HM Stationery Office, 1930/Imperial War Museum and Naval & Military Press, 2013, .
Gen Sir Martin Farndale, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: The Years of Defeat: Europe and North Africa, 1939–1941, Woolwich: Royal Artillery Institution, 1988/London: Brasseys, 1996, .
J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol I, Wakefield: Microform Academic, 1984, .
J.B.M. Frederick, Lineage Book of British Land Forces 1660–1978, Vol II, Wakefield: Microform Academic, 1984, .
Capt Stair Gillon, The Story of the 29th Division, London: Nelson, 1925/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2002,
Maj-Gen J.M. Grierson, Records of the Scottish Volunteer Force 1859–1908, Edinburgh:Blackwood, 1909.
Brig E.A. James, British Regiments 1914–18, Samson Books 1978/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2001, .
N.B. Leslie, Battle Honours of the British and Indian Armies 1695–1914, London: Leo Cooper, 1970, .
Lt-Gen Sir George MacMunn & Capt Cyril Falls, History of the Great War: Military Operations, Egypt and Palestine, Vol I, From the Outbreak of War with Germany to June 1917, London: HM Stationery Office, 1928/Imperial War Museum and Battery Press, 1992, .
Capt Wilfred Miles, History of the Great War: Military Operations, France and Belgium 1916, Vol II, 2nd July 1916 to the End of the Battles of the Somme, London: Macmillan, 1938/Imperial War Museum & Battery Press, 1992, .
Gen Sir Frederick Pile's despatch: "The Anti-Aircraft Defence of the United Kingdom from 28th July, 1939, to 15th April, 1945" London Gazette 18 December 1947
Brig N.W. Routledge, History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery: Anti-Aircraft Artillery 1914–55, London: Royal Artillery Institution/Brassey's, 1994, .
Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society 1815–1914, London: Longmans, 1980, .
Lt-Col R.R. Thompson, The Fifty-Second (Lowland) Division 1914–1918, Glasgow: Maclehose, Jackson 1923/Uckfield: Naval & Military, 2004, .
Titles and Designations of Formations and Units of the Territorial Army, London: War Office, 7 November 1927.
Graham E. Watson & Richard A. Rinaldi, The Corps of Royal Engineers: Organization and Units 1889–2018, Tiger Lily Books, 2018, .
Ray Westlake, British Regiments at Gallipoli, Barnsley: Leo Cooper, 1996, .
Ray Westlake, Tracing the Rifle Volunteers, Barnsley: Pen and Sword, 2010, .
External sources
Mark Conrad, The British Army, 1914 (archive site)
British Army units from 1945 on
Electric Scotland
Great War Forum
The Long, Long Trail
Orders of Battle at Patriot Files
The Regimental Warpath 1914–1918 (archive site)
Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth (Regiments.org – archive site)
Royal Artillery 1939–1945
The Royal Scots
Scottish Military History
Graham Watson, The Territorial Army 1947
Royal Scots
Edinburgh
Military units and formations established in 1859
Military units and formations in Edinburgh
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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2000 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 2000 in the United Kingdom.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – Tony Blair (Labour)
Parliament – 52nd
Events
January
Japanese carmaker Nissan adds a third model to its factory near Sunderland: the new generation of the Almera hatchback and saloon which goes on sale in March.
1 January – Millennium celebrations take place throughout the UK. The Millennium Dome in London is officially opened by HM The Queen.
4 January – Catherine Hartley and Fiona Thornewill become the first British women to reach the South Pole.
10 January – Tony Blair's wife, Cherie, is fined for not having a valid train ticket with her on a journey from Blackfriars to Luton. She claims to have had only Portuguese currency with her at the time and to have been unable to find a machine where she could use her credit card.
11 January – A Scottish trawler, the Solway Harvester, sinks in the Irish Sea, killing seven sailors.
12 January – Indictment and arrest of Augusto Pinochet: It is announced that former Chilean dictator, Augusto Pinochet, is to be deported after the Home Secretary, Jack Straw, accepts "unequivocal and unanimous" medical evidence that Pinochet is unfit to stand trial in Spain on charges of torture.
22 January – The Rugby league 2000 World Club Challenge is won by Melbourne Storm who defeat St. Helens 44 – 6 at the JJB Stadium in Wigan.
28 January – The Liberal Democrat MP for Cheltenham, Nigel Jones, is attacked at his constituency surgery by a madman with a samurai sword. Andrew Pennington, a councillor, comes to Jones's defence but is stabbed nine times and dies later aged 39.
31 January – Dr. Harold Shipman is sentenced to life imprisonment after being found guilty of murdering fifteen patients in Greater Manchester between 1995 and 1998. He is also sentenced to four years in prison, to run concurrently, for forging the will of one of his victims. The subsequent enquiry considers him to have killed at least 215.
February
3 February – At the Ceredigion by-election, Simon Thomas holds the seat for Plaid Cymru.
10 February
A group of hijackers hijacked an Ariana plane and forced the plane to travel overseas, to the United Kingdom. The plane landed at London Stansted airport and the hijackers surrendered to authorities there.
11 February
The Royal Bank of Scotland succeeds in the hostile takeover battle for its larger English rival, NatWest Bank, successfully defeating a rival offer made by the Bank of Scotland.
Northern Ireland Assembly is suspended
15 February – Waterhouse report into the North Wales child abuse scandal published.
25 February – Murder of Victoria Climbié (aged 8) in London after torture and neglect by her guardians, her aunt Marie Therese Kouao and Kouao's partner Carl Manning; local authority social services departments will be severely criticised for their shortcomings in the case.
28 February – The chief of British Nuclear Fuels resigns over a safety scandal at Sellafield.
March
2 March – Indictment and arrest of Augusto Pinochet: The UK deports Augusto Pinochet to his native Chile where he will face trial for human rights violations.
14 March – All stores of furniture retailer World of Leather and its parent Uno plc close.
15 March – BMW announces plans to sell the Rover Group, with London-based Alchemy consortium emerging as favourites for a takeover.
25 March – David Trimble wins the leadership election of the Ulster Unionist Party.
31 March – Myra Hindley, who has spent 34 years in prison for her role in the Moors murders, loses a third High Court appeal against a Home Office ruling that her life sentence should mean life.
April
April – The Ministry of Defence publishes a booklet Soldiering – The Military Covenant which introduces the term into public discourse referring to the mutual obligations between the nation and its armed forces.
1 April
An Enigma machine is stolen from Bletchley Park Museum.
Section 27 of the Access to Justice Act 1999 comes into force allowing recovery of fees from the losing party in civil actions, extending the availability of conditional fee arrangements.
3 April – The Immigration and Asylum Act means that all asylum seekers in England and Wales will now receive vouchers to cover the cost of food and clothing.
4 April – Charlie Kray, one of the infamous Kray brothers, dies in a hospital on the Isle of Wight after suffering a heart attack in Parkhurst Prison at age 73.
12 April – The Royal Ulster Constabulary is presented with the George Cross by The Queen.
14 April
Kenneth Noye, the so-called "M25 killer", is sentenced to life imprisonment.
Clark v University of Lincolnshire and Humberside decided in the Supreme Court determining that actions by universities established by statute are subject to judicial review, though the courts will not adjudicate on questions of academic judgment.
19 April – Tony Martin is sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of a sixteen-year-old burglar, Fred Barras, he shot dead at his Norfolk farmhouse eight months ago; he is also convicted of the attempted murder of Brendon Fearon, the burglar wounded when Martin opened fire.
29 April – At Murrayfield Stadium, the 2000 Challenge Cup rugby league tournament culminates in the Bradford Bulls' 24 – 18 win in the final against the Leeds Rhinos.
May
1 May – May Day riot in Central London by anti-capitalist protestors. The statue of Winston Churchill in Parliament Square and the Cenotaph in Whitehall are daubed with graffiti.
3 May – The London Stock Exchange and Germany's Deutsche Börse announce plans to amalgamate.
4 May – London mayoral election: Ken Livingstone, standing as an independent, becomes the first directly elected Mayor of London defeating Steve Norris, the Conservative Party candidate in second place; and Frank Dobson, the Labour Party candidate in third place.
4 May – At the Romsey by-election following the death of Conservative MP Michael Colvin, the Liberal Democrat candidate Sandra Gidley wins the seat.
9 May
BMW sells the bulk of the Rover Group (the Rover and MG marques) to the Phoenix Consortium, while it retains the rights to the Mini marque and sells Land Rover to Ford.
Convicted child murderer and paedophile Ronald Jebson is further convicted at the Old Bailey of killing Susan Blatchford, 11, and Gary Hanlon, 12. Both disappeared in 1970 after leaving Gary's home in Enfield to go for a walk together. Their bodies were found 11 weeks after their disappearance on Lippitts Hill, Epping Forest.
11 May – Introduction of services on Croydon Tramlink, the first trams in London since 1952.
12 May
The Tate Modern art museum is opened to the public in London.
Ford announces that production of cars at the Dagenham plant will end when the Fiesta launches a new generation in 2002.
17 May – Royal Marines Alan Chambers and Charlie Paton become the first British people to reach the Geographic North Pole unaided.
20 May – Chelsea beat Aston Villa 1–0 to win the last FA Cup final at Wembley Stadium before the old stadium (which is due to close in October) is rebuilt.
21 May
Best-selling author Dame Barbara Cartland dies aged 98 at her home near Hatfield, Hertfordshire.
Long-serving actor Sir John Gielgud dies aged 94 at his home at Wooton Underwood, Buckinghamshire.
24 May – National Botanic Garden of Wales opens to the public in Carmarthenshire.
25 May – National Waste Strategy, covering England and Wales, first published.
June
June – Celtic Manor Wales Open European Tour golf tournament first played.
7 June – Tony Blair receives a hostile reception during a speech at the Women's Institute, where he is heckled and slow hand-clapped by furious members.
8 June – The British military attaché to Greece, Brigadier Stephen Saunders, aged 52, is shot dead while driving in Athens; the Greek terrorist group 17 November later claims responsibility.
10 June – The much-anticipated Millennium Bridge across the Thames in London opens to the public, but has to close after it starts swaying.
12 June–20 June – The England national football team participates at Euro 2000, jointly hosted by the Netherlands and Belgium. Despite beating Germany, England are eliminated in the group stage after two defeats.
21 June – Repeal in Scotland of controversial Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988 which prevented local authorities from "promoting homosexuality". Section 28 is not repealed in the rest of the UK until 2003.
22 June – At the Tottenham by-election following the death of Labour MP Bernie Grant, the Labour candidate David Lammy holds the seat.
30 June – David Copeland is found guilty of causing the three nail bomb attacks in London last year. He is sentenced to life imprisonment and the trial judge recommends that he should serve at least thirty years before being considered for parole, meaning that he is likely to remain in prison until at least 2029 and the age of 54.
July
July – Vauxhall launches the all-new Agila city car.
5 July – Colin Fallows, driving the Vampire turbojet-propelled dragster, sets a British land speed record, a mean , at Elvington, Yorkshire.
14 July – Reality television game show Big Brother first airs in the UK.
17 July – Murder of Sarah Payne: an 8-year-old Surrey girl is found dead in West Sussex, having gone missing sixteen days earlier. On 23 July, the News of the World starts a campaign for Sarah's Law, a child sex offender disclosure scheme.
18 July – Alex Salmond resigns as leader of the Scottish National Party.
20 July
Production of the Ford Escort, one of Britain's most successful and iconic motoring nameplates, finishes after 32 years, although remaining stocks of the model would continue to be sold be sold until early 2001 while the van model would continue to be produced until 2002.
Rioting breaks out in Brixton (south London) following the fatal shooting of Derek Bennett, a 29-year-old black man, by armed police in the area. 27 people are arrested and three police officers are injured.
28 July – The final eighty prisoners leave Maze Prison in Northern Ireland as part of the Northern Ireland peace process.
August
3 August – Rioting erupts on the Paulsgrove estate in Portsmouth after more than 100 people besiege a block of flats allegedly housing a convicted child sex offender, the latest vigilante violence against suspected sex offenders since the beginning of the "naming and shaming" campaign by the News of the World.
4 August – Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother celebrates her hundredth birthday.
26 August – Gangster and murderer Reggie Kray, in the thirty-second year of his life sentence at Broadmoor Hospital, is released from prison on compassionate grounds by Home Secretary Jack Straw due to bladder cancer from which he is expected to die within weeks.
September
September
Curriculum 2000 reform of GCE Advanced Level examinations introduced.
Ford unveils its all-new second generation Mondeo large family car, which is due for sale towards the end of this year.
8 September – UK fuel protests: Protesters block the entrances to oil refineries in protest against high fuel prices. Panic buying by motorists, leads to nationwide petrol shortages, with between 75 and 90% of all UK petrol stations closing due to low supplies in the following week.
10 September – Operation Barras: A British military operation to free five soldiers from the Royal Irish Regiment that were held captive for over two weeks during the Sierra Leone Civil War, all of whom were rescued.
14 September – After beginning the year 20 points behind the Labour government in the opinion polls, the Conservative opposition's hopes of winning the next election (due to be held within eighteen months) are boosted when they come two points ahead of Labour on 38% in a MORI opinion poll. This marked the first time the Conservatives had led the Labour Party in national opinion polling since January 1993.
15 September–1 October – Great Britain competes at the Olympics in Sydney and wins 11 Gold, 10 Silver and 7 Bronze medals.
18 September – Survivors of the Southall and Ladbroke Grove rail disasters criticise Railtrack for putting costs ahead of safety and causing a series of blunders which led to the tragedies.
20 September – A missile is fired from a rocket launcher at the MI6 headquarters building in central London, striking the eighth floor. It is the first time this type of weapon has been used on the mainland, with the Real IRA suspected of being behind the attack.
21 September – William McCrea of the Democratic Unionist Party wins the South Antrim by-election from the Ulster Unionist Party.
23 September
Earthquake in Warwickshire.
Rower Steve Redgrave wins his fifth consecutive gold medal at the Olympics.
29 September – HM Prison Maze, a prison used to incarcerate members of illegal paramilitaries during the Troubles in Northern Ireland, closes as a result of the Good Friday Agreement.
October
October – Ford launches the all-new Mondeo with a range of hatchbacks, saloons and estates.
1 October – Reggie Kray dies from cancer at a hotel in Norwich aged 66.
3 October – Approximate start of Autumn 2000 Western Europe floods, particularly affecting England, the worst nationally since the winter of 1946–47 in the United Kingdom, precipitated by the most rainfall since 1766.
4 October – After 41 years, production of the Mini ends at the Longbridge plant owned by MG Rover in Birmingham. The new model will go into production next Spring at the Cowley plant in Oxford that is owned by German carmaker BMW.
7 October – Wembley Stadium closes after seventy-seven years. It is set to reopen in 2003, following a complete reconstruction that will see its seating capacity raised to 90,000 all-seated. In the final game at the old stadium, the England football team loses 1–0 to Germany in their opening qualifying game for the 2002 World Cup and manager Kevin Keegan resigns after eighteen months in charge.
10 October – Donald Dewar, the first First Minister of Scotland, is taken to hospital following a fall outside Bute House, his official Edinburgh residence; his health rapidly deteriorates and he dies in office the following day, aged 63.
16 October – The BBC's main evening news programme moves to 10pm, early the following year, ITV will move its news programme back to the same time slot and broadcast in direct competition.
17 October – Hatfield rail crash: A Great North Eastern Railway InterCity 225 train derails south of Hatfield station, killing four people.
23 October
After the fuel protests has been resolved, support for the Labour Party has been restored, according to the latest MORI opinion poll which shows them 13 points ahead of the Conservatives with an approval rating of 45%.
Michael Martin is elected as the Speaker of the House of Commons following the retirement of Betty Boothroyd.
26–27 October – Following the death of Donald Dewar, Henry McLeish is selected to be First Minister of Scotland by the Scottish Parliament, and is officially appointed by The Queen.
26 October – House of Lords delivers judgement in White v White, a landmark case in redistribution of finances and property on divorce.
30 October – Sven-Göran Eriksson, the 52-year-old Swedish coach of Italian side Lazio, accepts an offer from the Football Association to take charge of the England football team for five years commencing next July. Eriksson will be the first foreign manager to take charge of the England national team, but until his arrival, the England team will be jointly managed by interim coaches Peter Taylor and Howard Wilkinson.
November
7 November – The attempted theft of £350,000,000 worth of diamonds from the Millennium Dome is foiled by the police.
16 November – Actor Michael Caine receives a knighthood from the Queen.
18 November – Marriage of American actor Michael Douglas and Welsh actress Catherine Zeta-Jones.
20 November – Judith Keppel becomes the first person to win £1,000,000 on the ITV game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?
21 November – Dennis Canavan MSP for Falkirk West, resigns as the Member of Parliament for Falkirk West, triggering a by-election.
23 November
Double by-election held in Glasgow Anniesland to elect successors to Donald Dewar's seats in both the UK Parliament and the Scottish Parliament. Labour holds both seats with swings to the SNP of 6% and 7%.
The Preston by-election is won by the Labour Party candidate Mark Hendrick.
The West Bromwich West by-election is won by the Labour Party candidate Adrian Bailey.
26 November – Rio Ferdinand, the 22-year-old England national football team defender, becomes the nation's most expensive player in an £18,000,000 transfer from West Ham United to Leeds United.
27 November – Damilola Taylor, a 10-year-old boy originally from Nigeria, is stabbed to death on his way home from school in Peckham, London. On 2 December two teenagers and a 39-year-old man are released on police bail after being arrested in connection with the murder.
30 November – Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 provides for regulation of political parties, elections and referendums, including limits on national expenditure by parties in elections.
December
3 December – The Church of England introduces the Common Worship series of service books.
8 December – The Equitable Life Assurance Society closes to new business in the aftermath of the legal case Equitable Life Assurance Society v Hyman.
18 December – British pop star Kirsty MacColl, 41, is accidentally killed while diving in Mexico, when a power boat enters the restricted area and collides with her.
21 December – Falkirk West by-election results in Eric Joyce retaining the seat for Labour, though with a majority reduced to just 705 votes in the face of a swing of 16.2% to the SNP.
22 December – American pop star Madonna, 42, marries 32-year-old British film producer Guy Ritchie at Skibo Castle in the Scottish Highlands.
29 December – Arctic weather conditions blight Britain, with heavy snow and temperatures as low as −13 °C plaguing the country, causing extensive gridlocking on roads and railways.
31 December – The Millennium Dome closes as planned after one year.
Undated
2000 is the wettest year on record in the UK.
Sales of the DVD format, first launched in the UK in June 1998, pass the 1 million mark, although the VHS format remains by far the most popular format of home video.
Publications
Iain M. Banks' novel Look to Windward.
Lauren Child's children's book I Will Not Ever Never Eat a Tomato, first in the Charlie and Lola series.
Matthew Kneale's novel English Passengers.
Nigella Lawson's guide How to be a domestic goddess: baking and the art of comfort cooking.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novel The Truth.
Philip Pullman's novel The Amber Spyglass, third and final book in the His Dark Materials series.
J. K. Rowling's novel Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, fourth in the Harry Potter series.
Zadie Smith's novel White Teeth.
Births
4 January – Max Aarons, footballer
21 January – Jac Morgan, rugby union player
26 January – Ryan Giles, footballer
27 January – Morgan Gibbs-White, footballer
2 February – Shannon Cooke, footballer
6 February – Conor Gallagher, footballer
8 February – Cieran Dunne, footballer
17 February – Billy Sass-Davies, footballer
26 February – Ryan Cooney, footballer
14 February – Tashan Oakley-Boothe, footballer
5 March – Jack Aitchison, footballer
11 March – Kane Wilson, footballer
25 March – Jadon Sancho, footballer
1 April – Rhian Brewster, footballer
8 April – Brenock O'Connor, English actor (Game of Thrones).
12 April – Alex Denny, footballer
2 May – Tom Dean, freestyle swimmer
16 May – Jacob Fletcher, footballer
18 May
Ryan Sessegnon, footballer
Steven Sessegnon, footballer
20 May – Leo Blair, son of Prime Minister Tony Blair and his wife, Cherie, the first legitimate child born to a serving Prime Minister since 1849
28 May
Phil Foden, footballer
Alfie Gleadall, cricketer
23 June – Caitlin Blackwood, actress
28 June – Ruben Reuter, actor
29 June – Kia Pegg, actor
21 July – Erling Haaland, footballer
25 July – Ellie Soutter, snowboarder (died 2018)
28 July – Emile Smith Rowe, footballer
9 August
Arlo Parks, singer
Djed Spence, footballer
11 August – James Cartmell, actor
28 August – Danny Loader, footballer
30 August – Catherine Lyons, artistic gymnast
31 August – Angel Gomes, footballer
3 September – Brandon Williams, English footballer
14 September – Ethan Ampadu, Welsh footballer
16 September – Oliver Skipp, English footballer
18 September – Max Bird, footballer
6 October – Isobelle Molloy, actress
5 October – Millie Innes, actress
2 November – Georgia-Mae Fenton, artistic gymnast
7 November – Callum Hudson-Odoi, footballer
8 November – Jasmine Thompson, English singer-songwriter and YouTube celebrity
20 November – Connie Talbot, singer
21 November – Matt O'Riley, footballer
23 November – Jack Clarke, footballer
27 November – Jay Foulston, footballer
28 November – Sophia Kiely, actress
5 December
Hamidullah Qadri, cricketer
Freddie Steward, rugby union player
28 December – Isobel Steele, actress
Deaths
January
1 January – Victor Serebriakoff, member of Mensa (born 1912)
2 January
Patrick O'Brian, novelist (born 1914)
Ullin Place, philosopher and psychologist (born 1924)
5 January
Bernard Braine, Baron Braine of Wheatley, politician (born 1914)
Hopper Read, former cricketer (born 1910)
9 January
Arnold Alexander Hall, aeronautical engineer and scientist (born 1915)
Nigel Tranter, historian and author (born 1909)
13 January – Peter Henderson, Baron Henderson of Brompton, public servant, Clerk of the Parliaments (1974–1983) (born 1922)
14 January – Julian Vereker, designer of hi-fi audio equipment (born 1945)
17 January
Norman Blamey, painter (born 1914)
Elisabeth Collins, painter and sculptor (born 1904)
Philip Jones, trumpeter (born 1928)
Ralph Kekwick, biochemist (born 1908)
18 January – Arnold W. G. Kean, civil aviation lawyer (born 1914)
22 January – E. W. Swanton, cricket commentator (born 1907)
23 January – Willie Hamilton, politician (born 1917)
26 January – Kathleen Hale, children's author (born 1898)
28 January
Sarah Caudwell, barrister and crime fiction writer (born 1939)
Andrew Pennington, politician (murdered) (born 1960)
30 January – Martin Aldridge, footballer (car accident) (born 1974)
February
1 February – Peter Levi, poet, Jesuit priest and scholar (born 1931)
2 February – Mary Docherty, communist activist (born 1908)
3 February – Ken Stroud, mathematician (born 1908)
5 February – G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, historian (born 1910)
7 February
Stewart Farrar, screenwriter, novelist and Wiccan priest (born 1916)
Dave Peverett, singer and musician (Foghat) (born 1943)
12 February – Dominic Bruce, Air Force officer and escapee from Colditz in World War II (born 1915)
19 February – Josef Herman, painter (born 1911 in Congress Poland)
21 February – Noel Annan, Baron Annan, military intelligence officer, historian and academic (born 1916)
22 February
Joseph Gold, lawyer (born 1912)
Ernest Lough, singer (born 1911)
23 February
Sir Stanley Matthews, former footballer (born 1915)
John Nevill, 5th Marquess of Abergavenny, peer (born 1914)
24 February – Michael Colvin, politician (born 1932)
March
5 March – Alexander Young, operatic tenor (born 1920)
6 March – Chris Balderstone, cricketer and footballer (born 1940)
7 March
Charles Gray, actor (born 1928)
W. D. Hamilton, evolutionary biologist (born 1936)
Nicolas Walter, anarchist writer (born 1934)
10 March – Ivan Hirst, former British army officer and engineer, best known for his part in the revival of German carmaker Volkswagen after World War II (born 1914)
11 March – Will Roberts, painter (born 1907)
13 March – Cab Kaye, jazz singer and pianist (born 1921)
15 March – Robert Welch, designer (born 1929)
16 March – Roy Henderson, opera singer (born 1899)
18 March – Graham Balcombe, cave diver (born 1907)
22 March – John Morrison, 2nd Viscount Dunrossil, peer and diplomat (born 1926)
26 March – Alex Comfort, scientist and physician (born 1920)
27 March – Ian Dury, singer and actor (born 1942)
28 March – Anthony Powell, novelist (born 1905)
31 March – Adrian Fisher, guitarist (born 1952)
April
1 April – Alexander Mackenzie Stuart, Baron Mackenzie-Stuart, judge (born 1924)
2 April – Sir Robert Sainsbury, businessman and art collector (born 1906)
3 April – Evelyn Irons, journalist and war correspondent (born 1900)
4 April – Bridget Jones, literary academic (born 1935)
6 April – William Stobbs, illustrator (born 1914)
8 April – Bernie Grant, politician (born 1944 in Guyana)
10 April – Peter Jones, actor (born 1920)
11 April
Diana Darvey, actress (fall) (born 1945)
André Deutsch, publisher (born 1917 in Hungary)
12 April – Carmen Dillon, film art director and production designer (born 1908)
14 April – Wilf Mannion, former footballer (born 1918)
20 April – Bill Dean, actor (born 1921)
24 April
Derek Allhusen, equestrian (born 1914)
William Moore, actor (born 1916)
27 April
C. R. Boxer, historian (born 1904)
Clifford Forsythe, politician (born 1929)
28 April – Penelope Fitzgerald, poet, essayist and biographer (born 1916)
May
1 May – Nora Swinburne, actress (born 1902)
2 May – Billy Munn, jazz pianist (born 1911)
3 May – Lewis Allen, film and television director (born 1905)
4 May – Derick Ashe, diplomat (born 1919)
6 May
John Clive Ward, physicist, developer of the Ward–Takahashi identity (born 1924)
Peter Youens, diplomat who helped secure the independence of Malawi (born 1916)
10 May – Margaret Harris, costume designer (born 1904)
14 May – Alex Stuart-Menteth, naval officer in World War II (born 1912)
17 May – Donald Coggan, former Archbishop of York and Canterbury (born 1909)
18 May
Julie Dawn, singer (born 1920)
Denis Gifford, writer, broadcaster and journalist (born 1927)
19 May – Larry Lamb, newspaper editor (born 1929)
21 May
Dame Barbara Cartland, novelist (born 1901)
Sir John Gielgud, actor (born 1904)
25 May – Nicholas Clay, actor (born 1946)
29 May – Aubrey Richards, actor (born 1920)
30 May – Doris Hare, actress (born 1905)
June
2 June – Gerald James Whitrow, mathematician and cosmologist (born 1912)
8 June – Stephen Saunders, Army brigadier-general (murdered in Greece) (born 1947)
12 June – Leonard Appelbee, painter and printmaker (born 1914)
14 June – Elsie Widdowson, dietitian and nutritionist (born 1906)
15 June – Neville Ford, former cricketer (born 1906)
17 June – Brian Statham, former cricketer (born 1930)
19 June – William Papas, cartoonist (born 1927 in South Africa)
21 June – Billy Sperrin, former footballer (born 1922)
24 June
Vera Atkins, World War II intelligence officer (born 1908 in Romania)
Duncan Kyle, novelist (born 1930)
David Tomlinson, actor (born 1917)
27 June – David Neal, actor (born 1932)
28 June – William Glock, music critic (born 1908)
29 June
John Abineri, actor (born 1928)
John Aspinall, zoo owner (born 1926)
Jane Birdwood, Baroness Birdwood, politician (born 1913)
Rodney Nuckey, racing driver (born 1929)
July
1 July – John Albert Axel Gibson, World War II air ace (born 1916)
2 July – Joey Dunlop, Northern Irish motorcycle racer (accident while racing) (born 1952)
4 July – Philip Lever, 3rd Viscount Leverhulme, peer and racehorse owner (born 1915)
5 July – Lord Woodbine (Harold Adolphus Phillips), calypsonian (born 1929 in Trinidad)
8 July – Anne Mueller, civil servant (born 1930)
9 July – John Morgan, etiquette expert (suspected suicide) (born 1959)
11 July
Bill Alexander, communist activist and commander of the British Battalion in the Spanish Civil War (born 1910)
Robert Runcie, former Archbishop of Canterbury (born 1921)
15 July – Paul Young, singer-songwriter (born 1947)
19 July – Owen Maddock, racing car designer (born 1925)
21 July – Iain Hamilton, composer (born 1922)
22 July – Eric Christmas, actor (born 1916)
27 July – Constance Stuart Larrabee, photographer and war correspondent (born 1914)
28 July – Margaret Chapman, illustrator (born 1940)
30 July – Derek Hill, painter (born 1916)
August
2 August
Trevor Leggett, author and translator (born 1914)
Patricia Moyes, mystery writer (born 1923)
3 August – Geoffrey Page, World War II air ace (born 1920)
5 August – Sir Alec Guinness, actor and writer (born 1914)
6 August – Robin Day, political broadcaster (born 1923)
10 August – Robert Manuel Cook, classical scholar (born 1909)
13 August
Edgar Claxton, rail engineer (born 1910)
Sir Antony Duff, diplomat and director-general of MI5 (born 1920)
15 August
Edward Craven Walker, inventor of the lava lamp (born 1918)
Lancelot Ware, barrister, biochemist and co-founder of Mensa (born 1915)
17 August – Jack Walker, industrialist (born 1929)
18 August – Joseph Comerford, engineer (born 1958)
20 August – Nancy Evans, opera singer (born 1915)
29 August – Shelagh Fraser, actress (born 1920)
September
1 September – Barbara Brooke, Baroness Brooke of Ystradfellte, politician (born 1908)
2 September – Audrey Wise, politician (born 1935)
3 September – Jack Simmons, historian (born 1915)
6 September – Desmond Wilcox, journalist and television producer (born 1931)
9 September
Sir Julian Critchley, journalist and politician (born 1930)
Bill Waddington, actor and comedian (born 1916)
10 September – Jakie Astor, politician and sportsman (born 1918)
12 September – Gary Olsen, actor (born 1957)
13 September – Howard Johnson, politician (born 1910)
14 September – Frederick Erroll, 1st Baron Erroll of Hale, politician (born 1914)
17 September – Paula Yates, television presenter (born 1959)
19 September – Anthony Robert Klitz, artist (born 1917)
20 September – Mona Moore, illustrator (born 1917)
21 September – John Egerton, 6th Duke of Sutherland, peer (born 1915)
25 September – R. S. Thomas, poet (born 1913)
October
1 October – Reggie Kray, convicted gangster and murderer, recently released from prison on compassionate grounds after serving more than 30 years of a life sentence (born 1933)
5 October – Keith Roberts, science fiction author (born 1935)
8 October – Charlotte Lamb, novelist (born 1937)
9 October – Patrick Anthony Porteous, recipient of the Victoria Cross (born 1918)
11 October – Donald Dewar, First Minister of Scotland (born 1937)
17 October – Ivan Owen, voice actor (born 1927)
22 October
Anthony Chinn, actor (born 1930 in Guyana)
Fred Pratt Green, Methodist minister and hymn writer (born 1903)
25 October – John Sinclair Morrison, classicist (born 1913)
30 October – Elizabeth Bradley, actress (born 1922)
November
1 November – Steven Runciman, historian (born 1903)
4 November
Ian Sneddon, mathematician (born 1919)
Stephanie Lawrence, singer and actress (born 1949)
8 November – Dick Morrissey, jazz musician (born 1940)
9 November
Eric Morley, television host (born 1918)
Hugh Paddick, actor (born 1915)
11 November – William Harris, 6th Earl of Malmesbury, peer (born 1907)
15 November – Simon Wigg, speedway rider (born 1960)
19 November – Jane Shaw, children's author (born 1910)
21 November
Sir Cyril Clarke, physician and lepidopterist (born 1907)
Sir David Croom-Johnson, judge (born 1914)
23 November
Florence Bell, scientist (born 1913)
Rayner Unwin, publisher (born 1925)
26 November – Ralph Bates, writer (born 1899)
27 November
Malcolm Bradbury, author and academic (born 1932)
Willie Cunningham, former footballer (born 1925)
28 November – Len Shackleton, former footballer and writer (born 1922)
December
2 December – Arthur Oglesby, writer and fisherman (born 1923)
3 December
Hugh Edward Richardson, diplomat and Tibetologist (born 1905)
Frank Roper, sculptor (born 1914)
4 December – Colin Cowdrey, former cricketer (born 1932)
5 December – O. W. Wolters, academic, historian and author (born 1915)
6 December – Chrystabel Leighton-Porter, model (born 1913)
7 December – Toby Low, 1st Baron Aldington, politician (born 1914)
9 December – Billie Yorke, tennis player (born 1910)
12 December – Alastair Graham, zoologist (born 1906)
15 December
Trevor Adams, actor (born 1946)
George Alcock, astronomer (born 1912)
18 December – Kirsty MacColl, singer-songwriter (accident in Mexico) (born 1959)
19 December – Sir Laurence Whistler, poet and artist (born 1912)
20 December – Adrian Henri, poet and painter (born 1932)
23 December – Sir Jimmy Shand, musician (born 1908)
24 December – John Cooper, car maker (born 1923)
26 December – Walter Hayes, journalist (born 1924)
27 December – Forbes Howie, businessman (born 1920)
28 December
William Gardner, coin designer (20p) (born 1914)
Charlotte Wilson, voluntary teacher (murdered in Burundi) (born 1973)
31 December – Edna Savage, singer (born 1936)
See also
2000 in British music
2000 in British television
List of British films of 2000
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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5066036
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unihemispheric%20slow-wave%20sleep
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Unihemispheric slow-wave sleep
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Unihemispheric slow-wave sleep (USWS) is sleep where one half of the brain rests while the other half remains alert. This is in contrast to normal sleep where both eyes are shut and both halves of the brain show unconsciousness. In USWS, also known as asymmetric slow-wave sleep, one half of the brain is in deep sleep, a form of non-rapid eye movement sleep and the eye corresponding to this half is closed while the other eye remains open. When examined by low-voltage electroencephalography (EEG), the characteristic slow-wave sleep tracings are seen from one side while the other side shows a characteristic tracing of wakefulness. The phenomenon has been observed in a number of terrestrial, aquatic and avian species.
Unique physiology, including the differential release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, has been linked to the phenomenon. USWS offers a number of benefits, including the ability to rest in areas of high predation or during long migratory flights. The behaviour remains an important research topic because USWS is possibly the first animal behaviour which uses different regions of the brain to simultaneously control sleep and wakefulness. The greatest theoretical importance of USWS is its potential role in elucidating the function of sleep by challenging various current notions. Researchers have looked to animals exhibiting USWS to determine if sleep must be essential; otherwise, species exhibiting USWS would have eliminated the behaviour altogether through evolution.
The amount of time spent sleeping during the unihemispheric slow-wave stage is considerably less than the bilateral slow-wave sleep. In the past, aquatic animals, such as dolphins and seals, had to regularly surface in order to breathe and regulate body temperature. USWS might have been generated by the need to perform these vital activities simultaneously with sleep.
On land, birds can switch between sleeping with both hemispheres to one hemisphere. Due to their poorly webbed feet and long wings, which are not completely waterproof, it is not energetically efficient for them to make rest stops or land on water, only to take flight again. Using unihemispheric slow-wave sleep, birds are able to maintain environmental awareness and aerodynamic control of wings while obtaining the necessary sleep they need to sustain attention during wakefulness. Their sleep is more asymmetric in flight than on land, and they sleep mostly while circling air currents during flight. The eye connected to the awake hemisphere of their brain is the one facing the direction of flight. Once they land, they pay off their sleep debt, as their REM sleep duration significantly decreases and slow-wave sleep increases.
Despite the reduced sleep quantity, species having USWS do not present limits at a behavioral or healthy level. Cetaceans, such as dolphins, show preserved health as well as great memory skills. Indeed, cetaceans, seals, and birds compensate for the lack of complete sleep with efficient immune systems, preserved brain plasticity, thermoregulation, and restoration of brain metabolism.
Physiology
Slow-wave sleep (SWS), also known as Stage 3, is characterized by a lack of movement and difficulty of arousal. Slow-wave sleep occurring in both hemispheres is referred to as bihemispheric slow-wave sleep (BSWS) and is common among most animals. Slow-wave sleep contrasts with rapid eye movement sleep (REM), which can only occur simultaneously in both hemispheres. In most animals, slow-wave sleep is characterized by high amplitude, low frequency EEG readings. This is also known as the desynchronized state of the brain, or deep sleep.
In USWS, only one hemisphere exhibits the deep sleep EEG while the other hemisphere exhibits an EEG typical of wakefulness with a low amplitude and high frequency. There also exist instances in which hemispheres are in transitional stages of sleep, but they have not been the subject of study due to their ambiguous nature. USWS represents the first known behavior in which one part of the brain controls sleep while another part controls wakefulness.
Generally, when the whole amount of sleeping of each hemisphere is summed, both hemispheres get equal amounts of USWS. However, when every single session is taken into account, a large asymmetry of USWS episodes can be observed. This information suggests that at one time the neural circuit is more active in one hemisphere than on the other one and vice versa the following time.
According to Fuller, awakening is characterized by high activity of neural groups that promote awakening: they activate the cortex as well as subcortical structures and simultaneously inhibit neural groups which promotes sleep. Therefore, sleep is defined by the opposite mechanism. It can be assumed that cetaceans show a similar structure, but the neural groups are stimulated according to the need of each hemisphere. So, neural mechanisms that promote sleep are predominant in the sleeping hemisphere, while the ones that promote awakening are more active in the non-sleeping hemisphere.
Role of acetylcholine
Due to the origin of USWS in the brain, neurotransmitters are believed to be involved in its regulation. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine has been linked to hemispheric activation in northern fur seals. Researchers studied seals in controlled environments by observing behaviour as well as through surgically implanted EEG electrodes. Acetylcholine is released in nearly the same amounts per hemisphere in bilateral slow-wave sleep. However, in USWS, the maximal release of the cortical acetylcholine neurotransmitter is lateralized to the hemisphere exhibiting an EEG trace resembling wakefulness. The hemisphere exhibiting SWS is marked by the minimal release of acetylcholine. This model of acetylcholine release has been further discovered in additional species such as the bottlenose dolphin.
Eye opening
In domestic chicks and other species of birds exhibiting USWS, one eye remained open contra-lateral (on the opposite side) to the "awake" hemisphere. The closed eye was shown to be opposite the hemisphere engaging in slow-wave sleep. Learning tasks, such as those including predator recognition, demonstrated the open eye could be preferential. This has also been shown to be the favored behavior of belugas, although inconsistencies have arisen directly relating the sleeping hemisphere and open eye. Keeping one eye open aids birds in engaging in USWS while mid-flight as well as helping them observe predators in their vicinity.
Given that USWS is preserved also in blind animals or during a lack of visual stimuli, it cannot be considered as a consequence of keeping an eye open while sleeping. Furthermore, the open eye in dolphins does not forcibly activate the contralateral hemisphere. Although unilateral vision plays a considerable role in keeping active the contralateral hemisphere, it is not the motive power of USWS. Consequently, USWS might be generated by endogenous mechanisms.
Thermoregulation
Brain temperature has been shown to drop when a sleeping EEG is exhibited in one or both hemispheres. This decrease in temperature has been linked to a method to thermoregulate and conserve energy while maintaining the vigilance of USWS. The thermoregulation has been demonstrated in dolphins and is believed to be conserved among species exhibiting USWS.
Anatomical variations
Smaller corpus callosum
USWS requires hemispheric separation to isolate the cerebral hemispheres enough to ensure that the one can engage in SWS while the other is awake. The corpus callosum is the anatomical structure in the mammalian brain which allows for interhemispheric communication. Cetaceans have been observed to have a smaller corpus callosum when compared to other mammals. Similarly, birds lack a corpus callosum altogether and have only few means of interhemispheric connections. Other evidence contradicts this potential role; sagittal transsections of the corpus callosum have been found to result in strictly bihemispheric sleep. As a result, it seems this anatomical difference, though well correlated, does not directly explain the existence of USWS.
Noradrenergic diffuse modulatory system variations
A promising method of identifying the neuroanatomical structures responsible for USWS is continuing comparisons of brains that exhibit USWS with those that do not. Some studies have shown induced asynchronous SWS in non-USWS-exhibiting animals as a result of sagittal transactions of subcortical regions, including the lower brainstem, while leaving the corpus callosum intact. Other comparisons found that mammals exhibiting USWS have a larger posterior commissure and increased decussation of ascending fibres from the locus coeruleus in the brainstem. This is consistent with the fact that one form for neuromodulation, the noradrenergic diffuse modulatory system present in the locus coeruleus, is involved in regulating arousal, attention, and sleep-wake cycles.
During USWS the proportion of noradrenergic secretion is asymmetric. It is indeed high in the awaken hemisphere and low in the sleeping one. The continuous discharge of noradrenergic neurons stimulates heat production: the awake hemisphere of dolphins shows a higher, but stable, temperature. On the contrary, the sleeping hemisphere reports a slightly lower temperature compared to the other hemisphere. According to researchers, the difference in hemispheric temperatures may play a role in shifting between the SWS and awaken status.
Complete crossing of the optic nerve
Complete crossing (decussation) of the nerves at the optic chiasm in birds has also stimulated research. Complete decussation of the optic tract has been seen as a method of ensuring the open eye strictly activates the contralateral hemisphere. Some evidence indicates that this alone is not enough as blindness would theoretically prevent USWS if retinal nerve stimuli were the sole player. However, USWS is still exhibited in blinded birds despite the absence of visual input.
Benefits
Many species of birds and marine mammals have advantages due to their unihemispheric slow-wave sleep capability, including, but not limited to, increased ability to evade potential predators and the ability to sleep during migration. Unihemispheric sleep allows visual vigilance of the environment, preservation of movement, and in cetaceans, control of the respiratory system.
Adaptation to high-risk predation
Most species of birds are able to detect approaching predators during unihemispheric slow-wave sleep. During flight, birds maintain visual vigilance by utilizing USWS and by keeping one eye open. The utilization of unihemispheric slow-wave sleep by avian species is directly proportional to the risk of predation. In other words, the usage of USWS of certain species of birds increases as the risk of predation increases.
Survival of the fittest adaptation
The evolution of both cetaceans and birds may have involved some mechanisms for the purpose of increasing the likelihood of avoiding predators. Certain species, especially of birds, that acquired the ability to perform unihemispheric slow-wave sleep had an advantage and were more likely to escape their potential predators over other species that lacked the ability.
Regulation based on surroundings
Birds can sleep more efficiently with both hemispheres sleeping simultaneously (bihemispheric slow-wave sleep) when in safe conditions, but will increase the usage of USWS if they are in a potentially more dangerous environment. It is more beneficial to sleep using both hemispheres; however, the positives of unihemispheric slow-wave sleep prevail over its negatives under extreme conditions. While in unihemispheric slow-wave sleep, birds will sleep with one open eye towards the direction from which predators are more likely to approach. When birds do this in a flock, it's called the "group edge effect".
The mallard is one bird that has been used experimentally to illustrate the "group edge effect". Birds positioned at the edge of the flock are most alert, scanning often for predators. These birds are more at risk than the birds in the center of the flock and are required to be on the lookout for both their own safety and the safety of the group as a whole. They have been observed spending more time in unihemispheric slow-wave sleep than the birds in the center. Since USWS allows for the one eye to be open, the cerebral hemisphere that undergoes slow-wave sleep varies depending on the position of the bird relative to the rest of the flock. If the bird's left side is facing outward, the left hemisphere will be in slow-wave sleep; if the bird's right side is facing outward, the right hemisphere will be in slow-wave sleep. This is because the eyes are contralateral to the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. The open eye of the bird is always directed towards the outside of the group, in the direction from which predators could potentially attack.
Surfacing for air and pod cohesion
Unihemispheric slow-wave sleep seems to allow the simultaneous sleeping and surfacing to breathe of aquatic mammals including both dolphins and seals. Bottlenose dolphins are one specific species of cetaceans that have been proven experimentally to use USWS in order to maintain both swimming patterns and the surfacing for air while sleeping.
In addition, a reversed version of the "group edge effect" has been observed in pods of Pacific white-sided dolphins. Dolphins swimming on the left side of the pod have their right eyes open while dolphins swimming on the right side of the pod have their left eyes open. Unlike in some species of birds, the open eyes of these cetaceans are facing the inside of the group, not the outside. The dangers of possible predation do not play a significant role during USWS in Pacific white-sided dolphins. It has been suggested that this species utilizes this reversed version of the "group edge effect" in order to maintain pod formation and cohesion while maintaining unihemispheric slow-wave sleep.
Rest during long bird flights
While migrating, birds may undergo unihemispheric slow-wave sleep in order to simultaneously sleep and visually navigate flight. Certain species may thus avoid a need to make frequent stops along the way. Certain bird species are more likely to utilize USWS during soaring flight, but it is possible for birds to undergo USWS in flapping flight as well. Much is still unknown about the usage of unihemispheric slow-wave sleep, since the inter-hemispheric EEG asymmetry that is viewed in idle birds may not be equivalent to that of birds that are flying.
Species exhibiting USWS
Although humans show reduced left-hemisphere delta waves during slow-wave sleep in an unfamiliar bedchamber, this is not wakeful alertness of USWS.
Aquatic mammals
Cetaceans
Of all the cetacean species, USWS has been found to be exhibited in the following species
Amazon river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis)
Beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucus)
Narwhal (Monodon monoceros)
Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncates)
Pacific white-sided dolphin (Sagmatias obliquidens)
Pilot whale (Globicephala scammoni)
False killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens)
Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena)
Orca (Orcinus orca)
Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus)
Pinnipeds
Though pinnipeds are capable of sleeping on either land or water, it has been found that pinnipeds that exhibit USWS do so at a higher rate while sleeping in water. Though no USWS has been observed in true seals, four different species of eared seals have been found to exhibit USWS including
Northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus)
Significant research has been done illustrating that the northern fur seal can alternate between BSWS and USWS depending on its location while sleeping. While on land, 69% of all SWS is present bilaterally; however, when sleep takes place in water, 68% of all SWS is found with interhemispheric EEG asymmetry, indicating USWS.
Southern sea lion (Otari bryonia)
Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus)
Sirenia
In the final order of aquatic mammals, sirenia, experiments have only exhibited USWS in the Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis).
Birds
The common swift (Apus apus) was the best candidate for research aimed at determining whether or not birds exhibiting USWS can sleep in flight. The selection of the common swift as a model stemmed from observations elucidating the fact that the common swift left its nest at night, only returning in the early morning. Still, evidence for USWS is strictly circumstantial and based on the notion that if swifts must sleep to survive, they must do so via aerial roosting as little time is spent sleeping in a nest.
Multiple other species of birds have also been found to exhibit USWS including
Common blackbird (Turdus merula)
Domestic chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus),
Glaucous-winged gull (Larus glaucescens)
Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica)
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos).
Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus),
Orange-fronted parakeet (Aratinga canicularis)
Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus)
White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys gambelii)
Future research
Recent studies have illustrated that the white-crowned sparrow, as well as other passerines, have the capability of sleeping most significantly during the migratory season while in flight. However, the sleep patterns in this study were observed during migratory restlessness in captivity and might not be analogous to those of free-flying birds. Free-flying birds might be able to spend some time sleeping while in non-migratory flight as well when in the unobstructed sky as opposed to in controlled captive conditions. To truly determine if birds can sleep in flight, recordings of brain activity must take place during flight instead of after landing. A method of recording brain activity in pigeons during flight has recently proven promising in that it could obtain an EEG of each hemisphere but for relatively short periods of time. Coupled with simulated wind tunnels in a controlled setting, these new methods of measuring brain activity could elucidate the truth behind whether or not birds sleep during flight.
Additionally, based on research elucidating the role of acetylcholine in control of USWS, additional neurotransmitters are being researched to understand their roles in the asymmetric sleep model.
See also
Sleep in animals
References
Sleep physiology
Unsolved problems in neuroscience
Vision
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1956 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1956 24 Hours of Le Mans was a race for Sports Cars which took place on 28 and 29 July 1956 on the Circuit de la Sarthe. The race was won by Ron Flockhart and Ninian Sanderson driving a Jaguar D-Type for the new Ecurie Ecosse team. This race also marked the golden jubilee of the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) founded in 1906, however because of the previous year's disaster, celebrations were deferred to 1957 to go along with the imminent 25th anniversary of the race.
Following the events of 1955, the front stretch and pit lane were redesigned in order to enhance driver and spectator safety. This involved a change to the layout of the Dunlop curve, shortening the overall length of the track by 31 meters.
This race saw the death of French driver Louis Héry when his Monopole was involved in an accident early in the race.
Regulations
The official enquiry into the 1955 Le Mans disaster found severe deficiencies in the track layout along the main straight and for quite some time there were serious concerns for the future of the race. However, the ACO took all the recommendations on board and was able to convince the French government for continuation. The extensive renovations cost FF300 million, moving 70000 cubic metres of earth and meant the race was delayed 7 weeks to the end of July.
The pit straight was redesigned: it was widened by 13m (giving room for a deceleration lane), the small kink removed by straightening the approach, and the Dunlop curve realigned, steepened and eased, moving the Dunlop Bridge. This all had the effect of shortening the lap by 31 metres. The grandstand was demolished and rebuilt with new spectator terraces beyond a ditch between the track. The postwar pits were also torn down and a new 3-storey complex built giving more space for crews and with hospitality suites above (although there was still no barrier out to the racing line). This limited the number of starters to 52, down from 60.
Elsewhere on the track, the Indianapolis and Maison Blanche corners were also widened and resurfaced, and a dangerous hump on the road after Arnage was removed. A new “signalling pits” was built just after the Mulsanne corner (in the same place Bentley had used 20 years earlier with a phone-link back to the pits) so as to reduce crew congestion and driver distraction on the critical pit straight area.
Regarding new regulations, the ACO also set a number of new restrictions with a view to limit maximum speeds. Prototypes were now given a maximum engine size of 2.5L. Production cars had to have 50 units “built, sold or provided for” and were still unrestricted in engine capacity. These new limits put the ACO out of step with the FIA and hence the race was dropped from the 1956 World Sportscar Championship. Full-width windscreens, at least 200mm, high were also mandatory further trimming top-speed. Other effects to encourage economy limited all fuel tanks to a maximum size of 130 litres, and the liquids replenishment (fuel, oil, water) window was extended again, from 32 to 34 laps (458 km / 284 miles) meaning a minimum practical fuel economy of 10.8mpg would be needed. Finally, drivers were now only allowed to do 72 consecutive laps and 14 hours in total.
Entries
Although Mercedes-Benz and Cunningham had withdrawn from racing, there was still strong support from the car manufacturers and 14 sent works-entries.
To some surprise, Jaguar and Aston Martin were able to present cases to the ACO that their current cars qualified as production models. Jaguar brought three of its updated D-types (now 130 kg lighter and up to 275 bhp), the lead car of Mike Hawthorn / Ivor Bueb equipped with fuel-injection. Their other drivers were the experienced Jack Fairman and Ken Wharton, and Paul Frère with new team-member Desmond Titterington. The team arrived in red-hot form after a comprehensive 1-2-3-4 result at the Reims 12-hour race. The reliable ally, Equipe Nationale Belge, fielded a new production D-Type. It also saw the arrival of Scotsman David Murray (racing driver)’s new Ecurie Ecosse under team manager Walter “Wilkie” Wilkinson. Murray's drivers were fellow-Scots Ron Flockhart and Ninian Sanderson, stepping up from the smaller classes. In the absence of the big Cunninghams and Talbots this year, the Jaguars had the S-5000 class to themselves.
Two true production cars, privately entered into the race, were a Jaguar XK140 and a gull-wing Mercedes-Benz 300SL.
Aston Martin returned with a pair of the DB3S, nominally production models but allowed non-standard components. Again, a strong driver line-up was represented, including Stirling Moss (now a works driver for Maserati, which was not at Le Mans this year) with Peter Collins and Roy Salvadori with Peter Walker. The team, having abandoned its Lagonda project, instead arrived with its own new 2.5L prototype – the DBR1/250. Its smaller engine still managed to produce virtually the same power (212 bhp) as its big brothers. It was driven by F1 drivers Reg Parnell and Tony Brooks
Ferrari, without the production facilities to compete with the British, instead had to create a new 2.5L ‘prototype’ for, essentially, the one-off race at Le Mans. Engineer Vittorio Jano developed last year's 2.5L S-4 grand-prix engine and put it into a chassis adapted from the new 500 TR (the inaugural version of the “Testarossa”). Called the 625 LM, it gave 225 bhp giving a maximum speed of 230 km/h – 10 km/h slower than the Jaguars. Team drivers were race-winner Maurice Trintignant and Olivier Gendebien, Phil Hill and André Simon and Spanish noble 'Marquis' Alfonso de Portago with Duncan Hamilton (fired from Jaguar for ignoring team orders at the Rheims race once too often). Although the 2.0L V12 in the 500 TR was considered too weak by the factory to take on the Jaguars, there were three private-entries including a second car for the Equipe Nationale Belge.
Like Ferrari, French manufacturers Gordini and Talbot could not produce enough to meet the ACO requirements and therefore would have to enter their cars as prototypes. Gordini had two 2.5L cars and a smaller car in the S-1500 category. The larger cars trialled different engines: one using the 2.5L Straight-8 in the Grand Prix cars, and the other a new, more powerful, Straight-6 version (giving about 230 bhp). Talbot, now in receivership and in a change of tack, had adapted the 2.5L grand-prix engine from the Maserati 250F to their new sports cars. Two cars were entered for Jean Behra with Louis Rosier and Jean Lucas with pre-war Maserati veteran Geoffredo “Freddie” Zehender.
After their great success in the previous race, Porsche returned in force with new cars: a pair of 550A Coupés and a 356 Carrera production model. The new car had famously recently beaten the bigger works Ferraris and Maseratis in the non-Championship Targa Florio. The factory also supported a further a pair of older, privately entered 550 RS spyders and a 356A. Competing in the S-1500 class were a pair of private Maseratis and Colin Chapman’s Lotus 11 with the new FWB-Climax engine. His two other cars still used the smaller 1098cc FWA-Climax engine. The other entrants in the S-1100 class were Cooper’s T39 using the same Climax engine, and a tiny French RB fitted with an OSCA 1093cc engine.
For once the smallest, S-750, class was not the preserve of the French. Italian manufacturers Stanguellini and Moretti both sent two-car entries, and OSCA a single car. They were up against a strong DB-works entry of four cars, and three Monopoles. Panhard had closed its racing department after the 1955 disaster and appointed Monopole, effectively as its works team.
Over the flying kilometre on the Mulsanne straight, the following top speeds this year were recorded this year:
Practice
This year there were only the two practice sessions assigned – on the Wednesday and Thursday. Hawthorn set the fastest lap of 4:16.0 early on. Titterington was barely 3 seconds slower but then he demolished his car in an accident, forcing the team to prepare the spare car for the race. The best Moss could do in the Aston Martin was a 4:27 Meanwhile, the team was also finding the fuel consumption of their prototype DBR1, easily the noisiest car in the field, was excessive and therefore needed to trim it back to be able to get through the race. Most of the other larger cars were also doing checks on their fuel consumption for the new regulations, and having to adjust their engine settings accordingly
As a comparison, some of the lap-times recorded during practice were:
Race
Start
The allure of the race was as great as ever and huge crowds returned, keen to restore the traditional festive atmosphere. An immaculately observed minute's silence was held before the start of the race for the previous year's victims and a simple commemorative plaque unveiled.
The race started in light drizzle, making the new track surface treacherously greasy. As usual, Moss was lightning-quick and first off the line in his Aston Martin. Hawthorn's more powerful Jaguar blasted past him on the back straight and led at the end of the first lap. On lap three, Paul Frère got it sideways in the narrow Esses and spun his Jaguar. Fairman, close behind in the sister car, slammed on the brakes and also spun, then de Portago arrived unsighted and with nowhere to go broadsided Fairman. All three cars got going again: Frère limped on but came to a halt on the Mulsanne straight. De Portago got a bit further but the Ferrari's oil cooler was smashed. Fairman got to the pits but the damage was too severe to repair. Ten minutes gone and three of the leading works entries were already eliminated. Hill's Ferrari barely managed to skate through his teammate's oil, but soon his clutch started to fail. More drama occurred minutes later when Hawthorn came in from the lead with an engine misfire. It was eventually traced to a hairline crack in a fuel line – the delay and repair cost an hour, and 21 laps, and dropped the remaining works Jaguar out of contention.
But worse had happened between these issues: Louis Héry, local garage owner in his second Le Mans, crashed his private Monopole-Panhard heavily at Maison Blanche. The car rolled and tore itself apart. Héry, critically injured, died in the ambulance en route to the hospital.
On lap 7, Flockhart used his superior speed to get his Ecosse Jaguar into the lead, but the veteran drivers Moss and Walker kept their Aston Martins in contact. After the first pit-stops and driver-changes Sanderson put the Ecosse Jaguar onto a more conservative race strategy and Collins took the lead in the 3rd hour as the rain got heavier. The two remaining works Ferraris moved up to 3rd and 4th when the Walker/Salvadori Aston was delayed by ignition problems. Yet again Gordini was quick and competitive – the T15 of Manzon and Guichet, with the 2.5L F1 engine, holding a solid 5th place, and its sister car a couple of places behind tussling with the Belgian Jaguar.
Night
Being run a month later, the night was that bit longer and intermittent showers persisted through the night. Just before 10pm on the run from Maison Blanche to the pits Fernand Tavano's Testarossa went off the road, spun and hit the bank. Facing the opposite direction, his headlights blinded ’Helm’ Glöckler whose Porsche Carrera ran straight into the Ferrari. Tavano was thrown clear by the heavy impact as his car was shoved into the roadside ditch, but the Porsche rolled and burst into flames. Glöckler was pulled out by rescuers with minor burns and a broken leg.
By midnight Sanderson had retaken the lead, yet as the track got damp again, the experience of the F1 racers showed and Moss & Collins retook the lead by 3am, with Gendebien/Trintignant third, four laps down. Hill/Simon running 4th, had been changing gears with no clutch until they were forced out with rear axle failure just before half-time. The remarkable Porsche 550s were running 5th and 6th. Near the end of the night though Maglioli's leading Porsche was slowed and eventually stopped by engine issues. The prototype Aston Martin was surprising many, running in the top-10, and by the early hours of the morning had climbed up to 4th. Sadly for the partisan crowd, both Gordinis had fallen by the wayside with engine problems. In the small hours Cliff Allison’s Lotus, doing 190 km/h, struck a dog chasing a rabbit on the Mulsanne Straight wrecking the radiator.
Morning
The rain stopped for a while around dawn and that suited the bigger Jaguar, and they retook the lead and by 8am had built a 3-minute margin. Soon after dawn the last of the 2-litre class was out – the Ferrari of Jean Lucas, having got into the top-10, was disqualified for refuelling two laps too early. Around 7.30, in a sudden downpour, Peter Walker, running 8th, crashed heavily at the Dunlop bridge just after the pits. The car rolled and sat in the middle of the road but the driver was able to get out with just cuts, bruises and a broken finger. Later in the morning Moss and Collins lost their 2nd gear, limiting their chase and they gradually gave up ground. Around noon the Talbot of Behra/Rosier was stopped by a broken rear axle. They had barely kept up with the Aston Martin, Ferraris and Gordinis in its class, but through attrition, had been able to move up to 8th by the time they retired.
Finish and post-race
The leading cars remained reliable and reached the finish, except the Aston Martin prototype which, having slipped to 7th with engine problems, broke its rear suspension in the final hour.
The Ecosse Jaguar won by a lap from the Aston Martin. The Ferraris were never able to compete with the leaders but Gendebien/Trintignant came home third a further six laps back. Yet again the Belgian Jaguar had a good run, this time finishing 4th, fully 16 laps behind the winner. The leading Porsche of von Trips and von Frankenberg was 5th, just missing out on the Index of Performance, but finishing an enormous 37 laps ahead of the only other class-finisher: the privateer Maserati of Bourillot/Perroud in 9th. Having been driving up from the back of the field for 23 hours, Hawthorn and Bueb finished a commendable 6th place, with Hawthorn's determination getting him the race's fastest lap, albeit well down on the previous year.
The rivalry between the Climax-engined kit-cars went the way of Lotus. Jopp and Bicknell had retaken the S-1100 lead around 11am after the Cooper of Americans Hugus and Bentley had held it for 12 hours, and finished just over a lap ahead with the cars finishing 7th and 8th overall. The DB works team did well again with three of their four cars finishing (in 10th, 11th and 12th overall), and taking the valuable Index of Performance prize
A mere 13 finishers were classified (the lowest ratio of the decade), and given the wet conditions it was no surprise that there were 16 major accidents. It was a credit to the preparation and organisation of the fledgling Ecurie Ecosse team to win on its first attempt at Le Mans.
Although not one of the event's most exciting races it was, nevertheless, a testament to the dedication and tradition of the ACO that it was able to overcome the disaster of the 1955 race. This was the final race overseen by Charles Faroux, engineer and journalist, who was the co-founder of the race; he died the following February aged 74. Closely involved in international motor-racing administration he was also the race director for the Monaco Grand Prix.
Official results
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Note *: Not Classified because of Insufficient distance covered
Did Not Finish
Index of Performance
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
22nd Rudge-Whitworth Biennial Cup (1955/1956)
Note: Only the top three positions are included in this set of standings.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice – Hawthorn, #1 Jaguar D-Type – 4m 16.0s; 186.20 kp/h (117.56 mph)
Fastest Lap – Hawthorn, #1 Jaguar D-Type – 4m 20.0s; 186.38 kp/h (115.82 mph)
Distance -
Winner's Average Speed -
Attendance – 250 000
Citations
References
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1949-59 Sherborne, Dorset: Evro Publishing
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Jaguar Years 1949-1957' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Pomeroy, L. & Walkerley, R. - editors (1957) The Motor Year Book 1957 Bath: The Pitman Press
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1956 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 1 February 2017
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 1 February 2017
World Sports Racing Prototypes – Le Mans 1956 results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 1 February 2017
Formula 2 – Le Mans 1956 results & reserve entries. Retrieved 1 February 2017
YouTube a lap of the circuit in Mike Hawthorn's Jaguar, with his commentary
YouTube amateur film of the 1956 scrutineering & race, in colour (12 mins)
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1956 in French motorsport
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