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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne%E2%80%93Aachen%20high-speed%20railway
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Cologne–Aachen high-speed railway
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The Cologne–Aachen high-speed line is the German part of the Trans-European transport networks project high-speed line Paris–Brussels–Cologne. It is not a newly built railway line, but a project to upgrade the existing railway line which was opened in 1841 by the Rhenish Railway Company. When it was continued into Belgium in 1843, it became the world's first international railway line.
The line inside Germany has a length of about . The first from Cologne to Düren have been rebuilt. Since 2002 the line allows for speeds up to . Separate tracks have been built parallel to the high-speed tracks for local S-Bahn traffic. The remaining line from Düren to Aachen allows speeds up to with some slower sections. Upgrades of Düren–Aachen are planned for the near future. In Belgium, the high-speed line is continued as HSL 3.
Regional-Express services on the line are RE 1 (NRW-Express) and RE 9 (Rhein-Sieg-Express) with push-pull trains with six double-decker carriages. Long-distance trains are operated by Thalys between Paris and Cologne (six pairs of trains each day), three pairs of ICE 3M trains daily between Frankfurt and Brussels Monday to Saturday and a morning ICE 2 between Aachen and Berlin.
History
Plans for the construction of a railway between Cologne and the Belgian border began in December 1833 with the issue of concession to the Cologne Railway Committee, which was to develop a line under the direction of Cologne Lord Mayor Johann Adolph Steinberger and the entrepreneur Ludolf Camphausen. The Cologne Railway Committee presented a draft route that would bypass Aachen to reduce costs: the line would run from Eschweiler to Kornelimünster along the Inde and from there to the Belgian border. Düren would also not have been connected to the railway. The Aachen merchants resisted this proposal and they founded the Aachen Railway Committee under the direction of David Hansemann and Philipp Heinrich Pastor. This was the beginning of the so-called Eisenbahnstreites zwischen Köln und Aachen (railway dispute between Cologne and Aachen). In October, the Aachen Railway Committee presented an alternative proposal for the route that ran from Cologne via Düren and Aachen to the Belgian border.
On 6 April 1836, a conference of representatives of the traders of Aachen and Cologne in Jülich, chaired by the Oberpräsident of the Rhine Province Ernst von Bodelschwingh, could not resolve to the railway dispute. Hansemann and the Aachen cloth manufacturer Joseph van Gülpen then travelled to Berlin and lodged an application for a line running through Aachen. In Berlin, lengthy negotiations took place between representatives of Aachen and Cologne. Prussian king Frederick William III decided on 12 February 1837 that the line would run through Aachen and thus ended the railway dispute.
In June 1837, the Aachen and Cologne representatives agreed to the merger of the two committees of their cities and founded the Rhenish Railway Company (Rheinische Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft), which received a concession to build the line from Cologne to the Belgian border in Herbesthal. Construction of the line began on 11 April 1838.
The proposal to develop a direct line from Düren to Aachen was discarded due to the geological conditions of the northern Eifel and a curve to the north was adopted between Düren and Aachen that is still used by the line. The share capital of 9 million marks was raised to enable the Rhenish Railway to build the line by the issuing of shares. But due to the difficult route, construction costs increased to 21 million marks. The additional costs of 12 million marks were raised by issuing additional shares worth 4.5 million marks and bonds worth 7.5 million marks. The Belgian government alone acquired bonds for 3 million marks.
The first section from Cologne to Müngersdorf was opened on 2 August 1839, less than four years after the Nuremberg–Fürth railway, the first German railway, and was the seventh railway on German territory. To this end, open and closed carriages and wagons were delivered by Waggonfabrik Talbot of Aachen using road transport at the beginning of the year. Another section from Müngersdorf to Lövenich was opened on 2 July 1840. The last section from Lövenich to Aachen was opened on 1 September 1841 with an inaugural trip from Cologne to Aachen and back, during which a banquet for 360 invited guests was held. Regular passenger services on the whole route commenced on 6 September 1841. A panel on the east side of Düren station still marks this event.
With the connection of the line from Belgium, a special train ran from Antwerp to Cologne on 15 October 1843. This made the line between Cologne and Aachen part of the world's first cross-border railway. The Belgian railways were connected to the French railway network in 1845, so the Cologne-Aachen line handled traffic to and from France.
Operations until the First World War
Initially, the line was single-track and the timetable was set up so that trains leaving from Aachen and Cologne crossed at the multi-track Düren station. After the line on the Belgian side had been duplicated, the Rhenish Railway Company decided to duplicate the entire line in 1844. According to a report by Gustav von Mevissen, the president of the Rhenish Railway Company on 20 May 1845, the volume of traffic on the line between Cologne and Aachen exceeded the expectations of the planners in the early years. The passenger traffic was one of the largest in Prussia and the freight traffic was "the highest of all continental railways". Freight traffic exceeded passenger traffic in 1847. Work on the Aachen–Eschweiler section is documented as starting in 1848 and was completed in 1852. The Rhenish Railway Company covered the cost by issuing shares and taking out loans. During the German revolutions of 1848–1849, the Cologne–Aachen railway was used for occasional arms shipments.
Numerous factories were soon established along the line and coal mining was also important from the start. The Eschweiler Mining Association (Eschweiler Bergwerks-Verein) established coal storage at the stations of Aachen, Düren and Cologne immediately after the opening of a coal loading track. As a result of the opening of the line, the EBV's transport costs fell by two-thirds and contracts were also concluded with the Rhenish Railway Company for coal deliveries to supply its steam locomotives. Every second freight train on the Cologne–Aachen line transported coal from the Aachen coalfield in 1847. The coal from the individual mines was originally carried to the railway line by horsecars on field railway tracks, but were increasingly replaced by standard gauge steam trains. The Reserve colliery (Grube Reserve) was connected to the railway line between Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof and Nothberg in 1865 and the Mariagrube-Stolberg railway was opened in 1870.
First World War and the Occupation
The Cologne–Aachen railway also became increasingly strategic for military traffic to Belgium and for connecting the strategically important Vennbahn. Numerous improvements were carried out from 1912 to 1914 to improve the performance of the line, including the upgrade of tracks and the establishment of an overtaking loop in Derichsweiler. Quadruplication between Langerwehe and Nothberg was planned in 1914, but this was prevented by the outbreak of the First World War. During the war, the railway was used to transport troops and supplies to the western front. After the German declaration of war on France on 3 August 1914, the line was closed to civilian traffic and only used for the transport of troops. Regular traffic resumed in mid-September. The marshalling yard in Düren was extended for military reasons as late as 1917.
After the First World War, the Cologne–Aachen railway was located in the French occupation zone. France intended to transport raw materials via this line from the Ruhr, which was also occupied, but the German railway workers refused to work with them as passive resistance. During the occupation, the line was blocked to regular traffic several times so that French crews could operate coal trains from the Ruhr to France without having to observe German signalling and rail regulations. Occasional acts of sabotage to prevent these operations were mostly unsuccessful. The line was returned to German control with the end of the occupation of the Rhineland.
The Buir rail accident occurred between Düren and Horrem on 25 August 1929, resulting in 14 dead and 43 people injured. Due to construction work, trains towards Cologne had to be diverted on the wrong line and the affected points should have been operated at . Due to a mistake on the part of the dispatcher, the Paris–Warsaw express ran over these points at full speed and derailed.
Second World War
The Cologne–Aachen railway was used for military purposes again during the Battle of France. Trains carrying troops and war equipment ran over the line. During the war, the line was a frequent target of air raids, causing damage particularly in Aachen and Cologne. The last through train from Aachen to Cologne ran on 12 September 1944. A refugee train from Eschweiler was strafed on 15 September 1944. The locomotive of a passenger train occupied by about 200 was attacked, so it stopped at Hücheln near Langerwehe. Subsequently, a train formed of locked freight wagons was attacked with bombs and gunfire. About 80 people died in the process. Rail traffic from Eschweiler was discontinued on that day. Rail traffic from Düren was discontinued after the air raid on Düren on 16 November 1944. When German troops withdrew, they blew up bridges, such as parts of the Burtscheid Viaduct and the Three Arch Bridge (Dreibogenbrücke).
Postwar period
After the withdrawal of German troops, Allied troops gradually took over the towns along the line and restored operations, initially on one track. The first passenger trains ran from Aachen to Düren on 10 September 1945. A bus service between Düren and Cologne was temporarily established in January 1946. Operations were resumed on the whole line on 15 May 1946. Immediately after the line was restored to traffic, the volume of traffic was very high. On the one hand, there was a lack of alternative means of transport, such as trucks and private cars, on the other hand the number of passengers rose due to the return of soldiers, Heimatvertriebene ("homeland expellees") and Hamsterfahrten ("hamster trips", that is travel by townspeople to the countryside to barter for food). It was announced on 18 November 1947 that services would be severely limited due to a coal shortage.
The most significant single structure of this line was the -long Königsdorf Tunnel, which was demolished in 1954. A serious railway accident occurred in the resulting cutting on 27 May 1983 when an express crashed into a landslide at a speed of after heavy rainfall. Seven people died and 23 were injured. The cutting at Königsdorf was widened for the quadruplication of the line in 2000.
After the electrification of the federal German network reached Cologne from the south in the late 1950s, the Cologne–Aachen route was also electrified. This involved the conversion of several tunnels into cuttings. Due to the different power system of the Belgian State Railways, Aachen Hauptbahnhof was upgraded to become a system change station, the first (and for 42 years the only place) where the German and Belgian rail electrification systems met directly. With the change of timetable in May 1966, electric train operations commenced on the Cologne–Aachen–Liège route, using the standard Belgium system (3000 V DC) from Aachen. (Liège had been accessible for electric operations from Brussels since 1955.) At that time, Belgium already had a multi-system locomotive. In the autumn of 1966, DB also received its first multi-system locomotives, which could run under both the German and Belgian electric systems, but did not prove themselves, so that ultimately only some of the international express trains were hauled with Belgian multi-system locomotives and the others still had to change locomotive in Aachen until the 1990s.
With the dual-class Intercity system of DB introduced in 1979, the line benefitted at the edges of the day: a morning IC service from Cologne to Hamburg already started in Aachen, stopping in Düren, and connected in Cologne to become part of the IC regular interval pattern. It was given the name Karolinger (after Charlemagne) and returned from Hamburg to Aachen in the evening and remained a constant in the timetable for over two decades. A real cyclical service pattern did not develop between Cologne and Aachen until 1984, when the Belgian State Railways introduced its new nationwide timetable concept, which included a service every two hours from Cologne via Aachen and Brussels to Ostend, which was operated with air-conditioned Eurofima coaches. The rest of the services operated, on the other hand, was only switched to regular intervals when the regional rail regular interval timetable was established in 1991.
Line upgrade
The line is to be upgraded at a total cost of €952 million (as of 2013). The first and third of three sections designated under this project have been completed. The planning approval procedure for the second section, which includes passing tracks and increased speeds, was initiated at the Federal Railway Authority in August 2014. The works are divided into six phases of construction with commissioning due in the second quarter of 2020. Preparatory work began in June 2018.
Planning
The Cologne–Aachen line was already included in the Bundesverkehrswegeplan (Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan) of 1973 as one of eight planned upgraded lines (Ausbaustrecken) in the field of railways. After the development project was not included in the Koordiniertes Investitionsprogramm für die Bundesverkehrswege (coordinated investment program) of 1977, it was listed in the Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan 1980 as a project to be completed by 1990 (stage I). The line was also included in the Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan 1985.
Planning for the upgrade between Cologne and Aachen started in 1988. In November 1989, the transport ministers of the countries involved in the PBKA project agreed on a schedule according to which the line would be completed in 1995. The project was also included in the Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan of 1992. In 1992, it was planned to complete work by 1997. Of the estimated cost of DM 1.1 billion, around DM 800 million was to be allocated to the section between Cologne and Düren, half of which would be provided by the federal government and half would be funded under the municipal transport finance law (Gemeindeverkehrsfinanzierungsgesetz). Around DM 150 million (as of 1990) would be allocated to the section west of Düren.
The upgraded line project and the construction of a new Cologne–Horrem–Düren S-Bahn line (S 12 and S 13) on its own track were planned together.
The PBKA project is a European railway project that is connecting the cities of Paris, Brussels, Cologne and Amsterdam with high-speed lines. The project is funded by the EU as part of the TEN initiative under the acronym PBKAL (Paris, Brussels, Cologne, Amsterdam, London). This line described here was to be upgraded for high-speed traffic and upgraded for around €950 million. The timing of the completion of this project is open.
Reconstruction measures
The construction work began with a symbolic ramming on 22 October 1997. Among the guests of this event for the construction of section 1 (triangular junction near Cologne station) were Federal Minister of Transport Wissmann and state minister of transport Clement.
According to the then planning two new tracks would first be built between Cologne and Düren for the high-speed and the existing line would be upgraded for the S-Bahn line at a cost of DM 1.1 billion. More than 80 percent of the costs would be covered by the federal government and the rest by the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. Completion was expected in May 2002.
By the end of 2002, the existing line between Cologne and Düren had gained one or two more tracks and been upgraded to a high-speed line. Since 14 December 2003, the mainline tracks on this -long section can be operated at up to . All stations on this section of the line have been rebuilt and some of them have been converted into S-Bahn only stations.
The S-Bahn started operating at the timetable change in December 2002 on the S-Bahn tracks, which are now operationally separated from the main line. The tracks on the high-speed line are used by regional and international express train services. Until the opening of the Cologne/Bonn Airport station in mid-2004, line S13 of the Cologne S-Bahn (the southern part of the Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn) operated to Düren, but since then line S12 has run from Au (Sieg) via Hennef, Troisdorf and Cologne to Düren. Köln-Weiden West station, which serves as a link to Cologne Stadtbahn line 1, was opened on 28 May 2006. In particular, it is intended to facilitate arrivals and departures at events in the RheinEnergieStadion. The single-track S-Bahn line was duplicated over a length of between Buir and Sindorf to allow the equalisation of S-Bahn frequencies between Düren and Cologne. At night, the S13 runs beyond Horrem to Aachen and back. This gives the region a better connection to Cologne/Bonn Airport.
Around 2002 the line was used by around 150 passenger and 70 freight trains per day.
In mid-2003, the ICE S reached a speed of on the newly built high-speed section as part of approval and acceptance tests.
Development since 2003
The long-distance pair of tracks is designed for shared use by long-distance passenger and freight traffic from Ehrenfeld freight yard (line-kilometre 6) towards Aachen. The S-Bahn section between Cologne and Sindorf also has two tracks. Continuing towards Düren, single-track sections alternate with double-track passing sections. The entrance to Düren station (from Merzenich station) is single-track. The long-distance tracks are designed for operations at and the S-Bahn tracks for . From Merzenich station east of Düren (line-kilometre 34.480), the design speed of the long-distance tracks is , from line-kilometre 38.0 it is and from line-kilometre 39.6 it is . The S-Bahn was designed for a 20-minute cycle (during peak hour) with the possibility of shorter cycles. 53 S-Bahn trips per day and direction were planned. Regional trains running on the long-distance tracks between Cologne and Düren still stop in Horrem and Cologne-Ehrenfeld. No plans were made to run the S 6 to Horrem and thus create a ten-minute cycle between Horrem and Cologne.
In a second construction phase, the section between Düren and Langerwehe is to be upgraded for speeds of up to . The subsequent section via Eschweiler to Aachen is to be upgraded for . Currently, speeds of up to are possible between Eschweiler and Stolberg, although sometimes only up to . Top speeds of are already permitted on the rest of the line. It should be possible for trains to pass through Düren station at after completion of the second stage of construction. In the final state, it should be possible to run at a minimum of over an almost -long section between Cologne and Langerwehe.
The investment framework plan for federal transport infrastructure of 2010 (Investitionsrahmenplan bis 2010 für die Verkehrsinfrastruktur des Bundes) specified total costs of €951.7 million (as of 2006) for new construction and upgrading between Cologne and the German-Belgian border (including the Busch Tunnel). €769.8 million of this was spent up to 2005. Federal funds totaling €88.9 million were invested between 2006 and 2010. Beyond this period, there is a need for finance of €93.0 million (federal funds from 2011, own funds of Deutsche Bahn and contributions from third parties from 2006).
In November 2008, additional investments in the Aachen–Stolberg–Eschweiler section were approved as part of an economic stimulus package. It was planned that the Aachen-Rothe Erde–Stolberg section would be partially upgraded to three tracks from 2010. This project has not yet been implemented. Only the Aachen-Rothe Erde station has been modernised. Due to the construction delay, the European Commission cut funding for the project by €2.9 million at the end of 2010. In June 2010, EVS Euregio Verkehrsschienennetz (EVS) acquired Stolberger Hauptbahnhof including the entrance building. Only the dispatcher signal box and the mainline through tracks remained the property of Deutsche Bahn. The EVS started the reconstruction of Stolberg Hauptbahnhof in 2012 and the height of the main platform was increased to 760 millimetres.
In 2017, Deutsche Bahn began construction work on the island platform on the mainline through tracks at Stolberger Hauptbahnhof. The existing underpass is to be replaced by an overpass with lifts. The work was expected to take until the middle of 2019. Construction work on the Upgraded line 4, II. upgrade phase, 1. construction stage project at Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof began in 2018. Platforms at the Hauptbahnhof have been raised to and barrier-free access has been created to the island platform via lifts and the two passing tracks (platform 1 and 4) have been extended to a useful length of . The relay interlocking has been replaced by connecting the station to a computer-based interlocking and the last level crossing between Cologne and Aachen at Jägerspfad in Eschweiler is to be closed. Work in Aachen should also begin in 2019. In the district of Eilendorf, the third track is to be extended by about between Eilendorf and the former Aachen-Rothe Erde freight yard. Measures for noise and vibration protection are also planned.
The line between Stolberg Hauptbahnhof and Aachen Hauptbahnhof was declared an overloaded railway on 11 November 2019.
Route description
Cologne Hauptbahnhof
The original starting point of the Cologne–Aachen railway was a terminal station of the Rhenish Railway Company (Rheinische Eisenbahn). When the Cathedral Bridge made it possible for trains to cross the Rhine in 1859, the line ran to the Centralbahnhof (central station). This was a combined terminus and through station. The trains of the Rhenish Railway Company from Aachen ended at four terminal tracks. Two thoroughfares mainly served trains of the Cologne-Minden Railway Company (Cöln-Mindener Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft). Today's Cologne Hauptbahnhof (main station) was built from 1892 to 1894 because the capacity of the station was no longer able to cope with the increased traffic. The station was badly damaged during the Second World War and the station building had to be demolished and replaced by a new building. Around 1990, two tracks were added on the north side for S-Bahn traffic, which are independent of the rest of the infrastructure. Today's station is one of the busiest stations in Germany because all trains that use the Cologne–Aachen high-speed line stop here.
Köln Hansaring station
The halt (Haltepunkt, technically a station without points) of Köln Hansaring, which is named after the ring road it lies above, was opened at line-km 0.8 (on this line, distance from Cologne Hauptbahnhof) at the same time as the construction of two additional S-Bahn tracks at Cologne Hauptbahnhof and on the Hohenzollern Bridge in 1990. It is connected to the Cologne Stadtbahn station of the same name, which was opened in 1974, and has an island platform and is served by all S-Bahn trains that pass through the Hauptbahnhof, as well as Regionalbahn line RB 25 (Oberbergische Bahn), which is to be converted to an S-Bahn line.
Immediately behind the stop is the Cologne ICE workshop (Bahnbetriebswerk Köln), which is bypassed to the north by mainline trains running towards Aachen and the S-Bahn line and to the south by mainline trains running towards Cologne Hauptbahnhof. The S-Bahn line, which runs north of the tracks for other traffic near Cologne Hauptbahnhof, crosses to the south over a flyover between Köln Hansaring and Köln-Ehrenfeld and it remains to the south to its end in Düren.
Köln-Ehrenfeld station
Köln-Ehrenfeld station was built at line-km 3.7 between Cologne and Müngersdorf with the construction of the first section in 1839. Köln-Ehrenfeld station has two platforms with four platform tracks, to the north of which there are two tracks without a platform for through passenger and freight trains. Tracks 1 and 2 are used for S-Bahn traffic, tracks 3 and 4 for regional traffic. Cologne-Ehrenfeld is a scheduled stop for all regional services passing through it. Not far from the station is the Venloer Straße/Gürtel underground station of the Cologne Stadtbahn. The Cologne-Aachen high-speed railway crosses Ehrenfeldgürtel (Ehrenfeld belt), part of the Cologne ring road, at Köln-Ehrenfeld Cologne station.
In and around Köln-Ehrenfeld station, the railway runs on a viaduct. Some arches of this viaduct were formerly used as storage space, others were neglected. There were also problems with moisture penetration. The arches were to be refurbished in 2015, with self-supporting inner shells. Subsequently, a private investor was to create a shopping mile with restaurants. There is currently a discotheque in three of the arches.
Köln-Müngersdorf Technologiepark station
The halt of Köln-Müngersdorf Technologiepark is located in the east of Cologne's Müngersdorf district at line-km 5.9. It was established with the construction of the S-Bahn to Düren in 2002. The station has a partially covered island platform, which is connected by two sets of stairs and a lift to the street below, on which there is a Kölner Verkehrsbetriebe (Cologne Transport) bus stop.
Belvedere station
The first section of the Cologne–Aachen line, which was opened on 2 August 1839, ran to Müngersdorf, with the terminus of the line at Belvedere station (line-km 7.0) until the opening of Lövenich station. For excursion guests from downtown Cologne, a small station building that housed a restaurant was built on a hill north of the cutting through which the line ran. With the extension of the line to Aachen, Müngersdorf station, the “Belvedere house”, became less and less important. The station was never very important for operations and was closed before 1892. Today there are no operating facilities at the station. The station building, which has meanwhile been used as a residential building, still exists and is listed as the "oldest station in Germany in its original form" in the Cologne heritage list.
Lövenich station
Köln-Lövenich station was opened on 2 July 1840 with the second phase of construction of the line at line-km 9.0 and was the western terminus of the line for about a year. In 2002, an S-Bahn stop was built west of the station at . At the same time, the former Cologne-Lövenich station was dismantled and is now used only for passing loops. The S-Bahn stop has an island platform between the S-Bahn tracks.
Köln-Weiden West station
The halt of Köln-Weiden West was built in 2006 in the run-up to the 2006 FIFA World Cup at line-km 11.1. At the same time, line 1 of the Cologne Stadtbahn was extended by about to the west and a new terminus was built with four tracks. The Cologne–Aachen line in Weiden West is located on an embankment. The Stadtbahn station is on ground level just south of the line, enabling direct interchange.
Frechen-Königsdorf station
With the extension of the line to Aachen in 1841, Großkönigsdorf station was established at line-km 13.8 km.
In 2000 the station was renamed Frechen-Königsdorf and in 2002 it was converted into an S-Bahn stop as part of the line upgrade. The station has an island platform and is connected to a pedestrian bridge running over the tracks. The station building north of the railway line still exists, but no longer has a platform and is currently used as a taxi control centre.
Königsdorf Tunnel
Königsdorf Tunnel was a -long tunnel between Großkönigsdorf and Horrem at line-km 15.0. Construction began in 1837 and was completed in 1841. Up to 2,000 workers were employed in its construction. When it opened, the tunnel was the longest railway tunnel in Europe. The maximum coverage of the tunnel was 35 metres. Chimneys were built at this height to remove the smoke caused by steam locomotives.
The masonry was continuously damaged by seepage and exhaust gases from the steam locomotives, so that the tunnel was in great need of restoration at the beginning of the 1930s. The tunnel was not exactly straight when built, so over time work was carried out to straighten it, which further reduced its stability. Refurbishment began in 1937, but was never completed due to the Second World War. After parts of the tunnel wall flaked off in early 1954 and protruded into the clearance profile, a third track was laid in the middle of the tunnel to make room for supporting scaffolding. In March 1954 the speed limit in the tunnel was . Because the electrification of the railway line was planned anyway, requiring an expansion of the structure gauge of the tunnel for the overhead wire, it was considered necessary to dismantle the tunnel and convert it into a cutting. By December 1955, 4 million cubic metres of soil had been excavated using bucket chain excavators and transported via a conveyor belt to a pit at a nearby briquette factory. At the same time, the Horrem Bridge was built for the North-South Railway from Rheinbraun (now part of RWE Power). The cutting was widened with the help of sheet piling and the line was raised to allow for the laying of two additional tracks for the S-Bahn in 2002. Today there is nothing left of the former tunnel. Parts of the east portal are commemorated.
Horrem station
Horrem station was opened in 1841 at line-km 18.7. It was converted into an S-Bahn station in 2002. The Erft Railway branches off from the Cologne-Aachen high-speed line at the station. It has two island platform tracks for operations on the Erft Railway and four platform tracks and three through tracks for operations on the high-speed line. Until 2001, Horrem station had a freight yard to its north. There are commuter parking spaces in this area. The forecourt and entrance building were fundamentally rebuilt from 2010 to 2014. A "green station" was built, with CO2-neutral operations. This involved the installation of photovoltaic and geothermal systems and the use of ecological building materials. There are now a waiting room, a kiosk and a bookshop in the entrance building.
There is a tectonic fault in the area of Horrem station. The long-distance tracks pass over this on a special structure that is underground and can hydraulically compensate for earth movements. The other tracks have special rail joints at this point.
Sindorf station
Sindorf station was opened at line-km 22.4 between Dorsfeld and Horrem in 1912. The station had a platform north and south of the old line. The former Dorsfeld station was abandoned at the same time. Dorsfeld was a junction for sidings to the nearby gravel pits. Dorsfeld station became the location of overtaking loops for freight traffic with the opening of the parallel S-Bahn line in 2002. The Blatzheim block post was located at line-km 25.8 from 1952 to 1966. With the commissioning of the S-Bahn line, Sindorf station was also relocated to line-km 21.4 and redesignated as a halt. The station is in the south-east of the Kerpen district of Sindorf and has a side platform on the south side of the S-Bahn line. This is bounded to the south by a noise barrier and the entrances and exits are at the ends of the platform.
Buir station
Buir station had two platform tracks at an island platform and a passing track from its construction at line-km 30.3 in 1841 to the reconstruction of the line in 2002. Since the upgrade of the line, the tracks used by timetable route 480 and two S-Bahn lines have run through the station. A malt factory located next to the station formerly had a siding.
While all of the S-Bahn only stations on the upgraded line have an island platform except for Sindorf station (single side platform), Buir station has two side platforms north and south of the S-Bahn tracks. The northern side platform is separated from the mainline tracks by a noise barrier. Access to the northern platform is via an underpass. In the Buir area, the Cologne–Aachen line runs for about next to the Hambach lignite mine railway and autobahn 4.
Merzenich station
There was a station in the Merzenich area from 1841 to 1880 at line-km 35.0 at the site of the former junction of the Düren–Neuss railway. This was never served by trains on the Cologne–Aachen line. The new Merzenich station opened on 29 April 2003 and put into operation for the S-Bahn. It has an island platform and a large commuter parking area. It is served by lines S 13 and S 19 and can be reached using tickets issued by both the Aachener Verkehrsverbund (Aachen Transport Association) and the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Sieg (Rhine-Sieg Transport Association). Overtaking loops were also built at line-km 36.7 as part of the upgrade of the line.
Düren station
Düren station was opened in 1841 at line-km 39.2 and soon developed into a hub for rail transport. By 1900, the Düren–Heimbach, Jülich–Düren, Düren–Neuss and Düren–Euskirchen lines had been established with Düren as the starting point. From 1933 to 1986 there was a motive power depot (Bahnbetriebswerk) in Düren. The entrance building was opened in 1874 and, unlike the city centre of Düren, was not destroyed in the air raid of 16 November 1944. It is located as an island station (Inselbahnhof) between the tracks for traffic to Jülich to the north and the tracks of the Cologne–Aachen line to the south. Regional express trains towards Aachen stop at the home platform (platform 1). The platforms for regional express trains and S-Bahn trains running towards Cologne and trains of the Euregiobahn towards Aachen can be reached via an underpass. Some long-distance trains also stop in Düren. Although there are other stations in the area of the city of Düren, Düren station does not bear the designation of Hauptbahnhof (main station), unlike most main stations in German towns with several stations.
Triangular Truss bridge
The Cologne–Aachen line crosses the Rur river over the Triangular Truss bridge (Dreigurtbrücke) at line-km 39.8. The bridge has a span of 78 metres and was built from 1928 to 1929 as a replacement for a brick bridge built with the original railway. The structure, which is now a listed building, is currently in a dilapidated condition. The economics of its renovation are doubtful.
Hubertushof and Gürzenich
The Hubertushof connection point as required (Bedarfsanschlussstelle) is located at line-km 41.3. This junction served the Bundeswehr (federal defence forces) for its premises in the Hürtgenwald (Gürzenicher Bruch). The Gürzenich block post was also located there from 1925 to 1952. About a kilometre south of the village, but still part of Gürzenich, there is a Bundeswehr depot where weapons and material were stored mainly for the Air Force airbase in Nörvenich, about away. The 150-hectare depot was closed in 2009.
Guerzenich also had a freight yard. The branch line to the freight yard branched off from the tram line to Guerzenich on today's Papiermühle (formerly Mühlenweg). There was a connecting track to the Distelrath–Schneidhausen railway (Ringbahn) at Breuer's Häuschen. The Gürzenich freight yard had a loading and transfer track and there was a connection to the Düren–Aachen railway. All freight traffic towards Rölsdorf and Lendersdorf was handled on this track from 1944 until the Rur Bridge of the Ringbahn was restored.
Derichsweiler and Merode
Until November 2002, the Derichsweiler overtaking loops were located at line-km 44.3. It was a halt for passenger traffic from 1843 to 1928. When this section of the line was converted to computer-based interlocking technology, the Derichsweiler overtaking loops were abandoned and the points and the catenary on the passing tracks were dismantled. The western part of the former yard is now controlled from the Langerwehe electronic signalling control centre, while the eastern part is controlled from Düren. The former signal box building has been preserved, but is no longer used. The Merode block post was established at line-km 46.5 in 1965/1966.
Langerwehe station
Langerwehe station (line-km 48.9) has two platform tracks on the Cologne–Aachen line with side platforms north and south of the two through line tracks. The Eschweiler-Weisweiler Langerwehe line, built in 2009, ends in Langerwehe. Euregiobahn trains from Eschweiler-Weisweiler arrive at a third platform built in 2009. The through platform tracks on the Cologne–Aachen railway are used by Regional-Express services and Euregiobahn trains that are bound for Düren.
The two-storey station building dates from the time the line was built (1841) and was enlarged by two one-storey extensions at the beginning of the 20th century. As the platforms were moved a few metres to the west during the reconstruction of the line around 2000, the entrance building now has no direct access to the platform.
Nothberg station
The halt of Nothberg was built in 1905 at the southern end of the Eschweiler district of Nothberg at line-km 54.1. It had two side platforms and a small building with a ticket office until the 1970s. A road underpass west of the halt had to be used to connect the platforms. Recently, Nothberg station was only served by the Rhein-Sieg-Express every hour. When the new Eschweiler-Weisweiler Langerwehe line went into operation in 2009, Nothberg station on the Cologne–Aachen railway was closed due to the low number of passengers and replaced by the Eschweiler-Nothberg Euregiobahn station. The platforms and a small parking lot at the western end still exist. Signs forbid entry to the closed station.
A siding branched off to the Reserve colliery between Nothberg station and Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof from 1864. The coal mined there was loaded onto trains at a yard at the mine site. After the coal mining ended, the colliery buildings including the siding were demolished. However, its course can still be seen in modern satellite images.
The Hücheln block post was built at line-km 52.0 in 1965/1966.
Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof
Since 1841, Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof has been located at line-km 56.9 in the Röthgen district of Eschweiler and has four tracks, three of which are platform tracks with the house platform (next to the entrance building) as a side platform and an island platform. The station is served by the NRW-Express and the Rhein-Sieg-Express. The Euregiobahn service stops instead at the Eschweiler Talbahnhof (valley station) on the Mönchengladbach–Stolberg railway. The entrance building was built in 1860 and is now owned by the city of Eschweiler. A kiosk, a travel agency and a dental practice are located in the entrance building. In the past, the station was served by a line of the Aachen Tramway and handled freight. The tram line was discontinued in 1954 and general freight operations ended in 1984. The goods shed was replaced by a parking lot in 2008. The station is currently being renovated because it is not barrier-free due to its -high platforms and lack of lifts.
Ichenberg Tunnel
The Ichenberg tunnel is located at line-km 57.0 immediately west of Eschweiler Hauptbahnhof and is now 95 metres long. During the Second World War, it was blown up by retreating Wehrmacht troops and rebuilt by American pioneers. Since the cross-section of the tunnel was too narrow for the upcoming electrification, the tunnel was opened out for a length of 255 metres in 1962 and the modern shorter tunnel was rebuilt in concrete.
Three Arch bridge
The railway line crosses the Inde river and the Mönchengladbach–Stolberg railway over the Three Arch bridge (Dreibogenbrücke) (line-km 57.9). The bridge is built of brick and has existed since the opening of the railway in 1841. In the Second World War, an arch was blown up and initially replaced by American pioneers with a temporary steel structure and then restored to its original design in 1950.
Stolberg Hauptbahnhof
Due to the changes in the route as a result of the railway dispute, Stolberg Hauptbahnhof was built in 1841, not in the centre of the city of Stolberg, but three kilometres north of Stolberg in what was then part of Eschweiler. Due to the location outside the centre of the town at line-km 60.3, there were large open areas that made it possible to develop Stolberg Hauptbahnhof into a railway junction. The Mönchengladbach–Stolberg, Stolberg–Walheim, Stolberg–Herzogenrath lines and the now closed Stolberg–Münsterbusch and Stolberg–Kohlscheid lines were built by 1900, all starting from Stolberg Hauptbahnhof. The entrance building was completed in 1888. Due to its location at the divergence of the Cologne–Aachen and the Stolberg–Walheim lines, Stolberg Hbf is a wedge-shaped station (Keilbahnhof). Freight tracks were built to the west, south and east of the station, which in the meantime were connected to each other by a connecting railway that used a bridge structure. A locomotive depot with a roundhouse was built south of the station. Of these facilities, only the freight tracks east of the station are still used today.
Stolberger Hauptbahnhof has three platform tracks on the Cologne–Aachen line. The central platform is used for traffic with Regional-Express and Euregiobahn services to Aachen and the house platform for Euregiobahn services from Aachen. The station building was acquired in 2010 by EVS Euregio Verkehrsschienennetz, which renovated it for €3 million and converted it into a control centre. There is now a signal box for the lines maintained by EVS and used by the Euregiobahn.
Eilendorf Tunnel and Nirm Tunnel
A -long tunnel called the Nirmer Tunnel (Nirm Tunnel) was built between Stolberg and the location of modern Eilendorf at line-km 63.6 during the construction of the line and completed in 1841. Both miners from Eschweiler and workers from the Leipzig–Dresden railway were employed in the construction of the tunnel, using a method known as core construction (Kernbauweise—using three narrow tunnels to build the walls of the final tunnel before the tunnel core was removed). There were eight chimneys above the tunnel for the extraction of smoke produced by the steam locomotives. During the Second World War a bunker was built over the west portal. In 1963, it became clear that the cross-section of the tunnel, like the Königsdorf Tunnel and the Ichenberg Tunnel, was too narrow to allow the catenary to be installed. Therefore, the Nirm tunnel was partially opened out and converted into two smaller tunnels lined with concrete. The western tunnel is the Eilendorf Tunnel with a length of 357 metres (line-km 63.9) and the eastern tunnel is the Nirm Tunnel with a length of 125 metres. Although the two newly constructed tunnels were designed for speeds of up to and high-speed tests had been carried out with class E 03 locomotives, the permissible top speed today is .
From 1944 to 1986, the Nirm block post was located at line-km 63.2.
Eilendorf station
The halt of Eilendorf was opened at line-km 64.9 as Nirm halt along with the line on 1 September 1841. It later closed but reopened in 1897. In 1920, an entrance building was built, which was demolished in the 1980s. By 1963, Nirm had an island platform and a passing track. During the electrification of the line, the halt was renamed Eilendorf, the passing track was dismantled and two side platforms, which still exist, were built. In 2018, the platforms had a height of and were therefore below the boarding height of the rail vehicles operated, which prevented barrier-free entry. In 2018, the platforms were raised to to enable level, barrier-free entry into the trains. The platforms, which were previously over long, were shortened to . There is no connection between the two platforms with a bridge or a tunnel; instead a road bridge to the west or an underpass to the east must be used, both of which require several hundred metres of walking. Therefore, passengers often cross the tracks without authorisation.
Aachen-Rothe Erde station
Aachen-Rothe Erde station was built in 1875 as an interchange station for the Haaren–Aachen-Rothe Erde railway at line-km 68.2. From 1880 it was also used in passenger transport. The Vennbahn, which branched off the Cologne–Aachen railway in Rothe Erde was opened in 1885. The station received a locomotive depot and the freight yard was expanded. The current station building has existed since 1892 and is built into the railway embankment. After the Second World War, the connection with the Vennbahn and parts of the freight yard were closed. Today there is a shopping centre in the area. The passenger station has a platform with one-way tracks running towards Aachen and Cologne. To the east of this is a carriage yard for Euregiobahn railcars and for regional express sets. A branch line ran to the Aachen freight yard (Moltkebahnhof) from Rothe Erde station.
Aachen freight yard
Aachen freight yard, also known as the Moltkebahnhof (Moltke station) due to its location on Moltkestrasse (Moltke street), was a freight yard in the south of the city of Aachen, which was connected via a branch line to the Cologne–Aachen railway. The freight yard was opened in 1895, but freight traffic decreased from the mid-1960s, so that the freight yard was closed in the mid-1990s. Today there are, among other things, a park and a comprehensive school on the site.
Burtscheid Viaduct
Burtscheid Viaduct was built from 1838 to 1840 according to plans by engineers Wittfeld and Pickel. The originally -long viaduct was partially blown up during the Second World War and rebuilt. It now has a length of . A reinforced concrete pavement slab was added in the 1960s, and it was renovated from 2007 to 2009. Burtscheid Viaduct has two tracks. Aachen Hauptbahnhof is directly to its west.
Aachen Hauptbahnhof
The Rhenish Railway Company opened the Rheinischen Bahnhof (Rhenish station) as the terminus of the Cologne–Aachen railway (line-km 70.2) in 1841. The current entrance building and the station concourse date from 1905 when the station was rebuilt as part of its merger with Aachen Marschierthor station, the terminus of the Aachen–Mönchengladbach railway. In the run-up to the electrification of the station, the tracks within the station hall were rearranged in 1966. Since then, Aachen Hauptbahnhof has had nine platform tracks, four of which are designed to enable the transition between electrical systems: the overhead lines can be switched to use either the 15 kV/16.7 Hz AC used in Germany or the 3 kV DC used in Belgium. A 3-S-Zentrale (a DB Station&Service station control centres) has been located in the entrance building since 2003.
All local and long-distance trains stop at Aachen Hauptbahnhof. With the exception of ICE International, Thalys and Euregiobahn services, all trains start and end here. The rolling stock of the NRW-Express, the Rhein-Sieg-Express and Euregiobahn are maintained in a DB Regio NRW depot to the west of the station.
Rolling stock and operations
The Rhenish Railway Company started operations on the section to Müngersdorf with four steam locomotives, three of which were manufactured in England. The Carolus Magnus was built by the newly founded Dobbs & Poensgen locomotive factory in Aachen, but it was prone to failure and had to be rebuilt. It was only used to haul work trains and was sold early. The 10 locomotives were estimated to have operated a total at 5361 Prussian miles () in 1841. After the opening of the whole line, the number of locomotives used grew to a total of 21.
The original timetable provided three passenger trains (morning, noon and evening) between Cologne and Aachen per day and direction. Due to the line being single-track initially, trains were scheduled to cross in Düren. The two morning trains started or ended in Herbesthal. Passenger trains initially served all stops on the way until a pair of express trains was introduced between Cologne and Herbesthal in 1857. The first night train ran on the railway in May 1859. The first trains from Cologne to Paris were initially unlit, but lamps were eventually attached to the locomotives after an accident at a level crossing.
Prussian state railways
Under the nationalisation policy of Otto von Bismarck, the Cologne–Aachen railway became part of the Prussian state railways (Preußische Staatseisenbahnen). This greatly expanded the connections operated on the line. In 1913, there were also direct through coaches from Aachen via the line to Cologne, Berlin, Bremen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hanover, Kiel, Munich and Wiesbaden. The Ostend–Vienna Express started as a luxury train in 1894 and later operated as an international express. It included coaches that were attached/detached to the Orient-Express and was one of the most important connections between Western Europe and the Balkans. The service only ended in 1993.
Deutsche Bundesbahn
After the Second World War, Deutsche Bundesbahn took over the line that had been operated by Deutsche Reichsbahn from 1920 to 1945. In the first few years, steam locomotives from the Reichsbahn era were predominantly used: class 01 and class 03 locomotives in front of express trains and class 38.10 locomotives in front of other passenger trains. Class 50 and class 55.25 locomotives hauled most freight trains. Individual trains were operated with VT 36.5 diesel railcars. In addition, the line was used by international express trains such as the Ostend–Vienna Express, which took only 1:03 hours from Cologne to Aachen.
In the 1960s and 1970s, several Trans Europ Express train pairs ran on the Cologne–Aachen line. Diesel railcars of class VT 11.5 (e.g. Hamburg–Paris) and trains with French TEE coaches were used. The VT 08 class was used for long-distance express (F) trains. In addition, international expresses hauled by Belgian steam locomotives ran to Cologne. Electrification was completed in 1966, and from then on electric locomotives were mostly used for passenger transport. Mainly class 110 and Belgian multi-system locomotives of class 16 and later also class 18 ran in long-distance transport and initially class 141 were operated in local transport. The new class 184 multi-system locomotives delivered in the autumn of 1966 (also marketed as Europalokomotiven—"European locomotives") were extensively tested in Germany–Belgium traffic, but were only rarely used later because the locomotives often failed due to frequent strong voltage fluctuations in the Belgian overhead line, so from 1971 they were no longer used for passenger services to Belgium and were relocated to the Saarland in 1979. The international daytime passenger services were therefore largely operated from the 1970s to the 1990s with Belgian multi-system locomotives. Locomotives for freight transport were changed in Aachen-West and locomotives for overnight express trains were changed in Aachen Hbf.
Current operations
Passenger services
In long-distance traffic, the Cologne–Aachen high-speed line is operated with ICE International services using class 406 sets and Thalys services using PBKA sets. This offer is supplemented by individual Intercity and Intercity Express services that run once a week and thus create direct connections to/from other regions in Germany at the weekend.
The Regional-Express services RE 1 (NRW-Express) and RE 9 (Rhein-Sieg-Express) serve the entire length of the line hourly and together provide an approximately 30-minute cycle. The NRW-Express is operated with push–pull trains composed of double-deck carriages from Bombardier and class 146.0 locomotives. The Rhein-Sieg-Express is operated with locomotives of class 146.0 or class 111 as well as Talent 2 railcars in coupled sets. Class 120.2 locomotives were also used until 2018.
Between Cologne Hauptbahnhof and Köln-Ehrenfeld, the RE 8 regional express (Rhein-Erft-Express) service is operated with class 425 multiple units and the Regionalbahn RB 27 service (Rhein-Erft-Bahn) with push-pull trains consisting of three double-decker coaches and a locomotive of class 143. Between Cologne and Horrem, the Regionalbahn RB 38 service (Erft-Bahn) is operated with class 644 railcars and S-Bahn services S 13 and S 19 with class 423 multiple units. The S 12 service also runs between Cologne and Düren with class 423 sets.
Euregiobahn services on the section between Aachen Hauptbahnhof and Stolberg Hauptbahnhof are operated with Bombardier Talent DMUs every 30 minutes in coupled sets on weekdays and in single sets on Sundays. The Euregiobahn services leave the Cologne–Aachen line between Stolberg and Langerwehe and return to Langerwehe and Düren, running hourly.
Freight transport
The Cologne–Aachen high-speed line is used by numerous freight trains due to its location between the Köln-Eifeltor freight yard on the West Rhine railway and Aachen West, the eastern end of the Aachen–Tongeren railway. Much of the freight traffic is carried by DB Cargo and Cobra (Corridor Operations Belgium Rail), a subsidiary of Deutsche Bahn, and SNCB. Other regular services are a SBB Cargo Combined transport train hauled by TRAXX locomotives and freight trains operated by Crossrail (now part of Cargologic) and RTB Cargo, which uses diesel-hauled goods exchange trains (Übergabegüterzuge) from Düren to Stolberg and back. The line is also used by freight trains to and from Mönchengladbach on the section between the Cologne-Ehrenfeld and Köln-Müngersdorf Technologiepark stations.
References
Footnotes
Sources
External links
Trainspotting Bükkes: Cologne - Aachen - Brussels
High-speed railway lines in Germany
Transport in Cologne
Aachen
Railway lines in North Rhine-Westphalia
Railway lines opened in 1839
1839 establishments in Prussia
Buildings and structures in Rhein-Erft-Kreis
Buildings and structures in Düren (district)
Eschweiler
Stolberg (Rhineland)
Frederick William III of Prussia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican%20eucharistic%20theology
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Anglican eucharistic theology
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Anglican eucharistic theology is diverse in practice, reflecting the comprehensiveness of Anglicanism. Its sources include prayer book rubrics, writings on sacramental theology by Anglican divines, and the regulations and orientations of ecclesiastical provinces. The principal source material is the Book of Common Prayer (abbr: BCP), specifically its eucharistic prayers and Article XXVIII of the Thirty-Nine Articles. Article XXVIII comprises the foundational Anglican doctrinal statement about the Eucharist, although its interpretation varies among churches of the Anglican Communion and in different traditions of churchmanship such as Anglo-Catholicism and Evangelical Anglicanism.
Anglican eucharistic theologies universally affirm the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, though Evangelical Anglicans believe that this is a pneumatic presence, while those of an Anglo-Catholic churchmanship believe this is a corporeal presence. In the former interpretation, those who receive the form or sign of the body and blood (bread and wine) in faith, receive also the spiritual body and blood of Christ. Those who receive the form or sign without faith, or for those who are wicked, Christ is not present spiritually and they consume only the physical signs of this holy presence, which further adds to their wickedness – in accordance with Article XXIX. In the latter interpretation, there exists the corporeal presence of Christ in the Eucharist, although the precise manner of how that presence is made manifest is a mystery of faith. To explain the manner of Christ's presence, some high-church Anglicans, however, teach the philosophical explanation of consubstantiation, associated with the English Lollards and, later, erroneously with Martin Luther, though Luther and the Lutheran churches explicitly rejected the doctrine of consubstantiation and actually promulgated their dogma of the sacramental union. A major leader in the Anglo-Catholic Oxford Movement, Edward Pusey, championed the view of consubstantiation.
Sacramental theology
With the Eucharist, as with other aspects of theology, Anglicans are largely directed by the principle of lex orandi, lex credendi which means "the law of prayer is the law of belief". In other words, sacramental theology as it pertains to the Eucharist is sufficiently and fully articulated by the Book of Common Prayer of a given jurisdiction. As defined by the 16th-century Anglican theologian Richard Hooker, the sacraments are said to be "visible signs of invisible grace"; similarly the Catechism of the 1662 version states that a sacrament is "an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace given to us, ordained by Christ himself, as a means whereby we receive the same, and a pledge to assure us thereof." It thus has the effect of conveying sanctification in the individual participating in the sacrament. According to this, in the Eucharist the outward and visible sign is "bread and wine" and the "thing signified", the "body and blood of Christ", which are truly taken and received by the faithful in the Lord's supper.
Sacraments have both form and matter. Form is the verbal and physical liturgical action, while the matter refers to material objects used (bread and wine). In an Anglican Eucharist the form is contained in the rite and its rubrics, as articulated in the authorised prayer books of the ecclesiastical province. Central to the rite is the eucharistic prayer or "Great Thanksgiving".
For the vast majority of Anglicans, the Eucharist (also called "Holy Communion", "Mass", the Divine Liturgy, the "Lord's Supper", or The Great Thanksgiving), is the central act of gathered worship, the appointed means by which Christ can become present to his church. For the majority of Anglicans this event constitutes the renewal of the Body of Christ as the Church through the reception of the Body of Christ as the Blessed Sacrament, his spiritual body and blood. In this sacrament, Christ is both encountered and incorporated (they "partake" of him). As such, the eucharistic action looks backward as a memorial of Christ's sacrifice, forward as a foretaste of the heavenly banquet and to the present as an incarnation of Christ in the lives of the community and of individual believers.
Anglican doctrine concerning the eucharist is contained in Article XXVIII – Of the Lord's Supper and XXIX – Of the Wicked which eat not the Body of Christ of the Thirty-Nine Articles. The Catechism of the Church of England, the foundational church of the Anglican Communion, is found in the Book of Common Prayer and states that, as with other sacraments, the eucharist is "an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace given unto us, ordained by Christ himself, as a means whereby we receive the same, and a pledge to assure us thereof". The outward sign, in this instance, is the bread and wine; and the thing signified is the body and blood of Christ.
Varieties of eucharistic theology
Because of the various theological movements which have influenced Anglicanism throughout history, there is no one sacramental theory accepted by all Anglicans. Early Anglican theologians, such as Thomas Cranmer and Richard Hooker, held to a sacramental theology similar to John Calvin. Cranmer's belief was substantially Calvinist, Receptionism and Virtualism, as shown by Peter Brooks in 1965. Hooker's was a more nuanced combination of Receptionism and Real Presence but agnostic as to what the elements were in themselves but insistent that "the sacrament is a true and a real participation of Christ, who thereby imparteth himself even in his whole entire Person as a Mystical Head". He brushes aside transubstantiation and consubstantiation and urges people to meditate in silence and less to dispute the manner 'how'. The views were congenial for centuries to the majority of Anglicans. The 19th-century Oxford Movement sought to give the Eucharist a more prominent place and upheld belief in the real presence of Christ in the sacrament. Anglicans now hold a variety of sacramental theologies, representing a spectrum of theories found in other Christian traditions.
Corporeal presence
Anglicans of Anglo-Catholic churchmanship, as well as some high-church Evangelicals, hold to a belief in the corporeal presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but maintain that the details of how Christ is made present remain a mystery of faith, a view also held by the Orthodox Church, Lutheran Church, and Methodist Church. Holding this view, "the Tractarians were concerned ... to exalt the importance of the sacrament", but were "generally hostile to the doctrine of transubstantiation". Article XXVIII of the Thirty-Nine Articles declares that "Transubstantiation ... cannot be proved by Holy Writ; but is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the nature of a Sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions." Edgar Gibson, the Bishop of Gloucester, who was Anglo-Catholic in churchmanship, defended the phrase "cannot be Proved by Holy Writ" in Article XXVIII, stating,
Pneumatic presence
Low-church Anglicans reject belief in a corporeal presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and accordingly, usually any belief in the reservation and adoration of the sacrament. Reservation was eliminated in practice by the rubric at the end of the 1662 Communion service which ordered the reverent consumption of any consecrated bread and wine immediately after the blessing, and adoration by the "Declaration concerning Kneeling". Instead, they hold to a "spiritual real presence" view of the Eucharist similar to the views held by Reformed Protestant denominations such as Presbyterians. Low-church parishes and ministers tend to celebrate the Eucharist less frequently (e.g., monthly) and prefer the terms "Holy Communion" or "Lord's Supper". This view has historical precedent. During the seminal years of the English Reformation, Thomas Cranmer was in correspondence with many continental Reformers, several of whom came to England at his request to aid in reforms there. They included Martin Bucer, Paul Fagius, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Bernardino Ochino and Jan Łaski. The views of these men were in line with the Reformed doctrine of the sacrament.
Cranmer wrote on the Eucharist in his treatise On the True and Catholic Doctrine of the Lord's Supper that Christians truly receive Christ's "self-same" Body and Blood at Communion – but in "an heavenly and spiritual manner" which is close to the Calvinistic doctrine.
This is in agreement with the continental Reformed view found in Chapter XXI of the Second Helvetic Confession:
This emphasis on the faith of the receiver instead of the elements, common to both the Continental Reformed churches and the Church of England, has also been called "receptionism". However, Christ's presence in the sacrament is objective and is in no way dependent on the attitude of the recipient who perceives it by faith.
Consubstantiation
The doctrine of consubstantiation, which originated out of the pre-Reformation Lollardy movement in England, is one with which some Anglicans identify. The 19th-century Anglo-Catholic divine Edward Bouverie Pusey (a leader of the Oxford Movement) argued strongly for the idea of consubstantiation. Discussing Pusey's view, Thomas S. L. Vogan wrote:
In this doctrine, the bread and wine do not disappear at the consecration, but the Body and Blood become present without diminishing them.
Although it originated with Lollardism, consubstantiation is erroneously said to be the doctrine of Martin Luther and the Lutheran churches, which actually reject consubstantiation and instead teach the doctrine of sacramental union.
A maxim in Anglicanism concerning Christ's presence is that "it may not be about a change of substance, but it is about a substantial change." If substantial denotes a spiritual property of the sacraments themselves this is the Reformed view, since, after consecration, the elements are only fit for holy use and may no longer be used as common bread and wine.
This view is expressed in the allied but metaphysically different doctrines of consubstantiation and sacramental union. Both views hold that Christ is present in the eucharistic elements spiritually. Such spiritual presence may or may not be believed to be in bodily form, depending on the particular doctrinal position. It may in fact be a mystical, yet still physical, Body of Christ, as some Anglicans hold, or a superphysical reality "superimposed" in, with, and under the bread and wine. Although this is similar to consubstantiation, it is different as it has a decidedly mystical emphasis.
Receptionism
An imprecisely defined view common amongst 16th- and 17th-century Anglican theologians is known as "receptionism", a term not found before 1867. According to this view, although the bread and wine remain unchanged, through the worthy reception of the sacrament the communicant receives the body and blood of Christ. It remained "the dominant theological position in the Church of England until the Oxford Movement in the early nineteenth century, with varying degrees of emphasis". It is important to remember that it is "a doctrine of the real presence" but one which "relates the presence primarily to the worthy receiver rather than to the elements of bread and wine".
Shape of the rite
As mentioned above, the liturgy for the Eucharist is important in Anglican eucharistic theology because of the principle of lex orandi, lex credendi. The liturgy is defined in the authorised prayer books of the various national churches and ecclesiastical provinces of the communion. The eucharistic rites follow one or other of two main sources, either the First English Prayer Book of 1549 or the Second of 1552 which, with minor modifications, became the 1662 Book BCP which is still today the official and legal reference-point for the Church of England. The author of both rites was Thomas Cranmer, who maintained that there was no theological difference between the two, but was forced to make its reformed theology more obvious when conservative clergy hostile to the English Reformation took advantage of loopholes in the 1549 prayer book to make the new liturgy as much like the old Latin Mass as possible, including elevating the Eucharist.
Some or all of the following elements may be altered, transposed, or absent depending on the rite used by the province or national church. In modern liturgies whichever source (1549 or 1552) they follow for the sacrament, the Liturgy of the Word has, with variations, a fairly standard pattern:
The Liturgy of the Word
The Gathering of the Community: Beginning with a Trinitarian-based greeting or seasonal acclamation; followed by the Collect for Purity; the Gloria in Excelsis Deo, Kyrie eleison, and/or Trisagion; and then the Collect of the day. During Lent and/or Advent especially, this part of the service may begin or end with a penitential rite.
The Proclamation of the Word: Usually two to three readings of Scripture, one of which is always from the Gospels, plus a psalm (or portion thereof) or canticle. This is followed by a sermon or homily; the recitation of the Apostles' or Nicene Creed;
The Prayers of the People: Very varied in form. The passing of the peace may be placed here.
The Liturgy of Sacrament (1549, Scottish Canon, recent prayer books)
The Celebration of the Eucharist: The gifts of bread and wine are received, along with other gifts (such as money and/or food for a food bank, etc.), and an offertory prayer is recited. Following this, a eucharistic prayer (called "The Great Thanksgiving") is recited. This prayer consists of a dialogue (the Sursum Corda), a preface, the sanctus and benedictus, the Words of Institution, the anamnesis, the oblation or presentation of the gifts to God in the sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving, the epiclesis or request that the Holy Spirit descend upon the gifts and sanctify them to be the Body and Blood of Jesus, an eschatological statement about the end time, doxology and congregational assent, Amen. The entire prayer is consecratory. The Lord's Prayer follows, and is followed by the fraction (the breaking of the bread), the Prayer of Humble Access, which is optional, the Agnus Dei, and the distribution of the sacred elements (the bread and wine). There is a post-Communion prayer. A doxology or general prayer of thanksgiving may follow. The service concludes with a Trinitarian blessing and the dismissal.
The Liturgy of Sacrament (1552–1662 style):
The priest prepares the table. Invitation to examine oneself, confession, absolution, "comfortable words". The Sursum Corda, preface, the sanctus, Prayer of Humble Access, Words of Institution. Then comes the distribution of the elements, the Lord's Prayer, concluding prayer of thanksgiving, the Gloria in Excelsis Deo and blessing.
The theology of these rites has been considerably modified in the last 200 years, with the reintroduction of oblationary language as pertaining to an objective, material sacrifice offered to God in union with Christ. The Prayer Books of 1552, 1559, 1604 and 1662 placed sacrificial language in a post-communion prayer in order to detach it from the context of the eucharistic prayer. A prime example of these modifications can be found in the American Book of Common Prayer introduced by the first American Episcopal bishop Samuel Seabury and adopted by the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1789. He insisted on the adoption of a full eucharistic prayer of the non-Juror Scottish Episcopal Church Rite to replace the truncated version of the earlier English rites beginning in 1552. The adopted prayer included the words, "with these thy holy gifts, which we now offer unto thee", which were inserted after the words from the 1549 Rite "we, thy humble servants, do celebrate and make before thy Divine Majesty, and before the words "the memorial thy Son hath commanded us to make" BCP (cf. these changes in the article on Samuel Seabury). An epiclesis was also restored. The insertion of these ten words in effect undid Cranmer's theology that the sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving was restricted to words and sentiments in prayer.
Church of England
Throughout the 20th century the Eucharist in the Church of England has undergone a number of significant changes, and in most churches the BCP is no longer used for many services. The Prayer Book (Alternative and Other Services) Measure of 1965 redefined where "lawful authority lay".
The Book of Common Prayer 1662
A new concept of alternative services that could be authorised for up to seven years. Further authorisation of seven years could be granted by General Synod.
Provision for making legal other services outside the range of Book of Common Prayer such as family services.
Under the new measure all services that the 1928 deposited prayer book that had been in use for nearly 40 years on the say so of individual bishops lost all legal authority. They would then have to authorised as alternate services. The Liturgical Commission would not assist in this process so it was left to the House of Bishops to edit a set of rites from 1928 and publish them. These were published in December 1965 as were later to be known as Series 1. At the same time the Liturgical Commission also produced and published texts in readiness for the new measures to come into force and these were known as Series 2. The eucharist in this series met with dissent in two key places: the use of 'offer' in relation to the bread and wine in the eucharistic prayer and the provision of prayers for the dead. It took until 1967 for General Synod to agree to a shape for the service. But in 1969 the whole of Series 2 was to disappear into obscurity following a dispute between the Houses of Laity and Clergy over the funeral service. At the same that Series 1 and 2 were going through General Synod there was a growing shift in the English speaking world away from the use of Tudor language in worship. Use of modern English and addressing God as you gave birth to a further version of the eucharist which would be called Series 3. The International Consultation on English Texts (ICET) produced some recommended common texts for English speaking Christians. Unlike Series 1 and 2 which had a shape based on the BCP the series 3 communion service followed the shape that many today would recognise. Its first presentation to General Synod in 1971 led to severe criticism but after some minor revisions it was approved the following year. Although the BCP remained the norm in many parishes a high proportion were being prepared for a new series of services where God was addressed as 'you' all the way throughout.
Alternative Service Book
The time limits introduced in 1966 hampered the usefulness of the new services. Many were produced in chap booklet forms. But the Church of England (Worship and Doctrine) Measure 1974 permitted General Synod to provide by canon the unlimited use of alternative services. In 1976 a working party was set up to bring all of the various series three booklets including that for the eucharist together into a single volume of reasonable This work was completed by the end of 1979 and the volume was authorised by synod the following year. Initially this was for 10 years but in 1990 this was extended for a further 10 years. The Alternative Service Book 1980 (ASB) had two communion services – Rite A and Rite B. Rite B was based on Series 1 in as far as it was based on the shape of the BCP service and was in traditional language. Rite A was based on the Series 3 communion service and the majority of the volume was written in contemporary language in recognition that English over the centuries since the BCP was produced had changed in meaning and usage. The order for Rite A is as follows:
The preparation: a greeting, the collect of purity and the penitential rite.
Kyrie Elesion or Gloria in Excelsis depending on the season.
Ministry of the Word: scriptural readings, a psalm (often not used), sermon and creed.
Prayers of intercession and an alternative place for the penitential rite if needed.
Sharing of The peace
Ministry of the Sacrament including the offertory and the use of one of four eucharistic prayers to consecrate the bread and wine. The shape of which were as outlined above including prayer 4 which was version of the BCP prayer in modern English.
The provision for the use of hymns and other sacred music
There was also an order of service for parishes who wished to have a service in modern English but still keep the shape of that found in the BCP. This prayer book proved to be successful with it being taken up by the majority of parishes with rite A being the most popular of the two. But work did not stop here. There was a distinctive language shift which included the use of inclusive language as outlined in the report Making Women Visible (1988) but which was only adopted when the revised text for Common Worship was compiled. Seasonal material was produced. Firstly in 1986 was Lent, Holy Week and Easter which was followed in 1992 by The Promise of His Glory which contained a series of material for use between All Saints and Candlemas.
Common Worship
Common Worship is the name given to the library of volumes that replaced the Alternative Service Book 1980. In 1994 the Liturgical Commission suggested to General Synod that it was better to produce a series of separate texts rather than to squeeze everything into one volume. This reflected the findings of the Faith in the City report published in 1985 which identified that to give people a volume of 1300 pages was a symptom of the gulf between church and ordinary people. Ease of handling was the aim of producing the new worship material. This was available in separate booklets, congregational cards, downloadable files and also part of Visual Liturgy Service composing programme. The main volumes for the eucharist are
Common Worship: Services and Prayers for the Church of England: The main or core volume from which congregational worship is drawn
Common Worship: President's Edition which is used from where the service is lead
Common Worship: Times and Seasons bringing together season material.
Parishes were able to draw upon the core material to produce user friendly booklets to match the season and their local situation. Within Common Worship as in the ASB there are two orders of service - Order 1 and Order 2. Order 1 is a gentle revision of Rite A found in the ASB. The shape of the service was on the whole kept unchanged but the compilers of Common Worship were able to draw upon experience of post-ASB seasonal material as well as changes to worship occurring in other denominations. Major changes to the text took place to ensure that inclusive language was used as well as giving a much wider choice of text. The rite was available in both modern and traditional language as was that in Order 2.
The shape of Order 1 is as follows:
Introduction
The people and the priest greet each other in the Lord's name
Confess their sins. This is the only place it can now happen
Gloria unless in the penitential seasons
Collect of the day
The Word
At least two readings including the Gospel
A sermon
The creed or some other profession of faith
Prayers of intercession
The Meal
Sharing of the peace
Receiving of offerings
Consecration of bread and wine
Receiving of communion
Ending departing with God's blessing
Order 2 has a more prayer book feel to the service.
Introduction
The people and priest prepare for worship by hearing and responding to the commandments
Pray a collect
The word
At least two readings
A sermon
A profession of faith
The Prayers
Prepare the table
Pray for the church and world
Confess their sins
The Meal
Praise God for his goodness
Consecrate the bread and wine
Receive communion
Respond with thanksgiving
Ending by departing with God's blessing
Each order can draw on one of eight communion prayers
Prayers A to C were drawn from those that had been in rite A of the ASB with some revisions
Prayer D is responsorial in nature and good for all age worship
Prayer E is the shortest and has some of the flavour of prayer A
Prayer F is responsorial and has its origins in the Eastern Christian tradition
Prayer G is a redraft of a prayer produced by the Roman Catholic Church
Prayer H is a dialogue between the priest and the people which ends with sanctus as an offering of praise
However, Common Worship does not end there as the material that is now available for the eucharist is considerable. It includes
Two versions of the summary of the law
Two versions of the commandments
The Beatitudes
Two versions of the comfortable words
Four invitations to Confession
Six Confessions
Two Absolution
Seven Gospel Acclamations
Four prayers after communion
Seven authorised affirmations of faith as well as the Nicene and Apostles' Creed
Fifteen sets of seasonal provisions
This allows churches to have a lot more variety within their worship as well as to mark the seasons in a meaningful way. The most common way of presenting the material is through service booklets to make it user friendly rather than presenting the whole volume.
Customary of the rite
The rubrics of a given prayer book outline the parameters of acceptable practice with regard to ritual, vestments, ornaments and method and means of distribution of the sacrament. The communal piety of a given parish or diocese will determine the expression of these rubrics and the implicit eucharist theology.
Until the latter part of the 19th century, the so-called "Ornaments Rubric" of the 1662 Prayer Book was interpreted to inhibit much of the ceremonial contemporary Anglicans take for granted. Priests were directed to stand at the north side or north end of the communion table and candles on the communion table were considered forbidden, as was the wearing of a chasuble or maniple. The Ritualist controversies of the late 19th century solidified the ascendancy of the Oxford Movement in the United Kingdom and many other parts of the Anglican Communion, re-introducing a much greater diversity of practice.
Low church
In low-church parishes ceremonial is generally kept at a minimum, according to the rubrics of historical Anglican prayer books. The service is more often termed 'Holy Communion' than 'The Eucharist'. The priest is typically attired simply in a cassock, surplice, and a black scarf (called a tippet). This is a priest's "choir habit" as worn at a service of the word, but may also be worn as eucharistic vestments as was commonly done in earlier years. In some provinces, as boundaries become blurred, identifying low-church tradition by vesture alone is becoming more difficult. Many parishes that have a more charismatic flavour have generally abandoned the use of robes at most of their services, and their services are similar to that found in Pentecostal churches. However, even this is not universal and will depend on parish tradition, with some being vested for special occasions and the eucharist if it is celebrated less frequently, or if it is part of confirmation. In some low-church parishes the minister may replace the black preaching scarf with a stole reflecting the colour of the season.
Manual action is kept to the standards of the rubrics found in the Book of Common Prayer (often confined to placing one's hands on the elements during the words of institution). The altar is referred to as the "Lord's table", the "holy table", or simply the "table". Candles are either absent or two in number. The material on the table may be limited to the chalice and paten, a cloth covering and, in some instances, the prayer book. The celebration of Holy Communion may be weekly or monthly. This frequency is in keeping with the Anglican practice that predominated prior to the 20th century. After the service, and following historical rubrics, the unconsumed bread and wine are reverently eaten by the priest and other ministers. If there is more than the clergy can finish, lay persons are called to help eat the remaining elements. In accordance with the Articles of Religion, the remaining bread and wine are not reserved in a tabernacle or aumbry. In some parishes, the president stands at the north-side of the holy table to read the service, in accordance with some interpretations of the rubrics of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer.
Broad church / central churchmanship
In most broad-church parishes there is slightly more elaboration. Attending the eucharist at a broad-church parish nowadays is likely to be similar in many respects to a contemporary Roman Catholic Mass. Priests will generally be vested in an alb and stole and also, in many instances, a chasuble. They may make use of a lavabo in preparation for the celebration, and the chalice and paten may be initially concealed by a burse and ornamental veil. Candles will almost always be present on the altar. Broad-church Anglicans typically celebrate the eucharist every Sunday, or at least most Sundays. The rite may also be celebrated once or twice at other times during the week. The sacrament is often reserved in an aumbry or consumed. Broad-church Anglicans may not reverence the sacrament, as such, but will frequently bow when passing the altar.
Anglo-Catholic
Anglo-Catholic worship involves further elaboration. The priest will often be joined by a deacon and often a reader (the deacon being ordained in Holy Orders). A Reader is a lay person authorised to lead worship and preach, who will also be found in low-church and broad-church traditions as well. The former will be dressed in the historic eucharistic vestments specific to their office (chasuble, dalmatic and tunicle, respectively). They will sometimes wear maniples and ornamented amices. The Reader will always wear cassock, surplice and blue scarf as laid down by canon. In many churches the altar will be fixed against the "east wall" and the sacred ministers will celebrate Mass facing the tabernacle (often surmounted by a crucifix) above the altar, i.e., the sacred ministers and the congregation will all be facing the same direction. Apart from the tabernacle (containing the reserved sacrament) the altar is often adorned with six candles. Incense and sanctus bells are often used during the liturgy and the eucharist itself is often supplemented by a number of prayers from earlier liturgies prayed by the priest, sacred ministers, and servers and sometimes the people as well.
Anglo-Catholic eucharistic theology places an emphasis on frequent communion, ideally daily. The unconsumed elements are typically reserved in a tabernacle or aumbry safe, either attached to a fixed altar or placed behind or to one side of a free-standing altar. Reserved sacrament is often used when visiting the sick or housebound, as well as in ministry to the dying. When the sacrament is present, Anglo-Catholics will often genuflect when passing in front of it. When absent they will bow to the altar. Often an aumbry is dignified in the same way. Many Anglo-Catholics practice eucharistic adoration and Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, either informally or through a corporate liturgical rite.
Administration
While the matter is always bread and wine, there is some variation. The bread may be in the form of individual wafers or an actual loaf from which pieces are torn off and distributed. Wine is typically red, but may be white. In some instances, fortified wine, such as sherry or port wine, is used. In still others, the option of juice is offered, usually in consideration of recipients who may be alcoholic (although it is considered acceptable and valid to receive the sacrament in only in one kind, i.e., the bread, pace the rubrics of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer).
The manner of administration varies. Many Anglican parishes retain the use of an altar rail, separating the area around the altar from the rest of the church. This practice is meant to convey the sanctity associated with the altar. In such churches, those who wish to receive communion will come forward and kneel at the altar rail, sometimes making the sign of the cross and cupping their hands (right over left) to receive the bread, then crossing themselves again to receive the chalice. Anglo-Catholics are often careful not to chew the bread (hence the overwhelming use of wafers in these parishes) or touch the chalice. Some prefer to have the bread placed directly on their tongue. In other parishes recipients stand before the administrators to receive Communion, while in still others participants may pass the sacrament from one to the next, often standing in a circle around the altar. The practice of using individual cups and handing out individual wafers or pieces of bread to be consumed simultaneously by the whole congregation is extremely uncommon in Anglicanism, but not unheard of.
Anglican practice is that those who administer the sacrament must be licensed by the diocesan bishop. Traditionally, priests and deacons were the only ministers authorised to administer; however, many provinces now permit the licensing of lay administrants.
The question of who may receive communion likewise varies. In historic Anglican practice, the altar was "fenced" from those whose manner of living was considered to be unrepentantly sinful. As parishes grew and the private lives of individuals became less accessible to public knowledge, this practice receded — although priests will, on occasion, refuse to admit to communion those whom they know to be actively engaged in notoriously sinful behaviour, such as criminal activity. Most Anglican provinces keep an "open table", meaning that all baptised Christians are welcome to receive communion. In many others, access to the sacrament is reserved for those who have been both baptised and confirmed, either in the Anglican or another tradition. Those who are ineligible or do not wish to receive are frequently encouraged to come forward and cross their arms to form a sign of the cross to indicate that they wish to receive a blessing.
Reservation, consumption, disposal
A rubric following the Order of Holy Communion in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer instructs that any remaining bread and wine should be consumed as soon as the service concludes:
In American Prayer Books (until 1979), the rubric read thus:
Article XXVIII of the Articles of Religion states that, "The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped." Edgar Gibson, the Bishop of Gloucester explains this article, writing that "The statement in the Article is worded with the utmost care, and with studied moderation. It cannot be said that any one of the practices is condemned or prohibited by it. It only amounts to this: that none of them can claim to be part of the original Divine institution." The Anglican priest Jonathan A. Mitchican rehashes this view, stating that Article XXVIII does not forbid the practice of reservation, but notes that it does not have an origin in Sacred Scripture.
As such, today, only a minority of Anglican dioceses do not authorize their individual churches to reserve the sacrament between services. In these churches, reverent consumption or disposal is often practiced. When disposed, the elements may be finely broken/poured over the earth or placed down a "piscina" in the sacristy, a sink with a pipe that leads underground to a pit or into the earth. What is done with the remaining elements is often reflective of churchmanship.
Where reservation is permissible parishes will place the sacrament (along with holy oils) in an aumbry - a cupboard inserted in the wall of the chancel. As mentioned above, Anglo-Catholic parishes believing in the corporeal presence of the blessed sacrament make use of a tabernacle or hanging pyx, with which is associated various acts of reverence and adoration.
Ecumenical developments
In 1910, Raphael of Brooklyn, an Eastern Orthodox bishop, "sanctioned an interchange of ministrations with the Episcopalians in places where members of one or the other communion are without clergy of their own". Raphael stated that in places "where there is no resident Orthodox Priest", an Anglican priest could administer Marriage, Holy Baptism, and the Blessed Sacrament to an Orthodox layperson. In 1912, however, Raphael ended the intercommunion after becoming uncomfortable with the fact that the Anglican Communion contained different churchmanships within it, e.g. high church, Evangelical, etc.
Representatives of the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches have declared that they have reached "substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist" in the Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine developed by the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission, as well as the commission's Elucidation of the ARCIC Windsor Statement. In 1994, the Anglican–Roman Catholic Consultation in the United States of America released Five Affirmations on the Eucharist as Sacrifice, which stated
This amounts to an acceptance of the doctrine, with an expression of a reservation about the use of the name of the doctrine in English because the word is misunderstood by English speakers.
See also
Christian Liturgy
Black Rubric
Transignification
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Anglican Eucharistic Theology website
Eucharistic Adoration
Eucharistic theology, Anglican
Eucharistic theology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlovian%20theory%20of%20Shakespeare%20authorship
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Marlovian theory of Shakespeare authorship
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The Marlovian theory of Shakespeare authorship holds that the Elizabethan poet and playwright Christopher Marlowe was the main author of the poems and plays attributed to William Shakespeare. Further, the theory says Marlowe did not die in Deptford on 30 May 1593, as the historical records state, but that his death was faked.
Marlovians (as those who subscribe to the theory are usually called) base their argument on supposed anomalies surrounding Marlowe's reported death and on the significant influence which, according to most scholars, Marlowe's works had on those of Shakespeare. They also point out the coincidence that, despite their having been born only two months apart, the first time the name William Shakespeare is known to have been connected with any literary work was with the publication of Venus and Adonis just a week or two after the death of Marlowe.
The argument against this is that Marlowe's death was accepted as genuine by sixteen jurors at an inquest held by the Queen's personal coroner, that everyone apparently thought that he was dead at the time, and that there is a complete lack of direct evidence supporting his survival beyond 1593. While there are similarities between their works, Marlowe's style, vocabulary, imagery, and his apparent weaknesses—particularly in the writing of comedy—are said to be too different from Shakespeare's to be compatible with the claims of the Marlovians. The convergence of documentary evidence of the type used by academics for authorial attribution—title pages, testimony by other contemporary poets and historians, and official records—sufficiently establishes Shakespeare of Stratford's authorship for the overwhelming majority of Shakespeare scholars and literary historians, who consider the Marlovian theory, like all other alternative theories of Shakespeare authorship, a fringe theory.
Proponents
In August 1819 an anonymous writer for The Monthly Review, or Literary Journal suggested that 'Christopher Marlowe' might be a pseudonym assumed for a time by Shakespeare, and this idea was developed further in the same journal in September 1820, noting how Shakespeare "disappears from all biographical research just at the moment when Marlowe first comes on the stage; and who re-appears in his proper name" shortly after the first reports of Marlowe's death. In other words, they argued, just one person was the main author of both the Marlowe and Shakespeare canons.
Marlowe's candidacy was initially suggested by Thomas William White, M.A., in the 1892 book Our English Homer; Or, Shakespeare Historically Considered, as a member of a group of authors. The first person to propose that the works of Shakespeare were primarily by Marlowe was Wilbur G. Zeigler, who presented a case for it in the preface to his 1895 novel, It was Marlowe: a story of the secret of three centuries, which creates an imaginary narrative about how the deception might have occurred. On the tercentenary of Shakespeare's death, in 1916, the Pulitzer prize-winning editor of Louisville's Courier-Journal, Henry Watterson, supported the Marlovian theory also by using a fictional account of how it might have happened. The first essay solely on the subject was written by Archie Webster in 1923. All three were published before Leslie Hotson's discovery in 1925 of the inquest on Marlowe's death, but since then there have nevertheless been several other books supporting the idea, with perhaps the two most influential being those by Calvin Hoffman (1955) and A.D. Wraight (1994). Hoffman's main argument centred on similarities between the styles of the two writers, particularly in the use of similar wordings or ideas—called "parallelisms". Wraight, following Webster, delved more into what she saw as the true meaning of Shakespeare's sonnets.
To their contributions should perhaps also be added that of Michael Rubbo, an Australian documentary film maker who, in 2001, made the TV film Much Ado About Something in which the Marlovian theory was explored in some detail, and the creation in 2009 of the International Marlowe-Shakespeare Society which has continued to draw the theory to the public's attention.
Marlowe's death
As far as is generally accepted by mainstream scholars, Christopher Marlowe died on 30 May 1593 as the result of a knife wound above the right eye inflicted upon him by Ingram Frizer, an acquaintance with whom he had been dining. Together with two other men, Robert Poley and Nicholas Skeres, they had spent that day together at the Deptford home of Eleanor Bull, a respectable widow who apparently offered, for payment, room and refreshment for such private meetings.
As new information has become available over the years, however, the Marlovian argument about Marlowe's death has itself changed from (1) thinking that because, in their view, he later wrote under the name of Shakespeare, his death must have been faked; to (2) challenging the details of the inquest in an attempt to show that it must have been untrue; to (3) claiming that the circumstances surrounding it suggest that the faking is the most likely scenario, whether he went on to write Shakespeare or not.
The inquest
On 1 June, two days after the reported killing, the inquest was held in the same house by the Coroner of The Queen's Household, William Danby, and a 16-man jury found it to have been in self-defence. The body of this "famous gracer of tragedians", as Robert Greene had called him, is recorded as being buried the same day in the churchyard of St. Nicholas, Deptford, but the exact location of his grave is unknown. The Queen sanctioned Frizer's pardon just four weeks later.
Most scholars would now agree that the official verdict of the inquest was to some extent untrue, concluding that Marlowe's stabbing was not done in self-defence, as claimed by the witnesses, but was a deliberate murder. Of those books or articles written about—or including an explanation of—Marlowe's death over the past twenty years or so, most of the authors believe that the witnesses were probably lying. Usually they suggest that it was a political murder, citing the fact that the two witnesses, Robert Poley and Nicholas Skeres, were or had been agents in the pay of members of the government. Some commentators have found details of the killing itself unconvincing.
There is, however, hardly any agreement as to exactly why such a murder occurred or who was behind it. Marlovians say that this confusion arises from scholars asking the wrong question. Instead of trying to find out why he was killed, they should be asking why those particular people would have met at that particular place on that particular day. The Marlovian theory argues that the most logical reason for that meeting to have taken place would have been to fake his death.
Means, motive and opportunity
It is generally accepted that Marlowe had been employed in some capacity as a secret agent, either by the late Sir Francis Walsingham or by the Cecils (Lord Burghley and his son Sir Robert Cecil), or both. He could therefore, theoretically at least, call on powerful friends, with all of the means at their disposal to organize a faked death.
He was also in deep trouble at the time. Accusations of his having persuaded others to atheism were coming to the Privy Council thick and fast and, whether true or not, he was certainly suspected of having written an atheistic book which was being used for subversive purposes. For such crimes, trial and execution would have been almost guaranteed. Within the past two months, at least three people, Henry Barrow, John Greenwood and John Penry, had gone to the scaffold for offences no worse than this. Marlovians therefore contend that Marlowe would have had a strong motive for either being complicit in or agreeing to some means of escape.
Most biographers concede that those accusations concerning Marlowe contained in various documents sent to the Privy Council at the time were very serious. It is therefore surprising that, despite the initial summons for his arrest being on 18 May, he was apparently still at liberty on 30 May to attend the Deptford meeting. Whatever the reason for this, it would have certainly given the opportunity for a faked death to be organized and carried out, if the Marlovians are right in claiming that this is what happened.
The witnesses
Marlovians suggest it is significant that every person involved in the incident seems to have been associated in one way or another either with his friend and patron Thomas Walsingham (Frizer and Skeres) or with his employers the Cecils (Poley, Bull and Danby). They point to the lengthy period (10 hours) in which the four men remained together at Eleanor Bull's house that day, and suggest this seems unnecessary if the intent had been simply to dispose of Marlowe. The most likely reason for the get-together, they say, would have been to save him in some way from the peril facing him. They claim that the faking of his death fits more of the facts as known than any other scenario.
The coroner
Support for the possible involvement of people in high places (whether it was to have Marlowe assassinated or to fake his death) has recently come to light with the discovery that the inquest was probably illegal. The inquest should have been supervised and enrolled by the local County Coroner, with the Queen's Coroner being brought in by him only if he happened to know that it was within 12 (Tudor) miles of where the Queen was in residence (i.e. that it was "within the verge") and, if so, for it to be run by both of them jointly. Marlovians argue that therefore the only way for Danby to have finished up doing it on his own—given that it was only just within the verge, the Court in fact some 16 of today's statute miles away by road—would be because he knew about the killing before it actually occurred, and just "happened" to be there to take charge. If there was a deception, they say, Danby must have been involved in it and thus almost certainly with the tacit approval of the Queen. This does, of course, give as much support to David Riggs's theory that the Queen ordered Marlowe's death as it does to the faked death theory.
The body
Marlovians argue that if Frizer, Poley and Skeres could lie about what happened, they could just as easily have been lying about the identity of the corpse itself. In other words, that although they claimed it was Marlowe's—and as far as we know they were the only ones there in a position to identify him—it was in fact someone else's body that the jury was called upon to examine.
If a death is to be faked, however, a substitute body has to be found, and it was David A. More who first identified for Marlovians a far more likely "victim" than had been suggested earlier. On the evening before their 10 a.m. meeting at Deptford, at a most unusual time for a hanging, John Penry, about a year older than Marlowe, was hanged (for writing subversive literature) just two miles from Deptford, and there is no record of what happened to the body. Also of possible relevance is that the same William Danby would have been responsible for authorizing exactly what was to happen to Penry's corpse. Those who reject the theory claim that there would have been far too many obvious signs that the corpse had been hanged for it to have been used in this way, although Marlovians say that Danby, being solely in charge, would have been able quite easily to ensure that such evidence remained hidden from the jury.
However, this remains a fringe view within academia. In his Shakespeare and Co., referring to the documentation concerning Marlowe's death, Stanley Wells reflects the view of virtually all scholars that Marlowe did die then when he wrote: "The unimpugnable documentary evidence deriving from legal documents ... makes this one of the best recorded episodes in English literary history" and "Even before these papers turned up there was ample evidence that Marlowe died a violent death in Deptford in 1593."
Marlowe and Shakespeare
The "Shakespeare" argument
The mainstream or Stratfordian view is that the author known as "Shakespeare" was the same William Shakespeare who was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564, moved to London and became an actor, and "sharer" (part-owner) of the acting company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, which owned the Globe Theatre and the Blackfriars Theatre. In contrast, Marlovians argue that this William Shakespeare was only a "front" for the real author, and that any evidence supporting him as the true author can be just as easily explained by this version of events.
A central plank in the Marlovian theory is that the first clear association of William Shakespeare with the works bearing his name was just 13 days after Marlowe's supposed death. Shakespeare's first published work, Venus and Adonis, was registered with the Stationers' Company on 18 April 1593, with no named author, and appears to have been on sale—now with his name included—by 12 June, when a copy is first known to have been bought.
Their argument remains highly contentious and no mainstream scholar of Shakespeare's life and work currently accepts it. Stanley Wells summarizes the reasons why Shakespearean scholars in general utterly reject any such idea: "All of this [documentary evidence of his death] compounds the initial and inherent ludicrousness of the idea that he went on to write the works of William Shakespeare while leaving not the slightest sign of his continuing existence for at least twenty years. During this period he is alleged to have produced a string of masterpieces which must be added to those he had already written, which no one in the busy and gossipy world of the theatre knew to be his, and for which he was willing to allow his Stratford contemporary to receive all the credit and to reap all the rewards."
Internal evidence
Style
As discussed above, this is a much-disputed area. Much has been made—particularly by Calvin Hoffman—of so-called "parallelisms" between the two authors. For example, when Marlowe's "Jew of Malta", Barabas, sees Abigail on a balcony above him, he says But stay! What star shines yonder in the east? The lodestar of my life, if Abigail! Most people would immediately recognize how similar this is to Romeo's famous But soft! What light through yonder window breaks?It is the East, and Juliet is the sun! when she appears on the balcony above. There are many such examples, but the problem with using them as an argument is that it really is not possible to be sure whether they happened because they were by the same author, or because they were—whether consciously or unconsciously—simply copied by Shakespeare from Marlowe. It is worth noting, however, that Marlowe is the only contemporary dramatist from whom Shakespeare appears to 'copy' so much, and that the influence Marlowe had on Shakespeare is universally acknowledged.
With stylometric approaches it is possible to identify certain characteristics which are very typical of Shakespeare, such as the use of particular poetic techniques or the frequency with which various common words are used, and these have been used to argue that Marlowe could not have written Shakespeare's works. In every case so far where these data have been plotted over time, however, Marlowe's corpus has been found to fit just where Shakespeare's would have been, had he written anything before the early 1590s as all of Marlowe's were. On the other hand, whereas stylometry might be useful in discerning where two sets of work are not by the same person, it can be used with less confidence to show that they are. This was something that T.C. Mendenhall, whose work some Marlovians have nevertheless thought proves their theory, was at pains to point out.
As for the less quantifiable differences—mainly to do with the content, and of which there are quite a lot—Marlovians suggest that they are quite predictable, given that under their scenario Marlowe would have undergone a significant transformation of his life—with new locations, new experiences, new learning, new interests, new friends and acquaintances, possibly a new political agenda, new paymasters, new performance spaces, new actors, and maybe (not all agree on this) a new collaborator, Shakespeare himself.
Shakespeare's Sonnets
The current preference among Shakespearean scholars is to deny that the Sonnets are autobiographical. Marlovians say that this is because—other than the references to his name "Will" and a possible pun on "Hathaway"—there is no connection between what is said in the Sonnets and anything that is known about Shakespeare's life. In contrast, assuming that Marlowe did survive and was exiled in disgrace, Marlovians claim that the Sonnets reflect what must have happened to him after that.
In Sonnet 25, for instance, a Marlovian interpretation would note that something unforeseen ("unlooked for") has happened to the poet, which will deny him the chance to boast of "public honour and proud titles", and which seems to have led to some enforced travel far away, possibly even overseas (26–28, 34, 50–51, 61). They would note that this going away seems to be a one-off event (48), and whatever it was, it is clearly also associated with his being "in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes", his "outcast state" (29), and his "blots" and "bewailed guilt" (36). The poet also says that he has been "made lame by fortune's dearest spite" (37). Each one of these segments, along with many other throughout the Sonnets, might be seen by a Marlovian as reflecting some aspect of Marlowe's alleged faked death and subsequent life.
Marlovians also claim that their interpretation allows more of Shakespeare's actual words to be interpreted as meaning literally what they say than is otherwise possible. For example, they can take "a wretch's knife" (74) to mean a wretch's knife, rather than assume that he must have really meant Old Father Time's scythe, take an "outcast state" (29) to mean an outcast state, not just a feeling that nobody likes him, and accept that when he says his "name receives a brand" (111) it means that his reputation has been permanently damaged, and not simply that acting is considered a somewhat disreputable profession. Jonathan Bate nevertheless gives reasons for Shakespeare scholars claiming that "Elizabethans did not write coded autobiography".
Clues in the plays
Faked (or wrongly presumed) death, disgrace, banishment, and changed identity are of course major ingredients in Shakespeare's plays, and Stephen Greenblatt puts it fairly clearly: "Again and again in his plays, an unforeseen catastrophe...suddenly turns what had seemed like happy progress, prosperity, smooth sailing into disaster, terror, and loss. The loss is obviously and immediately material, but it is also, and more crushingly, a loss of identity. To wind up on an unknown shore, without one’s friends, habitual associates, familiar network—this catastrophe is often epitomized by the deliberate alteration or disappearance of the name and, with it, the alteration or disappearance of social status."
Whilst noting the obvious relevance of this to their own proposed scenario Marlovians do not seek multiple parallels between Marlowe's known or predicted life and these stories, believing that the plays are so rich in plot devices that such parallels can be found with numerous individuals. On the other hand, there are some places where they point out how difficult it is to know just why something was included if it were not some sort of in-joke for those who were privy to something unknown to most of us.
For example, when in The Merry Wives of Windsor (3.1) Evans is singing Marlowe's famous song "Come live with me..." to keep his spirits up, why does he mix it up with words based upon Psalm 137 "By the rivers of Babylon...", perhaps the best known song of exile ever written?
And in As You Like It (3.3), Touchstone's words "When a man's verses cannot be understood, nor a man's good wit seconded with the forward child, understanding, it strikes a man more dead than a great reckoning in a little room", apparently referring to Marlowe's death, are puzzled over by many of Shakespeare's biographers. As Agnes Latham puts it, "nobody explains why Shakespeare should think that Marlowe's death by violence was material for a stage jester."
External evidence
The main case against the 'faked death' theory is that, whilst there is evidence for Marlowe's death, there is no equally unequivocal counter-evidence that he survived, or did anything more than exert a considerable influence on Shakespeare. So far the only external evidence offered has been in the form of claiming that someone who was alive after 1593 must have been Marlowe, or finding concealed messages on Shakespeare's grave, etc.
Identity after 1593
Various people have been suggested as having really been the Christopher Marlowe who was supposed to have died in 1593. Some examples are a Hugh Sanford, who was based with the Earl of Pembroke at Wilton House in Wiltshire and a Christopher Marlowe (alias John Matthews, or vice versa) who surfaced in Valladolid in 1602, and a Monsieur Le Doux, a spy for Essex, but working as a "French tutor" in Rutland in 1595. Henry Watterson's almost certainly fictional account of an Englishman called Marlowe who died in Padua in 1627 has nevertheless triggered research by some Marlovians among the Paduan archives, without finding any confirmation so far. And if Don Foster's hypothesis is correct that the "begetter" of the Sonnets may have meant the poet himself, then Marlovians would point out that "Mr. W.H." might not have been a misprint, as Foster suggests, but merely showed that the identity being used by Marlowe in 1609 (including the name "Will"?) most probably had those initials too.
Hidden messages
Many anti-Stratfordians search for hidden messages in the form of acrostics and transposition ciphers, although this approach is not so popular with Marlovians.
Peter Bull nevertheless claims to have found such a hidden message deeply concealed in the Sonnets, and at least two Marlovians—William Honey and Roberta Ballantine—have taken the famous four-line "curse" on Shakespeare's grave to be an anagram, however coming up with different messages. Anagrams as such are useful for conveying hidden messages, including claims of priority and authorship, having been used in this way, for example, by Galileo and Huygens; however, given the number of possible answers, they are really of use only if there can be some confirmation from the originator that this was the answer intended.
Another method for finding hidden messages lies in interpreting passages that could be construed as ambiguous, since a favourite technique of the poet/dramatists of the time was irony, the double meaning or double entendre. For example, orthodox scholars often cite the poems in the First Folio as evidence for Shakespeare, such as Jonson's introductory poem describing the engraved portrait as having "hit his face" well, his eulogy that calls Shakespeare "sweet Swan of Avon", and Digges's line that refers to when "Time dissolves thy Stratford monument". Yet Marlovians say that those can each be interpreted in quite different ways. The "face", according to the Oxford English Dictionary (10.a) could mean an "outward show; assumed or factitious appearance; disguise, pretence". When Jonson writes of "Swan of Avon", we may choose to take it as meaning the Avon that runs through Stratford, or we may think of Daniel's Delia, addressed to the mother of the First Folio's two dedicatees, in which he refers to the Avon in Wiltshire where they all lived:But Avon rich in fame, though poor in waters,Shall have my song, where Delia hath her seat. And, when Digges writes "And Time dissolves thy Stratford monument", one Marlovian argument says that it is quite reasonable to assume that he is really saying that Time will eventually "solve, resolve or explain" it (O.E.D. 12), which becomes very relevant when we see thatwhether the author intended it or notthe whole poem on Shakespeare's monument ("Stay Passenger...") may be re-interpreted as inviting us to solve a puzzle revealing who is "in" the monument "with" Shakespeare. The apparent answer turns out to be "Christofer Marley"as Marlowe is known to have spelt his own namewho, the poem would then say, with Shakespeare's death no longer has a "page" to dish up his wit.
The Hoffman Prize
Calvin Hoffman, author of The Man Who Was Shakespeare (1955), died in 1988, still absolutely convinced that Marlowe was the true author of Shakespeare's works. Anxious that the theory should not die with him, he left a substantial sum of money with the King's School, Canterbury—where Marlowe went as a boy—for them to administer an annual essay competition on this subject. The Trust Deed stipulated that the winning essay should be the one:...which in the opinion of the King's School most convincingly authoritatively and informatively examines and discusses in depth the life and works of Christopher Marlowe and the authorship of the plays and poems now commonly attributed to William Shakespeare with particular regard to the possibility that Christopher Marlowe wrote some or all of those poems and plays or made some inspirational creative or compositional contributions towards the authorship of them. (Emphasis added)The adjudication of the prize, which as of 2019 was around nine thousand pounds (UK), has always been delegated to an eminent professional Shakespearean scholar and, despite Hoffman's clear intentions, the winning essay has seldom espoused the Marlovian cause, the prize having usually gone to essays along entirely orthodox lines.
A further stipulation of the initial Trust Deed was that:If in any year the person adjudged to have won the Prize has in the opinion of The King's School furnished irrefutable and incontrovertible proof and evidence required to satisfy the world of Shakespearian scholarship that all the plays and poems now commonly attributed to William Shakespeare were in fact written by Christopher Marlowe then the amount of the Prize for that year shall be increased by assigning to the winner absolutely one half of the capital or corpus of the entire Trust Fund...
In fiction
Apart from the stories by Zeigler and Watterson, others have used Marlovian theory as an inspiration for fiction as well. Rodney Bolt's History Play (2005) was inspired partly by Mark Twain's writings. It portrays Marlowe as being the true author of Shakespeare's works after staging his own death.
In The Marlowe Papers (published in 2012), a novel by Ros Barber, Marlowe's "death" is a ruse, and he writes plays under the Shakespeare name. The novel is written in blank verse and won the Hoffman Prize in 2011 and the Desmond Elliott Prize in 2013.
In the 2012 movie Only Lovers Left Alive, Marlowe is portrayed as a vampire who mentions he wrote Hamlet, and wishes he based the character on his son-in-law instead.
Ben Elton's 2016 sitcom Upstart Crow inverts the Marlovian theory. In the series, Shakespeare is persuaded to write plays for Marlowe (including Doctor Faustus, Tamburlaine and The Jew of Malta) in order to maintain Marlowe's cover as a playwright.
Notes
References
Further reading
'Marlovian' publications – in chronological order
External links
The International Marlowe-Shakespeare Society. ("Our Belief is that Christopher Marlowe – in his day England's greatest playwright – did not die in 1593 but survived to write most of what is now assumed to be the work of William Shakespeare.")
The Marlowe-Shakespeare Connection (a Marlovian blog/website, started in May 2008, with regular contributions from leading Marlovians.)
Peter Farey's Marlowe Page. (archived)
Cynthia Morgan's The Marlowe Studies: An online library of books by noted Marlovians
The Marlowe Society. (Although not officially endorsing the theory, they do not reject it either, and have several items related to it on their website.)
Shakespeare authorship
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Murphy
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Chris Murphy
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Christopher Scott Murphy (born August 3, 1973) is an American lawyer, author, and politician serving as the junior United States senator from Connecticut since 2013. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served in the United States House of Representatives, representing from 2007 to 2013. Before being elected to Congress, Murphy was a member of both chambers of the Connecticut General Assembly, serving two terms each in the Connecticut House of Representatives (1999–2003) and the Connecticut Senate (2003–2007).
Murphy ran for the U.S. Senate in 2012 after long-time incumbent Joe Lieberman announced in January 2011 that he would retire from politics rather than seeking a fifth term in office. He defeated former Connecticut secretary of state Susan Bysiewicz in the Democratic primary, and subsequently defeated Republican candidate Linda McMahon for the open seat in the general election. Aged 39 at the time, Murphy was the youngest senator of the 113th Congress.
Early life, education, and early career
Murphy was born on August 3, 1973, in White Plains, New York, to Catherine A. (née Lewczyk) and Scott L. Murphy. He is of Irish and Polish descent. Murphy's father is a corporate lawyer who served as the managing partner of Shipman & Goodwin, a Hartford law firm, and his mother is a retired ESL teacher from the Hanmer Elementary School in Wethersfield, Connecticut. Murphy has two younger siblings, a sister, Susannah, and a brother, Ben.
Murphy is a graduate of Wethersfield High School. He received his B.A. degree from his father's alma mater, Williams College, and his J.D. degree from the University of Connecticut School of Law. As an undergraduate exchange student, Murphy also studied at the University of Oxford, where he was a member of Exeter College. On May 19, 2013, Murphy received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from the University of New Haven.
In 1996, Murphy was campaign manager for Charlotte Koskoff's unsuccessful campaign for the House against Nancy Johnson; a decade later, Murphy himself would unseat Johnson. From 1997 to 1998, Murphy worked for Connecticut State Senate Majority Leader George Jepsen. Murphy was first elected to office in 1997, when he won a seat on the Planning and Zoning Commission in Southington.
Connecticut legislature
House of Representatives
Elections
In 1998, at age 25, Murphy challenged 14-year incumbent Republican State Representative Angelo Fusco. Murphy was endorsed by the six largest labor unions in the state. The CT Employees Independent Union endorsed Murphy, the first time the union endorsed Fusco's opponent. Fusco described himself as a union member, an environmentalist, and a moderate. Murphy defeated Fusco 55%-45%. In 2000, he won re-election to a second term, defeating Barbara Morelli 68%-32%.
Tenure
As early as March 1999, he criticized U.S. Congresswoman Nancy Johnson's vote for impeaching President Bill Clinton. In 2001, he was a co-sponsor of a bill to eliminate child poverty. He proposed legislation that would give free tuition to students of the state's community-technical colleges. He proposed legislation that would ban smoking in state colleges and universities. He co-sponsored a bill that would create an earned income tax credit.
He was a supporter of rights for LGBT people as early as 2002. During his tenure, he served on the Judiciary Committee.
Senate
Elections
After two terms in the Connecticut House, Murphy decided to run for a seat in the Connecticut State Senate at the age of 29. The open 16th district had been held by a Republican for more than a decade. He defeated Republican State Representative Ann Dandrow, 53%-47%. In 2004, he won re-election to a second term, defeating Republican Christopher O'Brien, 60%-37%.
Tenure
In 2003, he joined the Clean Car Alliance and supported California-like environmental standards on auto manufacturers.
In 2004, Murphy supported a bill that would ban smoking in all restaurants and bars.
In 2005, Murphy authored legislation establishing the new Office of Child Protection, to "better coordinate advocacy for abused and neglected children". Murphy also wrote Public Act 05-149, an act permitting stem-cell research while prohibiting human cloning.
The act, signed into law by Governor Jodi Rell, made Connecticut the third state in the nation to permit taxpayer-subsidized stem-cell research.
During his tenure in the State Senate, Murphy was one of the first ten co-sponsors of a civil union bill that passed the General Assembly in 2005. On his Senate campaign website, Murphy summarized his stance, "Let me be clear and simple: LGBT rights are human rights. Marriage equality and nondiscrimination in the military, workplace, classroom and healthcare system, based on real or perceived sexual orientation and gender identity, are civil rights that must be protected under law." During his tenure he served as Chairman of the Public Health Committee.
U.S. House of Representatives
Elections
Murphy chose not to run for re-election to the State Senate, targeting instead the U.S. House seat held by 12-term incumbent Republican Nancy Johnson. In order to challenge Johnson, Murphy moved from Southington to Cheshire. Murphy was elected in 2006 with 56% of the vote, defeating Johnson by a margin of about 22,000 votes; among incumbents, only John Hostettler lost by a larger margin that year.
He carried 35 of the district's 41 cities and towns, including several that had reliably supported Johnson for decades. He defeated Johnson by a significant margin in her hometown of New Britain, which she had represented for over 30 years in both the state senate and in Congress. He was re-elected again in 2008 and 2010, with 60% and 54% of the vote, respectively.
Tenure
Murphy has received high scores from liberal groups such as Americans for Democratic Action, NARAL Pro-Choice America, and various labor unions; and low scores from conservative groups as the Club for Growth, American Conservative Union, and FreedomWorks.
In August 2008, Murphy sent a letter to House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer expressing support for increased oil drilling as part of a bipartisan energy bill.
Murphy supports reform of federal supportive housing programs, which assist low-income people with severe disabilities. In 2008, the House of Representatives passed the "Frank Melville Supportive Housing Investment Act", which Murphy authored to modernize and streamline Section 811, which governs federal supportive housing grants.
Murphy has called for the closure of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp; however, in February 2011, Murphy voted to extend provisions of the Patriot Act.
Health care reform
In 2009, Murphy helped draft HR 3200, the House health-care reform bill. Murphy defended his role in supporting the bill at a contentious town hall meeting in Simsbury in August 2009.
A longtime supporter of health insurance reform, Murphy is a strong proponent of the public option, which entails the creation of an independent, government-sponsored health insurance plan to compete with private companies. Murphy has argued that such a plan would not require government financing and would help to introduce competition into monopolized health insurance markets and help bring down costs.
Congressional and judicial ethics reform
In May 2007, Murphy organized a group of freshmen House members to support the creation of an independent, non-partisan ethics panel to review complaints filed against members of the U.S. House of Representatives. He has been credited with helping to shape the independent Office of Congressional Ethics, which was passed into law by the House in March 2008.
Murphy sponsored a bill that would subject Supreme Court Justices to the same ethical code that applies to other federal judges and suggested in 2011 the possibility of an investigation to decide whether Justice Clarence Thomas had committed ethical violations that would justify removing him from office. The matter in question was Thomas's connection to Harlan Crow and other supporters of the Republican Party. Murphy circulated a draft letter to other members of Congress asking the House Judiciary Committee leadership to hold a hearing on the Supreme Court Transparency and Disclosure Act, which would end the Supreme Court's immunity to judicial ethics laws.
Contractors operating overseas:
As a member of the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee, Murphy was highly critical of for-profit government contractors operating in Iraq, which functioned with little government oversight and scrutiny. He introduced and successfully passed into law the "Government Funding Transparency Act of 2008", which required private companies that do the majority of their businesses with the federal government to publicly disclose their top executives' salaries.
Local issues:
Two home invasions occurred in Murphy's district in 2007 and 2008; the latter in Cheshire being especially brutal, with the rape and murder of a mother and her two young daughters. In response, Murphy proposed making home invasion a federal crime.
Murphy has been a proponent of the proposed New Haven-Hartford-Springfield Commuter Rail Line, an effort to use existing railroad tracks owned by Amtrak to provide daily commuter service on par with Southwestern Connecticut's Metro-North service into New York. In 2008, Murphy successfully added an amendment to rail legislation making it easier for Amtrak and the state of Connecticut to cooperate on the rail project. The line began operation in June 2018.
Murphy proposed reforms of the nation's 'missing-persons' databases, introducing "Billy's Law" in 2009 to improve coordination of law-enforcement efforts to locate missing persons. The legislation was named in honor of Billy Smolinski, Jr., a one-time resident of Murphy's district who disappeared in 2004.
U.S. House committee assignments
Committee on Foreign Affairs
Subcommittee on the Middle East and South Asia
Committee on Oversight and Government Reform
Subcommittee on Health Care, District of Columbia, Census and the National Archives
Subcommittee on Technology, Information Policy, Intergovernmental Relations and Procurement Reform
U.S. Senate
2012 election
Murphy announced on January 20, 2011, that he would run for the Senate seat held by Joe Lieberman, who was retiring in the face of a very low approval rate. It was announced in mid-July that a group spearheaded by a state Capitol lobbyist was forming a Super PAC for his campaign, hoping to raise $1 million to combat a possible opponent.
Murphy defeated former Connecticut Secretary of State Susan Bysiewicz in the Democratic primary and defeated Republican candidate Linda McMahon in the general election. After McMahon's negative ads left Murphy "on the defensive virtually nonstop" and struggling to respond, the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee sent additional staff and money to Murphy to help with his campaign, saying they are "100 percent behind [him]." Among the issues raised was Chase Home Finance sued for foreclosure against Murphy, whose campaign initially responded by claiming that Murphy had missed "a couple of mortgage payments." Murphy claimed that he did not know he was in default until legal proceedings started. Murphy received a loan at the rate of 4.99% from Webster Bank in 2008 to consolidate his previous mortgages. At the time of this loan, Murphy was serving on the House Financial Services Committee. Murphy's opponent McMahon accused him of receiving what she called "special interest loans," and called on Murphy to release his financial records. Bank officials and outside experts claim there was nothing improper about the loans made to Murphy.
On November 6, Murphy defeated McMahon with 55% of the vote, winning every county except Litchfield County. At the time, it was the most expensive political race in Connecticut history, and one of the most expensive Senate races in 2012.
Tenure
Murphy took office as the junior United States senator for Connecticut on January 3, 2013. In the Senate, Murphy has worked on issues funding for transportation and infrastructure, the preservation of Long Island Sound, growing small farms and promoting Connecticut manufacturing.
In 2016, Murphy walked 126 miles across the state of Connecticut, listening to constituents and holding daily town hall meetings. Murphy repeated the walk in 2017, covering 106 miles and holding five town hall meetings.
In early 2020, Murphy secretly met with Iranian foreign minister Javad Zarif on the sidelines of Munich Security Conference. They discussed U.S. nationals being detained in Iran, Iran's involvement in the Yemeni Civil War, and Iranian-backed militias in Iraq. In a post on Medium.com, Murphy wrote: "I have no delusions about Iran — they are our adversary, responsible for the killing of thousands of Americans and unacceptable levels of support for terrorist organizations throughout the Middle East. But I think it’s dangerous to not talk to your enemies. Discussions and negotiations are a way to ease tensions and reduce the chances for crisis."
In the wake of the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, Murphy called for the removal of Donald Trump from office. Murphy also stated that he will lead an investigation into the security breaches and law enforcement response during the attack.
Commenting on the day of the fall of Kabul, Murphy said, "Our priority now needs to be evacuating American personnel and as many of our Afghan partners as humanly possible. I firmly believe that President Biden made the right decision by standing by the Trump administration's decision to bring our troops home and end the longest war in our nation's history."
Committee assignments
Current
United States Senate Committee on Appropriations (2015-)
Subcommittee on Homeland Security (Chair)
Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related Agencies
Subcommittee on Legislative Branch
Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs
Subcommittee on Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies
Committee on Foreign Relations
Subcommittee on Africa and Global Health Policy
Subcommittee on East Asia, The Pacific, and International Cybersecurity Policy
Subcommittee on Europe and Regional Security Cooperation (Chair, 2013-2015)
Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia, and Counterterrorism (Chair, 2021-)
Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions
Subcommittee on Primary Health and Aging
Previous
United States Congressional Joint Economic Committee (2013-2015)
Caucus memberships
Expand Social Security Caucus
Political positions
Health care
Murphy has been a leading supporter of the Affordable Care Act in the Senate and has opposed Republican attempts to repeal the law, consistently speaking on the floor about the positive impact it has had on his constituents.
In April 2017, Murphy was one of five Democratic senators to sign a letter to then-President Trump that warned failure "to take immediate action to oppose the lawsuit or direct House Republicans to forgo this effort will increase instability in the insurance market, as insurers may choose not to participate in the marketplace in 2018" and that they remained concerned that his administration "has still not provided certainty to insurers and consumers that you will protect the cost-sharing subsidies provided under the law."
Murphy called the American Health Care Act of 2017 "an intellectual and moral dumpster fire," that will cause 24 million Americans to lose their health care coverage.
After the overturning of Roe v. Wade in June 2022, Murphy called it a "disaster" of a decision.
Economic issues
Murphy has introduced two pieces of legislation, the American Jobs Matter Act and the 21st Century Buy American Act to close loopholes in the existing Buy American laws and encourage the U.S. government to purchase American-made goods.
In May 2018, Murphy was one of twelve senators to sign a letter to Chairman of the Federal Labor Relations Authority Colleen Kiko urging the FLRA to end efforts to close its Boston regional office until Congress debated the matter, furthering that the FLRA closing down its seven regional offices would cause staff to be placed farther away from the federal employees they protect the rights of.
Murphy has spoken out against outsourcing. However, Murphy voted against Bernie Sanders' proposed motion to United States Innovation and Competition Act concerning semiconductor manufacturers. The motion was to help possible unionizing efforts amongst employees of the manufacturers the act would supply federal funding to, as well as preventing those companies from outsourcing jobs overseas.
Mental health
On August 5, 2015, Murphy introduced the bipartisan Mental Health Reform Act of 2015 with Republican Senator Bill Cassidy from Louisiana. The legislation, aimed at overhauling the mental health system, would build treatment capacity, promote integrated care models, expand the mental health workforce and encourage the enforcement of existing mental health parity laws.
The bill was informed by listening sessions that Senator Murphy conducted across the state of Connecticut. The bill was widely supported by the mental health community, with organizations including the American Psychiatric Association, Mental Health America and the National Council for Behavioral Health applauding its introduction.
On March 16, 2016, the Mental Health Reform Act was passed unanimously by the Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions (HELP) Committee. On December 7, 2016, the Senate passed Mental Health Reform as a part of the 21st Century Cures Act. The bill also provided $1 billion in funding to address the opioid crisis and funding for NIH Cancer Moonshot initiative. The bill was signed into law by President Obama on December 13, 2016.
Gun control
Murphy supports gun control and has been a leading advocate in pushing for further legislation relating to it. He supports a national assault weapon ban and introduced such a ban in 2017 and 2023. Murphy has an F rating with the NRA Political Victory Fund and, in September 2020, published a book on gun control titled The Violence Inside Us: A Brief History of an Ongoing American Tragedy.
The Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting occurred in Newtown, Connecticut, within Murphy's House district near the end of his term. In the aftermath of the shooting, he became a leading voice in the movement to prevent gun violence, supporting numerous policies including universal background checks and ending the ban on gun violence research at the CDC. Murphy supported the bipartisan Manchin-Toomey background checks proposal, which would have strengthened and expanded the existing background check system and established a National Commission on Mass Violence to study in-depth all the causes of mass violence. Upon the proposal failing to meet the 60 vote threshold for advancement, Murphy stated, "This is a day when the Republican filibuster stood in the way of 90% of Americans."
In his first month in office, he criticized the National Rifle Association and Apple Inc. for a video game involving shooting with guns that was labeled appropriate for children as young as four.
On June 24, 2015, Murphy said, "Since Sandy Hook there has been a school shooting, on average, every week"; The Washington Post described this statement as misleading. On June 15–16, 2016, Murphy staged a filibuster regarding gun control following the Orlando nightclub shooting, the deadliest mass shooting in U.S. history at the time. The filibuster entered the list of the top 10 longest filibusters in U.S. history.
In the wake of the shooting, Murphy said "This phenomenon of near-constant mass shootings happens only in America – nowhere else" and "this epidemic will continue without end if Congress continues to sit on its hands and do nothing – again."
Following the 2017 Sutherland Springs church shooting, Murphy and fellow U.S. Senator John Cornyn (R-TX) introduced the bipartisan Fix NICS Act to ensure criminal records are submitted to the federal background check system with the legislation ultimately passing in the 2018 Consolidated Appropriations Act.
Following the 2018 Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, Murphy made an impassioned call for action in the Senate stating that "this happens nowhere else other than the United States of America, this epidemic of mass slaughter, this scourge of school shooting after school shooting. It only happens here not because of coincidence, not because of bad luck, but as a consequence of our inaction. We are responsible for a level of mass atrocity that happens in this country with zero parallel anywhere else. As a parent it scares me to death that this body doesn't take seriously the safety of my children, and it seems like a lot of parents in South Florida will be asking the same question today. We pray for families, for the victims. We hope for the best." In March 2018, Murphy was one of ten senators to sign a letter to Chairman of the Senate HELP Committee Lamar Alexander and ranking Democrat Patty Murray requesting they schedule a hearing on the causes and remedies of mass shootings in the wake of the shooting.
Following the Robb Elementary School Shooting, Chris Murphy emerged as the lead Democratic Negotiator in support of the Bipartisan Safer Communities Act. The Act, which would partially close the 'Boyfriend Loophole' while providing federal funding for mental health and red flag law adaptation, was viewed as the first piece of notable gun safety legislation in decades.
Foreign policy
Murphy is one of the first members of Congress to come out in opposition to US support for the Saudi-led military campaign in Yemen, which was launched in 2015. In a speech on January 29, 2016, he recommended that the US stop supporting this military campaign and suspend military sales to Saudi Arabia until the US receives assurances that the war will not distract from Saudi efforts against al-Qaeda and ISIS and Saudi Arabia lessens its worldwide support of Wahhabism. Murphy is a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and the ranking Democratic member of the subcommittee on the Middle East and Counter-terrorism. In the edition of June 8, 2015 of Foreign Affairs, Murphy co-authored "Principles for a Progressive Foreign Policy," proposing a framework for a Democratic foreign policy strategy.
In November 2017, Murphy accused the United States of complicity in the war crimes committed in Yemen by the Saudi-led military coalition and in Yemen's humanitarian crisis, saying: "Thousands and thousands inside Yemen today are dying....This horror is caused in part by our decision to facilitate a bombing campaign that is murdering children and to endorse a Saudi strategy inside Yemen that is deliberately using disease and starvation and the withdrawal of humanitarian support as a tactic." In October 2018, Murphy wrote that if the reports of Jamal Khashoggi's murder are true, "it should represent a fundamental break" in Saudi Arabia–United States relations. Murphy, along with Bernie Sanders and Mike Lee, advanced a vote to co-sponsor a resolution that would require the President to "withdraw troops in or "affecting" Yemen within 30 days unless they are fighting al Qaeda." In February 2019, Murphy was one of seven senators to reintroduce legislation requiring sanctions on Saudi officials involved in the killing of Jamal Khashoggi and seeking to address support for the Yemen civil war through prohibiting some weapons sales to Saudi Arabia and U.S. military refueling of Saudi coalition planes.
Murphy is renowned as one of the most vociferous critics of Russia in the Senate. Among his positions on US-Russian relations, Murphy holds that Russia will remain a permanent, persistent threat to the United States and its security interests, regardless of the incumbent regime in the country. At an event at the Atlantic Council in 2019, Murphy professed the need for NATO allies to understand that the country has been always “far behind Russia in understanding our vulnerabilities." At the same event, Murphy echoed the sentiments of Lithuanian and Georgian foreign ministers that Russia's imperialist nature will always put it at odds with the United States, and that little will change until Russia as a "captive state of aggregate territories" changes its nature.
In March 2016, Murphy authored the bipartisan bill the Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act, along with Republican Senator Rob Portman. Congressman Adam Kinzinger introduced the U.S. House version of the bill. After the 2016 U.S. presidential election, worries grew that Russian propaganda spread and organized by the Russian government swayed the outcome of the election, and representatives in the U.S. Congress took action to safeguard the National security of the United States by advancing legislation to monitor incoming propaganda from external threats. On November 30, 2016, legislators approved a measure within the National Defense Authorization Act to ask the U.S. State Department to take action against foreign propaganda through an interagency panel. The legislation authorized funding of $160 million over a two-year-period. The initiative was developed through the Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act.
In September 2016, in advance of a UN Security Council resolution 2334 condemning Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories, Murphy signed an AIPAC-sponsored letter urging President Obama to veto "one-sided" resolutions against Israel.
In July 2017, Murphy voted in favor of the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act that placed sanctions on Iran together with Russia and North Korea.
In December 2017, Murphy criticized Donald Trump's decision to recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel, saying that it "It needs to be done at the right time and in the right manner."
In December 2018, President Donald Trump ordered the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Syria. Murphy said in a statement: "I support withdrawing troops, but we must also rejoin a diplomatic process that the Trump administration has left to other powers, and we need a surge in humanitarian relief. That's the only way we can protect the Syrian people against a Turkish incursion or regime reprisals.
In April 2019, Murphy was one of thirty-four senators to sign a letter to President Trump encouraging him "to listen to members of your own Administration and reverse a decision that will damage our national security and aggravate conditions inside Central America", asserting that Trump had "consistently expressed a flawed understanding of U.S. foreign assistance" since becoming president and that he was "personally undermining efforts to promote U.S. national security and economic prosperity" through preventing the use of Fiscal Year 2018 national security funding. The senators argued that foreign assistance to Central American countries created less migration to the U.S., citing the funding's helping to improve conditions in those countries.
In January 2020, Murphy wrote to FBI Director Christopher A. Wray, urging the FBI to "investigate the allegations" that Saudi Arabia "illegally compromised and stole personal data" from Jeff Bezos, the owner of The Washington Post, as part of a possible effort to "influence, if not silence, the Washington Post’s reporting on Saudi Arabia".
In May 2020, Murphy voiced his opposition to Israel's plan to annex parts of the Israeli-occupied West Bank.
Marijuana
Murphy has a "B" rating from NORML for his voting history regarding cannabis-related causes. In 2016, he voted in favor of the Daines/Merkley Amendment to enable Veterans Administration doctors to discuss the benefits of medical marijuana with their patients. He also voted in favor of the Mikulski Medical Marijuana Amendment, which protects users in states with medical marijuana laws from federal interference.
Immigration
In July 2019, Murphy and fifteen other Senate Democrats introduced the Protecting Sensitive Locations Act which mandated that ICE agents get approval from a supervisor ahead of engaging in enforcement actions at sensitive locations with the exception of special circumstances and that agents receive annual training in addition to being required to report annually regarding enforcement actions in those locations.
U.S. Supreme Court
After the U.S. Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade in June 2022, Murphy called the justices that supported the decision "politicians" and that "The Constitution to them is just a fun tool to help them impose their political views on the entire country. The implausible inconsistency of the guns and abortion rulings is both sickening and revealing."
Personal life
Murphy and his wife Catherine (née Holahan) married in August 2007. They have two sons. Raised as a Congregationalist, Murphy identifies as "Protestant/unaffiliated" but said in 2015 that he was "not a regular churchgoer these days, in part, because of kids. In part because of a busy schedule."
Electoral history
References
External links
U.S. Senator Chris Murphy official U.S. Senate website
Chris Murphy for Senate
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1973 births
21st-century American politicians
Alumni of Exeter College, Oxford
American gun control activists
American people of Irish descent
American politicians of Polish descent
Democratic Party Connecticut state senators
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Connecticut
Democratic Party United States senators from Connecticut
Living people
Democratic Party members of the Connecticut House of Representatives
People from Southington, Connecticut
Politicians from White Plains, New York
Politicians from New Haven, Connecticut
University of Connecticut School of Law alumni
Williams College alumni
21st-century American non-fiction writers
Connecticut lawyers
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4995348
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English%20Electric%20KDF8
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English Electric KDF8
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KDF8 was an early British computer built by English Electric as a version of the RCA 501. By producing a software-compatible system, the intention was to reduce time and cost to develop software. However, the lengthy process of developing manufacturing capability meant that the system was soon outpaced by systems from other vendors. Only a few systems were sold during its 5 years of production. Due to the consolidation of the British computer industry, English Electric's computer division became one of the components of what would become ICL.
Background
During the late 1950s English Electric embarked on two major computer projects.
Firstly, English Electric built a version of the RCA 501 computer which was known as the KDP10 (KDP for Kidsgrove Data Processing). This was a machine intended for commercial data processing applications, with fixed length instructions, and capabilities for processing variable-length numeric and alpha-numeric data. RCA's original design was adapted to use the types of transistors, diodes and other components manufactured in the UK. The KDP10 was first delivered in 1961. In 1964 it was re-designated as the KDF8 and sales continued to 1965. The machine was essentially the same as the RCA 501 and manufactured under license so that English Electric could offer a full range of computer systems for all its customers, without the expense of developing an entirely new machine. The machine sold for £400,000. Only 13 were sold.
The second large computer to emerge from development work at Kidsgrove was the KDF9, primarily designed for scientific work.
One KDF8 was installed at the Kidsgrove (Staffordshire) site of The English Electric Company's computer bureau. Over the years, and a succession of mergers, this organisation became English Electric Leo Marconi (EELM), International Computing Services Limited (ICSL), and finally under a joint arrangement between ICL and Barclay's Bank, Baric.
Basic features
Processor/main store
KDF8 was a transistor based machine with magnetic core memory. The core memory of the machine installed at the Kidsgrove computer bureau was upgraded from 64k to the then maximum of 96k of core memory. KDF8 used an octal (base eight) addressing system. A machine-code instruction was fixed length, ten octal characters long. The instruction set was specifically designed for commercial use. It had machine-code level instructions for all four of the decimal arithmetic functions operating on variable length numbers, and also had instructions for efficient manipulation of variable-length data-strings. Not all instructions required all ten characters. Given the minimal core memory available, programmers frequently used "spare" characters in instructions for storage of constants and similar storage-saving tricks.
KDF8 was strictly a batch processing computer, running one program at a time. Only one compute instruction could be processed at one time, but it was also possible to have one read and/or one write instruction (typically from and to magnetic tape) executing in parallel. A system of hardware "gates" set and checked at machine code level were used to control the degree of synchronous operation. However, since there was no operating system of any kind, this had to be controlled entirely at the individual program level.
The KDP10 in the service bureau was updated in situ, as the system was built with RCA germanium transistors. Part of the update was to convert the main logic to silicon transistors. There was also a three character address adder added, and the machine cycle was 15 microseconds, with six timing pulses, where sixth pulse was for settling time, thus the machine cycle was reduced to 12.5 microseconds.
The level of programmer skill to control full read/write/compute overlap, especially if data records were "batched" several to the "real" block of data on magnetic tape, was considerable, since all simultaneity checks had to be hand-coded into the program. Automatic error-detection was essentially limited to hardware parity checks at the character level, and there were no processor hardware checks on what the programmer could do. For example, the computer would simply stop if instructed to access a memory location beyond physical memory.
Peripherals
There were no magnetic disks, drums or other similar temporary backing-storage devices. Bulk storage was limited to magnetic tapes, on open reels, each reel of which was about one inch thick and nine inches (229 mm) across, holding a maximum of of tape. Data and programs were kept on these tapes. Peripheral error-checking was again limited to parity checks on all reads and writes and the use of write permit rings. The Kidsgrove KDF8 had eight magnetic tape units on-line, each rated at 40k characters per second read/write speed. Each tape unit was about tall and wide, and the processor and memory cabinets were about the same in size and number. The Kidsgrove configuration required a large air-conditioned room.
Eight was considered the working maximum number of tape units, one per channel, for any actual KDF8 configuration. It was possible for each tape channel to be split through additional hardware units into a sub-group of eight tape decks, giving a theoretical maximum of 61 on-line tape units. (Tt least three uniquely coded I/O channel identifiers were required for other devices.)
Other tape unit/printer pairs were available, able to operate independently of the mainframe. These provided an off-line printing facility for volume output, freeing the KDF8 to run other work.
Other peripherals included:
a paper-tape reader (1000cps) for data and (initial) program input,
an operator's teleprinter device (with a slow paper tape punch built-in) permitting programs to display information to the operator, and the operator to use the keyboard to punch up short program or data items on paper-tape. This teleprinter could not be used to input data directly to the computer, all operator commands had to be input through the operator's console.
an on-line printer, used mainly for core dumps of failed programs.
Both on and off-line printers were impact printers, capable of printing a line of either 120 or 160 characters, depending on the model They were single type-face, no lower case. Fan fold paper for the printers was continuous, with perforations between the pages, and sprocket-holes at each side of the paper for the paper-feed mechanism. Custom paper sizes, with pre-printed lines/text/colours etc. were common, especially for applications like payroll, and small paper-tape control loops were needed to match page-throw size to each paper type.
Instruction Set
Each KDF8 machine-code instruction took the format
OO AAA RR BBB
In this representation
OO represents a two-(octal) character operation code, identifying the instruction to be performed, in the range 00 to 77,
AAA represents a six-(octal) character "A" core address ranging from 000000 to 777777. (A theoretical Meg directly addressable main store, an actual 96K!)
RR represents a two-character Register setting (one character for each of two possible registers numbered 1 to 7 used to modify the "A" and "B" addresses, with 0 indicating no register modification) and
BBB represents the "B" address, the same as the "A" address in format.
Instructions were read in turn from main store into registers, then executed.
Example. An instruction to read data from the on-line paper-tape reader to locations starting at store location (octal) 200000 would look like
14 200000 00 770000 (spaces for clarity only)
Where 14 was the operation code for this type of read, 200000 was the lowest store location the data would be read to, 00 indicates that no register modification was to be done to the A or B addresses of the instruction, and 77 was the (fixed) device identifier of the paper tape reader. (Note - 77 used as a device ID for a write operation would direct the write to the operator's teleprinter. Embarrassing if this was due to a program error, and it was a large data block intended for mag tape.....) The last four octal characters (0000) were not required in this instruction, and would be ignored when the instruction was processed. Such "spare" characters were frequently, given the extremely limited main store available used by programmers to store constants.
Some aspects of the instruction set were advanced, and greatly eased programming of commercial systems.
The operation codes 51-54 did decimal arithmetic Add, Subtract, Multiply and Divide on variable length numbers, stored as decimal characters. One end of each operand was stored at the "A" and "B" addresses of the instruction. The other end was identified by an ISS (Item Separator Symbol), octal 74. Thus numbers could be any length.
A "Sector Compare" instruction (Octal 43) permitted three-way conditional branching of program control depending on whether the data stored in the range from the "A" address to the "B" address was greater, less than, or equal to, the value of the same number of characters stored at locations to the left of the (previously set) "T" register, as the following Assembler language version attempts to demonstrate.
Tag Op A-Address RR B-Address
COMPARE SET £T SALARY,R
SC TAXLIMIT TAXLIMIT,R
CTC BELOWTAXLIMIT ABOVETAXLIMIT
EQUAL TC EQUALTAXLIMIT
This example compares a salary with a tax limit, and jumps to one of three program locations depending on the respective values. The ",R" Assembler convention represents the rightmost character of the named field. CTC stood for "Conditional Transfer of Control" and TC for (unconditional) Transfer of Control
In the above "compare" code, the original (KDP10?) instruction set compared from right to left, requiring the whole length of the data strings to be compared, a character at a time. KDP8 was enhanced to compare from left to right, so the comparison could stop as soon as the relative values were clear, speeding up processing of such instructions considerably.
Variable length data was handled with the aid of specially designated characters. The ISS or Item Separator Symbol, octal 74, usually represented as "●" was used to separate variable length data fields. Octal 75 "<" and 76 ">" identified the start and end of a data message, Octal 777777 was by custom and practice used to identify End of File. So data such as names and addresses could be punched onto paper tape for data input as (for example)
<IAN●TAYLOR●41●HIGH STREET●KIDSGROVE●STAFFS>
Various instructions could operate directly on this variable length data, and records could be batched say ten to the batch onto magnetic tape, for efficient storage. Given the relatively slow (by today's standards) processor and I/O rates, a significant aspect of the programmer's task was to balance the batching of data on tape, with the computing needed per record and organise the simultaneous I/O and compute operations with the aim of maximising overlap of computing with I/O and avoiding the tape-decks stopping between batch reads.
Software
There was no operating system. Programs were initiated by an on-line operator, via an operator's console. Operators were also responsible for manually clearing memory and re-setting the computer between programs, mounting and changing tapes, controlling off-line printing and the like.
Some standard software packages were available, or became available, all written in the USA by the RCA organisation. These included the following.
A parameter-driven sort-merge program, capable of handling very large volumes of data. Sort parameters could either be read in from the paper-tape reader, for one-off sorts, or "compiled" in (really just stored in the program). There were extensive user "hooks" where user-supplied code could be put in at various stages of the sort/merge process.
An assembler-language compiler called EZ-Code. This was not used commercially for some time, since compilation time was then seen as a heavy overhead, but became increasingly used in later years. To save on computer time, typically a programmer would do an initial compile, dry-check the program manually, re-compile, and then test and de-bug the compiled machine-code version of the program, building up a reel of paper-tape machine-code patches to the program as each correction was made. Once a fairly robust copy was available, the changes would be replicated in Assembler and the program re-compiled and re-tested. Frequently, the last stage was never quite completed, and it was not unknown for production programs to require machine code-patches to be loaded from paper tape for each run. Also, a number of major commercial packages for payroll, accounts and share registration were written by Bureau staff before the Assembler compiler was accepted, and remained entirely in machine code. A further quirk was that the I/O generation routines of the assembler were not used by one programming section, who had written their own generalized I/O package, called Tape Control, based on the COBOL file description table formats. This automated much of the error-prone programming of batching/unbatching of records and controls of simultaneous read/write operations and end-of-file conditions.
A COBOL compiler. This was very rarely used, early experiences not having been entirely favourable. One notable exception was a wiring design program called "WRS1", used to help design the hardware for the later English Electric KDF9 and System 4 range of Mainframe computers. Another oddity was a decision table pre-processor for COBOL programs, itself written in COBOL. This was of some interest, since bureau programming staff were at the time experimenting with using decision tables as an alternative to flowcharts. However, while these programmers continued to hand-code in assembler from the hand-written decision tables with some success, the compilation overheads prevented the use of the pre-processor.
To optimize throughput of production programs, standard packages of software were produced by bureau programmers for payroll, sales and purchase ledgers, share registration, stock control and the like, and some applications – such as payroll – supported the processing of data from many bureau customers in one computer run, with individual parameter settings managing individual customer's requirements. More complex client requirements were met by custom-built programs.
Computer operation
A very small (about 20 instructions) bootstrap loader could be held at the front of each program tape, but even this approach was not always used. Tape labels were (with the exception of COBOL and Tape Control managed applications) almost non-existent. A grandfather/father/son cycle of tape rotation protected production tapes from major disasters, but required careful manual controls. Programmers (or for operational suites Production Control staff) gave the operator written instructions on which program tape and data tapes to load, on which devices, and a written summary of how to load and initiate each program. The operator would then load the tapes, and load and initiate each program in turn manually from the console.
The console consisting of a vertical display panel about high by about long with a similarly sized slightly angled control panel below it. Each of these two parts was filled with labeled buttons and illuminated indicators each (roughly) one inch square. The display section was made up of indicators which when illuminated showed, in binary (grouped as octal) characters, the machine's current running (or static) status at the individual machine core address and register level, for the compute, read and write operations then in progress. When a program was running, this display was a kaleidoscope of quickly changing, flashing, multi-colored lights. The control panel section consisted of press-buttons to select the next register to be set and a central part that mirrored the lay-out of a single machine core address. Other buttons accessed more complex operations. Use of these buttons enabled the operator to select and then directly input to the machine's core storage locations and registers the octal pattern he/she keyed in manually. For an operator to input a single machine instruction, each of up to ten octal characters of the instruction had to be selected and keyed in as its binary pattern – each with the correct (odd) parity bit.
See also
References
Early British computers
KDF8
Transistorized computers
Kdf8
Computer-related introductions in 1964
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4995443
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Lincolnshire%20Regiment
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Royal Lincolnshire Regiment
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The Royal Lincolnshire Regiment was a line infantry regiment of the British Army raised on 20 June 1685 as the Earl of Bath's Regiment for its first Colonel, John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath. In 1751, it was numbered like most other Army regiments and named the 10th (North Lincoln) Regiment of Foot. After the Childers Reforms of 1881, it became the Lincolnshire Regiment after the county where it had been recruiting since 1781.
After the Second World War, it became the Royal Lincolnshire Regiment, before being amalgamated in 1960 with the Northamptonshire Regiment to form the 2nd East Anglian Regiment (Duchess of Gloucester's Own Royal Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire) which was later amalgamated with the 1st East Anglian Regiment (Royal Norfolk and Suffolk), 3rd East Anglian Regiment (16th/44th Foot) and the Royal Leicestershire Regiment to form the Royal Anglian Regiment. 'A' Company of the 2nd Battalion of the Royal Anglians continues the traditions of the Royal Lincolnshire Regiment.
History
Early wars
The regiment was raised on 20 June 1685 as the Earl of Bath's Regiment for its first Colonel, John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath. Prior to the Glorious Revolution, it formed the garrison of Plymouth and defected to William III shortly after his landing at Torbay on 5 November 1688. After the outbreak of the Nine Years War in 1689, the regiment remained in Plymouth until the end of 1691, when it embarked for Ostend and saw action at the Battle of Steenkerque in August 1692, suffering 50 dead or wounded. During the 1693 campaign, it was detached from the main Allied force prior to the Battle of Landen in July, then served at the Siege of Namur in July 1695 before returning to England in 1696. It escaped disbandment in 1698 by being posted to Ireland.
During the 1701 to 1714 War of the Spanish Succession, the regiment fought at Blenheim in August 1704, Ramillies in May 1706, and Malplaquet in September 1709. Following the 1751 reforms, when all British regiments were identified by numbers rather than their Colonel's name, it became the 10th Regiment of Foot. It then took part in the 1759-60 action to repel Thurot at Carrickfergus during the Seven Years' War.
The regiment would next see action in the American Revolutionary War, fighting at the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, the New York Campaign in winter 1776, the Battle of Germantown in October 1777, the Battle of Monmouth in June 1778 and the Battle of Rhode Island in August 1778. In 1778, the 10th returned home to England after 19 years service overseas. In 1782, the regiment was linked to the county of Lincolnshire for recruiting.
Napoleonic Wars
The regiment embarked for Egypt in 1800 for service in the French Revolutionary Wars and took part in the Battle of Alexandria in March 1801. The 2nd battalion then took part in the disastrous Walcheren Campaign in autumn 1809. Meanwhile, the 1st battalion embarked for Spain in 1812 for service in the Peninsular War and took part in the Battle of Castalla in April 1813 and the Siege of Tarragona in June 1813.
Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Booth, KH, JP, a Peninsular War veteran and the last of his ancient family to be seated at Killingholme, served as commanding officer from 1830 until his death in 1841.
The Victorian era
In 1842, the 10th Foot was sent to India and was involved in the bloody Battle of Sobraon in February 1846 during the First Anglo-Sikh War. The 10th would also see action at the Relief of Multan in January 1849 and the Battle of Gujrat in February 1849 during the Second Anglo-Sikh War. In 1857, at the outbreak of the Indian Rebellion, the Regiment was stationed at Dinapore, taking part in the failed first relief of the Siege of Arrah and going on to play an important role in the relief of Lucknow where Private Denis Dempsey won the Victoria Cross.
The 1st Battalion, 10th Foot served in Japan from 1868 through 1871. The battalion was charged with protecting the small foreign community in Yokohama. The leader of the battalion's military band, John William Fenton, is honoured in Japan as "the first bandmaster in Japan" and as "the father of band music in Japan". He is also credited for initiating the slow process in which Kimi ga Yo came to be accepted as the national anthem of Japan.
The regiment was not fundamentally affected by the Cardwell Reforms of the 1870s, which gave it a depot at the "old barracks" in Lincoln from 1873. The regiment moved to the "new barracks" further north on Burton Road in 1880. Nor was the regiment affected by the Childers reforms of 1881 – as it already possessed two battalions, there was no need for it to amalgamate with another regiment. Under the reforms, the regiment became The Lincolnshire Regiment on 1 July 1881.
The Royal North Lincolnshire and Royal South Lincolnshire Militia regiments became the 3rd and 4th Battalions, and the 1st and 2nd Lincolnshire Rifle Volunteer Corps became the 1st and 2nd Volunteer Battalions (a 3rd Volunteer Battalion was added in 1900). The 1st Battalion Lincolnshire Regiment was posted at Malta from 1895, and took part in the Battle of Omdurman in September 1898 during the Mahdist War. It was then stationed in British India, where it was in Bangalore until late 1902 when it transferred to Secunderabad. The 2nd Battalion embarked for South Africa in January 1900 and saw action during the Second Boer War.
The 3rd (Militia) battalion, formed from the Royal North Lincoln Militia in 1881, was a reserve battalion. It was embodied in May 1900, disembodied in July the following year, and later re-embodied for service in South Africa during the Second Boer War. Almost 540 officers and men returned to Southampton on the SS Cestrian in early October 1902, following the end of the war, when the battalion was disembodied at Lincoln.
In 1908, the Volunteers and Militia were reorganised under the Haldane Reforms, with the former becoming the Territorial Force (TF) and the latter the Special Reserve; the regiment now had one Reserve and two Territorial battalions. These were the 3rd Battalion (Special Reserve) at Lincoln, with the 4th Battalion (TF) at Broadgate in Lincoln and the 5th Battalion (TF) at Doughty Road in Grimsby (since demolished).
First World War
The regiment started the First World War with two regular battalions, one militia battalion and two territorial battalions. The 1st Lincolns were stationed in Portsmouth, the 2nd Lincolns on Garrison in Bermuda, and the 3rd in Lincoln. The 4th and 5th Battalions were the Territorial battalions, based throughout Lincolnshire.
Regular Army
The 1st Battalion landed at Le Havre as part of the 9th Brigade in the 3rd Division for service on the Western Front in August 1914. Notable engagements included the First Battle of Ypres in autumn 1914 and the Battle of Bellewaarde in May 1915, during which the commanding officer of the battalion, Major H E R Boxer, was killed.
The Commanding Officer of 2nd Lincolns, Lieutenant-Colonel George Bunbury McAndrew, found himself acting Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial fortress of Bermuda in the absence of the Governor and General Officer Commanding, Lieutenant-General Sir George Bullock, and oversaw that colony's placement onto a war footing. The battalion left Bermuda on 14 September aboard HMCS Canada, escorted by HMCS Niobe, which had arrived in Bermuda the day before bearing the Royal Canadian Regiment, for Halifax, Nova Scotia, where they arrived on 18 September. Departing from there again to cross the Atlantic, the battalion returned to England on 3 October 1914, and was sent to the Western Front as part of the 25th Brigade in the 8th Division soon after, arriving in France on 5 November 1914. McAndrew was killed on 10 March 1915. Major engagements included the Battle of Aubers Ridge in May 1915 where the battalion incurred heavy losses and the Battle of the Somme in Autumn 1916 where the second-in-command of the battalion, Major F W Greatwood, was injured.
A contingent from the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps composed of Captain Richard Tucker and 88 other ranks was detached in December 1914 to train for the Western Front. It was hoped this could join 2nd Lincolns, but 1 Lincolns' need for reinforcement was greater and it was attached to that battalion organised as two extra platoons of D Company (the 2nd Lincolns had recruited three Bermudians before it left the colony, including two Constables from the Bermuda Police, Corporal G. C. Wailes (who had previously served in the Royal Fusiliers), Lance-Corporal Louis William Morris, and Private Farrier. Wailes was repeatedly wounded and returned to Bermuda an invalid in April 1915. Morris was killed in action on 7 December 1914. Although commanders at the Regimental Depot had wanted to break the contingent apart, re-enlist its members as Lincolns, and distribute them throughout the Regiment as replacements, a letter from the War Office ensured that the BVRC contingent remained together as a unit, under its own badge. The contingent arrived in France with 1 Lincolns on 23 June 1915, the first colonial volunteer unit to reach the Western Front. The Contingent was withered away by casualties over the following year. 50% of its remaining strength was lost at Gueudecourt on 25 September 1916. The dozen survivors were merged with a newly arrived Second BVRC Contingent, of one officer and 36 other ranks, who had trained in Bermuda as Vickers machine gunners. Stripped of their Vickers machine guns (which had been collected, for the new Machine Gun Corps), the merged contingents were retrained as Lewis light machinegunners, and provided 12 gun teams to 1 Lincolns headquarters. By the end of the war, the two contingents had lost over 75% of their combined strength. Forty had died on active service, one received the O.B.E, and six the Military Medal. Sixteen enlisted men from the two contingents were commissioned, including the Sergeant Major of the First Contingent, Colour-Sergeant R.C. Earl, who would become Commanding Officer of the BVRC after the War (some of those commissioned moved to other units in the process, including flying ace Arthur Rowe Spurling and Henry J. Watlington, who both went to the Royal Flying Corps). Those surviving contingent members who had not already been sent home as invalids or transferred to other units were returned to Bermuda in several parties over the summer of 1919.
At the end of the war in 1918, the 1st Lincolns, under Frederick Spring, and the 3rd Lincolns were sent to Ireland to deal with the troubles in the unrecognised Irish Republic.
Territorial Force
The 1/4th Battalion and 1/5th Battalion landed as landed at Le Havre as part of the 138th Brigade in the 46th (North Midland) Division in March 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 2/4th Battalion and 2/5th Battalion moved to Ireland as part of the 177th Brigade in the 59th (2nd North Midland) Division and took part in the response to the Easter Rising before landing in France in February 1917 for service on the Western Front.
New Armies
The 6th (Service) Battalion landed at Suvla Bay in Gallipoli as part of the 33rd Brigade in the 11th (Northern) Division in August 1915 and, having been evacuated at the end of the year, moved to Egypt in January 1916 and then to France in July 1916 for service on the Western Front. The 7th (Service) Battalion landed at Boulogne as part of the 51st Brigade in the 17th (Northern) Division in July 1915 also for service on the Western Front. The 8th (Service) Battalion landed at Boulogne as part of the 63rd Brigade in the 21st Division in September 1915 also for service on the Western Front. The 10th (Service) Battalion (Grimsby, often known as the Grimsby Chums, landed in France as part of the 101st Brigade in the 34th Division in January 1916 also for service on the Western Front and saw action at the First day on the Somme in July 1916 and the Battle of Passchendaele in Autumn 1917.
Second World War
The Second World War was declared on Sunday, 3 September 1939 and the two Territorial Army battalions, the 4th and the 6th (a duplicate of the 4th), were called-up immediately. The 2nd Battalion embarked for France with the 9th Infantry Brigade attached to the 3rd Infantry Division commanded by Major-General Bernard Montgomery in October 1939. They were followed by the 6th Battalion, part of 138th Brigade with the 46th Infantry Division, in April 1940; both served with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and managed to return from Dunkirk after the battles of France and Belgium. After returning to England, both battalions spent years in the United Kingdom on home defence anticipating a possible German invasion of the United Kingdom. The 2nd Battalion, remaining with the same brigade and division throughout the war, then spent the next four years training in various parts of the United Kingdom before taking part in the D-Day landings in June 1944. The battalion, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Christopher Welby-Everard was then engaged throughout the Normandy Campaign, taking part in Operation Charnwood, Operation Goodwood, and throughout the rest of the Northwest Europe Campaign until Victory in Europe Day in May 1945.
The 1st Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment was stationed in British India and saw no active service until 1942. They remained in India and the Far East throughout the war and were assigned to the 71st Indian Infantry Brigade, part of 26th Indian Infantry Division, in 1942. fighting the Imperial Japanese Army in the Burma Campaign and during the Battle of the Admin Box, the first major victory against the Japanese in the campaign, in early 1944 where Major Charles Ferguson Hoey was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross, the only one to be awarded to the Lincolnshire Regiment during the Second World War.
The Territorials of the 4th Battalion, part of 146th Brigade attached to 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division, were sent to Norway and were among the first British soldiers to come into contact against an advancing enemy in the field in the Second World War. Ill-equipped and without air support, they soon had to be evacuated. Within a few weeks, they were sent to garrison neutral Iceland. They trained as Alpine troops during the two years they were there. After returning to the United Kingdom in 1942, when the division gained the 70th Brigade, they were earmarked to form part of the 21st Army Group for the coming invasion of France and started training in preparation.
After two years spent on home defence, the 6th Battalion left the United Kingdom, still as part of the 138th (Lincoln and Leicester) Brigade in the 46th Infantry Division, in January 1943 to participate in the final stages of the Tunisia Campaign. In September 1943, the battalion, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel David Yates, took part in the landings at Salerno in Italy as part of Mark Clark's U.S. Fifth Army, suffering heavy losses and later captured Naples, crossed the Volturno Line and fought on the Winter Line and in the Battle of Monte Cassino in January 1944. The battalion returned to Egypt to refit in March 1944, by which time it had suffered heavy casualties and lost 518 killed, wounded or missing. It returned to the Italian Front in July 1944 and, after more hard fighting throughout the summer during the Battles for the Gothic Line, it sailed for Greece in December to help the civil authorities to keep order during the Greek Civil War. In April 1945, the 6th Lincolns returned to Italy for the final offensive but did not participate in any fighting and then moved into Austria for occupation duties.
The Lincolnshire Regiment also raised two other battalions for hostilities-only, the 7th and 8th, created in June and July 1940 respectively. However, both were converted into other arms of service, the 7th becoming 102nd Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery on 1 December 1941 and the 8th becoming the 101st Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery.
The Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps again provided two drafts; one in June 1940, and a full company in 1944. Four Bermudians who served with the Lincolns during the war (three from the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps) reached the rank of Major with the regiment: Major General Glyn Gilbert (later of the Parachute Regiment), Lieutenant Colonel John Brownlow Tucker (the first Commanding Officer of the Bermuda Regiment, amalgamated from the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps and the Bermuda Militia Artillery in 1965), Major Anthony Smith (killed-in-action at Venrai, in 1944, and subject of an award-winning film, In The Hour of Victory), and Major Patrick Purcell, responsible for administering German newspapers in the British area of occupation. Among other members of the 1940 contingent from the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps was Bernard John Abbott, a school teacher and pre-war Bermuda Cadet Corps officer re-commissioned into the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps’ Emergency Reserve of officers with the rank of Second-Lieutenant (Acting Major) in accordance with a War Office cable of the 4 May 1939, who joined 50th Holding Battalion, in Norfolk, which became 8th Battalion, Lincolnshire Regiment. He ended the war as a staff officer in the Far East, and The London Gazette of 25 December 1945 recorded “War Subs. Maj. H. J. ABBOTT .(108051) relinquishes his commn., 26th Dec. 1945, and is granted the hon. rank of Lt.-Col.”.
Post-war years
After the war, the 4th and 6th battalions were placed in 'suspended animation' in 1946 but were both reformed on 1 January 1947. However, on 1 July 1950, the 6th was merged with the 4th to create the 4th/6th Battalion. On 28 October 1948, the 2nd Battalion was amalgamated with the 1st Battalion.
The Royal Lincolnshire Regiment and its successors maintained its relationship with the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps (renamed the Bermuda Rifles in 1949) after the Second World War. When the Bermuda Militia Artillery (a reserve sub-unit of the Royal Artillery) had been re-tasked as a company of infantry on the closure of St. David's Battery in 1953, it had been grouped with the Bermuda Rifles under a battalion-level headquarters company titled Headquarters Bermuda Local Forces (not to be confused with the Command Headquarters of the Bermuda Garrison, to which it was subsidiary, with Governor of Bermuda Lieutenant-General Sir Alexander Hood serving as Commander-in-Chief and Brigadier J.C. Smith, Royal Artillery, as Officer Commanding Troops) with a lieutenant-colonel in command. From this point, the Royal Lincolnshire Regiment had also provided an officer as Adjutant to the Bermuda Local Forces and Secretary to the Local Forces Board, beginning with Captain (later Major) Darby Robert Follett Houlton-Hart (according to the 13 January, 1954, issue of The Bermuda Recorder newspaper, the reorganisation of the two units under a new common headquarters had begun operating unofficially since the arrival in the colony on November 17, of the command's new Adjutant, Captain D. R. F. Houlton-Hart, M.C., of the Royal Lincolnshire Regiment. The make-up of the new command is as follows:- Col. Astwood, Commanding Officer; Captain D. R. F. Houlton-Hart, Adjutant, one Regimental Sergeant-Major, one Regimental Quartermaster Sergeant, a Sergeant instructor for each unit and two medical officers. The same article also recorded that the new system had been tried during the Big Three Conference last month when all troops were under the command of Lt.-Col. J. R. Johnson of the Royal Welch Fusiliers<ref> Integration of Local Forces Limited to Top Brass Only, Page 1. The Bermuda Recorder. 13 January, 1954</ref> Retracing family’s military past, by Jonathan Bell. The Royal Gazette, City of Hamilton, Pembroke, Bermuda. 5 May, 2016) posted to Bermuda from 1953 to 1957. In addition to serving as the Bermuda Command Adjutant and the Bermuda Local Forces Adjutant, Captain Houlton-Hart was also the adjutant of the Bermuda Cadet Corps.
In 1960, the regiment amalgamated with the Northamptonshire Regiment to form the 2nd East Anglian Regiment (Duchess of Gloucester's Own Royal Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire) which was later amalgamated with the 1st East Anglian Regiment (Royal Norfolk and Suffolk), 3rd East Anglian Regiment (16th/44th Foot) and the Royal Leicestershire Regiment in September 1964 to form the Royal Anglian Regiment.
The Royal Lincolnshire Regiment's paternal relationship to the Bermuda Rifles and the Bermuda Local Forces was continued by the 2nd East Anglian Regiment (Duchess of Gloucester's Own Royal Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire) and the Royal Anglian Regiment until the three Bermudian company-sized units amalgamated in 1965 to form the Bermuda Regiment (from 2015 the Royal Bermuda Regiment), with the relationship maintained since then between the Royal Anglian Regiment and the Royal Bermuda Regiment.
Currently, 674 Squadron Army Air Corps uses the sphinx as an emblem within its crest in honour of its local connections with the Royal Lincolnshire Regiment.
Regimental museum
The Royal Lincolnshire Regiment and Lincolnshire Yeomanry collections are displayed in Lincoln's Museum of Lincolnshire Life. Artefacts concerning the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps contingents that served with the Lincolnshires during the two world wars are displayed in the Bermuda Maritime Museum (part of the British Overseas Territory's territorial museum) in the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda.
Battle honours
The regiment's battle honours are as follows:Earlier WarsSteenkirk, 8 July 1692; War of the Spanish Succession, 1702–1713; Blenheim, 13 August 1704; Ramillies, 23 May 1706; Oudenarde, 11 July 1708; Malplaquet, 11 September 1709; Bouchain, 13 September 1711; Peninsula, 1812–14; Sobraon, 10 February 1846; Mooltan, 1848; Goojuarat, 21 February 1849; Punjab, 1848-49; Lucknow 1858; Atbara, 1898; Khartoum, 1898; Paardeberg, February 1900; South Africa 1900–02Great War: Mons, Le Cateau, Retreat from Mons, Marne 1914, Aisne 1914, '18, La Bassée 1914, Messines 1914, 1917, 1918, Armentières 1914, Ypres 1914, '15, '17, Nonne Bosschen, Neuve Chapelle, Gravenstafel, St. Julien, Frezenberg, Bellewaarde, Aubers, Loos, Somme 1916, '18, Albert 1916, '18,Bazentin, Delville Wood, Pozières, Flers-Courcelette, Morval, Thiepval, Ancre 1916, '18, Arras 1917, '18,Scarpe 1917, '18, Arleux, Pilckem, Langemarck 1917, Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle, Passchendaele, Cambrai 1917, '18, St. Quentin, Bapaume 1918, Lys, Estaires, Bailleul, Kemmel, Amiens, Drocourt Quéant, Hindenburg Line, Épéhy, Canal du Nord, St. Quentin Canal, Beaurevoir, Selle, Sambre, France and Flanders 1914–18, Suvla, Landing at Suvla, Scimitar Hill, Gallipoli 1915, Egypt 1916
Second World War:
Vist, Norway 1940, Dunkirk 1940, Normandy Landing, Cambes, Fontenay le Pesnil, Defence of Rauray, Caen, Orne, Bourguébus Ridge, Troarn, Nederrijn, Le Havre, Antwerp-Turnhout Canal, Venraij, Venlo Pocket, Rhineland, Hochwald, Lingen, Bremen, Arnhem 1945, North-West Europe 1940, '44–45, Sedjenane I, Mine de Sedjenane, Argoub Selah, North Africa 1943, Salerno, Vietri Pass, Capture of Naples, Cava di Terreni, Volturno Crossing, Garigliano Crossing, Monte Tuga, Gothic Line, Monte Gridolfo, Gemmano Ridge, Lamone Crossing, San Marino, Italy 1943–45, Donbaik, Point 201 (Arakan), North Arakan, Buthidaung, Ngakyedauk Pass, Ramree, Burma 1943–45
Victoria Crosses
Victoria Crosses awarded to men of the Regiment were:
Private Denis Dempsey, Indian Mutiny (12 August 1857/14 March 1858)
Lieutenant Henry Marshman Havelock-Allan, Indian Mutiny (16 July 1857)
Private John Kirk, Indian Mutiny (4 June 1857)
Lance-Sergeant Arthur Evans First World War (2 September 1918)
Captain Percy Hansen, First World War (9 August 1915)
Temp Major Charles Ferguson Hoey, Second World War (16 February 1944)
Acting Corporal Charles Richard Sharpe, First World War (9 May 1915)
Captain John Brunt, Second World War (9 December 1944)
Colonel-in-Chief
1888–1902: F.M. Prince William Augustus Edward of Saxe-Weimar, KP, GCB, GCVO
Colonels of the Regiment
Colonels of the regiment were:
1685–1688: Col. John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath
1688: Col. Sir Charles Carney
1688–1693: Col. John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath [reappointed]
1693–1703: Lt-Gen. Sir Bevil Granville
1703–1715: Lt-Gen. William North, 6th Baron North & Grey
1715–1737: Lt-Gen. Henry Grove
1737–1746: Lt-Gen. Francis Columbine
1746–1749: F.M. James O'Hara, 2nd Baron Tyrawley (Lord Kilmaine)
1749-1763: Lt-Gen. Edward Pole
10th Regiment of Foot
1763–1781: Lt-Gen. Edward Sandford
1781–1795: Lt-Gen. Sir Robert Murray Keith KB
10th (North Lincolnshire) Regiment of Foot
1795–1811: Henry Edward Fox
1811–1824: Thomas Maitland
1824–1847: Sir John Lambert KCB
1847–1860: Sir Thomas McMahon, 2nd Baronet
1860–1863: Lt-Gen. Thomas Burke
1863–1874: Lt-Gen. Sir Sidney John Cotton, GCB
1874–1878: Lt-Gen. Sir John Garvock, GCB
1878–1888: F.M. Prince William Augustus Edward of Saxe-Weimar, KP, GCB, GCVO
The Lincolnshire Regiment
1888–1890: Gen. Sir Henry Errington Longden, KCB, CSI
1890: Gen. Reginald Yonge Shipley, CB
1890–1903: Gen. Sir Julius Richard Glyn, KCB
1903–1908: Lt-Gen. George Hyde Page
1908–1914: Lt-Gen. Henry Fanshawe Davies
1914–1938: Maj-Gen. Charles Rudyerd Simpson, CB
1938–1948: Maj-Gen. John Hedley Thornton Priestman, CB, CBE, DSO, MC
The Royal Lincolnshire Regiment
1948–1958: Maj-Gen. John Arnold Atkinson Griffin, DSO
1958: Brig. Ralph Henry Lefroy Oulton, CBE
See also
John Brunt who won the VC in Italy while attached to the regiment
Charles Ferguson Hoey who won the VC in Burma while attached to the regiment
The Lincoln and Welland Regiment
References
Sources
Ray Westlake, Tracing the Rifle Volunteers, Barnsley: Pen and Sword, 2010, .
External links
Royal Lincolnshire Regiment (10th Foot)
Regiments.Org: The Royal Lincolnshire Regiment
Official Webpage of 2 Royal Anglian Regiment
Grimsby Branch, The Royal Lincolnshire & Royal Anglian Regimental Association
Lincoln Branch, The Royal Lincolnshire & Royal Anglian Regimental Association
1914–1918 Net: The Lincolnshire Regiment in the Great War
Army Museums Ogilby Trust: Royal Lincolnshire Regiment and Lincolnshire Yeomanry Collections in the Museum of Lincolnshire Life
Tenth Foot. American War of Independence period re-enactors
Orbat of British Military Operations, 1919–1939
1685 establishments in England
Regiments of the British Army in World War II
Regiments of the British Army in World War I
Military units and formations in Lincolnshire
Military units and formations in Lincoln
Military units and formations established in 1685
Military units and formations disestablished in 1960
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomic%20library
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Genomic library
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A genomic library is a collection of overlapping DNA fragments that together make up the total genomic DNA of a single organism. The DNA is stored in a population of identical vectors, each containing a different insert of DNA. In order to construct a genomic library, the organism's DNA is extracted from cells and then digested with a restriction enzyme to cut the DNA into fragments of a specific size. The fragments are then inserted into the vector using DNA ligase. Next, the vector DNA can be taken up by a host organism - commonly a population of Escherichia coli or yeast - with each cell containing only one vector molecule. Using a host cell to carry the vector allows for easy amplification and retrieval of specific clones from the library for analysis.
There are several kinds of vectors available with various insert capacities. Generally, libraries made from organisms with larger genomes require vectors featuring larger inserts, thereby fewer vector molecules are needed to make the library. Researchers can choose a vector also considering the ideal insert size to find the desired number of clones necessary for full genome coverage.
Genomic libraries are commonly used for sequencing applications. They have played an important role in the whole genome sequencing of several organisms, including the human genome and several model organisms.
History
The first DNA-based genome ever fully sequenced was achieved by two-time Nobel Prize winner, Frederick Sanger, in 1977. Sanger and his team of scientists created a library of the bacteriophage, phi X 174, for use in DNA sequencing. The importance of this success contributed to the ever-increasing demand for sequencing genomes to research gene therapy. Teams are now able to catalog polymorphisms in genomes and investigate those candidate genes contributing to maladies such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and Type 1 diabetes. These are due to the advance of genome-wide association studies from the ability to create and sequence genomic libraries. Prior, linkage and candidate-gene studies were some of the only approaches.
Genomic library construction
Construction of a genomic library involves creating many recombinant DNA molecules. An organism's genomic DNA is extracted and then digested with a restriction enzyme. For organisms with very small genomes (~10 kb), the digested fragments can be separated by gel electrophoresis. The separated fragments can then be excised and cloned into the vector separately. However, when a large genome is digested with a restriction enzyme, there are far too many fragments to excise individually. The entire set of fragments must be cloned together with the vector, and separation of clones can occur after. In either case, the fragments are ligated into a vector that has been digested with the same restriction enzyme. The vector containing the inserted fragments of genomic DNA can then be introduced into a host organism.
Below are the steps for creating a genomic library from a large genome.
Extract and purify DNA.
Digest the DNA with a restriction enzyme. This creates fragments that are similar in size, each containing one or more genes.
Insert the fragments of DNA into vectors that were cut with the same restriction enzyme. Use the enzyme DNA ligase to seal the DNA fragments into the vector. This creates a large pool of recombinant molecules.
These recombinant molecules are taken up by a host bacterium by transformation, creating a DNA library.
Below is a diagram of the above outlined steps.
Determining titer of library
After a genomic library is constructed with a viral vector, such as lambda phage, the titer of the library can be determined. Calculating the titer allows researchers to approximate how many infectious viral particles were successfully created in the library. To do this, dilutions of the library are used to transform cultures of E. coli of known concentrations. The cultures are then plated on agar plates and incubated overnight. The number of viral plaques are counted and can be used to calculate the total number of infectious viral particles in the library. Most viral vectors also carry a marker that allows clones containing an insert to be distinguished from those that do not have an insert. This allows researchers to also determine the percentage of infectious viral particles actually carrying a fragment of the library.
A similar method can be used to titer genomic libraries made with non-viral vectors, such as plasmids and BACs. A test ligation of the library can be used to transform E. coli. The transformation is then spread on agar plates and incubated overnight. The titer of the transformation is determined by counting the number of colonies present on the plates. These vectors generally have a selectable marker allowing the differentiation of clones containing an insert from those that do not. By doing this test, researchers can also determine the efficiency of the ligation and make adjustments as needed to ensure they get the desired number of clones for the library.
Screening library
In order to isolate clones that contain regions of interest from a library, the library must first be screened. One method of screening is hybridization. Each transformed host cell of a library will contain only one vector with one insert of DNA. The whole library can be plated onto a filter over media. The filter and colonies are prepared for hybridization and then labeled with a probe. The target DNA- insert of interest- can be identified by detection such as autoradiography because of the hybridization with the probe as seen below.
Another method of screening is with polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Some libraries are stored as pools of clones and screening by PCR is an efficient way to identify pools containing specific clones.
Types of vectors
Genome size varies among different organisms and the cloning vector must be selected accordingly. For a large genome, a vector with a large capacity should be chosen so that a relatively small number of clones are sufficient for coverage of the entire genome. However, it is often more difficult to characterize an insert contained in a higher capacity vector.
Below is a table of several kinds of vectors commonly used for genomic libraries and the insert size that each generally holds.
Plasmids
A plasmid is a double stranded circular DNA molecule commonly used for molecular cloning. Plasmids are generally 2 to 4 kilobase-pairs (kb) in length and are capable of carrying inserts up to 15kb. Plasmids contain an origin of replication allowing them to replicate inside a bacterium independently of the host chromosome. Plasmids commonly carry a gene for antibiotic resistance that allows for the selection of bacterial cells containing the plasmid. Many plasmids also carry a reporter gene that allows researchers to distinguish clones containing an insert from those that do not.
Phage lambda (λ)
Phage λ is a double-stranded DNA virus that infects E. coli. The λ chromosome is 48.5kb long and can carry inserts up to 25kb. These inserts replace non-essential viral sequences in the λ chromosome, while the genes required for formation of viral particles and infection remain intact. The insert DNA is replicated with the viral DNA; thus, together they are packaged into viral particles. These particles are very efficient at infection and multiplication leading to a higher production of the recombinant λ chromosomes. However, due to the smaller insert size, libraries made with λ phage may require many clones for full genome coverage.
Cosmids
Cosmid vectors are plasmids that contain a small region of bacteriophage λ DNA called the cos sequence. This sequence allows the cosmid to be packaged into bacteriophage λ particles. These particles- containing a linearized cosmid- are introduced into the host cell by transduction. Once inside the host, the cosmids circularize with the aid of the host's DNA ligase and then function as plasmids. Cosmids are capable of carrying inserts up to 40kb in size.
Bacteriophage P1 vectors
Bacteriophage P1 vectors can hold inserts 70 – 100kb in size. They begin as linear DNA molecules packaged into bacteriophage P1 particles. These particles are injected into an E. coli strain expressing Cre recombinase. The linear P1 vector becomes circularized by recombination between two loxP sites in the vector. P1 vectors generally contain a gene for antibiotic resistance and a positive selection marker to distinguish clones containing an insert from those that do not. P1 vectors also contain a P1 plasmid replicon, which ensures only one copy of the vector is present in a cell. However, there is a second P1 replicon- called the P1 lytic replicon- that is controlled by an inducible promoter. This promoter allows the amplification of more than one copy of the vector per cell prior to DNA extraction.
P1 artificial chromosomes
P1 artificial chromosomes (PACs) have features of both P1 vectors and Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BACs). Similar to P1 vectors, they contain a plasmid and a lytic replicon as described above. Unlike P1 vectors, they do not need to be packaged into bacteriophage particles for transduction. Instead they are introduced into E. coli as circular DNA molecules through electroporation just as BACs are. Also similar to BACs, these are relatively harder to prepare due to a single origin of replication.
Bacterial artificial chromosomes
Bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) are circular DNA molecules, usually about 7kb in length, that are capable of holding inserts up to 300kb in size. BAC vectors contain a replicon derived from E. coli F factor, which ensures they are maintained at one copy per cell. Once an insert is ligated into a BAC, the BAC is introduced into recombination deficient strains of E. coli by electroporation. Most BAC vectors contain a gene for antibiotic resistance and also a positive selection marker. The figure to the right depicts a BAC vector being cut with a restriction enzyme, followed by the insertion of foreign DNA that is re-annealed by a ligase. Overall, this is a very stable vector, but they may be hard to prepare due to a single origin of replication just like PACs.
Yeast artificial chromosomes
Yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) are linear DNA molecules containing the necessary features of an authentic yeast chromosome, including telomeres, a centromere, and an origin of replication. Large inserts of DNA can be ligated into the middle of the YAC so that there is an “arm” of the YAC on either side of the insert. The recombinant YAC is introduced into yeast by transformation; selectable markers present in the YAC allow for the identification of successful transformants. YACs can hold inserts up to 2000kb, but most YAC libraries contain inserts 250-400kb in size. Theoretically there is no upper limit on the size of insert a YAC can hold. It is the quality in the preparation of DNA used for inserts that determines the size limit. The most challenging aspect of using YAC is the fact they are prone to rearrangement.
How to select a vector
Vector selection requires one to ensure the library made is representative of the entire genome. Any insert of the genome derived from a restriction enzyme should have an equal chance of being in the library compared to any other insert. Furthermore, recombinant molecules should contain large enough inserts ensuring the library size is able to be handled conveniently. This is particularly determined by the number of clones needed to have in a library. The number of clones to get a sampling of all the genes is determined by the size of the organism's genome as well as the average insert size. This is represented by the formula (also known as the Carbon and Clarke formula):
where,
is the necessary number of recombinants
is the desired probability that any fragment in the genome will occur at least once in the library created
is the fractional proportion of the genome in a single recombinant
can be further shown to be:
where,
is the insert size
is the genome size
Thus, increasing the insert size (by choice of vector) would allow for fewer clones needed to represent a genome. The proportion of the insert size versus the genome size represents the proportion of the respective genome in a single clone. Here is the equation with all parts considered:
Vector selection example
The above formula can be used to determine the 99% confidence level that all sequences in a genome are represented by using a vector with an insert size of twenty thousand basepairs (such as the phage lambda vector). The genome size of the organism is three billion basepairs in this example.
clones
Thus, approximately 688,060 clones are required to ensure a 99% probability that a given DNA sequence from this three billion basepair genome will be present in a library using a vector with an insert size of twenty thousand basepairs.
Applications
After a library is created, the genome of an organism can be sequenced to elucidate how genes affect an organism or to compare similar organisms at the genome-level. The aforementioned genome-wide association studies can identify candidate genes stemming from many functional traits. Genes can be isolated through genomic libraries and used on human cell lines or animal models to further research. Furthermore, creating high-fidelity clones with accurate genome representation and no stability issues would contribute well as intermediates for shotgun sequencing or the study of complete genes in functional analysis.
Hierarchical sequencing
One major use of genomic libraries is hierarchichal shotgun sequencing, which is also called top-down, map-based or clone-by-clone sequencing. This strategy was developed in the 1980s for sequencing whole genomes before high throughput techniques for sequencing were available. Individual clones from genomic libraries can be sheared into smaller fragments, usually 500bp to 1000bp, which are more manageable for sequencing. Once a clone from a genomic library is sequenced, the sequence can be used to screen the library for other clones containing inserts which overlap with the sequenced clone. Any new overlapping clones can then be sequenced forming a contig. This technique, called chromosome walking, can be exploited to sequence entire chromosomes.
Whole genome shotgun sequencing is another method of genome sequencing that does not require a library of high-capacity vectors. Rather, it uses computer algorithms to assemble short sequence reads to cover the entire genome. Genomic libraries are often used in combination with whole genome shotgun sequencing for this reason. A high resolution map can be created by sequencing both ends of inserts from several clones in a genomic library. This map provides sequences of known distances apart, which can be used to help with the assembly of sequence reads acquired through shotgun sequencing. The human genome sequence, which was declared complete in 2003, was assembled using both a BAC library and shotgun sequencing.
Genome-wide association studies
Genome-wide association studies are general applications to find specific gene targets and polymorphisms within the human race. In fact, the International HapMap project was created through a partnership of scientists and agencies from several countries to catalog and utilize this data. The goal of this project is to compare genetic sequences of different individuals to elucidate similarities and differences within chromosomal regions. Scientists from all of the participating nations are cataloging these attributes with data from populations of African, Asian, and European ancestry. Such genome-wide assessments may lead to further diagnostic and drug therapies while also helping future teams focus on orchestrating therapeutics with genetic features in mind. These concepts are already being exploited in genetic engineering. For example, a research team has actually constructed a PAC shuttle vector that creates a library representing two-fold coverage of the human genome. This could serve as an incredible resource to identify genes, or sets of genes, causing disease. Moreover, these studies can serve as a powerful way to investigate transcriptional regulation as it has been seen in the study of baculoviruses. Overall, advances in genome library construction and DNA sequencing has allowed for efficient discovery of different molecular targets. Assimilation of these features through such efficient methods can hasten the employment of novel drug candidates.
References
Further reading
External links
Genomic BAC library construction
DNA
Genome databases
Genomics techniques
Molecular biology
it:Libreria di DNA complementare
pl:Biblioteka cDNA
zh:CDNA文庫
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4995503
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kue
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Kue
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Kue is an Indonesian bite-sized snack or dessert food. Kue is a fairly broad term in Indonesian to describe a wide variety of snacks including cakes, cookies, fritters, pies, scones, and patisserie. Kue are made from a variety of ingredients in various forms; some are steamed, fried or baked. Kue are popular snacks in Indonesia, which has the largest variety of kue. Because of the countries' historical colonial ties, Koeé (kue) is also popular in the Netherlands.
Indonesian kue demonstrate local native delicacies, Chinese and Indian influences, as well as European cake and pastry influences. For example, bakpia and kue ku are of Chinese Peranakan origin, kue putu is derived from Indian puttu, while kue bugis, klepon, nagasari, getuk, lupis and wajik are of native origin; on the other hand, lapis legit, kue cubit, kastengel, risoles and pastel are European influenced. In Java, traditional kue is categorized under jajan pasar (). The colourfully decorated jajan pasar is usually given as a food gift, or served to accompany tumpeng (the main dish) during traditional Javanese ceremonies.
Etymology
The term "kue" is derived from Hokkien: 粿 koé. It is also spelled as kuih in Malaysian, and kueh in Singapore. Kue are more often steamed than baked, and are thus very different in texture, flavour and appearance from Western cakes or puff pastries. Many kue are sweet, but some are savoury.
Indonesian kue are usually categorized according to their moisture, roughly divided under two groups, kue basah () and kue kering (). However, the word kue in Indonesian language is used to refer to not only these kinds of traditional snacks, but also to all types of cake and some types of pastries. Most kue kering are technically pastries and many Western cakes can be considered as kue basah.<ref
name="Kue Basah dan Kue Kering"></ref>
Ingredients
Many of the traditional Indonesian kue, either sweet or savoury, are based on rice flour and coconut. Traditionally, Indonesian sweets uses gula aren or palm sugar, yet powdered sugar or common sugar are also widely used. Rice flour and tapioca are probably the most commonly used flours in Indonesian kue. However, due to foreign influences, wheat flour is commonly used. For creamy flavour and texture, traditional Indonesian cakes uses coconut milk, yet today dairy products such as milk, cream, butter, cheese and margarine are also commonly used. Popular flavouring agents and spices includes coconut, peanut, green pandan, ginger, cinnamon, vanilla and chocolate.
Availability
Today, in urban Indonesian society, kue are popular snacks for brunch or afternoon break, often to accompany coffee or tea. Various kue are often offered alongside Western pastries and cakes in cafes, coffee shops, snack stalls and warung kopi.
Traditionally, kue are made prior to certain celebration or events such as lebaran or natal, often homemade in Indonesian households and communities. For example, Keraton Yogyakarta traditionally held Ngapem ceremony, where royal households communally cook kue apem (Javanese version of appam) as a part of the Tingalan Jumenengan Dalem ceremony. Additionally, kue is a lucrative business, commonly available in pasar pagi markets as jajan pasar (market buys).
In Indonesia, kue is one of the most popular street food choices. Street vendors in wheeled carts frequent residential areas or station on busy sidewalks near marketplaces or schools. Certain kue, such as kue rangi, getuk and kue putu are known to be found in residential areas, while kue ape, kue pancong, kue pukis and kue cubit tend to be sold near marketplaces or schools.
In the Netherlands, various assorted selections of koeé are available in Indo toko and eetcafe snack shops.
Kue basah
Most of traditional Indonesian kue are kue basah (wet kue). Most are moist and soft in texture, and are steamed or fried instead of baked. Kue basah is usually made with rich coconut milk, along with sugar and rice flour; as a result it can not keep for more than a day or two, especially in the hot and humid Indonesian tropical climate. In contrast, kue kering can last longer. The examples of kue basah are:
Kue agar-agar, jelly-like pudding.
Kue ape, thin wheat flour batter pancake with thicker center, colloquially called kue tetek (breast cake).
Kue apem, similar to Malay apam which ultimately derived from Indian appam. It is made of cassava tapai, coconut water, coconut sugar, rice flour, coconut milk, all mixed as a dough and steamed until fluffy and cooked. Served with grated coconut.
Kue arem-arem, rice cake snack made of compressed rice cake in the form of a cylinder wrapped inside a banana leaf, filled with diced vegetables, tempeh, oncom, minced meat or beef floss.
Kue asida, dodol-like cake made from a cooked wheat flour dough, sometimes with added butter or honey. It is popular during Ramadan.
Kue bagea, round-shaped and creamy-coloured cake made of sago. This cake has a hard consistency that can be softened in tea or water, to make it easier to chew.
Kue bahulu, tiny crusty sponge cakes which are made in distinctive shapes like buttons or goldfish, being baked in moulded pans. Bahulu is usually baked and served for festive occasions.
Kue bakcang, glutinous rice stuffed with meat (usually pork) and wrapped in bamboo leaf triangles.
Kue bakpau, baozi filled with chocolate, strawberry, cheese, mung bean, red bean, minced beef, diced chicken, or minced pork.
Kue bakpia, bean-filled Chinese pastry originally introduced by Fujianese immigrants. Today associated with Yogyakarta city.
Kue bakpia pathok, round-shaped sweet rolls (bakpia), usually stuffed with mung beans.
Kue barongko, banana cake made of mashed bananas, eggs, coconut milk, sugar and salt. Then wrapped in banana leaves and steamed.
Kue bibingka, baked rice cake made with rice flour, sugar, clarified butter, and coconut milk.
Kue bika ambon, yellow porous cake made from tapioca and sago flour, eggs, sugar and coconut milk. Bika Ambon is generally sold in pandan flavour, although it has become available in other flavors like banana, durian, cheese, and chocolate.
Kue bingka, cake made from mashed potato, flour, eggs, sugar, coconut milk, vanilla, milk and margarine, all mixed as dough and baked until golden brown and cooked. Probably related to Philippines bibingka cake.
Kue bitterballen, round-shape meat-based snack, similar to kroket.
Kue bolen, baked pastry with crust layers similar to those of croissants, made from flour with butter or margarine layers, filled with cheese and banana. Other variants use durian fillings. The cake demonstrates European pastry influences.
Kue bolu, various sponge cakes and tarts.
Kue bolu beras, rice muffin cake.
Kue bolu gulung, Swiss roll cake filled with butter cream, cheese, kaya, or fruit jam. It is also very common for Swiss rolls to be sold by the slice, but some shops sell by both slice and roll.
Kue bolu kukus, steamed bun made of flour, sugar, eggs, margarine, and vanilla or chocolate flavouring.
Kue brem, fermented-tapai-based cake.
Kue bugis, steamed glutinous rice flour and tapioca colored green with pandan, filled with grated coconut and coconut sugar, wrapped inside banana leaf.
Kue bulan, circular cake shaped like the moon, white and thinner than regular mooncake. Fillings may include pork, chocolate, cheese, milk, durian, jackfruit and many other exotic fruits made into a paste.
Kue burgo, folded rice pancake served in savoury whitish coconut milk-based soup, flavoured with fish, and sprinkled with fried shallots.
, sweet pastry made of eggs that are beaten until foamy with fine sugar. Formed using triangular plastic moulds and baked in the oven.
Kue cakwe, long golden-brown deep-fried strip of dough, commonly chopped or thinly sliced and usually eaten for breakfast with bubur ayam.
Kue cara, savory deep-fried dough with toppings of seasoned shredded tuna, a slice of chili, scallion, and celery.
Kue carabikang, a sweet cake made of rice flour, shaped like flower-chapped and colorful.
, rice flour-based small glutinous cake, sweetened with sugar, moulded and coloured. Served with fresh grated coconut.
Kue cilok, ball-shaped dumpling made from tapioca starch.
Kue cincin, deep-fried dough pastry-based snack
Kue clorot, the sticky dough of glutinous rice flour sweetened with coconut sugar filled into the cone-shaped janur (young coconut leaf), and steamed until cooked.
Kue combro, fritter cake made from grated cassava with round or oval shape. Combro can filled with oncom and chili.
Kue cubit, made primarily of flour, baking powder, sugar and milk. Liquid dough is poured inside a steel plate with several small round basins to form round shape. Topped with meises (chocolate granules not unlike sprinkles). Sellers use special hooked sticks to removed the cooked cakes from the steel plate. This cake is called kue "cubit" (Indonesian: pinch) because of its small bite size.
Kue cucur, pancake made of fried rice flour batter and coconut sugar.
Kue dadar gulung, grated coconut with coconut sugar wrapped inside a thin crepe made of rice flour. The dadar (crepe) is usually coloured green.
Kue dangke, traditional cheese made from buffalo or cow milk.
Kue dodol, rice flour-based small glutinous sweets, sweetened with coconut sugar, moulded and coloured. Bakers often add fruit scents and tastes such as durian.
Kue dodol susu, milk dodol cake.
Kue donat jawa, traditional doughnut snack, typically savoury, made of cassava instead of potato or flour.
Kue ganjel rel, rectangular-shaped brown cake with sesame seeds, flavored with cinnamon and palm sugar.
Kue gemblong, made of glutinous rice flour formed into a ball, deep fried and then coated with palm sugar.
Kue geplak, sweet cake made of grated coconut and sugar, often brightly colored.
Kue getuk, made of cassava flour and coconut sugar, served with sweetened grated coconut.
Kue jalangkote, fried pastry with an empanada shape and stuffed with vegetables, potatoes and eggs. Often served with spicy, sweet and sour sauce for dipping.
Kue jemput-jemput, fritter snack made from flour and then fried. It is usually round in shape and tends to vary in size.
Kue jongkong bangka, a three layers pandan rice pudding in a cup.
Kue jongkong semarang, a glutinous steamed cake of grated cassava mixed with salt and whiting water. It is filled with palm sugar inside and served with grated coconut on top.
Kue jongkong surabaya, a layered two color (green and grey) cake made from natural food coloring those are suji and abu merang.
Kue kamir, round-shaped cake similar to apem, made from a flour, butter, and egg mixture, sometimes mixed with other ingredients such as banana or tapai.
Kue karipap, small pie consisting of curry with chicken and potatoes in a deep-fried or baked pastry shell. It can be also filled with meat mixed with vegetables (chopped carrot and beans), rice vermicelli, and sometimes egg, then deep fried in vegetable oil.
Kue keranjang, traditional cake made of glutinous rice flour and consumed during Chinese New Year.
Kue keria, fried doughnuts made with a sweet potato batter and rolled in caster sugar.
Kue klappertaart, coconut tart, specialty of Manado, North Sulawesi.
Kue klepon, balls of glutinous rice flour filled with gula jawa (red coconut sugar), boiled or steamed. The balls are rolled upon grated coconut to coat the balls. It is called "onde-onde" in Sumatra and Malay Peninsula.
Kue kochi, dumpling cake made from glutinous rice flour, and stuffed with coconut fillings and palm sugar.
Kue kompia, bread cake made with lard, onions, salt and flour.
Kue kroket, Indonesian version of potato croquette, introduced during the Dutch colonial rule. The kroket is made of potato and minced chicken inside a crepe-like wrapper and is a popular snack item in Indonesia.
Kue ku, Chinese-origin kue of sticky rice flour with sweet filling. The same as Chinese "ang ku kueh".
Kue laddu, a sweet dough pastry made of flour, fat and sugar.
Kue laklak, traditional small pancakes made of rice flour, suji leaf extract and baking powder with grated coconut and melted palm sugar.
Kue lapis, layered colorful cake made of glutinous rice flour, coconut and sugar
Kue lapis legit, also known as Kue lapis Batavia or spekkoek (layer cake) is a rich kue consisting of thin alternating layers made of butter, eggs and sugar. Each layer is laid down and grilled separately, making the creation of a kueh lapis an extremely laborious and time-consuming process.
Kue leker, stuffed crepe. Semicircle in shape and crusty in texture, it is generally filled with a spatter of sweetened condensed chocolate milk or grated cheese. Its name was derived from the Dutch word lekker which roughly means "delicious".
Kue lemper, made of glutinous rice filled with chicken, fish or abon (meat floss). The meat filling is rolled inside the rice, in a fashion similar to an egg roll.
Kue lumpia, spring roll made of thin paper-like or crepe-like pastry skin called "lumpia wrapper" with savory or sweet fillings. It is often served as an appetizer or snack, and might be served deep fried or raw.
Kue lupis, compressed glutinous rice served with grated coconut and coconut sugar syrup.
Kue madumongso, snack made from a base of black sticky rice.
Kue makmur, traditional cake made from butter, ghee and flour. Served during special occasion of Eid al-Fitr and identified by its white colour and round shape.
Kue mangkok Indonesian traditional cupcake, usually sweetened with palm sugar or tapai (fermented cassava).
Kue martabak, stuffed pancake or pan-fried bread. This appetizer is a spicy folded omelette pancake with bits of vegetables, sometimes mixed with green onion and minced meat, made from pan fried crepes folded and cut to squares.
Kue moci, the same recipe and derived from Japanese mochi, glutinous pounded rice flour filled with sweet peanut paste. Some variants are covered with sesame seeds.
Kue modak, a rice flour dumpling filled with sweet coconut and jaggery.
Kue nagasari or kue pisang, traditional steamed cake made from rice flour, coconut milk and sugar, filled with slices of banana.
Kue nopia, palm sugar-filled pastry smaller size than bakpia.
Kue oliebol, dumpling cake of fried bread.
Kue ombusombus, sticky rice cake with palm sugar filling, rolled in coconut flakes.
Kue onde-onde, the same as Chinese jian dui. In Sumatra, onde-onde refer to klepon.
Kue ongol-ongol, sweet cake made of sago, salt, pandan leaf and palm sugar.
Kue pai ti, thin and crispy pastry tart shell kue filled with a spicy, sweet mixture of thinly sliced vegetables and prawns.
Kue panada, fried bread cake filled with spicy tuna.
Kue pancong, rice flour and coconut milk cake.
Kue pandan, fluffy cake made of eggs, sugar, and flour, flavoured with Pandanus extract, usually colored light green.
Kue pastel, pie of crust made of thin pastry filled with meat (usually chicken) mixed with vegetables (chopped carrot and beans), rice vermicelli and sometimes egg, then deep-fried in vegetable oil. It is thought to be of Portuguese origin. Its shape is similar to Malaysian karipap (curry puff) but curry paste/powder is absent.
Kue pastel de nata, egg tart pastry dusted with cinnamon, derived from Portuguese cuisine.
Kue pau, word for 'bun'; sometimes written as bak-pau, literally meaning 'meat-bun', which is a bun with meat fillings.
Kue pinyaram, traditional cake made from white sugar or palm sugar, white rice flour or black rice, and coconut milk.
Kue pisang cokelat, savoury snack made of slices of banana with melted chocolate or chocolate syrup, wrapped inside thin crepe-like pastry skin and being deep fried.
Kue pisang goreng, battered and deep-fried banana or plantain.
Kue pisang molen, fried banana wrapped in stripe of wheat flour dough. The term molen refer to "mill" in Dutch, suggested its Dutch influence.
Kue poffertjes, Dutch-influenced batter pancakes.
Kue popiah, spring roll with Chinese-origin and Fujian-style. This dish is almost equivalent to lumpia.
Kue pukis, cake made from egg mixture, granulated sugar, flour, yeast and coconut milk. The mixture is then poured into a half-moon mould and baked on fires. Pukis can be considered a modification of waffles.
Kue putu, rice flour with green pandan leaf coloring, cooked with palm sugar filling, steamed in bamboo pipes, and served with grated coconut.
Kue putu mangkok, round-shaped, traditional steamed rice flour kue filled with palm sugar, similar to kue putu.
Kue putu mayang, idiyappam-like cake that made from starch or rice flour shaped like noodles, with a mixture of coconut milk, and served with kinca or liquid javanese sugar.
Kue rangi, coconut waffle, made from sago flour mixed with shredded coconut and served with a splash of palm sugar sauce.
Kue risoles, a mixture of minced meat, beans and carrots wrapped inside thin flour omelette, covered with bread crumbs and fried.
Kue samosa, fried or baked dumpling with a savoury fillings, such as spiced potatoes, onions or peas.
Kue semar mendem, variant of lemper, instead wrapped with banana leaf, while the glutinous rice is filled with chicken, fish or meat floss, wrapped inside thin egg omelette.
Kue serabi, pancake that is made from rice flour with coconut milk or shredded coconut as an emulsifier.
Kue soes, a baked pastry filled with soft and moist cream.
Kue spiku, made with similar ingredients to lapis legit but with only three layers of plain and chocolate flavour layered cake.
Kue talam (), made of rice flour, coconut milk and sugar steamed in cake mould or cups.
Kue timphan, steamed banana and glutinous rice cake wrapped in banana leaves, from Aceh.
Kue wajik, a diamond-shaped compressed sweet glutinous rice cake.
Kue wingko, a traditional Javanese pancake-like snack made from coconut.
Kue kering
In Indonesian language kue kering (dried kue) is identical to Western cookies. Almost all kue kering are baked or fried with minimal or no water content, and thus they have longer shelf life compared to kue basah, which easily spoil. Some variants, especially kaasstengels, plainly demonstrate Dutch origin (kaas is Dutch word for cheese). Kue kering is often served during annual holidays and important festivities, popularly offered to visiting guests during Lebaran and Natal. Examples of kue kering are:
Kue akar kelapa
Kue bangkit, sagoo cookie
Kue bola keju
Kue cistik, kue cheese stick
Kue durian renyah
Kue gapit, tapioca waffle
Kue jahe
Kue keju suiker
Kue Kaasstengels, cheese cookie
Kue kacang sabit
Kue kering coklat
Kue keciput (kue buah rotan)
Kue kelapa
Kue kopi kelapa
Kue kurma
Kue kuping gajah
Kue lanting
Kue leker
Kue lidah kucing
Kue nastar
Kue nastar cengkeh
Kue nastar keju
Kue nastar lemon
Kue putri salju, cookies coated with white powdered sugar
Kue semprong, cone shaped pastry
Kue sagu
Kue sagu keju
Kue satu or kue koya
Kue semprit
Kue sus kering keju
Kue tambang
Kue telur gabus
Gallery
See also
Cucur
Dodol
Ketupat
Kuih
Lemang
List of steamed foods
List of Indonesian snacks
Kue nagasari
References
External links
Steamed foods
Street food in Indonesia
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4995538
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution%20of%20Indonesia
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Constitution of Indonesia
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The 1945 State Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia (, commonly abbreviated as UUD 1945 or UUD '45) is the supreme law and basis for all laws of Indonesia.
The constitution was written in June, July, and August 1945, in the final months of the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies at the end of World War II. It was abrogated by the Federal Constitution of 1949 and the Provisional Constitution of 1950, but restored by President Sukarno's 1959 Decree.
The 1945 Constitution sets forth the Pancasila, the five nationalist principles, as the embodiment of basic principles of an independent Indonesian state. It provides for a limited separation of executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The governmental system has been described as "presidential with parliamentary characteristics." Following major upheavals in 1998 and the resignation of President Suharto, several political reforms were set in motion, via amendments to the Constitution, which resulted in changes to all branches of government as well as additional human rights provisions.
History
The writing
The Japanese invaded the Dutch East Indies in 1942, defeated the Dutch colonial regime, and occupied it for the duration of World War II. The territory then fell under the jurisdiction of the Japanese Southern Expeditionary Army Group (南方軍, Nanpō gun), based in Saigon, Vietnam. The Japanese divided the territory into three military government regions, based on the largest islands: Sumatra was under the Japanese 25th Army, Java under the Japanese 16th Army and East Indonesia (the eastern islands), including part of Borneo (Sarawak and Sabah were under the Japanese 38th Army) was under the Imperial Japanese Navy. As the Japanese military position became increasingly untenable, especially after their defeat at the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944, more and more native Indonesians were appointed to official positions in the occupation administration.
On 1 March 1945, the 16th Army established the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (), for Java. The 25th Army later established a BPUPK for Sumatra. No such organisation existed for the remainder of the East Indies.
The BPUPK in Java, when established, consisted of 62 members, but there were 68 in the second session. It was chaired by Radjiman Wedyodiningrat (1879–1951). The future president Sukarno and vice-president Mohammad Hatta were among its members. It met in the building that had been used by the Dutch colonial quasi-parliament, the Volksraad ("People's Council") in central Jakarta. It held two sessions, 29 May – 1 June and 10–17 July 1945. The first session discussed general matters, including the philosophy of the state for future independent Indonesia, Pancasila, which future president Sukarno outlined in a speech on 1 June.
During the recess between the two BPUPK sessions, a Committee of Nine (Panitia Sembilan) comprising Sukarno, Hatta, Yamin, Maramis, Soebardjo, Wahid Hasjim, Muzakkir, Agus Salim and Abikoesno reformulated Sukarno's Pancasila in to a preamble for the future constitution. This later became known as the Jakarta Charter. This was something of a compromise, and included an obligation for Muslims to follow Sharia (Islamic law). In the second session, which opened on 10 July, a committee of 19 people produced a provisional constitution. They were:
Sukarno
A.A. Maramis
Puruboyo
Oto Iskandar di Nata
Agus Salim
Achmad Soebardjo
Soepomo
Maria Ulfah Santoso
Wahid Hasyim
Parada Harahap
Johannes Latuharhary
Susanto Tirtoprodjo
Sartono
Wongsonegoro
Wuryaningrat
Singgih
Tan Eng Hoa
Jayadiningrat
Soekiman Wirjosandjojo
The draft constitution comprised 37 articles, 4 transitory provisions and 2 additional provisions. The nation would be a unitary state and a republic.
On 26 July 1945, the Allies called for the unconditional surrender of Japan in the Potsdam Declaration. The Japanese authorities, realising they would probably lose the war, began to make firm plans for Indonesian independence, more to spite the Dutch than anything else. On 6 August, an atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. On 7 August, the Southern Expeditionary Army Group headquarters announced that an Indonesian leader could enact a body called the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI). The dropping of a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki, and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria on 9 August prompted the Japanese to surrender unconditionally on 15 August 1945. Sukarno and Hatta declared independence on 17 August 1945, and the PPKI met the following day.
In the meeting chaired by Sukarno, the 27 members, including Hatta, Soepomo, Wachid Hasjim, Sam Ratulangi and Subardjo, began to discuss the proposed constitution article by article. The Committee made some fundamental changes, including the removal of 7 words from the text of Jakarta Charter which stated the obligation for Muslims to follow Sharia. The new charter then became the preambule of the constitution, and the clause stating that the president must be a Muslim was removed. The historical compromise was made possible in part by the influence of Mohamad Hatta and Tengku Mohamad Hasan. The Committee then officially adopted the Constitution.
On 29 August, Sukarno dissolved the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence and established the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP). Sukarno and Hatta appointed 135 members, including the membership of the PPKI to this new body. It included people representing areas outside Java, Islam, women and young people.
Other constitutions
Following the transfer of sovereignty to the United States of Indonesia (RIS), in December 1949, the state adopted a bicameral system. The KNIP met for the last time on 15 December 1949 to agree to the Republic of Indonesia joining the United States of Indonesia (RIS). However, this state was short lived and when Indonesia became a unitary state in August 1950, the Working Committee of the KNIP became part of the House of Representatives and Constitution 1945 (usually referred to by the Indonesian acronym "UUD'45") remained in force until it was replaced by the Federal Constitution on 27 December 1949. This was in turn replaced by the Provisional Constitution on 17 August 1950 which in the end turned back into the unitary state of the republic of Indonesia.
In 1955 elections were held for the House of Representatives (DPR) as well as for a Constitutional Assembly to draw up a definitive constitution. However, this became bogged down in disputes between nationalists and Islamists, primarily over the role of Islam in Indonesia. Sukarno became increasingly disillusioned by this stagnation and with the support of the military, who saw a much greater constitutional role for themselves, began to push for a return to the 1945 Constitution. This was put to the vote on 30 May 1958 and 2 June 1959, but the motion failed to gain the required two-thirds majority. Finally, on 5 July 1959 President Sukarno issued a decree dissolving the assembly and returning to the 1945 Constitution.
Constitutional amendments
Suharto, who officially became president in 1968, refused to countenance any changes to the Constitution despite the fact that even Sukarno had viewed it as a provisional document. In 1983, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) passed a decree stipulating the need for a nationwide referendum to be held before any amendments were made to the Constitution. This led to a 1985 law requiring such a referendum to have a 90% turnout and for any changes to be approved by a 90% vote. Then in 1997, the activist Sri Bintang Pamungkas and two colleagues were arrested and jailed for publishing a proposed modified version of the 1945 Constitution.
With the fall of Suharto and the New Order regime in 1998, the 1983 decree and 1985 law were rescinded and the way was clear to amend the Constitution to make it more democratic. This was done in four stages at sessions of the MPR in 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002. As a result, the original Constitution has grown from 37 articles to 73, of which only 11% remain unchanged from the original constitution.
The most important of the changes were:
Limiting presidents to two terms of office
Establishing a Regional Representative Council (DPD), which together with the DPR makes up an entirely elected MPR.
Purifying and empowering presidential system of government, instead of a semi presidential one.
Stipulating democratic, direct elections for the president, instead of the president being elected by the MPR
Reorganizing the mechanism of horizontal relation among state organs, instead of giving the highest constitutional position to the People's Assembly.
Abolishing the Supreme Advisory Council
Mandating direct, general, free, secret, honest, and fair elections for the House of Representatives and regional legislatures
Establishing a Constitutional Court for guarding and defending the constitutional system as set forth in the constitution.
Establishing a Judicial Commission
The addition of ten entirely new articles concerning human rights.
Among the above changes, the establishment of Constitutional Court is regarded as a successful innovation in Indonesia constitutional system. The court was established in 2003 by 9 justices head by Professor Jimly Asshiddiqie ,a prominent scholar from the University of Indonesia. There are five jurisdictions of the court, i.e. (i) constitutional review of law, (ii) disputes of constitutional jurisdiction between state institutions, (iii) disputes on electoral results, (iv) dissolution of political parties, and (v) impeachment of the president/vice-president. The other icon of success in Indonesian reform is the establishment of the Corruption Eradication Commission which independently fights against corruption and grafts. Corruption in Indonesia is regarded an extraordinary crime.
Legal standing
The 1945 Constitution has the highest legal authority in the country's system of government. The executive, legislative and judicial branches of government must defer to it. The Constitution was originally officially enacted on 18 August 1945. The attached Elucidation, drawn up by Prof. Raden Soepomo (1903–1958), Indonesia's first justice minister, was officially declared to be a part of the Constitution on 5 July 1959. The Preamble, the body of the Constitution and the Elucidation were all reaffirmed as inseparable parts of the Constitution in 1959, and then again in Provisional MPR Decree No. XX/MPRS/1966. However, since the amendments, the Elucidation has not been updated, and still refers to the original document, including parts that have been removed, such as Chapter IV. During the sessions in the People's Assembly, all the ideas set forth in the Elucidation was transformed become articles in the new amendments. Lastly, final article of the amended Constitution states that the Constitution consists of the Preamble and the articles.
Contents
Preamble
The preamble to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia contains the Pancasila state philosophy.
THE PREAMBLE OF THE 1945 CONSTITUTION
Whereas Independence is the inalienable right of all nations; therefore, colonialism must be abolished in the world as it is not in conformity with humanity and justice.
And the moment of rejoicing has arrived in the struggle of the Indonesian independence movement to guide the people safely and well to the gate of the independence of the state of Indonesia which is independent, united, sovereign, just and prosperous;
By the blessings of Almighty God and motivated by the noble desire to live a free national life, the people of Indonesia hereby declare their independence.
Subsequent thereto, to form a government of the state of Indonesia which protect all the people of Indonesia and all the independence and the land that has been struggled for, and to improve public welfare, to educate the life of the nation and to participate toward the establishment of a world order based on freedom, perpetual peace and social justice, therefore the independence of Indonesia is formulated into a constitution of the Republic of Indonesia which is built into a sovereign state based on a belief in the One and Only God, just and civilized humanity, the unity of Indonesia, and democratic life led by wisdom of thoughts in deliberation amongst representatives of the people, and achieving social justice for all the people of Indonesia.
The Constitution
Chapter I: Form of state and sovereignty
States that Indonesia is a unitary republic based on law with sovereignty in the hands of the people and exercised through laws.
Chapter II: People's Consultative Assembly
States that the People's Consultative Assembly is made up of the members of the House of Representatives and the Regional Representatives Council, all of the members of both bodies being directly elected. The People's Consultative Assembly changes and passes laws, appoints the president, and can only dismiss the president or vice-president during their terms of office according to law.
Chapter III: Executive power
Outlines the powers of the president. States the requirements for the president and vice-president. Limits the president and vice-president to two terms of office and states that they be elected in a general election. Specifies the impeachment procedure. Includes the wording of the presidential and vice-presidential oath and promise of office.
Chapter IV: Supreme advisory council
The entire articles of this chapter has been removed by the fourth amendment of the Constitution. Previously, states the role of Supreme Advisory Council.
Chapter V: State ministries
Four short articles giving the cabinet a constitutional basis. The president appoints ministers.
Chapter VI: Local governments
Explains how Indonesia is divided into provinces, regencies and cities, each with its own administration chosen by general election. The leaders of these administrations are "chosen democratically". Autonomy is applied as widely as possible. The state recognises the special nature of certain regions.
Chapter VII: House of Representatives
Its members are elected by general election. It has the right to pass laws, and has legislative, budgeting and oversight functions. It has the right to request government statements and to put forward opinions.
Chapter VII-A: The Regional Representatives Council
An equal number of members is chosen from each province via a general election. The Council can suggest bills related to regional issues to the House of Representatives. It also advises the House on matters concerning taxes, education and religion.
Chapter VII-B: General elections
General elections to elect the members of the House of Representatives, the Regional Representatives Council, the president and vice-president and the regional legislatures are free, secret, honest and fair and are held every five years. Candidates for the House of Representatives and regional legislatures represent political parties: those for the Regional Representatives Council are individuals.
Chapter VIII: Financial matters
States that the president puts forward the annual state budget for consideration by the House of Representatives.
Chapter VIII-A: Audit Board
Explains that this exists to oversee the management of state funds.
Chapter IX: Judicial powers
Affirms the independence of the judiciary. Explains the role and position of the Supreme Court as well as the role of the Judicial Commission. Also states the role of the Constitutional Court.
Chapter IX-A: State territory
States that the nation is an archipelago whose borders and rights are laid down by law.
Chapter X: Citizens and residents
Defines citizens and residents, and states that all citizens are equal before the law.
Chapter X-A: Human rights
Details the human rights guaranteed to all, including:
the right of children to grow up free of violence and discrimination
the right of all to legal certainty
the right to religious freedom
the right to choose education, work and citizenship as well as the right to choose where to live
the right of assembly, association and expression of opinion
the right to be free from torture
It also states that the rights not to be tortured, to have freedom of thought and conscience, of religion, to not be enslaved, to be recognised as an individual before the law and to not be charged under retroactive legislation cannot be revoked under any circumstances. Furthermore, every person has the right to freedom from discrimination on any grounds whatsoever.
Finally, every person is obliged to respect the rights of others.
Chapter XI: Religion
The nation is based on belief in God, but the state guarantees religious freedom for all.
Chapter XII: State defence and security
States that all citizens have an obligation and right to participate in the defence of the nation. Outlines the structure and roles of the armed forces and the police.
Chapter XIII: Education and culture
States that every citizen has the right to an education. Also obliges the government to allocate 20 percent of the state budget to education.
Chapter XIV: National economy and social welfare
States that major means of production are to be controlled by the state. Also states that the state takes care of the poor.
Chapter XV: National flag, language, emblem, and anthem
Specifies the flag, official language, coat of arms, and national anthem of Indonesia.
Chapter XVI: Constitutional amendment
Lays down the procedures for proposing changes and amending the Constitution. Two-thirds of the members of the People's Consultative Assembly must be present: any proposed amendment requires a simple majority of the entire People's Consultative Assembly membership. The form of the unitary state cannot be changed.
Transitional provisions
States that laws and bodies continue to exist until new ones are specified in this constitution. Calls for the establishment of a Constitutional court before 17 August 2003.
Additional provisions
Tasks the People's Consultative Assembly with re-examining decrees passed by it and its predecessors for their validity to be determined in the 2003 general session.
See also
Constitutional economics
Constitutionalism
Notes
References
Adnan Buyung Nasution (2001) The Transition to Democracy: Lessons from the Tragedy of Konstituante in Crafting Indonesian Democracy, Mizan Media Utama, Jakarta,
Dahlan Thaib, Dr. H, (1999), Teori Hukum dan Konstitusi (Legal and Constitutional Theory), Rajawali Press, Jakarta,
Denny Indrayana (2008) Indonesian Constitutional Reform 1999-2002: An Evaluation of Constitution-Making in Transition, Kompas Book Publishing, Jakarta .
Jimly Asshiddiqie (2005), Konstitusi dan Konstitutionalisme Indonesia (Indonesia Constitution and Constitutionalism), MKRI, Jakarta.
Jimly Asshiddiqie (1994), Gagasan Kedaulatan Rakyat dalam Konstitusi dan Pelaksanaannya di Indonesia (The Idea of People's Sovereignty in the Constitution), Ichtiar Baru - van Hoeve, Jakarta, .
Jimly Asshiddiqie (2009), The Constitutional Law of Indonesia, Maxwell Asia, Singapore.
Jimly Asshiddiqie (2005), Hukum Tata Negara dan Pilar-Pilar Demokrasi (Constitutional Law and the Pillars of Democracy), Konpres, Jakarta, .
Nadirsyah Hosen, (2007) Shari'a and Constitutional Reform in Indonesia, ISEAS, Singapore
Saafroedin Bahar,Ananda B.Kusuma,Nannie Hudawati, eds, (1995) Risalah Sidang Badan Penyelidik Usahah Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesian (BPUPKI) Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (PPKI) (Minutes of the Meetings of the Agency for Investigating Efforts for the Preparation of Indonesian Independence and the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence), Sekretariat Negara Republik Indonesia, Jakarta
Sri Bintang Pamungkas (1999), Konstitusi Kita dan Rancangan UUD-1945 Yang Disempurnakan (Our Constitution and a Proposal for an Improved Version of the 1945 Constitution), Partai Uni Demokrasi, Jakarta, No ISBN
Politics of Indonesia
Indonesia
Sukarno
1945 documents
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samothrace%20temple%20complex
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Samothrace temple complex
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The Samothrace Temple Complex, known as the Sanctuary of the Great Gods (Modern Greek: Ιερό των Μεγάλων Θεών Ieró ton Megálon Theón), is one of the principal Pan-Hellenic religious sanctuaries, located on the island of Samothrace within the larger Thrace. Built immediately to the west of the ramparts of the city of Samothrace, it was nonetheless independent, as attested to by the dispatch of city ambassadors during festivals.
It was celebrated throughout Ancient Greece for its Mystery religion. Numerous famous people were initiates, including the historian Herodotus, one of very few authors to have left behind a few clues to the nature of the mysteries, the Spartan leader Lysander, and numerous Athenians. The temple complex is mentioned by Plato and Aristophanes.
During the Hellenistic period, after the investiture of Phillip II, it formed a Macedonian national sanctuary where the successors to Alexander the Great vied to outdo each other's munificence. It remained an important religious site throughout the Roman period. Hadrian visited, and Varro described the mysteries. The cult fades from history towards the end of Late Antiquity, when the temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire.
Cult of the Great Gods
The identity and nature of the deities venerated at the sanctuary remains largely enigmatic, in large part because it was taboo to pronounce their names. Literary sources from antiquity refer to them under the collective name of "Cabeiri" (Greek: Kábiroi), while they carry the simpler epithet of Gods or Great Gods, which was a title or state of being rather than the actual name, ( Megáloi Theoí) on inscriptions found on the site.
The pantheon of Samothrace
The Pantheon of the Great Gods consists of numerous chthonic deities, primarily predating the arrival of Greek colonists on the island in the 7th century BC, and congregating around one central figure – the Great Mother.
The Great Mother, a goddess often depicted on Samothracian coinage as a seated woman, with a lion at her side. Her original secret name was Axiéros. She is associated with the Anatolian Great Mother, the Phrygian Mount, and the Trojan Mother Goddess of Mount Ida. The Greeks associated her equally with the fertility goddess Demeter. The Great Mother is the all-powerful mistress of the wild world of the mountains, venerated on sacred rocks where sacrifices and offerings were made to her. In the sanctuary of Samothrace, these altars correspond to porphyry outcroppings of various colours (red, green, blue, or grey). For her faithful, her power also manifested itself in veins of magnetic iron, from which they fashioned rings that initiates wore as signs of recognition. A number of these rings were recovered from the tombs in the neighbouring necropolis.
Hecate, under the name of Zerynthia, and Aphrodite-Zerynthia, two important nature goddesses, are equally venerated at Samothrace, their cult having been distanced from that of the Great Mother and more closely identified with deities more familiar to the Greeks.
Kadmilos (), the spouse of Axiéros, is a fertility god identified by the Greeks as Hermes; a phallic deity whose sacred symbols were a ram's head and a baton (kerykeion), which was obviously a phallic symbol and can be found on some currency.
Two other masculine deities accompany Kadmilos. These may correspond to the two legendary heroes who founded the Samothracean mysteries: the brothers Dardanos () and Iasion (), also called Eetion (). They are associated by the Greeks with the Dioscuri, divine twins popular as protectors of mariners in distress.
A pair of underworld deities, Axiokersos and Axiokersa, are identified to Hades and Persephone, but do not appear to be part of the original group of pre-Hellenic deities. The legend (familiar to the Greeks) of the rape of the goddess of fertility by the god of the underworld also plays a part in the sacred dramas celebrated at Samothrace; although less so than at Eleusis.
During a later period this same myth was associated with that of the marriage of Cadmos and Harmony, possibly due to a similarity of names to Kadmilos and Electra.
The rituals
The whole of the sanctuary was open to all who wished to worship the Great Gods, although access to buildings consecrated to the mysteries was understood to be reserved for initiates. These rituals and ceremonies were presided over by the priestess in service to the people. The head priestess, and often a prophetess, was titled a Sybil, or Cybele.
The most common rituals were indistinguishable from practice at other Greek sanctuaries. Prayer and supplications accompanied by blood sacrifices of domestic animals (sheep and pigs) burnt in sacred hearths ( eschárai), as well as libations made to the chthonic deities in circular or rectangular ritual pits ( bóthros). A large number of rock altars were used, the largest of which was surrounded by a monumental enclosure at the end of the 4th century BC (site plan, number 11).
The major annual festival, which drew envoys to the island from throughout the Greek world, probably took place in mid-July. It consisted of the presentation of a sacred play, which entailed a ritual wedding (ιερός γάμος hierós gámos); this may have taken place in the building with the Dancer's Wall which was built in the 4th century BC. During this era the belief arose that the search for the missing maiden, followed by her marriage to the god of the underworld, represented the marriage of Cadmos and Harmonia. The frieze (see photo below) on which the Temenos is indicated may be an allusion to this marriage. Around 200 BC, a Dionysian competition was added to the festival, facilitated by the construction of a theatre (site plan, number 10) opposite the great altar (site plan, number 11).
According to local myth, it is in this era that the city of Samothrace honoured a poet of Iasos in Caria for having composed the tragedy Dardanos and having effected other acts of good will around the island, the city, and the sanctuary.
Numerous votive offerings were made at the sanctuary, which were placed in a building made for the purpose next to the great altar (site plan, number 12). Offerings could be statues of bronze, marble or clay, weapons, vases, etc. However, due to Samothrace's location on busy maritime routes the cult was particularly popular and numerous often very modest offerings found their way there: excavations have turned up seashells and fish hooks offered by mariners or fishermen who were likely thanking the divinities for having protected them from the dangers of the sea.
The initiation
A unique feature of the Samothracean mystery cult was its openness: as compared to the Eleusinian Mysteries, the initiation had no prerequisites for age, gender, status or nationality. Everyone, men and women, adults and children, Greeks and non-Greeks, the free, the indentured, or the enslaved could participate. Nor was the initiation confined to a specific date and the initiate could on the same day attain two successive degrees of the mystery. The only condition, in fact, was to be present in the sanctuary.
The first stage of the initiation was the myesis (). A sacred account and special symbols were revealed to the mystes (); that is to say the initiate. In this fashion, Herodotus was given a revelation concerning the significance of phallic images of Hermes-Kadmilos. According to Varro, the symbols revealed on this occasion symbolized heaven and earth. In return for this revelation, which was kept secret, the initiate was given the assurance of certain privileges: Hope for a better life, and more particularly protection at sea, and possibly, as at Eleusis, the promise of a happy afterlife. During the ceremony the initiate received a crimson sash knotted around the waist that was supposed to be a protective talisman. An iron ring exposed to the divine power of magnetic stones was probably another symbol of protection conferred during the initiation.
The preparation for the initiation took place in a small room south of the Anaktoron (site plan, number 16; literally the House of the Lords), a type of sacristy where the initiate was dressed in white and was given a lamp. The myesis then took place in the Anaktoron, a large hall capable of accommodating numerous already initiated faithful, who would attend the ceremony seated on benches along the walls. The initiate carried out a ritual washing in a basin situated in the southeast corner and then made a libation to the gods in a circular pit. At the end of the ceremony, the initiate took his place seated on a round wooden platform facing the principal door while ritual dances took place around him. He was then taken to the north chamber, the sanctuary where he received the revelation proper. Access to this sanctuary was forbidden to non-initiates. The initiate was given a document attesting to his initiation in the mysteries and could, at least during the later period, pay to have his name engraved on a commemorative plaque.
The second degree of the initiation was called the epoptia (, literally, the contemplation). Unlike the one year interval between degrees which was demanded at Eleusis, the second degree at Samothrace could be obtained immediately after the myesis. In spite of this, it was only realized by a small number of initiates, which leads us to believe that it involved some difficult conditions, though it is unlikely that these conditions were financial or social. Lehman assessed that it concerned moral issues, as the candidate was auditioned and required to confess his sins. This audition took place overnight in front of the Hieron (site plan, number 13; literally the holy place). A foundation was recovered here which could have supported a giant torch; generally speaking, the discovery of numerous lamps and torch supports throughout this site confirms the nocturnal nature of the initiation rites. After the interrogation and the eventual absolution awarded by the priest or official the candidate was brought into the Hieron, which also functioned as an epoption (place of contemplation) where ritual cleansing took place and sacrifice was made into a sacred hearth located in the center of the "holy of holies". The initiate then went to an apse in the rear of the building, which was probably intended to resemble a grotto. The hierophant ( hierophántes), otherwise known as the initiator, took his place on a platform (βήμα béma), in the apse where he recited the liturgy and displayed the symbols of the mysteries.
During the Roman era, towards 200 AD, the entrance to the Hieron was modified to permit the entrance of live sacrificial offerings. A parapet was constructed in the interior to protect the spectators and a crypt was fitted into the apse. These modifications permitted the celebration of the Kriobolia and the Taurobolia of the Anatolian Magna Mater, which were introduced to the epopteia at this time. The new rites saw the initiate, or possibly only the priest by proxy, descend into a pit in the apse. The blood of the sacrificial animals then flowed over him or her in the fashion of a baptismal rite.
Description of the sanctuary
The Samothrace site may appear to be somewhat confusing at first glance; this is due to a combination of the unusual topography and the two century long period over which the site was developed. The sanctuary occupies three narrow terraces on the west slopes of mount Hagios Georgios, separated by two steep-banked torrents. The entrance is in the east through the Ptolemy II propylaeum, also known as the Ptolemaion (site plan number 20), which spans the eastern brook and functions as a bridge. Immediately to the west, on the first terrace, there is a somewhat circular paved depression, containing an altar in the centre, which was undoubtedly a sacrificial area; although the precise function of this place has not further been determined.
A winding path descends towards the main terrace, between two brooks, where the main monuments to the cult can be found. A large tholos, the Arsinoëion, or Arsinoë Rotunda (site plan number 15), the largest covered round space in the ancient Greek world (20 m in diameter), may have served to welcome the theoroi, sacred ambassadors delegated by cities and associations to attend the great festivals at the sanctuary. The decoration of rosettes and garlanded bull's heads leads some to believe that sacrifices may have also taken place here. The rotunda was built on an older building of which only the foundation has remained. The Arlington Massachusetts Reservoir, a 2,000,000 gallon water tank, is based on one of the reconstructions of the rotunda.
Right at the opening of the path leading to the sanctuary, one finds the largest building, the Building of the Dancer's Frieze (site plan number 14), sometimes called the Temenos, as it corresponds to a monumental enclosure marking a much older sacrificial area. There is a great deal of variance in reconstructed plans for this portion of the site (compare for example the different editions of Lehman's archeological guide — the plan used in this article reflects the 4th edition). It is in essence a simple court preceded by an ionic propylaeum decorated with the well-known dancer's frieze (photo below). The celebrated architect Scopas may have been the designer.
The most important building of the cult, the epopteion, is located to the south of the Temenos. This building bears the inscription of Hieron (site plan number 13). It is not known who dedicated this building, but given the magnificence was likely a royal. It is some type of temple, but there is no peripteros (surround of columns) and only a single prostyle (partly restored – see photo above). The architectural ornamentation of the facade is noteworthy for its elegance. The interior boasts the largest unsupported span in the ancient Greek world – 11 metres. The south end of this building is an apse (fr: abside inscrite), which constitutes the most sacred portion. This apse may represent, according to R. Ginouvès, a grotto for conducting chthonic rituals. The main altar, and the building for displaying votive offerings, are located to the west of the Hieron (site plan numbers 11 & 12).
The Anaktoron, the building for greeting the myesis is located north of the Arsinoë Rotunda, though the version currently visible dates to the imperial era.
The third and final terrace, West of the spiritual centre of the sanctuary, is primarily occupied by votive buildings such as the Miletean Building, so named as it was dedicated by a citizen of Miletus (site plan number 5), and the Neorion, or naval monument (site plan number 6). It is also the location of a banquet hall (site plan number 7). Three other small Hellenistic treasures are not well known (site plan, numbers 1 to 3). Overlooking the central terrace, the space is above all dominated by a very large portico (104 m long; site plan number 8) which acts as a monumental backdrop to the sanctuary, above the theatre.
It is in this area of the site that the most recent traces of occupation can be found: a square Byzantine fort in effect built of treasure; as it re-used building material from the original site.
Diodorus Siculus (III.55) relates a legend of the temple being founded by Myrina, before she was defeated by Mopsus and Sipylus, and slain:
After that, while subduing some of the rest of the islands, she was caught in a storm, and after she had offered up prayers for her safety to the Mother of the Gods, she was carried to one of the uninhabited islands; this island, in obedience to a vision which she beheld in her dreams, she made sacred to this goddess, and set up altars there and offered magnificent sacrifices. She also gave it the name of Samothrace, which means, when translated into Greek, 'Sacred Island', although some historians say that it was formerly called Samos and was then given the name of Samothrace by Thracians who at one time dwelt on it. However, after the Amazons had returned to the continent, the myth relates, the Mother of the Gods, well pleased with the island, settled in it certain other people, and also her own sons, who are known by the name of Corybantes; who their father was, is handed down in their rites as a matter not to be divulged; and she established the mysteries which are now celebrated on the island and ordained by law that the sacred area should enjoy the right of sanctuary.
A Macedonian national sanctuary
And we are told that Philip, after being initiated into the mysteries of Samothrace at the same time with Olympias, he himself being still a youth and she an orphan child, fell in love with her and betrothed himself to her at once with the consent of her brother, Arymbas.
(Plutarch, Life of Alexander, II, 2)
According to Plutarch, this is how Macedonian king Phillip II met his future spouse Olympias, the Epirote princess of the Aeacid dynasty, during their initiation to the mysteries of Samothrace. This historical anecdote defines the Argead dynasty's allegiance to the sanctuary, followed by the two dynasties of the Diadochi; the Ptolemaic dynasty and the Antigonid dynasty who continually attempted to outdo one another in the 3rd century BC, during their alternating periods of domination over the island and more generally the Northern Aegean.
The first sovereign of whom epigraphic traces remain was the son of Philip II and half-brother of Alexander, Philip III of Macedon, who would be the principal benefactor of the Sanctuary during the 4th century BC: he probably commissioned the Temenos by 340 BC, the Main Altar in the next decade, the Hiéron by 325 BC, as well as the Doric monument and the border of the eastern circular area; these dedicated in his name as well as that of his nephew Alexander IV of Macedon, who jointly ruled from 323–317 BC.
The second surge of major construction commence started in the 280's with the Arsinoe II Rotunda, which may date from the period (288–281 BC) when this daughter of Ptolemy I was married to the Diadochus Lysimachus, then king of Macedon. Widowed after his death in battle in 281 BC, she married her half-brother, Ptolemy Keraunos and later her brother Ptolemy II in 274 BC. Of the monumental dedication which surmounted the door, only a single block remains, and it is thus not possible to determine the complete inscription. Ptolemy II himself had the Propylaeum built across the entrance to the sanctuary: the powerful Ptolemaic fleet which allowed him to dominate the bulk of the Aegean up to the Thracian coast, and the construction at Samothrace bear witness to his influence.
The re-establishment of the Antigonid dynasty on the Macedonian throne with Antigonus II Gonatas, soon led to a clash for maritime supremacy on the Aegean: Antigonus Gonatas celebrated his victory at the naval battle of Kos by dedicating one of his victorious ships to the shrine by 255–245 BC; displayed in a building constructed on an ad hoc basis on the west terrace; the Neorion (site plan number 6). It may have been inspired by another Neorion, at Delos, probably built at the end of the 4th century BC, which he re-used and dedicated to another of his ships at the same time.
The naval war between the Ptolemaics and the Antigonids continued intermittently through the second half of the 3rd century BC, until Philip V of Macedon, the last Antigonid king to attempt to establish a Macedonian thalassocracy, was finally beaten by an alliance between Rhodes and Pergamon. A monumental column was dedicated to him in front to the large stoa of the upper terrace by the Macedonians by 200 BC. It was probably during one of these episodes that the monumental fountain containing a ship's prow of limestone and the famous Winged Victory of Samothrace statue were built. This could actually be a dedication from Rhodes rather than Macedon, as analysis of the limestone used for the prow and the type of vessel indicated that it came from Rhodes.
The sanctuary became the final refuge for the last king of Macedon, Perseus of Macedon, who went to the island after his defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC and was there arrested by the Romans.
Site exploration
Fascination with mystery religions renewed interest in the site during the 17th and 18th centuries. Following the 1863 discovery of the Winged Victory of Samothrace statue – now in the Louvre – by French consul Charles Champoiseau (posted to Adrianople), the French team of Deville and Coquart carried out the first archeological digs of the site in 1866. The Austrian A. Conze was next to excavate the site in 1873 and 1876: he cleared the Ptolémaion and the stoa and carried out some superficial digs at the Hiéron, the Arsinoéion as well as the Temenos. This work was published in two volumes of unusually high quality for the time. Under an agreement with the Turkish government, the Austrians shared their discoveries: numerous architectural fragments went to the Vienna Kunsthistorisch Museum, while others were sent to Gallipoli and then on to the Istanbul Archeological Museum — part of this material unfortunately disappeared in transit. Champoiseau returned in 1891 to look for the blocks which formed the ship's prow upon which the Winged Victory of Samothrace statue had been installed in Paris, and at this time discovered the theatre. The École française d'Athènes and the Charles University in Prague (Salač and Fernand Chapouthuer) also carried out joint work between 1923 and 1927, before the Institute of Fine Arts (at New York University) started their first excavations in 1938, which uncovered the Anaktoron. Interrupted by the war, during which time the site suffered greatly as a result of Bulgarian occupation, they returned in 1948 and continue to the present. In 1956 a partial reconstruction (anastylosis) of the Hiéron facade was carried out.
See also
Ancient Greek religion
Mystery religion
Eleusinian mysteries
References
Karl Lehmann, Samothrace: A Guide to the Excavations and the Museum, 5th ed. Thessaloniki: J J Augustin, 1983.
René Ginouvès et al., La Macédoine: De Philippe II à la conquête romaine. Paris: CNRS, 1993.
External links
Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (article by one of the site archaeologists, Ph. Lehman)
Presentation of archaeological site (Greek Ministry of Culture)
presentation of the archaeological Museum (Greek Ministry of Culture)
Explore in 3D video (National Geographic)
American Excavations: Samothrace (Emory University)
Greek temples
Ancient Greek sanctuaries in Greece
Religion in ancient Macedonia
Greco-Roman mysteries
Archaeological sites on the Aegean Islands
Temple
Buildings and structures in Evros (regional unit)
Archaeological sites in Eastern Macedonia and Thrace
Temples of Hermes
Temples of Demeter
Temples of Cybele
Destroyed temples
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocational%20panel
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Vocational panel
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A vocational panel () is any of five lists of candidates from which are elected a total of 43 of the 60 senators in Seanad Éireann, the upper house of the Oireachtas (parliament) of Ireland. Each panel corresponds to a grouping of "interests and services" (professions or vocations) of which candidates are required to have "knowledge and practical experience". The panels are nominated partly by Oireachtas members and partly by vocational organisations. From each panel, between five and eleven senators are elected indirectly, by Oireachtas members and local councillors, using the single transferable vote. The broad requirements are specified by Article 18 of the Constitution of Ireland and the implementation details by acts of the Oireachtas, principally the Seanad Electoral (Panel Members) Act 1947, and associated statutory instruments.
Interests and services, and subpanels
Article 18.7.1° of the Constitution defines the five panels and specifies that each shall elect between five and eleven senators. The 1947 act defines the numbers of senators to be elected from each of the panels, and also provides for the division of each panel into two subpanels: the nominating bodies subpanel and the Oireachtas subpanel, with a minimum number from each subpanel. The number of nominations any one body can make depends on both the number of bodies registered for the panel, and the number of senators elected from it.
Nominations
All senators must be Irish citizens over the age of 21. Each panel has two subpanels, whose candidates are nominated separately:
The nominating bodies subpanel (the "outside panel") — nominated by a registered "nominating body".
The Oireachtas subpanel (the "inside panel") — nominated by four Oireachtas members, either senators or TDs (members of Dáil Éireann, the lower house of the Oireachtas).
Nominating bodies
A nominating body for a panel is an organisation whose work or members relates to one or more of the interests on the panel; for example, the Irish Congress of Trade Unions (ICTU) can nominate in the Labour Panel, and the Royal Irish Academy in the Cultural and Educational Panel. Bodies must be non-profit and meet minimum governance standards. A body cannot be registered on two panels; thus the Royal Dublin Society is on the Agricultural Panel but not the Cultural and Educational Panel. A body and an affiliate may not be registered on the same panel, but may be registered on different ones; for example the ICTU-affiliated Irish National Teachers' Organisation (INTO) is on the Cultural and Educational Panel. The clerk of the Seanad maintains the register of nominating bodies, published annually in Iris Oifigiúil. Some bodies are very small — the minimum annual subscription of €317.43 has not increased since 1947 — and "it is even alleged that some ... exist for no other purpose than to make Seanad nominations".
Bodies refused registration can appeal to a board comprising the Ceann Comhairle and Cathaoirleach (Dáil and Seanad speakers), their deputies, and a senior judge. In 1987 ICTU tried to have the Irish Conference of Professional and Service Associations (ICPSA) deregistered from the Labour Panel on the grounds that it had no independent existence and its members were professional associations but not labour unions. The appeal board rejected the claim on the ground that one registered body could not object to a different body's registration. Journalist Patrick Nolan commented that the ICPSA's Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael nominees had had more electoral success than ICTU's Labour-Party nominees. In October 2018 separate meetings elected rival officer boards to the Irish Greyhound Owners and Breeders' Federation, a nominating body on the Agricultural Panel. In February 2019 the Seanad clerk updated the register with the newer officers' details. In June 2019 the appeal board ruled that, in view of continued uncertainty, the older officers' details should have been retained.
Party strategy
The closing date for the nominating bodies subpanel is earlier than for the Oireachtas subpanel; political parties wait to see which of their candidates have secured nomination on an outside panel before deciding who to nominate on the inside panel. Parties generally try to distribute their most popular candidates across both panels to avoid falling foul of the minimum-elected-per-subpanel rules. Since the electorate is small and mostly of known party allegiance, larger parties have a good idea of how many quotas they can secure on each panel; they will always nominate at least that many candidates, but typically not many more, for fear of losing out on a seat through "leakage" of transfers. Parties have tight control of the Oireachtas subpanel nominations; in 1997, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael nominees were selected mainly by the parliamentary party and partly by the party leader, whereas the Labour Party's were selected by its General Council, surprisingly omitting high-profile ex-TDs. The Progressive Democrats, having formed a coalition with Fianna Fáil after the general election, agreed not to field candidates in the panel election, in return for some of the direct Seanad appointments reserved for the Taoiseach (prime minister). In 2002, Fine Gael gave its Dáil constituency organisations a say in nominations. Since the 1990s, smaller parties have engaged in voting pacts, each having a nominee on a different panel. Likewise, Gerard Craughwell successfully encouraged independents to support independents in 2016.
Knowledge and practical experience
There is no statutory definition of what constitutes a sufficient degree of "knowledge and practical experience" of an interest or service to be eligible for nomination to the relevant panel. The question is decided by the clerk of the Seanad, but may be referred by him, or appealed by the candidate, to a judge of the High Court appointed as "judicial referee". No further judicial review is permitted. In 2018 clerk Martin Groves said that "legislative guidelines would be of assistance to the returning officer and, I am sure, to candidates also". Before the 1969 Seanad election, outgoing Labour-Panel senators John Ormonde and Séamus Dolan sought a pre-emptive High Court declaration that they were qualified, being members of a union (the INTO) affiliated to the ICTU. The Seanad clerk argued that as the INTO was itself a nominating body on the Cultural and Educational Panel, that was the panel on which they would be qualified. Justice Denis Pringle, ruling in favour the plaintiffs, stated that it did not matter if they were better qualified for a different panel, and that, as regards the Labour Panel, while merely being in a union was insufficient, a candidate did not require "specialised" knowledge, and the plaintiff's testimony had established their qualifications. The clerk commented that, while an application form with detailed evidence similar to the plaintiffs' testimony might have satisfied him, a form simply making a bare assertion of knowledge and practical experience would not. In 2002, Kathy Sinnott successfully appealed her rejection from the Labour Panel; the clerk argued that her work as a caregiver properly belonged to the Administrative Panel. Sinnott rejected a suggestion that she chose the Labour Panel because its returning 11 rather than 7 senators increased her chances of winning. In 2014, Fine Gael minister Heather Humphreys nominated John McNulty to the board of the Irish Museum of Modern Art (IMMA) shortly before Fine Gael nominated him to a by-election on the Oireachtas subpanel of the Cultural and Educational Panel. The IMMA nomination was seen as an attempt to bolster McNulty's tenuous qualifications, and the ensuing controversy impelled him to withdraw his candidacy. In the 2020 Seanad election, Paul Hayes was excluded from the Agricultural Panel on the basis that, although he had the required "knowledge" of fishing, he lacked "practical experience"; Hayes suggested that with more time he could have supplied sufficient documentation to support his case.
Completion of panels
The "completion of panels" occurs in public on a specified date after nominations close, when the clerk of the Seanad, assisted by the judicial referee, excludes invalid nomination papers and unqualified nominees, and allows candidates nominated on multiple panels or subpanels to select which one to go forward on. This creates a list of provisional subpanels. The minimum number of nominees for each subpanel is two plus the maximum number to be elected from the subpanel. If there are too few candidates on a provisional subpanel, the Taoiseach must nominate extra candidates to complete the panel. In the 1997 Seanad election, Bertie Ahern was obliged to nominate four candidates across three Oireachtas subpanels, none of whom polled well in the ensuing election. Whereas appointments directly to the Seanad must be by a Taoiseach elected after a Dáil general election, nomination of candidates to complete a panel may be by an acting Taoiseach. For example, in 2020 Leo Varadkar was acting Taoiseach after the Dáil election; in the ensuing Seanad election, Oireachtas members only nominated eight candidates to their subpanel of the Labour Panel, so Varadkar nominated one more to bring the total up to the minimum of nine.
Election
In all panel elections postal voting is used. The clerk of the Seanad is the returning officer of the count, during which each ballot is given the value of 1,000 to aid the transfer of fractions of votes. The electoral college is the same for all of the vocational panels but varies between general and by-elections. At a Seanad general election the voters are members of city and county councils, the newly elected Dáil and the outgoing Seanad; these number 949, 160, and 60 respectively, discounting any vacancies. At a by-election the voters are the current members of the Dáil and Seanad.
At a general election each panel is elected separately, the ballot listing nominees from both subpanels collated together in alphabetical order of surname. Voting is by the single transferable vote (STV), with the modification that a minimum number from each subpanel must be elected. The legislation requires the five panels' counts to be held consecutively rather than in parallel, which delays its completion. Campaigns are out of the public eye but hard fought, as candidates travel the country to meet in person with as many as possible of the voters, who as public representatives themselves engage deeply with the process. The processing of nominations and the posting out, receiving back, and counting of ballot papers requires close to the constitutional maximum of 90 days to complete. The redistribution of an elected candidate's surplus is done by transferring a fractional value of all their votes, rather the full value of a (random) fraction of their votes as is done in Dáil elections. The Seanad method is more accurate but considered too cumbersome to implement at Dáil elections, which have much larger electorates.
By-elections to fill a casual vacancy use instant runoff voting; if there are multiple vacancies on the same subpanel, separate parallel by-elections are held instead of a single multiple-seat STV by-election. A by-election must be called within 180 days of a vacancy arising. By-election nominations are from the same subpanel as the departed senator; no body can nominate multiple candidates.
Practical effects of the panel system
In practice, the vocational element is largely notional. The elaborate nomination and voting process is described as pointlessly complex. Because the electorate is restricted to elected representatives, political parties have a great influence in the nominations. Many panel candidates aspire to stand in the following Dáil election, including ex-TDs and others defeated at the preceding Dáil election. Until the 1980s, candidates from the nominating bodies subpanels won the minimum permitted on each panel; this changed when bodies which had been nominating non-politicians switched to nominating party politicians. In 1980 Roy C. Geary described as "ludicrous" the fact that the Royal Irish Academy routinely nominated its president for the time being onto the outside panel, despite knowing he would receive few votes, sometimes none at all. The ballot is secret, so no party whip can be applied to the voters; however, analysis of transfers shows a high degree of party cohesion. Candidates typically concentrate on canvassing independent councillors as floating voters. In the 2007 election from the Cultural and Educational Panel, because of the minimum-seats-per-subpanel rule, Fine Gael's Terence Slowey was eliminated despite having more votes than Ann Ormonde of Fianna Fáil; the Irish Independent commented on the "arcane rules" and Fine Gael's "poor planning and failure to anticipate the strategy of the opposition".
The by-election limit of one nominee per body is most pertinent on the Labour panel, where there are only two nominating bodies: the ICTU, which is allied to the Labour Party, and the ICPSA. In a 1960 by-election, ICTU nominee Edward Browne was returned unopposed. There was speculation before the 1998 by-election that Fianna Fáil's plan to secure the ICPSA nomination would be stymied by the ICPSA-affiliated Garda Representative Association's opposition to the Fianna Fáil-led government's policies; but in the event John Cregan was nominated and won the seat.
Seanad standing orders make no distinction between senators elected from a panel and other senators, or among different panels. For example, of the four senators on the Oireachtas joint committee on Agriculture, Food and the Marine in 2017, only one had been elected from the Agricultural Panel; two were from other panels, while the fourth was a Taoiseach's appointee. John Counihan in 1942 tried unsuccessfully to organise a meeting of Agricultural Panel senators, which Basil Chubb noted as a unique event. While outgoing senators seeking re-election keep to the same panel as a rule, there are exceptions; Andy O'Brien, Peter Lynch and Joe O'Reilly were each returned from three different panels in their careers. The fact that the electorate is composed mainly of officials elected in party-political elections means the candidates they favour are also party-political rather than vocationally oriented. Since the 2008 recession there has been an increased proportion of independent politicians elected at local and Dáil elections, which in turn has led to some independent senators returned from the panel elections since 2014; some but not all of these have a greater focus on the functional areas of their panel. Prior to this, only a handful of independent vocational senators were elected under the 1947 act, the most recent being Seán Brosnahan of the INTO on the Labour Panel in 1973.
History
The vocational aspect of the Seanad's constitution was a reflection of the influence of corporatism on Catholic social teaching of the 1930s, as outlined in the encyclical Quadragesimo anno. This teaching influenced Éamon de Valera's thinking during the drafting of the 1937 Constitution. Article 45 and 56 of the 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State had made provision for delegating power to "Functional or Vocational Councils representing branches of the social and economic life of the Nation", which was never utilised. The place of the Seanad in the new constitution was first discussed by a 1936 commission, which produced a majority and minority report, with dissenters from both.
De Valera's 1937 Seanad took more from the minority report. Echoing Articles 45 and 56 of the 1922 constitution, Article 15.3.1° of the 1937 constitution permits "the establishment or recognition of functional or vocational councils representing branches of the social and economic life of the people" while Article 19 permits senators to be elected by a "functional or vocational group or association or council" instead of by a panel. The Article 18 panel mechanism was envisaged as a temporary measure until such time as Irish society and economic life would be structured on more corporatist lines and Article 19 could be applied instead. With this goal in mind a Commission on Vocational Organisation, chaired by bishop Michael Browne, was established in 1939. Its 1944 report paid little attention to Article 19, suggesting instead more radical constitutional changes, and was practically ignored by the government. Surveys of the constitution have suggested Article 19 is now redundant.
The original electoral method differed in several ways from that used since 1947:
Outgoing senators did not participate in voting or nominating. (Hence the inside panel was called the "Dáil subpanel" rather than the "Oireachtas subpanel".)
Instead of all county councillors voting directly for the panel, each council elected seven of its members to the electoral college.
There was a single STV ballot paper listing all candidates for all panels in order of surname. The requirement for specific numbers of winners from each of five panels (and ten subpanels) was preserved, greatly complicating the task for voters filling in the large ballot, and for eliminating candidates during the STV count process.
The number of nominating bodies per panel was limited, and the registration appeals committee was composed entirely of TDs. The Labour Party boycotted the April 1938 Seanad election in protest that the Cottage Tenants and Rural Workers Association, a small group based in Ballingarry, County Limerick, had the same status as the ICTU on the Labour Panel.
For casual vacancies in the nominating bodies subpanel, the bodies formed a committee which elected a shortlist of three candidates by multiple non-transferable vote; from these three a winner was selected by the Taoiseach.
the duties of returning officer at panel elections and registrar of panel nominating bodies were performed by a departmental civil servant rather than the clerk of the Seanad.
For the April 1938 Seanad election, there were only 330 voters (24 of the 354 electors boycotted) which in a 43-seat ballot gave a quota of just eight votes to be elected. There were rumours of vote buying after the first three Seanad election and finally two convictions after the 1944 Seanad election. The Seanad Electoral (Panel Members) Act 1937 was therefore repealed and replaced by the Seanad Electoral (Panel Members) Act 1947, which is still in force with minor amendments. It increased the size of the electoral college, split the panels into separate ballots, and increased the security procedures around postal voting. Martin O'Donoghue argues that senators before the 1947 act often showed a genuine vocational orientation, but this was undermined by the corruption allegations.
Until the Local Government Act 2001, the Minister for Local Government had the power to dissolve local councils. Where a county or county borough's council was dissolved, its members retained the right to vote in Seanad panel elections. This last applied at the 1973 Seanad election, to surviving members of Dublin Corporation at its 1969 dissolution. The Local Government Reform Act 2014 changed the number of councillors on each city and county council, to be somewhat more aligned with each area's population. The 2016 Seanad election reflected this demographic shift in the panel electorate with an increase in the number returned from more populous urbanised areas at the expense of more rural areas.
Reform proposals
Seanad reform proposals may be divided into those requiring amending the Constitution of Ireland via referendum, and those limited to amendment of statute law within the existing constitutional parameters. Those in the former group typically suggest abolishing the vocational aspect of the Seanad as ineffectual and based on outdated political thinking. Proposals in the latter group typically suggest altering the nomination process and the franchise. The 1958–59 Seanad Electoral Law Commission proposed changing the electorate for the outside subpanel from elected representatives to the nominating bodies. Opponents of such a change have suggested that, rather than replacing party politics with vocationalism in the Seanad, it would instead politicise the nominating bodies. The 2015 Manning report recommended that "the concept of vocational representation be retained but modernised", with 13 panel senators still elected on the current limited franchise, and the other 30 popularly elected. The 2018 report of the Seanad Reform Implementation Group was based on the Manning report but altered these numbers to 15 and 28. In both reports, all citizens over 18 could register either for one of the five nominating bodies subpanels or (if a graduate) for the university constituency, but not both.
See also
1969 French constitutional referendum — rejected proposal to merge the Economic, Social and Environmental Council into the Senate
Functional constituency — in Hong Kong and Macao
References
Footnotes
Sources
Primary
Irish Statute Book:
Secondary
Citations
External links
Seanad election details since 2002, Oireachtas website
Seanad constituencies
Corporatism
Local authorities in the Republic of Ireland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS-Green%20Light%20Racing
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SS-Green Light Racing
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SS-Green Light Racing is an American professional stock car racing team that currently competes in the NASCAR Xfinity Series, fielding the No. 07 Chevrolet Camaro SS and the No. 08 Chevrolet Camaro/Ford Mustang GT full-time. The team has a technical alliance with Richard Childress Racing for their Camaros while their Mustangs were from a previous alliance with Stewart-Haas Racing.
The team is owned by former driver Bobby Dotter, who also drove for the team in numerous races when he was still driving. Dotter is currently the team's sole owner, although at various points in the team's history, businessman Ken Smith (who left the team in July 2017) and Steve Urvan (in 2010 only) as well as Texas politician Gene Christensen (who unsuccessfully ran in the Republican primary for Texas's 4th congressional district in 2008) were co-owners of the team with Dotter.
Green Light began competing in the Truck Series in 2000 and merged with SS Racing in 2008 during the economic downturn after teams merging was a common thing at the time which resulted in financial success and stability. SS Racing was a team that was competing in the ASA and had previously partnered with Green Light's Truck team on various occasions, but fully merged with GLR beginning that year. The team competed in the Truck Series each year until 2017 when they decided to focus on their Xfinity program.
Xfinity Series
Car No. 07 history
In 2016, the team announced that they would field the No. 07 full-time for Ray Black Jr. with sponsorship from ScubaLife.com in all the races. He picked up 9 top-20 finishes, with a best finish of 14th in Bristol (August). He finished 19th in the driver standings. Black returned to the No. 07 for 2017 but was replaced with Todd Bodine for Charlotte. It was later announced that Spencer Boyd and Andy Lally would drive at Pocono and Mid-Ohio respectively.
In 2019, Black Jr. returned to the team from a part-time ride with B. J. McLeod Motorsports to replace Boyd and would compete full-time again in the No. 07. He was announced to return to the team for the 2020 season as well.
On May 23, 2020, Black Jr. announced that he would no longer be driving the No. 07 in order to concentrate on helping his family business, the CDA Technical Institute, recover after it experienced financial problems due to the COVID-19 pandemic. After Black's departure, it was announced that Rick Ware Racing had cut a deal with SS-Green Light to field some of their drivers in the No. 07 for the remainder of the season. This began with Garrett Smithley in the car for Charlotte and Carson Ware, Rick's son, making his series debut at Bristol.
The team's highlight of the year was when Gray Gaulding wheeled the 07 car to a 2nd-place finish at Daytona International Speedway when the top 4 wrecked on the final corner. Garrett Smithley scored a top 10 at Talladega, and Jade Buford scored a top-10 at Charlotte.
In 2021, Joe Graf Jr. ran most the races in the #07 with Ross Chastain, J. J. Yeley and Josh Bilicki making appearances in the No. 07 throughout the season. Graf scored a top-ten finish in the Sparks 300.
SS Green-Light Racing switched from running Chevrolets to Fords in 2022. Graf will be the primary driver in the No. 07 once again.
On February 26, 2022, Cup Series driver Cole Custer claimed the team's first victory, which came at Auto Club Speedway. The entry was a collaborative effort between the team and Stewart-Haas Racing. On October 4, Truck Series driver Hailie Deegan announced she would make her Xfinity Series debut in the No. 07 at Las Vegas.
For 2023 SS Green-Light Racing switched back to Chevrolet from Ford and revealed Blaine Perkins would drive the No. 07 full-time.
Car No. 07 results
Car No. 08 history
In 2018, it was announced that Gray Gaulding would drive the 08 full-time in 2019. In April's MoneyLion 300 at Talladega Superspeedway, Gaulding finished a career-best second.
On January 16, 2020, it was announced that Joe Graf Jr. would drive the No. 08 car for the 2020 season, replacing Gaulding. He moved up from the ARCA Menards Series, where he drove the No. 77 for Chad Bryant Racing full-time for two years. Graf started out the season with Core Development Group sponsorship but signed a multi-year deal with Bucked Up Energy before Homestead-Miami. He posted a best finish of 13th thrice, and wound up 22nd in points, respectfully.
The No. 08 returned in 2022, with the team signing David Starr for 28 races. Graf would also drive the No. 08 in select races, beginning in the Production Alliance Group 300. On March 29, DGM Racing sold the No. 92's owners points to the SS-Green Light Racing's No. 08 so it would be more likely to qualify.
Car No. 08 results
Car No. 15 history
In 2015, SSGLR partnered with the No. 15 team of Rick Ware Racing to have Ray Black Jr. drive that car at Texas in November. In that race, which was his Xfinity Series debut, Black Jr. finished 27th. Jimmy Weller III and B. J. McLeod also ran one race each in No. 15.
Car No. 15 results
Car No. 35 history
In 2018, SS-Green Light formed a partnership with Go Green Racing to field the No. 35 for Joey Gase.
Car No. 35 results
Car No. 55 history
In April 2014, the team announced a partnership with Viva Motorsports to field the No. 55 car usually run by Jamie Dick in select races. The team was fielded in the races that Viva wasn't using the No. 55 car. SS-Green Light's Nationwide Series program debuted on April 11 at Darlington Raceway with veteran Todd Bodine. Jimmy Weller III made his series debut the next week at Richmond, finishing 40th after a mechanical failure. Bodine ran a second race at Dover. Timmy Hill, Andy Lally, Caleb Roark and David Starr all ran single races for the team.
In July, Brennan Newberry made his Nationwide Series debut at Loudon in a partnership with NTS Motorsports and sponsor Qore-24. Newberry ran three races in the No. 55 with a best finish of 19th at Watkins Glen.
Car No. 55 results
Car No. 76 history
On October 19, 2017, it was announced that Spencer Boyd would drive the No. 76 Chevrolet Camaro full-time in 2018 for SSGLR. This would end up being the No. 07 team renumbered. The No. 76 came from sponsor Grunt Style's slogan/logo, which has the year 1776 on it because they sell Americana-themed products. Boyd would finish the year 26th in the final point standings. Boyd left for a Truck Series ride with Young's Motorsports for 2019.
Car No. 76 results
Car No. 77 history
In 2014, Brennan Newberry made his fourth Xfinity career start with SS-Green Light/NTS Motorsports at Phoenix in the fall, now driving the No. 77 Qore24 Chevrolet, since Viva Motorsports was running the 55 car that race. Newberry finished 36th after an early crash.
Car No. 77 results
Car No. 90 history
For 2015, the team allied with King Autosport to field the No. 90. It ran on weeks King Autosport wasn't using the No. 90 car. The team partnered with Rick Ware Racing to field the car in a few races, similar to the No. 15. Jimmy Weller III and Todd Bodine drove the No. 90 in four races each. Andy Lally drove two races, B. J. McLeod, Tyler Young and Korbin Forrister all ran single races for the team. In 2016, the team helped King Autosport to field the car in two races, one with Bodine at Watkins Glen and Lally at Mid-Ohio.
Car No. 90 results
Car No. 99 history
In 2017, SS-Green Light collaborated with B. J. McLeod Motorsports to jointly field McLeod's No. 99 car, with David Starr driving it for the full season. For the summer Daytona race only, Korbin Forrister was scheduled to replace Starr in the No. 99, but got the flu, and Starr ended up driving his normal car anyhow. In that race, Starr ended up getting a top-5 finish, the only one of the season for both him and the team. The partnership ended in 2018, with Starr moving to the Jimmy Means Racing No. 52, and McLeod fielding the No. 99 by themselves in 2018.
Car No. 99 results
Truck Series
Truck No. 0 history
In 2007, the team fielded the No. 0 with Sharon Rice listed as the owner. Brandon Knupp drove it first at Texas Motor Speedway, and finished 34th after suffering overheating. Three weeks later, Wayne Edwards drove the truck and finished last with a braking malfunction. In 2008, the No. 0 ran a part-time schedule with Christensen as the owner. Butch Miller drove most of the races, with two 32nd-place finish, along with Wayne Edwards, Chris Jones, Mike Olsen, Norm Benning, Johnny Chapman and Kevin Lepage.
Truck No. 07 history
The No. 07 truck began racing in 2001 with the former owner Gene Christensen driving the Racing For Kids Chevrolet. He failed to finish higher than 30th that season and completed just 63 laps total. Aaron Daniel and Mike Olsen drove the No. 07 for a total of three races that season in addition. Jason Small began racing the No. 07 full-time the following season with Sunbelt Rentals sponsoring. He had two top-tens and finished 22nd in the points standings. Rich Bickle drove the No. 07 at the season opener in 2003, before Bobby Dotter drove for several races in the truck. Jeremy Mayfield had a sixth-place finish the following race at Lowe's, with Stan Boyd and Blake Mallory driving in select races afterward. Johnny Chapman would then drive for six races, with Ryan Hanson and Mark McFarland driving in between. Dotter and Shane Sieg would finish out the year in the truck. Ricky Moxley drove the No. 07 truck for the Lucas Oil Camping world truck series in INDY.
In 2004, Sieg was hired as the full-time driver with Auto Air Colors sponsoring. Despite an eighth-place finish at Milwaukee, he was released before the final quarter of the season, and Sean Murphy and Andy Houston would end the season in the truck. Murphy would be hired to drive the No. 07 for the first five races of the season, and after one thirteenth-place finish, Butch Miller took over at Mansfield, and finished tenth. Rich Bickle, Chris Wimmer and Eric Norris also raced the No. 07, before Jack Bailey drove a total of six races, with a best finish of 26th. Chase Pistone, José Luis Ramírez and Wimmer finished out the season in the truck. Murphy returned at the beginning of the 2006 season but did not last long, with Clint Bowyer finishing seventh at Martinsville in the Jack Daniel's truck. Justin Martz, Robert Turner, Johnny Chapman and Butch Miller drove one race apiece, with Kevin Lepage driving a pair of races with Roadloans.com sponsorship. Chad McCumbee drove the No. 07 for a pair of races, when U.S. Restoration became the team's new primary sponsor. Travis Kittleson then became the team's new driver for three races, his best a sixteenth at Nashville Superspeedway. T. J. Bell would drive for one race, and John Mickel brought sponsorship from Torquespeed and leased out the No. 07 for the rest of the season, his best finish 20th.
After the 2006 season, Tim Sauter and Lester Buildings joined the team for 2007. Despite only one top-ten finish, Sauter finished 16th in the points but was runner up to Willie Allen for Rookie of the Year. Both Sauter and Lester Buildings departed at the season's end, possibly due to the struggles of the housing market. Shane Seig, Sean Murphy, and Ryan Lawler shared the ride in 2008 with ASI Limited.
In 2009, Chad McCumbee returned to SS Green Light Racing to drive the No. 07 in 21 races. With part-time sponsorship from Tiwi and Valvoline, he had five top-ten finishes and finished 19th in points. Jason Young and Burt Myers filled in the rest of the schedule. Sean Murphy opened the 2010 season by finishing 13th at Daytona with Dietz & Watson sponsoring. For the rest of the season, Donny Lia and Tony Jackson split the driving duties, with Jackson scheduled to run 7 races. After a long string of bad luck, Lia departed the No. 07 team after the O'Reilly 200 at Bristol.
For 2011, the team swapped between Toyota and Chevrolet. Donnie Neuenberger drove at Daytona and B. J. McLeod drove at Phoenix with Boggy Creek Airboat Rides. Johnny Chapman drove a few races in the truck, mostly as a start and park. In 2012 the 07's lineup added on former Pro Cup driver Jeff Agnew, as well as T. J. Duke.
For 2015, Ray Black Jr. piloted the car full-time with the sponsorship ScubaLife.com. He finished 12th in the points standings in 2015, including a 5th-place finish at Daytona.
For 2016, Black Jr. moved to the Xfinity Series, and the team had multiple drivers throughout the season, starting with French driver Michel Disdier at Daytona with Pray For Paris as his sponsor. He finished 11th after avoiding 2 big ones.
In 2017, SS-Green Light decided to close down their Truck team to focus on competing in the Xfinity Series, and they sold their equipment and owner points to Rick Ware Racing, which fielded the No. 12 truck that year.
Truck No. 08 history
Green Light Racing began competing in 2000 with Dotter driving the No. 45 People Against Drugs Chevrolet in two races, with a best finish seventeenth at The Milwaukee Mile. For the 2001 season, Dotter would drive the 08 full-time while campaigning for Rookie of the Year. He had a 10th-place finish at IRP and finished fifteenth in points. He continued to drive the 08 truck in 2002, posting four top-ten finishes and finishing a career-best fourteenth in points. In 2003, rookie Jody Lavender was hired as the team's driver for most of the season, bringing sponsorship from Lavender's Discount Carpets and Hartsville Community Bank. He finished seventeenth in points that year despite missing four races. He was replaced in those races by Dotter and Shane Sieg, who ran two races apiece.
Ken Weaver was hired as the next driver of the 08 truck in 2004, bringing 1-800-4-A-Phone as sponsorship, and he raced a total of fifteen times, with a best finish of 18th at Texas Motor Speedway. Various other drivers raced the 08 truck that season, including Dotter, Tony Raines, A. J. Fike, Butch Miller, Bill Manfull and Sean Murphy. Weaver started driving the 08 truck for the first three races in 2005, and had a sixth-place finish at Daytona International Speedway before he left the team. Without a primary sponsor, the team began racing with the driver-by committee schedule, and Tam Topham drove for the team at Martinsville Speedway, before Rich Bickle drove the next two races, and finished fifth at Mansfield. Butch Miller and Kevin Lepage drove one race apiece, before Johnny Chapman drove in four of the next five races. Miller and Topham raced another time in the 08 that year, along with Jarit Johnson, Chris Wimmer, Mark McFarland and Jack Bailey.
In 2006, Bobby Hamilton Jr. raced in the first three races of the season with Corky's BBQ and Ribs sponsoring the team's Dodge, before he left to drive full-time for his father's team. Butch Miller drove the next week at Martinsville, and Boris Jurkovic followed at the following race, when the team returned to Chevrolet. Mike Greenwell made his debut at Mansfield, finishing 26th, and after Johnny Chapman drove at Dover, Chad McCumbee was hired as Green Light Racing's first full-time driver in two years. Except for two races where Chris Wimmer and Mike Greenwell raced, McCumbee drove the 08 for the rest of the season, posting two seventh-place finishes, and was runner-up for Rookie of the Year despite missing the season opener at Daytona. He was hired to race the 08 for the 2007 season, skipping the Sam's Town 400 due to making his NEXTEL Cup debut at Pocono Raceway, being replaced by Eric Norris. He left for MRD Motorsports late in the season, and Shane Sieg took his place, for a couple of races, with Dennis Setzer driving at New Hampshire. Chris Jones took over the ride starting at Martinsville. For 2008, Jason White brought sponsorship from GunBroker.com, along with the team's manufacturer change to Dodge. They did not have any top-ten finishes and ended the season nineteenth in points. Butch Miller became the team's primary driver in 2009, with Johnny Chapman, Lepage, Murphy, and Brandon Knupp filling in. The team ran completed races with Tim Brown, Chrissy Wallace, Jamie Dick and Brett Butler.
In 2012, the No. 08 returned and was driven by Florida native Ross Chastain. He scored a 3rd-place finish at Bristol, as well as 3 top 10s. Sometimes in the season, he had to start and park, due to lack of funds. he would end his season 17th in points. Chastain would later depart for Brad Keselowski Racing.
For 2014, the team reverted to No. 08 Chevrolet Silverado. Jimmy Weller III opened the season with a 9th-place finish at Daytona. In 2015, Korbin Forrister took over the driving duty of the No. 08 Chevrolet Silverado in a partnership with B. J. McLeod Motorsports.
In 2016, the No. 08 team shut down, and Forrister moved to Lira Motorsports No. 59 truck. SS-Green Light would only field the No. 07 that year, which was their last one in the Truck Series.
Truck No. 21 history
In 2010, the team fielded the No. 21 with Steve Urvan as the owner. Donny Lia began the season in the ride, later moving to the No. 07 with Tony Jackson. The No. 21 would then be fielded as a 'start and park' truck with Johnny Chapman, Butch Miller and Chris Eggleston sharing the ride. Jake Crum made his NCWTS debut in the No. 21 at the Bristol Motor Speedway on August 18, 2010, during the O'Reilly 200. Crum qualified 13th and ran well early in the event, but fell victim to a broken fuel pump midway through the event. The truck was later taken over at the EnjoyIllinois.com 225 by David Starr who had left Randy Moss Motorsports the week prior due to lack of performance and the decision to have the No. 81 miss Chicago and Kentucky. Starr drove the No. 21 Chevrolet to a top-10 finish at Chicagoland.
Truck No. 23 history
In 2010, Jason White drove the No. 23 full-time, and the team had their best season. White won the pole at Daytona and was in the top five in points for half of the season. However, the team's performance dropped and they took home a 10th-place finish in points. White left the team for the upstart Joe Denette Motorsports for 2011.
Truck No. 81 history
In 2010, the No. 81 and Zachry sponsorship were then moved over from Moss Motorsports to SS-Greenlight, and David Starr drove the truck for the rest of the season to a 9th-place finish in points.
In 2011, Starr and the team struggled to keep up, scoring 8 top-10s and finishing 13th in points. Starr then left to join Arrington Racing.
In 2013, the No. 81 returned to SS-Greenlight with Starr. However, he would only run the first seven races before sponsorship issues forced him to sit out most of the season.
Other Truck teams
Beginning with the 2006 season, Green Light Racing began fielding a third team when the expected field was short. Wayne Edwards drove the 03 truck first in 2006, finishing 36th and 35th respectively. Johnny Chapman then drove at Texas Motor Speedway, finishing 35th. Chapman drove the 78 at Atlanta in 2007, finishing last. Other drivers of the 06 truck in 2007 were Morgan Shepherd, Blake Mallory, Randy MacDonald, Dotter, Edwards, and Brandon Knupp.
References
External links
(older version, last updated in 2015)
(Bobby Dotter)
(Gene Christensen)
(Ken Smith)
(Steve Urvan)
2000 establishments in the United States
Auto racing teams in the United States
Companies based in North Carolina
NASCAR teams
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4996164
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish%20east%20coast%20fishery
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Scottish east coast fishery
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The Scottish east coast fishery has been in existence for more than a thousand years, spanning the Viking Age right up to the present day.
A brief history
The fishery has always been for both whitefish and herring. The Norsemen came to Scotland from the 9th to 11th centuries and settled in the Northern Isles, Western Isles and on the mainland. They had fish as a large part of their diet, and excavations of Viking sites in Orkney and Shetland have found middens (kitchen waste areas) containing large quantities of fish bones. These bones were mainly of cod, saithe and ling but herring, haddock and whiting bones were also found. They used the line fishing method with hooks and bait.
The Dutch had a near monopoly of the herring fishing from the 15th to the 17th centuries. The boats, called busses, were very large. They lay overnight with the drift nets set to catch the herring and were hauled by hand in the morning. The herring were salted and placed in barrels. These barrels were then transferred to small boats called jagers, which were tenders to the busses. These boats took the fish to the markets.
The 18th century saw some Scottish fishermen emulate this Dutch method of fishing. In 1718, the government introduced the bounty system to promote large scale fishing. This meant that the government paid a bounty to the boat owner based on the tonnage of the vessel and would also pay a bounty to anyone for simply building a fishing boat. This continued until 1820 and did much to encourage the growth of the fishery. The fishery was valuable and the fleets often came under attack from French and Spanish privateers. Because of this, armed ships were employed to accompany and defend the fishing boats. Despite this, the Dutch style of fishing didn't produce the results the government wanted. The bulk of the Scottish fishery was still using the line and bait method in inshore waters. However, in 1785 the government instituted barrel bounties, which meant that the bounties were payable based on the amount of cured herring produced. This encouraged the herring curers to enter into contracts with the fishermen whereby they would be guaranteed a price for their catch.
The 19th century saw the greatest growth in sea fishing on the Scottish east coast. In the early years of that century the boats were very small, made of wood and were either one or two masted. They were not expensive to build and small repairs were carried out by the fishermen themselves. These early boats needed to be light so they could be dragged up the beaches.
The fishermen did not venture far from the shore, as these boats were undecked and unstable under stormy conditions. In 1848, a violent storm hit the country and 124 boats were sunk, and 100 fishermen lost their lives. The government appointed Captain John Washington to enquire into the disaster and to make recommendations (the Washington Report). He pointed out that the boats were too small and being without decks prone to water inundation. However, not all of the fishermen were happy about larger decked boats. They felt that heavier boats would be harder to row and decks would make it easier for men to be washed overboard. Also beaching the boats would be impossible. But a good many fishermen took a contrary view and felt that the decked boats was a good idea. They realised that the boats could fish further from the shore and would be better in storm conditions. Larger boats could hold more fish and so profits would be greater. The first decked boat was built in Eyemouth in 1856 and this soon became the norm for the Scottish fishing fleet. These sail boats were of three main types: Skaffies, Fifies and Zulus. Common to all three types were the lug sails, which may have given rise to their name - luggers. The need for the larger boats spurred on the building of harbours all along the east coast, in the 1850s and 1860s. This heralded an enormous change in the size of the herring fishery. Initially, the market for the pickled herring was Ireland and the West Indies where it was fed to slaves. The market received a setback in the 1830s following the ending of slavery on British-owned plantations and, from 1845 to 1851 when the Great Irish Famine forced a mass emigration from Ireland. However, improvements in curing techniques produced a superior product and soon meant that new markets opened up in Russia and the Baltic countries.
The fishermen, with the support of the curers, invested in larger boats and additional nets. The fleet grew quickly but was still could only fish for herring during the two months when the fish were off the Scottish east coast. By 1880, there were around 7,000 Scottish boats involved in herring fishing so the fishing season needed to be extended. This led to a migration of a sizeable number of boats and curers to the west coast in May and June. By 1880, the numbers of boats fishing the west coast numbered more than 1,000. In the 1860s, Scottish boats were also to be found in East Anglian waters for the Autumn fishing. Initially, Scottish curers were not present in any great numbers in this fishery but by the end of the 19th century large numbers were represented in Great Yarmouth and Lowestoft. By this time, the Scottish fleet actually outnumbered the local one. The curers soon turned their attention to Shetland for the early summer fishing causing the local Shetland fishermen to adopt the drift net and larger boats. By the early 20th century, more than 1,800 boats fished the Shetland waters.
In 1884 the herring industry faced a crisis. The curers wanted an end to the contract system because they could not balance quantity and costs with market conditions and so wanted a move to an auction process. Fishermen wanted the status quo but reluctantly agreed and from 1887 the herring were auctioned.
The peak of the herring fishery industry and also its main decline came between 1900 and the First World War. Steam-powered fishing boats appeared towards the end of the 19th century and it was steam drifters that would take the volume of the catch to new heights. The powered winches allowed longer nets to be deployed and their speed enabled the boats to get to market quickly and to return to sea. In those early years of the 20th century, the Scottish catch reached 2 million barrels annually.
Before the First World War, Germany and Russia were the main market for British herring. After the war, however, Germany was racked by inflation and was impoverished. Russia underwent the 1917 Revolution and civil war. Other European countries started to compete strongly with the British fleets and for twenty years the industry went into a steep decline. The beginnings of the seine net fishing began in Scotland in 1921 but the use of the large inefficient steam boats greatly hindered this new whitefish fishery. After the Second World War, the Scottish east coast fleet, with government assistance, was totally regenerated becoming mainly a whitefish industry. This in turn declined in the 1970s and 1980s due to overfishing and the subsequent imposition of quotas by the European Union. The herring industry continued to shrink. From the 1960s, trawling and purse-netting were the main methods of pelagic fishing, which not only includes herring but also mackerel. Although a quota is placed on the total herring catch and with no limit on mackerel, this sector is now the healthiest in the Scottish fleet.
Fishing boat development
The Scandinavian influence
The Norsemen were skilled seamen and boat builders and their boat designs depended on their needs. Trading vessels were wide, to allow large cargo storage, while raiding boats were long and narrow and very fast. They all used the clinker fashion of planking, i.e. the planks overlapped one another. The boats used for fishing were scaled-down versions of their cargo boats. The Scandinavian influence affected boat building long after the Viking period came to an end. Yoles from the Orkney Island of Stroma were built in the same way as the Norse boats. Early Scottish boat builders copied the Scandinavian designs with their clinker planking and characteristic sharp stems and sterns.
The Skaffie
From the beginning of the 19th century a class of boat called the Skaffie appeared. These were favoured mainly in the Moray Firth region. The early skaffie boats were small with rounded stems and raked sterns. They were two-masted with a tall dipping lugsail and a mizzen sail. Their short keel gave them good manoeuvrability in good weather, but they tended to be unstable in bad weather. They were usually crewed by around six people. Above all, though, they were light enough to be hauled up on to the beaches. The boats were un-decked and provided no shelter for the crew. Because of the vulnerability of the boats, they stayed only a few miles out to sea in full view of the land. These boats were gradually built bigger and could be around long, and partially decked. This came about because the harbours that were constructed from the mid to late19th century meant that the boats no longer needed to be beached. Skaffies were not built in any great numbers after 1900.
The Fifie
The "Fifie" then became the predominant fishing boat on the Scottish east coast. They were used from the 1850s until well into the 20th century. Fifies had a vertical stem and stern with a broad beam, which made them very stable. Their long keel was a disadvantage, especially manoeuvring in confined spaces. These boats were two masted with a main dipping lugsail and a mizzen sail. The masts were set quite far forward and aft to release a good working space. Fifies built from 1860 onwards were all decked, and from the 1870s onwards the bigger boats were built with carvel planking, i.e. the planks were laid edge-to-edge instead of the overlapping clinker style of previous boats. Some boats were now being built up to about in length and were very fast.
The Zulu
In 1879, Lossiemouth fisherman, William "Dad" Campbell came up with a radical design for his new boat. It had the vertical stem of the Fifie and the steeply raked stern of the Skaffie, and he called this boat Nonesuch, registration number INS 2118. She was relatively small, overall with a . The Nonesuch had her registration closed on 12 January 1901 after having been broken up. The Zulu War raging in South Africa at the time gave the name to this new class of boat.
The Zulu boats were built to the carvel method of planking. The shape of the Zulus gave the boats a long deck but a shorter keel, which greatly improved their manoeuvrability. Zulus were two-masted boats and carried three sails - a dipping lug fore, a standing lug mizzen and a jib. The sails were very heavy and difficult to haul, and the masts had to be very long and strong. Masts could be tall on boats of in length. Their design produced very fast boats that became invaluable to herring fishing fleets. They got to the fishing grounds quickly and returned swiftly with the catch. Because of these qualities, the Zulus rapidly became very popular along the entire east coast. As the 20th century approached, steam capstans were introduced, and this made the hauling of the sails and nets much easier for the crews. One of the best of those was the capstans patented and built by MacDonald Brothers of Portsoy, in 1908.
The steam boat
The earliest steam powered fishing boats first appeared in the 1890s and used the trawl system of fishing as well as lines and drift nets. These were large boats, usually in length with a beam of around . They weighed 40-50 tons and travelled at . The first steam boats were made of wood, but steel hulls were soon introduced and were divided into watertight compartments. They were well designed for the crew with a large building that contained the wheelhouse and the deckhouse. The boats built in the 20th century only had a mizzen sail, which was used to help steady the boat when its nets were out. The main function of the mast was now as a crane for lifting the catch ashore. They also had a steam capstan on the foredeck near the mast for hauling nets. The boats had narrow, high funnels so that the steam and thick coal smoke was released high above the deck and away from the fishermen. These funnels were nicknamed woodbines because they looked like the popular brand of cigarette. These boats had a crew of twelve made up of a skipper, driver, fireman (to look after the boiler) and nine deck hands.
The earliest purpose built fishing vessels were designed and made by David Allan (Born 1840 Orkney)In Leith in March 1875, he converted a drifter to steam power.In 1877 it is said that he built the first screw propelled steam trawler in the world. This vessel was Pioneer LH854.She was of wooden construction with two masts and carried a gaff rigged main and mizen using booms, and a single foresail. Pioneer is mentioned in the Shetland Times of 4 May 1877. In 1878 he completed three steam-powered trawlers: Forward for Methven of Leith and Onward for Sharp and Murray of Cellardyke. In an interview with the Scotsman Mr. Allan stated that his motivation for auxiliary power was to increase the safety of fishermen. However local fishermen saw power trawling as a threat, remember that local boats of this period were or so, Mr. Allan's largest were . Some landowners questioned the sustainability of fish stocks to power trawlers. The Lammas Drive of 1878 states" It was reported that D. Allan of Granton had built two steam drifters the Forward and the Onward. The latter was unable to get a Celardyke crew so she fished from Aberdeen." During this time Mr. Allan was also skippering the boats to ensure that they were successful in their catches.
In total he built ten boats at Leith between 1877 and 1881. Twenty-one boats were completed at Granton, his last vessel being Degrave in 1886. Because of the prejudices mentioned, most of these were sold to foreign owners, France, Belgium, Spain and the West Indies amongst them. A full, complete account of his ventures can be found on Grantontrawlers.com. David Allan was buried on Christmas Day in South Shields in 1911. On page 14 of the Daily Mirror of 27 December 1911 there is a photograph and a line drawing of Onward. It reads "The death was announced in South Shields of Mr David Allan, the founder of the steam fishing industry. In 1877 he designed and built the steam Drifter Onward especially for fishing purposes. He afterwards commanded and worked the vessel himself."
Steam fishing boats had many advantages. They were usually about than the sailing vessels so they could carry more nets and catch more fish. This was important, as the market was growing quickly at the beginning of the 20th century. They could travel faster and further and with greater freedom from weather, wind and tide. Because less time was spent travelling to and from the fishing grounds, more time could be spent fishing. The steam boats also gained the highest prices for their fish, as they could return quickly to harbour with their fresh catch. The main disadvantage of the steam boats, though, was their high operating costs. Their engines were mechanically inefficient and took up much space, while fuel and fitting out costs were very high. Before the First World War, building costs were between £3,000 and £4,000, at least three times the cost of the sail boats. To cover these high costs, they needed to fish for longer seasons. The higher expenses meant that more steam drifters were company-owned or jointly owned. As the herring fishing industry declined, steam boats became too expensive.
The seine netter
Petrol and paraffin engines began to be used in 1906. At first, they were mainly fitted to smaller boats of between in length, and they provided auxiliary power to assist the sails. However, as diesel engines became more powerful, the sails were replaced altogether, and the engines were fitted in larger and larger boats. Motor engines were relatively cheap, making them affordable to individual Fishermen. Early engines cost less than £100, and fuel costs were low. These boats also needed less maintenance than steam vessels. The two most popular engine brands were the Gardiner and Kelvin engines. The compact engines meant they could be fitted to existing sailing drifters such as Fifies and Zulus. The traditional Fifie style was better suited to the installation of a motor, which led to the custom building of a number of modified Fifie design boats with motors.
In 1920, though, the government changed the rules by removing the guaranteed price for the herring and prices dropped dramatically. In 1921, some Lossiemouth skippers noticed that the Danish seine net boats were landing huge quantities of plaice and other white fish at the English east coast ports. Their interest resulted in a few buying some seine nets and winches and trying this form of fishing. As they perfected seine net fishing, more of the Lossiemouth fleet converted to seine net. But boat design for this type of fishing was still proving to be an obstacle. That, and the cost of the majority steam boats prompted a new style of fishing boat. John Campbell, nephew of William Campbell who designed the first Zulu boat built a wooden boat that resembled, to some extent, the "Fifie" but had a broad beam. His boat, the Marigold, did very well and over a relatively short period the entire Lossiemouth fleet (the first in Scotland) converted to the seine net. Other east coast ports followed on very quickly.
The trawler
Today, trawl fishing is the main industrial method of catching white fish. These trawlers can catch and store massive amounts of fish. They possess highly sensitive electronic equipment and remove the chance element from fishing. They operate by trawling the nets along the sea bed where the kind of fish they want to catch are located.
Modern fishing methods
Fishing for demersal species (fish occurring near the seabed)
Bottom trawling – single boat
This the commonest of the towed fishing gear; it is also known as "otter trawling". Trawl nets are shaped like a funnel with the sides extended ahead to guide the fish into the net. Otter boards (sometimes called "doors") spread the towing wires and keep the net open horizontally. The mouth of the net is held open vertically by the use of floats attached to the headline, while weight distributed along the ground rope allows the net to make good contact with the sea floor. The otter boards would scrape along the seabed making noises that attract fish. The fish would congregate between the boards keeping up with them until they tired and the net would then overtake them. This method is used mainly to catch the demersal species such as cod, haddock, whiting and flatfish. The boats themselves can be less than 10 metres in length for inshore fishing to 60 metres or more for deep sea fishing.
With the decline in the volumes of roundfish, the growth in fishing for high-priced species such as monkfish and flatfish is being seen. In this case, scraper trawls are used. The nets are shaped differently with a lower headline, longer wings allowing a greater area to be swept.
Bottom trawling – two boats
In pair trawling, each boat has a wire fastened to the net. Because of this, otterboards are not required to hold the mouth of the net open, as the boats maintain at their maximum a distance apart of around . The boats, because they share the load, can be smaller and less powerful yet can tow relatively large gear. These boats can be anything from 15 to 30 metres in length and have a typical combined power of . Again, this form of fishing is mainly for demersal species.
Seine netting
Scottish seining, sometimes called fly dragging, has the net attached to two long ropes usually made of leaded polypropylene and around 3 km in length. The net is deployed in a triangular fashion with the first rope attached to a marker buoy, the dhan, to which the boat returns to complete the set. Both ropes are then winched in as the boat steams ahead slowly. Winch speed is gradually increased as the net gets closer to keep the net moving forward and also to herd the fish into the net. Like the trawl, floats and weighted footrope keep the mouth of the net open and in contact with the seabed. This method of fishing takes place on grounds on the continental shelf and not in deep sea. Seine netting is for all forms of whitefish.
Twin beam trawling
The beam trawl is one where a beam, up to 12 metres in length, is attached to a skid at each end. The beam is situated on top of the skids effectively keeping the top of the net open and the fish are channelled between the skids. Two beam trawls are deployed alongside each other from outrigger booms on each side of the boat. This method is primarily for taking flatfish but these vessels can be used also for scallop dredging.
Twin rig trawl
This method is to use two trawls side by side. Three wires attach to this combination. Instead of having individual wires connected to each of the nets sides, a common wire attaches to the two inner sides and the outer sides of each net are wired individually. Again otter boards allow the net mouths to spread apart horizontally while floats and ground ropes provide the vertical forces. This gear is usually used for catching target fish such as monkfish, flatfish and nephrops.
Line fishing
Line fishing used no nets. Line fishing boats harnessed a single line, up to a kilometre long, that was trailed behind the vessel. At intervals along that line drop lines were suspended at the end of which was tied a large hook onto which bait was hung. Halibut, cod, haddock, lemon sole, ling and skate were the predominant prey. The line would be released and reeled in using winches. The largest line fishing boat in the Scottish fleet was the Radiation which sailed out of Aberdeen and which predominantly fished Icelandic and Faroe Isles' waters.
Fishing for pelagic species (fish occurring in mid and upper water)
Pelagic gears are designed to catch species such as herring, mackerel, scad, blue whiting and sprats. However pelagic fishing from boats from the Scottish east coast ports normally catch herring and an amount of blue whiting from the northern North Sea.
Methods
Single boat pelagic trawl – similar to the demersal trawl but the gear is generally lighter, as it does not have to cope with dragging across the seabed.
Pelagic pair trawling – operate in a similar method to the demersal pair trawl and again with lighter gear.
Ancillary industries
Boat Builders
Fish Curers
Coopers
Net Makers
Rope Makers
Sale Makers
Fish Salesmen (auctioneers) and Ship Chandlers
Fish Processors
Whaling in Scotland
References
Herring Fishing in Scotland: Coull, Dr J.R.
External links
Scran
Web Historian's pages on the fishing villages of the North East
Economic history of Scotland
East coast
History of fishing
Boat types
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.o.d
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G.o.d
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Groove Over Dose, known by the acronym g.o.d (), is a South Korean boy band formed by SidusHQ. Debuting in 1999, the group became one of the most popular boy bands of the early 2000s in South Korea. The members had gone on to solo careers in the entertainment industry after indefinitely discontinuing group activity in 2005 following the departure of a member. However, they regrouped as a quintet and made a comeback in July 2014. Although the group is largely known for their "story telling" lyrical style and signature blend of R&B and rap, their repertoire features a diverse array of genres ranging from hip hop to funk.
As one of the best-selling artists in South Korea prior to the digital era, they are one of the few idol groups to have more than one album become a "million seller". Often referred to as "the nation's idol" due to the broad popular appeal of their hit songs, they are regarded as "legends of K-pop" alongside first generation idol groups Shinhwa, H.O.T, Sechs Kies, Fin.K.L, and S.E.S.
Due to their extended hiatus and lack of overseas promotions, their popularity and fame has been largely limited to the domestic market or within the Korean diaspora overseas. However, their songs remain some of the most recognized and well-known within South Korea and their hits such as "To Mother", "Road" and "One Candle" are considered classic Korean language songs.
History
Beginnings
In 1997, Park Joon-hyung flew to South Korea with the goal of creating a group which blended Western and Asian influences. He recruited his cousin Danny Ahn and the latter's friend Son Ho-young, Yoon Kye-sang and Kim Tae-woo were later recruited through auditions. Their formation was fraught with difficulties from the beginning as their talent management company EBM (which merged into Sidus and again split to become iHQ (SidusHQ) in 2005) had been affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis and was forced to cut financial funding for its trainees. After over a year, executives allowed them to continue with the project due to their persistence and introduced singer-songwriter and JYP Entertainment founder Park Jin-young to be their producer and mentor. Kim Sun-a left to pursue acting and Kim Tae-woo, who was still a high school student, was the final member added, joining the group in July 1998. The group was to be called "GOT6", but their name was changed to g.o.d (Groove Over Dose) instead when it became a five-member boy band; Park Jin-young has since revealed that GOT7's group name originated from GOT6.
1999: Debut
The group made their debut appearance on January 13, 1999, performing "To Mother" (어머님께), the title track of their first album, live on the SBS late night show One Night of TV Entertainment (ko). The music video for the song featured actor Jang Hyuk. Although it has since become one of their most famous songs, the initial televised performance did not earn a positive response from those in the music industry. g.o.d also gained attention for their "boys next door" persona and vocal talent, a stark contrast to the trend of the era which was largely focused on groups with visually appealing members and highly sophisticated and energetic choreography. They released their second album at the end of the year and it garnered a much better response and also earned the group their first ever #1 win on a music program.
2000–2006: Mainstream success, Kye-sang's departure, and hiatus
In January 2000, the five members appeared in a reality TV series, called g.o.d's Baby Diaries (ko), which aired as a segment of MBC's "Achieve the Goal Saturday" (ko) weekend program. The members acted as a family to take care of an eleventh-month old boy named Han Jae-min. Every one of them had a duty (i.e. Son Ho Young acted as 'mommy' and Park Joon Hyung as 'daddy'). The show was popular due to the fact that it was the first time an idol group had starred in their own reality show and its high ratings reportedly forced the sketch comedy show Gag Concert, which aired at the same time on MBC's competitor broadcaster KBS, to switch time slots.
Just a year after debuting, g.o.d saw success with the release of their third album, which sold over a million copies. Its promoted track "Lies" (거짓말) dominated the #1 spot on music programs and also won the Daesang ("Grand Prize") at the KBS Music Awards. Following the success of their third album, g.o.d held their first national tour beginning in February 2001 and became only the second K-pop group (after H.O.T.) to hold a concert in the largest sports venue in South Korea, the Seoul Olympic Stadium. In November that year, g.o.d launched their fourth album Chapter 4, their second album to hit a million in sales. The title track "Road" (길) topped the rankings on several music shows and has since become a classic hit. The album won the Disk Daesang (Grand Prize) at the 16th Golden Disc Awards. Additionally, the group achieved a rare feat by sweeping the Daesang awards at the respective year-end music awards run by the country's three major broadcasting stations KBS, SBS and MBC.
The group nearly broke up in September 2001 after Park was discovered to be dating, which was considered to be taboo for most pop stars in South Korea at that time. Their management announced, without informing him or the other group members, that he was to leave the group and g.o.d would continue as a quartet. It was met with strong objection from fans, who repeatedly signed petitions, threatened to boycott concerts and stated their intentions of returning purchased merchandise for refunds. Ahn, Yoon, Son and Kim held their own press conference, without the knowledge of their management, to show their support for Park. By November, their management eventually backed down.
Having established themselves as the country's best selling idol group of 2001, g.o.d was invited to perform at the inaugural MTV Asia Awards held in Singapore as the Korean representative and was nominated for the Favorite Artist Award (Korea). While in Singapore, the group was interviewed by Time magazine and featured on the cover of the Asian edition for July 29. However, the article they were featured in was met with criticism by Korean music critics, local media and g.o.d's management agency SidusHQ as the author used a misquote attributed to Yoon Kye-sang to segue into an opinion editorial about corruption within the K-pop industry rather than focus on g.o.d as one of the country's most popular pop groups. They were chosen as the country's representative artistes to be featured in the 2002 FIFA World Cup official album Fever Pitch, for which they recorded the song "True East Side". In July they took a break from television promotions and began their "100-day Human Concert" series where all the shows were sold out and each day had a different theme.
Yoon left the group in 2004 and g.o.d switched to JYP Entertainment after their group contract with SidusHQ expired. They continued promoting as a quartet, releasing another two more albums. They went on hiatus from 2006 after holding their last concert in December 2005. Various media outlets and sources have described them as having disbanded between 2006 and 2014. However, the remaining members stated that they chose not use the term "disbanding" as they had promised fans they would reunite as a five-piece at some point in the future. All members remained in the entertainment industry: Park returned to the United States to pursue acting, Ahn hosted KBS Cool FM's Kiss the Radio while Son and Kim continued as singers and musical actors. The remaining four members unofficially reunited to perform in 2012 at the Korean Music Festival in Los Angeles and on SBS MTV's The Stage Big Pleasure.
2014–present: Reunion
Beginning in 2013 there was already speculation that the members of g.o.d were discussing the possibility of reuniting. Following Yoon Kye-sang's confirmation to rejoin the group and lengthy discussion and organization with the members' individual managements, they recommenced group activities under their original management agency SidusHQ. On May 3, 2014 their 15th anniversary concert was announced through a TV advertisement which aired on Korean cable channel jTBC, followed by confirmation from their management agency. Despite the low-key announcement and the group's refusal to promote on music programs, their comeback received extensive media coverage and became a trending topic on the internet within South Korea as they were the first inactive K-pop idol group to make a comeback with all of its original members.
The album Chapter 8 was released on July 8, 2014. Several songs were pre-released as teasers for their official comeback tour. The pre-released singles, "The Lone Duckling" (also "The Ugly Duckling") (미운 오리 새끼) and "Sky Blue Promise" (하늘색 약속), both achieved "all kills" in the digital charts. The music videos for "Saturday Night", which contained references of their hit "Friday Night", and the ballad "Story of Our Lives" were uploaded on YouTube. The album was repackaged and released in October as the "Thank You" edition and included a new song "Wind" (바람), whose lyrics were written by Yoon to express his gratitude to fans.
The group began their 15th anniversary tour on July 12, 2014 at Jamsil Sports Complex with around 14,000 fans in attendance. It was their first concert as a quintet in 12 years. Initially they had planned to hold two concerts over two days in Seoul but extended it to eight more dates in four other cities due to popular demand. They also made their first televised performance together in 12 years on September 5 as exclusive guests on You Hee-yeol's Sketchbook, the only guests who have been granted the honor. They concluded their national tour with an encore concert in October at the 40,000-capacity Seoul Olympic Stadium, the second time they have held a sold-out concert at the venue. In November they extended their tour overseas for the time, holding concerts at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, California and Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey, and became the first single South Korean group to play at stadiums in the United States since BIGBANG (Alive Galaxy Tour).
The group made a rare live televised performance as a quintet, performing at the "I Am Korea" Gala Concert celebrating 70 years of independence which was broadcast live on KBS1. On December 9, 2015, they released the maxi single "A Funny but Sad Day" (웃픈 하루) and the music video was uploaded by CJ E&M in anticipation of their upcoming year-end concerts. Although the group did not promote the song at all, it was the top 30 most downloaded singles that month and remained in the Gaon Digital Chart for six consecutive weeks. They held a series of sold-out concerts in Seoul over five days before heading to Daegu and Busan to celebrate the Christmas holidays and New Year's Day with fans. They took a break in 2016 while the members returned to their solo activities.
For the first two months of 2017 g.o.d embarked on their second nationwide tour since reuniting. Entitled g.o.d to MEN the tour began in Seoul and went to five other major cities. The Incheon concert on January 13 was extended by several hours as it coincided with the 18th anniversary of their debut and culminated in a special fan event hosted by DinDin.
On September 19, 2018, jTBC released a trailer of Shall We Walk Together (같이걸을까), a 10-episode travel variety-reality show which documented the members' trip to walk the Camino de Santiago in Spain. It began airing on October 11, as part of a series of projects to celebrate the 20th anniversary of their debut. On November 27, they released the single "Snowfall" (눈이 내린다) to little fanfare and it debuted at #63 on the Gaon Digital Chart that week with over 9 million downloads and streams despite intense competition from their much younger counterparts. From November 30 to December 2 they held a series of concerts entitled "Greatest" at the KSPO Dome before playing in Busan and Daegu on December 22 and 25 respectively. In a positive review, the Kukmin Ilbo noted that the concerts were appropriately named as g.o.d was one of the few K-pop groups who could put together a full set list consisting almost exclusively of number 1 songs, with 17 out of 20 songs in the set list being number 1 hits on South Korean music programs. On January 10, 2019, the album Then & Now was released. It contains a mixture of new original material, including a title track composed by Park Jin-young, remixed and re-recorded songs from previous albums. On January 13 they held the last of their anniversary concerts, playing to a sold-out crowd at the KSPO Dome.
On September 30, 2022, it was announced that g.o.d will hold a year-end concert that will take place at the Olympic Park Gymnastics Stadium in Seoul from December 9 to 11, marking their first performance in four years. On October 14, it was confirmed that g.o.d will be holding an additional Busan concert which will be held on December 24 and 25.
Members
Park Joon-hyung (박준형) – rap, dance, leader
Yoon Kye-sang (윤계상) – vocals
Danny Ahn (데니 안) – rap
Son Ho-young (손호영) – vocals
Kim Tae-woo (김태우) – vocals
Discography
Chapter 1 (1999)
Chapter 2 (1999)
Chapter 3 (2000)
Chapter 4 (2001)
Chapter 5: Letter (2002)
An Ordinary Day (2004)
Into the Sky (2005)
Chapter 8 (2014)
Then & Now (2019)
Concerts
Awards
Artistry
Musical style and themes
Although known primarily for R&B, g.o.d has often displayed their versatility as their albums feature songs which combine elements of different genres such as hip hop, rap, funk and dance pop: their debut single "To Mother" (어머님께) contains elements of hip hop and a refrain sung in R&B style, the upbeat and rhythmic "Friday Night" from the second album heavily features funk elements and the ballad "The Story of Our Lives" from the most recent album utilizes a "duet" of the rap and singing parts in the chorus to create a polyphonic texture. Park Joon-hyung has stated that from the beginning he had intended for the group to effectively combine Western and Asian influences into their music. They were one of the few first generation K-pop groups to successfully incorporate elements of African American genres such as rap and hip hop into their music and utilize lines rapped entirely in Korean, which was uncommon at that time. While each song differs in genre, a key characteristic is a prominently distinct and simple melody which is accompanied by a minimalistic piano, guitar or percussion-based groove. Their overall style has been described as a mixture of "belting styles" with "gentle rap, candid lyrics and plain vocal narration". Their ability to seamlessly transition between rap and R&B is apparent in their hit songs, most of which are classified as R&B ballads or pop but contain at least several lines that are rapped. This combination of a prominent lyrical melody and rap has been described as their "signature". Some songs feature a spoken narration to introduce the song. They have shied away from trending genres such as bubblegum pop and electronic music.
In contrast to their contemporaries such as Shinhwa, H.O.T. and Sechs Kies whose repertoire was largely either "feel-good" or hard rock or was choreography-based, g.o.d was focused on lyrical content, garnering them a wider demographic of fans. The trademark features of their repertoire are the "story telling" style and subject matter of their lyrics. MTV Asia describes their songs as "[leaning] towards the social commentary side, with heartfelt lyrics that make people cry until today." Their songs often reflected relatable themes such as love, loss and family or were based on their personal experiences: their debut single "To Mother" was partly based on leader Park Joon-hyung's childhood while "The Story of Five Men" (다섯 남자 이야기) described their frugal living conditions during their first year as struggling young singers. Other songs are more humorous and parodied the members themselves, such as the self-composed "Sky Blue Balloon" (하늘색 풍선), in which rapper Danny Ahn refers to himself by his nickname Skinny Pig.
Critics and media have noted the group's unique blend of five distinctly different voices. Mnet's Legends 100 series noted that "[The] synergy created by these five people began a page of popular music history that has never been seen before."
Image
Along with Shinhwa, g.o.d was the earliest idol group to adopt a more public-friendly approach towards fans, transitioning away from the mysterious and intensely private personas of earlier groups H.O.T. and Sechs Kies. As a vocally-focused group, g.o.d did not adopt any image or concept aimed at a particular age demographic unlike most idol groups at that time which were pitched as teen idols and it further added to their "everyman" persona and solidified their nickname "the nation's group". Likewise, they have refrained from colorful and elaborate stage costumes or complex choreography, preferring to utilize themes and simple dance routines to allow members to directly engage with the audience.
Stage
g.o.d is the first K-pop idol group to hold one hundred concerts, a feat they achieved during the "100-day Human Concert" series in 2002 and 2003. They gained popularity and acclaim as consummate entertainers for their stage presence and humorously casual style, often presiding over their concerts themselves. The group is noted within the industry for their interactive approach towards fans during concerts, which often feature segments such as taking song requests or teaching the audience a dance move. Critics have described their concerts as "a giant noraebang" due to the group's large number of recognizable hit songs.
Since their early days, g.o.d's concerts have revolved around specific themes. Their first national tour was entitled "The Story of Five Men", a reference to the eponymous song from their second album chronicling the austere conditions they endured while preparing to debut. The "100-day Human Concert" series notably featured a different theme for each concert. After reuniting in 2014, the group has been more experimental, revising their choreography and the instrumentation of their background tracks several times. Their "g.o.d to MEN" national tour in early 2017 was designed and choreographed as a Broadway musical. Lee Mi-hyun of the JoongAng Ilbo, in reviewing the Seoul leg of the tour, praised the group for their ability to entertain and reinvent themselves without compromising their artistic integrity or losing their unique sound.
Legacy
g.o.d was the first boy band to be dubbed "the nation's group" (), a sobriquet popularized by the media and cultural commentators due to their appeal to not only the teenage demographic, but across a much broader age demographic compared to their contemporaries. In contrast to their contemporaries, who were primarily targeting a teenage audience, they were known as the boy band which "appealed to both teenagers and their parents" and "rose beyond its status as an idol group to be loved by people of all ages." Cultural commentators have noted that the subject matter of their debut song "To Mother" and other songs such as "One Candle" and "Road" further contributed to their broad popular appeal as the country was transitioning out of difficult times and was still recovering from the 1997 Asian financial crisis when the group debuted. They are the first idol group to star in their own reality show, g.o.d's Baby Diaries, beginning a trend of idol singers and other entertainers participating in similar shows such as Hello Baby and The Return of Superman.
g.o.d set a number of records in sales figures. They currently hold the record for the highest-selling album (not including a repackaged version) within a single month – their fourth album Chapter 4 (released in November 2001) sold 1,441,209 copies within a month of its release – and was the only K-pop group to have the sales figures of an album surpass the 1.2 million mark within that time frame until BTS accomplished the same feat in 2017 with the album Love Yourself: Her. They are the most recent K-pop group to sell over a million physical copies of a full album and the last group to do so prior to the establishment of digital music stores, having sold over 1.7 million copies of Chapter 4, before EXO reached the milestone in 2013.
The enduring popularity and cross-generational appeal of their songs and their success has influenced many K-pop idol singers of the new generation, such as R&B quartet 2AM, boy band B1A4, girl group Twice and chart-topping solo artist IU, who have all cited g.o.d as industry "role models" and "inspirations". Widely acknowledged within the Korean music industry as "legends of K-pop", g.o.d is the only guest to perform on You Hee-yeol's Sketchbook as exclusive guests and the first K-pop group to be the featured legend on Immortal Songs: Singing the Legend. In 2013 the group was selected and featured in Legend 100 – Artists, a Mnet documentary series highlighting 100 legendary Korean artists (both solo artists and groups) active from 1933 to 2002 selected by a panel of fifty professors, music critics and other music professionals for their contributions and achievements. According to a 2016 poll conducted by The Dong-a Ilbo in which thirty music industry experts and nearly 2,000 citizens voted for the top 15 greatest male K-pop idol groups of the past twenty years, g.o.d was ranked third by the public and fifth by the panel of experts. Of the inactive or disbanded first-generation groups, g.o.d was the first to make a comeback and still attain success in a highly saturated market in spite of a nearly decade-long hiatus, which commentators have attributed to the overall increased interest in music and games popular during the 1980s and 1990s as well as the fact that the basis of their popularity had been centered on their vocal abilities and the lyrical content of their songs.
In contrast to the industry norm for group and all members' individual contracts to be managed by a single company, g.o.d's contractual arrangement was considered groundbreaking for its time as the contracts of the group and each individual member were managed by two different companies. They were managed by and the trademark of their group name is still owned by EBM (now SidusHQ), but individual contracts were managed separately: the individual contracts of the original four members (Park Joon-hyung, Yoon Kye-sang, Danny Ahn and Son Ho-young) were initially managed by SidusHQ while Kim Tae-woo was managed by Park Jin-young's label and agency JYP Entertainment. It would set a precedent in the K-pop industry as this arrangement allowed long-running group Shinhwa to continue group activities after leaving S.M. Entertainment and for g.o.d and fellow first-generation idol group Sechs Kies to recommence group activities after a number of years despite all members being managed by different companies and agencies.
In popular culture
At the time of its release, "To Mother" (어머님께) was the most requested track on radio stations. Other songs, such as "One Candle" (촛불하나), "Love and Remember" (사랑해 그리고 기억해), "Lies" (거짓말) and "Road" (길) are considered "indisputable K-pop classics recognized and enjoyed by Koreans of all ages" and regularly covered on singing competitions and music variety shows. "Sorrow" (애수), from the second album, was featured in the Pump It Up video game series. Their songs have been used as background music on various television dramas and variety shows, including tvN's Reply 1994, KBS's Drama Special and The Return of Superman and many others.
See also
List of South Korean idol groups (1990s)
List of best-selling albums in South Korea
References
External links
Official YouTube channel
Artist Profile on Mnet
Grand Prize Golden Disc Award recipients
IHQ (company) artists
JYP Entertainment artists
Melon Music Award winners
MAMA Award winners
Musical groups established in 1999
South Korean boy bands
South Korean contemporary R&B musical groups
South Korean dance music groups
South Korean pop music groups
1999 establishments in South Korea
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian%20Territorial%20Defense%20Force
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Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force
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The Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force or LTDF (, LVR; ) was a short-lived Lithuanian volunteer military unit created during the German occupation of Lithuania during World War II.
The LTDF was disbanded for being insubordinate to the authorities of Nazi Germany. Its goal was to fight the approaching Red Army, the Soviet and Polish insurgents and thus ensure security in Generalbezirk Litauen within Reichskommissariat Ostland. LTDF had some autonomy, was staffed by Lithuanian officers, and their commander was Lithuanian General Povilas Plechavičius. The German Zivilverwaltung agreed not to transfer Lithuanian youth to forced labour in Germany while LTDF was active.
After brief engagements against Soviet and Polish partisans (Home Army, AK), the force self-disbanded, its leaders were arrested and sent to Nazi concentration camps, and many of its members were executed by the Nazis. Many others were either forced into Nazi service or successfully escaped Nazi persecution and started forming an armed anti-Soviet resistance, also known as Forest Brothers.
The Union of Soldiers of the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force (), a veterans' organization, was founded in 1997.
Background
Earlier failed mobilisation attempts
After Nazi Germany lost the Battle of Stalingrad in early 1943 and the Eastern Front began moving westwards, the occupying German authorities became concerned with mobilizing the population of the occupied lands. The approaching Eastern Front and failed attempts to include Lithuanian youth in the Waffen-SS and Wehrmacht units forced the occupying Nazi regime to change its policy in Lithuania, to allow the Lithuanians themselves to mobilize their own military units.
The mobilization to the Waffen-SS was boycotted by the Lithuanians in 1943 with less than 300 men reporting. The Nazis carried out reprisals against the population and deported 46 prominent figures and members of the intelligentsia to the Stutthof concentration camp. All Lithuanian higher education institutions were closed by the Nazis on March 18–19. The occupying German authorities intensified their hunts for Lithuanian youth for forced labour in Germany.
At the end of January 1944, a compromise agreement was reached and the Lithuanian Territorial Defence Force was established. On January 31, the Reich SS and police leader (SSPF) signed an order on the organization of Lithuanian battalions to fight against banditry. On February 1, General Povilas Plechavičius was appointed as the commander of the LTDF.
Late 1943
By late 1943, the German leadership was forced to negotiate with Lithuanian representatives on the formation of a Lithuanian unit, who refused the German demand to organize an SS legion. On November 23–24, 1943, the general councilors and members of the Nation's Council rejected the proposal to establish the Lithuanian armed forces as an SS legion. Instead, they advocated for the creation of a national Lithuanian army, following the principles outlined by Lithuanian General Stasys Raštikis. The principles were that the Lithuanian Army would consist of all types of units and weaponry, be commanded by a reliable Lithuanian officer and led by Lithuanian officers, as well as that all Lithuanians serving in other military units and police would be allowed to join it. The Lithuanian army would only operate in Lithuania, defending it from a Bolshevik invasion, and initially consist of a 60,000-strong corps. In addition, the mobilization to form the army will be initiated by the commander of the Lithuanian army.
January 1944
Adrian von Renteln, the General Commissioner of Lithuania, who returned from Berlin during Christmas in 1943, met with the first councilor Petras Kubiliūnas, professor Mykolas Biržiška and general Antanas Rėklaitis and explained the German position to them. While agreeing to permit a Lithuanian division, the Germans nevertheless did not give into the Lithuanian aspiration of a national army. The Germans agreed to rescind their erstwhile demand for a Lithuanian SS, but demanded that a German would lead the Lithuanian division and that Lithuanians must petition the Germans for its creation. They also demanded that the name of the inspector general of the Lithuanian armed forces be used in place of the name of the commander of the Lithuanian army.
On 3–4 January 1944, the general councilors discussed the draft petition, in whose preamble they wrote:"Violently breaking the solemn promises given to the Republic of Lithuania to respect the "sovereignty and territorial integrity and inviolability of Lithuania under all circumstances" (1926 treaty between the Republic of Lithuania and the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, Article 2) on 15 June 1940, the Soviet Union's government, having militarily occupied Lithuania, falsifying the will of the Lithuanian people, and joining the territory of Lithuania to the Soviet Union with the help of the Red Army, is now again using Stalin's lips to "liberate" the Republic of Lithuania."They then requested permission to form the 1st Lithuanian Division, commanded by a senior Lithuanian officer, who would be called the inspector general. The division would be created by mobilization and would be tasked with the defence of Lithuanian territory from the Soviet invasion.
Adrian von Renteln removed all notions of Lithuania's sovereignty or independence from the petition and rejected the request for permission for all willing men serving in self-defense units and the police to join the LTDF. Regardless, the councilors and members of the Council signed Renteln's edited petition. However, the most famous Lithuanian officers did not sign Renteln's edited petition.
The German administration's behaviour was assessed as such by the anti-Nazi 's :"Such German tendencies still show two things: first, that they do not trust the Lithuanians and do not want to allow them a larger, more independent armed force; secondly, that they are still only pursuing their unilateral interests (military and political), disregarding the interests of Lithuanians. Militarily, they want to get people to plug the gaps in their army; politically - to announce to the world that Lithuanians are asking to be accepted under German leadership and protection to fight for the New Europe."The further development of events showed that Lithuanians understood their interests, did not identify them with Nazi plans and refused to be blindly utilized by the German occupiers. Adrian von Renteln summoned general Povilas Plechavičius on January 7, 1944, to convince him that Lithuanian forces were necessary to combat Bolshevism. Plechavičius informed Renteln on January 9 that he would protect his countrymen if he was given the freedom to form and lead the Lithuanian units with uninfringed leadership. Since military formations could only be constituted in occupied territory with the approval of Reich SSPF Heinrich Himmler, Renteln pledged to speak with Berlin.
Plechavičius' conditions on January 31 and response
Plechavičius wrote to Petras Kubiliūnas, the first general councillor, on January 31, setting out the following conditions for his command of the Lithuanian unit. The minimum 10,000-strong future brigade was to be the centre of the future Lithuanian armed forces for the anti-Bolshevik fight, exclusively controlled by the brigade's commander, and employed only inside the territory of the General District of Lithuania. Upon Lithuanian military mobilization, certificates for a person's irreplaceability in the economy and such would be removed. The brigade's military court would follow the Lithuanian interwar military court law to enforce discipline. The brigade would be tasked with protecting strategic military sites, if not protected by the Wehrmacht, while Ukrainian and other foreign units would leave Lithuania. If needed, the commander can employ other Lithuanian units in the Lithuanian General District and confiscate vehicles. Lithuanian police force would obey the brigade commander's orders to ensure security and order in Lithuania.
The German establishment would not issue direct orders or use the brigade's individual units at will and would not hamper its creation. Deportation of Lithuanians for forced labour in Nazi Germany would stop during the brigade's creation. The Lithuanians would be armed, clothed and equiped along the lines of the German army, while the relatives of their dead and wounded would be treated identically as those of the German army. The General Commissioner of Lithuania appoints the brigade commander, who authors the text of the oath, together with the General Commissariat's Police Department's Head.
That same day, Hermann Harm, SSPF in Lithuania, wrote Kubiliūnas a letter about Plechavičius' conditions, many of which were unmet, such as transfer of officers from police battalions, but Plechavičius agreed regardless to be the LTDF's leader. According to Lithuanian general Stasys Raštikis' memoirs, there were three candidates for its commander, which were himself, Antanas Rėklaitis and Povilas Plechavičius. After the refusal of the first two, Plechavičius was made commander on February 1.
On 31 January 1944, the SSPF headquarters signed an order for the organization of Lithuanian battalions to fight against banditry. That same day, the Reich SSPF Heinrich Himmler issued an order to recruit 50,000 Lithuanians for the Wehrmacht's Army Group North.
Anti-Nazi resistance and negotiations
Long negotiations between SSPF Ostland Friedrich Jeckeln, Hermann Harm and Lithuanians led to an agreement about a 5,000-strong (later 10,000) unit called the Lithuanian Territorial Defence Force, organized from Lithuanian self-organized military headquarters () that had military units assigned to them. The soldiers would wear Lithuanian insignia on their uniforms. The formal agreement was signed on February 13.
Lithuanian anti-Nazi resistance organizations supported the LTDF, which they wanted to use to fight against Soviet partisans in Lithuania and the Soviet Red Army when Nazi Germany was defeated. The LTDF was to be the nucleus of the military units for the restoration of the Lithuanian state, on which the army of the Republic of Lithuania would be based. The Nazi occupational authorities viewed the LTDF differently and termed its units police battalions, planning to use them for Eastern Front battles and only minimally to fight Soviet partisans. The German occupying authorities also wanted to recruit tens of thousands of Lithuanians into the Wehrmacht auxiliary units through the LTDF.
Situation in eastern Lithuania
During the German occupation of eastern Lithuania from 1941 to 1944, there were four different military groups, whose goals differed greatly. The incompatibility of the groups' goals led to an inevitable confrontation and conflict between them. Individuals from the anti-Nazi Lithuanian underground and Polish Home Army attempted to negotiate a joint struggle against the Nazi occupation but failed.
Soviet partisans wanted to return Lithuania to Soviet occupation and were opposed to all others: the Lithuanian Territorial Defence Force, the occupying German troops, and the Polish Home Army. However, Soviet partisans had similar enemies to the latter group, even if their goals differed. The Polish Home Army wanted to restore the Polish state within its pre-1939 borders.
From 1943, Polish partisan units began to be established in the Vilnius region, 15 of them between April and June 1944. Polish partisans attacked the German and Lithuanian police as well as Soviet partisans. From the end of 1943, the Polish Home Army escalated its activity and began attacking towns and district centers, terrorizing Lithuanians, be they local government officials, teachers or other civilians. Sometimes the Polish Home Army de facto ruled some areas in eastern Lithuania.
The LTDF's main objective was the fight against bandits and partisans widespread in eastern Lithuania. On Lithuanian territory, Soviet partisans operated from two main camps, located near Lake Narach and in , from which the partisan groups reached even Samogitia. Even more numerous were the Polish partisans units from the Home Army. There were also other marauding gangs. Seven LTDF battalions were sent to eastern Lithuania to fight against the Soviet partisans and the Polish Home Army. However, in the battles against the Polish Home Army on 5 May 1944, about 70 LTDF soldiers were killed, several hundred taken prisoner, roughly 30 of them shot in a Polish Home Army court-martial, while others were disarmed and released.
The Germans provided weapons both to the Polish Home Army and the LTDF, with the goal of organizing more non-German troops to fight against the Soviet partisans and the invading Red Army. Unlike in Poland, there was a period of time when officials of the Home Army Vilnius district cooperated with the Nazi German occupational administration. Meanwhile, the Polish Home Army considered LTDF soldiers German collaborators. The Polish–Lithuanian relations were particularly damaged by the May–June 1944 massacres in Glitiškės and Dubingiai. On 6–7 July 1944, the Polish Home Army unsuccessfully attempted to occupy Vilnius, which led to several hundred of its soldiers being killed in clashes with German soldiers.
Formation and organization
February
The formation of the LTDF began from its headquarters. On February 3, Colonel Oskaras Urbonas was appointed the LTDF's chief of staff. On February 4, the following were invited as heads of departments of the headquarters:
General Staff Colonel Antanas Rėklaitis (Department I)
General Staff Lieutenant Colonel Aleksandras Andriušaitis (Department II)
General Staff Colonel Antanas Šova (Department III)
Lieutenant Colonel (Department IV)
Captain Justinas Liaukus was appointed adjutant of the LTDF's staff. By February 8, the headquarters were almost completely formed. Then began the formation of local military headquarters, whose task it was to organize the LTDF's volunteer units. On February 10-12, 25 county commandants were appointed. The Germans agreed to form 10 battalions, each of about 500 men. It was planned to increase the number of battalions to 20. The Germans promised to provide the LTDF with weapons, ammunition and food.
On February 16, the Lithuanian Independence Day, Plechavičius made a radio appeal to the nation for volunteers. The appeal was very successful and estimates put the number of volunteers between 20,000 and 30,000. On February 21, the county commandant offices started registering volunteers.
Seven battalions stationed in Marijampolė, Kalvarija and Seredžius were to form the core of the LTDF and would be used for larger operations according to Plechavičius' orders. Small units were kept at the disposal of county commandants. A training battalion in Marijampolė was planned for the training of officer cadres and non-commissioned officers. The Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania that was the anti-Nazi resistance in Lithuania also approved the organization of the LTDF.
The Germans were surprised by the number of volunteers, as their previous appeals had gone unheeded. Possibly perceiving the growing popularity of the unit as a threat, they began to interfere, against the signed agreement. On March 22, SS Obergruppenführer and SD General Friedrich Jeckeln called for 70–80,000 Hiwis for the Wehrmacht. Chief-of-Staff of the Northern Front Field Marshal Walter Model further demanded that the Lithuanians provide personnel for 15 security battalions for the military airports. General Commissioner of Lithuania Adrian von Renteln added his demand for laborers to be sent to work in Germany. They were not the only German officials to issue demands for Lithuanian recruits. Plechavičius rejected and resisted such demands.
March
By March 1, more than 19,500 men had already registered. It was decided to organize 13 battalions, which were numbered 301st, 302nd, 303rd, 304th, 305th, 306th, 307th, 308th, 309th, 310th, 241st, 242nd and 243rd, and a separate training battalion. March 1 can be considered the beginning of the formation of the LTDF. As of March 3, the LTDF already had 553 officers, 1,522 non-commissioned officers, 3,879 who had served in the pre-war Lithuanian army, while the remaining soldiers had not served before.
The creation process was not smooth because Germans did not trust the LTDF. They ordered the reorganization of already formed battalions of four companies into battalions of three companies and were constantly delaying delivery of arms, munitions, means of transportation and communication. Because SS did not trust the Lithuanian officers, they demanded that German officers, called Zahlmeisters, be inserted into LTDF units.
An oath, similar to one used by the Lithuanian armed forces, was prepared. The oath was altered by SSPF Hermann Harm to include a personal oath to Hitler. Knowing that such an oath was unacceptable to the Lithuanian soldiers, the ceremony was delayed every time and the oath was not taken until the formation disbanded itself.
April
On April 6, Plechavičius was given an order to mobilize the entire country. He refused, saying that it was impossible until the formation of his existing detachment was finished; this increased the Germans' displeasure with him. Plechavičius wrote in his postwar memoirs that in late April, as the German plans to mobilize Lithuanians into the Wehrmacht became obvious, LTDF headquarters started secretly organizing underground armed forces, which would include Lithuanian Army officers, veterans of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence, and former members of Lithuanian Riflemen's Union. All across Lithuania, a network was secretly organized by territorial LTDF officers. The plans were to assemble around 75–80,000 men. Most of the organizational structure was laid, and it served as a basis for the armed anti-Soviet resistance.
According to the LTDF's commander's order of 28 April 1944, nine of the LTDF's battalions were combined into larger units. The 303rd, 305th, 306th and 309th Battalions were combined into the Vilnius Infantry Regiment. Before that, the movement of the battalions to their intended destinations began. Thus, the 303rd Battalion was moved from Marijampolė to its new garrison in Trakai on April 15. General Staff Colonel Jonas Šlepetys was appointed commander of the Vilnius Infantry Regiment after being dismissed from the position of commander of the 306th Battalion.
The 301st, 308th and 310th Battalions were combined into the Kaunas Infantry Regiment, with Colonel its commander. At the beginning of May, the regimental commander received an order for the regiment to go to the Vilnius region. There, at the request of the SS leadership, the regiment was to be split up and deployed in companies.
In April, the Polish AK in the Vilnius region attempted to begin negotiations with Plechavičius, proposing a non-aggression pact and cooperation against Nazi Germany. The Lithuanians refused and demanded that the Poles either abandon the disputed Vilnius region or subordinate themselves to the Lithuanians in their anti-Soviet struggle. Justina Smalkyté claims that the 305th Battalion, together with Lithuanian auxiliary policemen, was involved in the round-up of peasants from a predominantly Polish village on April 29 who ended up being deported as forced labourers to Germany. In early May, the LTDF initiated a widespread anti-partisan operation against the Polish and Soviet partisans in the area.
Even before the combat against Polish partisans, Plechavičius issued an order condemning unkind or even brutal treatment of any inhabitants of Lithuania, no matter what language they spoke, meaning that he forbade anti-Polish actions. Still, reports within the Polish Home Army (AK) accused the LTDF of anti-Polish aggression and murdering Polish civilians. The Lithuanian historian Arūnas Bubnys wrote that these casualties were most likely collateral damage in the crossfire between the Polish AK and the LTDF. Regardless, Polish researchers such as the sociologist Tadeusz Piotrowski, accuse LTDF units of committing atrocities against Polish civilians.
Kaunas Infantry Regiment
By May 3-4, all three battalions of the Kaunas Infantry Regiment were already in the Vilnius region and deployed in the places designated for the companies. All battalions, without exception, were composed of volunteers with no previous military service, and were poorly armed and equipped. Despite their unpreparedness, they had to face the Polish partisan units active in that area on May 4.
May 4
On May 4, the 310th Battalion's 2nd Company, marching from Jašiūnai to , was attacked by Polish partisans from the 3rd AK Brigade on the way and forced to withdraw to Jašiūnai. Company commander Major Narkevičius and two soldiers were captured and shot by Polish partisans because civilians had been killed in (also referred to as Paulava, ).
May 5
The Polish historian Piotr Łossowski claims that the Lithuanian 301st Battalion suffered 47 casualties at Hraŭžyški, and was dispersed by the 8th and 12th AK Brigades on May 5.
May 6
On May 6, two companies of the 308th Battalion, marching to (; ), fought with Polish partisans from the 8th, 9th and 13th AK Brigades. Henryk Piskunowicz claims that the unit burned the villages of Sienkaŭščyna and Adamkaŭščyna and murdered their inhabitants. With about 20 people killed, 15 wounded and 70 captured, the battalion retreated to Ashmyany. The Poles undressed the captives and returned them to Ashmyany wearing only their underwear.
May 13
On the night of May 13, large groups of Polish partisans surrounded two companies of the 301st Battalion in Muravanaja Ašmianka (; ) and one company in (; ) . The surrounded company was almost destroyed by the Poles.
Notably, the AK organized a concentrated assault against the fortified Lithuanian positions around Muravanaja Ašmianka. The defences, reinforced with concrete bunkers and trenches, were manned by the 301st Battalion. During the night of May 13–14, the 3rd AK Brigade assaulted the village from the west and north-west, while the 8th and 12th Brigades attacked from the south and east. The remainder of the Polish forces (13th and 9th Brigades) secured the Muravanaja Ašmianka – Talminava road. During the battle, the Lithuanian force lost 60 men, while 170 were taken prisoner of war.
Another 117 Lithuanian soldiers were taken prisoner later that night in the nearby village of Talminava. After the battle all Lithuanian prisoners were disarmed and set free wearing only their long johns and helmets. Polish historian Rafał Wnuk claims that the weapons and uniforms taken from the Lithuanians significantly improved the equipment of the Polish forces. The Poles used the element of surprise because the Lithuanians had around 150 more soldiers. The disparity in size, and the fact that Lithuanians no longer felt safe inside their own barracks, only added to the importance of the defeat.
Both sides incurred heavy loses. The LTDF's 301st Battalion lost 30 killed, including the commander of the 2nd Company, Capt. Počebutas, five wounded, and about 350 captured. The captives were later brought back disarmed and stripped to their underwear.
May 15
On May 15, German Lieutenant Colonel Dietl issued an order to the battalions to which he was attached to go to Vilnius. On their way to Vilnius, the 310th Battalion was surrounded by SS units and disarmed. When the disarmed battalion arrived at the Vilnius airfield, the Germans selected 12 men and took them away. After some time, they announced that those taken away had been shot and that the guilt of the battalion had been "atoned for". In addition, 41 soldiers of the LTDF who were in the guard-house in Vilnius were also killed by the Germans.
Also that day, having arrived with two motorized companies in Ashmyany, Dietl gathered Lithuanian officers in Ashmyany and took them to the divisional headquarters of the 221st Security Division. There, they were told that the units of the regiment were completely demoralized and unfit for combat, so the regiment was disarmed and returned to Kaunas for training. The disarmed soldiers were put in a truck and taken to Vilnius. The officers were arrested, and most of them were later sent to the Salaspils concentration camp.
Vilnius Infantry Regiment
The 305th Battalion of the Vilnius Regiment was transferred to Eišiškės, where 14 soldiers of the battalion were killed in the fighting with AK, and three more soldiers who went on a reconnaissance mission being stabbed to death with bayonets.
Two companies of the 306th Battalion were sent from Vilnius to Rūdninkai. From the battalion, 17 men were shot by the Germans, and the soldiers were forcefully taken away to Germany. However, one company successfully avoided capture by the Germans and returned to their homeland.
The 309th Battalion, sent to Varėna, was more successful in escaping German capture, as two of the battalion's companies managed to withdraw to their homeland with their weapons.
Marijampolė Military School
About 2,000 men were gathered at the Marijampolė military school. As the situation worsened and the relations with the Germans worsened, Plechavičius ordered the military school to be disbanded in early May. When the LTDF began to be liquidated on May 15, there were only about 160 people in the military school. On the morning of May 16, all those who remained were arrested by the Germans and the officers were separated from the cadets and soldiers. A few days later, the Germans took 106 cadets to the Stutthof concentration camp in trucks.
Tensions with the Germans
Beginning in March, Germans constantly tried to use LTDF to mobilize Lithuanians for labour in Germany, for tbe Wehrmacht, and the Hiwis, but Plechavičius blocked such attempts. As tensions between Germans and LTDF were growing, Plechavičius even sent a resignation request and suggested demobilising LTDF on April 12. Demands and tension continued to grow. At the end of April, Plechavičius secretly blocked the creation of a list of conscripts into the German army. He opposed the mobilization, announced at the beginning of May (it was supposed to be completed on May 8). The mobilization failed completely when only 3–5% of men of conscription age reported to the German authorities. Most of them were not fit for military service. Plechavičius had personally ordered his officers in territorial branches to ignore the mobilization order.
Starting April the Germans considered transforming LTDF into an auxiliary police service of the SS. On May 9, 1944, after the unsuccessful attempt of mobilisation, Friedrich Jeckeln ordered the detachment units in the Vilnius Region to recognize his direct authority. All other units of LTDF were to become subordinates of the regional German commanders. Jeckeln demanded that the troops take an oath to Hitler. Furthermore, the detachment was to wear SS uniforms and use the Heil Hitler greeting.
Upon hearing this order, and being informed that it was signed by Jeckeln as early as April 15, Plechavičius opposed this challenge to his authority and rejected the demands. On May 9, he immediately ordered cadets training in Marijampolė, to return home. He also ordered LTDF battalions in the Vilnius Region to stop hostilities with AK forces and return to their assigned garrisons. Plechavičius issued an order for his men to disband and disappear into the forests with their weapons and uniforms. The Lithuanian headquarters directed the detachment units in the field to obey only the orders of the Lithuanian chain of command. On May 12, Plechavičius refused to meet with newly appointed Kurt Hintze and sent his chief of staff, Colonel Oskaras Urbonas, who told Hintze that Plechavičius never meant to be an SS officer, nor ever wanted to serve in that structure. Jeckeln suggested that LTDF fight on the Western Front, but Plechavičius refused. The failures of the operation against the Polish Home Army resistance, culminating in the LTDF defeat in the Battle of Murowana Oszmianka on May 13–14, gave the Germans another excuse to assert their control over the formation.
Persecutions
Plechavičius and Urbonas were arrested on May 15. Jeckeln and Hintze delivered a speech before the remaining LTDF officers accusing them of banditry, sabotage, and political agenda and threatening them with executions and transfer to concentration camps. Jeckeln announced that LTDF would be disbanded and disarmed. Soldiers of the LTDF would be transferred to the German air defence forces in the Luftwaffe. Anyone who deserted would be shot on sight, and trigger repressions against their families.
Together with other members of the LTDF staff Plechavičius was deported to the Salaspils concentration camp in Latvia. Altogether, 52 LTDF officers ended up in Salaspils. To make an example Germans publicly executed 12 randomly selected soldiers in a Vilnius line-up of some 800 men. 84 or 86 members of LTDF were shot in Paneriai. While transporting some of the arrested men to Kaunas, one of the NCOs was executed on the spot. Germans sent 106 cadets to Stutthof, and 983 soldiers to Oldenburg concentration camp.
Most of the soldiers were to be disarmed and arrested by the Germans, but they succeeded in disarming only four out of 14 battalions. On May 16, German units arrived to liquidate the Marijampolė officers' school, but found only a dozen soldiers. A firefight began when they tried to disarm them and four or five soldiers were killed.
About 3,500 members of the LTDF were drafted by force into other Nazi formations: several infantry battalions under Colonel were sent to the Eastern Front, some became guards at Luftwaffe installations outside Lithuania and others were sent to Germany as forced laborers.
Many soldiers managed to evade the Germans and disappeared with their weapons. They formed the core of the armed anti-Soviet resistance, which waged a guerrilla war for the next eight years. Covert Soviet plans for the destruction of the remnants of Plechavičius' army had already been created in 1944 and the Soviets executed or imprisoned LTDF soldiers they captured. LTDF was the last large mobilization attempt by the Nazis.
Assessment
There are differing opinions about how to consider the actions of the Lithuanian Territorial Defence Force during its brief existence. The Lithuanian historian Saulius Sužiedėlis writes that the LTDF was not collaborationist, because:"In establishing the Force, the Lithuanians were clearly making an effort to do the opposite of what Gross has defined as collaboration, that is, granting the occupier authority. They were trying to siphon power and authority away from the Germans. Thus, the creation of the Force was not an act of collaboration. The non-Communist resistance understood this and made the appropriate distinctions between those who had betrayed the interests of the group and those who had not. One of the most striking aspects of the Local Force is how quickly it moved from conditional cooperation to active resistance as circumstances changed, utilizing a relatively sophisticated network of underground contacts within the society, the Lithuanian officer corps and the native administration."The motivation to create the LTDF was not to aid the German occupation whose replacement by Soviet occupiers they foresaw, but to prepare an anti-Soviet resistance by creating a nucleus for the future Lithuanian army. Former cadet Kazys Blaževičius wrote: "The short and dramatic history of the force's soldiers - LTDF lasted for almost three months - proves that neither gen. P. Plechavičius, nor his officers were German collaborators."
In contrast, Justina Smalkyté claims that the LTDF was a case of military collaboration and that post-1990 Lithuanian scholarship produced "biased historical accounts that are highly nationalist in tone". Polish researcher Paweł Rokicki also describes the LTDF as "collaborationist". According to Joachim Tauber, the LTDF is a specific example of Lithuanian collaboration, the result of German-Lithuanian negotiations, whose creation was supported by the Lithuanian anti-Nazi resistance movement. The organisation itself was used to pursue its own ethnic-national goals, not always congruent with German objectives.
See also
German occupation of Lithuania during World War II
Lithuanian partisans
Notes
a Vietinė rinktinė has several translations into English, which can cause some confusion. Translations include: Territorial Defense Force, Home Army, Home Defense, Local Defense, Local Lithuanian Detachment, Lithuanian Home Formation, etc. Litauische Sonderverbände means Lithuanian Special Group.
References
Bibliography
Secondary sources
Lithuanian language
Polish language
Memoirs
Generalbezirk Litauen
Military history of Lithuania during World War II
Military units and formations established in 1944
Military units and formations disestablished in 1944
Paramilitary organizations based in Lithuania
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Dean Winchester
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Dean Winchester is one of the two protagonists from the American drama television series Supernatural, along with his younger brother Sam. He is portrayed primarily by Jensen Ackles. Other versions of the character having been portrayed by Hunter Brochu (toddler), Ridge Canipe (child), Nicolai Lawton-Giustra (pre-teen), Brock Kelly and Dylan Everett (teen), and Chad Everett (elderly).
Development
Dean Winchester was created by Eric Kripke, creator and original showrunner of Supernatural, when he pitched a show to The WB about two brothers who investigate the supernatural. Dean's name is a homage to Dean Moriarty in Jack Kerouac's road-trip novel On the Road, tying into Kripke's concept for an Americana road-trip television series. It was originally intended for the brothers' last name to be "Harrison" as a nod to actor Harrison Ford, as Kripke wanted Dean to have the "devil-may-care swagger of Han Solo." However, there was a Sam Harrison living in Kansas, so the name had to be changed for legal reasons. Combining his interest in the Winchester Mystery House and his desire to give the series the feel of "a modern-day Western", Kripke settled on the surname of "Winchester". Dean and his brother Sam are from Lawrence, Kansas, due to its closeness to Stull Cemetery, a location famous for its urban legends. Jensen Ackles, who portrays Dean Winchester, originally auditioned for the role of Sam, but was then asked to read for Dean and found he preferred the character of Dean after reading the script.
Character biography
Preseries
Dean Winchester was born on January 24, 1979, to John and Mary Winchester in Lawrence, Kansas. He is the couple's first child, four years older than his younger brother, Sam. He is named after his maternal grandmother, Deanna Campbell.
On November 2, 1983, Mary was killed in Sam's nursery by the demon Azazel, and in the ensuing fire Dean was tasked with carrying Sam out to safety while John unsuccessfully tried to rescue Mary. Since then, Dean has felt responsible for Sam and was always given the job to take care of him while they were growing up.
John began investigating the cause of Mary's death and learned about supernatural creatures and the people who hunted them. John became a hunter himself, and trained Dean to be one as well, though both hid the supernatural from Sam until he was 8 years old. The Winchesters constantly moved around the country, living in motels and the homes of John's friends. Dean was left to look after Sam with John being continuously absent during their childhood. When Dean was 16, he was arrested for stealing and spent time in a boys' home where he had the opportunity to go to a regular school, though eventually Dean chose to return to Sam.
Prior to the pilot of the series, Sam left to pursue his own life away from the supernatural. John held a grudge against Sam as he felt Sam had abandoned them, while Sam also held a grudge due to the huge argument prior to Sam leaving. John and Dean continued to hunt together and traveled throughout the United States.
Dean is known for handling a large number of weapons. His signature looks are black boots, a dark leather jacket and dark flannel shirts with dark blue jeans. He is also known for driving a signature black 1967 Chevrolet Impala, which he occasionally sleeps in, and he has a huge stash of weaponry in the trunk.
Series
Season 1
Dean is 26 years old when the series begins and has been allowed by John to hunt by himself. In the first episode, Dean goes to Sam (who is away at college), whom he has not seen for a few years, and asks for help finding John, who has gone missing. The pair are initially unsuccessful, and at the end of the first episode, Sam's girlfriend Jessica Moore dies the same way their mother did. Sam joins Dean on the road, hunting various supernatural creatures, tracking down their father and searching for the culprit behind the deaths of their mother and Jessica. After eventually reuniting with their father and coming into possession of the Colt, they prepare to strike back against Azazel, a powerful demon with yellow eyes.
Season 2
Failing to kill him, they are rammed into by a semi-truck, sending Dean into a coma. Flat-lining, Dean dies but is saved from death at the last second when John makes a deal with the Demon to save his life.
After John's soul is taken by the Demon to Hell, Sam and Dean start hunting the Demon, who eventually kidnaps Sam. In a turn of events, Sam is stabbed in the back and killed, forcing Dean to make a deal to save his brother's life. He is given one year of life. Dean and Sam are unable to stop the Demon from opening a gate to Hell and freeing Lilith. However, their father escapes as well and gives them the chance they need to kill the Yellow Eyed Demon, before his soul heads to heaven.
Season 3
While trying to cope with his impending death and make the best of his final year, Dean begins to start hunting the freed Demons. Meeting a seemingly helpful demon Ruby, Dean learns that he too may become a demon himself if he burns in Hell too long. Learning Lilith to have taken the throne of Hell from Azazel and to hold Dean's life contract in her hands, the brothers eventually confront her.
Unable to kill her, Dean is mauled to death by Hellhounds and his soul is dragged to Hell.
Season 4
While there Lilith orders a demon called Alastair to brutalize Dean. Dean spends four months dead, equating to 40 years in Hell. Dean had joined Alastair in torturing souls after previously refusing for 30 years. However, Dean awakens from his grave and reunites with family and meets the angel Castiel who (along with the army of angels who were also sent to work together) is revealed to have saved from Hell and resurrected Dean. Struggling with his actions in Hell and trying to get Sam to quit drinking demon blood, Dean meets Azazel again when sent back in time by Castiel.
At one point, Dean opened to Sam and revealed how he not only tortured but enjoyed the events while in Hell.
Dean encounters another angel Zachariah who implores Dean to keep hunting after he nearly gave it up when learning Alastair had tortured John, who never broke in his time in Hell.
During Jump the Shark, Dean and Sam learn of their half-brother Adam with Sam. Although initially disbelieving, Dean is convinced of the relation with pictures. Dean is also against Sam using the teachings of their father on Adam after he is attacked by monsters. At the end, it is revealed that it was a ghoul (that wanted revenge on John for a previous hunt) and impersonating Adam who was killed but Dean saved Sam and the brothers burned Adam's body.
Eventually, Dean learns that the angels the want the Apocalypse to start and that if one of the Demon's Special Children, of whom Sam is the only one left, kill Lilith, Lucifer will be free. Castiel helps Dean escape the angels, as Dean kills Ruby (who was a spy for Lilith) but arrives moments too late to stop Lucifer from breaking free.
Season 5
After Lucifer is freed, Dean and Sam are teleported onto an airplane by an unknown force (God). Later learning of his role as the vessel for the Archangel Michael and Sam's role as Lucifer's vessel, the brothers meet the King of Crossroads Crowley and fight against the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse to defeat Lucifer.
On their search to find a way to defeat Lucifer, the brothers attempt to use the Colt and look for God, but it is revealed that the Colt cannot kill Lucifer and God does not care about the Apocalypse. These actions make Dean decide to become Michael's vessel even if the result is the deaths of millions of people, however, Sam's faith in Dean pulls him back into finding another solution. Upon the death of the Archangel Gabriel, the brothers discover that by using the rings from the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, they can reopen and trap Lucifer back into Hell. As Dean and Sam already have War and Famine's rings, they search for Pestilence and Death's location, leading Sam to meet his old college friend Brady: the guy who introduced Sam to Jessica and the demon ordered by Azazel to kill Jessica. Dean lets Sam kill Brady after getting the information they need.
Learning from Death how to trap Lucifer, Dean eventually lets Sam become the devil's vessel, but his strong bond with Dean helps him fall into Lucifer's Cage with Michael, who is using the boys' younger brother Adam as a vessel.
Season 6
Quitting hunting and moving in with an ex-one-night-stand, Lisa, Dean begins to move into a normal life but is thrust back into hunting when attacked by a Djinn and mysteriously saved by Sam. Shocked to learn of his brother and maternal grandfather's resurrections, Dean is placed even more on edge when Sam acts cold, ruthlessly and lets Dean get temporarily turned into a vampire. This is mostly shocking because out of the brothers, Sam has always been the gentler of the two. Later learning from Castiel that Sam is lacking a soul, Dean sets out to fix his brother. Getting Sam's soul back, from Lucifer's cage, through Death, the brothers begin to unravel a conspiracy involving Crowley and Castiel. Defeating Eve, the mother of all monsters, Dean cuts ties with Lisa and learns Castiel to have taken Purgatory's souls to become the most powerful angel alive.
Season 7
Requesting Death's help, Dean is unable to get Castiel to return the souls of Purgatory in time and the Leviathans break free and begin an effort to take over the Earth. After their father figure Bobby is killed by Dick Roman, the Leviathan leader, they gain an ally through Kevin Tran, a new prophet.
With the Word of God, Dean and Castiel kill Roman but are themselves killed in the subsequent explosion and dragged to Purgatory.
Season 8
Surviving a full year in Purgatory with the aid of the vampire Benny after being abandoned by Castiel, Dean and Benny eventually escape. Dean is angered to learn that Sam did not even search for him. Reuniting with Kevin, they find another Word of God that details trials to close the gates of Hell. Dean aids Sam in completing the trials, and along the way they encounter the rogue angel Metatron and the Knight of Hell Abaddon. During this time the brothers are also given the Men of Letters bunker as a headquarters, by their paternal grandfather. Dean is horrified to learn Castiel was programmed by the angel Naomi to try to kill him. Capturing Crowley, Dean stops Sam from completing the trials when he learns it will kill his brother. When they begin to head to the hospital, Sam collapses just as the angels begin to fall down to Earth.
Season 9
Praying for help, Dean learns Metatron fooled Castiel and stole his grace leaving him human and causing the fall. Aided by an angel named Ezekiel, Dean allows him to possess Sam if it means saving his brother. With Ezekiel in Sam, however, Dean is unable to get any help from Castiel and begins to try to find a way to handle Abaddon. Joining up with Metatron, Ezekiel reveals himself to actually be the angel Gadreel and overpowers Dean, preventing him from saving Kevin. Turning to Crowley for help, Dean manages to purge Gadreel from Sam at the cost of their relationship.
Growing desperate to defeat Abaddon, Crowley manipulates Dean into accepting the Mark of Cain, from Dean's ancestor Cain, and aids him in locating the First Blade. Mending his bond with Sam, Dean kills Abaddon and nearly slaughters Gadreel. When finally confronting Metatron, Dean is fatally stabbed and once again dies. His body brought back to the bunker, Dean's reawakens a demon and leaves with Crowley.
Season 10
Enjoying his time as a demon and killing several of Abaddon's loyalists, Dean eventually kills a man called Lester Morris and uses his newfound demon powers to confirm what Crowley told him about Sam. Eventually confronting his brother, Dean is pulled into a fight by a soldier named Cole, allowing Sam to use holy water to imprison his brother. Using the demon cure process to try to turn his brother back, Sam lets his guard down and Dean escapes. With the help of Castiel, however, Dean is cured, but still remains an enhanced human with the Mark of Cain. After eventually growing more and more powerful while losing control, Dean learns from Cain, before killing his ancestor, that there is no viable cure. Death later confirms this by revealing that removing the Mark would unleash the Darkness and offers to remove Dean from society on the condition that he kill Sam. Although he initially agrees, Dean relents and kills Death instead. However, due to Sam's earlier machinations, the Mark is removed and the Darkness is unleashed regardless.
Season 11
With the Darkness unleashed, Dean and Sam set out to try to find the Darkness, but are shaken to learn that the entity they are hunting is essentially God's sister, who was 'sacrificed' so that he could create the world. Manifesting as a woman who comes to call herself Amara, Dean finds himself unable to kill her due to a twisted attraction, but matters become even more complicated when Castiel consents to act the vessel for Lucifer when he becomes convinced that only an archangel has any chance against Amara. This strategy fails – speculated to be due to Lucifer's status as a fallen archangel – but the Winchesters are eventually contacted by the true God, now revealed to be Chuck Surely, the author who wrote the Winchester Gospels, who is able to make peace with Amara and depart. Dean is shocked when he is reunited with his mother, who was brought back to life by Amara as a thanks for Dean's actions.
Season 12
The Winchesters find themselves facing human and supernatural threats when the British branch of the Men of Letters attack the Winchesters to try to take control of America's hunters and Lucifer is left on the run trying to find a new vessel. Lucifer eventually takes the President of the United States as a vessel, but the Winchesters are able to banish him from this host.
While the Winchesters discover that Lucifer conceived a child while possessing the President, they are left to guard the child's mother while Mary explores the possibility of an alliance with the British Men of Letters. Although Castiel concludes that Lucifer's child is worth protecting, the potential alliance with the Men of Letters ends when the group prove to be excessively ruthless, to the point of killing a hunter who had assisted the Winchesters on a case because she accidentally killed one of their members.
Season 13
The Winchesters are eventually able to banish Lucifer to a parallel universe where the Apocalypse took place 'on schedule', in 2012, but this plan backfired when Lucifer alerted the alternate version of Michael to the existence of the original world, as well as leaving them with the complication of trying to raise Lucifer's suddenly-adult son, Jack Kline (6 months old, chronologically). Jack soon comes to see the Winchesters and Castiel as his 'fathers', while they gain a new ally when they discover that Gabriel survived his death, in season 5, but although they are able to return to the Apocalypse World to rescue several humans (including alternate versions of Bobby Singer and Charlie Bradbury), the alternate Michael, and Lucifer follow them into this world.
Stuck for options to stop Lucifer after he takes Jack's grace to charge his own powers, Dean agrees to act as Michael's vessel, but Michael takes control of Dean's body after Lucifer's death.
Season 14
Using Dean's body, Michael spends the next few weeks exploring this world until he decides to aid the monsters in taking control of the world as their desires are pure. Dean eventually manifested long enough to demand his freedom.
He briefly abandons Dean to continue his own plans while wearing down Dean's willingness to resist, but although Michael eventually takes Dean as his vessel again, with the aid of his family Dean is able to trap Michael in his subconscious. He is later informed by Billie the Reaper, who has replaced Death after his death, that Michael will inevitably escape his prison in every future but the one where Dean seals himself in an Enochian box at the bottom of the ocean, but although Dean starts creating such a box, he accepts Sam's argument that they will still try and find another way first.
Dean is briefly reunited with his father after a pearl with magical abilities grants him that which his heart desires. Although Dean hoped that his heart desire would be Michael out of his head, the family reunion was heart touching. John was forced to return to his own time before an alternate time line could ensue.
Still abandoning his plan to seal himself in the Malik box, Dean accompanies Sam, Castiel, and Jack in a fairly routine hunt. During this, Dean gets knocked unconscious only to wake, and find that Michael has escaped his mind. After slaughtering many hunters in his wake, Michael tortures the Winchesters but is confronted and killed by Jack Kline, who uses his soul to draw on his angelic abilities. In killing Michael, Jack not only burned off his soul, but also absorbed the grace of Michael, restoring him to his powerful state as a Nephilim. Due to this, Dean becomes increasingly more concerned with the condition of Jack's soul.
Parallel to this, the previous vessel of Lucifer engages in a plan to raise Lucifer from the empty. Jack is able to stop him in a grotesque killing which leaves Mary Winchester in a state of deep concern. Jack becomes frustrated and accidentally uses his powers to kill Mary. Dean finds out about his mother's death and starts into a fit of anger fueled by grief. On a mission to kill Jack, Chuck makes an appearance, supplying a gun which will do to the holder what it does to the victim. Dean accepts this as a solution for his building anger towards Jack and finds himself aiming, point blank, at Jack. Dean realizes that this is not the solution and drops the gun, eliciting an angered response from Chuck. Sam and Dean begin to realize that their lives have been nothing more than entertainment to Chuck, while he pulls the strings. Chuck kills Jack and releases every evil spirit from hell to attack the trio in a dramatic show of frustration, with a prequel statement "Story's over. Welcome to the end." Dean characteristically takes a fighting stance as the swarm engulfs him, his brother, and Castiel.
Season 15
After Chuck brings on the end by breaking open the gates of hell, Sam, Dean and Castiel deal with the aftereffects, fighting off a horde of zombies and ghosts. After sealing the breach, they search for a way to defeat Chuck, finally succeeding after many tribulations. After defeating Chuck, Dean is killed by vampires during a hunt. He accepts his fate and tells Sam a tearful goodbye. He is then reunited with Bobby Singer in heaven who explains to him what has been going on since Chuck's defeat. Dean learns that Jack pulled Castiel from the Empty so that Castiel could help Jack reshape heaven for the better. Sam joins Dean in heaven after living a fulfilling life on Earth.
The Winchesters
Set in the 1970s, Dean Winchester narrates the story of how his parents, John Winchester and Mary Campbell, met, fell in love, and fought monsters together while in search for their missing fathers.
Powers, skills and abilities
Dean is a skilled and highly resourceful hunter. He is well-versed in multiple types of firearms; he prefers his Colt 1911 and sawed-off shotgun, but is proficient with numerous weapons and firearms. He is also adept at brawling, and knife fighting, and has subdued several human assailants with ease and bested physically more powerful creatures such as shapeshifters, vampires and demons. He frequently utilizes improvised weapons and explosive devices; in "Croatoan", he demonstrated knowledge of chemistry, constructing Molotov cocktails and improvised explosive devices, and in "Phantom Traveler", he revealed knowledge of electronics and reverse engineering, having built an EMF detector from an old Walkman radio. Dean also possesses extensive knowledge of the supernatural, and mythology, and from season 4 onwards learns and is able to perform spells that are effective against angels.
Dean's work as a hunter requires him to impersonate various occupational roles in pursuing his investigations and avoid the attention of law-enforcement. To this end, Dean is well-versed in how police, and various other governmental agencies, such as the FBI and CDC, typically operate and conduct investigations. In supporting this lifestyle, Dean is also skillful in lock picking, breaking into security systems, carjacking and hustling for pool. Due to his time spent in Hell as Alistair's "student", Dean has an in-depth knowledge of torture. Dean is also an accomplished mechanic and maintained an intimate knowledge of automobiles and engines since childhood; he maintains his Impala in top condition.
When turned into a vampire, Dean had greater strength and all of his senses were enhanced. As a human, Dean was the bearer of the Mark of Cain; this granted him extraordinary strength, allowing him to fight on the level of a supercharged angel like Metatron. He also had several psionic abilities, the most notable of which is being able to summon and call the First Blade to him granted it is reasonable range. These powers also included premonitions given in dreams and immunity to both magical and demonic powers. As a demon bearing the Mark of Cain, Dean's strength was multiplied from the time he was a human, allowing him strength on par with, if not greater than, the Knights of Hell. His demonic powers also included a degree of telepathy, being able to read an individual named Lester's mind and learn his history with Sam upon meeting him. During his time as a demon, Dean also possessed the ability to easily regenerate from wounds and as his corrupted soul was possessing his own body, he was exempt from exorcisms that plagued other demons. During the short period as the angel Michael, Dean had powers similar to teleportation, telekinesis and rapid healing.
References
External links
Supernatural Wiki
Fictional characters from Kansas
Television characters introduced in 2005
Fictional characters who have made pacts with devils
Fictional con artists
Fictional demons and devils
Fictional outlaws
Fictional mechanics
Fictional paranormal investigators
Fictional exorcists
Fictional monster hunters
Fictional demon hunters
Fictional ghost hunters
Fictional vampire hunters
Fictional werewolf hunters
Fictional zombie hunters
Fictional deicides
American male characters in television
Supernatural (American TV series) characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indianapolis%20Motor%20Speedway%20Radio%20Network
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Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network
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The Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network (known typically as the IMS Radio Network or the INDYCAR Radio Network), is an in-house radio syndication arrangement which broadcasts the Indianapolis 500, the NTT IndyCar Series, and Indy Lights to radio stations covering most of North America. The network, owned by the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and headquartered in Speedway, Indiana, claims to be one of the largest of its kind in the world. It currently boasts over 350 terrestrial radio affiliates, plus shortwave transmissions through American Forces Network and World Harvest Radio. The network is carried on satellite radio through SiriusXM, and is also accessible through online streaming, and downloadable podcasts. For 2017, the broadcast reached 20.5 million listeners.
The longtime flagship of the network is 1070/WFNI (formerly WIBC, currently broadcasting on WIBC-HD3 and its FM translators) in Indianapolis. Mark Jaynes is the current anchor and chief announcer for the network, a role he assumed beginning in 2016. Davey Hamilton is the Driver Analyst.
The most notable personality from the network is hall of fame broadcaster Sid Collins, who was the original "Voice of the 500" from 1952 to 1976. Other notable broadcasters over the network's history include Paul Page, Bob Jenkins, Lou Palmer, Jerry Baker, Bob Lamey, and dozens more. In addition, former Indy 500 drivers Fred Agabashian, Len Sutton, Johnny Rutherford, and numerous others have served as analysts.
History
Early radio coverage
Coverage of the Indianapolis 500 on radio dates back to 1922. Two small stations, WOH and WLK, broadcast descriptions of the race to a small number of households in the Indianapolis area. Starting in either 1924 or 1925, WFBM and WGN in Chicago carried the race, broadcasting periodic updates. In 1929, WKBF and WFBM carried a -hour full race broadcast.
The first major coverage came in 1928 when NBC covered the final hour of the race live, with Graham McNamee as anchor. There was no radio coverage in 1932, as Speedway officials decided to allow newspapers exclusive coverage of the race. NBC eventually returned, and continued until 1939, in some years also carrying live segments at the start. Charlie Lyons was their announcer for 1939. CBS also covered the race in the late 1930s, with Ted Husing anchoring the coverage in 1936. WIRE and WLW also reported from the race during the 1930s.
Mutual / WIBC
From 1939 to 1950, Mutual Broadcasting System covered the Indianapolis 500 nationwide with live segments at the start, the finish, and live periodic updates throughout the race. Bill Slater was brought in as the anchor. In the years prior to World War II, Mutual used the production services of WLW, and provided the signal to other Mutual stations across the country. In the years after World War II, Mutual utilized the services of WIBC to produce the broadcast and provide additional talent.
In 1950, due to an illness, Slater was expected to miss the broadcast. Sid Collins, who had served as a turn reporter for two years, was tentatively named his replacement. Slater was able to make it to the race, so Collins joined Slater in the booth as co-anchor. Later in the day, Collins reported from victory lane. That year's race was cut short by rain, forcing Mutual to interrupt Queen for a Day to broadcast the finish of the rain-shortened event.
For 1951, Mutual substantially raised its advertising rates, and its primary sponsor, Perfect Circle Piston Rings, pulled its support. Mutual eventually decided to stop covering the event, and it appeared for a time that the 1951 race would not carried on radio. In early May of 1951, Speedway president Wilbur Shaw consummated a last-minute deal for WIBC to cover the race, with Sid Collins as anchor. WIBC's format followed that of Mutual's, with live coverage at the start, the finish, and periodic updates throughout the race. WIBC provided its coverage to approximately 25 other Mutual affiliates.
IMS Radio Network
After the success of WIBC's radio effort in 1951, the Speedway management became interested in taking the broadcasting duties in-house permanently. In 1952, the Speedway officially launched the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network, utilizing on-air talent and technical support from WIBC. The format again followed the Mutual-style format, with live coverage at the start, the finish, and periodic updates during the race. Starting in 1953, after complaints from the other four stations in the area, the talent pool was extended to feature personalities from all five Indianapolis radio stations. The 1953 race was notable in that it expanded to feature the first live "flag-to-flag" coverage, and the affiliate count had already grown to 130 stations. During this time, the broadcast was typically simulcast on all of the major stations in Indianapolis, and the nationwide affiliate count continued to grow rapidly. In some years, affiliates would sign up as late as the morning of the race, anxious to carry the broadcast. By 1955, the broadcast could be heard in all 48 states (there were only 48 states at the time). In 1961, it reached new states Alaska and Hawaii as well. Worldwide shortwave transmission through Armed Forces Radio started in 1953, and claimed to reach every country where English was spoken. In 1964, an affiliate in Rhode Island picked up the broadcast for the first time, meaning that a terrestrial affiliate originating from all 50 states were now part of the network (previously Rhode Island listeners could only hear the broadcast from a neighboring state). WJAR in Providence signed on to the 1964 race with 557 other affiliates for the historic milestone.
Former Indy 500 driver Elmer George, husband of Mari Hulman George, and father of Tony George, would eventually become the director of the network. He served in the position until his death in 1976. During his tenure as chief announcer, Sid Collins frequently referred to the outfit as the "Indianapolis Motor Speedway Network", omitting the word "Radio". In the 21st century, the announcers now commonly refer to it simply as the "IMS Radio Network".
From 1952 to 1985, the IMS Radio Network was the only outlet for live coverage of the Indianapolis 500. Television coverage on ABC at the time was a tape-delayed format, and for only a very brief time (1965–70) MCA aired a closed-circuit live telecast of the race. The radio broadcast was the primary coverage of the race for most fans in the U.S. and around the world, including many thousands at the track itself. The network experienced its heyday of popularity from the 1960s to the early 1980s. During the late seventies and early eighties, its affiliate count swelled to over 1,200 stations. Along with shortwave transmissions, and various foreign language translations, the network boasted at one time over 100 million listeners worldwide.
In 1994, the network began broadcasting the Brickyard 400 as the only NASCAR races not carried by MRN or PRN, and in 1996, began covering all events of the Indy Racing League. From 1997 to 2002, the network's name was briefly changed to the Indy Racing Radio Network to reflect the expanded content. In 2004, PRN began jointly producing the Brickyard 400 broadcast, and the broadcast streaming rights became part of PRN, not IMS.
From 2000 to 2007, the network also carried the Formula One U.S. Grand Prix. In addition to live race coverage, the network provides reports at Indy 500 time trials, and a talk show titled "Indy Live" which features interviews and other race news.
After the race went to live coverage on ABC-TV in 1986, then to NBC in 2019, the number of radio affiliates for the network steadily declined over the next two decades. However, the radio network's popularity remains strong, and maintains a cult following, particularly in the greater Indianapolis area, where the live television broadcast remains blacked out by WTHR (previously WRTV) unless the race is sold out. Also, to provide contractual continuity for stations which mainly carry the entire NASCAR schedule, PRN affiliates that wish to carry the Big Machine 400 NASCAR Cup oval event and Shell 150 Xfinity road course event are required to also carry the Indianapolis 500. If there are two different PRN and IMS Radio affiliates in a market, the IMS Radio affiliate retains the contractual right of first refusal.
As of 2017, the broadcast is carried on over 350 terrestrial radio affiliates, shortwave (AFN and World Harvest Radio), satellite radio (SiriusXM), online streaming, and podcast. Official releases of historical radio broadcasts have also been available for purchase. For INDYCAR races, the streaming of radio broadcasts is on INDYCAR's Web site. For NASCAR races, online streaming rights belong to PRN.
Network details
Reporting locations
The broadcast originates from the "Sid Collins Booth" on the fourth floor of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway media center, next to the main control tower at the Speedway, known as the Pagoda. From 1957 to 1998, the broadcast originated from the glass and steel Master Control Tower, which formerly stood where Pagoda is today. Prior to that, a radio booth was situated inside or in front of the wooden pagoda that pre-dated the Master Control Tower. For the 1999 race, a temporary makeshift booth was utilized during construction of the new Pagoda.
Since its inception, additional reporters have been stationed around the track, covering the vast circuit in the turns and in the pit area. In the 1940s and early 1950s, a roving reporter was assigned to the south turns (turns 1 and 2), and another was assigned to the north turns (turns 3 and 4). A vantage point on the backstretch was also manned. By 1957, the crew was expanded with a reporter assigned to each of the four turns, as well as the backstretch, for a total of five remote locations. In the pit area, the crew expanded to three men, one each covering the north pits, center pits, and south pits. With the starting field traditionally comprising 33 cars, each pit reporter was assigned roughly eleven pit stalls from which to observe and report. The three-man pit reporting crew of Chuck Marlowe, (north), Luke Walton (center), and Lou Palmer (south) became a fixture of the broadcast for over twenty years. Other key fixtures in the turns included Jim Shelton (turn 4), Howdy Bell (turn 2), Mike Ahern, and Ron Carrell. When the pit road was lengthened in 1974, a fourth pit reporter was added. Also in the 1970s, a wireless roving reporter was added with his duties primarily to cover the garage area and track hospital. In other selected years, a second roving reporter was part of the crew to conduct celebrity interviews, and report on the social scene at the track.
Prior to the 1970s, there were not grandstands in all four corners. Most notably the reporters in turn two and turn three did not have grandstands to serve as a vantage point until later years. Without grandstands, reporters in those turns may be stationed trackside, in the infield, or perched on a photography platform, with usually limited views.
After the 1984 race, the backstretch reporting location was eliminated. Due to the rising speeds of the race cars, the position was deemed unnecessary. Furthermore, due to an improved location, the turn three reporter was now able to see the entire backstretch from his vantage point. The backstretch was brought back briefly in 1989 and 1990 as a minor role for veteran announcer Howdy Bell. It was then eliminated permanently beginning in 1991.
Starting in the 2010s, the once prestigious turn one location was sometimes left vacant. The faster pace of the broadcasts, as well as the fact that the chief announcer in the pagoda had a clear view of the entire turn, was the reason for the change. The position was omitted in 2010, but was brought back for the 2011 race when the league utilized double-file restarts. It was eliminated again for 2012-2013. When Paul Page returned to the network in 2014, he reinstated the turn one post, and it remained through 2017. For 2018, it was vacant again.
From 2000 to 2018, the broadcast originated from a broadcast booth on the ninth floor of the Pagoda. In 2019, NBC took over television rights of the Indianapolis 500. NBC elected to take over the broadcasting booth formerly occupied by the radio network on the 9th floor of the Pagoda. The radio network crew moved to the booth formerly utilized by ABC-TV on the second floor of the Pagoda. As a result, the chief announcer no longer had a clear view of turn one, and the separate turn one announcer (which was left vacant multiple times in the past several years) had to be brought back. In 2021, the radio crew moved to a brand new radio booth that was constructed inside the media center. Technical support for the network is still based out of a control room on the 9th floor of the Pagoda.
Broadcast details
The broadcast traditionally opens and closes with a rendition of the song called "The 500", originally recorded by the Singing Hoosiers and Jazz Ensemble of Indiana University, (lyrics written by Joe Jordan). Several versions of the song have been used over the years including a disco version during the 1980s, and an up-tempo marching band version used briefly for 1992 and 1993. Since 1995, an instrumental version has been featured. The original 1961 recording is often played briefly during a cold open segment, followed by the updated version and the official opening credits sequence. In 2014, when Paul Page made his return as anchor, he chose to feature his signature "Delta Force" intro instead of "The 500" song. "The 500" song returned in 2015.
In the early years of the network through 1958, the broadcast typically came on-air fifteen minutes prior to the start of the race. From 1959 to 1971, the pre-race coverage was expanded to thirty minutes, and would include some of the official pre-race ceremonies. From 1972 to 1982 the pre-race coverage was scheduled for 45 minutes, coming on-air at 10:15 a.m. local time. Beginning in 1983, the pre-race was expanded to one hour. In 2016, a special two-hour pre-race was aired, celebrating the 100th running.
Since 1954, the broadcast has featured the famous phrase "Stay tuned for the Greatest Spectacle in Racing." Due to the increased number of affiliates at the time, the network needed a scripted "out-cue" to alert radio station engineers and producers when to manually insert local commercials. A young WIBC marketing staff member named Alice Greene (née Bunger) is credited with inventing the phrase, and chief announcer Sid Collins coined it on-air. It has been used ever since, with all of the chief announcers proudly reciting it during their respective tenures. In 1982, the phrase was briefly amended to "Stay tuned for the Greatest Spectacle in Sports," but that version was only used that year. When Bob Jenkins recited the phrase, he normally began it as "Now stay tuned...", and others used that variation on occasion.
Since 2010, variations to the out-cue have been used in some broadcasts. Some years have featured the out-cue recited by some of the drivers in the starting field. In some years, historic renditions by the former chief announcers have been used. In 2017, a separate voice announcer was used.
Personalities
The Voice of The 500
The play-by-play, or "Chief Announcer" of the race is known as The Voice of The 500. Although Bill Slater anchored early broadcasts on Mutual, Sid Collins, who had served alongside Slater in previous years as a turn reporter or analyst, is considered by most as the first true Voice. For the opening quarter-century of the Network's official independent existence, from 1952 to 1976, Collins served as the chief announcer, and ultimately as the template for all who have successively followed. One of Collins' most notable moments in broadcasting came during the 1964 race. After a fiery crash on the main stretch, Collins delivered an impromptu eulogy for Eddie Sachs, who was killed in the accident along with Dave MacDonald. The network received over 30,000 letters asking for a transcript of the on-air eulogy. Collins committed suicide on May 2, 1977, after being diagnosed with ALS.
Paul Page, whom Collins mentored, took over as chief announcer from 1977 to 1987. Page left for ABC-TV in 1988. Lou Palmer, formerly a pit reporter, then served the shortest tenure to date as Voice, (1988–1989). Bob Jenkins replaced Palmer, and called the event from 1990 to 1998. Mike King elevated to the position in 1999, after serving four years as a pit reporter. At fifteen years, King served the second-longest tenure as Voice, until his resignation in 2013. King was replaced by veteran Paul Page, who returned to the role after a 27-year absence. Page's second stint lasted three years (2014-2016). At the 2016 race, Page called the start of the race, then passed the duty on to Mark Jaynes.
Some historians and traditionalists prefer not to bestow Collins' successors with the prestigious title of Voice of the 500, arguing that Collins is the original and only true "Voice," and in fact coined the moniker for himself. There has been no consensus ever reached, and Page, Palmer, Jenkins, King, and Jaynes, all have been referred to over the years as either "Voice" or "Chief Announcer" whether formally or informally.
Analysts
In addition to the chief announcer, turn reporters, and pit reporters, there are several other analysts and personalities that are part of the crew. Since 1955, a "driver expert" has been part of the broadcast, serving as a color commentator. The position is typically held by a retired/inactive driver, or in some years a driver who failed to qualify for the race. Fred Agabashian held the seat for several years. Speedway historian Donald Davidson has appeared on the broadcast every year from 1964 to 2019. In 1964, he was a guest interviewed in the booth during the race, and starting in 1965 he joined the crew in an official capacity. Other former analysts include Chris Economaki and Dave "The King" Wilson. During its heyday, the broadcast crew was a Who's Who of notable radio talent from Indiana, both on-air and technical staff. Being named to the crew was considered a prestigious honor.
From the inception of the network through the early 1990s, a "Statistician" position was used. The statistician kept track of the race scoring, and would come on air to recite the scoring serials and average speeds at regular intervals - typically every 10 laps. The position was demanding, requiring close coordination with the USAC officials downstairs in race control. The radio network crew typically facilitated its own team of unofficial serial scorers to follow the progress of the race. That allowed the scoring reports to be announced on-air faster than the official scorekeepers could produce them from race control. The two-man scoring crew of Bill Fleetemeyer and Bill Lamb was a fixture of the network for many years. During the network's heyday, it was a popular rite for many listeners at home to chart the scoring throughout the race. Similarly, fans listening at the track often relied heavily on radio reports to keep track of the leaders, as scoreboards at the track (the iconic pylon on the main stretch, and the two "carousel" scoreboards in the shortchutes), were not visible to all fans, and furthermore sometimes lagged far behind real time and were not always accurate, or showed incomplete information.
The scoring and statistician positions quickly became outdated and obsolete when sophisticated electronic scoring equipment was adopted in the early 1990s. In the 2000s, by which time all scoring was done by computers, and likewise available in real time online, through mobile devices, and abundantly visible on video boards and digital scoreboards around the facility, the position was permanently retired.
From 1994 to 1999, Mike Joy anchored the Brickyard 400 broadcasts. Mike King took his place from 2000 to 2003. Since 2004, Doug Rice has been the lead announce, as part of a deal with the PRN. At the 2015 Indianapolis 500, Doug Rice joined the crew as a pit reporter. Rice performed "double duty", working the pits for the Indy 500, then flying to Charlotte Motor Speedway to call the Coca-Cola 600 later in the evening. IMS and PRN exchange talent when necessary for each other's races. For example, during the INDYCAR off-season, IMS crews have worked NASCAR races at Kentucky Speedway (when there was a conflict with the Cup weekend at New Hampshire Motor Speedway) and the Charlotte Motor Speedway road course (where extra broadcasters are required).
Broadcasting styles
Each of the different anchors had a noticeably different respective broadcasting style, and the race coverage was heavily influenced by the chief announcer's direction. During the Sid Collins era, the broadcast resembled more of an entertainment-based broadcast than a sporting event, with Collins old-time radio style setting the tone. Particularly in the 1950s and 1960s, there was limited play-by-play commentary, largely because during this period, it was not unusual for long stretches of the race to see little or no action. Turn reporters typically did not "call" the race live, in-part due to the limitations of the equipment. Rather, when incidents occurred on the track, the information would be relayed on cue cards to Collins, and the reporters would be called upon to summarize the details of what had happened. A unique individual, Collins was characterized by his contemporaries as a perfectionist and a proud person. The Collins era was also noted for its popular culture and social appeal. Booth interviews with celebrities, politicians, advertisers, promoters, retired drivers, and other famous personalities in attendance were used to fill the downtime of the broadcast. On other occasions, telegrams might be received from celebrities listening at home, and Collins would read some of them on-air for the listeners. Starting in 1971, Collins made an effort to curtail booth interviews, in order to improve the flow of the race, and to assuage listeners' complaints. Collins also had a popular custom of signing-off the broadcast by reciting poetry or other literary vignettes.
When Paul Page entered the booth in 1977, he swiftly changed the face of the network, and in his own words, "brought the broadcast into the present tense." He turned the coverage into a true live, play-by-play, sporting event broadcast, similar to what had been used by Motor Racing Network, which had covered some NASCAR, USAC, and Formula One races on the radio at the time. He "locked the doors" of the broadcast booth, effectively eliminating the mundane celebrity interviews, and gave the turn reporters a higher level of play-by-play responsibility. With the help of technicians, Page invented a custom switchboard to facilitate the turn and pit reporters. Page himself donned a headset that had instant communication between himself and the turn reporters, and without hesitation, would throw the call to the turn reporters as he saw appropriate. By the mid-1980s, the radio booth was equipped with a television monitor which could pick up the ABC-TV raw satellite feed, which gave the announcers access to replays for the first time. The new improved style of broadcasting was well-received, and earned critical praise for the seamless around-the-track call of the 1982 finish.
During the years Bob Jenkins anchored the network, the quality of the broadcast continued to excel. Praised by members of his staff as always being well-prepared and in complete control of the broadcast, Jenkins' team was praised for their flawless call of the 1992 finish. One of the changes Jenkins made upon his arrival involved the coverage of the pre-race ceremonies. Previously, each segment of the pre-race ceremonies was formally introduced by one of the pit reporters. Jenkins ditched the separate radio introductions, and for continuity purposes, began simulcasting the Speedway's public address system for the duration of the pre-race. Jenkins also brought in a separate pit producer, to coordinate the pit reporters. Later, Jenkins also began simulcasting the winner's interview in victory lane from ABC-TV, rather than wait for a separate radio interview, This allowed the radio audience to hear the first words spoken by the winner, increasing the spontaneity, and prevented the driver from having to repeat an entire interview for a second audience.
Jenkins enthusiastically served as chief announcer for nine years, but characterized the job as "complex" as well as physically and mentally "exhausting." One of Jenkins lasting contributions was the addition of the live talk show "Indy Live" in 1990. The program was carried by many of the affiliates, and featured interviews with drivers, and allowed listeners to call in and ask questions. Jenkins left after 1998 to work the race on ABC-TV for the next five years. Jenkins made a brief return to the radio crew as a turn reporter in 2007–2008, and as a booth analyst in 2009–2011, before permanently joining the Speedway public address announcing team.
During the 2000s, with Mike King as anchor, several new personalities joined the crew. After King retired from the position, Page made a well-publicized return as chief announcer in 2014. When King arrived as the announcer in 1999, a trend returned to the broadcasts, not seen since the days of Sid Collins. King interviewed booth guests (celebrities, politicians, and sponsor representatives), whether live in-person, or pre-recorded. Paul Page has continued the practice. Starting in 2004, King also started having a radio reporter conduct a second radio-specific interview with the winner in victory lane, shortly after the television interview simulcast. After 2006, the simulcasted interview from the television broadcast was dropped entirely.
On-air talent (Indianapolis 500)
Booth and turn announcers
Booth analysts
Pit and garage area reporters
Indianapolis 500 On-air crews and broadcast details by year
1920s: 1928 • 1929
1940s: 1946 • 1947 • 1948 • 1949
1950s: 1950 • 1951 • 1952 • 1953 • 1954 • 1955 • 1956 • 1957 • 1958 • 1959
1960s: 1960 • 1961 • 1962 • 1963 • 1964 • 1965 • 1966 • 1967 • 1968 • 1969
1970s: 1970 • 1971 • 1972 • 1973 • 1974 • 1975 • 1976 • 1977 • 1978 • 1979
1980s: 1980 • 1981 • 1982 • 1983 • 1984 • 1985 • 1986 • 1987 • 1988 • 1989
1990s: 1990 • 1991 • 1992 • 1993 • 1994 • 1995 • 1996 • 1997 • 1998 • 1999
2000s: 2000 • 2001 • 2002 • 2003 • 2004 • 2005 • 2006 • 2007 • 2008 • 2009
2010s: 2010 • 2011 • 2012 • 2013 • 2014 • 2015 • 2016 • 2017 • 2018 • 2019
2020s: 2020 • 2021 • 2022
Brickyard 400 & Lilly Diabetes 250 on-air talent
John Andretti
Jerry Baker
Chuck Carland
Donald Davidson
Chris Denari
Dave Despain
Ken Double
Chris Economaki
Mark Garrow
Brad Gillie
Ned Jarrett
Mike Joy
Jeff Hammond
Larry Henry
Mark Jaynes
Glenn Jarrett
Bob Jenkins
John Kernan
Mike King
Bob Lamey
Gary Lee
Kevin Lee
Mike Lewis
Chris McClure
Brett McMillan
Ryan Myrehn
Kevin Olson
Pat Patterson
Jake Query
Doug Rice
Ralph Sheheen
Vince Welch
Nick Yeoman
Technical staff
Selected technical and administrative staff for the IMS Radio Network, past and present.
Tom Allebrandi
Tom Allebrandi II
Russ Arnold
Gil Berry
Norm Birnbaum
Tom Borgioli
Bill Dean
Rick Evans
Elmer George
Bill Fleetemeyer & Bill Lamb
John Fugate
Ted Harding
Kurt Hunt
Paul Leavitt
Wally Leavitt
Brian Livingston
Jack Morrow
Chris Pollock
John Royer
Tom Schoeller
John Walters
Notes
Works cited
Mutual Radio Network: Indianapolis 500 Radio Broadcasts (1946, 1947, 1949, 1950)
Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network: Indianapolis 500 Radio Broadcasts (1953–1955, 1958, 1960–2014)
Van Camp's Pork & Beans Presents: Great Moments From the Indy 500 – Fleetwood Sounds, 1975
IndyCar Radio official website
Indiana Broadcast Pioneers – Hall of Fame
1977 Carl Hungness Indianapolis 500 Yearbook, pg. 134–135
References
Indianapolis 500
IndyCar Series on the radio
NASCAR on the radio
Sports radio networks in the United States
Sirius XM Radio channels
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.E.K.%20%28sports%20club%29
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A.E.K. (sports club)
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A.E.K (; Athlitikí Énosis Konstantinoupόleos, Athletic Union of Constantinople), known as A.E.K, is a major Greek multi-sport club based in Nea Filadelfeia, Athens. The club is more commonly known in European competitions as A.E.K Athens.
Established in Athens in 1924 by Greek refugees from Constantinople after the 1919–22 Greco-Turkish war and the subsequent population exchange between Greece and Turkey, it is one of the three most successful clubs in Greece. While it fields teams in many sports under the umbrella of its amateur sports arm, Amateur AEK (; Erasitechnikί AEK)
with A.E.K. Handball team to be the best Greek handball club in European achievements having obtained one EHF European Cup (in 2021) and having also reached to the finals (in 2018) and to the semi-finals (in 2019),
AEK sports club is best known for its professional football team which have made some notable wins on European competitions (participating at the Semi-final of Europa League in 1977), having also obtained 13 Greek Championships, 16 Greek Cups, 1 Greek League Cup, 2 Greek Super Cups) and also for the professional basketball team which has won the Greek Basket League eight times, the Greek Basket Cup five times, the FIBA Saporta Cup twice, once the FIBA Basketball Champions League and once the FIBA Intercontinental Cup.
History
1924–1945
The large Greek population of Constantinople, not unlike those of the other Ottoman urban centres, continued its athletic traditions in the form of numerous athletic clubs. Clubs such as Énosis Tataoúlon () and Iraklís (today Kurtuluş S.K.) () from the Tatavla district, Mégas Aléxandros () and Ermís () of Galata, and Olympiás () of Therapia existed to promote the Hellenic athletic and cultural ideals. These were amongst a dozen Greek-backed clubs that dominated the sporting landscape of the city in the years preceding World War I. After the war, with the influx of mainly French and British soldiers to Constantinople, many of the city clubs participated in regular competition with teams formed by the foreign troops. Taxim, Pera, and Tatavla became the scene of weekly competitions in football, athletics, cycling, boxing and tennis.
Ermís, one of the most popular clubs, was formed in 1875 by the Greek community of the city.
Another club of Pera (Galata), known as Pera, since the mid-1880s, forced to change its name to Pera Sports Club, and then Beyoğlu S.K., in 1923. Many of its athletes, with those of the other sporting clubs, fled during the population exchanges at the end of the Greco-Turkish War, and settled mainly in Athens and Thessaloniki.
In 1924, the founders of AEK - a group of Constantinopolitan refugees (among them many athletes from the Pera Sports Club and the other Constantinopolitan clubs) - met at the athletic shop "Lux" of Emilios Ionas and Konstantinos Dimopoulos on Veranzerou Street, in the center of Athens, and created AEK. Their intention was to create a club that provided athletic and cultural diversions for the thousands of predominantly Constantinopolitan and Anatolian refugees who had settled in the new suburbs of Athens (including Nea Filadelfeia, Nea Ionia, Nea Chalkidona, Nea Smyrni).
AEK's first president, Konstantinos Spanoudis (1871–1941), a journalist and associate of the Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, petitioned the government to set aside land for the establishment of a sports ground. In 1926, land in Nea Filadelfeia that was originally set aside for refugee housing, was donated as a training ground for the refugees' sports activities. AEK began using the ground for training, albeit unofficially.
In 1930, the property where AEK trained was officially signed over to the club. Venizelos soon approved the plans to build what was to become AEK's home ground for the next 70 years, the Nikos Goumas Stadium. The liberal politician was present at the inauguration of the stadium.
AEK Athletic Club was established in 1924 and is one of the most successful departments of AEK. One of the first sections of the AEK athletic club was cycling. M. Kaloudis was a winner in the Balkan Games (in 1940 in Bucharest when he was third) and was one of the founders of the Chamber. He first appeared in 1929 and was followed by Petoun, Tarsinian and Krisalis. Another cycling ace was Kouvelis, who won the gold medal in the Balkan Games of 1940 in the race of 33 kilometers. Both Kaloudis and his Kouvelis participated in the Olympic Games in London in 1948.
1945–1960
In the Olympic Games of 1948 in London, M. Kaloudis led to the new excursion of AEK in cycling. At the beginning of the 1950s, the sport had blossomed and AEK competed with Panionios and Panathinaikos. The department then had a plethora of skilled cyclists as Davouti, Kouyioumtzis (won the race Athens-Loutraki 1952), Chatziargyri, Georgiadis, Arapi, Barda, Alexis, Tzioti, Barla, Trasian, etc.
AEK Table Tennis Club acquired the third position, both in men and in young men championships, in Greece in 1959. AEK Athens Table Tennis (ping-pong) Club, participated in Greek championships during the decades of 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and 1980s.
1961–1970
AEK was the first ever Greek basketball team to participate in the FIBA European Champions Cup (now called the EuroLeague) Final Four, in 1966, which was held in Bologna, Italy. Two years later, AEK was the first-ever Greek team, not only to reach a FIBA European Cup Winners' Cup Final, but also to win a European-wide title. On April 4, 1968, AEK captained by Giorgos Amerikanos, defeated Slavia VŠ Praha, by a score of 89–82, in Athens, in front of 80,000 spectators (at the time, the Guinness world record in basketball attendance) in Kallimarmaron Stadium.
AEK Athens V.C. is the volleyball team of the Greek sports club AEK. It was re-founded in 1967 by Jason Platsi. Over the years AEK have struggled to stay in the top flight of Greek volleyball, competing in A2 (Greece's second division) and A1.
The Boxing Club was founded in 1969 and during the 1970s had its first success.
1971–1980
The football team, with star player the striker Thomas Mavros, reached the semi-finals of UEFA Cup in 1977, where they were eliminated by Juventus. The Italian team eventually won the trophy.
With many star players they continued appearing in European (UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup) competitions.
1981–1990
AEK Table Tennis Club acquired the third position in Greek Cups of 1984 and 1985. The relevant department of AEK was inactive for almost 23 years (1986–2009).
1991–2000
The football team, under the guidance of ex-player Dušan Bajević won three consecutive championships in 1992, 1993 and 1994.
Since 1995, AEK also has a women's volley club team, which has advanced to the final of the Greek Cup (2011).
The department of fencing was founded in 1996.
The basketball team reached the FIBA EuroLeague's Final Four in Barcelona in 1998, and beat Benetton Treviso, by a score of 69–66, before losing in the EuroLeague Final to Kinder Bologna, by a score of 44–58. In 2000, on 11 April, AEK won their second international trophy, the FIBA Saporta Cup, by defeating Kinder Bologna 83–76.
The biggest success for the boxing department came in the late 1990s, with Tigran Ouzlian, Artur Mikaelyan and Mike Arnaoutis (who became a professional boxer in the United States).
2001–2010
AEK H.C. is also another growing department of AEK. It was founded by a decision of the General Assembly of AEK on July 12, 2005. On August 5, 2005, the Greek Handball Federation accepted a merger of GA Ilioupolis with the Handball Sports Union of Constantinople. In 2007 AEK HC was 3rd in A1 and gained the first participation in European Cups. On 31 May 2009, AEK HC won the Greek Cup in Serres.
The department of AEK Futsal Club was established in 2008 by a merger with Enosi Geraka futsal team and participated in B'Ethniki (second division), where it finished first at the regular season and second after play-off games. However, for the period 2009–10 AEK futsal club is playing again at B'Ethniki, due to a decision taken by EPO (Greek Football Federation), forbidding all team mergers generally. AEK Futsal Club terminated at second position of B'Ethniki after play-off games in April 2010 and gained the participation in A'Ethniki (first division) for the period 2010–11 and has been advanced to the semi-finals of the Greek Cup (2011).
The Chess department was founded by a decision of the General Assembly of AEK on 12 July 2005. The department staffed directly by 3 September 2005 is a member of the Greek Chess Federation. In 2006 AEK Chess Club was Greek Cup finalist and in 2008 Greek Cup semi-finalist (third place). Also won the Attica Cup in 2006 and the Attica Rapid Championships in 2006, 2009 and 2010. In 2010 participated at A' Ethniki (1st Division) and took the seventh place.
AEK VC had its finest moment with coach Stelios Prosalikas, as has prevailed in the final four of the European Cup Winners Cup. The races held (9–10 March 2000) in the closed Nea Liosia and AEK lost in the semi-final by Cuneo, but won 3–1 Galatasaray in the small final and won the third place.
2011–2023
In 2011, AEK FC won the Greek Cup.
In 2011, AEK HC won the Greek Championship.
Also, on 26 February 2011, AEK HC advanced to the quarter-final (best 8) of European Challenge Cup by defeating Sporting Lisboa.
In 2012, AEK WVC won the Greek Women Championship.
In 2013, AEK HC make Double won the Greek Championship and the Greek Cup.
In 2014, AEK HC won the Greek Cup.
In 2014, AEK VC won the Greek Men's League Cup.
In 2016, AEK FC won the Greek Cup.
In 2018, AEK BC won the FIBA Champions League and the Greek Cup.
In 2018, AEK FC won the Greek Championship.
In 2018, AEK Futsal won the Greek Cup.
Also, in 2018, AEK HC reached the final of Challenge Cup.
In 2019, AEK BC won the FIBA Intercontinental Cup to complete a historic intercontinental treble.
In 2019, AEK Futsal won the Greek Championship.
In 2019, AEK Women's Futsal won the Hellenic Futsal Greek Championship.
In 2020, AEK BC won the Greek Cup.
In 2020 AEK Futsal won the Greek Championship.
In 2020, AEK HC won the Greek Championship.
In 2021, AEK HC won the Greek Championship, the Greek Cup and the EHF European Cup, a historic European treble.
In 2023, AEK Futsal Women's department won a national treble after winning the Hellenic Futsal Championship, Cup, and Super Cup.
Crest and colours
Since the club's foundation AEK adopted the image of a double-headed eagle on a golden yellow background. The emblem and colours were chosen as a reminder for the lost homelands and they represent the club's historical ties to Constantinople. Its usage also survived as a decorative element in the Greek Orthodox Church, which was the inheritor of the Byzantine legacy during the Ottoman Empire, while it remained a popular symbol among Greeks. In modern Greece various variations of the two-headed eagles are used in Church flags (based on Byzantine flag patterns and heraldic emblems) and officially by the Hellenic Army; the bird found also its way into the Greek coat of arms for a brief period in 1925–1926.
Sport departments
AEK is an amateur multi-sports club with the mission to create and advance as many sports as it is possible and its main professional and semiprofessional teams operate independently.
The club has teams in many sports, including athletics, cycling, boxing, chess, fencing, table tennis, wrestling, weightlifting, gymnastics, swimming, water polo both male and female teams, rugby league, tennis, badminton, kickboxing, taekwondo, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, wheelchair basketball, and esports, but its most popular teams primarily compete in association football, basketball, volleyball, handball, and futsal.
Top-flight titles by department
A.E.K. Football Club (32)
Greek Championships (13): 1939, 1940, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1978, 1979, 1989, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2018, 2023
Greek Cup (16): 1932, 1939, 1949, 1950, 1956, 1964, 1966, 1978, 1983, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2002, 2011, 2016, 2023
Greek League Cup (1): 1990 (record)
Greek Super Cup (2): 1989, 1996
A.E.K. Basketball Club (17)
Intercontinental Cup (1): 2019
European Cup Winners' Cup / Saporta Cup (2): 1968, 2000
Champions League (1): 2018
Greek Championships (8): 1958, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1970, 2002
Greek Basketball Cup (5): 1981, 2000, 2001, 2018, 2020
A.E.K. Handball Club (10)
EHF European Cup (1): 2021
Greek Championship (5): 2011, 2013, 2020, 2021, 2023
Greek Cup (4): 2009, 2013, 2014, 2021
A.E.K. Volleyball Club Men (1)
Greek League Cup (1): 2014
A.E.K. Volleyball Club Women (3)
Greek Championship (1): 2012
Greek Cup (1): 2023
Greek Super Cup (1): 2012
A.E.K. Rugby League (5)
Greek Championship 9's (2): 2018, 2019
Greek Championship 13's (2): 2018, 2019
Greek Rugby League Federation Championship (1): 2023
A.E.K. Futsal Men (7)
Greek Championship (2): 2019, 2020
Greek Cup (2): 2018, 2023
Greek Super Cup (3): 2018, 2019, 2023
A.E.K. Futsal Women (5)
Hellenic Futsal Super League (2): 2019, 2023
Hellenic Futsal Greek Cup (2): 2022, 2023
Hellenic Futsal Greek Super Cup (1): 2022
A.E.K. Cycling (10)
Greek Championship, Overall Standings (10): 1960, 1961, 1962, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1975, 1979, 1981
A.E.K. Boxing (6)
Greek Men Championship (6): 1978, 1980, 1995, 1999, 2000, 2006
A.E.K. Athletics (20)
Greek Men Cross-Country Championships (10): 1937, 1946, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964
Greek Women Championship (4): 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014
Greek Women Indoor Championship (3): 2011, 2015, 2016
Greek Women Cross-Country Championship (3): 2010, 2011, 2012
A.E.K. Fencing (12)
Greek Women Championship (10): 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021
Greek Men Championship (2): 2018, 2020
A.E.K. Table Tennis (2)
Greek Men Championship (2): 2019, 2020
A.E.K. Artistic Swimming (1)
Greek Championship OPEN (1): 2022
European and worldwide honours
Notable supporters
Giannis Aivazis, actor, handball player
Alekos Alavanos, politician
Antonis Antoniou, actor
Milena Apostolaki, politician
Evangelia Aravani, model
Eleftheria Arvanitaki, singer
Vasilis Avlonitis, actor
Bartholomew I of Constantinople, is the 270th and current Archbishop of Constantinople and Ecumenical Patriarch
Maria Bakodimou, TV presenter
Niki Bakoyianni, high jumper
Sotiria Bellou, rebetiko singer
Nikos Beloyannis, resistance leader
Kostas Bigalis, singer
Max Cavalera, musician
Christodoulos of Athens, Archbishop of Athens and All Greece
Nives Celsius, model
Rallia Christidou, singer, politician
Phoebus Delivorias, singer, songwriter
Lavrentis Dianellos, actor
Nader Dahabi, 37th Prime Minister of Jordan
Nikos Dimou, writer
Natalia Dragoumi, actress
Antigoni Drisbioti, race walker
Yannis Economides, filmmaker
Chronis Exarhakos, actor
Tasos Giannopoulos, actor
Manolis Glezos, politician
Kostas Hatzichristos, actor
Nasos Iliopoulos, SYRIZA's Press representative
Antonis Kafetzopoulos, actor
Antonis Kalogiannis, singer
Manos Katrakis, actor
Michalis Kaltezas, victim of police's abuse of authority
Stelios Kazantzidis, singer
Panos Kammenos, politician
Tzortzia Kefala, singer
Panos Kiamos, singer
Giorgos Konitopoulos, musician
Lambros Konstantaras, actor
Pavlos Kontogiannidis, actor
Fotis Kouvelis, former leader of Democratic Left
Stamatis Kraounakis, composer
Stelios Kritikos, actor, storyteller
Vassilis Logothetidis, actor
Stelios Mainas, actor
Pavlos Mamalos, powerlifter, Paralympic Gold medalist
Giorgos Margaritis, singer
Yannis Maris, detective fiction writer
Notis Mavroudis, composer
Michalis Menidiatis, singer
Dimitris Melissanidis, businessman
Fotis Metaxopoulos, dancer, choreographer
Giorgos Mitsakis, musician
George Mitsikostas, comedian
Sotiris Moustakas, actor
Katerina Moutsatsou, actress
Dimitris Myrat, actor
Lina Nikolakopoulou, lyricist
Nikos Nikolaou, actor
Christos Nikolopoulos, composer, musician
Kostas Nikouli, actor
Aristotle Onasis, one of the world's richest men
Nikos Orfanos, actor, politician
Pavlos Orkopoulos, actor
Spyros Ornerakis, caricaturist
Tzimis Panousis, musician
Pantelis Pantelidis, songwriter and singer
James Pantemis, football player
Miltos Paschalidis, singer, songwriter
Errika Prezerakou, pole vaulter
Alexandros Pantelias, musician
Giorgos Pantelias, musician
Makis Papadimitriou, actor
Antonis Papadopoulos, actor
Christos Papadopoulos, musician, composer
Lefteris Papadopoulos, lyricist
Giannis Papaioannou, musician, composer
Giannis Papathanasis, actor
Ange Postecoglou, football manager
Stathis Psaltis, actor
Psarantonis, musician
Stelios Perpiniadis, rebetiko musician
Miltiadis Papaioannou, politician
Thanasis Polykandriotis, musician, composer
Evanthia Reboutsika, musician, composer
Zozo Sapountzaki, actress, singer
Nikos Sergianopoulos, actor
Stan, singer
Spiros Skouras, film producer
Pandelis Thalassinos, musician
Kostas Terzakis, actor, voice actor
Gianna Terzi, singer
Marios Tokas, composer
Sakis Tolis, singer
Makis Triantafyllopoulos, Greek journalist
Kostas Tsakonas, actor
Aris Tsapis, actor
Paschalis Tsarouchas, actor
Stefanos Tsitsipas, tennis player
TUS, rapper
Giorgos Vasiliou, actor
Elias Venezis, novelist
Anna Verouli, javelin thrower
Pantelis Voulgaris, film director
Kostas Voutsas, actor
Despoina Vandi, singer
Eleni Vitali, singer
Nikos Xanthopoulos, actor
Stavros Xenidis, actor
Nikos Xilouris, singer
Thomas Zabras, stand-up comedian
Zannino, actor
Christoforos Zaralikos, stand-up comedian, actor
Peggy Zina, singer
Presidential history
Gallery
References
External links
A.E.K. Sports Club official website
A.E.K. Athens
Multi-sport clubs in Athens
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4997163
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray%20treefrog
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Gray treefrog
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The gray treefrog (Dryophytes versicolor) is a species of small arboreal holarctic tree frog native to much of the eastern United States and southeastern Canada.
It is sometimes referred to as the eastern gray treefrog, northern gray treefrog, common gray treefrog, or tetraploid gray treefrog to distinguish it from its more southern, genetically disparate relative, Cope's gray treefrog.
Description
As the scientific name implies, gray treefrogs are variable in color. This ability to vary their color provides them with the ability to camouflage themselves from gray to green or brown, depending on the environment around them. H. versicolor can change from nearly black to nearly white. They change color at a slower rate than a chameleon. A unique aspect of the appearance of gray treefrogs is that its legs feature a dark band-like pattern which then contrast sharply with the black-marked bright yellow or orange under the sides of its legs and arms. Dead gray treefrogs and ones in unnatural surroundings are predominantly gray. The female does not call however, the male does call. Female gray treefrogs are usually larger than their male counterparts. They are relatively small compared to other North American frog species, typically attaining no more than in length. Their skin has a lumpy texture to it, giving them a warty appearance.
This species is virtually indistinguishable from Cope's gray treefrog, the only readily noticeable difference being that Cope's Gray treefrog has a shorter, faster call. This varies depending on the temperature, however, as the call rates of both gray treefrogs are temperature dependent. At lower temperatures, Cope's gray treefrog can have a call rate approximating that of the gray treefrog. This difference in calling can be heard, but it is best quantified by counting the number of pulses per second in their whistled trills. At usual temperatures, the gray treefrog has a pulse rate of 16 to 34 pulses per second, while Cope's gray treefrog has a pulse rate of 34 to 60 pulses per second. Even though there is potential for overlap, because of the temperature dependence of the pulse frequency the two species are easily distinguished where they occur together. At a given temperature, the pulse frequency for the gray treefrog is approximately 1/2 that of Cope's gray treefrog.
The gray treefrog also has 48 chromosomes (4n), and is sometimes referred to as the tetraploid gray treefrog in scientific literature. Cope's gray treefrog, or diploid gray treefrog, retained its 2n (24) original chromosome count. Hybridization between these species results in early mortality of many larvae, but some individuals survive to adulthood, but these individuals suffer from reduced fertility.
Both of these similar species have bright-yellow patches on their hind legs, which distinguishes them from other treefrogs, such as the bird-voiced tree frog. The bright patches are normally only visible while the frog is jumping. Both species of gray treefrogs are slightly sexually dimorphic. Males have black or gray throats, while the throats of the females are lighter.
Tadpoles have rounded bodies (as opposed to the more elongated bodies of stream species) with high, wide tails that can be colored red if predators are in the system. Metamorphosis can occur as quickly as two months with optimal conditions. During metamorphosis, the new froglets will almost always turn green for a day or two before changing to the more common gray. Young frogs will also sometimes maintain a light green color, only turning gray or darker green once adulthood is reached.
Distribution and habitat
Gray treefrogs inhabit a wide geographic range, and can be found in most of the eastern half of the United States and as far west as central Texas and Oklahoma. They also range into Canada in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba, with an isolated population in New Brunswick.
The gray treefrog is capable of surviving freezing of its internal body fluids to temperatures as low as .
The gray treefrog is most common in forested areas, as it is highly arboreal. Its calls are often heard in rural residential areas of the East Coast and the Midwest. It prefers to breed in semipermanent woodland ponds without fish, but it also lays eggs in swamps, vernal pools, man-made fountains and water gardens, and even in rainwater-filled swimming pool covers.
Behavior
Male gray treefrogs rarely have large choruses, as they are mostly solitary animals, but might vocalize competitively at the height of breeding periods. Gray treefrogs have been observed to congregate around windows and porch lights to eat insects that are attracted to the light. Insect larvae, mites, spiders, plant lice, harvestmen, and snails also contribute towards the diet of the gray treefrog. Some populations have a diet high in ants and beetles. However, like most frogs, D. versicolor is opportunistic and may also eat smaller frogs, including other treefrogs. During the day, they often rest on horizontal tree branches or leaves out in the open. Gray treefrogs have also been observed to lay out in the direct sun. Gray tree frogs are less prone to overheating and desiccation than other amphibians and rely on their superb camouflage to hide them from predators.
Mating
Mate searching behavior
Research on anuran communication reveals that groups of male frog chorus attract female frogs to mate. The relative success of these male frogs, including H. versicolor males, at attracting females depends on how their advertisement call is able to lead females to their calling space. As male density increases, a male’s advertisement call is confused with the other calls. This confusion leads to the inability of females to accurately locate the origin of the call. The lowest intensity of a neighbor's call that a male frog is tolerant of is known as the aggressive threshold. When this threshold is reached, a male frog will use a different call known as an aggressive call to initiate male-male conflict or intolerance.
Aggressive calls are usually much shorter in length and have lower frequencies than advertisement calls. Aggressive calls specifically in H. versicolor males also do not show much variation in amplitude throughout the call, unlike advertisement calls which contain many pulses. This is very unique to the H. versicolor species since most species with graded aggressive calls have advertisement and aggressive calls with very similar structures. They are similar in that they both have two peak frequencies, but the aggressive call peak frequencies are usually lower.
Male/male interactions
Since females do not prefer call overlap between males in a close range of each other, this can cause a change in call-timing as well as a change in the characteristics of the calls these males produce. When there are other male frogs calling, H. versicolor males will adjust the timing of their calls; however, this is done in a much less strict fashion than most frog species. Compared to other species, H. versicolor does not exhibit selective attention. Selective attention is the phenomenon observed in many chorusing male frog species to change the timing of their calls to reduce overlap based on their loudest one or two neighboring male competitors, while ignoring the timing of other calls farther away. Instead, H. versicolor males will avoid call overlap when paired with only one other male, but will not actively avoid overlap with adjacent frogs in a group nearly as much as other frog species do. In response to increased competition, males can change the timing of their calls, but also change the characteristics of their calls. As surrounding competition increases, males will increase the length of their advertisement calls, but produce those calls less often since each call requires more energy to produce. But call amplitude and call frequency do not change as the amount of surrounding competition changes.
When males get closer and there is infiltration of each others territories, there are increased chances of aggressive encounters. This results in males engaging in conflict with one another through aggressive calls. The timing of these aggressive calls changes as distance from the intended recipient varies.
Conflict between two H. versicolor males will begin with trading advertisement calls between each other. Even though advertisement calls are primarily used to attract females, they still play a role in male-male interactions. Rarely the conflict escalates from this point and transitions into the exchange of aggressive calls and only in few cases will conflict result in physical contact.
Female/male interactions
Mate choice
Unlike most species, H. versicolor females do not prefer leading calls, but do prefer leading pulses if there is call overlap between male calls. Overall, females prefer the lack of call overlap. However, increasing the distance between males producing overlapping calls may reduce the cost that usually causes females to not choose those potential mates. The distance between the males allows the female to distinguish calls opposed to overlapping calls produced from very close points that make two individual males harder to distinguish by sound. This means that H. versicolor males are not as forced to make specific timed-call responses and initiations to increase mate attractiveness compared to other chorus anurans and insects. Instead, H. versicolor males can allow call-timing to be more dependent on other things, like the social environment and male competition.
H. versicolor females are not usually attracted to aggressive calls no matter the range of aggressive frequency it is produced in, but may occasionally still be attracted to aggressive calls. Females also exhibit no preference within the range of advertisement call frequencies, they generally prefer advertisement calls over aggressive ones. There is a range in the advertisement and aggressive call frequencies because H. versicolor males are capable of producing certain frequencies based on their size and properties of their vocal structures.
Females are more attracted to longer male calls, which is also supported by their preference for advertisement calls over any aggressive call. Aggressive calls from nearby males don’t reduce the attractiveness of advertisement calls from a given other male.
Courting
Male frogs will change their vocalizations when female frogs move closer to them. They do this in order to increase the likelihood that their advertisement call is received by a female over the other noise and vocalizations that could obscure it. H. versicolor males specifically do this by increasing the length of their calls to several lengths of a normal advertisement call. Males will also lengthen the duration of their calls when they see a female or sense them through touch. Females will initiate the mating position by touching the male frog resulting in the male frog vocalizing one or two especially long calls, known as courting calls.
Social behavior
Adult sociality
H. versicolor males are known to follow a similar pattern that is seen in other species termed graded aggressive calling. Compared to aggressive calls, H. versicolor male aggressive calls are a lower frequency than advertisement calls. However, they decrease the frequency of their aggressive calls as the aggressiveness with another male rises. This gradient in frequencies allows their calls to efficiently balance energy costs of calling and when intense calling is necessary during male-male conflict. The energetic cost of producing vocalizations increases if there is any shift from a male’s individual natural frequency. That being said, there is more of an energetic cost for low frequency and frequency decreasing calls than higher frequency ones, so this could be an explanation for why these types of calls are usually reserved for the most intense conflict.
Graded aggressive calling and a lower need to avoid call overlap allows H. versicolor males to have more freedom in the types of calls they produce. More freedom in call-timing also allows H. versicolor males to use advertisement call-overlap to signal the beginning of rising levels of aggressiveness between two males. Increasing overlapping calls can also be a response to an increase in the level of male competition or might simply be because call overlap increases as males communicate with each other for a longer period of time. For the same reason why males respond with call overlap in areas with the most acoustic competition, males in high density call choruses also produce the highest levels of overlapping calls with male frogs closest to them.
Group living
Male aggressive calling not only is affected by mating and their need to defend their calling space but is also affected by social communication with other aggressive males. The social environment can change as male callers move around and as females arrive to assess their potential mates producing different levels of perceived male competition heard by H. versicolor males. In particular, the social environment surrounding a male responding to an intruder will affect the intensity of the responding aggressive calls produced. This idea of a social environment affecting aggressive call output arose in this frog species from research that examined the relationship between aggressive call intensity in environments with an intruder versus and environment with other surrounding male competitors. With that being said, the effect of the social environment is more complex and requires further research. There are effects of other male competition on a male’s advertisement call timing in the gray tree frog. As males get closer to another males calling space, they become more aggravated by another male infiltrating their calling space. This results in males engaging in conflict with one another through aggressive calls and the timing of these calls changes when the intended recipient is within close range.
Inter-species interactions
Dryophytes versicolor is known to be largely intersterile with D. chrysoscelis but there may be a limited amount of interfertility in sympatry. When D. versicolor is sympatric with D. chrysoscelis, females more strongly weight a species-specific cue (call rate) than a more general cue (call duration) when choosing mates. This appears to be an example of reproductive character displacement to keep the species separate. In addition, to enforce speciation there may be unknown mechanisms of reinforcement deployed between these species and further research may be fruitful.
Dryophytes versicolor and Dryophytes chrysoscelis call next to each other ponds resulting in interference of their vocalizations because their calls are so similar acoustically. In response to male advertisement calls, D. versicolor male answers with the same level of aggressiveness to males of the same species and to D. chrysoscelis males producing the initial call. D. versicolor male interactions with D. chrysoscelis males increase in aggressive intensity more quickly than with male interactions with their own species. Once the aggression levels intensified between these species, the weaker frog was more likely to retreat from the winner. In general, D. versicolor males initiate physical attacks during intense vocal conflict between the two species more often than D. chrysoscelis.
In previous studies, D. versicolor mate attractiveness decreases when there is call overlap with D. chrysoscelis. The H. versicolor mate attractiveness decreases even more so than D. chrysoscelis when there is call overlap, which can explain why the D. versicolor male tends to initiate aggressive physical contact more often: the D. versicolor has more to lose from the call overlap continuing to take place. While the advertisement calls of D. versicolor and D. chrysoscelis are distinguishable, the aggressive calls between these two species are similar.
References
External links
Gray Treefrog – Hyla versicolor Species account from the Iowa Reptile and Amphibian Field Guide
Gray Treefrog – Hyla versicolor – audio recording of call
Tetraploid Gray Treefrog (Hyla versicolor), Natural Resources Canada
Gray Treefrog Tadpole Tail Polymorphism, Images and explanation of tadpole tail coloration.
Northern gray treefrog New Jersey Pinelands flora, fauna, and landscapes photo galleries link to northern gray treefrog photograph
Dryophytes
Cryozoa
Amphibians of Canada
Amphibians of the United States
Fauna of the Eastern United States
Fauna of the Northeastern United States
Fauna of the Plains-Midwest (United States)
Articles containing video clips
Extant Pleistocene first appearances
Amphibians described in 1825
Taxa named by John Eatton Le Conte
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4997438
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20single%20volumes
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List of Ace single volumes
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Ace Books began publishing genre fiction in 1952. Initially these were mostly in the attractive tête-bêche format, but they also published a few single volumes, in the early years, and that number grew until the doubles stopped appearing in about 1978. The tête-bêche format was discarded in 1973, but future double novels were continued for a while,
Between 1952 and 1968, the books had a letter-series identifier; after that date they were given five-digit numeric serial numbers. The list given here covers every Ace book that was not a double, published between 1952 and 1978 (or later), for all genres. It gives a date of publication; in all cases this refers to the date of publication by Ace, and not the date of original publication of the novels. For more information about the history of these titles, see Ace Books, which includes a discussion of the serial numbering conventions used and an explanation of the letter-code system.
This list covers the non-double novels, for both the letter-series and numeric-series books. For the Ace Double volumes, see Ace Doubles.
D, G and S Series
D-032 NA Dorothy Malone Cookbook for Beginners (1953)
D-043 NA George S. Viereck and Paul Eldridge Salome: My First 2000 Years of Love (1953)
S-054 NA Carl Offord The Naked Fear (1954)
S-058 NA Joachim Joesten Vice, Inc. (1954)
S-060 WE Samuel A. Peeples (as Brad Ward) The Marshal of Medicine Bend (1954)
D-062 NA Ken Murray Ken Murray's Giant Joke Book (1954)
D-065 NA Juanita Osborne Tornado Edward Kimbrough Night Fire (1954)
S-066 SF L. Ron Hubbard Return to Tomorrow (1954)
S-067 NA Robert Bloch The Will to Kill (1954)
S-070 NA Rae Loomis Luisita (1954)
S-074 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) Heat Lightning (1954)
S-075 NA Ralph E. Shikes (ed.) Cartoon Annual (1954)
S-076 NA Émile Zola Shame (1954)
S-080 NA Wilene Shaw The Fear and the Guilt (1954)
S-082 WE Louis L'Amour Kilkenny (1954)
S-083 MY Arnold Drake The Steel Noose (1954)
S-085 NA Ernst-Maurice Tessier (as Maurice Dekobra) The Bachelor's Widow (1954)
S-087 NA Noland Miller Why I Am So Beat (1955)
D-088 NA Dexter Davis 7-Day System for Gaining Self-Confidence (1955)
S-090 SF Robert Moore Williams The Chaos Fighters (1955)
S-091 NA Stanley Baron End of the Line (1955)
S-093 NA H. T. Elmo Modern Casanova's Handbook (1955)
S-095 NA Harry Whittington The Naked Jungle (1955)
S-097 MY Norman Hershman (as Norman Herries) Death Has 2 Faces (1955)
S-100 NA Henry Lewis Nixon The Caves (1955)
S-102 NA George Albert Glay Oath of Seven (1955)
S-104 NA R.V. Cassill and Eric Protter Left Bank of Desire (1955)
S-105 NA Edward De Roo The Fires of Youth (1955)
S-107 NA C.P. Hewitt (as Peter Twist) The Gilded Hideaway (1955)
S-108 NA Leslie Waller (as C. S. Cody) Lie Like a Lady (1955)
D-110 SF Isaac Asimov The 1,000 Year Plan (1955)
S-111 NA Harry Harrison Kroll The Smoldering Fire (1955)
S-114 NA Edward Adler Living It Up (1955)
S-116 NA Brant House Words Fail Me (1955)
S-117 NA Kim Darien Dark Rapture (1955)
S-119 NA Lawrence Easton The Driven Flesh (1955)
D-121 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours! (1955)
S-122 NA Ledru Baker Jr. The Preying Streets (1955)
S-124 NA Rae Loomis House of Deceit (1955)
D-125 SF Isaac Asimov The Man Who Upset the Universe (1955)
S-126 NA A.H. Berzen Washington Bachelor (1955)
D-127 NA Robert Payne Alexander and the Camp Follower (1955)
S-130 NA Sidney Weissman Backlash (1955)
D-131 NA Eugene Wyble The Ripening (1955)
S-132 NA Brant House (ed.) Cartoon Annual#2 (1955)
S-133 SF Donald A. Wollheim (Ed.) Adventures on Other Planets (1955)
S-136 NA R.V. Cassill A Taste of Sin (1955)
S-137 NA Ralph Jackson Violent Night (1955)
S-140 NA H. T. Elmo Honeymoon Humor (1956)
S-141 NA Oliver Crawford Blood on the Branches (1956)
S-142 NA Glenn M. Barns Masquerade in Blue (1956)
S-143 NA Harry Whittington A Woman on the Place (1956)
S-145 NA Brant House (ed.) Little Monsters (1956)
D-146 SF Will F. Jenkins (as Murray Leinster) The Forgotten Planet (1956)
S-148 WE Samuel A. Peeples (as Brad Ward) The Man from Andersonville (1956)
S-151 NA Robert Novak Climb a Broken Ladder (1956)
S-152 NA Henry Felsen Medic Mirth (1956)
S-153 NA Hallam Whitney The Wild Seed (1956)
D-154 NA Sloan Wilson Voyage to Somewhere (1956)
D-155 SF Jules Verne A Journey to the Center of the Earth (1956)
S-158 NA Kim Darien Golden Girl (1956)
S-159 NA Jack Webb (as John Farr) She Shark (1956)
S-161 NA E. Davis Gag Writer's Private Joke Book (1956)
D-163 NA Russell Boltar Woman's Doctor (1956)
S-165 NA Brant House (ed.) Love and Hisses (1956)
D-169 SF Jack Williamson and James E. Gunn Star Bridge (1956)
S-171 NA Eddie Davis (ed.) Campus Joke Book (1956)
S-174 NA Robert Novak B-Girl (1956)
D-175 NA Irving Settel (ed.) Best Television Humor of the Year (1956)
D-178 NA Jean Paradise The Savage City (1956)
S-179 NA Brant House (ed.) Squelches (1956)
D-181 NA Arthur Conan Doyle and John Dickson Carr The Exploits of Sherlock Holmes (1956)
S-183 SF Donald A. Wollheim (Ed.) The End of the World (1956)
D-184 NA J. Mccague The Big Ivy (1956)
D-187 SF A. E. van Vogt The Pawns of Null-A (1956)
S-188 NA Brant House (ed.) They Goofed! (1956)
S-190 NA Henry Lewis Nixon The Golden Couch (1956)
D-191 NA Frank Slaughter Apalachee Gold (1956)
D-194 NA Theodor Plievier Moscow (1956)
S-198 NA William Bender Jr. Tokyo Intrigue (1956)
D-200 NA Edward J. Ruppelt Unidentified Flying Objects (1956)
D-202 NA Leonard Kauffman The Color of Green (1957)
D-206 WE Robert Hardy Andrews Great Day in the Morning (1957)
D-207 NA Charles Grayson Hollywood Doctor (1957)
D-210 NA Stephen Longstreet The Lion at Morning (1957)
D-211 SF Philip K. Dick Eye in the Sky (1957)
D-212 NA H. T. Elmo Hollywood Humor (1957)
D-213 NA Peter J. Steincrohn, M.D. How to Stop Killing Yourself (1957)
D-214 NA Martin L. Weiss Hate Alley (1957)
D-218 NA Sasha Siemel Tigrero! (1957)
S-219 NA P.A. Hoover Backwater Woman (1957)
D-222 NA R. Frison-Roche First on the Rope (1957)
D-224 NA Shelby Steger Desire in the Ozarks (1957)
D-228 NA David Howarth We Die Alone (1957)
D-229 NA Walter Whitney Take It Out in Trade (1957)
D-232 NA Willard Manies The Fixers (1957)
D-233 SF S. B. Hough (as Rex Gordon) First on Mars (1957)
D-234 NA Robert L. Scott Look of the Eagle (1957)
D-238 NA Clellon Holmes Go (1957)
D-239 NA G. Harry Stine Earth Satellite and the Race for Space Superiority (1957)
D-243 NA Michael Wells The Roving Eye (1957)
D-244 NA Terence Robinson Night Raider of the Atlantic: The Saga of the U-99 (1957)
D-245 SF Jules Verne Off on a Comet (1957)
D-246 NA John Harriman The Magnate (1957)
D-250 NA Arthur Steuer The Terrible Swift Sword (1957)
D-251 NA Hamilton Cochran Windward Passage (1957)
D-254 NA Marcos Spinelli The Lash of Desire (1957)
S-256 NA Karl Ludwig Oritz The General (1957)
D-257 NA Louis Malley Tiger in the Streets (1957)
D-258 NA Sławomir Rawicz The Long Walk (1957)
D-261 SF Philip K. Dick The Variable Man and Other Stories (1957)
S-262 NA Leland Jamieson Attack! (1957)
S-263 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) See How They Run (1957)
D-267 NA Jim Bosworth Speed Demon (1958)
D-268 NA Brant House (ed.) Lincoln's Wit, Humorous Tales and Anecdotes By and About Our 16th President (1958)
D-269 NA Michael Powell Death in the South Atlantic (1958)
D-270 NA Bud Clifton D for Delinquent (1958)
D-271 NA Cliff Howe Lovers and Libertines (1958)
D-274 SF David Mcilwain (as Charles Eric Maine) World Without Men (1958)
S-275 NA Brant House (ed.) Cartoon Annual#3- The Cream of the Year's Best Cartoons (1958)
D-278 NA Donald Barr Chidsey This Bright Sword (1958)
D-280 NA James P.S. Devereux The Story of Wake Island (1958)
D-281 NA Norman Vincent Peale (ed.) Guideposts (1958)
D-282 NA Cliff Howe Scoundrels, Fiends, and Human Monsters (1958)
D-283 SF Clifford D. Simak City (1958)
D-287 NA Holland M. Smith Coral and Brass (1958)
D-290 NA P. A. Hoover A Woman Called Trouble (1958)
D-292 NA Booth Mooney The Insiders (1958)
D-293 NA Väinö Linna The Unknown Soldier (1954)
D-296 NA John Clagett Run the River Gauntlet (1958)
D-300 NA J. Walter Small The Dance Merchants (1958)
D-302 NA Maurice Druon The Iron King (1958)
D-306 NA Peyson Antholz All Shook Up (1958)
D-307 NA Brant House (ed.) From Eve On: Wit and Wisdom About Women (1958)
D-309 SF H.G. Wells The Island of Dr. Moreau (1958)
D-310 NA Marcos Spinelli Mocambu (1958)
D-312 NA Harlan Ellison The Deadly Streets (1958)
D-314 NA Blair Ashton Deeds of Darkness (1958)
D-318 NA Donald Barr Chidsey Captain Crossbones (1958)
D-319 NA Hans-Otto Meissner The Man With Three Faces (1958)
D-323 NA Brant House The Violent Ones (1958)
D-324 SF Ray Cummings Brigands of the Moon (1958)
D-325 NA Irving Werstein July 1863 (1958)
D-326 NA Wilhelm Johnen Battling the Bombers (1958)
D-327 SF Jeff Sutton First on the Moon (1958)
D-330 NA Bud Clifton Muscle Boy (1958)
D-334 NA Stanley Johnston Queen of the Flat-Tops (1958)
D-336 NA Samuel A. Krasney Morals Squad (1958)
D-337 NA Jack Gerstine Play It Cool (1958)
D-338 NA Edward De Roo The Fires of Youth (1958)
D-339 SF Clifford D. Simak Ring Around the Sun (1958)
D-340 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1959)
D-341 NA Rae Loomis The Marina Street Girls (1959)
D-342 NA Nicholas Gorham Queen's Blade (1959)
D-343 NA Edward de Roo The Young Wolves (1959)
D-344 NA Gordon Landsborough Desert Fury (1959)
D-350 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert (1959)
G-352 NA Francis Leary Fire and Morning (1959)
D-353 NA Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) The Macabre Reader (1959)
D-354 SF Donald A. Wollheim (Ed.) The Hidden Planet: Science-Fiction Adventures on Venus (1959)
D-355 NA Bill Strutton and Michael Pearson The Beachhead Spies (1959)
D-359 NA John Croydon (as John Cooper) The Haunted Strangler (1959)
D-363 NA Samuel A. Krasney The Rapist (1959)
D-364 NA Donald Barr Chidsey The Pipes Are Calling (1959)
D-365 NA Robert Eunson MIG Alley (1959)
D-366 SF Alan E. Nourse and J. A. Meyer The Invaders Are Coming (1959)
D-370 NA Paul Ernst (as Ernest Jason Fredericks) Cry Flood (1959)
G-371 NA Theodor Plievier Berlin (1959)
D-374 NA Burgess Leonard The Thoroughbred and the Tramp (1959)
G-376 NA J. Harvey Howells The Big Company Look (1959)
D-377 SF Jeff Sutton Bombs in Orbit (1959)
D-378 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) Out for Kicks (1959)
G-382 NA C. T. Ritchie Willing Maid (1959)
D-383 NA David Stacton (as Bud Clifton) The Murder Specialist (1959)
G-386 NA Richard O'Connor The Sulu Sword (1959)
D-388 SF H. G. Wells When the Sleeper Wakes (1959)
D-389 NA Cyril Henry Coles and Adelaide Manning (jointly as Manning Cole) No Entry (1959)
G-390 NA R. Foreman Long Pig (1959)
D-394 NA Donald Barr Chidsey The Flaming Island (1959)
D-395 WE Allan Keller Thunder at Harper's Ferry (1959)
D-396 NA Rae Loomis Luisita (1959)
D-397 SF Jules Verne Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959)
D-398 NA Noland Miller Why Am I So Beat (1959)
D-399 NA Edward Adler Living It Up (1959)
G-402 NA Daniel P. Mannix Kiboko (1959)
D-404 NA Clifford Anderson The Hollow Hero (1959)
D-405 SF S. B. Hough (as Rex Gordon) First to the Stars (1959)
D-406 NA Edward Deroo Go, Man, Go! (1959)
D-410 NA Donald Barr Chidsey Buccaneer's Blade (1959)
D-411 MY Bob McKnight Swamp Sanctuary (1959)
D-414 NA Alexandre Dumas The Companions of Jehu (1960)
D-416 NA John Kenneth The Big Question (1960)
D-417 NA Edward de Roo Rumble at the Housing Project (1960)
D-420 NA John A. Williams The Angry Ones (1960)
D-422 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) and J. Francis Mccomas (eds.) The Best from F & SF, 3rd Series (1960)
D-423 NA Browning Norton Tidal Wave (1960)
D-426 NA Robert S. Close Penal Colony
D-428 NA P.A. Hoover Scowtown Woman
D-429 NA Charles Runyon The Anatomy of Violence (1960)
D-432 NA Donn Broward Convention Queen (1960)
D-434 NA Jules Verne The Purchase of the North Pole (1960)
D-435 NA C.T. Ritchie Lady in Bondage (1960)
D-438 NA Charles Fogg The Panic Button (1960)
G-440 NA Andrew Hepburn Letter of Marque (1960)
D-441 NA Lloyd E. Olson Skip Bomber (1960)
D-444 NA Shepard Rifkin Desire Island (1960)
D-446 NA Edward Moore Flight 685 Is Overdue (1960)
D-452 NA Joe L. Hensley The Colour of Hate (1960)
G-454 NA Anne Powers Ride East! Ride West! (1960)
D-455 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (Ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 4th Series (1960)
D-458 NA Harry Wilcox (as Mark Derby) Womanhunt (1960)
D-460 NA James Macgregor When the Ship Sank (1960)
D-461 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders (1960)
D-464 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) Tame the Wild Flesh (1960)
D-466 WE Richard O'Conner Wild Bill Hickok (1960)
D-467 NA William C. Anderson Five, Four, Three, Two, One-Pfftt Or 12,000 Men and One Bikini (1960)
D-468 SF Eric Frank Russell Sentinel of Space (1960)
D-472 NA Harry Whittington A Night for Screaming (1960)
D-473 SF Eric Temple Bell (as John Taine) The Greatest Adventure (1960)
D-474 NA Leland Lovelace Lost Mines & Hidden Treasure (1960)
D-475 WE Samuel A. Peeples (as Brad Ward) The Marshal of Medicine Bend (1960)
D-478 SF Jeff Sutton Spacehive (1960)
G-480 WE John Brick The Strong Men (1960)
D-481 NA Joseph F. Dinneen The Biggest Holdup (1960)
D-482 SF A. E. van Vogt The Weapon Shops of Isher (1961)
D-486 NA Edward De Roo The Little Caesars (1961)
D-487 NA Leonard Sanders Four-Year Hitch (1961)
D-488 NA Dan Brennan Third Time Down (1961)
D-490 SF Donald A. Wollheim (Ed.) Adventures on Other Planets (1961)
D-493 NA Ellery Queen (ed.) The Queen's Awards, Fifth Series (1961)
D-494 WE Leslie T. White Log Jam (1961)
D-495 NA Samuel A. Krasney A Mania for Blondes (1961)
D-498 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1961)
G-500 WE George D. Hendricks The Bad Man of the West (1961)
D-501 NA David Stacton (as Bud Clifton) Let Him Go Hang (1961)
D-503 NA Frances Nichols Hanna (as Fan Nichols) The Girl in the Death Seat (1961)
D-504 SF Jules Verne Master of the World (1961)
D-506 NA Harry Harrison Kroll The Brazen Dream (1961)
D-508 NA Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) More Macabre (1961)
D-512 NA Donald Barr Chidsey Marooned (1961)
D-513 NA Harlan Ellison The Juvies (1961)
D-516 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Swordsman of Mars (1961)
D-518 NA Bill Miller and Robert Wade (as Wade Miller) Nightmare Cruise (1961)
D-519 NA Carroll V. Glines and Wendell F. Moseley Air Rescue! (1961)
D-520 NA Virginia M. Harrison (as Wilene Shaw) One Foot in Hell (1961)
D-521 NA Margaret Howe The Girl in the White Cap (1961)
D-522 NA Hal Ellson A Nest of Fear (1961)
D-523 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Strike the Black Flag (1961)
D-524 NA Maysie Greig (as Jennifer Ames) Overseas Nurse (1961)
D-525 SF Will F. Jenkins (as Murray Leinster) This World Is Taboo (1961)
D-526 NA Kim Darien Obsession (1961)
D-527 SF Andre Norton Star Guard (1961)
D-528 SF Will F. Jenkins (as Murray Leinster) The Forgotten Planet (1961)
D-529 NA Leslie Turner White The Pirate and the Lady (1961)
D-530 SF Robert Moore Williams The Day They H-Bombed Los Angeles (1961)
D-531 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Outlaws of Mars (1961)
D-532 NA Isabel Capeto (as Isabel Cabot) Nurse Craig (1961)
D-533 NA H. T. Elmo Mad. Ave. (1961)
D-534 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A. D. (1961)
D-535 SF Ray Cummings The Shadow Girl (1961)
D-536 NA Peggy Gaddis The Nurse and the Pirate (1961)
D-537 SF H.G. Wells The Island of Dr. Moreau (1961)
D-538 SF Isaac Asimov The 1,000 Year Plan (1961)
D-539 NA Mary Mann Fletcher Psychiatric Nurse (1962)
D-540 NA Arlene Hale School Nurse (1962)
D-541 SF Alan E. Nourse Scavengers in Space (1962)
D-542 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet (1962)
D-543 NA Harriet Kathryn Myers Small Town Nurse (1962)
D-544 SF Frank Belknap Long Space Station #1 (1962)
D-545 NA Suzanne Roberts Emergency Nurse (1962)
D-546 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time (1962)
D-547 SF John Brunner The Super Barbarians (1962)
D-548 NA Dudley Dean Mcgaughty (as Dean Owen) End of the World (1962)
D-549 NA Tracy Adams Spotlight on Nurse Thorne (1962)
D-550 SF Poul Anderson No World of Their Own (1962)
D-551 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert (1962)
D-552 NA Patricia Libby Hollywood Nurse (1962)
D-553 NA William Hope Hodgson The House on the Borderland (1962)
D-554 NA Jean Francis Webb (as Ethel Hamill) Runaway Nurse (1962)
D-555 SF Jack Williamson The Trial of Terra (1962)
D-556 NA Ruth Macleod A Nurse for Dr. Sterling (1962)
D-557 NA Florence Stuart Hope Wears White (1962)
D-558 NA Suzanne Roberts Campus Nurse (1962)
D-559 NA Jane L. Sears Ski Resort Nurse (1962)
D-560 NA Robert H. Boyer Medic in Love (1962)
D-561 NA Ann Rush Nell Shannon R. N. (1963)
D-562 NA Patricia Libby Cover Girl Nurse (1963)
D-563 NA Arlene Hale Leave It to Nurse Kathy (1963)
D-564 NA Harriet Kathryn Myers Prodigal Nurse (1963)
D-565 NA Ray Dorlen The Heart of Dr. Hilary (1963)
D-566 NA Suzanne Roberts Julie Jones, Cape Canaveral Nurse (1963)
D-567 NA Isabel Moore A Challenge for Nurse Melanie (1963)
D-568 SF Poul Anderson Star Ways (1963)
D-569 NA Arlene Hale Dude Ranch Nurse (1963)
D-570 WE L. L. Foreman Spanish Grant (1963)
D-571 NA Katherine Mccomb Princess of White Starch (1963)
D-572 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Arizona Rider (1963)
D-573 WE Louis Trimble (as Stuart Brock) Whispering Canyon (1963)
D-574 WE Louis L'Amour Kilkenny (1963)
D-575 NA Peggy Dern A Nurse Called Hope (1963)
D-576 NA Dorothy Karns Dowdell Border Nurse (1963)
D-577 NA Sarah Frances Moore Legacy of Love (1963)
D-578 WE Brian Garfield The Lawbringers (1963)
D-579 NA Suzanne Roberts Hootenanny Nurse (1964)
D-580 NA Arlene Hale Symptoms of Love (1964)
D-581 NA Suzanne Roberts Co-Ed in White (1964)
D-582 NA Joan Sargent My Love an Altar (1964)
D-583 NA Tracy Adams Hotel Nurse (1964)
D-584 NA Monica Edwards Airport Nurse (1964)
D-585 NA Arlene Hale Nurse Marcie's Island (1964)
D-586 NA Barbara Grabendike San Francisco Nurse (1964)
D-587 NA Arlene Hale Nurse Connor Comes Home (1964)
D-588 WE Merle Constiner Short Trigger Man (1964)
D-589 NA Virginia B. Mcdonnell The Nurse With the Silver Skates (1964)
D-590 WE Lin Searles Stampede at Hourglass (1964)
D-591 NA Monica Heath (as Arlene J. Fitzgerald) Northwest Nurse (1964)
D-592 WE Nelson Nye Gunslick Mountain (1964)
D-593 NA Suzanne Roberts Sisters in White (1965)
D-594 WE Louis Trimble The Desperate Deputy of Cougar Hill (1965)
D-595 NA Ruth Macleod Nurse Ann in Surgery (1965)
D-596 NA Arlene Hale Nurses on the Run (1965)
D-597 WE L. P. Holmes The Hardest Man in the Sierras (1965)
D-598 NA Arlene Hale Nurse on the Run (1965)
D-599 NA Patricia Libby Winged Victory for Nurse Kerry (1965)
F Series
F-105 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, Fifth Series (1961)
F-109 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock (1961)
F-114 SF Wallace West The Bird of Time (1961)
F-118 NA Jacob O. Kamm Making Profits in the Stock Market (1961)
F-123 SF Leigh Brackett The Nemesis from Terra (1961)
F-131 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, Sixth Series (1961)
F-132 NA Mario Cappelli Scramble! (1962)
F-135 SF Leigh Brackett The Long Tomorrow (1962)
F-137 NA R. Dewitt Miller Impossible: Yet It Happened! (1962)
F-140 NA Leonie St. John Love With a Harvard Accent (1962)
F-146 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Sir Scoundrel (1962)
F-151 NA Nedra Tyre Reformatory Girls (1962)
F-154 SF A. E. van Vogt The Wizard of Linn (1962)
F-156 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core (1962)
F-157 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid (1962)
F-158 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar (1962)
F-159 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men (1962)
F-162 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, Seventh Series (1962)
F-163 NA Adele De Leeuw Doctor Ellen (1962)
F-167 SF Andre Norton Catseye (1962)
F-168 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Thuvia, Maid of Mars (1962)
F-169 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan and the Lost Empire (1962)
F-170 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Chessmen of Mars (1962)
F-171 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar of Pellucidar (1962)
F-174 SF S. B. Hough (as Rex Gordon) First Through Time (1962)
F-175 NA Evelyn Berckman Lament for Four Brides (1962)
F-178 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) More Adventures on Other Planets (1963)
F-179 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus (1963)
F-180 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan at the Earth's Core (1963)
F-181 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Master Mind of Mars (1963)
F-182 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men (1963)
F-183 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents (1963)
F-188 SF Philip Francis Nowlan Armageddon 2419 A.D. (1963)
F-189 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan the Invincible (1963)
F-190 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs A Fighting Man of Mars (1963)
F-191 SF Jules Verne Journey to the Center of the Earth (1963)
F-192 SF Andre Norton Star Born (1963)
F-193 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Son of Tarzan (1963)
F-194 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan Triumphant (1963)
F-197 SF Andre Norton Witch World (1963)
F-198 NA Simenon The Short Cases of Inspector Maigret (1963)
F-201 SF Robert James Adam (as Paul Mactyre) Doomsday, 1999 (1963)
F-202 NA Evelyn Berckman The Hovering Darkness (1963)
F-203 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Beasts of Tarzan (1963)
F-204 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar (1963)
F-205 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan and the City of Gold (1963)
F-206 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Jungle Tales of Tarzan (1963)
F-207 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours! (1963)
F-210 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert (1963)
F-211 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Planet of Peril (1963)
F-212 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan and the Lion Man (1963)
F-213 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot (1963)
F-216 SF Isaac Asimov The Man Who Upset the Universe (1963)
F-217 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, Eighth Series (1963)
F-218 NA Allen Churchill They Never Came Back (1963)
F-219 NA Henry Makow Ask Henry (1963)
F-220 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot (1963)
F-221 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus (1963)
F-222 SF Jeff Sutton First on the Moon (1963)
F-225 SF H. Beam Piper Space Viking (1963)
F-226 SF Andre Norton Huon of the Horn (1963)
F-231 SF Andre Norton Star Gate (1963)
F-232 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land of Hidden Men (1963)
F-233 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Out of Time's Abyss (1963)
F-234 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage (1963)
F-235 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Lost Continent (1963)
F-236 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders (1963)
F-239 SF Clifford D. Simak Time and Again (1963)
F-240 SF H. G. Wells When the Sleeper Wakes (1963)
F-241 SF Jack Williamson and James E. Gunn Star Bridge (1963)
F-243 SF Andre Norton Lord of Thunder (1963)
F-245 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Back to the Stone Age (1963)
F-246 SF Thea von Harbou Metropolis (1963)
F-247 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson of Venus (1963)
F-248 SF Ray Cummings Beyond the Stars (1963)
F-251 SF Philip K. Dick The Game-Players of Titan (1963)
F-252 WE J. C. Bayliss (as John Clifford) The Shooting of Storey James (1964)
F-255 SF Philip E. High The Prodigal Sun (1964)
F-256 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror (1964)
F-257 SF Fletcher Pratt Alien Planet (1964)
F-258 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Cave Girl (1964)
F-259 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Prince of Peril (1964)
F-262 WE Clifton Adams Reckless Men (1964)
F-263 SF Andre Norton Web of the Witch World (1964)
F-266 WE Allan Vaughan Elston Roundup on the Yellowstone (1964)
F-267 SF Robert P. Mills (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 9th Series (1964)
F-268 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Escape on Venus (1964)
F-269 SF J. H. Rosny Quest of the Dawn Man (1964)
F-270 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King (1964)
F-271 SF Edmond Hamilton Outside the Universe (1964)
F-274 SF H. Beam Piper The Cosmic Computer (1964)
F-277 SF John Brunner To Conquer Chaos (1964)
F-278 NA Frances Spatz Leighton Patty Goes to Washington (1964)
F-279 SF Andre Norton (as Andrew North) Sargasso of Space (1964)
F-280 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar (1964)
F-281 SF Pierre Benoit Atlantida (1964)
F-282 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Beyond the Farthest Star (1964)
F-283 SF Arthur Sarsfield Ward (as Sax Rohmer) The Day the World Ended (1964)
F-286 WE Jim Bosworth The Long Way North (1964)
F-287 SF Andre Norton The Key Out of Time (1964)
F-288 NA Hal Sherman Fishing for Laughs (1964)
F-290 WE D. B. Olsen Night of the Bowstring (1964)
F-291 SF Andre Norton Plague Ship (1964)
F-293 SF E. C. Tubb Moonbase (1964)
F-294 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Port of Peril (1964)
F-295 SF A. E. van Vogt The World of Null-A (1964)
F-296 SF Edwin L. Arnold Gulliver of Mars (1964)
F-297 SF Henry Kuttner The Valley of the Flame (1964)
F-300 WE Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne Garfield) Vultures in the Sun (1964)
F-301 SF Philip K. Dick The Simulacra (1964)
F-302 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) Dragoon Pass (1964)
F-303 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Bloody Sun (1964)
F-304 SF Roger Sherman Hoar (as Ralph Milne Farley) The Radio Beasts (1964)
F-305 SF Robert E. Howard Almuric (1964)
F-306 SF C. L. Moore and Henry Kuttner Earth's Last Citadel (1964)
F-307 SF Gardner F. Fox Warrior of Llarn (1964)
F-308 SF Andre Norton Judgment on Janus (1964)
F-309 SF Philip K. Dick Clans of the Alphane Moon (1964)
F-310 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1964)
F-311 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Swordsmen in the Sky (1964)
F-312 SF Roger Sherman Hoar (as Ralph Milne Farley) The Radio Planet (1964)
F-313 SF Ray Cummings A Brand New World (1964)
F-314 SF James H. Schmitz The Universe Against Her (1964)
F-315 SF Andre Norton The Beast Master (1964)
F-316 WE Robert McCaig The Burntwood Men (1964)
F-317 SF James White The Escape Orbit (1965)
F-318 SF Austin Hall The Spot of Life (1965)
F-319 SF Edmond Hamilton Crashing Suns (1965)
F-320 SF John Brunner (as Keith Woodcott) The Martian Sphinx (1965)
F-321 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Maza of the Moon (1965)
F-322 SF Samuel R. Delany City of a Thousand Suns (1965)
F-323 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A.D. (1965)
F-324 WE Brian Garfield Apache Canyon (1965)
F-325 SF Andre Norton Ordeal in Otherwhere (1965)
F-326 SF Lin Carter The Wizard of Lemuria (1965)
F-327 SF Henry Kuttner The Dark World (1965)
F-328 SF Edward E. Smith The Galaxy Primes (1965)
F-329 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock (1965)
F-330 SF Avram Davidson What Strange Stars and Skies (1965)
F-331 NA Gahan Wilson Graveside Manner (1965)
F-332 SF Andre Norton Three Against the Witch World (1965)
F-333 SF L. Sprague de Camp Rogue Queen (1965)
F-334 SF Rex Dean Levie The Insect Warriors (1965)
F-335 SF Robert Moore Williams The Second Atlantis (1965)
F-336 WE Ernest Hacox Six-Gun Duo (1965)
F-337 SF Philip K. Dick Dr. Bloodmoney, Or How We Got Along After the Bomb (1965)
F-339 NA Arlene Hale Private Duty for Nurse Scott (1965)
F-340 WE John L. Shelley and David Shelley The Relentless Rider (1965)
F-341 NA Suzanne Roberts A Prize for Nurse Darci (1965)
F-342 SF H. Beam Piper Lord Kalvan of Otherwhen (1965)
F-343 SF Ray Cummings The Exile of Time (1965)
F-344 SF Henry Kuttner The Well of the Worlds (1965)
F-345 SF Homer Eon Flint The Lord of Death and the Queen of Life (1965)
F-346 SF John W. Campbell Jr. The Black Star Passes (1965)
F-347 SF Ian Wright The Last Hope of Earth (1965)
F-348 WE Nelson Nye Guns of Horse Prairie (1965)
F-349 NA Suzanne Roberts Celebrity Suite Nurse (1965)
F-350 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Star of Danger (1965)
F-351 WE Louis Trimble The Holdout in the Diablos (1965)
F-352 NA Arlene Hale Nurse on Leave (1965)
F-353 SF Avram Davidson Rogue Dragon (1965)
F-354 SF Gardner F. Fox The Hunter Out of Time (1965)
F-355 SF Homer Eon Flint The Devolutionist and the Emancipatrix (1965)
F-356 SF Henry Kuttner The Time Axis (1965)
F-357 SF Andre Norton Year of the Unicorn (1965)
F-358 WE William Vance The Wild Riders of Savage Valley (1965)
F-359 NA Sharon Heath Jungle Nurse (1965)
F-360 WE L. L. Foreman Rawhiders of the Brasada (1965)
F-361 SF John Brunner The Day of the Star Cities (1965)
F-362 NA Suzanne Roberts The Two Dr. Barlowes (1965)
F-363 SF Ray Cummings Tama of the Light Country (1965)
F-364 SF John W. Campbell Jr. The Mightiest Machine (1965)
F-365 SF Andre Norton Night of Masks (1965)
F-366 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet (1965)
F-367 SF Philip José Farmer The Maker of Universes (1965)
F-368 NA Arlene Hale Chicago Nurse (1965)
F-369 NA Samuel A. Peeples (as Samuel Anthony Peeples) The Lobo Horseman (1965)
F-370 WE Samuel A. Peeples (as Brad Ward) The Man from Andersonville (1965)
F-371 NA Arlene Hale Camp Nurse (1965)
F-372 SF Edward E. Smith Spacehounds of IPC (1966)
F-373 SF Jack Jardine and Julie Anne Jardine (jointly as Howard L. Cory) The Sword of Lankor (1966)
F-374 SF Jeff Sutton The Atom Conspiracy (1966)
F-375 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Worlds of Robert A. Heinlein (1966)
F-376 WE Lewis B. Patten The Odds Against Circle L (1966)
F-377 SF Philip K. Dick The Crack in Space (1966)
F-378 NA Mary Mann Fletcher Danger - Nurse at Work (1966)
F-379 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain (1966)
F-380 WE Lee Hoffman The Legend of Blackjack Sam (1966)
F-381 NA Sharon Heath Nurse at Shadow Manor (1966)
F-382 SF Brian W. Aldiss Bow Down to Nul (1966)
F-383 SF Lin Carter Thongor of Lemuria (1966)
F-384 NA L. P. Holmes The Savage Hours (1966)
F-385 NA Arlene Hale Emergency for Nurse Selena (1966)
F-386 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders (1966)
F-387 NA Arlene Hale Mountain Nurse (1966)
F-388 SF Samuel R. Delany Babel-17 (1966)
F-389 WE William Colt MacDonald Shoot Him on Sight (1966)
F-390 SF James Holbrook Vance (as Jack Vance) The Languages of Pao (1966)
F-391 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time (1966)
F-392 SF Emil Petaja Saga of Lost Earths (1966)
F-393 SF Roger Zelazny This Immortal (1966)
F-394 NA Gail Everett Journey for a Nurse (1966)
F-395 WE Nelson Nye Iron Hand (1966)
F-396 SF Kenneth Bulmer Worlds for the Taking (1966)
F-397 NA Willo Davis Roberts Nurse Kay's Conquest (1966)
F-398 SF Eric Frank Russell Somewhere a Voice (1966)
F-399 SF Gardner F. Fox Thief of Llarn (1966)
F-400 SF Otis Adelbert Kline Jan of the Jungle (1966)
F-401 WE Merle Constiner Outrage at Bearskin Forks (1966)
F-402 SF Paul Linebarger (as Cordwainer Smith) Quest of the Three Worlds (1966)
F-403 SF Roger Zelazny The Dream Master (1966)
F-404 WE Clifton Adams The Grabhorn Bounty (1966)
F-405 NA Suzanne Roberts Vietnam Nurse (1966)
F-406 SF Ray Cummings Tama, Princess of Mercury (1966)
F-407 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Day of the Minotaur (1966)
F-408 SF Andre Norton The Sioux Spaceman (1966)
F-409 WE Lin Searles Cliff Rider (1966)
F-410 NA Arlene Hale Lake Resort Nurse (1966)
F-411 WE L. L. Foreman The Mustang Trail (1966)
F-412 SF Philip José Farmer The Gates of Creation (1966)
F-413 NA Sharon Heath A Vacation for Nurse Dean (1966)
F-414 SF Emil Petaja The Star Mill (1966)
F-415 WE Brian Garfield (as Frank Wynne) The Bravos (1966)
F-416 SF S. B. Hough (as Rex Gordon) Utopia Minus X (1966)
F-417 NA Willo Davis Roberts Once a Nurse (1966)
F-418 WE Nelson Nye Single Action (1967)
F-419 NA Suzanne Roberts Rangeland Nurse (1967)
F-420 SF Neil R. Jones Professor Jameson Space Adventure 1: The Planet of the Double Sun (1967)
F-421 SF Donald E. Westlake (as Curt Clark) Anarchaos (1967)
F-422 SF Leigh Brackett The Sword of Rhiannon (1967)
F-423 WE Lewis B. Patten Giant on Horseback (1967)
F-424 NA Arlene Hale Community Nurse (1967)
F-425 SF Poul Anderson World Without Stars (1967)
F-426 SF Gordon R. Dickson The Genetic General (1967)
F-427 SF Samuel R. Delany The Einstein Intersection (1967)
F-428 WE William Colt Macdonald Mascarada Pass (1967)
F-429 SF Philip K. Dick The World Jones Made (1967)
F-430 NA Arlene Hale Nurse on the Beach (1967)
M Series
M-116 SF Robert P. Mills (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, Tenth Series (1965)
M-119 SF Jules Verne Journey to the Center of the Earth (1965)
M-132 SF Robert W. Chambers The King in Yellow (1965)
M-137 SF Robert P. Mills (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, Eleventh Series (1965)
M-142 SF H.F. Heard Doppelgangers (1965)
M-143 SF John W. Campbell Islands of Space (1965)
M-144 WE Ernest Haycox Trigger Trio (1966)
M-145 NA Elizabeth Kellier The Patient at Tonesburry Manor (1966)
M-146 NA anonymous (ed.) Cracked Again (1966)
M-147 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours! (1966)
M-148 SF Andre Norton Star Born (1966)
M-149 SF John Holbrook Vance (as Jack Vance) The Eyes of the Overworld (1966)
M-150 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents (1966)
M-151 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet (1966)
M-152 SF H. Warner Munn King of the World's Edge (1966)
M-153 SF A. E. van Vogt The Weapon Makers (1966)
M-154 SF John W. Campbell Invaders from the Infinite (1966)
M-155 SF Roger Zelazny Four for Tomorrow (1966)
M-156 SF Andre Norton Key Out of Time (1966)
M-157 SF Andre Norton Star Gate (1966)
M-158 WE Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) The Proud Riders (1966)
M-159 NA Sylvia Lloyd Down East Nurse (1966)
M-160 WE Nelson Nye Trail of Lost Skulls (C. 1) (1966)
M-161 NA Sharon Heath Nurse at Moorcroft Manor (1966)
M-162 SF Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) Edge of Time (1966)
M-163 NA Ray Hogan Wolver (1966)
M-164 NA Suzanne Roberts Cross Country Nurse (1966)
G Series
G-502 WE Richard O'Connor Pat Garrett (1965)
G-504 NA Theodor Plievier Moscow (1965)
G-505 NA Ken Murray Ken Murray's Giant Joke Book
G-507 NA John M. Foster Hell in the Heavens
G-510 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) The Case of the Weird Sisters (1965)
G-514 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) Something Blue
G-515 NA Sławomir Rawicz The Long Walk
G-520 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Arena
G-522 NA Frederick Faust (as George Challis) The Firebrand
G-527 NA Frederick Faust (as George Challis) The Bait and the Trap (1965)
G-532 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Traitors' Legion (1963)
G-536 NA Helen Reilly The Day She Died
G-537 NA Edward J. Ruppelt Unidentified Flying Objects (1965)
G-538 NA Andre Norton Shadow Hawk (1965)
G-540 MY Charlotte Armstrong Lewi (as Charlotte Armstrong) A Little Less Than Kind (1965)
G-541 NA Jean Potts The Evil Wish
G-542 NA Heidi Huberta Freybe Loewengard (as Martha Albrand) Meet Me Tonight (1965)
G-544 NA Ruth Fenisong The Wench Is Dead (1964)
G-545 NA Dana Lyon The Trusting Victim (1965)
G-546 MY Helen Reilly Compartment K (1965)
G-547 SF Austin Hall and Homer Eon Flint The Blind Spot (1965)
G-548 MY Rohan O'Grady Let's Kill Uncle (1965)
G-549 MY Ursula Curtiss The Iron Cobweb (1965)
G-550 NA Theodora Du Bois The Listener (1965)
G-551 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction: 1965 (1965)
G-552 NA Theodora Du Bois Shannon Terror (1965)
G-553 NA Michael Avallone The Man from U.N.C.L.E.
G-554 NA Genevieve Holden The Velvet Target
G-555 MY Ursula Curtis The Wasp (1963)
G-556 NA Leonie St. John Love With a Harvard Accent (1963)
G-557 MY Ursula Curtiss Out of the Dark
G-558 NA Genevieve Holden Something's Happened to Kate
G-559 NA Heidi Huberta Freybe Loewengard (as Martha Albrand) After Midnight (1965)
G-560 NA Harry Whittington The Doomsday Affair (1965)
G-561 MY Ursula Curtiss Widow's Web (1965)
G-562 NA Helen McCloy The Long Body (1965)
G-563 NA Heidi Huberta Freybe Loewengard (as Martha Albrand) A Day in Monte Carlo (1965)
G-564 NA John Oram Thomas (as John Oram) The Copenhagen Affair (1965)
G-565 MY Ursula Curtiss The Deadly Climate (1965)
G-566 NA Irene Maude Swatridge and Charles John Swatridge (jointly as Theresa Charles) Lady in the Mist (1965)
G-567 NA Theresa Charles The Shrouded Tower (1965)
G-568 NA Melba Marlett Escape While I Can (1965)
G-569 NA David Howarth We Die Alone (1965)
G-570 SF Alan Garner The Weirdstone of Brisingamen (1965)
G-571 NA David McDaniel The Dagger Affair (1965)
G-572 NA Joy Packer The Man in the Mews (1966)
G-575 NA Margaret Summerton Quin's Hide (1966)
G-578 NA Dorothy Eden (as Mary Paradise) Shadow of a Witch (1966)
G-581 NA John T. Phillifent The Mad Scientist Affair (1966)
G-582 SF Jules Verne Journey to the Center of the Earth (1966)
G-583 NA Marie Garratt Festival of Darkness (1966)
G-586 SF William L. Chester Hawk of the Wilderness (1966)
G-589 NA Margaret Summerton Ring of Mischief (1966)
G-590 NA David McDaniel The Vampire Affair (1966)
G-593 NA Dorothy Eden (as Mary Paradise) Face of an Angel (1966)
G-594 NA Charles Runyon The Bloody Jungle (1966)
G-595 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime (1966)
G-598 NA Barbara James Bright Deadly Summer (1966)
G-599 SF Andre Norton Star Guard (1966)
G-600 NA Peter Leslie The Radioactive Camel Affair (1966)
G-603 NA Carolyn Wilson The Scent of Lilacs (1966)
G-604 NA Jess Shelton Daktari (1966)
G-605 SF Jack Jardine (as Larry Maddock) The Flying Saucer Gambit - Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#1 (1966)
G-608 NA Jean Potts The Only Good Secretary (1967)
G-611 SF Avram Davidson (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, Twelfth Series (1967)
G-612 NA Leal Hayes Harlequin House (1967)
G-613 NA David McDaniel The Monster Wheel Affair (1967)
G-616 NA Marion Zimmer Bradley Souvenir of Monique (1967)
G-617 NA Peter Leslie The Diving Dames Affair (1967)
G-620 SF Jack Jardine (as Larry Maddock) The Golden Goddess Gambit - Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#2 (1967)
G-621 NA Elizabeth Kelly (as Elizabeth Kellier) Matravers Hall (1967)
G-624 NA Velma Tate (as Francine Davenport) The Secret of the Bayou (1967)
G-625 SF Kenneth Bulmer To Outrun Doomsday (1967)
G-626 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City of Illusions (1967)
G-627 SF Fritz Leiber The Big Time (1967)
G-628 WE Clifton Adams Shorty (1967)
G-629 NA Elizabeth Kelly (as Elizabeth Kellier) Nurse Missing (1967)
G-630 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World (1967)
G-631 SF Neil R. Jones The Sunless World: Professor Jameson Space Adventure#2 (1967)
G-634 SF Poul Anderson War of the Wing-Men (1967)
G-635 NA Lena Brooke Mcnamara Pilgrim's End (1967)
G-636 NA Joan C. Holly (as J. Holly Hunter) The Assassination Affair (1967)
G-637 SF Philip K. Dick and Ray Nelson The Ganymede Takeover (1967)
G-639 SF Edmond Hamilton The Weapon from Beyond: Starwolf Series#1 (1967)
G-640 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Weirwoods (1967)
G-641 SF Jack Williamson Bright New Universe (1967)
G-643 NA Jean Vicary Saverstall (1967)
G-644 SF Jack Jardine (as Larry Maddock) The Emerald Elephant Gambit: Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#3
G-645 NA Gene DeWeese and Robert Coulson (jointly as Thomas Stratton) The Invisibility Affair (1967)
G-646 SF Andre Norton The X Factor (1967)
G-647 SF Will F. Jenkins (as Murray Leinster) S.O.S. from Three Worlds (1967)
G-649 SF John Brunner The World Swappers (1967)
G-650 SF Neil R. Jones Space War: Professor Jameson Space Adventure#3
G-651 NA Elizabeth Salter Once Upon a Tombstone (1967)
G-652 NA Michael Bonner The Disturbing Death of Jenkin Delaney (1967)
G-653 NA Arlene Hale Doctor's Daughter (1967)
G-654 SF Andre Norton Catseye (1967)
G-655 SF Andre Norton Witch World (1967)
G-656 SF John Jakes When the Star Kings Die (1967)
G-657 WE Nelson Nye Rider on the Roan (1967)
G-658 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Leap in the Dark (1967)
G-660 SF A. E. van Vogt The Universe Maker (1967)
G-661 SF James Holbrook Vance (as Jack Vance) Big Planet (1967)
G-662 NA Agnes Mary Robertson Dunlop (as Elisabeth Kyle) The Second Mally Lee (1967)
G-663 NA Gene DeWeese and Robert Coulson (jointly as Thomas Stratton) The Mind-Twisters Affair (1967)
G-664 SF John Brunner Born Under Mars (1967)
G-665 WE L. L. Foreman Silver Flame
G-666 NA Elizabeth Kelly (as Elizabeth Kellier) Wayneston Hospital (1967)
G-667 SF David McDaniel The Arsenal Out of Time (1967)
G-669 SF Leigh Brackett The Coming of the Terrans (1967)
G-670 NA David McDaniel The Rainbow Affair (1967)
G-671 SF John Brunner Catch a Falling Star (1967)
G-672 NA Arlene Hale University Nurse (1967)
G-673 SF Mark S. Geston Lords of the Starship
G-675 SF James White The Secret Visitors (1967)
G-676 NA John Sawyer and Nancy Buckingham Sawyer (as Nancy Buckingham) Storm in the Mountains (1967)
G-677 SF Damon Knight Turning On: Thirteen Stories (1967)
G-678 WE L. L. Foreman The Plundering Gun
G-679 NA Willo Davis Roberts Nurse at Mystery Villa (1967)
G-680 SF Kenneth Bulmer Cycle of Nemesis (1967)
G-681 SF Neil R. Jones Twin Worlds: Professor Jameson Space Adventure#4 (1967)
G-683 SF Leigh Brackett The Big Jump (1967)
G-684 NA Barbara James Beauty That Must Die (1968)
G-685 WE Herbert Purdum My Brother John
G-686 NA Ray Dorien The Odds Against Nurse Pat (1968)
G-688 SF John Holbrook Vance (as Jack Vance) City of the Chasch: Planet of Adventure#1 (1968)
G-689 NA Ron Ellik and Fredric Langley (jointly as Fredric Davies) The Cross of Gold Affair (1968)
G-690 SF Andre Norton The Beast Master (1968)
G-691 SF Andre Norton Lord of Thunder
G-692 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Swordsman of Mars (1968)
G-693 SF Otis Adelbert Kline The Outlaws of Mars (1968)
G-694 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Dolphin and the Deep (1968)
G-695 WE Theodore V. Olsen Bitter Grass
G-696 NA Arlene Hale Emergency Call (1968)
G-697 SF Poul Anderson We Claim These Stars (1968)
G-699 NA Cornell Woolrich The Bride Wore Black (1968)
G-700 NA Elizabeth Salter Will to Survive (1968)
G-701 SF Edmond Hamilton The Closed Worlds: Starwolf#2 (1968)
G-702 NA William Johnston Miracle at San Tanco: The Flying Nun (1968)
G-703 SF Andre Norton Victory on Janus (1968)
G-704 WE Carse Boyd Navarro (1962)
G-706 SF Samuel R. Delany The Jewels of Aptor (1968)
G-707 NA T.E. Huff (as Edwina Marlowe) The Master of Phoenix Hall (1968)
G-708 WE Clifton Adams A Partnership With Death (1968)
G-709 SF John Brunner Bedlam Planet (1968)
G-711 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Nurse Stacey Comes Aboard (1968)
G-712 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) and J. Francis Mccomas (eds.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, Third Series
G-713 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best from F & Sf Fourth Series (1968)
G-714 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best from F & Sf Fifth Series (1968)
G-715 SF William A. P. White (as Anthony Boucher) (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, Sixth Series (1968)
G-716 SF Andre Norton Web of the Witch World
G-717 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A.D. (1968)
G-718 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1968)
G-719 SF Neil R. Jones Doomday on Ajiat: Professor Jameson Space Adventure#5 (1968)
G-720 WE Brian Garfield (as Brian Wynne) Brand of the Gun (1968)
G-722 NA Gail Everett My Favorite Nurse (1968)
G-723 SF Andre Norton Star Hunter & Voodoo Planet (1968)
G-724 SF Philip José Farmer A Private Cosmos (1968)
G-725 NA William Johnston The Littlest Rebels: The Flying Nun#2 (1968)
G-726 WE Lee Hoffman The Valdez Horses (1968)
G-728 SF Donald A. Wollheim (as David Grinnell) Across Time (1968)
G-729 NA David McDaniel The Utopia Affair (1968)
G-730 SF Alan E. Nourse Psi High and Others (1968)
G-731 WE Nelson Nye A Lost Mine Named Shelton (1968)
G-733 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core (1968)
G-734 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar (1968)
G-735 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar of Pellucidar (1968)
G-736 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan at the Earth's Core (1968)
G-737 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Back to the Stone Age (1968)
G-738 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror (1968)
G-739 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar (1968)
G-740 SF Fred Saberhagen The Broken Lands (1968)
G-741 WE Wayne D. Overholser and Lewis B. Patten (jointly as Dean Owen) Red Is the Valley (1968)
G-743 NA Sharon Heath Nurse on Castle Island (1968)
G-744 NA Eula Atwood Morrison (as Andrea Delmonico) Chateau Chaumand (1968)
G-745 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid (1968)
G-746 WE William Colt Macdonald Marked Deck at Topango Wells (1968)
G-748 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men (1968)
G-749 NA John Sawyer and Nancy Buckingham Sawyer (as Nancy Buckingham) Call of Glengarron (1968)
G-750 NA Arlene Hale Dr. Barry's Nurse (1968)
G-751 NA Mildred Davies The Dark Place (1968)
G-752 NA Peter Leslie The Splintered Sunglasses Affair (1968)
G-753 SF Alan Garner The Moon of Gomrath (1968)
G-754 WE Jack L. Bickham The War on Charity Ross (1968)
G-756 SF Alexei Panshin Star Well (1968)
G-757 NA Helen Arvonen Remember With Tears (1968)
G-758 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Moondust (1968)
G-759 WE Giff Cheshire Wenatchee Bend (1968)
G-761 SF John Brunner Catch a Falling Star (1968)
G-762 SF Alexei Panshin The Thurb Revolution (1968)
G-763 WE John Shelley and David Shelley Hell-For-Leather Jones (1968)
G-765 NA Virginia Smiley Nurse Kate's Mercy Flight (1968)
G-766 SF Edmond Hamilton World of the Starwolves: Starwolf#3 (1968)
H Series
H-1 NA Theodore R. Kupferman The Family Legal Advisor
H-3 NA Louis Paul Dara the Cypriot
H-4 NA Olive Erkerson My Lord Essex
H-5 NA John H. Culp Born of the Sun
H-6 NA Florence A. Seward Gold for the Caesars
H-7 NA John H. Culp The Restless Land
H-8 NA Will Creed The Sword of Il Grande
H-9 NA Theodora DuBois Captive of Rome (1966)
H-10 NA Theodor Plievier Berlin (1966)
H-11 NA Theodor Plievier Moscow (1966)
H-12 NA Harold T. Wilkins Strange Mysteries of Time and Space (1966)
H-13 NA Gardner Soule The Mystery Monsters (1966)
H-14 NA Vincent Gaddis Invisible Horizons (1966)
H-15 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) The World's Best Science Fiction: 1966
H-16 NA Hans Holzer Ghosts I've Met (1965)
H-17 NA Jacques Vallée Anatomy of a Phenomenon (1966)
H-18 SF Jeff Sutton H-Bomb Over America (1966)
H-19 SF Frederik Pohl (ed.) The If Reader of Science Fiction (1966)
H-23 NA Georgette Heyer Arabella
H-24 NA Charles Fort The Book of the Damned
H-25 NA Jan Tempest House of the Pines
H-26 SF Avram Davidson (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 13th Series (1967)
H-28 NA Jacques Vallée Flying Saucers
H-30 SF Clifford D. Simak City (1967)
H-31 NA Dorothy Eden Sleep in the Woods
H-32 NA Hal Ellson Games
H-33 SF Andre Norton Moon of Three Rings (1967)
H-35 NA Dorothy Eden The Daughters of Ardmore Hall (1967)
H-37 NA Charlotte Hunt The Gilded Sarcophagus (1967)
H-38 SF Fritz Leiber The Swords of Lankhmar (1968)
H-39 SF Philip K. Dick Eye in the Sky (1968)
H-41 SF Jules Verne Into the Niger Bend (1968)
H-42 SF Clifford D. Simak Why Call Them Back from Heaven? (1968)
H-43 SF Jules Verne The City in the Sahara (1968)
H-44 NA Georgette Heyer The Quiet Gentleman
H-46 NA Robert L. Scott Look of the Eagle
H-47 NA Hans Holzer Lively Ghosts of Ireland
H-49 SF Jules Verne The Begum's Fortune (1968)
H-50 NA Janet Caird In a Glass, Darkly (1968)
H-52 SF Jules Verne Yesterday and Tomorrow (1968)
H-53 NA Leslie H. Whitten Progeny of the Adder (1968)
H-54 SF R. A. Lafferty Past Master (1968)
H-55 NA Willy Ley For Your Information: On Earth and in the Sky (1968)
H-57 NA Cornell Woolrich Rendezvous in Black (1967)
H-58 SF Gertrude Friedberg The Revolving Boy (1968)
H-60 SF Jules Verne Carpathian Castle (1968)
H-61 MY Elizabeth Salter Death in a Mist (1968)
H-62 SF Wilson Tucker The Lincoln Hunters (1968)
H-63 NA Miriam Allen Deford The Real Bonnie & Clyde (1968)
H-64 NA Brinsley Le Poer Trench Flying Saucer Story
H-66 NA Cornell Woolrich The Black Path of Fear (1968)
H-67 SF Jules Verne The Village in the Treetops (1968)
H-68 NA Raymond Bayless The Enigma of the Poltergeist (1968)
H-69 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Knight's Keep (1968)
H-71 NA Lois Dorothea Low (as Dorothy Mackie Low) Isle for a Stranger (1968)
H-72 SF Joanna Russ Picnic on Paradise (1968)
H-73 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Wizardy (1968)
H-74 NA Charles Fort New Lands (1968)
H-76 NA Georgette Heyer April Lady
H-78 SF Jules Verne The Hunt for the Meteor (1968)
H-79 SF Bob Shaw The Two-Timers (1968)
H-80 MY Margaret Summerton (as Jan Roffman) With Murder in Mind (1968)
H-81 NA John Macklin Passport to the Unknown (1968)
H-83 NA Bernhardt J. Hurwood Vampires, Werewolves, and Ghouls (1968)
H-84 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World (1968)
H-86 SF D. G. Compton Synthajoy (1968)
H-87 NA Rebecca Liswood A Marriage Doctor Speaks Her Mind About Sex
H-88 NA Charles Fort Wild Talents
H-89 SF John Macklin Dimensions Beyond the Unknown
H-90 SF Fritz Leiber Swords in the Mist (1968)
H-92 SF A. E. van Vogt The Far-Out Worlds of A. E. van Vogt (1968)
H-93 MY Delano Ames The Man in the Tricorn Hat
H-94 NA John Macklin Dwellers in Darkness (1968)
H-96 NA Shirley Jackson The Sundial
H-97 MY Delano Ames The Man With Three Jaguars
H-98 NA Charlotte Hunt The Cup of Thanatos (1958)
H-99 NA Nostradamus; Robb Stewart (trans.) Prophecies on World Events
H-100 NA Hans Holzer ESP and You
H-101 NA Georgette Heyer Sprig Muslin
H-102 SF Edward E. Smith Subspace Explorers (1968)
H-104 NA Cornell Woolrich The Black Curtain (1968)
H-105 SF James H. Schmitz The Demon Breed (1968)
H-106 NA Janet Caird Perturbing Spirit
H-107 NA Virginia Coffman The Dark Gondola
H-108 NA John Macklin Challenge to Reality
K Series
K-101 NA Charles Francis Potter The Faith Men Live By
K-102 NA Richard E. Byrd Alone
K-103 NA Prudencio de Pereda Fiesta
K-104 NA W.A. Swanberg Sickles the Incredible
K-105 NA Alfred Duggan Winter Quarters
K-106 NA Allen Churchill The Improper Bohemians
K-107 WE Hugh B. Cave The Cross on the Drum (1959)
K-108 NA D. Robertson Three Days
K-109 NA Dalton Trumbo Jonny Got His Gun (1959)
K-110 NA Kirst The Seventh Day (1959)
K-111 NA Robert Sproul The Cracked Reader
K-112 NA Les Savage, Jr. The Royal City
K-113 NA Eric Duthie Tall Short Stories
K-114 NA O.A. Bushnell Peril in Paradise
K-115 NA A.A. Hoehling They Sailed Into Oblivion
K-116 NA Elliot West Man Running
K-117 NA Frank Edward Stranger Than Science (1960)
K-118 NA Alfred Duggan Children of the Wolf (1959)
K-119 NA Ralph Ginzburg Erotica
K-120 NA J. Haslip Lucrezia Borgia
K-121 NA Robert C. Ruark Grenadine Etching - Her Life and Loves
K-122 NA Kurt Singer (ed.) Spies Who Changed History
K-123 NA Richard B. Erno The Hunt
K-124 NA Peter Freuchen Eskimo
K-125 NA Harold Mehling Scandalous Scamps
K-126 NA Robert Dahl Breakdown
K-127 NA George Stewart Fire
K-128 NA Clellan S. Ford and Frank A. Beach Patterns of Sexual Behavior
K-129 NA Alfred Duggan Conscience of the King
K-132 NA Harnett Thomas Kane Spies for the Blue and Gray
K-133 NA Don Berry Trask: The Coast of Oregon, 1848
K-134 NA Peter Fleming Operation Sea Lion
K-136 NA C. D. MacDougall Hoaxes
K-137 NA George Bluestone The Private World of Cully Powers
K-138 NA George R. Stewart Ordeal By Hunger
K-139 NA Alfred Duggan Three's Company
K-140 NA Harry R. Litchfield Your Child's Care
K-141 NA Emil Ludwig Michelangelo and Rembrandt: Selections from Three Titans
K-142 NA Brant House (ed.) Crimes That Shocked America
K-143 NA Willa Gibbs The Twelfth Physician
K-144 NA Frank Edwards Strangest of All (1962)
K-145 NA Harry F. Tashman The Marriage Bed
K-146 NA Rowena Farr Seal Morning
K-147 NA Carl J. Spinatelli Baton Sinister (1959)
K-148 NA Herbert Asbury The Chicago Underworld
K-149 NA Talbot Mundy Queen Cleopatra (1962)
K-150 NA Patricia Robins Lady Chatterley's Daughter (1961)
K-151 NA Pierce G. Fredericks The Great Adventure
K-152 NA Brant House (ed.) Great Trials of Famous Lawyers (1962)
K-153 NA Rebecca Liswood A Marriage Doctor Speaks Her Mind About Sex
K-154 SF George R. Stewart Earth Abides (1962)
K-155 NA Thomas R. Henry The Strangest Things in the World
K-156 NA Charles Fort The Book of the Damned
K-157 NA E.H.G. Lutz Miracles of Modern Surgery
K-158 NA Phyllis A. Whitney Thunder Heights
K-159 NA Theodora DuBois Captive of Rome
K-160 NA Guy Endore The Werewolf of Paris
K-161 NA Frederick L. Collins The FBI in Peace and War
K-162 NA Richard O'Connor Gould's Millions
K-163 NA Rupert Furneaux Worlds Strangest Mysteries
K-164 NA Phyllis A. Whitney The Trembling Hills
K-166 NA Shirley Jackson The Sundial
K-167 NA Karen Blixen (as Pierre Andrezel) The Angelic Avengers
K-168 NA R. Dewitt Miller Stranger Than Life
K-169 NA Scott Sullivan The Shortest Gladdest Years
K-170 NA John J. Pugh High Carnival
K-171 NA Dorothy Eden Lady of Mallow
K-172 NA Peter Bourne The Golden Pagans
K-173 NA Dorothea Malm To the Castle
K-174 NA Georgette Heyer The Grand Sophy
K-175 NA Virginia Coffman Moura (1963)
K-176 NA Brant House Strange Powers of Unusual People
K-177 NA Anya Seton My Theodosia
K-178 NA Phyllis A. Whitney The Quicksilver Pool
K-179 NA Georgette Heyer Venetia
K-180 NA Margaret Lynn To See a Stranger
K-181 NA Margaret Summerton The Sea House
K-182 NA Doris Webster and Mary A. Hopkins Instant Self-Analysis
K-183 NA Phyllis Bentley The House of Moreys
K-184 NA Dorothy Eden Whistle for the Crows
K-185 NA Shirley Jackson Hangsaman
K-187 NA Henry Bellamann Victoria Grandolet
K-188 NA Richard E. Byrd Alone
K-189 NA Dorothy Cameron Disney The Hangman's Tree
K-190 NA Jim Egleson and Janet Frank Egleson Parents Without Partners
K-191 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) The Brides of Bellenmore (1963)
K-192 NA Sheila Bishop The House With Two Faces
K-193 NA Franklin S. Klaf and Bernhardt J. Hurwood A Psychiatrist Looks at Erotica
K-194 NA Margaret Summerton Nightingale at Noon
K-195 NA Michael Avallone (as Edwina Noone) Dark Cypress
K-196 NA Joseph Sidney Karnake and Victor Boesen Navy Diver
K-197 NA Doris Miles Disney Who Rides a Tiger
K-198 NA Josephine Bell Stranger on a Cliff
K-199 NA Barbara O'Brien Operators and Things (1958)
K-200 NA J.L. Whitney The Whisper of Shadows
K-201 NA Georgette Heyer April Lady (1964)
K-202 NA William Burroughs Junkie (1964)
K-203 NA Jan Hillard Morgan's Castle
K-204 NA Robert Payne Charlie Chapin: The Great God Pan (1964)
K-205 NA Ruth Willock The Night of the Visitor
K-206 NA Frank Edwards Strange World
K-207 NA Lady Eleanor Smith A Dark and Splendid Passion
K-208 NA Nicole Maxwell The Jungle Search for Nature's Cures
K-209 NA Aileen Seilaz The Veil of Silence (1965)
K-210 NA Hans Holzer Ghost Hunter
K-211 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) The Pavilion at Monkshood (1965)
K-212 NA Sheila Bishop The Durable Fire
K-213 NA Michael Avallone (as Edwina Noone) Dark Cypress (1965)
K-215 NA Rohan O'Grady The Master of Montrolfe Hall
K-216 NA Jan Roffman The Reflection of Evil
K-217 NA Charles Fort Lo!
K-218 NA Ross Santee Cowboy
K-219 NA Joan Aiken The Silence of Herondale
K-220 NA Susan Howatch The Dark Shore
K-221 NA Virginia Coffman The Beckoning
K-222 NA John Macklin Strange Destinies
K-223 NA Michael Avallone (as Edwina Noone) Corridor of Whispers
K-224 NA Brant House Strange Powers of Unusual People
K-225 NA Michael Avallone The Summer of Evil
K-226 NA Georgette Heyer Sylvester
K-227 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) Green Fire
K-228 NA Robb Stewart Strange Prophecies That Came True
K-228 NA Joan Winslow Griffin Towers
K-229 NA R. DeWitt Miller Impossible: Yet It Happened!
K-230 NA Dorothy Eden The Pretty Ones
K-231 NA Lane Peters Promise Him Anything
K-232 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) The House of Fand
K-233 NA Patricia Robins Lady Chatterley's Daughter
K-234 NA Virginia Coffman The Devil Vicar
K-235 NA Georgette Heyer Sprig Muslin
K-236 NA Dorothy Eden Bridge of Fear
K-237 NA Robert Tralins Strange Events Beyond Human Understanding
K-238 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) Someone Waiting
K-239 NA Dorothy Eden The Sleeping Bride
K-240 NA Susan Howatch The Waiting Sands
K-241 NA Brad Steiger Strange Guests
K-242 NA Ruth Comfort Mitchell The Legend of Susan Dane
K-243 NA Dorothy Eden The Deadly Travellers
K-244 NA Kurt Singer (ed.) The Gothic Reader
K-245 NA Marie Garratt Dangerous Enchantment
K-246 NA Joan Grant Castle Cloud
K-247 WE Frances Ames That Callahan Spunk! (1965)
K-248 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) Whisper in the Dark
K-249 NA Dorothy Eden The Brooding Lake
K-250 NA Dr. Webb B. Garrison Strange Bonds Between Animals and Men
K-251 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) Shadow of a Stranger
K-252 NA Phyllis A. Whitney The Trembling Hills
K-254 NA Rupert Furneaux The World's Strangest Mysteries
K-255 NA R. DeWitt Miller Impossible: Yet It Happened!
K-257 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) I Am Gabriella!
K-258 NA Barbara Blackburn City of Forever
K-259 NA Michael Harvey Strange Happenings
K-260 NA Joan Rich and Leslie Rich Dating and Mating By Computer (1966)
K-261 NA Dorothy Eden Night of the Letter (1967)
K-262 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Walk Into My Parlor (1966)
K-263 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) The Night My Enemy (1967)
K-264 NA Jane Blackmore The Dark Between the Stars (1967)
K-265 NA Georgette Heyer The Reluctant Widow (1967)
K-266 NA Thomas R. Henry The Strangest Things in the World (1967)
K-267 NA Dorothy Eden Listen to Danger (1967)
K-268 NA Brad Steiger Treasure Hunting
K-269 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Seven Days from Midnight
K-271 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) Falcon's Shadow
K-272 NA Hans Holzer Yankee Ghosts (1966)
K-273 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) The Willow Herb (1967)
K-275 NA Dorothy Eden Crow Hollow (1967)
K-276 NA Bernhardt J. Hurwood Strange Talents (1967)
K-278 NA Helen Arvonen Circle of Death
K-279 NA Anonymous The Strange and Uncanny
K-280 NA Susan Howatch Call in the Night (1967)
K-281 NA Margaret Wetherby Williams (as Margaret Erskine) No. 9 Belmont Square (1967)
K-282 NA Anne Buxton (as Anne Maybury) The Winds of Night
K-283 NA Nancy Buckingham Cloud Over Malverton (1967)
K-284 NA Monica Dickens The Room Upstairs
K-285 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) Hotel Deluxe
K-286 NA Nancy Buckingham The Hour Before Moonrise
K-287 NA Margaret Wetherby Williams (as Margaret Erskine) Old Mrs. Ommanney is Dead
K-288 NA Robb Stewart Strange Prophecies That Came True (1967)
K-289 NA Jane Blackmore Night of the Stranger (1967)
K-290 NA Jan Roffman Ashes in an Urn (1966)
K-291 NA Brad Steiger We Have Lived Before (1967)
K-292 NA John Macklin The Enigma of the Unknown (1967)
K-293 NA Elizabeth Ford Dangerous Holiday (1967)
K-294 NA Joan Aiken Beware of the Bouquet (1967)
K-295 NA Margaret Wetherby Williams (as Margaret Erskine) The Woman at Belguardo (1967)
K-296 NA Warren Smith Strange Powers of the Mind
K-297 NA Nancy Buckingham The Dark Summer (1968)
K-298 NA Rona Shambrook (as Rona Randall) The Silver Cord
K-299 NA Rae Folly Fear of a Stranger
K-300 NA Michael Hervey They Walk By Night
K-301 NA Dorothy Eden The Laughing Ghost
K-303 NA Jane Blackmore Beware the Night (1967)
K-304 NA Margaret Wetherby Williams (as Margaret Erskine) The Family at Tannerton (1967)
K-305 NA John Macklin Strange Encounters (1968)
K-306 NA Susan Howatch The Shrouded Walls (1968)
K-307 NA Brad Steiger The Occult World of John Pendragon (1968)
A Series
A-1 NA Brigitte von Tessin The Shame and the Glory (1966)
A-3 SF Bernard Wolfe Limbo (1966)
A-4 SF J. R. R. Tolkien The Fellowship of the Ring (1965)
A-5 SF J. R. R. Tolkien The Two Towers (1965)
A-6 SF J. R. R. Tolkien The Return of the King (1965)
A-7 NA The Editors of Short Story International The World's Best Contemporary Short Stories (1966)
A-8 SF John Myers Myers Silverlock (1966)
A-9 NA Todhunter Ballard Gold in California! (1966)
A-10 SF Terry Carr and Donald A. Wollheim (eds.) The World's Best SF: 1967 (1967)
A-11 NA Harold T. Wilkins Flying Saucers on the Attack (1967)
A-12 SF Terry Carr (ed.) New Worlds of Fantasy (1967)
A-13 SF James H. Schmitz The Witches of Karres (1968)
A-15 SF Terry Carr and Donald A. Wollheim (eds.) World's Best SF: 1968 (1968)
A-16 SF Alexei Panshin Rite of Passage (1968)
A-17 SF Avram Davidson (ed.) The Best from Fantasy & Science Fiction, 14th Series (1968)
A-18 NA Frederick E. Smith A Killing for the Hawks
A-19 SF Piers Anthony and Robert E. Margroff The Ring (1968)
A-20 NA Dorothy Malone Cookbook for Beginners (1968)
A-21 NA Corinne Griffith Eggs I Have Known (1968)
A-22 NA Jean Mattimore and Clark Mattimore Cooking By the Clock (1968)
A-23 NA Alberto Moravia The Wayward Wife (1968)
A-24 NA William A. Bishop Winged Warfare (1967)
A-25 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Outlaw of Torn (1968)
A-26 NA Peter J. Steincrohn How to Get a Good Night's Sleep (1968)
A-27 NA Jim Harmon The Great Radio Heroes (1968)
A-28 NA René Fonck Ace of Aces (1968)
A-29 SF James Blish and Norman L. Knight A Torrent of Faces (1968)
A-30 NF Ainslie Meares, M.D. Relief Without Drugs
A-130 NA Robert B. Douglas (trans.) The Hundred Stories (1968)
N Series
Ace Books published its N series from 1965 to 1966, priced at 95 cents.
N-1 NA UPI editors Retrospect 1964: Summaries and Captions from Special U.P.I Dispatches (1965)
N-2 NA UPI editors Retrospect 1965: U.P.I. Pictorial History of 1964 (1966)
N-3 SF Frank Herbert Dune (1965)
N-4 NA Isaac Asimov Is Anyone There? (1966)
Numbered Series
00075 SF John Jakes When the Star Kings Die
00078 SF R.A. Salvatore The Dragons Dagger
00078 SF Peter George (as Peter Bryant) Red Alert (1958)
00092 SF John Macklin Dwellers in Darkness
00093 SF Fred Saberhagen The Black Mountains
00094 SF Leigh Brackett The Big Jump
00104 SF Mack Reynolds Section G: United Planets
00106 SF John Macklin Passport to the Unknown
00107 SF James White The Secret Visitors
00108 SF Roger Zelazny Four for Tomorrow
00109 SF Mark S. Geston Lords of the Starship
00110 SF Fritz Leiber Swords in the Mist
00111 SF John W. Campbell, Jr. Invaders from the Infinite
00119 SF William Shatner Teksecret
00125 SF Mary Staton From the Legend of Biel
00142 SF Steve Perry The Forever Drug (1995)
00153 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Wizardry
00241 NA Jack Luzzatto Ace Crossword Puzzle Book#2 (1969)
00265 SF Mack Reynolds Ability Quotient
00275 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Ace Science Fiction Reader (1971)
00289 SF William Shatner Tekpower
00348 SF Greg Bear Blood Music (1996)
00390 SF William Shatner Tekmoney
00950 SF Ron Goulart After Things Fell Apart (1970)
00958 SF Mack Reynolds After Utopia (1977)
01000 SF John Brunner Age of Miracles
01040 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#1: The Flying Saucer Gambit
01041 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#2: The Golden Goddess Gambit
01042 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#3: The Emerald Elephant Gambit
01043 SF Larry Maddock Agent of T.E.R.R.A.#4: The Time Trap Gambit
01066 SF Poul Anderson Agent of the Terran Empire
01501 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Worlds of Robert A. Heinlein
01570 SF Fletcher Pratt Alien Planet
01625 NA Dick Lupoff and Don Thompson (ed.) All in Color for a Dime (1970)
01750 SF Robert E. Howard Almuric
01770 SF Leigh Brackett Alpha Centauri Or Die (1976)
02236 SF Stanley Schmidt (ed.) Analog Yearbook Ii
02268 SF Joanna Russ And Chaos Died (1970)
02274 SF Donald R. Bensen And Having Writ... (1978)
02276 MY Philip Loraine The Angel of Death (1961)
02295 SF Keith Roberts Anita (1970)
02320 SF Alexei Panshin Masque World
02380 SF Tim Powers The Anubis Gates
02900 NA John Jakes (as Jay Scotland) Arena
02935 SF Philip Francis Nowlan Armageddon 2419 A.D.
02936 SF Philip Francis Nowlan Armageddon 2419 A.D.
02938 SF Philip Francis Nowlan Armageddon 2419 A.D.
02940 NA Rona Randall The Arrogant Duke (1972)
03297 SF Jack Vance The Asutra (Dundane Trilogy book 3 of 3) (1973)
03300 SF John Brunner The Atlantic Abomination (1960)
03322 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core
03325 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core
03326 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core (1978)
03328 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs At the Earth's Core (1985)
04040 SF Joanna Russ Picnic on Paradise
04591 SF Samuel R. Delany Babel-17 (1966)
04592 SF Samuel R. Delany Babel-17 (1974)
04636 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Back to the Stone Age
04722 SF Samuel R. Delany The Ballad of Beta 2
04745 WE Edgar Rice Burroughs The Bandit of Hell's Bend
04745 NA Edgar Rice Burroughs The Bandit of Hell's Bend
04755 NA E. Kelton Barbed Wire
04760 SF Tom Purdom The Barons of Behavior (1972)
04860 SF A. E. van Vogt The Battle of Forever (1971)
05330 SF Jack London Before Adam
05404 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker
05404 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker (1979)
05407 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man (1979)
05407 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man
05408 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker's Planet (1980)
05424 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man
05454 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 15th Series (1966)
05455 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 16th Series
05456 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 17th Series
05457 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 18th Series
05458 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 19th Series (1973)
05460 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction: A Special 25th Anniversary Anthology
05461 SF Edward L. Ferman (ed.) The Best from Fantasy and Science Fiction, 22nd Series (1978)
05475 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (1st Annual Collection) (1972)
05476 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (2nd Annual Collection)
05477 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (3rd Annual Collection) (1974)
05478 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (4th Annual Collection) (1977)
05479 SF Lester Del Rey (ed.) Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year (5th Annual Collection) (1977)
05481 SF Mack Reynolds The Best Ye Breed
05496 SF Fred Saberhagen Berserker Man
05500 SF Robert A. Heinlein Between Planets
05586 SF John Varley The Golden Globe
05655 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Beyond the Farthest Star (1973)
05656 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Beyond the Farthest Star (1979)
05785 SF Shepherd Mead The Big Ball of Wax
06061 SF Leigh Brackett The Big Jump (1976)
06171 SF Jack Vance Big Planet (1978)
06177 SF Keith Laumer The Big Show
06505 NA Cornell Woolrich The Black Angel (1965)
06530 SF Michael Moorcock The Black Corridor
06615 SF Fred Saberhagen The Black Mountains
06701 SF John W. Campbell The Black Star Passes
06715 NA Charles Lefebure The Blood Cults (1969)
06854 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Bloody Sun
07012 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Catherine Crook De Camp The Bones of Zora
07080 NA Joyce Keener Border-Line (1979)
07162 SF John Brunner Born Under Mars
07180 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Brass Dragon
07200 SF Jack Vance The Brave Free Men: Book II of the Durdane Trilogy (1972)
07690 SF Murray Leinster The Brain-Stealers
07840 SF Ray Cummings A Brand New World
07895 SF Andre Norton Breed to Come (1973)
07921 MY Cornell Woolrich Bride Wore Black (1940)
08145 SF John Rankine The Bromius Phenomenon
08215 SF Fred Saberhagen Brother Assassin
09022 SF Robert O'Riodan Cadre One
09037 SF Spider Robinson Callahan's Crosstime Saloon (1977)
09069 SF Spider Robinson Callahan's Crosstime Saloon
09072 SF Spider Robinson Callahan's Lady (1989)
09102 NA Nancy Buckingham Call of Glengarron
09128 NA Kenneth Von Gunden K-9 Corps
09200 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson of Venus
09203 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson of Venus
09205 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Carson of Venus (1982)
09265 SF Andre Norton Catseye
09281 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Cave Girl
09284 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Cave Girl
10150 SF Walt Richmond Challenge the Hellmaker
10258 SF Margaret St. Clair Change the Sky and Other Stories (1974)
10307 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City of Illusions (1967)
10410 SF A. E. van Vogt Children of Tomorrow
10411 SF A. E. van Vogt Children of Tomorrow
10471 NA Sam Bowie Chisum (1970)
10600 SF Robert A. Heinlein Citizen of the Galaxy
10621 SF Clifford D. Simak City
10701 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City of Illusions (1967)
10702 SF Ursula K. Le Guin City of Illusion
11036 SF Philip K. Dick Clans of the Alphane Moon (1972)
11222 NA Nancy Buckingham Cloud Over Malverton
11457 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan the Freebooter
11467 SF Robert E. Howard, Björn Nyberg, and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Avenger (Conan #10)
11546 SF Leigh Brackett The Coming of the Terrans (1976)
11603 SF Robert E. Howard (edited by L. Sprague de Camp) Conan the Conqueror (Conan #9)
11622 SF Anthony Boucher The Complete Werewolf & Other Stories of Fantasy & Science Fiction (1969)
11630 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan
11633 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan the Wanderer
11659 SF Andrew J. Offutt Conan the Mercenary (1981)
11669 SF L. Sprague de Camp (ed.) The Spell of Conan (1980)
11670 SF L. Sprague de Camp (ed.) The Blade of Conan (1979)
11671 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan (1967)
11672 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan of Cimmeria
11673 SF Robert Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan the Freebooter
11674 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter Conan the Wanderer
11675 SF Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, Conan the Adventurer
11676 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter Conan the Buccaneer
11677 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Warrior
11678 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Usurper
11679 SF Robert E. Howard (ed. L. Sprague de Camp) Conan the Conqueror
11680 SF Robert E. Howard, Björn Nyberg, and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Avenger
11681 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter Conan of the Isles
11682 SF L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter Conan of Aquilonia
11684 SF Andrew J. Offutt Conan and the Sorcerer (1979)
11705 SF Robert Silverberg Conquerors from the Darkness
11759 SF H. Beam Piper The Cosmic Computer
11863 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Freebooter
12126 SF Philip K. Dick The Crack in Space (1966)
12311 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time
12313 SF Andre Norton The Crossroads of Time (1978)
13245 SF Alan Dean Foster Cyber Way
13600 SF Margaret St. Clair The Dancers of Noyo (1973)
13612 SF Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp Conan the Freebooter
13681 NA Marie Garratt Dangerous Enchantment
13795 SF Andre Norton Dark Piper
13798 SF A. E. van Vogt The Darkness on Diamondia
13898 SF Robert Silverberg and Randall Garrett (jointly as Robert Randall) The Dawning Light (1982)
13902 SF Barry N. Malzberg The Day of the Burning
13921 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Day of the Minotaur
13960 SF Mack Reynolds Day After Tomorrow
13972 SF Brian M. Stableford Days of Wrath
13994 SF Andre Norton Daybreak - 2250 A. D.
14000 SF Brian M. Stableford The Days of Glory
14153 MY Cornell Woolrich (as William Irish) Deadline at Dawn
14165 MY Jack Vance (as John Holbrook Vance) The Deadly Isles
14194 WE Nelson Nye Death Valley Slim
14198 WE John Bickham Decker's Campaign
14215 SF Greg Benford Deeper Than the Darkness
14235 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents (1978)
14236 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents
14240 WE Wayne C. Lee Die-Hard
14244 SF James Schmitz The Demon Breed (1979)
14247 NA Edgar Rice Burroughs The Deputy Sheriff of Comanche County (1940)
14249 SF Andre Norton The Defiant Agents
14250 SF Mack Reynolds Depression Or Bust! and Dawnman's Planet
14251 SF Poul Anderson, Mildred Downey Broxon, Michael Whelan, and Alicia Austin The Demon of Scattery (1979)
14256 NA Walter Scott Demonology & Witchcraft
14258 NA David Rome The Depraved (1968)
14277 SF James Baen (ed.) Destinies Vol. 1, No. 3 (April - June, 1979)
14879 SF Timothy Powers Dinner at the Deviants Palace
14903 SF Frank Herbert Direct Descent
15238 SF George Warren Dominant Species
15670 SF Philip K. Dick Dr. Bloodmoney, Or How We Got Along After the Bomb (1976)
15697 SF Philip K. Dick The Unteleported Man (1972)
16600 SF Fred Saberhagen The Dracula Tape (1972)
16647 SF Andre Norton Dragon Magic
16648 SF Jack Vance The Dragon Masters
16651 SF Jack Vance The Dragon-Masters (1981)
16668 SF John Brunner The Dramaturges of Yan
16669 SF Andre Norton Dread Companion (1970)
16670 SF Andre Norton Dread Companion (1970)
16701 SF Roger Zelazny The Dream Master
16728 SF Larry Niven and Steven Barnes Dream Park (1983)
17239 SF Ben Bova The Dueling Machine
17625 SF Frank Herbert Dune
17810 NA Jan Hoffman A Dying in the Night (1975)
18630 SF Gordon Eklund The Eclipse Of Dawn (1970)
18770 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Master of Adventure (1968)
19640 NA Eliot Asinof Eight Men Out (1963)
19681 SF Samuel R. Delany The Einstein Intersection
19710 SF Bob Shaw A Wreath of Stars
20275 SF Alan Garner Elidor
20563 SF Fred Saberhagen Empire of the East
20565 SF Barrington J. Bayley Empire of Two Worlds
20571 SF Samuel R. Delany The Ballad of Beta-2 and Empire Star
20664 SF Jerry Pournelle Endless Frontier, Volume I
20670 SF Judith Merril (ed.) England Swings Sf: Stories of Speculative Fiction
20724 SF Poul Anderson Ensign Flandry
20730 SF Keith Laumer Envoy to New Worlds
21562 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Escape on Venus
21567 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Escape on Venus
21590 SF James White The Escape Orbit (1983)
21599 SF Christopher Stasheff Escape Velocity
21803 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage
21804 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage
21806 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Eternal Savage
21885 SF Jerry Pournelle Exiles to Glory (1977)
22215 SF Jerry Pournelle Exiles to Glory
22216 SF Jerry Pournelle Exiles to Glory
22327 NA Hans Holzer ESP and You
22365 SF Andre Norton Exiles of the Stars
22375 SF Andre Norton Eye of the Monster
22386 SF Philip K. Dick Eye in the Sky (1975)
22387 SF Philip K. Dick Eye in the Sky (1980)
22500 SF Jack Vance The Faceless Man: Book One of the Durdane Trilogy (1978)
22555 SF Jack Vance The Faceless Man (Dundane Trilogy book 1 of 3)
22577 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Falcons of Narabedla (1979)
22680 NA Hershatter Fallout for a Spy
22690 SF Barry N. Malzberg The Falling Astronauts
22725 WE Nelson Nye Hellbound for Ballarat (1970)
22742 NA Margaret Erskine The Family at Tammerton
22811 SF A. E. van Vogt The Far-Out Worlds of Van Vogt (1968)
22812 SF A. E. van Vogt The Worlds of A. E. van Vogt
22819 SF Edmund Cooper A Far Sunset
22830 SF D. G. Compton Farewell, Earth's Bliss
23189 SF H. Beam Piper Federation (1982)
23419 SF H. Beam Piper (ed. Michael Kurland) First Cycle (1982)
23929 SF Dennis Schmidt Twilight of the Gods: The First Name
23998 SF Shariann Lewitt First and Final Rites
24035 SF Mack Reynolds Five Way Secret Agent and Mercenary from Tomorrow
24302 NA W. Johnston The Underground Picnic: The Flying Nun#5 (1970)
24415 NA John Michell The Flying Saucer Vision (1967)
24590 SF R. A. Lafferty Fourth Mansions (1969)
24800 SF Jules Verne For the Flag (1961)
24806 SF David C. Smith and Richard Tierney For the Witch of the Mists (1981)
24892 SF H. Beam Piper Four-Day Planet and Lone Star Planet
24903 SF Roger Zelazny Four for Tomorrow
24975 NA Jack Vance (as John Holbrook Vance) The Fox Valley Murders (1968)
25165 NA Michael Hervey Fraternity of the Weird (1969)
25300 NA Georgette Heyer Friday's Child (1946)
25306 SF Arsen Darnay A Hostage for Hinterland (1976)
25460 SF Mary Staton From the Legend of Biel
25461 SF Mary Staton From the Legend of Biel
25950 SF Suzette Haden Elgin Furthest (1971)
25980 SF A. E. van Vogt Future Glitter (1973)
26176 SF H. Beam Piper Fuzzies and Other People
26181 SF William Tuning Fuzzy Bones
26192 SF H. Beam Piper Fuzzy Sapiens
26194 SF H. Beam Piper The Fuzzy Papers
26196 SF H. Beam Piper Fuzzy Sapiens
27226 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict
27228 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict
27229 SF Andre Norton Galactic Derelict (1978)
27232 SF Jack Vance Galactic Effectuator (1981)
27240 SF Mack Reynolds Galactic Medal of Honor
27310 SF Philip K. Dick The Game-Players of Titan (1972)
27346 SF Philip K. Dick and Ray Nelson The Ganymede Takeover (1977)
27389 SF Philip José Farmer The Gates of Creation (1981)
27419 SF Edmund Cooper A Far Sunset (1977)
27501 SF Samuel R. Delany The Fall of the Towers
27910 SF Howard Fast The General Zapped an Angel
28702 SF James P. Blaylock The Stone Giant (1989)
28911 WE Edgar Rice Burroughs The Girl from Hollywood
28914 NA Michael Avallone The Girls in Television (1974)
29350 NA Harlan Ellison The Glass Teat (1970)
29400 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Glory That Was (1979)
29525 SF Robert E. Howard The Gods of Bal-Sagoth
29741 WE Todhunter Ballard Gold in California (1965)
29743 NA Todhunter Ballard Gold in California (1965)
29786 NA Peter Bourne The Golden Pagans
30261 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain
30262 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain
30263 SF Frank Herbert The Green Brain
30274 SF Lucius Shepard Green Eyes (1984)
30295 SF Charles de Lint Greenmantle (1988)
30301 SF Fritz Leiber The Green Millennium
30590 SF Louis Trimble and Jacquelyn Trimble Guardians of the Gate
30600 SF Edwin L. Arnold Gulliver of Mars (1905)
30710 WE Giles A. Lutz Gun Rich
31557 SF Andre Norton The X Factor
31590 SF Leigh Brackett The Halfling and Other Stories (1973)
31725 NA Shirley Jackson Hangsaman
31781 NA Leal Hayes Harlequin House
31800 SF Robert A. Heinlein Have Space Suit - Will Travel
31801 SF Robert A. Heinlein Have Space Suit - Will Travel
31930 NA Jane Blackmore Hawkridge (1976)
31940 NA John Swenson Headliners: Kiss: The Greatest Rock Show on Earth! (1978)
31941 NA Charley Walters Headliners: Fleetwood Mac (1979)
31986 SF David Drake Hammer's Slammers
32335 NA Anonymous The Young Rebels: The Hedgerow Incident (1970)
32575 WE Charles O. Locke The Hell Bent Kid
32800 SF Frank Herbert Heretics of Dune (1987)
33700 SF Andre Norton High Sorcery
33701 SF Andre Norton High Sorcery (1970)
33704 SF Andre Norton High Sorcery
34245 SF Fred Saberhagen The Holmes-Dracula File (1978)
34250 NA N. Fredrik Hollywood and the Academy Awards (1970)
34260 NA Mair Unsworth Home to My Love (1973)
34345 SF Orson Scott Card Hot Sleep: The Worthing Chronicle
34361 NA Nancy Buckingham The Hour Before Moonrise
34440 NA Barbara Lane Housewife Hookers (1973)
34441 NA Barbara Lane Housewife Hookers, Part II (1974)
34458 SF Glenn Lord (ed.) The Howard Collector
34900 SF Bruce Mcallister Humanity Prime
35241 SF Andre Norton Huon of the Horn
35804 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs I Am a Barbarian
35805 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs I Am a Barbarian (1978)
35840 SF Andre Norton Ice Crown (1970)
35843 SF Andre Norton Ice Crown
35854 SF Kim Stanley Robinson Icehenge (1984)
36300 MY Ron Goulart If Dying Was All (1971)
36321 SF Andre Norton Victory on Janus
37088 SF Walt Richmond The Probability Corner
37090 SF Mark Adlard Interface (1971)
37100 SF Arthur K. Barnes Interplanetary Hunter (1972)
37106 SF Brian M. Stableford In the Kingdom of the Beasts
37217 SF Colin Kapp The Ion War (1978)
37291 SF Andre Norton Iron Cage (1974)
37365 SF Robert E. Howard The Iron Man
37381 NA P. Agan Is That Who I Think It Is? Volume 1 (1975)
37382 NA P. Agan Is That Who I Think It Is? Volume 3 (1976)
37421 SF H.G. Wells The Island of Dr. Moreau (1977)
37425 SF Avram Davidson An Island Under the Earth (1969)
37465 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1969)
37466 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1974)
37468 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1976)
37470 SF Roger Zelazny Isle of the Dead (1982)
37598 MY Gil Brewer The Devil in Davos: It Takes a Thief#1 (1969)
37599 MY Gil Brewer Mediterranean Caper: It Takes a Thief#2 (1969)
37600 MY Gil Brewer Appointment in Cairo: It Takes a Thief#3 (1970)
37797 SF Esther Friesner Here Be Demons
38120 SF John Brunner The Jagged Orbit (1969)
38122 SF John Brunner The Jagged Orbit
38287 SF Jerry Pournelle The Janissaries
38536 SF E. C. Tubb The Jester at Scar: Dumarest of Terra#5 (1982)
38570 SF C. L. Moore Jirel of Joiry
40590 MY Ron Goulart Too Sweet to Die (1972)
40850 SF Robert Sheckley The Journey of Joenes
41550 NA Jerry Bladwin Kept Man (1975)
41550 SF Andre Norton Judgement on Janus
41551 SF Andre Norton Judgement on Janus
41841 NA William Burroughs Junkie (1964)
42801 SF E. C. Tubb Kalin
43525 SF Dennis Schmidt Kensho
43672 SF Andre Norton A Key Out of Time (1978)
43679 SF Andre Norton A Key Out of Time
44470 SF Edgar Wallace and Merian C. Cooper King Kong (1976)
44485 SF Christopher Stasheff King Kobold
44489 SF Christopher Stasheff King Kobold Revived
44512 NA Bernhardt Hurwood Kingdom of the Spiders (1977)
45000 SF Andre Norton Knave of Dreams (1976)
45001 SF Andre Norton Knave of Dreams
46272 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Lad and the Lion (1978)
46850 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Lady of the Bees
46996 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror
46997 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror
47000 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Land of Terror (1978)
47013 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land of Hidden Men
47020 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47022 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47023 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47026 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Land That Time Forgot
47042 SF Jack Vance The Languages of Pao
47161 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet
47162 SF Andre Norton The Last Planet
47440 SF Andre Norton Lavender-Green Magic (1977)
47800 SF Ursula K. Le Guin The Left Hand of Darkness (1969)
47805 SF Ursula K. Le Guin The Left Hand of Darkness (1976)
48494 SF H. Beam Piper Little Fuzzy
48520 SF Fred Saberhagen The Berserker Wars
48862 NA Charles Fort Lo!
48877 WE Giles A. Lutz The Lonely Ride
48918 WE Nelson Nye Long Run
48970 SF Mack Reynolds Looking Backward, from the Year 2000 (1973)
49051 SF H. Beam Piper Lord Kalvan of Otherwhen
49236 SF Andre Norton Lord of Thunder
49294 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Lost Continent
49501 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49504 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49506 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49507 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Lost on Venus
49548 SF Fred Saberhagen Love Conquers All
49851 SF Allen Steele Orbital Decay
50485 SF Allen Steele Lunar Descent
50530 SF Jack Vance Suldrun's Garden (Lyonesse Trilogy Book 1 of 3) (1987)
50531 SF Jack Vance Madouc (Lyonesse Trilogy book 3 of 3) (1990)
51356 SF Steve Perry The Machiavelli Interface (1986)
51388 SF Michael Moorcock The Mad God's Amulet
51401 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51402 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51403 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51404 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51409 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51544 SF Larry Niven The Magic Goes Away (1978)
51550 NA Adeline McElfresh The Magic of Dr. Farrar (1965)
51590 SF John Eric Holmes Mahars of Pellucidar
51624 SF Philip José Farmer The Maker of Universes
51626 NA Rachel Cosgrove Payes Malverne Hall (1970)
51642 WE Ray Hogan The Man from Barranca Negra
51647 SF Brian Aldiss The Malacia Tapestry (1976)
51700 NA David McDaniel The Hollow Crown Affair (1969)
51701 NA Peter Leslie The Unfair Fare Affair (1968)
51702 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mad King
51702 NA John T. Phillifent The Power Cube Affair
51703 NA John T. Phillifent The Corfu Affair (1967)
51704 NA Joel Bernard The Thinking Machine Affair (1967)
51705 NA John Oram Thomas (as John Oram) The Stone-Cold Dead in the Market Affair
51706 NA Peter Leslie The Finger in the Spy Affair (1966)
51910 SF Philip K. Dick The Man Who Japed (1975)
51918 SF Steve Perry The Man Who Never Missed (1986)
51941 NA Bruce Cassiday The Fire's Center; Marcus Welby#3 (1971)
51943 SF David Alexander Smith Marathon
52075 SF Henry Kuttner, Bob Pepper, and Alicia Austin The Mask of Circe (1971)
52077 SF Fred Saberhagen The Mask of the Sun
52078 SF Fred Saberhagen The Mask of the Sun
52110 NA Jennifer Sills Massage Parlor (1973)
52207 SF Steve Perry Matadora (1986)
52400 SF John Brunner Meeting at Infinity
52470 SF Donald A. Wollheim (ed.) Men on the Moon
52560 SF Alan E. Nourse The Mercy Men
52740 WE L.P. Homes The Maverick Star (1969)
52975 SF Gerard F. Conway The Midnight Dancers
53151 SF John W. Campbell The Mightiest Machine
53167 SF Algis Budrys, Charles G. Waugh, and Martin Harry Greenberg (eds.) Space Dogfights (1992)
53183 SF John Varley Millennium
53299 SF Spider Robinson Mindkiller
53355 SF Ian Watson Miracle Visitors
53503 SF Andrew J. Offutt The Mists of Doom
53540 SF George Zebrowski The Monadic Universe
53570 SF D. G. Compton The Missionaries (1972)
53587 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men
53588 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men
53591 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Monster Men
53701 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53702 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53703 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53705 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Maid
53719 SF Charles de Lint Moonheart (1984)
53753 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men
53756 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Moon Men
53780 SF John W. Campbell The Moon is Hell
54101 SF Andre Norton Moon of 3 Rings
54201 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Moondust
54325 NA Rona Randall Mountain of Fear (1971)
54378 NA Virginia Coffman Moura (1963)
54380 NA Virginia Coffman Moura (1963)
54460 NA Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mucker (1974)
54462 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Mucker (1914)
54484 SF Charles de Lint Mulengro: A Romany Tale (1985)
54500 SF Mark Adlard Multiface (1975)
55145 SF Fritz Leiber You're All Alone (1973)
55309 SF Fred Saberhagen The Mask of the Sun
56010 SF Gordon R. Dickson Naked to the Stars
56940 SF Leigh Brackett The Nemesis from Terra (1976)
57752 SF Andre Norton Night of Masks
57975 NA Margaret Summerton Nightingale at Noon
58024 SF Mark E. Rogers The Nightmare of God (1988)
58050 SF R. A. Lafferty Nine Hundred Grandmothers (1970)
58875 NA Jesse Kornbluth Notes from the New Underground (1968)
60563 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Oakdale Affair
60564 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Oakdale Affair
60739 SF Fred Saberhagen Octagon (1981)
61480 NA The Editors of Science & Mechanics (compilers) The Official Guide to UFO's (1968)
62160 SF Fred Saberhagen Old Friend of the Family (1979)
62380 SF George Zebrowski The Omega Point
62938 SF Bob Shaw One Million Tomorrows
63165 SF Kenneth Bulmer On the Symb-Socket Circuit (1972)
63410 SF Andre Norton Operation Time Search
63590 SF John Rankine Operation Umanaq (1973)
63780 SF Bob Shaw Orbitsville
64146 SF John Dechancie Paradox Alley (1987)
64240 SF Bob Shaw Other Days, Other Eyes
64400 SF Philip K. Dick Our Friends from Frolix 8 (1970)
64401 SF Philip K. Dick Our Friends from Frolix 8 (1977)
64484 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Out of Times Abyss
64512 WE Edgar Rice Burroughs The Outlaw of Torn
64514 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Outlaw of Torn
65050 SF Bob Shaw The Palace of Eternity
65125 SF Jack Williamson The Pandora Effect (1969)
65169 SF H. Beam Piper Paratime (1981)
65316 SF Larry Niven The Patchwork Girl (1981)
65353 SF Fred Saberhagen Octagon
65390 SF Colin Kapp Patterns of Chaos (1978)
65412 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Outlaw of Torn (1973)
65430 SF Keith Roberts Pavane (1966)
65442 NA Anne Maybury The Pavilion at Monkshood (1973)
65852 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar
65855 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pellucidar
65873 NA Eliot Asinof People vs. Blutcher (1971)
65890 SF Jack Williamson People Machines
65941 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot
65942 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot
65946 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The People That Time Forgot
65948 SF Mack Reynolds Perchance to Dream
66050 MY Cornell Woolrich Phantom Lady
66100 SF Avram Davidson The Phoenix and the Mirror
66141 SF Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond Phase 2
66201 SF Joanna Russ Picnic on Paradise
66320 SF Robert E. Howard Pigeons from Hell (1978)
66502 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66503 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66505 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66509 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Pirates of Venus
66833 SF Andre Norton Plague Ship (1973)
66900 SF Jack Vance Planet of Adventure#2: Servants of the Wankh
66901 SF Jack Vance Planet of Adventure#3: The Dirdir (1969)
66902 SF Jack Vance Planet of Adventure#4: The Pnume (1970)
66952 SF Ursula K. Le Guin Planet of Exile
67020 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Planet Savers
67025 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Planet Savers and The Sword of Aldones
67060 SF John Jakes The Planet Wizard
67061 SF John Jakes The Planet Wizard
67110 MY Jack Vance (as John Holbrook Vance) The Pleasant Grove Murder
67131 WE L. L. Foreman Plundering Gun
67145 SF Michael Kurland Pluribus
67402 SF Robert A. Heinlein Podkayne of Mars
67555 SF Andre Norton Postmarked the Stars (1969)
67800 SF Philip K. Dick The Preserving Machine (1969)
67801 SF Philip K. Dick The Preserving Machine (1976)
67900 SF Thomas M. Disch The Prisoner (1969)
67901 SF David McDaniel The Prisoner#2
67902 SF Hank Stine The Prisoner#3 (1970)
67937 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Prisoner of Zhamanak
68023 SF Gordon R. Dickson Pro
68305 SF Stephen Robinette Projections
69168 SF Arsen Darnay The Purgatory Zone (1981)
69190 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Purple Pterodactyls: The Adventures of Wilson Newbury, Ensorcelled Financier (1980)
69540 SF D. G. Compton The Quality of Mercy
69658 SF L. Sprague de Camp The Queen of Zamba
69681 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69682 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69683 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69684 SF Andre Norton Quest Crosstime
69700 SF A. E. van Vogt Quest for the Future
69770 SF Poul Anderson Question and Answer
69992 SF Jack L. Chalker Quintara Marathon#1: The Demons at Rainbow Bridge
71000 NA Manfred von Richthofen The Red Baron (1969)
71001 NA Manfred von Richthofen The Red Baron
71065 SF Alfred Coppel (as Robert Cham Gilman) The Rebel of Rhada (1968)
71076 WE Clifton Adams Reckless Men
71083 SF E. C. Tubb Lallia: Dumarest of Terra#6 (1982)
71100 SF Andre Norton Red Hart Magic (1979)
71140 SF Robert A. Heinlein Red Planet
71156 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney The Ring of Ikribu: Red Sonja#1 (1981)
71157 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Demon Night: Red Sonja#2 (1982)
71158 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney When Hell Laughs: Red Sonja#3 (1982)
71159 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Endithor's Daughter: Red Sonja#4 (1982)
71160 SF D. D. Chapman and Deloris Lehman Tarzan Red Tide
71161 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Against the Prince of Hell: Red Sonja#5 (1983)
71162 SF David C. Smith and Richard L. Tierney Star of Doom: Red Sonja#6 (1983)
71335 SF Philip José Farmer Behind the Walls of Terra (1970)
71435 SF John T. Sladek Mechasm
71500 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
71502 SF Keith Laumer Retief at Large
71803 SF E. C. Tubb Lallia
71816 WE Edgar Rice Burroughs The Return of the Mucker
71816 NA Edgar Rice Burroughs The Return of the Mucker
72280 NA Edgar Rice Burroughs The Rider (1915)
72360 WE John Callahan Ride the Wild Land & Jernigan (1965)
73293 SF Ursula K. Le Guin Rocannon's World
73330 SF Robert A. Heinlein Rocket Ship Galileo
73425 WE L. L. Foreman Rogue's Legacy (1968)
73438 SF Kenneth Bulmer Roller Coaster World
73440 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Rolling Stones
73441 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Rolling Stones
73450 SF Mack Reynolds Rolltown
73471 NA Monica Dickens The Room Upstairs
73532 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
74860 SF Robert A. Heinlein To Sail Beyond the Sunset
74981 SF Andre Norton Sargasso of Space
74982 SF Andre Norton Sargasso of Space
75045 SF Mack Reynolds Satellite City
75131 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar
75134 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar
75136 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Savage Pellucidar
75181 NA Jean Vicary Saverstall
75441 SF Sam J. Lundwall Science Fiction: What It's All About (1977)
75617 WE Ray Hogan Showdown on Texas Flat
75690 SF George Bamber The Sea Is Boiling Hot
75695 SF Andre Norton Sea Siege
75696 SF Andre Norton Sea Siege
75750 NA Sax Rohmer The Secret of Holm Peel and Other Strange Stories (1970)
75800 SF George Bamber The Sea Is Boiling Hot (1971)
75830 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75831 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75832 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75833 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race (1978)
75834 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race (1981)
75835 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75836 SF Andre Norton Secret of the Lost Race
75860 SF Mack Reynolds Section G: United Planets
75875 SF Robert Silverberg The Seeds of Earth
75894 SF Eric Frank Russell Sentinels from Space
75940 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Seven from the Stars
75945 MY Ron Goulart The Same Lie Twice (1973)
75958 NA Brad Steiger Sex and Satanism (1969)
75980 NA Barbara Levins Sexual Power of Marijuana
75987 NA Ruth Abbey The Shadow Between (1974)
76015 WE Robert Mccaig The Shadow Maker (1970)
76098 SF Bob Shaw Ship of Strangers
76099 SF Robert E. Howard The She Devil (1983)
76181 NA Louis L'Amour (as Jim Mayo) Showdown at Yellow Butte
76219 SF Robert Silverberg and Randall Garrett (jointly as Robert Randall) The Shrouded Planet (1982)
76343 SF Charles Sheffield Sight of Proteus
76385 SF D. G. Compton The Silent Multitude
76390 SF Robert Silverberg The Silent Invaders
76391 SF Robert Silverberg The Silent Invaders (1977)
76500 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
76501 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
76502 SF A. E. van Vogt The Silkie
76701 SF Philip K. Dick The Simulacra (1976)
76801 SF Andre Norton The Sioux Spaceman
76802 SF Andre Norton The Sioux Spaceman
76836 SF Walt Richmond and Leigh Richmond Siva! (1979)
76942 SF Harry Harrison Skyfall (1978)
76972 NA Dorothy Eden Sleep in the Woods (1967)
77051 NA Margaret Erskine Sleep No More
77408 SF Rudy Rucker Software
77410 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1974)
77411 SF Philip K. Dick Solar Lottery (1975)
77419 SF Gordon R. Dickson Soldier, Ask Not (1982)
77425 NA Betty Deforrest The Shows of Yesterday
77427 SF Brian Herbert (ed.) The Poetry of Frank Herbert: Songs of Muad'dib
77471 NA Anne Maybury Someone Waiting (1961)
77520 WE Wayne Lee Son of a Gunman
77551 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World
77554 SF Andre Norton Sorceress of the Witch World (1968)
77598 NA Kenneth Von Gunden The Sounding Stillness
77620 SF Robert E. Howard The Sowers of the Thunder (1979)
77730 SF Robert A. Heinlein Space Cadet
77780 SF H. Beam Piper Space Viking
77782 SF Mack Reynolds Space Visitor
77783 SF Mack Reynolds Space Visitor
77791 SF Fred Saberhagen Specimens
77841 NA S.E. Stevenson Spring Magic
77905 NA Jane Blackmore The Square of Many Colours
77918 WE James Powell Stage to Seven Springs
77953 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Star of Danger
78000 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Star Beast
78011 SF Andre Norton Star Born
78035 SF Keith Laumer Star Colony
78071 SF Andre Norton Star Gate
78318 SF Pamela Sargent Starshadows
78432 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours
78477 SF Gerry Turnbull (ed.) A Star Trek Catalog: The Complete Guide to the Fantastic World of Star Trek (1979)
78479 SF Ben Bova Star Watchman
78500 NA Warren Smith Strange & Miraculous Cures (1969)
78565 SF John Varley Steel Beach
78575 SF D. G. Compton The Steel Crocodile (1970)
78585 SF Jerry Pournelle A Step Farther Out
78650 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1970)
78651 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1973)
78652 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1975)
78653 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1979)
78654 SF Philip José Farmer The Stone God Awakens (1980)
78657 SF Poul Anderson Dominic Flandry: A Stone in Heaven
78741 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock
78742 SF Andre Norton Storm Over Warlock (1973)
78830 WE Giles A. Lutz The Stranger
78901 NA Brad Steiger Strange Guests (1966)
79001 NA Bernhardt J. Hurwood Strange Talents
79034 SF Robert A. Heinlein Stranger in a Strange Land
79112 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley Survey Ship
79141 SF Leigh Brackett The Sword of Rhiannon
79150 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Death
79157 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Death
79161 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Wizardry
79165 SF Fritz Leiber Swords Against Wizardry
79170 SF Fritz Leiber Swords and Deviltry
79176 SF Fritz Leiber Swords and Deviltry
79181 SF Fritz Leiber Swords in the Mist
79185 SF Fritz Leiber Swords in the Mist
79221 SF Fritz Leiber The Swords of Lankhmar
79222 SF Fritz Leiber The Swords of Lankhmar
79431 SF Andre Norton The Stars Are Ours
79791 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar of Pellucidar
79797 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tanar of Pellucidar
79805 WE Roy Manning Tangled Trail
79854 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs Tarzan at the Earth's Core
79970 NA Isobel Lambot A Taste of Murder
80010 SF William Shatner Teklords
80011 SF William Shatner Teklab
80012 SF William Shatner Tekvengeance
80180 SF James Tiptree, Jr. Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home
80208 SF William Shatner Tekwar
80400 WE Nelson Nye The Texas Gun
80575 WE Nelson Nye Thief River
80661 NA Mildred Davis The Third Half
80680 SF Robert Lory The Thirteen Bracelets
80691 SF Roger Zelazny This Immortal
80705 SF Robert E. Howard Tigers of the Sea
80780 SF Robert E. Howard Three-Bladed Doom (1979)
80801 SF Andre Norton Three Against the Witch World
80805 SF Andre Norton Three Against the Witch World (1978)
80855 SF Alexei Panshin The Thurb Revolution (1978)
80933 SF Spider Robinson Time Pressure (1988)
81000 SF Clifford D. Simak Time & Again
81001 SF Clifford D. Simak Time & Again
81012 SF Keith Laumer The Time Bender
81125 SF Robert A. Heinlein Time for the Stars
81126 SF Robert A. Heinlein Time for the Stars
81251 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders
81253 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders
81254 SF Andre Norton The Time Traders (1984)
81270 SF John Brunner Times Without Number (1969)
81277 SF Spider Robinson Time Travelers Strictly Cash (1981)
81656 SF Bob Shaw Tomorrow Lies in Ambush
81670 SF Mack Reynolds Tomorrow Might Be Different
81900 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Tournament of Thorns
81973 SF E. C. Tubb Toyman: Dumarest of Terra#3
82210 SF John Brunner The Traveler in Black
82355 SF Andre Norton Trey of Swords (1978)
82401 WE Ernest Haycox Trigger Trio
82410 WE D. B. Newton Triple Trouble
82430 WE Nelson Nye Trouble at Quinn's Crossing
82660 SF Robert A. Heinlein Tunnel in the Sky
84000 SF Andre Norton Uncharted Stars
84292 SF H. Beam Piper Uller Uprising
84331 SF John W. Campbell The Ultimate Weapon
84514 SF Andrew Offutt The Undying Wizard
84569 SF Axel Madsen Unisave
84581 SF A. E. van Vogt The Universe Maker
85456 SF Alan E. Nourse The Universe Between (1987)
85460 NA Harold E. Hartney Up & At 'Em
86022 NA Virginia Coffman Vampire of Moura
86050 SF Philip K. Dick The Variable Man and Other Stories (1976)
86064 SF Fred Saberhagen The Veils of Azlaroc
86065 SF Fred Saberhagen The Veils of Azlaroc
86180 SF E. C. Tubb Veruchia
86181 SF E. C. Tubb Veruchia: Dumarest of Terra#8 (1982)
86190 SF Ian Watson Very Slow Time Machine
86607 SF Mark Adlard Volteface (1972)
86608 SF Philip K. Dick Vulcan's Hammer (1972)
86610 SF Andre Norton, Wojciech Siudmak, and Alicia Austin Voorloper (1980)
87015 NA Philip Loraine One to Curtis (1967)
87060 SF Michael Moorcock The Warlord of the Air (1971)
87070 NA Daoma Winston Walk Around the Square (1975)
87101 NA Rona Randall Walk Into My Parlor
87180 SF A. E. van Vogt The War Against the Rull
87201 SF Poul Anderson War of the Wing-Men
87269 SF George Zebrowski Ashes & Stars
87300 SF Christopher Shasheff The Warlock in Spite of Himself
87301 SF Christopher Shasheff The Warlock in Spite of Himself
87319 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World
87321 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World
87322 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World
87323 SF Andre Norton Warlock of the Witch World (1978)
87325 SF Christopher Stasheff Warlock Unlocked
87328 SF Christopher Stasheff Warlock Unlocked
87332 SF Christopher Stasheff Warlock Unlocked
87370 NA Herman Raucher Watermelon Man
87600 SF Michael Moorcock The Warlord of the Air (1973)
87625 SF Dennis Schmidt Way-Farer
87631 SF H.G. Wells The War of the Worlds (1988)
87718 MY Harlan Ellison Web of the City (1983)
87855 SF A. E. van Vogt The Weapons Shops of Isher
87873 SF Andre Norton Web of the Witch World
87874 SF Andre Norton Web of the Witch World
87875 SF Andre Norton Web of the Witch World
87941 SF Thomas Burnett Swann The Weirwoods
88010 WE T.V. Olsen Westward They Rode
88065 SF Edmond Hamilton What's It Like Out There? (And Other Stories)
88075 NA Richard Lamparski Whatever Became Of.....? Volume I
88076 NA Richard Lamparski Whatever Became Of.....? Volume II (1970)
88091 SF H. G. Wells When the Sleeper Wakes
88270 SF Thomas Burnett Swann Where Is the Bird of Fire? (1970)
88440 NA Nelle McFather Whispering Island
88554 NA Dorothy Eden Whistle for the Grows
88564 SF Rudy Rucker White Light
88601 SF Clifford D. Simak Why Call Them Back from Heaven?
89237 SF Philip José Farmer The Wind Whales of Ishmael
89251 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The Winds of Darkover
89701 SF Andre Norton Witch World
89702 SF Andre Norton Witch World
89851 SF James H. Schmitz The Witches of Karres
90050 NA Charles Lefebure Witness to Witchcraft (1970)
90075 SF Ursula K. Le Guin A Wizard of Earthsea
90110 NA Georgette Heyer Venetia (1958)
90190 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Wizard of Venus and Pirate Blood
90191 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Wizard of Venus (1973)
90194 SF Edgar Rice Burroughs The Wizard of Venus and Pirate Blood
90426 WE Lee Hoffman Gunfight at Laramie
90701 NA Robert J. Hogan The Wolver
90872 SF R.A. Salvatore The Woods Out Back
90926 SF Frank Herbert The Worlds of Frank Herbert (1971)
90951 SF Philip K. Dick The World Jones Made (1975)
90955 SF Jack Vance The Worlds of Jack Vance
91010 SF Gregory Frost Lyrec (1984)
91052 SF John Carr (ed.) The Worlds of H. Beam Piper
91055 SF Poul Anderson The Worlds of Poul Anderson
91060 SF Theodore Sturgeon The Worlds of Theodore Sturgeon
91170 SF Marion Zimmer Bradley The World Wreckers
91352 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, 1969
91353 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, First Series
91354 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, Second Series
91355 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, Third Series
91356 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, Fourth Series
91357 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, 1970
91358 SF Donald A. Wollheim and Terry Carr (eds.) World's Best Science Fiction, 1971
91359 SF Frederik Pohl Best Sf for 1972
91502 SF Robert A. Heinlein The Worlds of Robert A. Heinlein (1973)
91581 SF Keith Laumer Worlds of the Imperium
91640 SF Fritz Leiber The Worlds of Fritz Leiber
91706 SF Poul Anderson World Without Stars
91770 SF Robert E. Howard Worms of the Earth
92551 SF Andre Norton The X Factor
92553 SF Andre Norton The X Factor
94200 SF Wilson Tucker The Year of the Quiet Sun (1970)
94251 SF Andre Norton Year of the Unicorn
94254 SF Andre Norton Year of the Unicorn (1979)
95490 SF Andre Norton Zarsthor's Bane (1978)
95501 NA Arch Whitehouse The Zeppelin Fighters
95941 SF Andre Norton Zarsthor's Bane
95960 SF Andre Norton The Zero Stone
95961 SF Andre Norton The Zero Stone
95964 SF Andre Norton The Zero Stone (1981)
Single Volumes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor%20Kamber
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Victor Kamber
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Victor Samuel Kamber (born May 7, 1943) is an American labor union activist and political consultant in the United States. A Democrat, he worked for the AFL-CIO in the 1970s before forming The Kamber Group, a public relations firm, in 1980.
The Kamber Group worked for Democratic Party candidates and labor unions for 25 years, becoming one of the most well-known "boutique" P.R. firms in Washington, D.C. Kamber sold The Kamber Group in 2005 to Carmen Group Lobbying, where he remains president of its subsidiary, Carmen Group Communications.
Kamber is a frequent guest on national and local television and radio programs, newspapers and magazines, and is a published author.
He currently is an adjunct professor at The American University.
Early life and career
Kamber, an Assyrian-American, was born in 1943 in Chicago, Illinois, and attended public schools there.
Kamber subsequently attended the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. During his undergraduate schooling, Kamber joined the Phi Gamma Delta collegiate social fraternity. In 1965, he along with Samuel E. Honneger and Joseph Mullins worked tirelessly to establish the Delta Colony of Phi Gamma Delta at the University of New Mexico which later became the Alpha Nu Chapter of Phi Gamma Delta in 1966. He worked on the presidential campaign of United States Senator Barry Goldwater. He earned his bachelor's degree in 1965.
In 1968, Kamber worked on the presidential campaigns of Nelson Rockefeller and Richard Nixon.
Kamber later received a Master of Arts degree from the University of New Mexico, a J.D. from the Washington College of Law at the American University, and a master of laws from George Washington University (he received this last degree in 1972).
Kamber later was an administrative assistant to United States Representative Seymour Halpern (R-New York).
In 1970, Kamber was convicted of forgery while teaching at Prince George's Community College (PGCC). At the time, Kamber was president of the national Young Republicans' leadership training school in Chicago. Federal officials accused him of submitting a forged letter to his draft board in 1968. The letter had ostensibly been signed by the president of PGCC and attested that Kamber was a faculty member there. But PGCC president John Handley testified he had not seen the letter, had not authorized it and had not signed it. Kamber was acquitted of charges that he did not teach at the community college, but convicted of forgery and sentenced to two years in prison.
AFL-CIO career
After his conviction, Kamber worked as a lobbyist for the Building and Construction Trades Department (BCTD) of the AFL-CIO. Under Robert Georgine, also a Republican, Kamber rose quickly to become the department's chief lobbyist. Kamber's tenure at BCTD was marked by a significant drop in the political power of the AFL-CIO on Capitol Hill. In 1977, Kamber and the BCTD persuaded the Democratic leadership in the House of Representatives to rush a common situs picketing bill onto the floor in the hopes of stampeding members of Congress to approve the legislation. Instead, the tactic lead to a major defeat for labor.
After the defeat of the picketing bill, Kamber was tapped by AFL-CIO president George Meany to head a labor law reform task force. Kamber's goal was to prioritize the AFL-CIO's labor law reform goals, strategize a plan for building support for the bill, and winning the legislation's enactment. The effort never got off the ground, as political changes in Congress put the labor federation on the political defensive.
The Kamber Group years
Kamber left the AFL-CIO in 1980 and founded his own public relations firm, The Kamber Group.
During his first year, his announced goal was to become the "Hill & Knowlton of the left", but his current anniversary press kit observes that the firm is "often referred to as the 'Bob Gray and Company of the left'", a reference to the fast-growing Georgetown concern with strong White House ties.
The Kamber Group quickly known as one of Washington's hottest public relations firms. In time, it became one of the nation's largest independently owned consulting and public relations firms.
Almost immediately, Kamber took on some very high-profile clients. He established a legal defense fund for Rep. Frank Thompson, Jr. (D-New Jersey), who was caught in the federal government's Abscam sting. He also supported a movement to draft Sen. Ted Kennedy for the Democratic presidential nomination.
In 1982, Kamber founded the Progressive Political Action Committee (ProPAC). ProPAC was a political action committee which sought to counteract political election spending by the National Conservative Political Action Committee (NCPAC) by supporting Democratic candidate for federal office. Kamber served as ProPAC's treasurer. ProPAC shut down its operations in 1983.
Kamber did not neglect his labor roots, however. He was counsel for the NFL Players Association during the 1982 National Football League strike. He also served as a public relations consultant and spokesman for the Laborers' International Union of North America (LIUNA). In April 1983, the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations heard testimony that reputed Chicago mobster Tony Accardo "hand-picked" Edward T. Hanley of the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees and Angelo Fosco of LIUNA to be presidents of their respective unions. Kamber helped LIUNA strategize a political and public relations response to the allegations. Kamber pushed his consulting firm to get into labor organizing campaigns as well. In 1984, he sued Ray Rogers, president of Corporate Campaigns, Inc., over Rogers' attempt to patent the term "corporate campaign." He also advised Doris Turner in her unsuccessful re-election bid for president of the Drug, Hospital, and Health Care Employees Union (better known as Local 1199) in 1986.
In 1984, Kamber was a national campaign advisor to Sen. Alan Cranston during his run for the U.S. presidency. However, Kamber eventually resigned as political and public relations consultant to the campaign after complaining that Cranston's personal staff pushed him to the side. The relationship between Kamber and the Cranston campaign deteriorated further when Kamber sought a temporary restraining order freezing the campaign's funds. Kamber claimed the Cranston campaign owned him $150,000, but the funds were unfrozen a short time later.
In 1987, Kamber established Americans Against Government Control of Unions. The outfit was a non-profit company whose goal was to build public opinion against government takeovers of corrupt labor unions. William Olwell, vice president of the United Food and Commercial Workers (UFCW), was the group's treasurer. Kamber formed the group as UFCW, the Teamsters and other unions were under investigation for labor racketeering and domination by organized crime. Although The Kamber Group was working for the Teamsters at the time, Kamber asserted that the formation of his new organization was unrelated to the government's investigation of the Teamsters.
In 1988, Kamber played a key role in helping re-affiliate the Teamsters with the AFL-CIO. The union had been ejected from the labor federation in the 1950s over charges of corruption, but the AFL-CIO had been asking the Teamsters to rejoin the federation throughout the 1980s. William H. Wynn, president of UFCW, and BCTD president Georgine, assisted by Kamber, negotiated the Teamsters' return.
Kamber turned his attention back to politics in 1992. He supported the U.S presidential candidacy of Sen. Tom Harkin. Although he did not become involved in a presidential campaign to the extent that he did in 1984, Kamber nevertheless played a big role in the 1992 election. In July of that year, he established a political action committee called Americans for Change. The group's goal was to raise $1 million to run attack ads against President George H. W. Bush.
In 1993, Kamber led the battle to end a Republican filibuster of the nomination of William B. Gould IV to be chair of the National Labor Relations Board. The Republicans eventually gave up the filibuster, and Gould was confirmed.
In 2002, Kamber became a paid spokesman for the International Union of Painters and Allied Trades, acting as political consultant and public relations expert for the union.
In 2003, Kamber established the Kamber Group Political Action Fund, a political action committee. Kamber became the PAC's treasurer.
USW/AFT scandal
In 1984, the United Steelworkers hired Kamber to direct several key organizing and collective bargaining campaigns.
Kamber subsequently was forced to take responsibility for a scandal which involved the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), another AFL-CIO affiliate. In February 1985, Albert Shanker, then president of the AFT, announced at a news conference his union had convinced the New York State Teachers Retirement System to withdraw $450 million from Manufacturers Hanover Trust Company because the bank had poorly administered workers' pension funds. Shanker also announced that the union had convinced the Pennsylvania School Employees' Retirement System to withdraw $300 million from the same bank, and that five other state teachers' retirement funds were expected to do the same. AFL-CIO officials said the AFT had convinced the retirement systems to withdraw the funds to protest loans Manufacturers Hanover had made to the Phelps Dodge mining corporation, which was involved in a bitter strike with the steelworkers.
Shanker was later forced to retract his statement. The pension fund deal had never existed, he said a few days later. The state retirement funds had withdrawn only $200 million from the bank. Shanker also admitted the fund withdrawals had been going on since mid-1984, and had nothing to do with the strike at Phelps Dodge.
Shanker angrily said that he had been "taken advantage of" and blamed Kamber. Kamber accepted responsibility, saying, "We're paid to take the blame, so we're at fault."
Closure of The Kamber Group
On November 11, 1994, The Kamber Group's offices on were badly damaged by fire caused by an electrical short. Kamber is a noted collector of political memorabilia and art. Along with the loss of records, an estimated $300,000 in art—most of it from Kamber's personal collection, on loan to The Kamber Group—was also lost.
In 2003, Kamber resigned as president of The Kamber Group. Thomas J. Mackell, Jr. was named president and chief operating officer of The Kamber Group in his stead. Kamber remained the company's chairman and chief executive officer.
On February 28, 2005, Kamber closed The Kamber Group and joined The Carmen Group as president of Carmen Group Communications. The Carmen Group was founded by David M. Carmen, a friend of Kamber's. A number of Kamber employees took jobs with The Carmen Group as well.
Other positions and honors
Kamber is also secretary-treasurer of America's Agenda: Health Care for All, a union-led group which lobbies for universal health care. He is a member of the Economic Club of Washington, and treasurer for the National Theatre.
In 2006, Kamber received the PR News Hall of Fame Award.
Electoral campaign innovations
Kamber is noted as an innovative political campaigner.
In 1979 Kamber purchased the Politicards name, a company that had put out a set of playing cards featuring the image of political candidates and public officials in 1972. He went on to produce his own sets of playing cards under the Politicards name for election years 1980 and 1984. In 1996, the Politicards name was reclaimed by Peter Green, the artist responsible for the original deck in 1972. The cards, known as "Politicards", were widely imitated over the years, especially by the most-wanted Iraqi playing cards.
In 1984, Kamber created "Rappin' Ronnie", a music video which depicted a rapping President Ronald Reagan. The video was broadcast on "Convention Television", a closed-circuit television "magazine program" broadcast to delegates at the Democratic National Convention. The video depicted a stuttering Reagan saying his trademark "W-w-w-w-well well well". The music video eventually aired on MTV, and was featured in "Homer Loves Flanders", a fifth-season episode of The Simpsons.
In 1992, Kamber started a PAC, Americans for Change, hoping to be the Democratic party's answer to Floyd Brown, the Republican party's opposition research specialist known for unethical, negative campaign tactics.
Role in the Reagan assassination attempt
Robert F. Bonitati, an aide to President Reagan, credits Kamber with saving his life during the Reagan assassination attempt. Bonitati, a friend of Kamber's, was leaving the Washington Hilton Hotel with the president. Kamber pulled Bonitati aside for a few seconds. Just then, Reagan exited the hotel and John Hinckley, Jr. shot and wounded him and three others. "Bonitati has often said his brief conversation with Kamber may have saved his life." Bonitati later joined The Kamber Group as a vice president, and set up a "nonpartisan" flower shop with Kamber.
Published books
Kamber, Victor. Giving Up on Democracy: Why Term Limits Are Bad for America Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, 2005.
Kamber, Victor. Poison Politics: Are Negative Campaigns Destroying Democracy? New York City: Basic Books, 2003.
O'Leary, Bradley S. and Kamber, Victor. Are You a Conservative or a Liberal? Austin, Tex.: Boru Books, 1996.
Notes
References
Auerbach, Stuart, "A Booming Business; PR Firms Expanding Staff, Billings", The Washington Post, February 18, 1985
"Bravo: Victor Kamber", Zenda, May 3, 1999
"Campaign Funds Unfrozen", Associated Press, February 27, 1984
Clarity, James F. and Gailey, Phil, "Briefing", The New York Times, June 15, 1983
Conconi, Chuck, "Personalities", The Washington Post, October 19, 1983
Conconi, Chuck, "Personalities", The Washington Post, April 1, 1986
Dewar, Helen, "Carter Wage-Floor Plan Deals Labor New Blow", The Washington Post, March 25, 1977
Dine, Philip, "PR Executive Plans 'Attack Campaign' on Bush", St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 21, 1992
Dobkin, Robert A,. "Organized Labor, Outmaneuvered, Faces Even More Difficulty", Associated Press, March 24, 1977
Fink, Leon and Greenberg, Brian, Upheaval in the Quiet Zone. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1989
"Former Young G.O.P. Aide Gets Two Years in Forgery", The New York Times. June 16, 1970
Gailey, Phil, "A Political Action Unit of the Left", The New York Times. February 10, 1982
Groer, Annie, "The Party Guy's Own Party", The Washington Post. May 31, 2001
Hartson, Merrill, "GOP Lawyer Defends Donovan, Advises Bush", Associated Press. October 5, 1984
Jones, Sabrina, "GKV to Pilot Airline's Ad Campaign", The Washington Post. August 4, 2003
Kamber, Victor, "The GOP Is Smearing A Good Man, and Mr. Clinton Should Fight Back", Washington Times. December 13, 1993
Keller, Bill, "For Union Ally, It's All in the Name", The New York Times. May 2, 1984
Koncius, Jura, "A Stylish Backdrop For Vic Kamber's Exotic Collections", The Washington Post. February 7, 1985
Kramer, Michael, "The Political Interest: The Vulture Watch", Time. February 10, 1992
Krebs, Albin, "Notes on People", New York Times. August 16, 1980
Mewborn, Mary K, "Real Estate News for December 2003", Washington Life Magazine. December 2003
Noble, Kenneth B., "Reporter's Notebook: Shanker 'Clarification.'" The New York Times. February 23, 1985
Noble, Kenneth B., "Washington Talk: Labor Union Consultants Big Winner in Teamsters' Return", The New York Times. January 8, 1988
"Public Relations: Best of the Best", The Hill. May 7, 2003
Raines, Howell, "Cranston Going After Labor Backing", The New York Times. February 23, 1983
Romano, Lois, "The Reliable Source", The Washington Post. November 17, 1994
Sarasohn, Judy, "Ready to Learn the Ropes of Cable", The Washington Post. January 27, 2005
Serrin, William, "Garvey Sought Labor Support", The New York Times. September 28, 1982
Serrin, William, "Organized Labor Is Increasingly Less So", The New York Times. November 18, 1984
Shabecoff, Philip, "Labor Turning From Lobbying to New Political Tactics in Growing Struggle for Influence on Legislation", The New York Times. June 23, 1977
Sinclair, Ward, "Friends in Labor, Arts Set Up Defense Fund for Thompson", The Washington Post. April 12, 1980
Schwartz, Maralee, "The Democrats' Floyd Brown", The Washington Post. July 23, 1992
Smith, Adam C., "Endorsement From Union Is Reno's First", St. Petersburg Times. February 6, 2002
Tuttle, Sean, "The Kamber Group: Liberal House Thrives, Paradoxically, in Reagan '80s", Business Review. May 6, 1985
"Washington News Briefs", United Press International. May 11, 1981
Weinstein, Henry and Ostrow, Ronald J., "Teamsters Rally Forces to Battle U.S. Takeover", Los Angeles Times. September 10, 1987
"Young G.O.P. Aide Convicted by U.S. In Draft Fraud Case", The New York Times. April 4, 1970
External links
Carmen Group Web site
American political consultants
AFL–CIO people
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign alumni
Washington College of Law alumni
George Washington University Law School alumni
People from Washington, D.C.
People from Chicago
American people of Assyrian descent
1943 births
Living people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelly%20Kelly
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Kelly Kelly
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Barbara Blank Coba (born Barbara Jean Blank; January 15, 1987), known professionally as Barbie Blank and by her ring name Kelly Kelly, is an American professional wrestler and model.
Blank has a background in gymnastics and cheerleading, and worked as a model for Venus Swimwear and Hawaiian Tropic. In 2006, Blank was signed to a contract by WWE and, after training in Ohio Valley Wrestling, she debuted on the ECW brand in June 2006 as 'Kelly Kelly'. Primarily appearing in a non-wrestling role, she was a member of Extreme Exposé with Layla and Brooke Adams. Beginning in late 2007, she began participating in more wrestling matches, and unsuccessfully challenged for both the WWE Divas Championship and the WWE Women's Championship on multiple occasions. In June 2011, she won the WWE Divas Championship, commencing a four-month reign. She left WWE in 2012, but has since returned for occasional appearances and matches. On the Raw Reunion special on July 22, 2019, she pinned Gerald Brisco to win the WWE 24/7 Championship, becoming the first woman to win the title. She is a two-time champion in WWE.
Blank has also appeared on a number of television shows, and was a main cast member of the reality television program WAGS. She made her film acting debut in Disturbing the Peace, which was released on January 17, 2020.
Early life
Barbara Jean Blank was born on January 15, 1987, in Jacksonville, Florida, to a Jewish father and Christian mother. She was a fan of professional wrestling as a child, and cites Stone Cold Steve Austin as her favorite wrestler. While growing up, she participated in gymnastics for ten years, before she was forced to quit due to an injury. She later took up cheerleading. She attended University Christian School and graduated from Englewood High School. She then attended Florida Community College at Jacksonville, where she studied broadcast journalism, hoping to become a television anchor. She was also a Hawaiian Tropic and Venus Swimwear bikini model before she entered professional wrestling.
Professional wrestling career
World Wrestling Entertainment
Developmental territories (2006–2007)
In 2006, while working as a model, Blank was seen by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) official John Laurinaitis, who was interested in signing her to a contract. WWE contacted her modeling agency and invited her to their developmental territory, Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW), for a tryout. Despite having no previous wrestling experience she was offered a contract, which she signed in May 2006. Even after being called up to the main roster she continued to fly back and forth to OVW's base city Louisville, Kentucky, once a week to work shows; first as a ring announcer and referee, then as a wrestler. One of her first matches took place at the September 6 television tapings where she participated in a Women's battle royal won by ODB. In late 2007, she also made an appearance in Florida Championship Wrestling, WWE's new developmental territory.
ECW and Extreme Exposé (2006–2008)
Blank debuted for the ECW brand as Kelly Kelly. Originally, she was to be named just 'Kelly', but her ring name was expanded to 'Kelly Kelly' by WWE CEO Vince McMahon. She made her debut on the first episode of the weekly television program on June 13, 2006, becoming the youngest Diva on the WWE roster, aged 19. Her character, an exhibitionist, was introduced performing a striptease for the crowd. The next week, while performing another striptease, Kelly was interrupted by her on-screen boyfriend, Mike Knox, who came to the stage and covered her with a towel before dragging her backstage. Her stripping became a weekly segment known as Kelly's Exposé and usually followed the same routine; Kelly would dance and strip until she was stopped by Knox. Knox began forcing Kelly to accompany him to ringside so he could keep an eye on her, making her his de facto valet. As a result, she found herself involved in the feud developing between Knox and his tag team partner Test and the team of Tommy Dreamer and The Sandman. This included her being inadvertently hit with a cane by Sandman when Knox used her as a shield. She made her ECW in-ring debut on the August 22, edition of ECW During an extreme bikini contest segment between Torrie Wilson and herself, Test and Mike Knox interrupted the contest stopping Kelly before she had a chance to disrobe. Leading Tommy Dreamer and Sandman to come in through the crowd, Sandman took the mic and challenged Test, Knox and Kelly in a six-person mixed tag team match. Kelly, Knox and Test went on to lose to Dreamer, Sandman, and Wilson.
Kelly and Knox progressed into a storyline with CM Punk in September, in which Kelly developed a liking for Punk, flirting with him and watching his matches, and Knox became increasingly jealous. This led to a match between Knox and Punk, during which Kelly cheered for Punk. At December to Dismember, Kelly and Knox faced Ariel and Kevin Thorn in a mixed tag team match, during which Knox refused to tag in before leaving her. On the following episode of ECW, Kelly defeated Ariel with a roll-up in her first singles match. Afterward, Knox made his way to the ring with flowers, but ended up performing his signature swinging reverse STO on her, ending their relationship and giving her a scripted injury—removing her from television for six weeks.
She returned on January 16, 2007, to announce she was newly single and bringing back Kelly's Exposé. The following week, she joined forces with Layla and Brooke to form Extreme Exposé. The trio performed a weekly dance segment on ECW for the next several months. On November 1, Brooke was released from her WWE contract, and Extreme Exposé dissolved as a group. This left Kelly and Layla to enter an ongoing rivalry with more active wrestling roles. On the October 29 episode of Raw, Kelly won a battle royal to earn a match against the WWE Women's Champion, Beth Phoenix. Kelly lost the subsequent match the following week on Raw. Kelly continued to feud with Layla, and they were on opposite sides of a 10-Diva tag team match at Survivor Series, which Kelly's team won. In April 2008, Kelly was part of the losing team in a five-on-five Divas match at the Backlash pay-per-view.
Various storylines and championship pursuits (2008–2011)
In July, Kelly was moved to the Raw brand and debuted for the brand by teaming with Mickie James to defeat Layla and Jillian Hall. She quickly became involved in a feud with Beth Phoenix, facing her on multiple occasions in both singles and tag team matches with a variety of partners, including Mickie James and Candice Michelle. In September, Kelly transitioned into a feud with Phoenix's ally, Jillian Hall. At the Survivor Series pay-per-view in November, Kelly was part of the victorious team in a five-on-five elimination match. During the match, she eliminated Victoria, before being eliminated by Maryse. The following month at the Armageddon pay-per-view, Kelly teamed with Maria, Michelle McCool, and James in a winning effort against Hall, Maryse, Victoria, and Natalya.
On the May 18 episode of Raw, Kelly won a battle royal to become the number one contender to the WWE Divas Championship. The following week, she challenged Maryse for the championship and won by disqualification, with Maryse retaining the title. Kelly lost a subsequent rematch by pinfall two weeks later on June 8. In June, she competed in a fatal four-way match to determine the number one contender, but the match was won by James. Throughout the remainder of mid-2009, Kelly unsuccessfully competed in several number one contender matches.
At the Bragging Rights pay-per-view in October, Kelly, Gail Kim, and Melina comprised Team Raw, but lost to Team SmackDown (Phoenix, Natalya, and McCool). The following month at the Survivor Series pay-per-view, Kelly participated in a five-on-five elimination match, which her team won. She eliminated Layla before being eliminated by Phoenix. In January 2010, Kelly participated in the tournament to determine a new Divas Champion, after Melina was forced to vacate the championship due to injury. She was eliminated by Alicia Fox in the first round. Throughout early 2010, Kelly was involved in several backstage segments with the guest hosts of Raw. At WrestleMania XXVI, Kelly teamed with Phoenix, Kim, James, and Eve Torres in a losing effort to McCool, Layla, Maryse, Fox, and Vickie Guerrero. The following night on Raw, the teams faced off in a rematch with the opposite result. The following week, Kelly took part in a 10-Diva Dress To Impress battle royal, to determine the number one contender for Maryse's Divas Championship, but the match was won by Torres.
During the 2010 WWE Draft on April 26, Kelly was drafted to the SmackDown brand, making her the first drafted female wrestler on television. She quickly began to feud with LayCool (Michelle McCool and Layla), and gained an ally in Tiffany. After defeating both Layla and McCool in singles matches, she received another WWE Women's Championship match at the Money in the Bank pay-per-view in July, but was unsuccessful. On August 31, Kelly announced that she would be a mentor on season three of NXT, with Naomi as her rookie. Throughout the second half of 2010, Kelly continued to feud with LayCool, and gained an ally in Natalya in October. In November, Kelly's NXT rookie, Naomi was named runner-up to the winner, Kaitlyn during the season finale.
On January 30, 2011, at the Royal Rumble, Kelly prevented the Acting General Manager Vickie Guerrero from interfering in the World Heavyweight Championship match between Edge and Dolph Ziggler. On the following SmackDown, Kelly and Edge defeated LayCool and Ziggler in a two-on-three handicap match to retain Edge's World Heavyweight Championship. Afterward, Guerrero fired Kelly in storyline. At the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view later that month, Kelly was re-hired by SmackDown General Manager Teddy Long, and made her return by attacking Guerrero. She was stopped by LayCool, who were in turn stopped by Trish Stratus. The next week, on SmackDown, Kelly and Edge defeated Guerrero and Drew McIntyre in a mixed tag team match, causing Guerrero to be fired in storyline per the pre-match stipulation.
Divas Champion (2011–2012)
On April 26, Kelly was drafted back to the Raw brand as part of the 2011 supplemental draft, where she received a push and began feuding with The Bella Twins. On May 22 at the Over the Limit pay-per-view, Kelly unsuccessfully challenged Brie Bella for the WWE Divas Championship. The following month, on the Power to the People special edition of Raw on June 20, Kelly won a fan vote to determine the challenger for the Divas Championship that night. Kelly went on to win her first WWE Divas Championship by defeating Brie Bella. Her win later garnered her a Slammy Award for Divalicious Moment of the Year. At the Money in the Bank pay-per-view in July, Kelly made her first title defense by defeating Bella in a rematch. On August 1, Phoenix won a battle royal to become the number one contender to Kelly's championship, and afterward attacked Kelly to provoke a feud. Kelly successfully defended her championship against Phoenix at both SummerSlam and Night of Champions. Kelly lost the championship to Phoenix at Hell in a Cell in October, ending her reign at 104 days. In subsequent rematches on SmackDown and at Tables, Ladders & Chairs, Kelly failed to regain the title.
Kelly spent early 2012 participating in several tag team matches. At WrestleMania XXVIII in April, Kelly and Extra correspondent Maria Menounos defeated Beth Phoenix and Eve in a tag team match. In June, WWE granted Kelly a period of time off, and she returned on Raw on August 6, defeating Eve. On September 28, 2012, Blank was released from her WWE contract. In a December 2012 interview, Blank stated she needed time off to heal a neck injury, and had plans to model.
Independent circuit (2012, 2018)
Blank was set to appear at her first independent wrestling show in Waterbury, Connecticut, at a Northeast Wrestling event on November 4, 2012, followed by a house show event on November 5, but her appearances were canceled due to Hurricane Sandy. Blank eventually made her first appearance for Northeast Wrestling on December 4. At House of Hardcore 43 in May 2018, Blank made a surprise appearance and helped Chelsea Green defeat Paredyse by tripping his valet, Rebel, off the ring apron.
Sporadic WWE appearances (2017–present)
Blank returned to WWE on February 13, 2017, by being featured in a backstage interview for WWE's official website during Raw. She later appeared during WrestleMania weekend, including at the Hall of Fame induction ceremony, and appeared on an episode of the WWE Network exclusive Table for 3 alongside Maryse and Eve Torres.
On January 22, 2018, Blank appeared at the Raw 25 Years special, being honored as one of the historic women of WWE. A few days later, on January 28 at the Royal Rumble event, Blank competed in the first women's royal rumble match, where she entered at number 19, and was eliminated by Nia Jax. In October 2018, Blank participated in a battle royal at WWE's first all-female pay-per-view WWE Evolution, in which she was eliminated by Mandy Rose.
On July 22, 2019, Blank returned during Raw Reunion, where she pinned Gerald Brisco backstage to become the first female 24/7 Champion. Kelly then lost the title to Candice Michelle, with Melina as the special guest referee. She returned to the ring again on January 26, 2020, at the Royal Rumble, entering at number 21 before being eliminated by Charlotte Flair. That year, Blank also appeared in a backstage segment with The Street Profits the following night on Raw and on the November 22 edition of Watch Along.
On the January 7, 2022, episode of SmackDown, Blank was announced as a participant in the women's royal rumble match at the namesake event. In what was her third appearance at the Royal Rumble, she entered the match at number 4 and was quickly eliminated by Sasha Banks.
Media appearances and acting roles
Blank has appeared in six WWE video games. She made her in-game debut in SmackDown vs. Raw 2008. Blank also appears in SmackDown vs. Raw 2009, SmackDown vs. Raw 2010, SmackDown vs. Raw 2011, WWE '12 and WWE '13.
In April 2007, Blank, along with Ashley Massaro, Layla El, Brooke Adams, Torrie Wilson, and Maryse, appeared in a music video for the Timbaland song "Throw It on Me", featuring The Hives.
On April 11, 2008, Blank along with Mickie James, Melina Perez, and Layla El appeared in an episode of Celebrity Fit Club: Boot Camp as trainers. Six days later, she appeared as a "Soccerette" on the British football show Soccer AM. She appeared a second time on Soccer AM in 2009. On June 14, 2011, Kelly and The Bella Twins appeared on an episode of The Price Is Right. Blank was nominated as "Favorite Butt Kicker" for the 2012 Kids' Choice Awards.
In August 2007, all three members of Extreme Exposé took part in a photo-shoot for FHM. In 2011, Blank was ranked number 82 in Maxim's Hot 100, being the first woman from WWE to appear on the cover of Maxim magazine. Blank was later featured on both the front and back covers of Maxim in December 2011. In 2012, Blank ranked number 38 in Maxim's Hot 100.
Blank was one of the cast members of the E! reality television series WAGS, which began airing in August 2015 and features a look into the personal lives of the wives and girlfriends of sportsmen. The show was cancelled in 2018.
Blank made her acting debut on the January 30, 2017, episode of Days of Our Lives, appearing in a scene as a waitress who gives information to one of the show's main characters. Her film debut came in 2020's Disturbing the Peace, as Amanda.
On August 16, 2020, Blank unveiled her new YouTube channel which features video blogs on her daily life.
Lifestyle
Blank has her own wine label called B Tasteful in collaboration with Smith Devereux Winery. Blank is also a fashion influencer, serving as an ambassador on Instagram for brands including Fashion Nova and PrettyLittleThing.
Personal life
While training at OVW, Blank lived in Kentucky. Following this, Blank lived in Tampa, Florida, prior to moving to Miami. She then returned to living in Tampa in 2010.
Blank was in a two-year relationship with wrestler Andrew "Test" Martin, that had ended prior to his death in March 2009. In 2011, Blank met ice hockey player Sheldon Souray at a Maxim party, and the pair began dating. They got married in Cabo San Lucas, Mexico on February 27, 2016, and split time between Las Vegas and Los Angeles. The couple separated and filed for divorce in 2017. She had a brief relationship with singer-songwriter Cole Swindell in 2019, but the two broke up three months after making their first public appearance at that year's Academy of Country Music Awards.
In February 2018, Blank's father Ron died. In 2019, Blank founded a non-profit charity with Drs. Shawn Carbonell and Luzanne Otte named Cure Glioblastoma, the same disease her father died from. The purpose of the charity is building awareness and solutions for brain cancer.
On May 29, 2020, Blank got engaged to bodybuilder Joe Coba in Sedona, Arizona. They got married on April 9, 2021, in Oak Glen, California. Their wedding was featured on the Brides magazine.
On March 28, 2023, Blank announced that she was pregnant with her first child. In April, she revealed she is expecting twins, and she gave birth to them on September 10; son Jaxon Matthew and daughter Brooklyn Marie.
Championships and accomplishments
Action Icon Awards
Dare2BDifferent Award (2012)
The Baltimore Sun
Most Improved Wrestler of the Year (2008)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Ranked No. 15 of the top 50 female wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2011
WWE
WWE Divas Championship (1 time)
WWE 24/7 Championship (1 time)
Slammy Award (1 time)
Divalicious Moment of the Year (2011) –
Awards and nominations
See also
List of Jewish professional wrestlers
References
External links
1987 births
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American Jews
21st-century female professional wrestlers
American female professional wrestlers
Fashion influencers
Female models from Florida
Jewish American actresses
Jewish professional wrestlers
Living people
Miss Hawaiian Tropic delegates
Participants in American reality television series
Professional wrestlers from Florida
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4999507
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington%20railway%20station
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Wellington railway station
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Wellington railway station, or Wellington Central station, is the main railway station serving Wellington, New Zealand, and is the southern terminus of the North Island Main Trunk, Wairarapa Line and Johnsonville Line.
The station opened in June 1937, replacing the two previous Wellington termini, Lambton and Thorndon. The building was originally the head office of the New Zealand Railways Department or NZR. Today, the building houses the Wellington office of KiwiRail in the east wing of the building. Victoria University of Wellington occupies the west wing.
A number of alterations have been made to the railway station over the years. The station was registered on 25 September 1986 as a Category I Historic Place.
History
Development
The capital's first Wellington railway station was a group of small buildings at Pipitea Point built in 1874 on earthquake-raised harbour floor for a temporary terminus of the railway line to the Hutt Valley. A series of reclamations allowed the line to reach well down Featherston Street and in 1880 a new Wellington railway station was, as it turned out, temporarily placed near the goods station for the new Railway Wharf. Traffic at the wharf quickly grew beyond expectations. The 1880 building was pulled north on rollers in 1885 to a less congested site on Featherston Street opposite the junction of Mulgrave Street and Sydney Street now Kate Sheppard Place.
The third site named Wellington railway station was only the passenger terminus for the Hutt and Wairarapa lines. After the Government took control of the Manawatu line in December 1908, the Wellington railway station was renamed Wellington Lambton station and the Manawatu station which became the terminus for the North Island Main Trunk was named Wellington Thorndon station. The Thorndon station had been opened in September 1885 by the private Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company. The Government bought the line from its shareholders in 1908 to incorporate the Manawatu line into their system.
Once both stations were under government control, public pressure began to build for a single terminal. In 1908, a joint reclamation scheme was drawn up by the Railways Department and the Wellington Harbour Board and in 1912 a new railway station was proposed, to supersede the Lambton and Thorndon stations. The government decided on a co-ordinated development that included a new station building, and after an agreement in 1922 between the Railways Department and the Wellington Harbour Board, the reclamation of about 68 acres (27 hectares) incorporating a new double-track line, train marshalling areas, goods yards and sheds and using fill from the Tawa Flat Deviation. The Thorndon reclamation began in 1923 and was on track to be completed by 1932, which allowed the government in 1929 to confirm that Bunny Street would be the location of a new station, so removing the inconvenience of two separate stations.
In 1929, W. Gray Young, an architect known for his neo-Georgian styles, of the Wellington architectural firm of Gray Young, Morton & Young, was selected (without a design competition) to design the new station, over the Auckland firm of Gummer & Ford, which had designed Auckland railway station.
Gray Young, Morton and Young was formed in 1923 and consisted of William Gray Young, Hubert Morton and Gray Young's brother Jack. The firm had recently finished large commissions for Victoria University, designing the Stout Building (1930) Weir House (1930), and later the Kirk Building (1938).
The need to review building techniques after the 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake and the impact of the Depression on finances delayed the government formally committing to the project until June 1933.
Design
As the planned location was on reclaimed land, test piles were driven in 1928 to test the quality of the soil. On the basis of the test results the decision was made to use Vibro cast-in-place piles to support the structure. The building was the first major New Zealand structure to incorporate a significant measure of earthquake resistance.
Gray Young was paid a 4% fee based on the initially estimated cost of £470,000. This cost rose to £483,000 once the quantity surveying firm of Maltby & Sommerville compiled a detailed quantity schedule, for which they were paid 1% of the estimated cost. Because of the impact of the Depression on Government finances, it was decided to reduce the cost by eliminating a mailroom and a section of the West wing along Featherston Street and by transferring the £28,000 cost of the platforms and verandahs to a separate budget. As a result, the official estimated cost of the station was reduced to £350,000. To encourage employment of workers out of work due to the Depression the project received a subsidy of £34,000 (10% of the estimated cost) from the Employment Board.
The building is a U-shaped structure with the longest leg long and high. Because of delays in importing the specialized boring equipment needed to install the cast-in-place piles called for in the original design, the decision was made to use 1615 15 x 15 inch and 16 x 16 inch reinforced concrete piles. These were driven by a steam-powered hammer. On top of the piles a five- and six-storey steel-framed structure was built. The steel was encased in reinforced concrete and 1.75 million bricks. 21,000 cubic yards of aggregate from the Hutt River with cement from Whangarei were mixed on-site to create the concrete. The bricks used for the outer cladding were of a special design, with slots to accommodate vertical corrosion–resistant steel rods that reinforced the brickwork and bound it to the structural members. 1500 tons of decorative Hanmer and Whāngarei granite and marble were used to clad the interior and the entranceway. 2500 gallons of paint were used. The roof was clad in Marseille tiles.
The main entrance is on the south side via a colonnade of eight 13-metre- [42-foot]-high Doric columns opening into a large booking hall decorated with delicately mottled dados extending to a high vaulted ceiling.
The glazed-roof concourse contained waiting rooms and toilets, a large dining room, a barber shop, book and fruit stalls and a first aid room. There was a nursery on the top floor to allow parents to leave their children while they shopped or waited for their train.
When completed the station was New Zealand's largest building, partly covering 0.6 hectares and with a combined floor area of two hectares. It was designed to accommodate the 675 staff of the Railways Department head office and the Wellington district office, which until then had been accommodated in 11 leased buildings throughout the city.
The platforms, designed to accommodate up to 12 carriages, are made of concrete covered with a sealed surface under verandahs held up by railway irons.
Platform 9 was designed to be a roadway without rails for the terminus for certain services provided by New Zealand Railways Road Services.
A park was created in the forecourt with lawns and paths of paving stones with brick edging arranged in a herringbone pattern.
Construction
The construction tender closed on 25 September 1933, extended by two weeks in an attempt to encourage local manufacturers to offer locally manufactured materials. Twelve tenders were received, with Fletcher Building the lowest at £339,000. The next lowest was £350,000 from J T Julian & Son, who had constructed a significant part of the Auckland railway station.
Fletchers was awarded what was believed to be the largest single-building contract let in New Zealand up to that time, to which a performance bond of £3000 was applied.
Fletchers appointed 26-year-old Joe Craig to manage his first major project. His prior experience had been in the construction of Chateau Tongariro, Massey College and earthquake reconstruction in Hastings. His management skills, supported by a large team of experienced foremen and a close working relationship with the architect, ensured that construction progressed very smoothly on a project that was very profitable for Fletchers.
Work commenced on site in January 1934 with a workforce of 12, which built up to 161 in January 1936. Fletchers reduced the cost of the construction steel to £70,000 from an estimated £85,000 by directly importing it rather than purchasing it from local steel merchants, and had it fabricated on-site by Wm Cable Ltd.
Progress was rapid, with 1500 of the piles driven by the time the foundation stone was laid on 17 December 1934 by the Duke of Gloucester, an occasion witnessed by an estimated 5,000 people.
The contract was expanded to include the construction of an electric substation (commenced 1936) at a cost of £2022 and a locomotive maintenance workshop (commenced 1936) along the Thorndon Quay side of the railway yard. This cost £37,406 and is still in use.
In August 1938, to accommodate increasing staff numbers, work commenced on the construction of the section of the Featherston Street Wing removed from the original design to reduce its cost. This was undertaken as a separate project at a cost of £59,662.
A two-storey brick building with a mansard roof containing a social hall and a garage was built in 1937 facing Waterloo Quay to the north of the East wing, at a cost of £15,000. The garage was on the ground floor with the social hall occupying part of the ground floor and the entire first storey. The garage also incorporated rooms for the chauffeur to the Railways Department's General Manager.
Opening
The station was opened on 19 June 1937 by the Governor-General of New Zealand, Viscount Galway. Lambton closed on 19 June 1937 and Thorndon on 8 June 1937.
NZR head office
The Railways Head office had been combined in an ornate three-story brick building at 75 Featherston Street in 1903. The foundation stone was laid by the Duke of Cornwall (later King George V) on 21 June 1901. One of the first Wellington buildings reinforced against earthquakes, the style was Classical Baroque and Jacobean; ornamented in white Oamaru stone with carved cornicles and balustrades and roofed with Marsiette tiles. In 1937 it became the Defence Department headquarters but the decorative features, high roof and lighting turrets were removed, and it was demolished in 1982.
In 1982, the New Zealand Railways Corporation replaced the Railways Department. The application of a more commercial attitude to the running of the organization resulted in a large reduction in staff employed at the Wellington railway station. Due to the reduction of railway staff numbers in the 1980s, large parts of the building became underutilized.
In 1991, as a result of a major restructuring of the New Zealand Railways Corporation, ownership of the land and buildings was retained by the Railways Corporation while a new organisation known as New Zealand Rail Limited took over rail operations including freight distribution, commuter and long-distance passenger services and the Interisland ferry service. Both organisations retained offices in the building. In 1993, New Zealand Rail Limited was sold to a private business consortium, which became Tranz Rail Holdings Limited in 1995. In 2000, Tranz Rail moved its head office to Auckland but retained space for operational management of the railway network. In 2004, Tranz Rail was sold and renamed Toll NZ Ltd, which then sold the track and infrastructure back to the Railways Corporation.
Victoria University of Wellington west wing
Between August 2003 and October 2008, the building was refurbished at a cost of NZ$14.6 million to house part of Victoria University in the West wing and Toll NZ (now KiwiRail) in the East wing. This work included a seismic upgrade, restoration and refurbishment, and installation of three new lifts and dedicated access in the southwest corner to the university wing from the concourse. The architect was Athfield Architects with construction undertaken by Fletcher Construction. As part of this reorganization of the building, the 24-hour train control centre was relocated from the western wing to the eastern side of the southern part of the building.
On 4 December 2006, the New World Railway Metro supermarket opened on the ground floor. This coincided with the closure of the Railway Kiosk and the American Hotdog vendor.
Facilities
The ground floor has always provided services for long-distance travellers and local passengers including a restaurant, cafes, a bar, a shoe repair shop, and a dry cleaners. The New World Railway Metro supermarket has occupied part of the ground floor since 2006.
In 1988, the Railways-run bookstall and cafeteria were closed with subsequently the barber's shop and men's toilets being converted into Trax Bar and Cafe, while the women's waiting rooms were converted into toilet blocks. The original dining hall and kitchen were converted to office space. At about this time platforms 2 to 7 were shortened at the concourse end to provide increased space for waiting passengers. Large concrete planter boxes were installed at the end of the tracks to assist in stopping runaway trains.
In 2010, the former social hall was converted into 660 square metres of boutique office space.
Wellington regional stadium
As part of the creation of the WestpacTrust Stadium (completed November 1999) on surplus railway land to the north of the station, an elevated walkway from Thorndon Quay to the stadium was installed with access via ramps from platforms 3/4, 5/6 and 7/8. To facilitate this work, the canopies of platforms 7/8 and 9 were shortened to the same length as platforms 3/4 and 5/6.
World War I Roll of Honour
In the office entrance to the station, a roll of honour lists 450 members of the New Zealand Railways Department who lost their lives in World War I. (Transcript of the names with links to their records on the Auckland War Memorial Museum's Cenotaph database.) As many as 5,000 of the department's permanent staff, out of a 1914 workforce of 14,000, enlisted during the war, and many casual workers also served.
The roll was unveiled by Prime Minister William Massey in the Railways Department's head office in Featherston St on 30 April 1922. It originally listed 446 names, including two out of alphabetical order at the end, presumably late additions. Four names were added later, including those of three men who died after the war.
When the station opened in 1937, the memorial was moved along the road to its present location.
Heritage listing
The station was registered on 25 September 1986 as a Category I Historic Place. Category I historic places are "places of special or outstanding historical or cultural significance" according to Heritage New Zealand. The Rail Heritage Trust of New Zealand classified the station as "Category A" heritage building.
Filming location
Wellington railway station featured prominently in the 1981 film Goodbye Pork Pie, in which the protagonists drive a Mini through the station concourse in order to escape pursuing police officers.
The station was used in a 2009 TV advert in the United Kingdom for train ticketing company TheTrainLine, where a large flock of sheep use the facilities.
In May 2014, the station foyer was used by celebrity chef Nigella Lawson to film a commercial for Whittaker's a local chocolate manufacturing firm.
Airspace development
In 1972, NZR proposed developing the airspace above the station's platforms. The proposed development included four buildings built north of the current station over the platforms and part of the marshalling yards. The development would include a 200-bed hotel, tavern, car-parking, shopping facilities and a revolving restaurant. NZR made an application to Wellington City Council for consent to begin the project in 1977. The plan was revised in 1986 in a joint venture between Mainzeal and the Railways Corporation under the "Gateway Development." The development included seven tower blocks, a hotel, retail and recreational facilities.
In 2017 the plans were unveiled for a $1 billion redevelopment of Wellington railway station and the concourse to the stadium, named "Project Kupe" and incorporating a tower, retail outlets, apartments and 12,000 seat indoor stadium.
Proposed sale
In August 2018, the proposed sale of the building by KiwiRail was stopped by Winston Peters as the Minister of State-Owned Enterprises as "premature". The building required earthquake strengthening (cost $62 million), and the anticipated sale price of $80 million had already been included in KiwiRail's budget. The Port Nicholson Block Settlement Trust decided not to purchase the building in 2016.
Wellington railway yard
The Wellington railway yard incorporates marshalling and storage tracks and buildings and a Multiple Unit Depot (MUD) for servicing EMUs. A rail line under the overhead stadium walkway goes to the container terminal and other freight facilities on the Port wharves, with a level crossing on Aotea Quay.
The principal Wellington signal box known as the "A Box" is near the overhead stadium walkway with a commanding view of the station platforms and main lines entering the station. In 2021/2022 additional crossovers and connections to the station approaches will provide extra capacity and resilience ($4.5 million) and the signal interlocking may be replaced with a computer based system ($8 million). A second lead track is to be provided to the train storage yards to facilitate faster platform clearance (2020; $5.9 million).
When a derailed goods wagon near the Interisland terminal damaged both tracks through the yard out of Wellington on 3 July 2019 commuter service to the Hutt Valley and Kapiti lines were seriously disrupted for two days. The closed Kaiwharawhara railway station is to be developed as an emergency Wellington terminal.
Services
The station copes with large daily passenger numbers with very little alteration having proved necessary.
In its first year, 7,600 passengers made 15,200 trips on 140 trains daily. In the 1960s it was estimated that over 42,000 people used the station each day. Today, 29,000 passengers make 44,000 trips on 390 trains, excluding long-distance services.
Work from 2019 as part of the Wellington Metro upgrade improved the station approaches, and new foundations were built for 80 masts for the traction overhead as steel masts are to replace wooden masts.
Rail
Two companies operate train services from Wellington.
Transdev operates the Wellington suburban rail network on behalf of the Greater Wellington Regional Council. This includes the electrified lines serving the Wellington and Kapiti urban areas, plus the Wairarapa Connection service to Masterton via the Hutt Valley and the Remutaka Tunnel. At off-peak, 8–10 trains per hour leave Wellington, broken down they are:
2 tph Johnsonville Line services to Johnsonville
3 tph Kapiti Line services to Waikanae (2tph on weekends)
3 tph Hutt Valley Line services to Upper Hutt (2tph on weekends)
1 tph Melling Line to Melling (weekdays only)
5 Wairarapa Connection services per day to Masterton (2 per day at weekends)
The Great Journeys of New Zealand (KiwiRail) operates one long-distance service from Wellington up the North Island Main Trunk, the Northern Explorer to Auckland Strand. The service ran three times per week until December 2021, and is due to resume in September 2022. The Capital Connection service operates to Palmerston North once daily on weekdays.
Bus
The bus terminal, formerly Lambton Interchange, is served by most Wellington bus routes and is connected to the station by a subway under Featherston St. It is served by the following bus routes: 1, 3, 7, 12, 12e, 14, 17, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30x, 31x, 32x, 35, 36, 39, 52, 56, 57, 58, 60e, 83 and 84.
A small roadway opposite Platform 9 is also served by train replacement buses, Interislander shuttle buses, and InterCity and Newmans long-distance coaches.
See also
Rail transport in New Zealand
Public transport in the Wellington Region
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Train and bus timetables from Metlink
View Beek Interactive Guide
Buildings and structures in Wellington City
Heritage New Zealand Category 1 historic places in the Wellington Region
Rail transport in Wellington
Railway stations in New Zealand
Railway stations opened in 1937
George Troup buildings
1930s architecture in New Zealand
1937 establishments in New Zealand
Railway stations in New Zealand opened in the 1930s
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owen%20Bieber
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Owen Bieber
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Owen Frederick Bieber (; December 28, 1929 – February 17, 2020) was an American labor union activist. He was president of the United Auto Workers (UAW) from 1983 to 1995.
Born in Michigan, Bieber joined the McInerney Spring and Wire Company, an automotive parts supplier in Grand Rapids, after finishing high school. His father was also employed at the company, and had co-founded a UAW local there. Bieber himself became active within the local, rising from shop steward to its president between 1949 and 1956. In 1961 he became a part-time union organizer for the UAW's international union and retired as president of the local a year later, to work full-time for the international UAW. In 1980 he was elected as the head of the UAW's General Motors Department.
After a hotly contested election in 1983, he was chosen to head the union in October of that year. His time as president of the union was marked by support of several political causes, including the boycott against South African apartheid and opposition to the North American Free Trade Agreement. He oversaw the union during the shrinking of the automobile manufacturing industry in the US, and led them through a number of tense negotiations with the Big Three automobile manufacturers that included strikes and other labor action. While he set a goal of adding new union members throughout his presidency, he largely failed as union organizing efforts at Honda and Nissan plants were defeated. His presidency also saw the splintering of his own union, with the Canadian division breaking off to form its own independent organization (the Canadian Auto Workers), amid deep internal divisions which developed throughout his term. He retired from the UAW in 1995.
Early life and career
Owen F. Bieber was born in December 1929 to Albert F. and Minnie (Schwartz) Bieber in the hamlet of North Dorr, Dorr Township, Allegan County, Michigan. His father was of German descent and an autoworker at McInerney Spring and Wire Company (an automotive parts supplier) who had co-founded UAW Local 687. It was the first UAW local organized within the city limits of Grand Rapids, Michigan. The family were devout Roman Catholics, and Bieber attended Visitation Elementary School (a two-room school) and Catholic Central High School in nearby Grand Rapids. As a child, he worked pulling weeds in onion and celery fields. He graduated from high school in 1948, and in July of that year took a job at McInerney Spring and Wire as a wire bender, making seats for Cadillac and Hudson cars. "You had to bend 8- and 9-gauge spring wire, sometimes five wires at a time. Those Hudsons, they had a seat four miles long ... It was a hard job. After the first hour in there, I felt like just leaving. If my father hadn't worked there, too, I probably would've", he later said.
Bieber married his high school sweetheart, the former Shirley M. Van Woerkom, on November 25, 1950, and the couple had three sons (all of them became autoworkers) and two daughters. They maintained a home in North Dorr as well as Southfield.
Although his wire bending job was supposed to be only summer employment, Bieber stayed and did not go on to college. Bieber was elected a shop steward of Local 687 (which covered Grand Rapids and most of the immediate surrounding area) in 1949, and in 1951 was elected to the local's executive board. He was elected to Local 687's collective bargaining committee in 1955, and became the local's president in 1956. In 1961, he became a part-time union organizer for the international union. Bieber retired as Local 687's president in 1962, and took a full-time position as an international representative and organizer with the UAW. He worked closely with Kenneth W. Robinson, the director of UAW Region 1D (then the largest region in the international union). Robinson promoted Bieber to servicing representative in 1964, and made him his personal aide.
On December 18, 1972, Robinson appointed Bieber assistant director of Region 1D after the incumbent, Charles Rogers, was diagnosed with cancer and stepped down. In 1974, Robinson stepped down as director of Region 1D due to ill health. Bieber was elected as his successor, and held the position until 1980.
GM Department director
In 1980, Bieber won election as vice president of the General Motors Department of the UAW. Irving Bluestone, who had led the GM Department since 1970, had retired. The UAW Steering Committee (a body of about 400 local union presidents) unanimously endorsed Bieber for the position. Also nominated for vice president slots were Donald Ephlin, Ray Majerus, and Stephen Yokich. Bieber won the election at the UAW's national convention in June 1980, receiving the highest number of votes of any candidate.
Bieber was GM Department director for just two and a half years, but negotiated a historic contract with General Motors (GM) in 1982. The early 1980s recession and competition from Japanese automakers had cut very deeply into GM's market share, and the company had laid off more than 140,000 of its 330,000 production workers (roughly half its workforce). UAW membership had fallen to 1.2 million from a peak of 1.5 million in 1979. In March 1981, nine months after Bieber became GM Department head, GM asked the union to reopen its contract and negotiation concessions but the union refused. In November 1981, however, GM began using its worker participation program to convince its unionized employees to reopen their contract. Bieber strongly criticized the company for generating "distrust of the U.A.W. leadership", "spoonfeed[ing]" a "captive audience", and perverting the worker participation program into a means to "propagandize or parrot the current views of the chairman of the board of G.M. as to how to save G.M. through worker sacrifice." But behind the scenes, UAW president Douglas Fraser, Bieber, and others were secretly already talking with GM about reopening the contract. The union agreed to enter into talks in January 1982, hoping to win job security commitments for its members in exchange for wage and benefit concessions. The decision was a historic one, as it was only the second time in UAW history that the union had agreed to reopen a contract. It was historic as well as it was the first concessionary contract the union had negotiated.
In April 1982, UAW members approved the concessionary contract Bieber negotiated. Initially, GM agreed to link wage concessions to reductions in the price of its vehicles, but this was not part of the eventual agreement. The contract concessions were (at the time) the largest ever made to GM. The workers agreed to forgo an annual 3 percent wage increase, eliminated nine paid holidays over the next two years, deferred cost of living adjustments in the first three months of the contract to the final three quarters of the contract, established a wage tier that paid new employees 20 percent less, and implemented fines for chronic absenteeism. The union also agreed to negotiate over work rules at the local level. In return, GM agreed to keep four plants open which it had planned to close, agreed to a two-year moratorium on plant closings, established profit sharing, established a prepaid legal service program for its employees, and promised that if it laid off workers with 15 years or more of job experience it would pay them 50 percent of their annual salary. The pact was only narrowly approved, however (114,468 for and 105,090 against), even though UAW members at Ford Motor Company had approved a similar pact by a 3-to-1 margin.
Implementing the contract proved troublesome, however. Just days after the pact was approved by UAW members, GM attempted to give its executives large pay bonuses. Bieber angrily denounced the pay plan and GM backed off the proposal just two days later; however, the damage was done. Bieber began local bargaining over the work rules, but angry workers refused to negotiate any changes and bargaining ended in July 1982 with no changes.
In his last year as GM Department director, Bieber discussed with GM the impact outsourcing was having on UAW members. When GM signed a compact with Toyota to co-own and co-manufacture automobiles in California, Bieber worked to prevent UAW members in affected GM plants from engaging in a wildcat strike.
UAW presidential race
The UAW constitution barred anyone over the age of 65 from running for president of the union. 64-year-old Douglas Fraser won re-election as UAW president in July 1981, but was barred from seeking a third term. In January 1982, Owen Bieber, Donald Ephlin (director of the Ford Department), Raymond Majerus (secretary-treasurer and director of the Aerospace Department and American Motors Department), and Stephen Yokich (director of the Agricultural Implement and Skilled Trades Department) were considered his most likely successors. At that time, Bieber and Majerus seemed to have the most support from the union's executive board.
It is a tradition in the UAW for the union's executive board to bar candidates from campaigning while contract negotiations are going on, to prevent any campaign from distracting union members or inflaming member opinions. Since the election of Walter Reuther as UAW president in 1947, the union had been dominated by the "Administrative Caucus," a pro-incumbent political party within the UAW which controlled every seat on the UAW executive board and the vast majority of leadership positions at the local level. Traditionally, the 26 Administrative Caucus members sitting on the UAW's executive board met first to select the caucus' official nominees for national office, then referred these nominees to the union's Administrative Caucus-dominated Steering Committee, which then ratified the board's choice. Delegates to the union's annual convention voted on these nominees (with no direct election by the membership). Although these procedures did not preclude the Steering Committee from rejecting the "official" slate or challengers from running for office, they made it highly unlikely that challengers would emerge or that the members would elect them if they did. (Additionally, union rules required that any challenger announce his or her candidacy at least 90 days before the election, and take a leave of absence from his or her job in order to run for office.) Although the executive board had not anticipated meeting until December 1982 to select its official candidate for president, the lack of a clear front-runner and the economic and collective bargaining challenges facing the union put pressure on the executive board to make its choice months earlier.
By late August, Majerus seemed to have a slim lead among executive board members over Ephlin, while the other candidates (including Bieber) did not have much support. At its meeting on September 20, the UAW executive board agreed to lift the campaigning moratorium, and set November 12 as the date for choosing its official slate. Support for the four candidates had not changed by this time. The relatively youthful Yokich was considered a dark horse candidate, and he was under pressure to withdraw and support one of the others. Ephlin, however, appeared to be gaining support due to his successful contract negotiations with Ford and his increasingly polished public speaking skills.
Bieber hesitated to enter the race for president. He announced his candidacy only in mid-October, long after Majerus and Ephlin. He later said he "agonized" about entering the race for the presidency after realizing what a heavy burden it might become.
On October 31, Yokich withdrew from the race and threw his support behind Bieber. Days later, a survey of 130 UAW local leaders in Michigan showed that Ephlin and Bieber had the most grassroots support, with Majerus a distant fourth behind Yokich. But Majerus appeared to have far more support on the UAW executive board, where African American vice president Marc Stepp was vocal in his support of the Majerus campaign. One media report estimated that Majerus had the support of as many as 10 of the 26 board members, while Bieber (whose campaign had been targeting regional directors and workers) may have had as many as 12 votes. Nonetheless, others considered Bieber a dark horse candidate because of the significant dissatisfaction the GM concessionary contract had generated.
As the UAW executive board gathered to make its decision, the race had shifted and Bieber appeared to have majority support on the board. Bieber appeared to have gained ground because he was a compromise candidate acceptable to both the Ephlin and Majerus camps. Some board members appear to have preferred Bieber because he came from the GM Department, the union's largest. Majerus, however, had nearly as much support. Press reports indicated that Ephlin had a chance, if the board deadlocked over Bieber and Majerus. The board voted for Bieber as its preferred nominee. Union insiders later described the executive board's choice as a surprise. None of the three candidates received a majority on the first ballot. Ephlin, who had the fewest votes, withdrew from the race, and the board voted 15 to 11 to support Bieber. (Press reports later described this as "unusually close".) Majerus withdrew, and the board took a third ballot to make its decision unanimous (a tradition within the union). The Steering Committee ratified the executive board's decision shortly thereafter. Bieber's campaigning among the regional directors, who formed a majority on the executive board, swung the election in his favor.
Bieber's election was not a foregone conclusion, however. The UAW leadership was by now facing "the first widespread opposition since the bitter factional days of the 1940s." The unions secret talks with GM in the fall of 1981 had become known, and many union members were very angry about them. It was no longer clear that members would do as their leaders wished. A group of workers based in Wisconsin submitted a constitutional amendment eliminating the executive board's and Steering Committee's roles in the nomination process, and won enough support from the membership to force a roll call vote on the amendment on the convention floor. But the convention delegates overwhelmingly rejected the proposal by a 3-to-1 margin. No opposition candidate emerged, and Bieber was elected President of the UAW on May 18, 1983. His election marked the end of an era in the UAW. He was the first UAW president who did not work directly with the founders of the union and who did not work directly and closely with Walter Reuther.
UAW presidency
Bieber was not considered as charismatic as his predecessors. He was often reticent to the point of shyness with the press, and took lessons from broadcasters to improve his speaking. His leadership style was considered over-cautious, as he feared to make mistakes, and he was emotionally stoic.
Initially, Bieber was denied a seat on the board of directors of Chrysler. Chrysler had put UAW president Douglas Fraser on its board in 1979 after Fraser helped win $1.5 billion in loan guarantees from the federal government that kept Chrysler out of bankruptcy. Worried that Fraser's seat would become the "UAW seat", Chrysler chief executive officer Lee Iacocca threatened not to appoint Fraser's successor to the board of directors. Fraser persuaded Iacocca that appearances would be served if Fraser stayed on a board for one more year, and then the new UAW president could be elected. Iacocca agreed to the plan. Fraser was elected in 1983 to a one-year term on Chrysler's board. Bieber joined the Chrysler board in October 1984, and remained on it until 1991. The UAW went without representation on Chrysler's board for the next seven years, until Stephen Yokich joined the board of the now-German owned company in 1998.
Walter Reuther and other presidents of the UAW had been active in a number of social issues, and Bieber continued that tradition. In 1983, he was a member of a controversial effort to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Bieber joined the National Labor Committee, a group which opposed U.S. support for the Contras in Nicaragua. The group successfully overcame vocal opposition from staunch anti-communists on the AFL-CIO executive council to win approval of a resolution that put the labor federation in favor of a negotiated settlement and criticized the Reagan administration of seeking only a military solution. In January 1986, he won AFL-CIO approval of a boycott of U.S. companies doing business in South Africa under apartheid. Later that year, he traveled to South Africa, where he met with several cabinet ministers and angrily demanded that the government release anti-apartheid labor leaders who had been jailed but never charged with any crimes. He also successfully put pressure on GM to pay these workers until they had been convicted. In 1990, shortly after his release from prison, Nelson Mandela traveled to the United States and thanked Bieber for his support; Bieber gave him a guided tour of the Ford River Rouge Complex.
Bieber also pressed for adoption of a national industrial policy. He began pressing for a national industrial policy in June 1983, shortly after his election as UAW president. His efforts reached a high point in 1993, when Bieber the chief executive officers of Chrysler, Ford, and General Motors met with President-elect Bill Clinton—winning Clinton's support for the domestic auto industry. But less than a year later, Clinton won passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement over Bieber's strenuous objections.
Collective bargaining
Bieber oversaw the negotiation of a number of contracts with the Chrysler, Ford, and General Motors during his 12 years in office.
The first contract negotiation he oversaw were with Chrysler just two months after his election. The negotiations (which began earlier than usual, long before the contract expired) broke down over wages in July 1983. Although a strike seemed likely, the union negotiated a minor contract extension on September 5, and a day later had a new agreement. The contract provided an average wage increase of $2.42 an hour over two years and restored an annual 3 percent wage and quarterly cost of living increases (both of which the company had rejected in July). During the press conference in which he discussed the contract's successful ratification, Bieber fell from the dais and suffered a slight concussion (for which he was briefly hospitalized).
The second round of talks (which occurred about 15 months later) involved GM. Traditionally, the UAW chose one of the "Big Three" (Chrysler, Ford, and General Motors) automakers as a strike target, and negotiate a contract with that company. This contract usually set a standard which the other companies adhered to. Ford or GM was the more common target, as they were much larger than Chrysler. Negotiations with GM began first, with the company asking for a profit-sharing plan rather than wage increases, layoffs of about 19 percent of its 370,000 workers, and a lower wage tier for new workers. Bieber kept Ford and GM guessing as to which company would be the strike target, but finally chose GM on September 6. The talks broke down shortly thereafter, and Bieber called a nationwide strike against General Motors on September 14 as the economy continued to perform only weakly. Over the next six days, more than 91,000 GM workers walked picket lines at 33 plants in 12 states. A contract was agreed to (and successfully ratified) on September 20 which not only gave workers annual pay increases of 2.5 percent and established a $1 billion fund that paid laid off workers a portion of their salary until they were retrained or rehired. The contract, which the union and company called "historic," Twenty-five days later, Ford agreed to a very similar contract. The Ford agreement established a $300 million lay-off fund (Ford's workforce being only a third the size of GM's), and placed a four-year moratorium on plant closings.
Another strike followed at Chrysler the next year. The Ford and GM contracts reopened a pay gap between those companies and Chrysler which the UAW sought to close in late 1984 by asking Chrysler if it would reopen its contract. Chrysler refused, pointing to a no-strike clause in the contract. UAW workers had rejected a 1982 contract which contained profit-sharing, and their 1983 agreement did not have any income security provisions like Ford's and GM's. When the Chrysler contract expired in October 1985, Bieber ordered a strike against the company. More than 70,000 workers in the U.S. and another 10,000 in Canada walked off the job for 12 days in what was the first strike against Chrysler since 1973. The two sides reached an agreement (which was successfully ratified) on October 23 that gave autoworkers a $2,120 non-wage bonus, pay increases and wage parity with the GM and Ford, profit sharing, and payments to workers displaced by new technology.
Bieber announced in December 1985 that he would again seek election as UAW president. He won reelection with no opposition in June 1986.
Bieber oversaw a fourth round of collective bargaining talks in 1987. Ford was chosen as the strike target this time, and after a slight contract extension the union reached a tentative contract with the company on September 17. Bieber agreed to establish joint committees at the national and local levels to explore the use of work teams, changing inefficient work rules, and reducing the number of job classifications. In exchange, the company agreed to a 3 percent annual wage increase in the first year with lump-sum payments equal to 3 percent of wages in the second and third years, no layoffs (except through attrition), an increase in the layoff income security fund to $500 (although it was capped at that amount), pension contribution increases, improvements in health benefits, and increased profit sharing. Twenty-one days later, GM agreed to a very similar contract. GM agreed to close no more plants, institute no more layoffs (so long as sales volumes did not decrease), the same wage and lump-sum package, the same profit sharing arrangement, similar work team and job classification study committees, and establish quality improvement committees in all plants. Both contracts were easily approved by the membership.
The success of the GM and Ford pacts led Chrysler to enter into early talks once more with the union. After just seven weeks of bargaining, Bieber announced a contract which gave company workers a 3 percent annual pay increase over two years and a $1,000 bonus. However, the Chrysler contract did contain a historic clause which prohibited the company from issuing cash or stock bonuses to its executives if its employees did not receive payments under the profit sharing agreement.
Bieber ran for reelection again in 1988 and won against no opposition. His election was by acclamation.
By 1990, Bieber was once more negotiating a contract with GM. However, his control of the collective bargaining process was not as strong as in the past. A local struck the GM plant in Flint, Michigan, on August 8, 1990, about a month before the national contract with the company ended. Bieber had little to do with the strike, which was approved by GM Department Director Stephen Yokich (by now considered Bieber's most likely successor). The Flint strike complicated Bieber's attempts to negotiate a new national contract, and Yokich's approval of the local strike indicated Bieber's weakening control over the union. The Flint strike ended on August 15. Nonetheless, it had generated UAW member unrest with Bieber's leadership of the union. Bieber did not need a contract extension this time, and negotiated a contract identical in wage structure to the 1987 agreement. A Ford contract followed in early October 1990, and a Chrysler contract 20 days later, both of which were very similar to the GM agreement.
Bieber suffered a serious loss at industrial equipment manufacturer Caterpillar Inc., however. The UAW struck Caterpillar in 1982, a strike that (by 1993) was the longest in UAW history and which had severely drained the union's strike fund. By 1989, the UAW was praising the Caterpillar contract. Notwithstanding, Caterpillar began a restructuring program that reduced its workforce by 30 percent while building new plants in the non-union Deep South. By 1991, only 25 percent of its workforce belonged to the UAW. The UAW had negotiated a new contract with John Deere, the giant agricultural machinery manufacturer, and it asked Caterpillar for the same terms. Caterpillar refused, instead demanding major concessions such as a two-tier wage system, the right to subcontract work out to non-union companies, the imposition of 12-hour work shifts, weaker safety rules, a weaker grievance system, greatly scaled back health benefits, and the right to impose flexible work schedules on workers. About 1,870 workers in Decatur, Illinois, struck on November 3, and Caterpillar instituted a nationwide lockout (even in those plants not on strike). Soon more than 13,400 Caterpillar workers were walking the picket line. Caterpillar ended the lockout on March 16, 1992, but few employees went back to work. Caterpillar tendered what it called its last, best offer to Bieber three days later. Bieber rejected the proposal. Caterpillar announced an impasse on March 5, and on April 1 sent all workers a letter demanding that they return to work by April 6 or the company would permanently replace them. Between 400 and 1,200 workers crossed the picket line to return to work (estimates very widely). At the urging of federal mediators, Bieber met one-on-one with Caterpillar Chief Executive Officer Donald V. Fites. Bieber left the meeting convinced that the UAW was left with no alternative but to accept Caterpillar's offer. UAW members went back to work on the company's terms.
Bieber announced he would run for reelection as UAW president in 1992. In January 1992, shortly after Bieber's candidacy was approved by the Administrative Caucus and Steering Committee, he was challenged for the presidency by Jerry Tucker, a former executive board member and leader of the reformist "New Directions" caucus. Tucker, a long-time opponent of joint labor-management committees and work teams, also intended to challenge Bieber's support for these new collective bargaining outcomes at the UAW convention in June. During the convention, it was apparent that Stephen Yokich was now Bieber's "heir apparent." Bieber was easily reelected president of the UAW.
Bieber's final round of collective bargaining talks came in 1993, but once more his control of the union's bargaining apparatus was apparent. In August and September 1992, GM workers in Lordstown, Ohio, struck a critical GM parts plant with Yokich's permission, idling many other GM plants and throwing 40,000 other GM employees out of work. The Detroit Free Press later said that Bieber formally approved the strike, but Yokich was the "quarterback" who actually led the union through it. Despite the problems the Lordstown strike created, Bieber entered contract negotiations with the Big Three automakers seeking pledges against new layoffs. Bieber chose Ford as the strike target, and the company focused on reining in health care costs as its major goal. A new contract was reached on September 15, 1993, but the deal was considered a failure since Bieber was unable to win any major changes to the old agreement. Ford asked for a six-year rather than a three-year agreement, and thereafter gave this goal up and promised instead to increase pension payouts by 17 percent for certain veteran workers. The union agreed to a lower wage for new workers, and extend the time it took for new workers to reach the full wage. No changes were made to the wage or layoff income security provisions. However, Ford did agree to fully pay for health care costs for all workers, but the workers gave up a part of their pay raises to do so. A contract with GM followed the next month. GM sought to reduce its pension costs, but failed. GM, however, forced workers to agree to use vacation time rather than use layoff pay during the summer production shutdown, and gained the right to stop paying layoff pay to workers who refuse jobs at nearby plants. The wage payment scheme was the same as the previous contract.
Organizing failures
Bieber pledged at the start of his presidency to organize new workers but largely failed. He made a number of efforts to organize new workers early in his presidency but in his last years in office budgeted little money and staff resources to the effort. He also did not invest staff or money into mobilizing UAW members to assist in organizing campaigns. Instead, in his last years in office Bieber spent significant amounts of his own time lobbying for labor law reform (most importantly, a ban on the permanent replacement of striking workers).
Organizing failures were more important than the union's rare successes during Bieber's administration. In September 1983, Bieber negotiated an agreement in which the union was able to extend its collective bargaining contract over the joint GM-Toyota New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc. (NUMMI) automobile manufacturing plant in Fremont, California. The union also won GM's consent to extend its existing collective bargaining relationship over the new GM-owned Saturn Corporation plant in Spring Hill, Tennessee. The National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation challenged the right of GM to recognize the UAW at the Saturn plant and the right of UAW members to bid first on jobs at the new plant. But the general counsel of the National Labor Relations Board ruled in June 1986 that the bidding rights were properly part of bargaining between GM and the UAW over plant closures that led to the creation of Saturn, and that early extension of the contract was permissible given the number of bidding, existing UAW members. But these victories were uncommon for the UAW under Bieber. When the union began an organizing drive at a Honda-owned manufacturing plant in Ohio in late 1985, most workers wore anti-UAW buttons and it dropped the organizing campaign before the end of the year. In a speech after winning reelection in 1986, Bieber pledged to organize many Japanese-owned plants in the U.S. In 1988, the UAW targeted a Nissan Motors plant in Tennessee, but the organizing drive sputtered and workers voted not to organize with the union in July 1989. Bieber later called these his "most painful" experiences as UAW president.
By the time Bieber left office, UAW membership had fallen to just 800,000.
Loss of the Canadian Autoworkers Union
During Bieber's tenure in office, the Canadian branch of the UAW broke off and formed an independent union, the Canadian Auto Workers (CAW).
Economic dislocations in the United States and Canada enhanced militancy in the Canadian branch of the UAW. Many Canadian labor unions had long advocated syndicalism, in which democratic labor unions and federations of labor unions control corporations in favor of community needs. Left-wing labor leaders grew in power within the Canadian UAW throughout the 1970s, and many Canadian union members increasingly perceived their unions as vehicles for political power and control. Throughout the 1970s, Canadian unions engaged in a series of lengthy, often bitter strikes (including a general strike in 1976) in which union members confronted large numbers of police defending corporate interests. In 1978, Bob White, a militant syndicalist, was elected Director of the Canadian UAW. Through the 1960s and 1970s, Canadian autoworkers had struggled to achieve pay parity with their American colleagues (although, with the Canadian dollar at the time worth markedly less than the United States dollar, parity essentially gave Canadian workers a wage advantage). With the onset of the early 1980s recession, the UAW in the United States began granting concessionary contracts to the Big Three automakers. But White refused to engage in concessionary bargaining or to open the Canadian contracts early. The American UAW refused to act when the Big Three began moving plants to non-unionized areas, and soon the American UAW was riven by internal factions which resented the concessions while gaining little job security. The American UAW became further paralyzed because it could not act against non-union plants without angering those workers—workers essential (the UAW leadership felt) to the future growth of the union. Moreover, the Canadian leadership felt that giving in to employer demands for "jointedness" (the term of joint quality committees, work teams, profit sharing, and similar initiatives) encouraged the union to collude with management against workers.
The break began in 1984. That year, the Canadian UAW leadership learned that Bieber had actively resisted and counteracted their attempts to avoid a concessionary contract. The Canadian UAW locals at General Motors rejected the contract negotiated by Bieber and his team, and 36,000 union members went out on strike in October. After two weeks, GM agreed to the Canadian union's demands, which included higher annual wage increases and no work teams, no profit sharing, and no joint labor-management committees. The Canadian locals learned that Bieber had threatened to withdraw authorization for their strike, which would have left them without strike pay. The Canadian strike against GM not only strained relationships between the American and Canadian wings of the UAW, but also put a heavy strain on the union's strike fund. Angry at Bieber's interference, White and the Canadian leadership offered a resolution before the UAW executive board which would have limited American interference in Canadian UAW affairs. White's proposal gave the Canadian leadership exclusive control over collective bargaining and strike authorizations, removed international UAW authority over Canadian staff, and granted the Canadians unrestricted access to the UAW strike fund. Bieber strongly opposed the plan, and the UAW executive board rejected it by a vote of 24-to-1.
On December 10, the Canadian UAW announced it was disaffiliating from the UAW and forming its own union. The international UAW executive board agreed not to interfere with that process. The two unions negotiated an agreement in March 1985 which formally separated the two unions and provided for a division of assets.
Internal dissent
Bieber's 1985 reelection was not without controversy, and the UAW saw its first substantial internal leadership challenges since the 1940s during his presidency.
In 1985, the "New Directions" caucus was formed by UAW local presidents unhappy with the job loss, concessionary bargaining, and "jointedness" being promoted by Bieber and the UAW executive board. It was one of the two most important union reform movements in the American labor movement in the last two decades of the 20th century (the other being Teamsters for a Democratic Union). New Directions leader Jerry Tucker, then Assistant Director of UAW Region 5, ran for office against Region 5 Director Ken Worley in 1986 and lost by two-tenths of a vote in the closest election in union history. Five days into his candidacy, Tucker was fired for disobeying a UAW rule which required staff to take a leave of absence at least 90 days before an election date. Bieber openly supported Worley, and Tucker's supporters alleged that the UAW hierarchy had illegally expended union funds in support of Worley's reelection effort. When Tucker attacked the caucus system of running the union as undemocratic, Bieber angry denounced him and said that Tucker had not only participated in the Administrative Caucus meetings in which Worley was renominated but also knew about the 90-day leave of absence rule and chose to ignore it. Tucker sued to have the rule declared illegal. The election controversy deeply embarrassed Bieber and the UAW (which had long prided itself on its internally democratic procedures). Although Tucker lost his challenge to the 90-day rule, a court held that the UAW had improperly expended union funds to support Worley and had intimidated Tucker's supporters. In a special election held in 1988, Tucker defeated Worley for the Region 5 directorship and joined the UAW executive board.
The dispute over jointedness intensified in the summer of 1985. Bieber negotiated a first contract with Saturn Corp. with extensive consensus decision-making and joint management procedures, one that included union members at the highest levels of management—but a contract which also set wages at only 80 percent of the national auto industry average and which reduced the number of job classifications to just five (enabling the company to move workers around inside the plant much more easily).
The Saturn contract upset many New Directions caucus members, who saw Bieber's advocacy of the contract as another sign of the union's refusal to fight concessions. New Directions members pledged to challenge Bieber's support for "jointedness" at the UAW convention in June 1989. Tucker ran for reelection as Director of Region 5, and ran a candidate for the director of Region 1. Donald Ephlin, Director of the GM Department, retired, claiming exhaustion from the constant battles with the New Directions leadership. Stephen Yokich was named his replacement, which was something of a victory for the New Directions caucus. Bieber mobilized the UAW leadership to defeat Tucker. In an election marred by charges and counter-charges of election fraud, Tucker and the Region 1 candidate both lost by 2-to-1 margins. Bieber strongly criticized the New Directions leadership for not offering concrete alternatives to jointedness, and delivered a strong speech in favor of labor-management cooperation. Bieber's speech had a strong effect on the convention delegates. The delegates easily defeated several procedural votes which would have placed New Directions resolutions on the agenda, and the weakness of the dissidents surprised many observers.
In 1992, Tucker declared the UAW a "bureaucratic one-party state" and announced he would challenge Bieber for the presidency of the UAW. His was the first serious leadership challenge in 40 years. Tucker received only 5 percent of the convention votes, an indication his support may have slipped during the previous three years. The vote was the first roll call vote for president in the union since 1974. That a quarter of the delegates supported New Directions' direct election of the UAW president indicated, however, that the movement still had significant support among a minority of UAW members. New Directions, however, was not able to bring many of its concerns to the convention floor, however. With more than a year to go before collective bargaining with the Big Three began anew, the convention did not address issues such as benefits, job security, and wages.
Retirement and death
"In a decade that was a nightmare for union leaders nationwide", as The New York Times described the 1980s, Bieber's performance at the collective bargaining table was generally considered exceptional. Although he failed to force the Big Three to buy parts only from unionized companies, he was able to resist employer pressure for deep concessions. Bieber himself said his proudest moment came in 1990 with the establishment of the layoff income fund.
But in the final year of his presidency, Bieber appeared exhausted by the duties of office. A reporter for the Detroit Free Press described him as tired and less vocal than he once was, and noted that the 64-year-old Bieber spent as much time as possible at his vacation home.
Bieber retired in 1995, and Stephen Yokich succeeded him as UAW president.
Bieber died on February 17, 2020, at age 90.
Other activities
Bieber was a self-described "staunch Democrat". However, he was unable to achieve agreement within the UAW over which of the many Democratic candidates to support in the presidential primaries. In 1992, Bieber was unable to win AFL-CIO support for a Democratic presidential primary candidate after his preferred candidate, Senator Tom Harkin, withdrew from the race in March 1992.
Bieber was elected to the Executive Council of the AFL-CIO shortly after assuming the UAW presidency, and served as chair of the Committee on Reindustrialization of the AFL-CIO's Industrial Union Department. However, in 1995 he was one of several AFL-CIO presidents who secretly worked to depose Lane Kirkland as president of the labor federation. The night before the AFL-CIO mid-winter executive council meeting in Bal Harbour, Florida, February 19–20, 1995, Bieber joined 11 other union presidents on the executive council to form a "Committee for Change" committed to removing Kirkland as president of the AFL-CIO. The 11 union leaders had enough votes to unseat Kirkland. During the executive council meeting, the group demanded that Kirkland resign or retire, but he refused. Bieber strongly supported the successful candidacy of John Sweeney as his successor. Bieber stepped down as UAW president before the AFL-CIO quadrennial convention in August 1995, however, and left the actual job of electing a successor to Kirkland to Yokich.
Bieber also served on the President's Advisory Committee for Trade Negotiations (an advisory committee of the federal government) and was a long-time member of the National Urban League. He also was a veteran member of the board of directors of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). In this role, Bieber proved critical in the effort to remove William Gibson as chairman of the NAACP. Many members of the NAACP board wished to replace Gibson with Myrlie Evers-Williams, widow of slain civil rights activist Medgar Evers. But Gibson's support on the board was still strong. Evers-Williams' supporters knew that Bieber wanted Gibson removed, but that Bieber rarely attended NAACP board meetings. Evers-Williams' backers persuaded Bieber that his attendance was critical to the vote, and he attended the meeting. Gibson was dismissed as president on February 18, 1995, by a vote of 30 to 29.
Bieber was also heavily involved in his local community as well. He served on the board of directors of Project Rehab (a Michigan-based alcohol and drug rehabilitation service agency), the Michigan League for Human Services, West Michigan Comprehensive Health Planning Unit, the Michigan State Health Advisory Board, and the Michigan State Mental Health Board. He also was a member of the Personnel and Labor Advisory Council of Grand Valley State College.
See also
Final Offer, an award-winning film about the 1984 GM negotiations and the formation of the Canadian Auto Workers.
Roger & Me, a 1989 film about the impact General Motors' restructuring efforts had on the city of Flint, Michigan.
Notes
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External links
UAW Web site
1929 births
2020 deaths
American trade unionists of German descent
Presidents of the United Auto Workers
People from Allegan County, Michigan
Michigan Democrats
Trade unionists from Michigan
Vice presidents of the AFL–CIO
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darren%20McFadden
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Darren McFadden
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Darren McFadden (born August 27, 1987) is an American former professional football player who was a running back in the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the Arkansas Razorbacks and was selected by the Oakland Raiders in the first round with the fourth overall pick of the 2008 NFL Draft. He also played three seasons for the Dallas Cowboys.
At Arkansas, McFadden had a decorated career, twice finishing as a finalist for the Heisman Trophy and as a consensus member of the All-American team. He was highly touted coming out of school, and was picked fourth overall by the Raiders. McFadden struggled with consistency through his career, only rushing for over 1,000 yards twice and never started all 16 games of a season. He retired mid-way through the 2017 NFL season, and was voted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 2019.
Early life
McFadden was born in Little Rock, Arkansas on August 27, 1987, to Gralon McFadden and Mini Muhammad. The tenth of twelve children, he encountered hardships in his early life with some members of his family, including his mother, having addictions to drugs.
He attended Oak Grove High School in North Little Rock, where he was a three-sport star in football, baseball, and track. He played a variety of positions for his football team, but was primarily used as a running back on offense, and a safety on defense. In track & field, he competed as a sprinter and was timed at 10.8 seconds in the 100-meter dash. During his senior season, McFadden was a Parade magazine high school All-American in 2004, as well as the Arkansas High School player of the year for the Arkansas Democrat-Gazette. Following his senior year, he was awarded the prestigious Landers Award, given every year to the top player in the state of Arkansas. McFadden was ranked the number 23 player in the nation by Rivals.com and the number three athlete, and was given a five star rating, the highest star rating. He was a highly recruited prospect, and while he garnered interest from many schools around the Deep South including Tennessee, Alabama, and Auburn, he chose to end the recruiting process early and attend the University of Arkansas.
College career
McFadden received an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Arkansas, where he was a standout running back for coach Houston Nutt's Arkansas Razorbacks football team from 2005 to 2007.
2005 season
McFadden made his Arkansas debut with nine carries for 70 yards and a touchdown in a win over Missouri State in the team's first game. On October 8, he had 11 carries for 125 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in a win over Louisiana-Monroe. In the following week, against Auburn, he had 13 carries for 108 yards and two touchdowns. He had 31 carries for 190 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns on the road against Georgia. McFadden followed the Georgia game with a 32-carry, 187-yard effort against South Carolina. Two weeks later, against Mississippi State, he had 21 carries for 165 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in the victory. McFadden completed his first pass in a Razorback uniform in the game against LSU, when he completed a pass to Marcus Monk for thirteen yards. He was an integral part of an Arkansas offense that ended up going 4–7 with close losses to Georgia and LSU. In 2005, his true freshman season, McFadden rushed for 1,113 yards and 11 touchdowns on 176 attempts.
McFadden ended the season with the most yards a freshman running back had ever gained in an Arkansas uniform, and became only the seventh Southeastern Conference player to rush over 1,000 yards as a freshman. He was recognized at the end of the season as Southeastern Conference (SEC) Freshman of the Year honors by both the SEC Media as well as SEC coaches. McFadden also garnered Freshman All-American nods, and was named as Newcomer of the Year for the Southeastern Conference by ESPN. He continued through spring practice early the next year as the number one running back on the Razorback depth chart, a spot he never relinquished while on campus.
2006 season
In 2006, despite a slow start to the season due to a dislocated toe from an off the field incident at a night club in Little Rock, McFadden rushed for a school-record 1,647 yards, the fifth best all-time in the SEC for single season yards, scored 14 touchdowns, and threw for three more touchdowns on just nine passing attempts, becoming a first-team All-American. He had four games on the season going over 180 rushing yards and four games with multiple rushing touchdowns. McFadden attained a new career high for yards in a single game in his 219-yard performance in a 26–20 win against South Carolina. Thanks to his efforts, Arkansas streaked to ten wins and the SEC Western Division Championship, but lost to Wisconsin in the Capital One Bowl on January 1, 2007, and finished with a record of 10 wins and 4 losses.
On December 6, 2006, McFadden was named one of three finalists for the Heisman Trophy, along with Troy Smith from Ohio State and Brady Quinn from Notre Dame. In the final 2006 Heisman vote, McFadden placed second with 878 points, 1,662 points behind Smith (2,540 points) and ahead of Quinn (782 points), in what is considered by many pundits to be one of the biggest Heisman snubs in history. On December 7, 2006, McFadden became the first sophomore to win the Doak Walker Award, given annually to the nation's top running back. He was also the winner of Jim Brown Trophy in 2006. He was a consensus All-America choice, making the vast majority of teams selected. He won SEC Offensive Player of the Year.
McFadden surpassed Madre Hill as the record holder for most rushing yards in a season at the University of Arkansas in 2006. He was also the centerpiece of the "Wildhog formation," an offensive formation wherein McFadden usually lined up at quarterback position. McFadden often played quarterback in high school, and in the Wildcat formation, he was a threat to throw the ball, to run the ball, or to hand off to another player.
2007 season
Before the 2007 season, McFadden was believed to be one of the top NFL draft picks after the 2007 season if he declared for the 2008 NFL Draft. On Sports Illustrated'''s website, a photo gallery chronicling the best possible candidates in the 2008 draft he was tipped as the number one pick. McFadden was also predicted to be a front-runner for many awards, including the Doak Walker, the Maxwell, and the Walter Camp Player of the Year.
McFadden began the 2007 season with five consecutive games in which he gained at least 120 yards. Highlighting these were a 195-yard effort against Alabama, a 151-yard game against Troy, and a 173-yard effort against Kentucky. After this stretch of games, McFadden looked to be a lock for the Heisman Trophy, at the top of generally every watch list. On November 3, 2007, McFadden tied the Southeastern Conference single-game rushing record held by former Vanderbilt Commodores running back Frank Mordica's 1978 game total versus the Air Force Falcons with 321 yards rushing against South Carolina. On November 23, 2007, McFadden led Arkansas to a 50–48 triple overtime victory over the number one ranked LSU Tigers in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, winning the Battle for the Golden Boot for Arkansas. McFadden rushed 32 times for 206 yards and three touchdowns, and completed three of six pass attempts for 34 yards and a touchdown. After Arkansas lost 38–7 to Missouri in the January 1, 2008 Cotton Bowl Classic in Dallas, Texas, McFadden decided to forgo his senior season and declare for the 2008 NFL Draft on January 14, 2008.
By any measure, McFadden's 2007 season was a success: he was selected as the Sporting News magazine National Player of the Year, was a consensus First-team All-American for the second straight season, won the Doak Walker Award for the second year in a row, was selected as the Southeastern Conference Offensive Player of the Year by SEC coaches, and he was also awarded the Walter Camp Award, given to the nation's best overall player voted on by the Walter Camp Foundation. He ended his junior season with 1,829 yards rushing on 325 carries and 16 rushing touchdowns. He also threw four touchdown passes, and garnered another touchdown receiving. On December 6, 2007, McFadden was announced as the winner of the Walter Camp Award and as the winner of the Doak Walker Award. He became only the second person (along with Ricky Williams) in history to win the Doak Walker Award twice. McFadden finished as the runner-up for the 2007 Heisman Trophy for the second year in a row. He was runner-up to Tim Tebow of the Florida Gators by a margin of 1,957 points to 1,703 points, making him the first person since 1949 to finish second in Heisman voting in consecutive years.
Again, McFadden was the winner of the Jim Brown Trophy, given to the nation's top running back. Additionally, he was also recognized as a unanimous first-team All-American.
McFadden ended his college career as the most decorated player in school history, and holds virtually all of the university's rushing records, and is also in a number of the SEC's all-time top 10 rushing spots. His career total of 4,590 yards ranks third all-time in career rushing yards in the SEC, behind only Herschel Walker and Nick Chubb of Georgia. McFadden finished his career in seventh place for the Southeastern Conference career rushing touchdowns record with 41. McFadden is generally considered to be the best and finest football player in Arkansas Razorbacks football history, and is certainly the most decorated.
In late December 2007, sports agent and former Arkansas track and field athlete Mike Conley, Sr. was accused by KARK-TV in Little Rock, Arkansas of purchasing a Cadillac Escalade for McFadden, which would have jeopardized McFadden's status as an amateur athlete for the 2008 Cotton Bowl Classic and a possible senior season. KARK later retracted the report and apologized to Conley. On March 6, 2008, Electronic Arts announced that McFadden would be cover athlete for the Xbox 360's version of NCAA Football 09.
Career statistics
Professional career
2008 NFL Draft
At the NFL Scouting Combine in Indianapolis on February 24, 2008, McFadden ran an unofficial time of 4.27 seconds and an official time of 4.33 seconds on the 40-yard dash, which was second among all running backs at the combine to only Chris Johnson, who ran a then-record 4.24. McFadden also reportedly scored a 17 on the Wonderlic exam. McFadden's selection number in the draft was subject to varying speculation. He was criticized for possible character concerns stemming from two nightclub altercations and the hiring of a lawyer to handle his paternity problems.
Oakland Raiders
2008 season
McFadden was drafted by the Oakland Raiders in the first round with the fourth overall pick in the 2008 NFL Draft. The Raiders signed McFadden to a six-year, $60.1 million contract which included US$26 million in guarantees. Contract negotiations were rapid due to Raider fears of a second consecutive contract holdout as was the case with quarterback JaMarcus Russell in 2007.
At training camp, McFadden impressed Raiders coach Lane Kiffin with his ability to take instructions once and seamlessly incorporate them into his game. Media observers considered him the most complete Raiders rookie at this stage since Marcus Allen. On September 8, McFadden made his NFL debut against the Denver Broncos, where he had 46 rushing yards on 9 carries; the Raiders lost the game, 14–41. McFadden scored his first professional touchdown against the Kansas City Chiefs on September 14, 2008, his second NFL game, in which he gained 164 yards on 21 carries. McFadden also suffered an injury to his big toe in this game, which limited him for the next 14 games, including three missed games. On November 23, in a game against the Broncos, McFadden scored two touchdowns, his first multi-touchdown game in his career. He ended the season with 499 yards on 113 attempts, with four touchdowns. He also made 29 receptions for 285 yards. Raiders interim head coach Tom Cable, who took over after Kiffin was fired by owner Al Davis, was criticized for not playing McFadden later in the season. Responding to criticism, Cable stated “Well what really dictated was the rotation we were in, terms of the game, the flow of the game. I think [Justin] Fargas played pretty well. It’s just those situations present themselves." Oakland Tribune'' writer Jerry McDonald responded to Cable's statement, saying "If the flow of the game means keeping McFadden, an excellent receiving back, off the field on third down plays which call for a pass, then the flow needs to be changed by the play-caller."
2009 season
During the 2009 Oakland Raiders campaign, McFadden was bothered by numerous injuries and saw a career low in carries and yardage. McFadden's low point of the season came when he rushed for -2 yards in a 29–6 loss to the Houston Texans on October 4. McFadden finished the season with 104 carries for 357 rushing yards and one rushing touchdown to go along with 21 receptions for 245 receiving yards.
2010 season
McFadden started the 2010 season against the Tennessee Titans on September 12. He rushed for 95 yards on 18 carries. In Week 2, McFadden rushed for 145 yards on 30 carries against the St. Louis Rams. McFadden rushed for 105 yards with a rushing touchdown against the Arizona Cardinals in Week 3. McFadden missed two games due to a hamstring injury on October 3 against the Houston Texans. Upon his return on October 24, 2010, against the division rival Denver Broncos, McFadden carried the ball 16 times for a total of 165 yards and three touchdowns. He also recorded two receptions for 31 yards and a touchdown. McFadden became only the fourth player in franchise history to have four touchdowns in a game. Art Powell, Marcus Allen, and Harvey Williams were the others. He was named AFC Offensive Player of the Week for his game against Denver.
On November 21, in a 35–3 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers, McFadden would rush for only 14 yards. Against the Miami Dolphins on November 28, McFadden struggled again. This time, he rushed for only 2 yards on 8 carries. McFadden would get on track against the San Diego Chargers in Week 13. He rushed for 97 yards on 19 carries. In Week 14 against the Jacksonville Jaguars, he had 209 scrimmage yards (123 rushing, 86 receiving) and three total touchdowns. In the following game against the Denver Broncos, he had 20 carries for 119 rushing yards in the 39–23 victory.
McFadden finished the 2010 season as one of the five most-productive NFL running backs despite playing in only 13 games. He had career highs in rushing (1,157 yards), receiving (506 yards), touchdowns (10 total—7 rushing, 3 receiving), and total yards from scrimmage (1,663 total yards). He had 6 games with at least 100 yards rushing, and a total of 9 games with at least 89 yards rushing. His rushing yards per game (89.0), total scrimmage yards (1,663) and yards per carry (5.2) were all ranked in the top five among NFL running backs. He was ranked 98th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2011.
2011 season
In the Raiders' season opener against the Denver Broncos in Week 1, McFadden rushed for 150 yards on 22 carries. McFadden's 150 yards was the most ever for a Raiders running back in a season opener. The Raiders won the game 23–20. Against the Buffalo Bills in Week 2, McFadden was held to 72 yards with a rushing touchdown on 20 carries, a 3.6 average. However, McFadden found other ways to help the Raiders. He caught seven passes for 71 yards and scored a receiving touchdown. However, the Raiders lost the game 38–35. Against the New York Jets in Week 3, McFadden rushed for 171 yards, a new career high, on 19 carries to help the Raiders win 34–24. In the process, McFadden scored two rushing touchdowns. McFadden became the third running back to rush for 100 or more yards against the Jets in the Rex Ryan era. McFadden's performance earned him FedEx Ground NFL Player of the Week and AFC Offensive Player of the Week. Against the Cleveland Browns in week 6, McFadden rushed for 91 yards on 20 carries, a 4.6 average, and a rushing touchdown in the 24–17 victory.
By the end of Week 6, McFadden was leading the league in rushing with 610 yards, as well as contributing 19 receptions for 154 yards, and the Raiders were 4–2. In Week 7 against the Kansas City Chiefs, however, McFadden had to leave the game after two runs due to an aggravation of his chronic foot condition and was shut down for the remainder of the season. He was ranked 60th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2012.
2012 season
McFadden returned for the 2012 season, but struggled throughout the year and finished with 216 carries for 707 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns in 12 games. He did lead the Raiders in rushing, and he recorded three 100-plus-yard rushing performances. His difficulty was attributed to his continued injury problems, as he missed another four games during the season, and the return of the zone-blocking scheme that McFadden struggled with in his first two years with the Raiders.
2013 season
In Week 2 of the 2013 season, against the Jacksonville Jaguars, McFadden had 19 carries for 129 rushing yards in the 19–9 victory. McFadden appeared in 10 games in the 2013 season, having 114 carries for 379 yards (a 3.3 average), along with five touchdowns in a backfield where Rashad Jennings had a majority of the carries.
2014 season
On March 11, 2014, Oakland re-signed McFadden after not re-signing Rashad Jennings. In week 14, against the San Francisco 49ers, he only carried the ball for four carries for five yards. The 2014 season marked as the first time in which Darren McFadden played a full season. He appeared in all 16 games with 12 starts. He finished the year with 155 carries for 534 yards (a 3.4-yard average) and two touchdowns. McFadden saw a decline in his number of carries due to the emergence of second-year running back Latavius Murray.
Dallas Cowboys
2015 season
On March 13, 2015, McFadden signed a two-year deal with the Dallas Cowboys worth up to $5.85 million including a $200,000 bonus, to be one of the candidates to help replace the recently departed DeMarco Murray.
After playing off the bench in a backup role in the first five games of the season, McFadden took over the lead back role in Week 7 against the New York Giants, replacing an injured Joseph Randle and totaling a season-high 152 yards rushing and a touchdown in a road loss. It was his first 100-yard game since 2013 and the first for a Cowboys running back in 2015.
He remained as the starter and finished with 1,089 rushing yards (fourth in the NFL), after only gaining 129 yards in his first five games. For the second time in his career, he was able to play in all 16 games, while posting 1,417 scrimmage yards (4th among running backs), 4.6 yards-per-carry (3rd in the NFL among the 27 running backs with at least 160 carries), five 100-yard rushing games (second in the NFL), 52 rushing first downs (fourth in the NFL), 9 20-plus-yard runs (fourth in the NFL), and 2 40-plus-yard runs (fourth in the NFL). His three rushing touchdowns was second on the team, his 40 receptions was fourth and his 328 receiving yards was second-most in his career for a single season.
McFadden became the first former Razorback running back to register two 1,000-yard rushing seasons in an NFL career. His 100-yard rushing games were against the Giants (152 yards), Philadelphia Eagles (117 yards), Miami Dolphins (129 yards), Green Bay Packers (111 yards), and New York Jets (100 yards). He also had two more games with 100-plus scrimmage yards (113 rushing-plus-receiving yards against the Seattle Seahawks and 145 rushing-plus-receiving yards against Washington).
2016 season
McFadden entered the Organized Team Activities competing for the starting role with rookie Ezekiel Elliott and free agent acquisition Alfred Morris.
On June 14, he underwent surgery after breaking his right elbow in an off-field accident at his home during the Memorial Day weekend, and was placed on the reserve/NFI list during the preseason. The surprising recovery of running back Lance Dunbar from a serious knee injury, made the Cowboys decide to keep McFadden there to start the 2016 season. The success of the team and Elliott, also delayed his activation to the regular season roster until December 13.
He passed Morris on the depth chart as the backup running back, as soon as he incorporated into his role against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, because he was seen as more of a complete player with his blocking and receiving skills. In the season finale against the Philadelphia Eagles, he was named the starter to save Elliott for the playoffs. He finished the season after appearing in three games (one start), with 87 rushing yards and 17 receiving yards.
2017 season
On March 16, McFadden signed a one-year contract extension with the Cowboys. In the preseason, Alfred Morris passed him on the depth chart to become the backup behind Ezekiel Elliott. During the regular season, the Cowboys chose to activate running back Rod Smith instead of McFadden, because he could also play on special teams. On November 26, McFadden asked for his release after being a healthy scratch for all but one game (against the Atlanta Falcons).
Retirement
On November 28, 2017, only two days after his release, McFadden announced his retirement from football after 10 seasons in the NFL.
NFL career statistics
Personal life
In June 2016, McFadden filed a $15 million lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas against his longtime business manager, Michael Vick (no relation to former NFL player of the same name). McFadden alleged that Vick defrauded him and misappropriated funds, including $3 million lost in a bitcoin-related business venture.
As of 2020, McFadden has five children with three different women. He is now married.
McFadden is an avid rabbit hunter.
Legal issues
On January 21, 2019, McFadden was arrested for drunk driving and resisting arrest in a Dallas Fort-Worth Whataburger parking lot. Police say he had fallen asleep behind the wheel of a 2019 GMC Yukon in the Whataburger drive-thru. During the incident, cops say McFadden was resisting officers, after which they took him to a nearby station where he was booked for DWI and resisting arrest. He was released on bond a short time later. He pleaded guilty to DWI on February 14, 2020, and was sentenced to four days in jail.
References
External links
Arkansas Razorbacks bio
1987 births
Living people
American football running backs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20military%20technology
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History of military technology
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The military funding of science has had a powerful transformative effect on the practice and products of scientific research since the early 20th century. Particularly since World War I, advanced science-based technologies have been viewed as essential elements of a successful military.
World War I is often called "the chemists' war", both for the extensive use of poison gas and the importance of nitrates and advanced high explosives. Poison gas, beginning in 1915 with chlorine from the powerful German dye industry, was used extensively by the Germans and the British ; over the course of the war, scientists on both sides raced to develop more and more potent chemicals and devise countermeasures against the newest enemy gases. Physicists also contributed to the war effort, developing wireless communication technologies and sound-based methods of detecting U-boats, resulting in the first tenuous long-term connections between academic science and the military.
World War II marked a massive increase in the military funding of science, particularly physics. In addition to the Manhattan Project and the resulting atomic bomb, British and American work on radar was widespread and ultimately highly influential in the course of the war; radar enabled detection of enemy ships and aircraft, as well as the radar-based proximity fuze. Mathematical cryptography, meteorology, and rocket science were also central to the war effort, with military-funded wartime advances having a significant long-term effect on each discipline. The technologies employed at the end—jet aircraft, radar and proximity fuzes, and the atomic bomb—were radically different from pre-war technology; military leaders came to view continued advances in technology as the critical element for success in future wars. The advent of the Cold War solidified the links between military institutions and academic science, particularly in the United States and the Soviet Union, so that even during a period of nominal peace military funding continued to expand. Funding spread to the social sciences as well as the natural sciences. Emerging fields such as digital computing, were born of military patronage. Following the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, military funding of science has decreased substantially, but much of the American military-scientific complex remains in place.
The sheer scale of military funding for science since World War II has instigated a large body of historical literature analyzing the effects of that funding, especially for American science. Since Paul Forman's 1987 article "Behind quantum electronics: National security as a basis for physical research in the United States, 1940-1960," there has been an ongoing historical debate over precisely how and to what extent military funding affected the course of scientific research and discovery. Forman and others have argued that military funding fundamentally redirected science—particularly physics—toward applied research, and that military technologies predominantly formed the basis for subsequent research even in areas of basic science; ultimately the very culture and ideals of science were colored by extensive collaboration between scientists and military planners. An alternate view has been presented by Daniel Kevles, that while military funding provided many new opportunities for scientists and dramatically expanded the scope of physical research, scientists by-and-large retained their intellectual autonomy.
Science and military technology before the modern era
While there were numerous instances of military support for scientific work before the 20th century, these were typically isolated instances; knowledge gained from technology was generally far more important for the development of science than scientific knowledge was to technological innovation. Thermodynamics, for example, is a science partly born from military technology: one of the many sources of the first law of thermodynamics was Count Rumford's observation of the heat produced by boring cannon barrels. Mathematics was important in the development of the Greek catapult and other weapons, but analysis of ballistics was also important for the development of mathematics, while Galileo tried to promote the telescope as a military instrument to the military-minded Republic of Venice before turning it to the skies while seeking the patronage of the Medici court in Florence. In general, craft-based innovation, disconnected from the formal systems of science, was the key to military technology well into the 19th century.
Even craft-based military technologies were not generally produced by military funding. Instead, craftsmen and inventors developed weapons and military tools independently and actively sought the interest of military patrons afterward. Following the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, governments and military leaders did try to harness the methods of both science and engineering for more specific ends, but frequently without success. In the decades leading up to the French Revolution, French artillery officers were often trained as engineers, and military leaders from this mathematical tradition attempted to transform the process of weapons manufacture from a craft-based enterprise to an organized and standardized system based on engineering principles and interchangeable parts (pre-dating the work of Eli Whitney in the U.S.). During the Revolution, even natural scientists participated directly, attempting to create “weapons more powerful than any we possess” to aid the cause of the new French Republic, though there were no means for the revolutionary army to fund such work. Each of these efforts, however, was ultimately unsuccessful in producing militarily useful results. A slightly different outcome came from the longitude prize of the 18th century, offered by the British government for an accurate method of determining a ship's longitude at sea (essential for the safe navigation of the powerful British navy): intended to promote—and financially reward—a scientific solution, it was instead won by a scientific outsider, the clockmaker John Harrison. However, the naval utility of astronomy did help increase the number of capable astronomers and focus research on developing more powerful and versatile instruments.
Through the 19th century, science and technology grew closer together, particularly through electrical and acoustic inventions and the corresponding mathematical theories. The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a trend toward military mechanization, with the advent of repeating rifles with smokeless powder, long-range artillery, high explosives, machine guns, and mechanized transport along with telegraphic and later wireless battlefield communication. Still, independent inventors, scientists and engineers were largely responsible for these drastic changes in military technology (with the exception of the development of battleships, which could only have been created through organized large-scale effort).
World War I and the interwar years
World War I marked the first large-scale mobilization of science for military purposes. Prior to the war, the American military ran a few small laboratories as well as the Bureau of Standards, but independent inventors and industrial firms predominated. Similarly in Europe, military-directed scientific research and development was minimal. The powerful new technologies that led to trench warfare, however, reversed the traditional advantage of fast-moving offensive tactics; fortified positions supported by machine guns and artillery resulted in high attrition but strategic stalemate. Militaries turned to scientists and engineers for even newer technologies, but the introduction of tanks and aircraft had only a marginal impact; the use of poison gas made a tremendous psychological impact, but decisively favored neither side. The war ultimately turned on maintaining adequate supplies of materials, a problem also addressed by military-funded science—and, through the international chemical industry, closely related to the advent of chemical warfare.
The Germans introduced gas as a weapon in part because naval blockades limited their supply of nitrate for explosives, while the massive German dye industry could easily produce chlorine and organic chemicals in large amounts. Industrial capacity was completely mobilized for war, and Fritz Haber and other industrial scientists were eager to contribute to the German cause; soon they were closely integrated into the military hierarchy as they tested the most effective ways of producing and delivering weaponized chemicals. Though the initial impetus for gas warfare came from outside the military, further developments in chemical weapon technology might be considered military-funded, considering the blurring of lines between industry and nation in Germany.
Following the first chlorine attack by the Germans in May 1915, the British quickly moved to recruit scientists for developing their own gas weapons. Gas research escalated on both sides, with chlorine followed by phosgene, a variety of tear gases, and mustard gas. A wide array of research was conducted on the physiological effects of other gases, such and hydrogen cyanide, arsenic compounds, and a host of complex organic chemicals. The British built from scratch what became an expansive research facility at Porton Down, which remains a significant military research institution into the 21st century. Unlike many earlier military-funded scientific ventures, the research at Porton Down did not stop when the war ended or an immediate goal was achieved. In fact, every effort was made to create an attractive research environment for top scientists, and chemical weapons development continued apace—though in secret—through the interwar years and into World War II. German military-backed gas warfare research did not resume until the Nazi era, following the 1936 discovery of tabun, the first nerve agent, through industrial insecticide research.
In the United States, the established tradition of engineering was explicitly competing with the rising discipline of physics for World War I military largess. A host of inventors, led by Thomas Edison and his newly created Naval Consulting Board, cranked out thousands of inventions to solve military problems and aid the war effort, while academic scientists worked through the National Research Council (NRC) led by Robert Millikan. Submarine detection was the most important problem that both the physicists and inventors hoped to solve, as German U-boats were decimating the crucial naval supply lines from the U.S. to England. Edison's Board produced very few useful innovations, but NRC research resulted in a moderately successful sound-based methods for locating submarines and hidden ground-based artillery, as well as useful navigational and photographic equipment for aircraft. Because of the success of academic science in solving specific military problems, the NRC was retained after the war's end, though it gradually decoupled from the military.
Many industrial and academic chemists and physicists came under military control during the Great War, but post-war research by the Royal Engineers Experimental Station at Porton Down and the continued operation of the National Research Council were exceptions to the overall pattern; wartime chemistry funding was a temporary redirection of a field largely driven by industry and later medicine, while physics grew closer to industry than to the military. The discipline of modern meteorology, however, was largely built from military funding. During World War I, the French civilian meteorological infrastructure was largely absorbed into the military. The introduction of military aircraft during the war as well as the role of wind and weather in the success or failure of gas attacks meant meteorological advice was in high demand. The French army (among others) created its own supplementary meteorological service as well, retraining scientists from other fields to staff it. At war's end, the military continued to control French meteorology, sending weathermen to French colonial interests and integrating weather service with the growing air corps; most of the early-twentieth century growth in European meteorology was the direct result of military funding. World War II would result in a similar transformation of American meteorology, initiating a transition from an apprenticeship system for training weathermen (based on intimate knowledge of local trends and geography) to the university-based, science-intensive system that has predominated since.
World War II
If World War I was the chemists' war, World War II was the physicists' war. As with other total wars, it is difficult to draw a line between military funding and more spontaneous military-scientific collaboration during World War II. Well before the Invasion of Poland, nationalism was a powerful force in the German physics community (see Deutsche Physik); the military mobilization of physicists was all but irresistible after the rise of National Socialism. German and Allied investigations of the possibility of a nuclear bomb began in 1939 at the initiative of civilian scientists, but by 1942 the respective militaries were heavily involved. The German nuclear energy project had two independent teams, a civilian-controlled team under Werner Heisenberg and a military-controlled led by Kurt Diebner; the latter was more explicitly aimed at producing a bomb (as opposed to a power reactor) and received much more funding from the Nazis, though neither was ultimately successful.
In the U.S., the Manhattan Project and other projects of the Office of Scientific Research and Development resulted in a much more extensive military-scientific venture, the scale of which dwarfed previous military-funded research projects. Theoretical work by a number of British and American scientists resulted in significant optimism about the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction. As the physicists convinced military leaders of the potential of nuclear weapons, funding for actual development was ratcheted up rapidly. A number of large laboratories were created across the United States for work on different aspects of the bomb, while many existing facilities were reoriented to bomb-related work; some were university-managed while others were government-run, but all were ultimately funded and directed by the military. The May 1945 surrender of Germany, the original intended target for the bomb, did virtually nothing to slow the project's momentum. After Japan's surrender immediately following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, many scientists returned to academia or industry, but the Manhattan Project infrastructure was too large—and too effective—to be dismantled wholesale; it became the model for future military-scientific work, in the U.S. and elsewhere.
Other wartime physics research, particularly in rocketry and radar technology, was less significant in popular culture but much more significant for the outcome of the war. German rocketry was driven by the pursuit of Wunderwaffen, resulting in the V-2 ballistic missile; the technology as well as the personal expertise of the German rocketry community was absorbed by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. rocket programs after the war, forming the basis of long-term military funded rocketry, ballistic missile, and later space research. Rocket science was only beginning to make impact by the final years of the war. German rockets created fear and destruction in London, but had only modest military significance, while air-to-ground rockets enhanced the power of American air strikes; jet aircraft also went into service by the end of the war. Radar work before and during the war provided even more of an advantage for the Allies. British physicists pioneered long-wave radar, developing an effective system for detecting incoming German air forces. Work on potentially more precise short-wave radar was turned over to the U.S.; several thousand academic physicists and engineers not participating the Manhattan Project did radar work, particularly at MIT and Stanford, resulting in microwave radar systems that could resolve more detail in incoming flight formations. Further refinement of microwave technology led to proximity fuzes, which greatly enhanced the ability of the U.S. Navy to defend against Japanese bombers. Microwave production, detection and manipulation also formed the technical foundation to complement the institutional foundation of the Manhattan Project in much post-war defense research.
American Cold War science
In the years immediately following World War II, the military was by far the most significant patron of university science research in the U.S., and the national labs also continued to flourish. After two years in political limbo (but with work on nuclear power and bomb manufacture continuing apace) the Manhattan Project became a permanent arm of the government as the Atomic Energy Commission. The Navy—inspired by the success of military-directed wartime research—created its own R&D organization, the Office of Naval Research, which would preside over an expanded long-term research program at Naval Research Laboratory as well as fund a variety of university-based research. Military money following up the wartime radar research led to explosive growth in both electronics research and electronics manufacturing. The Air Force became an independent service branch from the Army and established its own research and development system, and the Army followed suit (though it was less invested in academic science than the Navy or Air Force). Meanwhile, the perceived communist menace of the Soviet Union caused tensions—and military budgets—to escalate rapidly.
The Department of Defense primarily funded what has been broadly described as “physical research,” but to reduce this to merely chemistry and physics is misleading. Military patronage benefited a large number of fields, and in fact helped create a number of the modern scientific disciplines. At Stanford and MIT, for example, electronics, aerospace engineering, nuclear physics, and materials science—all physics, broadly speaking—each developed in different directions, becoming increasingly independent of parent disciplines as they grew and pursued defense-related research agendas. What began as interdepartmental laboratories became the centers for graduate teaching and research innovation thanks to the broad scope of defense funding. The need to keep up with corporate technology research (which was receiving the lion's share of defense contracts) also prompted many science labs to establish close relationships with industry.
Computing
The complex histories of computer science and computer engineering were shaped, in the first decades of digital computing, almost entirely by military funding. Most of the basic component technologies for digital computing were developed through the course of the long-running Whirlwind-SAGE program to develop an automated radar shield. Virtually unlimited funds enabled two decades of research that only began producing useful technologies by the end of the 50s; even the final version of the SAGE command and control system had only marginal military utility. More so than with previously established disciplines receiving military funding, the culture of computer science was permeated with a Cold War military perspective. Indirectly, the ideas of computer science also had a profound effect on psychology, cognitive science and neuroscience through the mind-computer analogy.
Geosciences and astrophysics
The history of earth science and the history of astrophysics were also closely tied to military purposes and funding throughout the Cold War. American geodesy, oceanography, and seismology grew from small sub-disciplines in into full-fledged independent disciplines as for several decades, virtually all funding in these fields came from the Department of Defense. A central goal that tied these disciplines together (even while providing the means for intellectual independence) was the figure of the Earth, the model of the earth's geography and gravitation that was essential for accurate ballistic missiles. In the 1960s, geodesy was the superficial goal of the satellite program CORONA, while military reconnaissance was in fact a driving force. Even for geodetic data, new secrecy guidelines worked to restrict collaboration in a field that had formerly been fundamentally international; the Figure of the Earth had geopolitical significance beyond questions of pure geoscience. Still, geodesists were able to retain enough autonomy and subvert secrecy limitations enough to make use of the findings of their military research to overturn some of the fundamental theories of geodesy. Like geodesy and satellite photography research, the advent of radio astronomy had a military purpose hidden beneath official astrophysical research agenda. Quantum electronics permitted both revolutionary new methods of analyzing the universe and—using the same equipment and technology—the monitoring of Soviet electronic signals.
Military interest in (and funding of) seismology, meteorology and oceanography was in some ways a result of the defense-related payoffs of physics and geodesy. The immediate goal of funding in these fields was to detect clandestine nuclear testing and track fallout radiation, a necessary precondition for treaties to limit the nuclear weapon technology earlier military research had created. In particular, the feasibility of monitoring underground nuclear explosions was crucial to the possibility of a comprehensive rather than Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. But the military-funded growth of these disciplines continued even when no pressing military goals were driving them; as with other natural sciences, the military also found value in having ‘scientists on tap' for unforeseen future R&D needs.
Biological sciences
The biological sciences were also affected by military funding, but, with the exception of nuclear physics-related medical and genetic research, largely indirectly. The most significant funding sources for basic research before the rise of the military-industrial-academic complex were philanthropic organizations such as the Rockefeller Foundation. After World War II (and to some extent before), the influx of new industrial and military funding opportunities for the physical sciences prompted philanthropies to divest from physics research—most early work in high-energy physics and biophysics had been the product of foundation grants—and refocus on biological and medical research.
The social sciences also found limited military support from the 1940s to the 1960s, but much defense-minded social science research could be—and was—pursued without extensive military funding. In the 1950s, social scientists tried to emulate the interdisciplinary organizational success of the physical sciences' Manhattan Project with the synthetic behavioral science movement. Social scientists actively sought to promote their usefulness to the military, researching topics related to propaganda (put to use in Korea), decision making, the psychological and sociological causes and effects of communism, and a broad constellation of other topics of Cold War significance. By the 1960s, economists and political scientists offered up modernization theory for the cause of Cold War nation-building; modernization theory found a home in the military in the form of Project Camelot, a study of the process of revolution, as well as in the Kennedy administration's approach to the Vietnam War. Project Camelot was ultimately canceled because of the concerns it raised about scientific objectivity in the context of such a politicized research agenda; though natural sciences were not yet susceptible to implications of the corrupting influence of military and political factors, the social sciences were.
Historical debate
Historian Paul Forman, in his seminal 1987 article, proposed that not only had military funding of science greatly expanded the scope and significance of American physics, it also initiated "a qualitative change in its purposes and character." Historians of science were beginning to turn to the Cold War relationship between science and the military for detailed study, and Forman's “distortionist critique” (as Roger Geiger has described it) served to focus the ensuing debates.
Forman and others (e.g., Robert Seidel, Stuart Leslie, and for the history of the social sciences, Ron Robin) view the influx of military money and the focus on applied rather than basic research as having had, at least partially, a negative impact on the course of subsequent research. In turn, critics of the distortionist thesis, beginning with Daniel Kevles, deny that the military "seduced American physicists from, so to speak, a 'true basic physics'." Kevles, as well as Geiger, instead view the effects of military funding relative to such funding simply being absent—rather than put to alternate scientific use.
Most recent scholarship has moved toward a tempered version of Forman's thesis, in which scientists retained significant autonomy despite the radical changes brought about by military funding.
See also
History of weapons
Big Science
Funding of science
Historiography of science
History of radar
History of science and technology
History of technology
Military-industrial complex
Military science
Military technology
Military medicine
Military Wireless Museum in the Midlands
External links
Notes and references
Further reading
Andrade, Tonio. The gunpowder age: China, military innovation, and the rise of the West in world history (Princeton University Press, 2017).
Barrett, Ann H., and Armand Vincent Cardello. Military food engineering and ration technology (DEStech Publications, 2012) online
Bolia, Robert, et al. "A history lesson on the use of technology to support military decision making and command and control." in Decision making in complex environments (CRC Press, 2017) pp. 191–200. online
Bousquet, Antoine. "A revolution in military affairs?: Changing technologies and changing practices of warfare." in Technology and World Politics (Routledge, 2017) pp. 165–181.
Burmaoglu, Serhat, and Ozcan Sarıtas. "Changing characteristics of warfare and the future of Military R&D." Technological Forecasting and Social Change 116 (2017): 151–161. online
Chin, Warren. "Technology, war and the state: past, present and future." International Affairs 95.4 (2019): 765–783. online
DeVries, Kelly Robert, Kelly DeVries, and Robert Douglas Smith. Medieval military technology ( University of Toronto Press, 2012) online.
Evangelista, Matthew. Innovation and the arms race: How the United States and the Soviet Union develop new military technologies (Cornell University Press, 2020). online
Gabriel, Richard A. Between flesh and steel: A history of military medicine from the middle ages to the war in Afghanistan (Potomac Books, 2013) online.
Horowitz, Michael C., and Shira Pindyck. "What is a military innovation and why it matters." Journal of Strategic Studies (2022): 1-30. online
Kuo, Kendrick. "Military Innovation and Technological Determinism: British and US Ways of Carrier Warfare, 1919–1945." Journal of Global Security Studies 6.3 (2021): ogaa046.
McNeill, William H. The pursuit of power: Technology, armed force, and society since AD 1000 (University of Chicago Press, 1982), a major scholarly survey online
Nicholson, Helen J. Medieval warfare: theory and practice of war in Europe, 300-1500 (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017) online.
Piehler, G. Kurt, ed. Encyclopedia of military science (Sage Publications, 2013).
Purton, Peter Fraser. The Medieval Military Engineer: From the Roman Empire to the Sixteenth Century (Boydell & Brewer, 2018).
Turchin, Peter, et al. "Rise of the war machines: Charting the evolution of military technologies from the Neolithic to the Industrial Revolution." PloS one 16.10 (2021): e0258161. online
Van Creveld, Martin. Transformation of war (Simon and Schuster, 2009). online
Military technology
Funding
Military technology
Military economics
Military–industrial complex
Technology
Politics of science
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalife
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Generalife
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The Generalife (; ) was a summer palace and country estate of the Nasrid rulers of the Emirate of Granada in Al-Andalus. It is located directly east of and uphill from the Alhambra palace complex in Granada, Spain.
Etymology
The most commonly cited etymology for the name "Generalife" is that it derives from jannat al-‘arīf () which may variously mean "Garden of the Architect", "Garden of the Artist", "Garden of the Gnostic", or even "Garden of the Flautist". According to Robert Irwin, however, this traditional etymology is unlikely and the true origin of the name is not clearly known. An earlier version of the name recorded in the 16th century by Marmol was Ginalarife, which J.D. Latham suggests is evidence that the first word was originally jinan (; a plural version derived from the same root), not jannat.
The original name of the Generalife may have simply been the equivalent of "Principal Orchard". An ornamental inscription by Ibn al-Yayyab inside the palace names it as the Dar al-Mamlakat as-Sa'ida ("House of the Felicitous Kingdom").
History
Nasrid period
In the Nasrid period, the Generalife was an almunia (from Arabic al-munya, meaning "farm"), a country villa that was used both as a private retreat by elites as well as a farming estate with agricultural functions. The creation of such rural estates and gardens by rulers and elites in al-Andalus dated back to the Umayyad period (8th-10th centuries). Such estates are also found in some historic cities of North Africa, such as the Agdal Gardens of Marrakesh, which have survived to the present day. Their existence in Granada is recorded as early as the Zirid period (11th century). Other Nasrid-period examples of this type were located on the nearby mountainside, such as the Alijares Palace and the Dar al-'Arusa (both probably from the 14th century), as well as in other parts of Granada, such as the Alcázar Genil and the Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo (both from the 13th century, the former being originally an Almohad construction).
Based on the oldest decorations studied in the palace, the Generalife was most likely constructed by Muhammad II (r. 1273–1302) at the end of the 13th century, or possibly by Muhammad III (r. 1302–1309) at the beginning of the 14th century. Even if he did not begin its construction, Muhammad III at least contributed to some of its early decoration and he was responsible for adding the mirador chamber in the palace's northern pavilion. Later Nasrid rulers carried out their own works on it in turn. According to an inscription, it was remodelled and redecorated soon after by Isma'il I in 1319. Several inscriptions around the entrance to the Salón Regio were composed by Ibn al-Jayyab, Isma'il's vizier and court poet. There is evidence that Muhammad V (ruled 1354–1359 and 1362–1391), who carried out extensive construction inside the Alhambra, also carried out works here. Lastly, Yusuf III (r. 1408–1417) remodelled the southern sections of the palace in the 15th century.
After the Reconquista
After the end of the Reconquista and the beginning of Spanish Christian rule in Granada, the Generalife underwent various changes and additions from the 16th century up the 20th century. Among other changes, the Catholic Monarchs added an upper story to the northern pavilion of the Patio de la Acequia ("Courtyard of the Water Canal") in 1494 while the adjacent Patio de la Sultana ("Courtyard of the Sultana") was completely redesigned in the 16th century. Venetian traveler Andrea Navagero visited the Generalife in 1524–26, providing a description of it before the majority of subsequent Spanish modifications had taken place which has been useful to modern scholars in reconstructing the original appearance of the palace and its gardens.
Théophile Gautier, a mid-19th century visitor, complained that:
The present-day look of the gardens, in particular the Jardines Nuevos ("New Gardens"), is in large part due to Leopoldo Torres Balbás and Francisco Prieto Moreno, who rearranged much of it between 1931 and 1951 and imparted Italian influences on their design. In 1958 a major fire destroyed or damaged much of the northern sections of the Generalife. However, the damage from the fire and the subsequent repairs that were undertaken also allowed for significant excavations to document the original form of the gardens. In the Patio de la Acequia archeologists discovered the original Nasrid-era paved paths and managed to identify the original soil of the Moorish gardens buried under 70 centimeters of newer layers, as well as outlet holes along the sides of the central canal which enabled the gardens to be watered and irrigated. After the excavations, however, this original layer of paths and gardens was covered up again by half a meter of new material, the outlet holes were sealed, and modern gardens were replanted with flora that had no botanical relation to the original Moorish gardens. The overall layout and divisions of the space, however, still preserve the original arrangement. More recent restorations of the gardens were more closely based on an analysis of the garden's original flora.
Since 1984 the Generalife has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with the Alhambra.
Description
The present-day site
The Generalife today includes a mix of original Nasrid-period elements as well as extensive modern elements (especially in the appearance of the gardens). The walkways are paved in traditional Granadian style with a mosaic of pebbles: white ones from the River Darro and black ones from the River Genil.
The outer gardens
The Generalife gardens occupy three large terraces on the hillside, each measuring about wide by long. The two lower terraces, on the southwest side, are occupied by market gardens and orchards. Known today as Las Huertas, these gardens have served this purpose since the 14th century. The highest terrace is occupied by the Jardines Nuevos ("New Gardens"), a series of 20th-century gardens that form the main approach to the historic palaces today. The southern part of this garden area was designed by Francisco Prieto Moreno and finished in 1951. It includes walls formed by trimmed cypress trees and a large cruciform pool inspired by Islamic/Moorish gardens, along with other decorative plants. An open-air theatre was also added here in 1952. The northern part of the gardens, which features a rose bush labyrinth, was designed by Leopoldo Torres Balbás in 1931.
The main palace
The Generalife Palace itself stands on a fourth terrace above and north of the outer gardens. Several smaller garden terraces also climb the hillside above this, with some auxiliary buildings are located. The core of the palace complex is centered on the Patio de la Acequia ("Courtyard of the Water Canal"), the largest structure. The courtyard is about four times as long as it is wide, measuring . It is entered via a smaller courtyard, the Patio de Polo, on its south side, which in turn is accessed through another minor courtyard, known as the Dismounting Courtyard. The word acequia is derived from the Arabic word al-saqiya, meaning a water canal or water supply. The building is arranged around a long interior courtyard, occupied by a garden which is split into four equal elongated flowerbeds. This type of garden with a four-part division has its historical roots in the Persian chahar bagh-type gardens, a model which spread westward across the Islamic world and is also found in the various riyad gardens of Al-Andalus and the Maghreb. Between these, along the courtyard's long axis, runs a water channel or pool lined on either side with water jets spouting water across the pool. On the courtyard's short axis is a paved path. At the middle of this path, in the axial center of the courtyard, is a paved platform, which originally would have had its own central fountain. Today, two fountains, consisting of a low round water basin with a central spout, are located at the north and south ends of the water channel. Aligned with the middle of the courtyard is also a small belvedere or mirador (lookout) chamber that projects outward from the western wall of the garden. The square chamber measures per side and its interior is decorated with carved stucco. This is probably the earliest known mirador in Nasrid architecture, establishing a feature that appeared in many subsequent palaces.
The Patio de la Acequia is framed by pavilion-like structures at its north and south ends. To the south, the Pabellón Sur ("South Pavilion") is a two-floor structure with a portico fronting its courtyard side and is less well-preserved than the north pavilion. The north pavilion was originally called Majlis al-Akbari (meaning roughly "the Main Hall") or Majlis al-'As'adi ("the Fortunate Hall") in Arabic. is preceded by a portico of five arches with a larger central arch. The arches feature richly-carved stucco decoration with a sebka motif and bands of cursive Arabic inscriptions. Behind the arches is a roofed gallery space covered by a wooden ceiling of octagonal coffers. This gallery leads to another chamber, known as the Salón Regio (Royal Chamber), via a stucco-decorated entrance of three arches. The chamber is covered by another wooden ceiling. The arches and upper walls in the chamber are covered with more stucco decoration, including an upper frieze of muqarnas (or mocárabes) sculpting. At the middle of the northern side of the chamber is a tower incorporating a mirador chamber with more intricate stucco decoration. This mirador provides views of the Albaicín from windows on three sides.
Directly above Patio de la Acequia, on its northeast side, is the Patio de la Sultana or Patio del Ciprés de la Sultana ("Courtyard of the Sultana" or "Courtyard of the Cypresses of the Sultana"). Occupied by pools, gardens, and paved paths, this courtyard's current design and construction date from after the Nasrid period. The arcaded structure on its north side was built between 1584 and 1586.
The Water Stairway and the upper gardens
Above the Patio de la Sultana in turn is the celebrated Water Stairway or Escalera del Agua, a four-flight staircase whose balustrades on either side are carved with water channels that run along their top and along the entire length of the staircase. The flights of the stairway are interrupted by small circular terraces or landings at the middle of which are fountains. At the top of the stairway is a small 19th century pavilion known as the Romantic Pavilion (Pabellón Romántico). Next to the Stairway and to the Patio de la Sultana are the High Gardens or Jardines Altos, arranged across several terraces climbing up the hillside. At the southeast end of the gardens and of the main palace structure is the Paseo de las Adelfas ("Walk of the Oleanders"), which today is the path used by visitors to exit the Generalife.
Original form under Nasrid rule
Overall layout
The palace and the gardens were originally used as a private retreat and summer palace for the Nasrid rulers and their family, away from the official business that took place in the Alhambra. The grounds were originally enclosed by a long wall, no longer present. In this regard, it was similar in function to other such royal countryside estates that had existed as far back as the early Umayyad emirate (8th-10th centuries) of Cordoba. Much like these other garden estates, it is likely that large parts of the Generalife's grounds would also have been used as orchards, as pasturage for horses, and as kitchen gardens for ingredients. Indeed, one major function of the Generalife's gardens was agricultural production. Two other separate palaces were also built on the same hillside nearby during the Nasrid period: the Alijares Palace and the Dar al-'Arusa, although they were located further east and little remains of them today. The Silla del Moro (the "Seat of the Moor"), a ruined structure today on the hilltop overlooking the Generalife, was once a fort and monitoring post that protected the water supply infrastructure in this area.
Although a main entrance existed for visitors at the southern end of the grounds, the Nasrid rulers could reach the Generalife palace directly from the Alhambra through a private covered passage, partly sunken and hidden between walls, that crossed the ravine between them. This passage, which still mostly exists today, began at the Torre de los Picos on the Alhambra side and crossed the orchards and market gardens until it reached the Generalife Palace through a group of fortified towers at the palace's southwestern end, granting direct entry into what is now the Patio de Polo. Roughly halfway along this passage was a small irregular courtyard with a watering trough for animals. A lower gate along the same passage also granted direct access to the market gardens.
The palace complex
The Patio de la Acequia, the Patio de la Sultana, and the Water Stairway (Escalera del Agua) all existed in the Nasrid period before the 16th century, although the Patio de la Sultana has been completely remade since then. The Patio de la Acequia retains significant original elements alongside later modifications. Its gardens are modern replacements but they follow the original layout: a quadripartite division with a central water channel running down its long middle axis. The pavilion structure at the southern end of the courtyard, the Pabellón Sur ("Southern Pavilion"), has been the most heavily modified section, but was originally part of the main residence for the ruler and his family. The southwestern wall of the gardens, which today consists of an open gallery passage lined with windows overlooking the Alhambra, was originally a much taller wall with no windows, making the garden much more private. A short portion of the original wall, still covered with decoration, still exists at the northern end. The mirador (lookout pavilion) at the middle of the wall, however, with its low windows and interior stucco decoration, did exist in the original wall and allowed for views onto the outside. The northern pavilion of the courtyard, which contains the Salón Regio, preserves more of its original elements. The projecting tower on its north side, which includes another mirador chamber with original stucco decoration, was added by Isma'il I in 1319. However, the current upper story of the pavilion, consisting of an open gallery, was added by the Catholic Monarchs in 1494.
The Generalife had all the required amenities of a full self-contained private palace. These included a bathhouse and a prayer room, whose remains were excavated after the 1958 fire. The bathhouse was likely located close to the present-day Patio de la Sultana, where remains of its hypocaust system and of a large water channel were uncovered. The prayer room, which is mentioned in 16th-century sources, likely stood on the site of the small present-day pavilion known as the Romantic Pavilion (Pabellón Romántico), located at the top of the Water Stairway. Old foundations were discovered here under the current structure which was built in 1836.
The original gardens of the palace had very little botanical relation to the present-day gardens which reflect 19th-century and 20th-century Spanish tastes. Thanks to the early 16th-century descriptions of Navagero and to the 1958 excavations, the original characteristics of the gardens are known. In the Patio de la Acequia the flower beds were sunken below the level of the surrounding walkways. The beds were not very deep, indicating that they were planted with relatively low plants like myrtle bushes, although some deeper pits were made to allow for larger plants like orange trees. The fountains of the original Generalife were also different. The lines of water jets in the Patio de la Acequia are not original and were installed in the 19th century. However, jet fountains were probably still present in some parts of the palace. Navagero, for example, described a fountain in one of the lower courtyards (probably the Patio de Polo) which spouted a jet of water ten yards into the air. This has been tentatively corroborated by the remains of the palace's extensive water supply infrastructure which seems to have provided more water than would have been needed for simple irrigation.
Water supply system
Water was provided to the Generalife by the Acequia Real (also known as the Acequia del Rey or Acequia del Sultan), which also supplied water to the Alhambra more generally and still exists in large part today. It draws water from the Darro River at an uphill location in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, about 6.1 kilometers east of the Alhambra. A smaller branch known as the Acequia del Tercio also split off from it several kilometers upstream and proceeded along higher ground before arriving at the Generalife near the present-day Pabellón Romántico, allowing for the provision of water to the upper gardens, the Water Stairway, and the former bathhouse. The main branch, proceeding along lower ground, also arrives at the Generalife palace and supplies water to the Patio de la Acequia. The channels generally ran along the surface but some parts ran through tunnels cut directly into the bedrock. These channels, in combination with a complex hydraulic system of water tanks and water wheels, supplied and distributed water for the whole gardens.
One part of this hydraulic complex, the Albercones, consists of a medieval water tank which could hold 400 cubic meters and allowed for the irrigation of higher orchards and gardens. It is located on the hillside above the Jardines Nuevos today. Two more modern reservoirs also exist next to it today: one built by Torres Balbas in 1926, and another added by Prieto Moreno in the 1930s. The reservoir was supplied with water through a well 17.4 meters deep located on a platform on its southwest side, which was originally covered by a rammed-earth tower inside which was an animal-powered water-wheel mechanism that drew water from the well. The well leads to an underground gallery or channel whose lower opening is near the present-day Paseo de las Adelfas. This underground gallery drew water directly from the Acequia Real as it flowed past the gardens, as well as from the higher Acequia del Tercio which intersected it. Both canals continue past the Albercones and join together before turning back towards the Alhambra, where the water enters via an aqueduct next to the Torre del Agua at the Alhambra's east end.
Cultural influence
There is an imitation of part of the Generalife at Roundhay Park in Leeds, UK.
See also
Buhaira Gardens
Palacio de Galiana, Toledo
Spanish gardens
References
External links
Alhambra and Generalife Official Site
Alhambra, Generalife and Albayzín, Granada
Generalife plan
Buildings and structures completed in 1309
Alhambra (Spain)
Palaces in Andalusia
Gardens in Spain
Islamic gardens
Persian gardens in Spain
Spanish gardens
Open-air museums in Spain
Royal residences in Spain
Buildings and structures in Granada
14th century in al-Andalus
World Heritage Sites in Spain
History of Granada
Nasrid architecture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated%20storage%20and%20retrieval%20system
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Automated storage and retrieval system
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An automated storage and retrieval system (ASRS or AS/RS) consists of a variety of computer-controlled systems for automatically placing and retrieving loads from defined storage locations. Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS) are typically used in applications where:
There is a very high volume of loads being moved into and out of storage
Storage density is important because of space constraints
No value is added in this process (no processing, only storage and transport)
Accuracy is critical because of potential expensive damages to the load
An AS/RS can be used with standard loads as well as nonstandard loads, meaning that each standard load can fit in a uniformly-sized volume; for example, the film canisters in the image of the Defense Visual Information Center are each stored as part of the contents of the uniformly sized metal boxes, which are shown in the image. Standard loads simplify the handling of a request of an item. In addition, audits of the accuracy of the inventory of contents can be restricted to the contents of an individual metal box, rather than undergoing a top-to-bottom search of the entire facility, for a single item.
They can also be used in self storage places.
Overview
AS/RS systems are designed for automated storage and retrieval of parts and items in manufacturing, distribution, retail, wholesale and institutions. They first originated in the 1960s, initially focusing on heavy pallet loads but with the evolution of the technology the handled loads have become smaller. The systems operate under computerized control, maintaining an inventory of stored items. Retrieval of items is accomplished by specifying the item type and quantity to be retrieved. The computer determines where in the storage area the item can be retrieved from and schedules the retrieval. It directs the proper automated storage and retrieval machine (SRM) to the location where the item is stored and directs the machine to deposit the item at a location where it is to be picked up. A system of conveyors and or automated guided vehicles is sometimes part of the AS/RS system. These take loads into and out of the storage area and move them to the manufacturing floor or loading docks. To store items, the pallet or tray is placed at an input station for the system, the information for inventory is entered into a computer terminal and the AS/RS system moves the load to the storage area, determines a suitable location for the item, and stores the load. As items are stored into or retrieved from the racks, the computer updates its inventory accordingly.
The benefits of an AS/RS system include reduced labor for transporting items into and out of inventory, reduced
inventory levels, more accurate tracking of inventory, and space savings. Items are often stored more densely than in systems where items are stored and retrieved manually.
Within the storage, items can be placed on trays or hang from bars, which are attached to chains/drives in order to move up and down. The equipment required for an AS/RS include a storage & retrieval machine (SRM) that is used for rapid storage and retrieval of material. SRMs are used to move loads vertically or horizontally, and can also move laterally to place objects in the correct storage location.
The trend towards Just In Time production often requires sub-pallet level availability of production inputs, and AS/RS is a much faster way of organizing the storage of smaller items next to production lines.
The Material Handling Institute of America (MHIA), the non-profit trade association for the material handling world, and its members have categorised AS/RS into two primary segments: Fixed Aisle and Carousels/Vertical Lift Modules (VLMs). Both sets of technologies provide automated storage and retrieval for parts and items, but use different technologies. Each technology has its unique set of benefits and disadvantages. Fixed Aisle systems are characteristically larger systems whereas carousels and Vertical Lift Modules are used individually or grouped, but in small to medium-sized applications.
A fixed-aisle AS/R machine (stacker crane) is one of two main designs: single-masted or double masted. Most are supported on a track and ceiling guided at the top by guide rails or channels to ensure accurate vertical alignment, although some are suspended from the ceiling. The 'shuttles' that make up the system travel between fixed storage shelves to deposit or retrieve a requested load (ranging from a single book in a library system to a several ton pallet of goods in a warehouse system). The entire unit moves horizontally within an aisle, while the shuttles are able to elevate up to the necessary height to reach the load, and can extend and retract to store or retrieve loads that are several positions deep in the shelving. A semi-automated system can be achieved by utilizing only specialized shuttles within an existing rack system.
Another AS/RS technology is known as shuttle technology. In this technology the horizontal movement is made by independent shuttles each operating on one level of the rack while a lift at a fixed position within the rack is responsible for the vertical movement. By using two separate machines for these two axes the shuttle technology is able to provide higher throughput rates than stacker cranes.
Storage and Retrieval Machines pick up or drop off loads to the rest of the supporting transportation system at specific stations, where inbound and outbound loads are precisely positioned for proper handling.
In addition, there are several types of Automated Storage & Retrieval Systems (AS/RS) devices called Unit-load AS/RS, Mini-load AS/RS, Mid-Load AS/RS, Vertical Lift Modules (VLMs), Horizontal Carousels and Vertical Carousels. These systems are used either as stand-alone units or in integrated workstations called pods or systems. These units are usually integrated with various types of pick to light systems and use either a microprocessor controller for basic usage or inventory management software. These systems are ideal for increasing space utilization up to 90%, productivity levels by 90%, accuracy to 99.9%+ levels and throughput up to 750 lines per hour/per operator or more depending on the configuration of the system.
Advantages
An effective automated storage and retrieval system provides several benefits for supply chain management.
An efficient AS/RS system helps companies cut expenses by minimizing the amount of unnecessary parts and products in storage, and improving organization of the contents of a warehouse. Due to automated processes, it also allows for more storage space due to high-density storage, narrower aisles, etc.
Automation reduces labor costs while lowering workforce requirements and increasing safety.
Modeling and managing the logical representation of the physical storage facilities (e.g. racking, etc.). For example, if certain products are often sold together or are more popular than others, those products can be grouped together or placed near the delivery area to speed up the process of picking, packing and shipping to customers.
Enabling a seamless link to order processing and logistics management in order to pick, pack, and ship product out of the facility.
Tracking where products are stocked, which suppliers they come from, and the length of time they are stored. By analyzing such data, companies can control inventory levels and maximize the use of warehouse space. Furthermore, firms are more prepared for the demands and supplies of the market, especially during special circumstances such as a peak season on a particular month. Through the reports generated by an AS/RS system, firms are also able to gather important data that may be put in a model for it to be analyzed.
Vertical lift module
Vertical lift modules (VLMs) can be built to a height to match the available overhead space in a facility. Multiple units can be placed in 'pods' whereby an operator can retrieve items from one unit while the other units are moving. Variants include width, height, load, speed and a control system.
The VLM is a board controlled automated vertical lift module. Inventory within the VLM is stored on front and rear tray locations or rails. When a tray is requested, either by entering a tray number in the built-in control pad or by requesting a part through software, an extractor travels vertically between the two columns of trays and pulls the requested tray from its location and brings it to an access point. The operator then picks or replenishes stock and the tray is returned to its home upon confirmation.
VLM systems are sold in numerous configurations, which could be applied in different industries, logistics, as well as office settings. The VLM systems could be customized to fully utilize the height of the facility, even through multiple floors. With the capability of multiple access openings on different floors, a VLM system is able to provide an innovative storage and retrieval solution. The rapid movement of the extractor, as well as inventory management software, can dramatically increase the efficiency of the picking process. This occurs by simultaneously retrieving and storing trays in multiple units. Unlike large AS/RS systems, which require a complete overhaul of the warehouse or production line, the vertical lift modules are modularized, which can be easily integrated into the existing system, or to be rolled out in gradually over different phases.
Most common applications include: MRO, order picking, consolidation, kitting, parts handling, buffering, inventory storage, WIP, buffer storage, and many more.
VLMs provide floor space savings, increased labor productivity and picking accuracy, improved worker ergonomics, and controlled process.
Most VLMs offer dynamic space storage which measures the tray every time it is returned to the unit to optimize space, safety features and some offer tilt-tray delivery for increased ergonomic accessibility, and laser pointers which indicate the exact item to be picked on each tray.
Horizontal carousels
A horizontal carousel is a series of bins which revolve on an oval track. Every bin has shelves which are adjustable to and can be configured for a myriad of standard and special applications. An operator simply inputs a bin number, part number or cell location and the carousel will rotate via the shortest path. Multiple horizontal carousels integrated with pick to light technology and inventory management software (a pod of carousels) are used for order fulfillment.
A wave of orders is sent to the pod. A group of orders is selected to create a batch. The operator simply follows the lights and pick round-robin from the carousels and place items in a batch station behind them. Each carousel pre-positions and rotates when picked. By applying the "product to person" principle, operators do not have to move from their position to prepare the order.
When the batch is complete, a new batch is inducted and the process repeated until the wave is complete. Horizontal carousels can save up to 75% of floorspace, increase productivity by 2/3, accuracy levels to 99.9+% levels and throughput up to 750 lines per hour/operator.
Horizontal carousel systems generally outperform robotic systems for a fraction of the cost. Horizontal carousels are the most cost-effective AS/RS system available.
Robotic Inserter/Extractor devices can also be used for horizontal carousels. The robotic device is positioned in the front or rear of up to three horizontal carousels tiered high. The robot grabs the tote required in the order and often replenishes at the same time to speed up throughput. The tote(s) are then delivered to a conveyor, which routes it to a work station for picking or replenishing. Up to eight transactions per minute per unit can be done. Totes or containers up to 36" x 36" x 36" can be used in a system.
On a simplistic level, horizontal carousels are also often used as "rotating shelving." With simple "fetch" command, items are brought to the operator and otherwise wasted space is eliminated.
AS/RS Applications: Most applications of AS/RS technology have been associated with warehousing and distribution operations. An AS/RS can also be used to store raw materials and work in process in manufacturing. Three application areas can be distinguished for AS/RS: (1) Unit load storage and handling, (2) Order picking, and (3) Work in process storage. Unit load storage and retrieval applications are represented by unit load AS/RS and deep-lane storage systems. These kinds of applications are commonly found in warehousing for finishing goods in a distribution center, rarely in manufacturing. Deep-lane systems are used in the food industry. As described above, order picking involves retrieving materials in less than full unit load quantities. Minilpass, man-on board, and items retrieval systems are used for this second application area.
Work in process storage is a more recent application of automated storage technology. While it is desirable to minimize the amount of work in process, WIP is unavoidable and must be effectively managed. Automated storage systems, either automated storage/retrieval systems or carousel systems, represent an efficient way to store materials between processing steps, particularly in batch and job shop production. In high production, work in process is often carried between operations by conveyor system, which this serve both storage and transport functions.
Installed applications
Installed applications of this technology can be wide-ranging. In some libraries, such as at University of Nevada, Reno library, such a system is employed to retrieve books. Still others in use involve retrieval of bicycles from a bicycle tree, as in the case of systems in Japan.
Institutions using automated storage and retrieval systems
Some examples of academic institutions using automated storage and retrieval systems are;
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia
California State University, Long Beach, Long Beach, California
California State University, Northridge, Northridge, California
University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida
Chicago State University, Chicago, Illinois
University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
Colgate University, Hamilton, New York
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
Defense Visual Information Center, March Air Reserve Base, Riverside County, California
Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, Michigan
Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, Georgia
Grand Valley State University, Grand Rapids, Michigan
Liberty University, Lynchburg, Virginia
University of Limerick, Limerick (Ireland)
University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky
Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
Marywood University, Scranton, Pennsylvania
University of Missouri–Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
University of Nevada, Reno
UTS Library, University of Technology Sydney
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California
Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, California
Tri-County Technical College, Pendleton, South Carolina
University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
Utah State University, Logan, Utah
Christopher Center, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana
Waseda University, Tokyo (Japan)
Types
Vertical Lift Storage Modules (VLSM) - These are also called vertical lift automated storage/retrieval systems. All of the next AS/RS types are designed around a horizontal aisle. The same principle of using a center aisle to access loads is used, except that the aisle is vertical. Vertical lift storage modules, some with heights of 10 meters or more, are capable of holding large inventories while saving valuable floor space in the factory.
Unit load stackers - The unit load stackers is typically a large automated system designed to handle unit loads stored on pallets or in other standard containers. The system is computer controlled, and the S/R machines are automated and designed to handle the unit load containers.
ASRS Gantry Robots - These are a type of Automated Storage/Retrieval Systems used in warehousing and logistics sectors. Some common uses for these are in the Tire Industry for stacking tire inventory. Most of these systems span 50–60 ft in width and average 200–300 feet in length. These systems use End Effectors a.k.a. End of Arm Tooling to pick and place the tire stacks from conveyors.
Man-aboard systems
A man-aboard system can provide significant floorspace savings over manual or forklift operations but is not truly an AS/RS, as the operation is still manual. Storage system heights are not limited by the reach height of the order picker, as the picker rides along on the platform as it is moved vertically or horizontally to the various storage locations. Shelves or storage cabinets can be stacked as high as floor loading, weight capacity, throughput requirements, and/or ceiling heights will permit. Man-aboard storage and retrieval systems are far and away the most expensive picker-to-stock equipment alternative but are less expensive than a fully automated system. Aisle-captive storage/retrieval machines reaching heights up to cost around $125,000. Hence, there must be enough storage density and/or productivity improvement over cart and tote picking to justify the investment. Also, because vertical travel is slow compared to horizontal travel, typical picking rates in man-aboard operations range between 40 and 250 lines per person-hour. The range is large because there is a wide variety of operating schemes for man-aboard systems. Man-aboard systems are typically appropriate for slow-moving items where space is fairly expensive.
See also
Actionable information logistics
Autonomous logistics
Inventory management software
Voice-directed warehousing
Warehouse
Automated guided vehicle
References
Further reading
Frazelle, E. (2001), World-class Warehousing and Material Handling, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
External links
Library automation
Warehouses
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural%20impact%20of%20Star%20Wars
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Cultural impact of Star Wars
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George Lucas's science fiction multi-film Star Wars saga has had a significant impact on modern popular culture. Star Wars references are deeply embedded in popular culture; references to the main characters and themes of Star Wars are casually made in many English-speaking countries with the assumption that others will understand the reference. Darth Vader has become an iconic villain, while characters such as Luke Skywalker, Han Solo, Princess Leia, Chewbacca, C-3PO and R2-D2 have all become widely recognized characters around the world. Phrases such as "evil empire", "May the Force be with you", Jedi mind trick and "I am your father" have become part of the popular lexicon. The first Star Wars film in 1977 was a cultural unifier, enjoyed by a wide spectrum of people.
Many efforts produced in the science fiction genre (particularly in filming) can now be seen to draw heavy influence and inspiration from the original Star Wars trilogy, as well as the magnitude of sequels, spin-offs, series, games, and texts that it spawned. Sounds, visuals, and even the iconic score of the films have become integral components in American society. The film helped launch the science fiction boom of the late 1970s and early 1980s, making science fiction films a blockbuster genre. This impact also made it a prime target for parody works and homages, with popular examples including Spaceballs, Family Guys "Blue Harvest" special, Seth Green's "Robot Chicken: Star Wars", Steve Oedekerk's "Thumb Wars", and Lucas's self-proclaimed favorite parody, Hardware Wars by Ernie Fosselius.
Arts
Filmmaking history
Financial impact on Fox
20th Century Fox optioned Star Wars. When it unexpectedly became the decade's blockbuster, grossing $100 million in three months, Fox's stock soared from $6 to $25 per share and generated revenues of $1.2 million a day for the studio. Fox purchased the Aspen skiing and Pebble Beach golf corporations with the increased cash flow and still declared excess profits in 1977. Income from Star Wars re-releases, sequels, and merchandising enriched the studio in the following decades. Star Wars helped Fox to change from an almost bankrupt production company to a thriving media conglomerate.
Impact on filmmaking
Star Wars fundamentally changed the aesthetics and narratives of Hollywood films, switching the focus of Hollywood-made films from deep, meaningful stories based on dramatic conflict, themes and irony to sprawling special-effects-laden blockbusters, as well as changing the Hollywood film industry in fundamental ways. Before Star Wars, special effects in films had not appreciably advanced since the 1950s. Star Wars was also important in the movement towards the use of computer-generated imagery in films. The commercial success of Star Wars created a boom in state-of-the-art special effects in the late 1970s. There was increased investment in special effects. Companies like Industrial Light & Magic and Digital Productions were created to provide them. The 1977 Star Wars pioneered the genre pastiche, where several classic film genres are combined in one film. In Star Wars, the genres were science fiction, the Western, the war film, and the quasi-mystical epic. Along with Jaws, Star Wars started the tradition of the summer blockbuster film in the entertainment industry, where films open on many screens at the same time and profitable franchises are important. It created the model for the major film trilogy and showed that merchandising rights on a film could generate more money than the film itself.
Another impact Star Wars made on film making was its use of the "Monomyth" or Hero's journey" found in Joseph Campbell's book The Hero with a Thousand Faces. While George Lucas wrote through 4 drafts of the film, between the first and second drafts, he read Joseph Campbell's book titled The Hero with a Thousand Faces. He was surprised to find that his first draft followed many of its principles. This epic structure at the deepest roots of the films was a major factor in its success. Many future films successfully adopted the monomyth, such as The Matrix trilogy, The Lord of the Rings trilogy, and The Hobbit trilogy to name a few.
The plot of a second-season episode of The CW television series Legends of Tomorrow (2017), entitled "Raiders of the Lost Art", centered on the impact of George Lucas's films on the titular heroes.
Lucasfilm-produced mockumentaries
Return of the Ewok (1982): a 24-minute fictional mockumentary, focusing on the decision of Warwick Davis to become an actor and act as Wicket the Ewok in Return of the Jedi.
R2-D2: Beneath the Dome (2002): a 20-minute mockumentary, focusing on the "true" story of R2-D2's life. It was made as a side-project by some of the crew of Attack of the Clones, released on television in three installments, and later on DVD.
Parodies
The Star Wars saga has had a significant impact on modern American popular culture, both the films and characters have received official parodies in numerous films and television productions.
The Simpsons, an animated TV series produced by 20th Century Animation (sister company to Lucasfilm and also part of The Walt Disney Company):
"Mayored to the Mob", a 1998 episode of the series, features multiple references to Star Wars, most centrally a plot in which Homer Simpson and Star Wars actor Mark Hamill face the threat of being trampled at a fan convention.
The Force Awakens from Its Nap. A 2021 parody short featuring Maggie Simpson, a celebration of Star Wars Day.
Plusaversary. A 2021 celebration of Disney+ Day featuring characters from The Simpsons and other The Walt Disney Company owned assets including Star Wars characters.
Rogue Not Quite One. A 2023 short film featuring Maggie Simpson, a celebration of Star Wars Day.
Robot Chicken has produced three television specials satirizing the Star Wars films ("Robot Chicken: Star Wars", "Episode II" and "Episode III"). The success of the specials led to the development animated parody series Star Wars Detours.
Family Guy has also produced three parody episodes, each of which satirized the first three films in the series. The September 2007 sixth-season premiere, titled "Blue Harvest", was produced in dedication of the saga's 30th anniversary. This was followed by "Something, Something, Something, Dark Side", which parodies The Empire Strikes Back, and "It's a Trap!", which parodies Return of the Jedi. They originally were released direct-to-video on December 22, 2009, and December 21, 2010, then later aired on Fox May 23, 2010 (season eight, episode 20) and May 22, 2011 (season nine, episode 18) respectively.
"Phineas and Ferb: Star Wars", also titled "Episode IV: May the Ferb Be with You", is an episode of the TV series Phineas and Ferb that aired in mid-2014, soon after Disney's acquisition of the franchise.
"Star Mort Rickturn of the Jerri", the fourth season finale of the animated television series Rick and Morty premiered on May 31, 2020.
Hardware Wars, a 13-minute 1978 spoof which Lucas has called his favorite Star Wars parody. The Last Jedi director Rian Johnson included a brief reference to the short movie; the scene in question depicts a robotic steam iron, which is briefly framed to resemble a landing spaceship.
Spaceballs, a feature film by Mel Brooks, parodies the first Star Wars film, and features special effects by Lucas's Industrial Light & Magic.
The films and television series of Kevin Smith reference Star Wars numerous times.
A scene in Smith's debut film Clerks centers upon the politics and ethics of the destruction of the two Death Stars in the first trilogy, which Lucas later addressed in his commentary track for Attack of the Clones.
A courtroom sequence in the series premiere of Clerks: The Animated Series sees Randal Graves intensely cross-examining George Lucas about the plot holes in Phantom Menace, and demanding a refund. After successfully attaining one, Randall does the same to directors Steven Spielberg, Joel Schumacher, Woody Allen, and Spike Lee.
In Smith's film Zack and Miri Make a Porno (2008), Zack (Seth Rogen) and Miri (Elizabeth Banks) decide to pay off their debts by producing and starring in a Star Wars-themed pornographic film titled Star Whores before changing it to a coffee house-themed film.
Trooper Clerks - In this parody of both Star Wars and the Clerks series by Studio Creations, convenience store clerks Dante Hicks and Randall Graves are stormtroopers depicted in locations such as the first Death Star and the planet Tatooine, discussing topics like whether Mallrats or Chasing Amy is the Smith film with the better story.
Star Wars has been the subject of several parodies in the humorous magazine Mad, a publication that frequently publishes cartoon spoofs of Hollywood films. A parody called Star Roars was published in January 1978, featuring the magazine's mascot, Alfred E. Neuman, wearing a Darth Vader helmet.
Pinky and the Brain - "Star Warners"
Fanboys (film) about a group of friends anticipating the release of Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace
Ricktional Mortpoon's Rickmas Mortcation, the Rick and Morty sixth-season finale which includes many jabs and parodies of the franchise such as Morty dropping a lightsaber perfectly vertical and the President lashing out at Disney's new projects.
Fandom, fan films and fan edits
Star Wars fandom comprises the community of fans of the Star Wars film series and related media. In some cases, there have been instances of "toxic fandom" within fan community. Authors Steve Perry and K. W. Jeter have both said they began receiving death threats after contributing works to the franchise. According to Daisy Ridley, when she was being cast for the sequel trilogy, J. J. Abrams warned her that the franchise "is a religion for people." Fan backlash has evidently increased since the release of the Disney films.
The franchise inspired many fan edits, which have gained a notable presence on the internet thanks to the advancement of social media platforms Facebook, Twitter and YouTube. like Harmy's Despecialized Edition, there have been various memes related to specific moments in the movies themselves, like a mistranslated Chinese bootleg of Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith and 'TR-8R' from Star Wars: The Force Awakens.
The Star Wars saga has inspired many fans to create their own non-canon material set in the Star Wars galaxy, ranging from writing fan-fiction to creating fan films. In 2002, Lucasfilm sponsored the first annual Official Star Wars Fan Film Awards, officially recognizing filmmakers and the genre. Because of concerns over potential copyright and trademark issues, however, the contest was initially open only to parodies, mockumentaries, and documentaries. Fan-fiction films set in the Star Wars universe were originally ineligible, but in 2007 Lucasfilm changed the submission standards to allow in-universe fiction entries. Lucasfilm, for the most part, has allowed but not endorsed the creation of these derivative fan-fiction works, so long as no such work attempts to make a profit from or tarnish the Star Wars franchise in any way.
Star Wars parodies include:
Star Wars Kid
The Force (advertisement)
Chewbacca Mask Lady
Broken Allegiance
Chad Vader
Crazy Watto
The Dark Redemption
Dark Resurrection
Darth Maul: Apprentice
Darth Vader's Psychic Hotline
Duality
The Formula
George Lucas in Love
Han Solo: A Smuggler's Trade
Hardware Wars
How the Sith Stole Christmas
The Jedi Hunter
Knightquest
Pink Five, Pink Five Strikes Back, Return of Pink Five: While many fan films have used elements from the licensed Expanded Universe to tell their story, they are not considered an official part of the Star Wars canon. However, the lead character from the Pink Five series was incorporated into Timothy Zahn's 2007 novel Allegiance, marking the first time a fan-created Star Wars character has ever crossed into the official canon.
Rebel Scum
Ryan vs. Dorkman
Saving Star Wars
Sith Apprentice
Star Dudes
Star Wars: Revelations
Star Wars: The Emperor's New Clones
Star Wars: Threads of Destiny
Star Wars Uncut
Thumb Wars
TIE Fighter
Troops
Blue Milk Special
Vader Episode I: Shards of the Past
Fan edits/restorations
The franchise has inspired many fan edits, such as Harmy's Despecialized Edition and The Phantom Edit, which circulated on the Internet thanks to the advance of social media platforms Facebook, Twitter and YouTube. Like Harmy's Despecialized Edition, there have been various memes related to specific moments in the movies themselves, like a mistranslated Chinese bootleg of Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith and 'TR-8R' from Star Wars: The Force Awakens. A fan-edit to visually incorporate the ghosts of Anakin Skywalker, Obi-Wan, Luke and Yoda, into a scene from Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker was positively received for its technical execution. In contrast, a 46-minute fan-edits of the previous film Star Wars: The Last Jedi, which removed all the female characters, was criticized for sexism. A YouTuber who attempted to improve the original VFX effects of Luke Skywalker's de-aged appearance on The Mandalorian Season 2 finale was later hired by Lucasfilm. Other The Mandalorian fan-edits that were made included Grogu fighting against Darth Sidious in Revenge of the Sith, while Tommy Wisseau's character, Johnny, from The Room was edited in a crossover set within the entire saga.
Cosplay
501st Legion
Rebel Legion
Princess Leia's bikini
Websites
Wookieepedia
TheForce.Net
Theater
In December 1978, an onstage Star Wars parody appeared in the form of a Broadway musical, The Force and I—the Mad Star Wars Musical. A similar fan-made musical of the original 1977 film was made in 1999 in anticipation of the release of The Phantom Menace and another parody musical was announced for a March 2020 Off-Broadway production.
During the winter of 2015, Chicago based theater company, Under the Gun Theater developed a parody revue which recapped all six of the Star Wars films as a lead up to the release of Star Wars: The Force Awakens.
In November 2019, Ichikawa Ebizō XI supervised production of and played Kylo Ren in a kabuki adaptation of scenes from the sequel trilogy, which was entitled . In addition, his son Kangen Horikoshi portrayed a younger version of Ren in the play's third act.
Music
In 1993, Mexican pop singer Paulina Rubio said that for the concept of her second studio album, 24 Kilates, she has been inspired by the Star Wars movies.
Coldplay's lead singer Chris Martin said that the band's ninth studio album Music of the Spheres had been inspired by the alien Mos Eisley cantina band from the first Star Wars film.
Parody songs
"Weird Al" Yankovic recorded two parodies: "Yoda", a parody of "Lola" by The Kinks; and "The Saga Begins", a parody of Don McLean's song "American Pie" that retells the events of The Phantom Menace from Obi-Wan Kenobi's perspective.
Dan Amrich recorded Princess Leia's Stolen Death Star Plans, an adaptation of the Beatles album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band which retells the story of the original Star Wars film.
Natalie's Rap 2.0
Star Wars Gangsta Rap
Documentaries
The Making of Star Wars
SP FX: The Empire Strikes Back
Classic Creatures: Return of the Jedi
From Star Wars to Jedi: The Making of a Saga
Empire of Dreams: The Story of the Star Wars Trilogy
Star Wars Tech
Star Wars: The Legacy Revealed
Science of Star Wars
Fan documentaries
Elstree 1976
I Am Your Father
The People vs. George Lucas
Plastic Galaxy
The Prequels Strike Back: A Fan's Journey
Video games
Darth Vader, as well as Yoda and Starkiller, appear as playable characters in the 2008 fighting game Soulcalibur IV.
Science
Impact on aeronautics
The Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum had an exhibition called Star Wars: The Magic of Myth. It was an exhibition of original production models, props, costumes, and characters from the first three Star Wars films. In October 2007, NASA launched a Space Shuttle carrying an original lightsaber into orbit. The prop handle had been used as Luke Skywalker's lightsaber in Return of the Jedi. After spending two weeks in orbit, it was brought back to Earth on November 7, 2007, to be returned to its owner, George Lucas.
The first successfully launched space-rocket, to be sent by the private spaceflight company SpaceX, was named the Falcon 1. Elon Musk used the word "falcon" within the name of the space-rocket, as a reference to the Millennium Falcon from Star Wars. The Falcon 1's success led to the fabrication of updated versions of the space rocket, in what became known as the Falcon family of space-rockets. The Falcon 1 has since been retired, in favor of the Falcon 9.
The spacecraft LICIACube, a part of DART mission, is equipped with two optical cameras, dubbed LUKE and LEIA.
Organisms named after Star Wars characters
Politics and religion
Political impact
When Ronald Reagan proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a system of lasers and missiles meant to intercept incoming ICBMs, the plan was quickly labeled "Star Wars", implying that it was science fiction and linking it to Reagan's acting career. According to Frances FitzGerald, Reagan was annoyed by this, but Assistant Secretary of Defense Richard Perle told colleagues that he "thought the name was not so bad."; "'Why not?' he said. 'It's a good movie. Besides, the good guys won.'" This gained further resonance when Reagan described the Soviet Union as an "evil empire".
In television commercials, public interest group critics of the Reagan administration's Strategic Defense Initiative program deridingly referred to the orbital missile defense project as "Star Wars". Lucasfilm originally sued to try to enjoin this usage of its trademark, and lost. Explaining its decision, the court said,
When Margaret Thatcher won the 1979 United Kingdom general election held on May 3, the Tories took out a newspaper ad that read "May the Fourth Be with You Maggie. Congratulations."
On May 4, 1995, during a defence debate in the UK parliament, MP Harry Cohen related the Star Wars Day joke: "May 4 be with you".
In England and Wales, 390,127 people (almost 0.8%) stated their religion as Jedi on their 2001 Census forms, surpassing Sikhism, Judaism and Buddhism, and making it the fourth largest reported religion in the country.
The holographic video effect associated with Star Wars served as a technological tool for CNN during its 2008 Election Night coverage. CNN reporter Jessica Yellin and musician will.i.am looked as though they were in the network's New York City studios talking face-to-face with hosts Anderson Cooper and Wolf Blitzer, when in reality, they were in Chicago at Barack Obama's rally. The process involved Yellin and will.i.am standing in front of a blue screen in a special tent, while being shot by 35 HD cameras.
On March 1, 2013, American President Barack Obama spoke on the sequestration debate. He said that some people expect him to do a "Jedi mind meld" on the Republicans who refuse to deal.
In the 2014 Ukrainian presidential elections, the Internet Party of Ukraine tried to nominate a man named Darth Vader; but his registration was refused because his real identity could not be verified. A man named Darth Vader was a candidate at May 25 2014 Kyiv mayoral election and the Odesa mayoral election of the same day for the same party. In the 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election the Internet Party let Darth Vader along other Star Wars characters such as Chewbacca, Padmé Amidala, and Yoda run for seats in the Ukrainian parliament. In the election the party failed to clear the 5% election threshold (it got 0.36% of the votes) and also did not win a constituency seat and thus no parliamentary seats.
In 2015, as a part of the decommunization process in Ukraine, a statue of a Vladimir Lenin was modified into a monument to Darth Vader at the territory of Pressmash plant in Odesa.
In the 2020 Odesa local election, a person called Darth Vader was again a candidate for mayor of Odesa (nominated by Darth Vader Bloc). He scored 0.48% of the total votes cast.
Religion (Jediism)
A real-life religion based on Star Wars called Jediism follows a modified version of the Jedi Code, and they believe in the concept of The Force as an energy field of all living things, which "surrounds us... penetrates us" and "binds the galaxy together", as is depicted within Star Wars movies, although without the fictional elements such as telekinesis. Many citizens around the world answer list their religion as Jedi during their countries respective Census, among them Australia and New Zealand getting high percentages. A petition in Turkey to build a Jedi Temple within a university, also got international media attention.
Aircraft Livery
Several airlines around the world formerly featured or currently features a special Star Wars themed jet on one of its aircraft.
Gallery
Other
Between 2002 and 2004, museums in Japan, Singapore, Scotland and England showcased the Art of Star Wars, an exhibit describing the process of making the original Star Wars trilogy.
In 2013, Star Wars became the first major motion picture translated into the Navajo language.
Professional sports teams in the United States and Canada regularly hold Star Wars-themed promotional nights. In 2015, Star Wars-themed Major League Baseball (MLB) games had average higher attendance than typical MLB games. Star Wars promotional nights in minor league sports events often feature teams wearing Star Wars-inspired uniform designs. Outside of Star Wars-themed games, North American sports teams often play "The Imperial March" over their public address systems while opposing teams are being introduced.
Several organizations worldwide teach lightsaber combat as a competitive sport, instructing on techniques interpreted from the films, and using life-size replica weapons composed of highly durable plastic that emit lights and sounds.
During the 2012 Emerald City Comicon in Seattle, Washington, several prominent cartoon voice actors, consisting of Rob Paulsen, Jess Harnell, John DiMaggio, Maurice LaMarche, Tara Strong and Kevin Conroy, performed a parody reading of A New Hope as a radio play in each of their signature voice roles; i.e. Paulsen and Harnell as Yakko and Wakko Warner from Animaniacs, Strong as Bubbles from The Powerpuff Girls and Timmy Turner from The Fairly OddParents, LaMarche and DiMaggio as Kif Kroker and Bender from Futurama, and Conroy narrating as Batman.
After Disney's acquisition of Star Wars, they proceeded to open Galaxy's Edge. Star Wars themed parks in both Disney World and Disneyland that opened in December 2019 in Disney World and January 2020 in Disneyland. In the theme parks fans will be transported to a Galaxy Far Far Away and live their own Star Wars experience, through flying the Millennium Falcon, or stopping at Oga's Cantina for some food and drinks.
"Star Wars bar" has entered the English language vernacular meaning a less than desirable bar or pub. This is because the "Mos Eisley Cantina", and the events depicted therein during the original Star Wars film, is a sufficiently well known cultural reference for the term to have become useful in every day conversation.
In 2023, a Judge in the Akron Municipal Court announced that he would be officiating Star Wars-themed weddings on the 4th of May 2023. The celebrations included Star Wars: A New Hope in the background and Star Wars-inspired vows.
See also
Star Wars and History
References
Further reading
External links
Star Wars
Star Wars
Star Wars Cultural Impact
Star Wars
Star Wars fandom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Brothers%20Academy%20%28New%20Jersey%29
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Christian Brothers Academy (New Jersey)
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Christian Brothers Academy (also known as CBA or "The Academy"), located in the Lincroft section of Middletown Township, New Jersey, is a private, all-boys preparatory school for grades nine to twelve, with a focus on Christian education. The school is run by the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, founded by St. Jean-Baptiste de La Salle. Christian Brothers Academy was originally a farm owned by the prominent Whitney family of New York City, and home to their renowned Greentree Stable. The land was eventually given to the Christian Brothers for the purpose of teaching. The school opened for the first time in September 1959 and was blessed by the Bishop of Trenton on October 11, 1959. Christian Brothers Academy operates independently from the Roman Catholic Diocese of Trenton and is governed by a board of trustees.
As of the 2019–20 school year, the school had an enrollment of 876 students and 66.1 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 13.3:1. The school's student body was 83.4% (731) White, 10.2% (89) Hispanic and 4.5% (39) two or more races, 1.5% (13) Asian, 0.5% (4) Black.
The school has been accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Elementary and Secondary Schools since 1967.
History
The site of Christian Brothers Academy was originally a farm owned by the prominent Whitney family of New York City, and home to their renowned Greentree Stable.
Christian Brothers Academy was founded in 1958, when a group of devoted laymen, including Doctor George A. Sheehan, realized the need for another Catholic high school in Monmouth County. With the approval of the bishop, they initiated a drive to raise funds for the purchase of a piece of property. The Brothers of the Christian Schools, under the leadership of their provincial, Brother Anthony John Halpin, agreed to staff the school and finance its construction.
The former Whitney Greentree Stables, a farm, was purchased and one building was converted into what is now Henderson Hall. With six Brothers on the teaching staff, the school opened for the first time in September 1959 with an inaugural ninth grade class of 140 students, with classrooms built in a converted horse stable. The school was blessed by the Bishop of Trenton on October 11, 1959
A brick school building with 12 classrooms and science labs, constructed at a cost of $1.8 million (equivalent to $ million in ), opened in September 1962 with 700 students in grades 9-12.
CBA Presidents
Brother Andrew O'Gara (1991–2008)
Brother Frank Byrne, FSC '75 (2009–2021)
Brother Thomas Gerrow, FSC (2021-2022)
R. Ross Fales (2022-), first layman to assume the office of president.
CBA Principals
Brother Bernard McKenna, FSC (1959–1965)
Brother Stephen McCabe, FSC (1965–1972)
Brother Peter Mannion, FSC (1972–1979)
Brother Andrew O'Gara, FSC (1979–1991), left the office of principal to become CBA's first president.
Brother Ralph Montedoro, FSC (1991–2005), previously Associate Principal.
Brother Stephen Olert, FSC (2005–2008)
Brother James Butler, FSC (2008–2012)
Peter Santanello (2012–2015), previously Associate Principal and first layman to assume the office of principal.
R. Ross Fales (2015–2022), previously Associate Principal.
Cornelius Begley (2022-)
Over the years, the school has undergone many additions and renovations, including the building of the Henderson Theater, three science labs, two large gyms, and extra classrooms. The school's Christian emphasis is noted by a sign in the lobby which reads: "Jesus is the reason for this school, the unseen but ever-present teacher in its classes, the model of the faculty and the inspiration of its students." Before school begins and at the start of every class, prayers are offered in the Lasallian manner, beginning "Let us remember we are in the Holy Presence of God" and ending with the invocations, "St. John Baptist de La Salle, pray for us." "Live Jesus in our Hearts. Forever!"
Awards, recognition, and rankings
During the 1983–84 academic year, Christian Brothers Academy was recognized with the Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence by the United States Department of Education, the highest award an American school can receive. The school was honored a second time when it was one of eight private schools recognized in 2017 by the Blue Ribbon Schools Program as an Exemplary High Performing School by the U.S. Department of Education.
Academics
Advanced Placement courses offered include AP Art History, AP Biology, AP Calculus AB, AP Calculus BC, AP Chemistry, AP Macroeconomics, AP Microeconomics, AP English Language and Composition, AP English Literature and Composition, AP Environmental Science, AP European History, AP French Language, AP Human Geography, AP Latin: Vergil, AP Music Theory, AP Physics C, AP Physics 2, AP Psychology, AP Spanish Language, AP Statistics, AP United States History, and AP World History.
In addition to the 22 AP course offered at Christian Brothers Academy, the institution offers nearly 90 other courses that spread throughout the disciplines.
In order to receive a diploma, a student must successfully complete four years of each of the following: English, Health, and Theology. He must also complete three years of the following courses: History, Foreign Languages, Mathematics, Science, and Physical Education. Furthermore, students are required to complete two years of Computer Science.
Students who excel in CBA and who meet particular standards of academics, service, leadership, and character may apply for entry to the National Honor Society.
Extracurricular activities
Some activities at CBA include:
Academic: Academic Team, Mathematics Team, Science Team, Engineering Club National Honor Society
Art/Literature: Academy Torch (Newspaper), Arister (Literary Magazine), Pegasus (Yearbook) News Team, Journalism
Performing Arts: Chorus, Jazz Band, Pegasus Productions (Theater)
Foreign Language: Spanish Club, Spanish National Honor Society, French Club, French National Honor Society, Italian Culture Society, Latin Honor Society, Classical Culture Society, Celtic Society
Outdoor Activities: Frisbee Club, Landscaping-Engineering-Architecture and Design Club, Ski Club, Spikeball Club, Trail and Terrain Club
Politics/Law: Student Council, Junior Statesmen of America, Mock Trial, Model U.N., Leadership Series, Social Justice Committee
Religious: Theological Debate Society, Saint Brother Benilde Vocations Club, Gospel Sharing, Brother to Brother
Other: Future Business Leaders of America, Students Against Destructive Decisions (SADD), Chess Club and Team, Sci-Fi Club, Comic Book and Anime Club, Action For Animals, Ping-Pong Club, Fishing Club, Wellness Club
The CBA chess team won the shore title in 2003, 2006 and again in 2007. In 2007, the team won the New Jersey state championship as it also did in 1980 and 1985. The team also placed 14th in 2007 at the U1500 at the National High School Chess Tournament in Kansas City, Missouri.
The school offers the Lasallian Youth program, a way for students to perform service to surrounding areas within the context of the spirituality of the school's patron, St. John Baptist de La Salle.
Athletics
The Christian Brothers Academy Colts have competed since 1982 in Division A North of the Shore Conference, which is comprised of public and private high schools in Monmouth and Ocean counties on the Northern Jersey Shore. The conference operates under the jurisdiction of the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA). Since entering, the Colts have won over 240 Shore Conference championships. With 1,386 students in grades 10–12, the school was classified by the NJSIAA for the 2019–20 school year as Non-Public A for most athletic competition purposes, which included schools with an enrollment of 381 to 1,454 students in that grade range (equivalent to Group I for public schools).
CBA has been a member of the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA) since the early 1960s. Since winning their first state title in 1965 (basketball), CBA has won over 145 state championships. At CBA, all sports are governed by the NJSIAA, with the exception of crew, rugby and sailing, which have independent governing bodies. Christian Brothers does not field an interscholastic football program.
Christian Brothers Academy has been recognized nine times by the NJSIAA as the Group A Non-Public winner of the annual ShopRite Cup, which is awarded for overall achievement by athletics programs in the state. The NJSIAA has recognized the school as Group A winner of the Shop Rite Cup Championships in 2004, 2005, 2006, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019–20.
Fall sports
Christian Brothers Academy offers cross country, soccer, rugby, sailing, and crew as sports in the fall season.
Crew
Head Coached by Scott Belford. Founded in 2004, the CBA crew team is a dual-season sport. The team won its first New Jersey State Scholastic Rowing Championships in the Novice 4+ event in its inaugural year. In the 2006 season, the team gained national recognition when its newly formed Lightweight 4+ placed 2nd at the Scholastic Rowing Nationals in Saratoga, New York. The Junior 4+ won the New Jersey State Scholastic Championships in 2008. The varsity double took 2nd place at the 2008 Stotesbury Cup, the largest high school regatta in the nation. In 2009, CBA won the senior 1x event at the New Jersey Scholastic Rowing Championships. In the 2011 spring season, the Lightweight 4+ placed second at the Stotesbury Cup and placed first in Nationals in Camden, New Jersey.
Cross country
The cross country team holds the national high school record for consecutive dual meet wins, having surpassed the 265 streak accomplished by Blackstone-Millville Regional High School in Massachusetts from 1974 to 1992. After losing a dual meet to Raritan High School, 15–50, to end the 1973 season, the streak dates back to September 19, 1974, with a 15–49 win over Marist High School to start the season. Blackstone-Millville's record of 265 wins was tied on September 28, 2004, with a win against Marlboro High School and the record broken two days later against Middletown High School North. The team is consistently ranked 1st in New Jersey and has been ranked 1st in the United States on multiple occasions.
Head coach Tom Heath '65, who is responsible for building the cross country team to its current dominant state, retired from coaching at the end of the 2015 season. He won 21 NJSIAA Meet of Champions crowns, 27 NJSIAA state championships and went 42 years without losing a dual-meet. In 2016, assistant coach Sean McCafferty was promoted to cross country head coach, in addition to his role as distance and assistant coach for indoor and outdoor track.
State group championships: 1976, 1978–1980, 1982, 1986, 1987, 1991–1993, 1995–2005, 2010–2014, 2016–2019. The program's 30 state group titles are the most of any school in the state and the streak of 11 team titles won from 1995 to 2005 is the second-longest of any program in the state.
State Meet of Champions team titles: 1979, 1980, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1995–2000, 2004, 2005, 2010-2015 and 2017–2019. The 24 team MoC titles are the most of any school in the state and the two six-year winning streaks (from 1995 to 2000 and 2010–2015) are the state's longest.
National champions: 2011
National records: 391 consecutive dual meet victories- 9/19/74- present* (as of end of 2022 season)
Rugby
Rugby formed as a club team in 2011 at CBA, being elevated to varsity status in 2013. The team is coached by Patrick Moroney, the head coach of the Monmouth Rugby Club. In their inaugural varsity spring season, the rugby 15's won the New Jersey High School state championship, finishing up an undefeated season. In the fall of 2015, the rugby 7's won their first state championship.
Sailing
Another dual-season sport at CBA, the sailing team has existed in some form since 2000, first as a club team beginning in 2000. The 2005 club team qualified for the Interscholastic Sailing Association (ISSA)'s Mallory National Championship. After a year of inactivity, the current iteration of CBA Sailing began in 2007 and was promoted to varsity status in 2011. Since then, the 16-member varsity squad has been an active member of the New Jersey Interscholastic Sailing Association (NJISA), a division of the Mid-Atlantic Scholastic Sailing Association (MASSA). In 2014, the sailing team won their first-ever NJISA League Championship, and in 2015, CBA was crowned New Jersey State Champions for the first time. The Colts made it back-to-back titles, winning the 2016 New Jersey state championship as well. In 2017, CBA qualified for the ISSA Mallory National Championship for the first time as a varsity team and second time in school history. The team's longtime coach is Jody Lutz, a Barnegat Bay Sailing Hall of Fame inductee and multiple-time North American sailing champion.
League championships: 2014 (fall), 2015 (spring), 2015 (fall), 2016 (spring)
State championships: 2015, 2016
Soccer
From 1978 to 2016, CBA was coached by Dan Keane, who had a record of 545–157–41 in his 39-year tenure with the Colts and built the program to state dominance, having won four group titles, 17 sectional championships and winning the Shore Conference Tournament on ten occasions. The 1992 team finished the season with a 17–1 record after winning the Non-Public A title against Don Bosco Preparatory High School by a score of 2–0 in the tournament final. In 1998, the team finished undefeated with a 20–0–2 record after a win against Delbarton School by a score of 5–0 in the Non-Public A championship game played at The College of New Jersey. The 2000 team finished the season 19–2–1 after a come-from-behind 3–2 win against Pingry School in the Non-Public A finals. The 2011 team was 21–0 and beat Delbarton by a score of 1–0 in the Non-Public A state title game on a goal in the second minute of overtime by future MLS player Scott Thomsen '12. Keane retired in 2016, winning the 2015 Shore Conference Tournament as his last act. JV and assistant coach Tom Mulligan '83 was promoted to head varsity coach in 2016, winning both the state title (with a 1–0 win against Seton Hall Preparatory School in the Non-Public A finals) and conference title (with a 2–0 win vs. Marlboro High School) to finish with a 24–1 record in his first season. Mulligan's Colts finished the 2018 season 21–1–1 after winning a second state title in three years, beating previously undefeated Delbarton by a score of 2–1 on a goal scored in double overtime in the 100th and final minute of the Non-Public A state championship. The Colts won another Non-Public A state championship in 2022, defeating Seton Hall Prep by a score of 1-0 in the finals.
Conference championships: 1984, 1985, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1998, 2004, 2010, 2011, 2015, 2016, 2022
Non-Public A state championship: 1992 (defeating Don Bosco in the tournament final), 1998 (vs. Delbarton), 2000 (vs. Pingry School), 2002 (vs. Don Bosco), 2011 (vs. Delbarton), 2016 (vs. Seton Hall), 2018 (vs. Delbarton). and 2022 (Seton Hall).
Winter sports
Christian Brothers Academy offers basketball, bowling, fencing, ice hockey, indoor track, swimming, and wrestling as sports in the winter season.
Basketball
CBA has reached the Final Four of the Shore Conference Tournament in all but five years since their inclusion in 1982. Vinnie Cox served as the head coach through the formative years, winning CBA's first ever state championship in any sport in 1965 with a 76–59 win against Don Bosco Preparatory High School in the Parochial A finals at the Atlantic City Convention Hall. Cox's Colts would win four more state titles before his retirement in 1980. Before a crowd of 1,000 spectators, the 1971 team held off Essex Catholic by a score of 70–68 in the championship game to win the Parochial A title and finish the season at 25–2. The 1984 team finished the season with a 29–1 record after winning the Parochial A state title by defeating St. Peter's 59–47 in the championship game. The Colts had a 10-year home win streak vs. division opponents during the mid 1990s to mid 2000s, when the streak was snapped by the Colts Neck Cougars in December 2006. The team earned a national ranking of #11 in the final 1999−2000 rankings by USA Today. The team has sent numerous players to Division I programs, including forward Dan Werner, who won New Jersey Player of the Year in 2006 and won a Division I national championship with Florida in 2007. In 2007, head coach Ed Wicelinski retired after 27 years with a 625–116 record and three state championships. Geoff Billet '95, who played on the last CBA state championship team and started at Rutgers, was named the head basketball coach on August 1, 2007. Billet won conference titles in 2009 and 2010.
In 2016, Pat Andree '16 broke the CBA all-time scoring record, which was held by Bob Roma '75 for 40 years. He finished with 1,984 points before playing Division I basketball for Lehigh University, and later NC State University.
Varsity basketball championships:
Shore Conference championships: 1984, 1985, 1987–1990, 1993–1996, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010. The 16 Shore Conference Tournament titles are the second most of any school.
State championships: 1965 (vs. Don Bosco), 1971 (vs. Essex Catholic High School), 1972 (vs. St. Peter's Preparatory School), 1973 (vs. Hudson Catholic Regional High School), 1979 (vs. Bergen Catholic High School), 1984 (vs. St. Peter's), 1985 (vs. Bergen Catholic) and 1995 (vs. Bergen Catholic). The program's eight state title are tied for seventh-most in the state.
Bowling
Coached by Patrick Reynolds.
Fencing
The first year of Varsity Fencing at CBA was the 2012-13 winter season, coached by Mary Mottola. Fencers from CBA have gone on to fence at Brandeis, Stevens, Sacred Heart and University of Pennsylvania.
District Championships- 2017
Indoor track
Coached by Karl Torchia, the track team is known for its dominance in New Jersey. The track program has more titles at the county, state, and national level than any other sports in the school combined.
Conference championships: 1983, 1984, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020
State championships: Parochial A - 1978, 1980, 1981; Non-Public - 1982–1988; Group IV - 1989, 2001, 2005, 2006; Non-Public A - 2008, 2011–2020. The program's 25 state titles are the most of any school in the sport.
State relay championships: Parochial A - 1978, 1981; Parochial - 1982–1988; Group IV - 1994, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2004–2006; Non-Public 2008–2012; Non-Public A - 2013, 2015–2020 and 2022. The program's 29 state titles is the most of any school in the state.
Ice hockey
The Christian Brothers Academy hockey team competes in both the Gordon Conference and the Shore Conference, and is coached by Ryan Bogan. Christian Brothers Academy's home games are played at the Jersey Shore Arena in Wall Township, New Jersey. From 1994 to 1996, the Colts hockey team won both the Gordon Cup and the state championship in three consecutive years, a feat accomplished by only a few teams.
On January 31, 2014, the Christian Brothers Academy team played outdoors in a Stadium Series game against Don Bosco Prep at Yankee Stadium; the two teams played to a 1–1 tie. In 2014, the Colts battled with Morristown-Beard School for the Non-Public state championship. After 60 minutes of play, the game ended in a 4–4 tie and the teams were declared co-champions, as per NJSIAA rules, which was only the second time that two teams have been declared co-champions In 2015, the Colts battled back from a 3–0 deficit to Delbarton School in the Non-Public state final to win the game 4–3 in overtime. Dean DiFazio scored the goal in overtime to give CBA their second straight state title. The team won the title in 2020 with a 4–1 against Don Bosco Preparatory High School in the tournament final.
The CBA hockey program has produced four players -- James van Riemsdyk, Trevor van Riemsdyk, Connor Clifton and Joakim Ryan—who went on to play in the National Hockey League. The school officially retired Trevor's number 6 following his 2015 Stanley Cup victory.
Varsity hockey championships:
Gordon Cup championships: 1991, 1994–1996, 2007, 2010, 2013, 2016 and 2020
State championships: 1983, 1994–1996, 2005, 2014, 2015 and 2020. The program's eight state titles (in 12 finals appearances) are tied for third-most in the state.
Swimming
The CBA Swim Team has been the Monmouth County and Shore Conference champions for 28 years in a row coached by Michael Sullivan. Notable CBA swimmers are 2000 Summer Olympics bronze medalist Tom Wilkens, and professional baseball player Vito Chiaravalloti, who is varsity swim coach as of October 2008. The 2009−10 swim team went 12−0 and captured their second ever state championship topping St. Augustine Preparatory School 86−84. The team was the fastest in CBA school history and also the first team to finish top ranked in New Jersey. In 2011 the team took their 21st Shore Conference and Monmouth County Tournament victories and also became the first team in CBA history to win back-to- back state championships, defeating St. Joseph (Metuchen) 92–78. The 2012 team won another state title.
Varsity swimming championships:
Conference Championships- 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020
State: 1998, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020
seven consecutive group titles from 2010 to 2016 is the sixth-longest streak in state history and the 10 state championships are ninth-most of any school in the state.
Wrestling
In 2005–06, the team went 17−4 and made it to the division finals; the Colts finished ranked 15th in New Jersey and had one athlete place at the state level. The Colts had four district champions and advanced eight to the region 6 tournament. David Santamaria (class of 1998) placed 2nd in the New Jersey high school state wrestling tournament three years in a row; Kevin Mount (class of 1999) placed 4th in the New Jersey high school state wrestling tournament his senior year. Coach Michael Baldi recently retired after years of service. Head coach is Michael Tomaino who received his first career victory as the head coach in the opening match of the 2006–07 season. The team ended with a 14–10 record with three 20-match winners and James Beshada set a school record of 41 single season victories.
In the 2007−08 season, the Colt wrestlers finished second in District 22, beating state-ranked Raritan High School, and coming within one place of beating Ocean Township High School for the championship. CBA sent nine wrestlers to the Region tournament, and had 12 of 14 notch wins in districts. They finished their dual meet season with a record of 14−12, and beat traditional rival St. John Vianney High School 35−22 to send them to the Sectional Semi-finals of the Non-Public A South NJSIAA Tournament where they lost to Camden Catholic High School, 35−19. Their season was capped by a 5th in the State finish by Senior Captain Joe Favia. This is the third consecutive season the Colts placed a wrestler in the state tournament.
Conference Championships- 2016
District Championships- 1968, 2014, 2015, 2016
Spring sports
Christian Brothers Academy offers baseball, crew, golf, lacrosse, outdoor track, rugby, sailing, tennis, and volleyball in the spring.
Baseball
Under the direction of Head Coach Martin Kenney, the Colts have been a dominant force in New Jersey high school baseball since 1974. In 2007, Coach Kenney earned his 600th career win with a victory over Wall High School and eclipsed 700 wins in his 40th season (2014).
In 2015, CBA secured their greatest season in history, winning all five Championships that the team competed in: "A" North Division, Monmouth County, Shore Conference, NJSIAA Sectional and NJSIAA State. The 2015 Colts finished #1 in the county, Shore, State and Tri-State. They were also ranked in two National H.S. Baseball Polls, #23 in the U.S.A Today poll and #21 in the Max Preps H.S. Baseball poll.
Conference Championships- 1993, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2014, 2015, 2016
State Championships- 1977, 2009, 2015
Crew
Founded in 2004, the CBA crew team is a dual-season sport. The team won its first New Jersey State Scholastic Rowing Championships in the Novice 4+ event in its inaugural year. In the 2006 season, the team gained national recognition when its newly formed Lightweight 4+ placed 2nd at the Scholastic Rowing Nationals in Saratoga, New York. The Junior 4+ won the New Jersey State Scholastic Championships in 2008. The varsity double took 2nd place at the 2008 Stotesbury Cup, the largest high school regatta in the nation. In 2009, CBA won the senior 1x event at the New Jersey Scholastic Rowing Championships. In the 2011 Spring Season, the Lightweight 4+ placed second at the Stotesbury Cup and placed first in Nationals in Camden, New Jersey.
Golf
The CBA golf team won the state championship in 2005 under the direction of head coach Tim Sewing. They began a stretch of Shore Conference dominance in 2011, winning the next five of six conference tournaments including the 2016 title.
Conference Championships- 1995, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018
State Championships- 1985, 1986, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2017
Lacrosse
Their longtime head coach is Dave Santos '85.
Conference Championships- 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009
Rugby
Rugby formed as a club team in 2011 at CBA, being elevated to varsity status in 2013. The team is coached by Patrick Moroney, the head coach of the Monmouth Rugby Club. In their inaugural varsity spring season, the rugby 15's won the New Jersey High School state championship, finishing up an undefeated season. In the fall of 2015, the rugby 7's won their first state championship.
Sailing
Another dual season sport at CBA, the sailing team has existed in some form since 2000, first as a club team beginning in 2000. The 2005 club team qualified for the Interscholastic Sailing Association (ISSA)'s Mallory National Championship. After a year of inactivity, the current iteration of CBA Sailing began in 2007 and was promoted to varsity status in 2011. Since then, the 16-member varsity squad has been an active member of the New Jersey Interscholastic Sailing Association (NJISA), a division of the Mid-Atlantic Scholastic Sailing Association (MASSA). In 2014, the sailing team won their first-ever NJISA League Championship, and in 2015, CBA was crowned New Jersey State Champions for the first time. The Colts made it back-to-back titles, winning the 2016 New Jersey state championship as well. In 2017, CBA qualified for the ISSA Mallory National Championship for the first time as a varsity team and second time in school history. The team's longtime coach is Jody Lutz, a Barnegat Bay Sailing Hall of Fame inductee and multiple-time North American sailing champion.
League Championships- 2014 (fall), 2015 (spring), 2015 (fall), 2016 (spring)
State Championships- 2015, 2016
Tennis
The tennis team is one of the most accomplished sports at CBA. The Colts have won over 20 state championships, most recently in 2013. The period of success came under the direction of head coach Dan Keane, who retired after the 2016 season after serving as coach since 1978, having led the team to 14 state group titles and an overall record of 649–155.
Conference championships: 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992
State championships: 1970, 1973-1986, 1988-1995, 2013
Volleyball
Volleyball became a varsity sport at CBA in the 2000s and began seeing success late in the decade behind head coach Monica Slattery. In 2015, Christian Brothers won the Shore Conference Championship for the first time in team history. On April 10, 2019, the team won its 300th win in program history.
Shore Conference championships: 2015
Track and Field
Conference championships: 1983, 1988, 1994, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2005, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017
State championships: Non-Public A titles in 1978-1983, 1985, 1987, 1988, 1993-1995, 1999-2004, 2012, 2016-2019 and 2021. The program's 26 state titles are the most of any school in the state.
Notable alumni
Edward G. Amoroso, computer security professional, entrepreneur, author and educator
Tim Begley (born 1983), former professional basketball player
Derek Paul Jack Boyle (born 1985), visual artist who shows work in New England, graduate of RISD's Digital + Media program
Twilly Cannon (1955–2016), environmental and social justice activist
Brian Casey, President of Colgate University
Connor Clifton (born 1995), ice hockey defenseman for the Boston Bruins of the NHL
John Crotty (born 1969), former professional basketball player who played 11 NBA seasons from 1992 to 2003. He played for the Utah Jazz, Cleveland Cavaliers, Miami Heat, Portland Trail Blazers, Seattle SuperSonics, Detroit Pistons and Denver Nuggets. Crotty is currently the color commentary radio announcer for the Heat
Jeff DeGrandis (born 1957), animation director.
Pat Delany, basketball coach who has worked in various coaching positions in the NBA
Edward A. Flynn (born 1948), law enforcement official who has been Chief of the Milwaukee Police Department
Tom Judge (born 1999), soccer player who plays as a defender
Brian Kennedy, head coach for the NJIT Highlanders men's basketball team
Nick LaBrocca (born 1984), professional soccer player for Toronto FC of Major League Soccer. Attended and played at Rutgers University and was taken with the 35th overall pick of the 2007 MLS SuperDraft
Pat Light (born 1991, class of 2009), professional baseball player who played for the Boston Red Sox and Minnesota Twins
Brian Lynch (born 1978), Irish-American professional basketball player and former standout at Villanova University who currently plays for the Belgian team, Euphony Bree. Lynch is married to former World No. 1-ranked tennis star Kim Clijsters
Jan Sport (born 1993), drag queen and singer who appeared on RuPaul's Drag Race Season 12
John A. Mulheren (1947–2003) became a leading Wall Street financier in the 1980s and 1990s
Lou Taylor Pucci (born 1985), actor who appeared in HBO's Empire Falls and other independent films
Tony Reali (born 1978), current host of Around the Horn on ESPN and "stat boy" on Pardon the Interruption
Kenneth P. Ruscio (born 1954; class of 1972), President of Washington and Lee University
Joakim Ryan (born 1993), professional hockey player in the San Jose Sharks system
Athanasios Scheidt (born 1998), soccer player who plays as a midfielder for Polish club Radomiak Radom
Michael A. Sheehan (1955–2018, class of 1973), author, government official and military officer
Scott Thomsen (born 1993), soccer player who plays as a defender for the Richmond Kickers in the United Soccer League
Andrew Toole (born 1980; class of 1998), men's basketball head coach at Robert Morris University
Jerry Tuite (1966-2003; class of 1986), professional wrestler best known by his ring names, "The Wall" in World Championship Wrestling and "Malice" while performing for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling.
James van Riemsdyk (born 1989), professional hockey player for the Philadelphia Flyers, who was drafted second overall in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft by the Philadelphia Flyers. Member of 2014 US Olympic Hockey Team
Trevor van Riemsdyk (born 1991, class of 2009), professional hockey player for the Washington Capitals. Won the 2015 Stanley Cup with the Chicago Blackhawks
Dan Werner (born 1987, class of 2006), University of Florida basketball player who won the NCAA National Championship with the Gators in 2007
Paul Wesley (born 1982), actor who has appeared in The Vampire Diaries
Tom Wilkens (born 1975), Olympic bronze medal-winning swimmer
References
External links
CBA Lincroft official website
Data for Christian Brothers Academy, National Center for Education Statistics
DigitalSports CBA Homepage
1959 establishments in New Jersey
Boys' schools in New Jersey
Educational institutions established in 1959
Lasallian schools in the United States
Middletown Township, New Jersey
Private high schools in Monmouth County, New Jersey
Roman Catholic Diocese of Trenton
Catholic secondary schools in New Jersey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Nifong
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Mike Nifong
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Michael Byron Nifong (born September 14, 1950) is an American former attorney and convicted criminal. He served as the Durham County, North Carolina District Attorney until he was removed, disbarred, and very briefly jailed following court findings concerning his conduct in the Duke lacrosse case, primarily his conspiring with the DNA lab director to withhold exculpatory DNA evidence that could have acquitted the defendants.
Early life
Nifong was born in Wilmington, North Carolina, and attended New Hanover High School. He graduated Phi Beta Kappa from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC) in 1971 with a degree in political science. He registered as a conscientious objector and participated in anti-war protests during the Vietnam War. After working as a teacher and social worker, Nifong returned to UNC in 1975 and earned a J.D. degree from the University of North Carolina School of Law in 1978. He was admitted to the North Carolina bar.
Career
After spending a year as a per diem assistant with the Durham County District Attorney's office, Nifong was hired on a full-time basis in 1979. He eventually worked his way up to chief assistant. After District Attorney Jim Hardin was appointed to a Superior Court vacancy in 2005, Governor Mike Easley appointed Nifong to fill out the remainder of Hardin's term. Nifong was sworn in on April 27, 2005. As the Duke lacrosse case unfolded, Nifong won the Democratic primary on May 2, 2006 for Durham County District Attorney. He won the general election in November 2006 by a close margin of 833 votes.
Duke lacrosse case
In 2006, Nifong pursued rape, sexual assault, and kidnapping charges against Reade Seligmann, Collin Finnerty, and David Evans, three white members of the Duke University men's lacrosse team. The accusation of sexual assault was made by Crystal Mangum, one of two local black women who the lacrosse team had hired to work as strippers for a party. The case attracted national and international media attention. Former New York Times public editor Daniel Okrent wrote, "It [the case] conformed too well to too many preconceived notions of too many in the press: white over black, rich over poor, athletes over non-athletes, men over women, educated over non-educated."
In the first weeks of the case, Nifong gave an estimated 50 to 70 interviews. On the day he received his first briefing by police, March 27, 2006, he told the press, "The circumstances of the rape indicated a deep racial motivation for some of the things that were done." By April 1, he had made 48 statements to the press, including assertions that others present at the party where the alleged assault took place were covering for the accused players, saying, "I would like to think that somebody who was not in the bathroom has the human decency to call up and say, 'What am I doing covering up for a bunch of hooligans?'" Initial media reports on the case largely reflected Nifong's statements and opinions.
Nifong said in a court hearing on October 27, six months after the arrest of Seligmann, Finnerty, and Evans, that he had not yet interviewed the alleged victim. "I haven't talked with her about the facts of that night...We're not at that stage yet." According to Nifong, none of his assistants had discussed the case with her, either.
On December 22, 2006, Nifong dropped the rape charge (while the sexual assault and kidnapping charges were still being pursued) against the three lacrosse players after Mangum changed her story, saying that she was no longer certain whether she was penetrated vaginally by one or more of the men. This was a few days after it was revealed in court that Nifong had withheld evidence from the defense concerning DNA tests. Nifong was strongly criticized for pressing ahead with what appeared to many to be a weak case without any physical evidence. The defense argued that Mangum had given at least a dozen different accounts of the incident, changing the number of attackers from twenty to three, and modifying the methods by which she was assaulted.
In January 2007, Nifong sent a letter to then-North Carolina Attorney General Roy A. Cooper, asking his office to assume responsibility of the case. This came days after Mangum changed her story again, claiming that suspect Seligmann was not involved in the alleged attack. Previously she had accused him and two others of the alleged rape.
The next day, Cooper announced that his office would take over the case. In April, he announced that charges against the three players would be dropped and that "based on the significant inconsistencies between the evidence and the various accounts given by the accusing witness, we believe these three individuals are innocent of these charges".
Criticism
Defense lawyers and media outlets were strongly critical of Nifong's handling of the case. Nifong said that the criticisms were the product of a defense strategy to malign the prosecution and intimidate the alleged rape victim.
As the details of the case emerged, Nifong was attacked not only from advocates of the indicted students but by news sources such as The Washington Post and the Los Angeles Times.
They claimed he went public with a series of accusations that later turned out to be untrue; that he exaggerated and intensified racial tensions; that he unduly influenced the Durham police investigation; that he tried to manipulate potential witnesses; that he refused to hear exculpatory evidence before indictment; that regulations on the conduct of an identification exercise were breached by failure to include "dummy" photographs of anyone who was not at the party; that he had never spoken directly to the alleged victim about the accusations; and that he made misleadingly incomplete presentations of various aspects of the evidence in the case (including DNA results).
Additional coverage critical of the prosecution's case included that expressed by: 60 Minutes, Charlotte Observer, Fox News, Greensboro News & Record, National Journal, Newark Star-Ledger, The News & Observer, Newsweek, New York Daily News, New York magazine, San Diego Union Tribune, Washington Times, The Star-News (Wilmington, N.C.), and the now-defunct Rocky Mountain News.
Nifong gave more than 50 interviews, many with the national media, according to his own account and confirmed by the News & Observer. In these interviews, Nifong repeatedly said that he was "confident that a rape occurred", calling the players "a bunch of hooligans" whose "daddies could buy them expensive lawyers." From early April 2006, however, Nifong generally refused to talk to the media.
On July 18, 2006, defense lawyers charged that Nifong made "unprofessional and discourteous" remarks. During a preliminary hearing, Nifong said, "[Defense] attorneys were almost disappointed that their clients didn't get indicted so they could be a part of this spectacle here in Durham." One lawyer asserted that "Nifong's statement is an insult to the legal profession as a whole and is certainly unwarranted by any facts in this case." Others saw it as a personal insult. Nifong then went on vacation and could not be reached for further comment.
On October 27, 2006, Nifong said in court that neither he nor his assistants had yet discussed the alleged assault with the accuser, saying they had so far left that aspect of the investigation to the police.
Critics of the district attorney requested that Nifong be investigated, punished and disbarred for his actions in this case. On December 12, 2006, Republican Representative Walter B. Jones of North Carolina's 3rd district was reported to have sent a letter to U.S. Attorney General Alberto Gonzales asking for an investigation into whether Nifong committed "prosecutorial misconduct" and violated the civil rights of the three suspects in the case; Gonzales stated that his office might investigate how Nifong had handled the case. Critics noted that police were instructed to "Go through Mr. Nifong for any directions as to how to conduct matters in this case." This was an unusual move for a prosecutor to order.
On December 16, 2006, it was revealed that Nifong and DNA lab director Brian Meehan conspired to withhold exculpatory DNA evidence from the final report submitted to the defense team.
The prosecution of the case was criticized by the legal analyst for the National Journal, Stuart Taylor, as well as New York Times columnists David Brooks and Nicholas Kristof. An investigation by CBS' 60 Minutes "reveal[ed] disturbing facts about the conduct of the police and the district attorney, and raise[d] serious concerns." (This 60 Minutes segment was honored with a Peabody Award on April 4, 2007.) Several writers at Slate criticized the prosecution's actions and especially criticized the mainstream media for accepting prosecution claims at face value in spite of countervailing evidence.
In light of the fact that Nifong failed to turn over exculpatory evidence to defense lawyers on December 22, 2006, The News & Observer wrote that "to press forward in the [...] case, District Attorney Mike Nifong must rely on scanty evidence while deflecting serious questions about whether he broke the law or violated the ethics rules governing prosecutors."
Thomas Sowell accused Nifong of using the case to improve his chances in the next election by gaining large support from the African American community. Nifong ultimately won the primary and general election in the midst of the case, despite the fact that allegations of ethical improprieties had already come to light. A federal judge in 2011 ruled that the civil lawsuit could proceed against Nifong, including claims of "malicious prosecution" and "fabrication of false evidence".
Ethics charges
On December 28, 2006, the North Carolina State Bar filed ethics charges against Nifong over his conduct in the case, accusing him of making public statements that were "prejudicial to the administration of justice" and of engaging in "conduct involving dishonesty, fraud, deceit, or misrepresentation." The seventeen-page document accuses Nifong of violating four rules of professional conduct, listing more than fifty examples of statements he made to the media.
The State Bar filed a second round of ethics charges on January 24, 2007. In this document, it accused Nifong of a "systematic abuse of prosecutorial discretion ... prejudicial to the administration of justice" when he withheld DNA evidence to mislead the court.
Nifong's lawyers filed a report asking for dismissal of some of the charges against him on March 19, arguing that his actions had not prevented the defendants from a fair trial since defense attorneys received a DNA report before a trial date was set. The State Bar denied the request, pointing out that North Carolina law "is unambiguous: Anyone subject to an NTO [Nontestimonial Identification Order] must be given any report of test results as soon as such a report is available." The Bar continued that "Nifong is effectively arguing that he can make false statements to a court which result in the entry of an order, and then use the order that is based on his misrepresentations to claim he committed no discovery violation."
At an April 13 hearing, another request for dismissal of charges was denied. Nifong's team argued that the law about revealing exculpatory evidence to the defense was too vague about a timetable. Attorneys for the State Bar pointed out that it was only through diligent efforts of the Duke players' defense team that the DNA report was finally made available to them. The formal ethics hearing began on June 12 in Raleigh.
On June 15, Nifong took the stand to testify in his own defense. During the testimony, he apologized to the families of the Duke athletes and stated that he would resign as district attorney. Joseph Cheshire, attorney for David Evans, one of the accused players, dismissed the apology as "a cynical political attempt to save his law license". During the trial, Nifong acknowledged he knew there was no DNA evidence connecting lacrosse players Reade Seligmann and Collin Finnerty to the 28-year-old woman who accused them of attacking her when he indicted them on charges of rape, sexual offense and kidnapping a year prior.
Disbarment
On June 16, 2007, the North Carolina State Bar Disciplinary Committee unanimously voted to disbar Nifong after delivering a guilty verdict to 27 of 32 charges. The committee found Nifong's previous disciplinary record and acknowledgment of his improper pre-trial statements were substantially outweighed by (among other things) the players' vulnerability and his failure to acknowledge the "wrongful nature of (his) conduct with respect of the handling of DNA evidence."
Committee chair Lane Williamson called the case a "fiasco" and said Nifong's actions involved "dishonesty, fraud, deceit and misrepresentation." Williamson further stated, "At the time he was facing a primary, and yes, he was politically naive, but we can draw no other conclusion that those initial statements he made were to further his political ambitions." In the end, the panel concluded that "there is no discipline short of disbarment appropriate in this case given the magnitude of the offenses found."
Nifong agreed to surrender his law license and said he would not appeal; through his attorney, he said that disbarment was an appropriate punishment. Nifong is the first sitting district attorney in the history of North Carolina to be disbarred. Earlier in the day, Nifong offered to voluntarily surrender his law license. However, Williamson said that the panel had to issue a ruling, and issued its disbarment order shortly thereafter. Under North Carolina law, the order took effect 30 days after Nifong received it in writing.
Immediately after the hearing, lawyers for the three players said they would seek to have Nifong held in criminal contempt of court for his false statements. The lawyers added that calls for a federal civil rights investigation into the matter weren't out of line. The players' attorneys called for an independent investigation into the case, and Cooper was considering whether to open a criminal probe into the affair.
The players' attorneys said on June 18 that their clients were very likely to file a civil suit against Nifong to recover their legal expenses and restore their reputations. It is not known how much they can recover; Nifong had no income aside from his salary as DA, and public records indicate that he has no significant assets other than his home in Durham, real estate in western North Carolina and retirement accounts. According to The News and Observer, the players incurred $3 million in legal costs.
On June 18, Nifong submitted his resignation to Governor Easley and Durham County Chief Superior Court Judge Orlando Hudson, saying he would leave office on July 13. Hudson said that Nifong should have resigned immediately, saying that defense attorneys could challenge Nifong's authority. Easley, a former prosecutor and state attorney general, also felt that Nifong should have resigned immediately.
Early on June 19, Hudson issued an order suspending Nifong from office with pay. Under North Carolina law, this was the first step in a process that allows the chief judge of a county to remove that county's district attorney from office. Hudson also appointed a Raleigh attorney as special prosecutor to oversee the removal proceeding. A Durham resident, Beth Brewer had asked Hudson to remove Nifong in February on the grounds that Nifong engaged in willful misconduct and brought disrepute upon his office – two of the criteria required for removing a district attorney from office. This process had been used only once before, when the district attorney for New Hanover and Pender counties was removed from office in 1995 for making a racial slur. In April 2021, the statute was used a third time to remove DA Greg Newman from office. NC Superior Court Judge Robert Ervin found that DA Greg Newman committed willful misconduct and perjury, notably in a 2015 child rape case. Newman's removal marked the first time an elected DA was removed from office by crime victims, unrepresented by attorneys, for failing to prosecute violent offenders. The NC Coalition Against Sexual Assault issued a statement in support of DA Greg Newman's victims, calling his actions "horrific" and "unforgivable". The NC State Bar did not disbar Greg Newman.
On June 20, Nifong began talks with the special prosecutor about the possibility of leaving office immediately, but later that day, Easley appointed Jim Hardin, Nifong's predecessor, as acting district attorney. This came hours after Easley signed a bill that would allow the governor to remove a district attorney or judge from office if he or she has been disbarred or suspended from practicing law. Easley strongly supported the bill, which unanimously passed both houses of the legislature.
Easley had let it be known that he would have removed Nifong from office immediately if he had had the authority and power to do so. It had been unclear how soon Easley could have removed Nifong under this new law. The bill does not allow a governor to remove a DA or judge until the State Bar formally issued its order of disbarment, and all appeals have been exhausted. However, as mentioned above, Nifong had said he would not appeal. Hardin was sworn in the next day, and served until September 2007, when Easley appointed Assistant District Attorney David Saacks to fill out the first half of Nifong's term. At the time of Hardin's swearing-in, negotiations were still under way between Nifong and the special prosecutor, and Hudson was proceeding with the hearing to remove him for good. However, according to a spokesman for the state's Administrative Office of the Courts, Nifong's tenure as DA ended with Hardin's swearing-in. Nifong formally resigned from office on July 2.
Nifong's former assistant district attorney, Tracey Cline, was elected District Attorney in a 2008 special election and re-elected in 2010. She was removed from office herself in 2012 for, among other things, making defamatory accusations against Judge Hudson. Her license to practice law was suspended for five years in 2015 but she was not disbarred.
On June 22, the players' lawyers filed their motion asking Superior Court Judge Osmond Smith, who presided over the case, to hold Nifong in contempt. The players also wanted Nifong to pay for the 60 to 100 hours it took to prove that he misrepresented the DNA evidence. Nifong was charged with having violated at least a dozen laws, rules and court orders designed to protect defendants' rights by playing "a game of hide and seek" with evidence that could have cleared the players. The players' motion also alleged that Nifong's misconduct "shocks the conscience and defies any notion of accident or negligence". Earlier that same month, Judge Smith had filed papers stating that he retained control over the case although the charges had been dismissed, and had the power to impose his own sanctions against Nifong.
On July 25, Nifong issued a less qualified apology for his actions, saying he did not challenge Cooper's conclusion that there was "no credible evidence" to support the charges he had made. While the players' attorneys expressed skepticism about his sincerity, they did withdraw their demands that he pay for the legal work it took to ferret out the DNA evidence.
In a letter addressed to the North Carolina State Bar on August 7, Nifong formally surrendered his law license. He then decried the "fundamental unfairness" with which his disbarment was conducted, contradicting his own lawyer's assertion that Nifong believed disbarment to be an appropriate punishment. To explain the physical condition of the license, Nifong said the license had been damaged "by a puppy in her chewing stage", and therefore had never been framed or displayed.
Sentence and jail
On September 7, 2007, after having already been disbarred, Nifong reported to the Durham County jail to serve a one-day jail sentence for contempt of court. He was held alone in a cell for his protection.
Sued by players
On October 5, 2007, Evans, Finnerty, and Seligmann filed a federal lawsuit alleging that Nifong engineered a wide-ranging conspiracy to frame the players. Also named in the suit were the lab that handled the DNA work, the city of Durham, the city's former police chief, the deputy police chief, the two police detectives who handled the case and five other police department employees. The players sought unspecified damages, and wanted to place the Durham Police Department under court supervision for 10 years, claiming the actions of the police department pose "a substantial risk of irreparable injury to other persons in the City of Durham." According to the suit, Nifong's sole motive was to win support for his reelection bid; the suit alleges that Nifong told his campaign manager that the case would provide "'millions of dollars' in free advertising." This allegation is confirmed by The New York Times, and by an interview with Nifong's campaign manager. Nifong asked the state attorney general's office and the Administrative Office of the Courts to pay his legal fees and help defend him, but both offices refused on the grounds that Nifong's actions involved "fraud, corruption (and) malice."
Bankruptcy filing
On January 15, 2008, Nifong filed for bankruptcy under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code. He listed assets of almost $244,000 and liabilities of over $180.3 million, virtually all of which derived from six $30 million "unsecured nonpriority claims", one for each of the six members of the 2005–06 Duke lacrosse team suing Nifong, among others.
While the bankruptcy filing automatically delayed the civil suit against him, it may not protect Nifong from civil liability for his actions in the case. Unsecured creditors can still pursue claims against someone filing for bankruptcy if the debt was incurred through "willful and malicious injury" to them. Seligmann's attorney, noted Triangle lawyer David Rudolf, said that the players intend to pursue such a claim.
According to at least one bankruptcy law expert, Nifong's bankruptcy filing was a tacit admission that he does not have the resources to defend himself against the players' civil suit, and is trying to protect what assets he is allowed to protect under the law. On March 11, 2008, the Bankruptcy Administrator recommended that Nifong's Chapter 7 bankruptcy case be dismissed or converted to a Chapter 13 bankruptcy case because Nifong earned income above the requirement set forth in the Means Test to be eligible to file a Chapter 7 bankruptcy case. However, the Bankruptcy Court ultimately held that Nifong was eligible to be a debtor in a Chapter 7 bankruptcy case and granted him a bankruptcy discharge on June 4, 2008. Later that same year, Judge William L. Stocks lifted the automatic stay imposed by Nifong's bankruptcy filing, and announced that the plaintiffs could pursue their lawsuit.
Later developments
In July 2014 there was a call for all the cases Nifong had prosecuted to be reviewed on the basis of his having been shown to ignore due process in some cases including the murder trial against Darryl Howard, who had been convicted in 1995 of a 1991 murder of a woman and her daughter.
In 2014, Darryl Howard, who at that time had been imprisoned for murder for 20 years, was granted a new trial because Nifong had withheld evidence in the trial that led to his convictions. Two years later, following a hearing where the state was asked why the convictions should stand, the murder conviction was vacated and Howard released from prison, noting that DNA evidence not presented to the jury would likely have exonerated him.
Personal life
Nifong is twice married. His second wife is Cy Gurney, regional administrator of North Carolina Guardian ad Litem. He has a daughter from his first marriage and a son with Gurney. He lives in northern Durham County.
References
External links
News & Observer: Copy of Superior Court Judge Orlando Hudson's order suspending Mike Nifong (PDF)
Copy of disbarment order
News about Michael B. Nifong, including commentary and archival articles published in The New York Times
1950 births
Living people
20th-century American lawyers
21st-century American criminals
21st-century American lawyers
American conscientious objectors
American male criminals
American social workers
Criminals from North Carolina
Disbarred American lawyers
District attorneys expelled from public office
District attorneys in North Carolina
Educators from North Carolina
New Hanover High School alumni
North Carolina Democrats
North Carolina lawyers
People from Durham, North Carolina
People from Wilmington, North Carolina
Prisoners and detainees of North Carolina
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni
University of North Carolina School of Law alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tha%20Carter%20III
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Tha Carter III
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Tha Carter III is the sixth studio album by American rapper Lil Wayne, released on June 10, 2008, by Cash Money, Universal Motown & Young Money Entertainment. It follows a long string of mixtape releases and guest appearances on other hip hop and R&B artists' albums, helping to increase his exposure in the mainstream. The album features appearances from Jay-Z, T-Pain, Fabolous, Robin Thicke, Busta Rhymes, Juelz Santana, Babyface, Bobby V, and Kanye West, among others. It also features Static Major, who is credited posthumously following his death in February 2008.
Amid release delays and leaks, Tha Carter III became one of the most anticipated releases of 2008. It debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, selling over 1 million copies in its first week which made it one of the fastest-selling albums in the US. It reached sales of 2.88 million copies by the end of 2008 and produced four singles that achieved chart success, including the international hit "Lollipop" and Billboard Hot 100 hits "A Milli", "Got Money", and "Mrs. Officer".
Upon its release, Tha Carter III received widespread acclaim from music critics and has since been regarded as one of Wayne's best albums. It earned Lil Wayne several accolades, including a spot on Rolling Stones list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. It was nominated for Album of the Year at the 2009 Grammy Awards and won for Best Rap Album, while "Lollipop" won Best Rap Song and "A Milli" won Best Rap Solo Performance. It has been certified 8× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
Background and recording
Lil Wayne stated that producers would include The Alchemist, Cool & Dre, Deezle, Jim Jonsin, Just Blaze, Kanye West, Mannie Fresh, The Runners, Timbaland, Danja, and will.i.am. In an interview with HipHopCanada.com, Solitair of the Black Jays stated that he and Cipha Sounds produced a track called "Outstanding", which later eventually leaked. The Runners have stated that they have produced three tracks for Tha Carter III. Lil Wayne revealed that he has a track for Eminem, which he has yet to send to him. He described this song as the "craziest". Some believe that his request was turned down, but it most likely turned into "Drop the World" on his 2010 album Rebirth.
The album features guest appearances by Fabolous, T-Pain, Brisco, Bobby V, Babyface, Betty Wright, Static Major, Robin Thicke, Jay-Z, Juelz Santana, and Busta Rhymes. MTV reported that Wyclef Jean worked on a couple of tracks for the album and that a song featuring Justin Timberlake, Nelly Furtado, and Timbaland was likely to appear on the album. However, that Timbaland-produced track did not make the final cut. David Banner confirmed that he will be credited for five tracks on the final cut of Tha Carter III, but only one is featured on the album. After the copyright controversy of "Playing with Fire", the track was later removed and replaced with another David Banner-produced track "Pussy Monster". Swizz Beatz stated he was also working on the album. When asked about how many tracks Kanye West had contributed, he answered:
Music
Tha Carter IIIs lead single, "Lollipop", peaked at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100, staying at the top for three weeks. It was Wayne's most successful solo single in his career, winning one Grammy Award, a BET Award, and an MTV VMA. The song was praised as an "electro-bumpin'...infectious track", perceived as more of a "bubblegum" pop track than rap. The second track on the album, "Mr. Carter", was nominated for a Grammy while also peaking within the Hot 100. Jay-Z's guest verse on the song was praised, which was seen as him passing the throne to Wayne. The second single, "A Milli", was a top ten hit and was praised as one of the best songs of 2008. The song garnered countless freestyles and remixes, while Wayne's original version was praised with "spectacular rhyme". "Dr. Carter", the sixth track, was also praised for lyrical content and humor as Wayne took on the persona of a doctor performing surgery on various patients (a metaphor for Wayne resurrecting hip-hop). "Tie My Hands", featuring Robin Thicke, was praised as a deep track featuring "political commentary" and "despair" with Thicke's performance being the most complementary to Wayne. "Phone Home" also features various alien metaphors reminiscent of the film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982).
Release and promotion
Leaks
After most of the album leaked on the Internet in mid-2007, Lil Wayne used the leaked tracks, plus four new songs to make an album titled The Leak. The Leak was to be officially released on December 18, 2007, with the actual album being delayed until June 10, 2008. When questioned about the unplanned leak, Lil Wayne said:
On May 24, 2008, 10-second snippets of multiple songs were leaked onto AT&T Media Mall. On May 30–31, Tha Carter III was leaked internationally. The first of the leaks were distributed on May 30 at around 8pm where five songs from the track list were available on the internet. Hours later on May 31 at 12am-1am the whole album was leaked and posted on various websites for free download. The DJ responsible for the leaks was DJ Chuck T who retaliated for an interview conducted by Wayne, where he discredited all DJs and the mixtape scene days before. Lil Wayne later called DJ Drama's radio show Shade 45 Sirius Satellite Radio to explain that his comments were meant specifically for DJ Empire who leaked his materials periodically without his permission, consent, or knowledge; he also apologized for any misunderstandings between him and the numerous DJs that have aided him in the mixtape industry. He made it clear, however, that he wished for any feelings of dislike or resentment to remain.
Singles
The album's lead single, "Lollipop", topped the US Billboard Hot 100 for 5 non-consecutive weeks, making it Wayne's most successful single in his career. It features rapper Static Major. The album's second single, "A Milli", was another top ten. It reached No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100. It also won a Grammy for Best Rap Song. The video for the second single, "A Milli", was set to be released in May, and has since been mainstreamed. Multiple versions of the track were to be included on the album as "skit-like" tracks, featuring artists such as Tyga, Cory Gunz, Hurricane Chris and Lil Mama. Another artist, 13-year-old Lil Chuckee, was also set to appear on one of the "A Milli" skits. None of the skits made the final cut of the album. The third single is "Got Money", featuring T-Pain. It reached No. 10 on the Billboard Hot 100. The fourth single is "Mrs. Officer", featuring Bobby Valentino. It made the Top 20 in just four weeks. "Comfortable" was sent to American rhythmic contemporary radio as the album's fifth and final single on September 29, 2008. "Lollipop", "A Milli", "Got Money", and another track, "Mr. Carter", were nominated for a Grammy. Lil Wayne also performed "Tie My Hands" with Robin Thicke at the 51st Grammy Awards.
The album also featured the releases of promo singles. "3 Peat" peaked at number 66 on the Billboard 100. "You Ain't Got Nuthin" featuring Fabolous and Juelz Santana was released as a promo single, peaking at number 81 on the Billboard 100. "Mr. Carter", featuring Jay-Z, peaked at number 62 on the Billboard 100, number 27 on the Hot R&B/Hip Hop Songs chart, and number 13 on the Top Rap Songs. It was nominated for a Grammy for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or a Group in 2009.
Lawsuits
On July 24, 2008, Abkco Music Inc. filed a lawsuit against Lil Wayne for copyright infringement and unfair competition, specifically referring to the track "Playing with Fire". In the lawsuit, Abkco claims that the song was obviously derived from The Rolling Stones' "Play with Fire", to which Abkco owns the rights. Subsequently, "Playing with Fire" was removed from the track list of Tha Carter III on all online music stores and replaced with the David Banner produced track, "Pussy Monster".
In March 2011, producer Deezle (Darius Harrison) sued Wayne and his parent labels Cash Money Records over unpaid royalties from Tha Carter III album. In May 2011, producer Bangladesh also filed a lawsuit against Weezy & Co. over unpaid royalties. In early June 2011, another producer named David Kirkwood filed a lawsuit against Young Money Entertainment and Cash Money Records on claims that the labels have failed to pay him over $1.5 million in royalties and production services for his work on the album, also including his songwriting on "Love Me or Hate Me", a bonus song featured only on the deluxe edition of the album. Also in June 2011, Dallas producers Play-N-Skillz filed a lawsuit against him claiming Wayne owed them at least $1 million in unpaid royalties for "Got Money" from Tha Carter III.
Critical reception
Tha Carter III received widespread acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 84, based on 26 reviews. AllMusic editor David Jeffries praised Wayne's "entertaining wordplay and plenty of well-executed, left-field ideas". The Guardians Alex Macpherson lauded Wayne's rapping, stating "Just trying to keep up with Wayne's mind as he proves the case is a thrill. He breaks language down into building blocks for new metaphors, exploiting every possible semantic and phonetic loophole for humour and yanking pop culture references into startling new contexts".
Jonah Weiner of Blender called it "a weird, gripping triumph". Rolling Stone writer Jody Rosen commended its themes and stated "This isn't a mixtape, it's a suite of songs, paced and sequenced for maximum impact." Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented that Wayne "has clearly worked to make Tha Carter III a statement of its own: one that moves beyond standard hip-hop boasting (though there's plenty of that) to thoughts that can be introspective or gleefully unhinged". Pitchforks Ryan Dombal stated, "he distills the myriad metaphors, convulsing flows, and vein-splitting emotions into a commercially gratifying package". In his consumer guide for MSN Music, critic Robert Christgau noted that "every track attends to detail" and quipped, "From the start you know this is no mixtape because it's clearer and more forceful." Uncut stated that "the prince of hip-hop gets a blessing from the king." Mosi Reeves of Paste gave it a favorable review and noted that the album "hearkens to when rap meant rapp: Isaac Hayes talking for days about some girl he broke with, or Bobby Womack signifying while strumming a blues guitar." Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club called Lil Wayne "the man of the moment, but the disc's best moments strive for timelessness and attain it."
The Washington Posts J. Freedom du Lac commended Wayne for his "impulses to be outrageous and unconventional", calling him a "nonsensical genius", but found the album "uneven". Tom Breihan of The Village Voice described it as "a sprawling mess, and it clangs nearly as often as it clicks" and "a work of staggering heights and maddening inconsistencies", but commended Wayne for his unconventional performance, stating "On paper, this is a textbook focus-grouped major-label hodgepodge, replete with girl songs and club songs and street songs. But every facet of the album comes animated and atomized by Wayne's absurdist drug-gobbling persona". Drew Hinshaw of PopMatters stated "Tha Carter III is a monumental album full of powerful, self-defeating statements that obliterate rap's internal logic without offering too much more than indifferent bong logic in return. Judged, however, as a collection of singles and quotable verses—the criteria on which we've been grading hip-hop records since the end of disco—Tha Carter III is an agonizing piece of work". Jeff Weiss of the Los Angeles Times found it "scattershot", stating "When Wayne's mad alchemy works, Tha Carter III evinces shades of brilliance that merit the wild hype, but in its transparent attempts to define its era, it fails, falling victim to the imperial bloat of its big-budget mishmash of styles." Jon Caramanica of Entertainment Weekly wrote that "this schizoid album [...] is alternately mesmerizing and inscrutable." Slant Magazines Dave Hughes viewed that it lacks a "focus" as an album, and stated, "while there are a lot of [...] great moments here, Carter III is not the definitive statement of Wayne's mastery that he clearly intended it to be." Brandon Perkins of URB commented that "As a sum of its parts, Tha Carter III does not transcend, but a good number of those parts are otherworldly enough." Julian Benbow of The Boston Globe said the album was "not an instant classic, but it is the best rap album since Kanye West dropped "Graduation" last year." Eric R. Danton of the Hartford Courant said of Lil Wayne, "If his raspy, cartoonish voice didn't mark him as different, his quick wit, offhanded wordplay and quirky subject matter should have in a genre populated largely by grim-faced imitators."
Other reviews are average or mixed: Chase Hoffberger of The Austin Chronicle gave the album three stars out of five and said, "It's Wayne's personality that both floats and sinks TCIII." Kilian Murphy of Hot Press also gave it a score of three out of five and stated, "Gifted MC loses the run of himself without Mannie Fresh." Lewis P. of Sputnikmusic likewise gave it a score of three out of five and said the album "is scattershot, which oddly strengthens its faults, as if any lull in quality means that the next batch of producers can just reset the formula." (However, nearly three years later, in 2011, Alex Robertson of the same website gave the album a score of four-and-a-half out of five and said it was "sort of a miracle: it's way too weird and confusing to be on the mainstream rap charts--to be that record that everyone knows about--but it is anyway. This album was in opposition to much of modern rap but somehow became popular and then proceeded to completely consume the genre and change its direction. [...] Tha Carter III is a contradictory, against-all-odds masterpiece, and Lil Wayne may never perfect this balance again. I sincerely question: will anyone?") Ajitpaul Manjat of Tiny Mix Tapes gave the album two-and-a-half stars out of five and stated that, "equipped with the stylish, but too-often substance-less Tha Carter III, Lil Wayne seems poised to flip the script on the "rapper racists" (radio stations, MTV) by evolving into the "biggest" rapper alive."
Accolades
Tha Carter III was ranked number one in Blenders list of the 33 best albums of 2008. Christgau ranked its deluxe edition as the second best album of 2008. The album was also ranked number three on Rolling Stones list of the top 50 albums of 2008. It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Album of the Year, and it won for Best Rap Album at the 2009 Grammy Awards, while "Lollipop" won for Best Rap Song and "A Milli" won for Best Rap Solo Performance. Billboard magazine ranked the album number 103 on its list of the Top 200 Albums of the Decade. In 2012, the album was ranked number 437 on Rolling Stones list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, upgrading to number 208 in 2020 revised list. In 2012 Complex named the album one of the classic albums of the last decade.
Commercial performance
With opening day sales figures of approximately 423,000 copies, Tha Carter III debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart, selling 1,005,545 copies in its first week. This became Wayne's first US number one debut and his sixth top-ten album. With its first week sales, it is the largest first week sales for any album in 2008 in the United States and the first album to reach the million mark in one week since 50 Cent's The Massacre (2005). In its second week, the album dropped to number two on the chart, behind Coldplay's Viva La Vida or Death And All His Friends, selling an additional 309,000 copies. By the end of 2008, Tha Carter III had sold approximately 2.88 million copies and it was named the best-selling album of the year in the United States by Billboard. On September 25, 2020, the album was certified six times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for combined sales and album-equivalent units of over six million units in the United States.
Tha Carter III has also reached the top spot in the Canadian Albums Chart, selling nearly 21,000 units. Elsewhere, the album achieved moderate success, entering at only number 23 in the UK and number 34 on the Irish Album Chart.
Track listingNotes'''
"A Milli" contains a sample from "I Left My Wallet In El Segundo (Vampire Mix)", as performed by A Tribe Called Quest.
"Comfortable" contains an uncredited sample from "You Don't Know My Name", written by Alicia Keys, Kanye West, and Harold Lilly, and performed by Keys.
"Dr. Carter" contains samples from "Holy Thursday", written by David A. Axelrod.
"DontGetIt" contains samples from "Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood", written by Bennie Benjamin, Gloria Caldwell and Sol Marcus.
"Action" contains a sample of "I'm So Hood" by DJ Khaled.
"I'm Me" contains samples of "Go D.J.", "Fireman", "Hustler Musik", and "Cash Money Millionaires" by Lil Wayne, "God Moving Over the Face of the Waters" by Moby, and "Rubberband Man" by T.I.
"Gossip" contains a sample of "Stop in the Name of Love" by Margie Joseph.
"Kush" contains a sample of "Honey Wild" by Con Funk Shun.
Personnel
Credits for Tha Carter III adapted from Allmusic.
Chad Gilbreath/SoulReaveR - producer
Angelo Aponte – engineer
David Banner – producer
Joshua Berkman – digital editing
Miguel Angel Mendoza Bermudez – mixing assistant
Sandy Brummels – creative director
Katina Bynum – project manager
Gloria Caldwell – composer
Ludas Charles – keyboards
Andrew Dawson – mixing
Jim Jonsin – producer
Jonathan Mannion – photography
Fabian Marasciullo – mixing
Sol Marcus – composer
Vlado Meller – mastering
Sha Ron Prescott – vocals
Pro-Jay – engineer, musician, producer
James Scheffer – composer
Miguel Scott – engineer
Swizz Beatz – producer
Robin Thicke – musician, producer
Julian Vasquez – engineer
Gina Victoria – engineer
Kanye West – producer
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications
References
External links
Tha Carter III'' at Discogs
2008 albums
Albums produced by Bangladesh (record producer)
Albums produced by Cool & Dre
Albums produced by David Banner
Albums produced by Jim Jonsin
Albums produced by Kanye West
Albums produced by Robin Thicke
Albums produced by Swizz Beatz
Albums produced by the Alchemist (musician)
Cash Money Records albums
Lil Wayne albums
Universal Records albums
Young Money Entertainment albums
Grammy Award for Best Rap Album
Sequel albums
Albums produced by T-Pain
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Green%20Book%20%28IRA%29
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The Green Book (IRA)
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The Green Book is a training and induction manual issued by the Irish Republican Army to new volunteers. It was used by the post-Irish Civil War Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Cumann na mBan, ("League of Women"), along with later incarnations such as the Provisional IRA (IRA). It includes a statement of military objectives, tactics and conditions for military victory against the British government. This military victory was to be achieved as part of "the ongoing liberation of Ireland from foreign occupiers". The Green Book has acted as a manual of conduct and induction to the organisation since at least the 1950s.
History
Because the IRA and later republican groupings have been identified as illegal organisations (the PIRA, IRA & Cumann na mBan have been proscribed - declared illegal - in the UK, the Republic of Ireland and a number of other countries) the Green Book has been distributed and published secretly. It is published at unknown printing presses and distributed to or shared with IRA volunteers as they are accepted for active duty. Due to this secrecy only two editions of the Green Book have so far been released into the public domain. The first, published in 1956, appears to be intact. The second, publication date unknown but dating to the 1977 detention of then IRA Chief of Staff Seamus Twomey, has only been released in three parts (referred to here as the 1977 edition). With the beginning of the latest IRA ceasefire and the 2005 ending of their campaign, it seems unlikely that a new edition of the manual will have been issued in recent years by the IRA. However, it is possible that known/unknown groupings have issued a more recent version.
Volunteers' treatment of the Green Book
The Green Book is issued to IRA volunteers as part of their training and is considered a secret document which should not be revealed to, or discussed with non-IRA members. In order to protect the organisation, disclosure of its training material and any other training documents, including the Green Book, would most likely carry stiff penalties up to and including Court Martial. Once issued, each volunteer is expected to study and learn from his/her copy of the manual, to apply the rules given in it, and to apply lessons learnt from it. While the manual is clearly not all the training a volunteer could expect, it gave a broad overview meant to go some way to preparing the volunteer for active duty with the organisation.
1977 and 1956 editions
Both known issues of the Green Book were in existence while the IRA, (in the case of the 1956 edition), and the PIRA, (in the case of the 1977 edition), were engaged in a military campaign. In 1956, this was the Border Campaign, in the 1970s it was the guerrilla Provisional IRA campaign 1969-1997 which was carried out in Northern Ireland, England & several countries in mainland Europe.
Commonalities and differences exist between the two documents. This demonstrates that the Green Book is a living document updated periodically. These updates are made to reflect changes in:
political policy and social structure
military strategy and tactics of the organisation
military strength of the organisation
the technology/tactics of the organisation's enemies
While splits in the IRA since 1922 up to the 1950s do not appear to be noted in the 1956 document, developments in the fields of insurgency and counter-insurgency are. Both T. E. Lawrence and Field Marshal Sir William Slim are quoted. The 1977 edition appears to have been more heavily influenced by the work of Brigadier General Frank Kitson.
By the 1977 edition, the document had increased in scope, with length remaining around the same. Some doctrinal sections from the 1956 edition were still appearing, while new sections aimed at combating the counter-insurgency efforts of the British Army and RUC had appeared. Notably the 1977 edition would have existed alongside the IRA's change in tactics towards the entirely self-reliant cell structure. The 1956 edition on the other hand discusses the use of the IRA flying column - en masse attacks by large groups of volunteers against concentrations of the enemy. Another notable facet of the 1977 edition is the attention paid to the mental preparation of IRA Volunteers, this being the time of the IRA's "Long War" strategy. Readers of the 1977 edition are warned:
"The Army as an organisation claims and expects your total allegiance without reservation. It enters into every aspect of your life. It invades the privacy of your home life, it fragments your family and friends, in other words claims your total allegiance. All potential volunteers must realise that the threat of capture and of long jail sentences are a very real danger and a shadow which hangs over every volunteer..."
"Another important aspect all potential volunteers should think about is their ability to obey orders from a superior officer. All volunteers must obey orders issued to them by a superior officer regardless of whether they like the particular officer or not".
The 1956 edition contains no such warning, but appeals to the "guerrilla code." In 'Chapter Five - Organisation and Arms', the reader is advised:
"Leadership will not come so much by appointment as by the trust the guerrillas place in their commander. He must be worthy of that trust if he is to succeed. Instead of discipline of the regular army type there will be a more stern battle discipline: agreement on the job to be done, and the need to do it, and obedience to the guerrilla code, these take the place of the unthinking army type discipline. Breaches of the guerrilla code — desertion, betrayal, breach of confidence in any way — must be severely dealt with on the spot".
Contents of the Green Book
The book contains information on:
political philosophy of the IRA
Irish history in terms of struggle against the occupation of Ireland
the military objectives of the organisation
the military strategy for guerrilla fighters
the military equipment and tools that can be used by guerrilla fighters
the military equipment and training for tools available to the IRA
propaganda techniques within the theatre of operations
interrogation techniques and how to resist them
The book has also included references to the training, development, and tactics employed by Regular & Irregular/Specialist forces in modern armies - particularly those of the British Army.
Green Book historical context
The 1956 document couches the violence and occupation of the island of Ireland in a long history of armed resistance to occupation. The first chapter is entirely taken up with providing this history from the viewpoint of the organisation. It provides information on the Kerne, the battle of the Yellow Ford, Owen Roe O'Neill, the 1798 Rebellion and United Irishmen, James Fintan Lalor, and the "Tan War". All are described as being within the context of legitimate resistance to the occupation of Ireland. This discussion is largely romanticised and aimed at demonstrating a lineage of "armed struggle" from which the IRA assumes its legitimacy in the fight against "occupying forces in Ireland". One entry in this discussion is the fact that the efforts of IRA guerrillas were the direct cause in ending the British occupation of the 26 counties of Ireland—the territory that would become the Irish Free State, and later the Republic of Ireland. The 1956 manual also implies that the bulk of the IRA's work in "freeing Ireland from occupation" is over. This indicates both a "southern" perspective on Irish independence and an underestimation of the resistance they would encounter during the Border Campaign, that was aimed at the end of British rule in Northern Ireland. With the publication of the 1977 edition this assumption of an easy victory in ending partition had been dropped and the "Long War" strategy adopted.
The 1956 edition summarises the result of the violence during the 1919-1921 Irish War of Independence (referred to by republicans, who considered independence as having been only partially achieved, as the Tan War) with this passage:
"The hammer blows of the guerrillas destroyed the British administration. The guerrillas acted in small numbers in the right localities and compelled the British to disperse to find them. Then as the British searched, they hit them at will by means of the ambush. Communications were systematically destroyed and even the British army's transport system in the country was disorganised."
"The enemy's intelligence service was completely dislocated. The R.I.C.- the eyes and ears of British rule- was demoralised. British justice courts could not operate--for the people ignored them. The British gradually were forced to evacuate the smaller, more isolated garrisons. They concentrated in the larger towns. The areas evacuated came under sole control of The Republic. The next step was to isolate the larger centres and keep cutting communications and constantly hitting the enemy. In time these would have been evacuated too. Thus ended the last great phase of guerrilla operations against British rule in Ireland."
Compare to the Marxist interpretation in the 1977 edition, published during a new campaign and new conditions of waging war. The "struggle" is couched in more socio-economic terms, terms which would have made more sense to a generation living through unemployment and economic hardship in post industrial revolution Northern Ireland (referred to here as the "six counties"). It is also an indication of the influence of Marxist Philosophy that permeated the IRA in the late 1970s:
"The objective of the 800 years of oppression 'is economic exploitation with the unjustly partitioned 6 counties remaining Britain's directly controlled old-style colony' and the South under the 'continuing social, cultural and economic domination of London'. This last led to Irish savings being invested in England 'for a higher interest rate' and many hundreds of thousands of boys and girls from this country had to emigrate to England to seek the employment which those exported saving created."
"Another aspect of economic imperialism at work is the export of raw, unprocessed materials: live cattle on the hoof - mineral wealth, fish caught by foreign trawlers, etc. Further, from 1956 on, the Free State abandoned all attempts to secure an independent economy, and brought in foreign multi-national companies to create jobs instead of buying their skills and then sending them home gradually. Africanisation' is the word for this process elsewhere. Control of our affairs in all of Ireland lies more than ever since 1921 outside the hands of the Irish people. The logical outcome of all this was full immersion in the E.E.C. in the 1970s. The Republican Movement opposed this North and South in 1972 and 1975 and continues to do so. It is against such political economic power blocks East and West and military alliances such as NATO and the Warsaw Pact."
While the 1956 edition does not engage in any legitimisation of the struggle beyond the historical context of resistance to occupation, the 1977 edition does - claiming direct legitimacy from the members of the Second Dáil who transferred their authority to the IRA in 1938 after the takeover of the IRA Army Council by Seán Russell. This had always been the official ideology of the IRA, however after the split between the Provisional IRA and the Official IRA in 1969 it was probably deemed necessary to lay more of a claim to the historical struggle than the pre-split IRA had felt necessary. The 1956 edition would have also been published for use during a period when the failed S-Plan or Sabotage campaign was within living memory of younger IRA volunteers. Newer volunteers needed to be reminded of previous IRA activity in the "struggle for liberation":
"The moral position of the Irish Republican Army, its right to engage in warfare, is based on:
(a) the right to resist foreign aggression;
(b) the right to revolt against tyranny and oppression; and
(c) the direct lineal succession with the Provisional Government of 1916, the first Dáil of 1919 and the second Dáil of 1921".
"In 1938, the seven surviving faithful Republican Deputies delegated executive powers to the Army Council of the I.R.A. per the 1921 resolution. In 1969, the sole surviving Deputy, Joseph Clarke, reaffirmed publicly that the then Provisional Army Council and its successors were the inheritors of the first and second Dáil as a Provisional Government."
In November 2003, during testimony to the Saville Inquiry on the events of Bloody Sunday, Martin McGuinness, the alleged former Chief of Staff of the IRA, denied that he had ever read such a book before reputedly leaving the IRA in 1974. McGuinness reportedly said: "When I was in the IRA there was no such book, I don't know when it came into existence." When asked what the phrase "green book" meant, he stated: "I think it means the book was green."
The Guerrilla / The Volunteer
The 1977 edition of the Green Book is very much focused on the mental strength of the volunteer. The manual is eager to draw a clear distinction between volunteer and his enemy:
"A member of the I.R.A. is such by his own choice, his convictions being the only factor which compels him to volunteer, his objectives the political freedom and social and economic justice for his people. Apart from the few minutes in the career of the average Brit that he comes under attack, the Brit has no freedom or personal initiative. He is told when to sleep, where to sleep, when to get up, where to spend his free time etc."
In the 1977 edition, the term guerrilla is dropped in favour of "volunteer"; the new edition also stresses that this volunteer is part of a movement with common aims and objectives. From the PIRA's point of view, this would have been necessary to combating competing interpretations encountered in the community and the propaganda efforts of the enemy they faced:
"Before we go on the offensive politically or militarily we take the greatest defensive precautions possible to ensure success, e.g. we do not advocate a United Ireland without being able to justify our right to such a state as opposed to partition; we do not employ revolutionary violence as our means without being able to illustrate that we have no recourse to any other means. Or in more everyday simple terms: we do not claim that we are going to escalate the war if we cannot do just that; we do not mount an operation without first having ensured that we have taken the necessary defensive precautions of accurate intelligence, security, that weapons are in proper working order with proper ammunition and that the volunteers involved know how to handle interrogations in the event of their capture etc, and of course that the operation itself enhances rather than alienates our supporters."
The 1956 edition on the other hand stresses the physical aspects of IRA operations:
"Outside of the support he [the guerrilla] gets from the people among whom he operates - and this support must never be underestimated for it is vital to his eventual success - he fights alone. He is part of an independent formation that is in effect an army by itself. He must be self-contained. If necessary he must act alone and fight alone with the weapons at his disposal - and these very often will not be of the best. He must find his own supplies. His endurance has to be great: and for this he needs a fit body and an alert mind. Above all he must know what he is fighting for - and why."
Military objectives in the Green Book
The 1977 edition describes the military objectives of the IRA as:
"The position of the Irish Republican Army since its foundation in 1916 has been one of sustained resistance and implacable hostility to the forces of imperialism, always keeping in the forefront of the most advanced revolutionary thinking and the latest guerrilla warfare techniques in the world."
The enemy is described as:
"The establishment is all those who have a vested interest in maintaining the present status quo in politicians, media, judiciary, certain business elements and the Brit war machine comprising, the Brit Army, the U.D.R., R.U.C. (r) [reserve], Screws, Civilian Searchers. The cure for these armed branches of the establishment is well known and documented. But with the possible exceptions of the Brit Ministers in the 'Northern Ireland Office' and certain members of the judiciary, the overtly unarmed branches of the establishment are not so clearly identifiable to the people as our enemies as say armed Brits or R.U.C."
The military objects of the IRA in 1977 are presented as closely tied to the political objectives of politicising the citizenry. Rather than the tactic of surgical strike, the tactic of continuous escalation or the strategy of what has been called the PIRA's Tet offensive is preferred:
"By now it is clear that our task is not only to kill as many enemy personnel as possible but of equal importance to create support which will carry us not only through a war of liberation which could last another decade but which will support us past the 'Brits Out' stage to the ultimate aim of a Democratic Socialist Republic."
"The Strategy is:
A war of attrition against enemy personnel which is aimed at causing as many casualties and deaths as possible so as to create a demand from their people at home for their withdrawal.
A bombing campaign aimed at making the enemy's financial interest in our country unprofitable while at the same time curbing long term financial investment in our country.
To make the Six Counties as at present and for the past several years ungovernable except by colonial military rule.
To sustain the war and gain support for its ends by National and International propaganda and publicity campaigns.
By defending the war of liberation by punishing criminals, collaborators and informers."
The 1956 edition stresses military objectives and barely mentions political objectives. It contains a lot of practical advice on operating as a guerrilla fighter and how to inflict damage on targets. No mention is made of the establishment of "a Democratic Socialist Republic". This can probably been seen in the context of the IRA keeping pace with social changes and the material aspirations of Irish men and women living within the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. At the time of the Border Campaign the communities the IRA came to rely on were not politicised to the same degree as those in 1977. A lack of support within their host community is commonly given as the reason for the failure of the Border Campaign. This edition of the Green Book even goes so far as to announce the aim of restoring the Irish language as the national language, an aim not mentioned in the earlier edition.
Military equipment in the Green Book
The 1977 edition of the Green Book makes little mention of arms and equipment available to the volunteer. The one entry that does appear deals only with the issue of tactics as affected by lack of weaponry:
"Tactics are dictated by the existing conditions. Here again the logic is quite simple. Without support Volunteers, Dumps, Weapons, Finance, etc., we cannot mount an operation, much less a campaign. In September 1969 the existing conditions dictated that the Brits were not to be shot, but after the Falls curfew all Brits were to the people acceptable targets. The existing conditions had been changed."
The 1956 edition goes into a lot of detail on arms that the volunteer can expect to encounter and how to use them. Explosives are detailed alongside what the guerrilla should know about handling & preparing them. The sabotage techniques and weaponry available at the time had mostly ceased to be commonly used by the late 1970s, namely:
Gelignite, 808, TNT, Ammonal, Wet gun cotton, Plastic, and 822.
Detonators are also detailed with physical descriptions, handling instructions, and burning rates. Detonators covered include: Cordtex and FID.
Small arms listed range from the revolver, to the shotgun and submachine gun up to the flame thrower, which was almost never used, except for an attack on British soldiers of the King's Own Scottish Borderers. It can be assumed that the use of these weapons, or at least supplies of them, had been diminished when the 1977 edition was published. Given that the organisation was having troubles with internal security, it may have also been considered a security risk for the IRA to detail its available weaponry too closely.
A generation earlier, IRA units operating during the S-Plan / Sabotage campaign did not have access to the above material, with the exception of Gelignite. IRA explosive devices of the 1930s and 1940s were prepared using materials such as Potassium chlorate, Carbide, Saxonite, Iron Oxide, Aluminium, sulfuric acid etc. By the time of the Northern Campaign (IRA) c. 1942, IRA Eastern Command, in cooperation with IRA Western Command could raise 12 tons of weapons and explosives at short notice. This was excluding the tons of weapons and explosives seized during the S-Plan campaign.
When the IRA split in the early 1970s into the Official IRA and Provisional IRA, they divided the arms held in IRA weapons dumps. The Provisional IRA obtained the majority of these weapons. For details on the types of arms recently decommissioned by the IRA as part of their permanent cessation of violence see the article on the Independent International Commission on Decommissioning and a breakdown of the PIRA's weapons before decommissioning took place in September 2005.
Propaganda techniques in the Green Book
The 1977 edition stresses that the volunteer is ultimately responsible within the framework of the movement for ensuring the formulation, dissemination and efficiency of propaganda. This process was to begin within the mind of the volunteer himself:
"A new recruit's immediate obstacle is the removal of his (her) ignorance about how to handle weapons, military tactics, security, interrogations etc. An O.C.'s [Commanding Officer] might be how to put a unit on a military footing; an I.O.'s [Intelligence Officer] how to create an effective intelligence network; a Cumann na mBan Chairman's how best to mount a campaign on a given issue, e.g. H Blocks etc., and for all members of the movement regardless of which branch we belong to, to enhance our commitment to and participation in the struggle through gaining as comprehensive an understanding as possible of our present society and the proposed Republican alternative through self and group education."
The stated war objectives of the IRA within the 1977 document included the success of national and international propaganda as a war objective:
"We exploit these mistakes [mistakes by the British Army] by propagating the facts. So it was with their murderous mistakes of the Falls Road curfew, Bloody Sunday and internment, which were exploited to our advantage support- wise as was the murder of John Boyle in Dunloy."
The 1956 edition is a lot more practical, suggesting a more limited, less well oiled organisational machine of the IRA then than today:
"The main channels of information available to the guerrillas are newspapers, leaflets, radio, word of mouth. Other methods may be worked out and new ones invented. For example:
Painting of slogans, proclamations and manifestoes and so on. All the means of winning the confidence of the people must be utilised. The ideas of the movement must be so popularised that no one is in doubt-least of all the enemy-that it will win eventually."
"This information service must function continuously to get maximum results. Among the things it must do are:
Show weakness of enemy position and propaganda used to bolster that position.''
Show what is wrong with political and social order.
Suggest remedies and how they can be brought about.
Be in touch all the times with thinking of the people."
"The world must know and understand what is being done, what the enemy is trying to destroy and why, and the way these things can be ended and peace restored and freedom won. The use of regular bulletins for foreign newspapers and news-agencies becomes a necessity. The bulletin should be of the documentary type: no room for emotional pleas or the like. Just the facts."
While IRA volunteers also engaged in the above efforts, the techniques are not described in the 1977 Green Book.
Interrogation techniques
The 1956 edition contains no details on how to react to internment, capture, interrogation, or interrogation techniques. This was no doubt an oversight on the part of the IRA, one which they came to regret with the successful interrogation of IRA volunteers captured by their enemies.
By 1977, with the launching of the IRA's campaign in Northern Ireland in 1969, the technical capabilities & anti-insurgency apparatus of the RUC, as well as the Regular and Specialist forces of the British Army had advanced. Coupled with this were technical advances in the intelligence gathering and interrogation techniques of those forces. The combination of these factors alongside political determination to capture and kill IRA forces and subdue the nationalist population of Northern Ireland led to changes in the Green Book.
Much more stress was placed on resisting interrogation in what has been called The Green Book II. If captured, the PIRA volunteer is warned to remain mentally implacable:
"The most important thing to bear in mind when arrested is that you are a volunteer of a revolutionary Army, that you have been captured by an enemy force, that your cause is a just one, that you are right and that the enemy is wrong and that as a soldier you have taken the chance expected of a soldier and that there is nothing to be ashamed of in being captured.
You must bear in mind that the treatment meted out to you is designed to break you and so bleed you of all the information you may have with regard to the organisation to which you belong.
They will attempt to intimidate you by sheer numbers and by brutality. Volunteers who may feel disappointed are entering the first dangerous threshold because the police will act upon this disappointment to the detriment of the volunteer and to the furtherment of their own ends. Volunteers must condition themselves that they can be arrested and if and when arrested they should expect the worse and be prepared for it."
A series of tactics employed by interrogators are listed along with the stages the interrogation process the volunteer should expect to go through: physical torture, subtle psychological torture, and humiliation.
The remainder of the document persists in a similar vein, constantly stressing the dangers of submitting to interrogation techniques. This highlights the increasing threat the PIRA realised interrogations were having against the organisation. Most likely this was a result of experience gained throughout the 1970s and during the Border Campaign when arrest and imprisonment of IRA/PIRA volunteers seriously impacted the operational effectiveness of the respective organizations.
See also
The Green Book (Muammar Gaddafi)
Footnotes
Further Information/Sources
A Handbook for Volunteers of the Irish Republican Army, issued by General Headquarters, 1956.
Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla by Carlos Marighella
1956 non-fiction books
Guerrilla warfare handbooks and manuals
Irish Republican Army (1922–1969)
Political books
Political manifestos
Propaganda books and pamphlets
Provisional Irish Republican Army
Urban guerrilla warfare handbooks and manuals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal%20Memoirs%20of%20U.%20S.%20Grant
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Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant
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The Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant are two volumes of autobiography by Ulysses S. Grant, the 18th President of the United States. The work focuses on his military career during the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War. The volumes were written during the last year of Grant's life, amid increasing pain from terminal throat cancer and against the backdrop of his personal bankruptcy at the hands of an early Ponzi scheme. The set was published by Mark Twain shortly after Grant's death in July 1885.
Twain was a close personal friend of Grant and used all of his famous talent for promotion in selling the books. Understanding that sales of the book would restore the Grant family's finances and provide for his widow, Twain created a unique marketing system designed to reach millions of veterans with a patriotic appeal just as the famous general's death was being mourned. Ten thousand agents canvassed the North for orders, following a script that Twain had devised. Many were Union veterans dressed in their old uniforms, who went door-to-door offering the two-volume set at prices ranging from $3.50 to $12, depending on the binding ($ to $ in ).
These efforts sold 350,000 two-volume sets in advance of the book's actual printing. This made the Memoirs one of the bestselling books of the 19th century, in its first year outselling even the publishing behemoth Uncle Tom's Cabin—an extremely unusual result for a non-fiction book. By way of comparison, the memoirs of Grant's colleague William Tecumseh Sherman, published in 1876, were an immense financial success for their author, selling 25,000 copies during its first decade in print. In the end Grant's widow, Julia, received about $450,000 ($ in ) from Twain during the first three years of publication, suggesting that Grant received around 30% of each sale (i.e., a 30% royalty rate).
Despite being explicitly written for money, and with a focus on those aspects of Grant's life most likely to induce sales, the Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant received universal acclaim on its publication and has remained highly regarded by the general public, military historians, and literary critics. The combination of an honest man exploited and then marked for death by throat cancer lent the Memoirs immense contemporary interest. Positive attention is often directed toward Grant's prose, which has been praised as lean, intelligent and effective. He candidly depicts his battles against both the Confederates and his internal Army foes.
Background
World tour and money troubles
Grant and his wife Julia took a trip around the world in 1877 after his second term in office. Personally financed, this tour left him short on liquid assets on his return. He was nearly 60 and he looked for something to engage his time and replenish his finances. In 1878, he moved to New York City and entered into business with his son Buck (Ulysses S. Grant, Jr.) and Ferdinand Ward. Ward was a young investor and personal friend of the junior Grant. Ward was described by his great-grandson Geoffrey Ward as "a very plausible, charming, unobtrusive, slender person with a genius for finding older people and pleasing them, which he learned early on."
Ponzi scheme, personal bankruptcy and cancer diagnosis
The firm of Grant & Ward did well at first, bolstered by Ward's skills and Grant's name. The former president bragged to friends that he was worth two and a half million dollars, and family members and friends poured money into the firm. But Grant was largely disengaged from the company's business, often signing papers without reading them. This proved disastrous, as Ward had used the firm as a Ponzi scheme, taking investors' money and spending it on personal items, including a mansion in Connecticut and a brownstone in New York City. Grant & Ward failed in May 1884, leaving Grant penniless. That fall, the elder Grant was diagnosed with terminal throat cancer.
Century Company publishing deal
Long before his diagnosis Grant had written a series of articles analyzing many of the battles he had overseen. These articles had been published by The Century Company in their flagship periodical, Century Magazine. Century had paid Grant a flat author's fee of $500 (more than $ in 2022) per article. The essays were well received by critics and in 1876 the editor of Century Magazine, Robert Underwood Johnson, suggested Grant expand them into a memoir, as William Tecumseh Sherman had recently done to great acclaim. Now facing his own mortality and the prospect of his family's destitution after his death, Grant approached Century with a proposal to publish his personal memoirs, serially and then in bound volumes. Century agreed to publish the work and drew up a contract in which the dying man would receive 10% of every sale of the book.
Mark Twain intervenes
Grant's personal friend Mark Twain soon heard news of this publishing deal and was unable to conceal his horror at how little money Grant stood to earn if he agreed to Century's terms. Twain dropped everything and rushed to New York City from his home in Hartford, Connecticut. When Twain entered the Grant home on 66th St. he noticed Grant's eldest son, Frederick reviewing the Century contract one final time before his father signed it. Twain recalled that Grant was on the point of picking up his pen as the novelist arrived.
Twain intervened in the signing and asked to read the contract himself. After finishing his review Twain declared the term giving Grant 10% of all sales was insultingly low and amounted to exploitation of the former president's dire situation. Twain insisted that he could secure a far more favorable publishing contract for Grant and pressed him for his proxy in new negotiations. Grant felt a personal loyalty to the executives of Century, and considered it dishonorable to back out of his contract after all details had been agreed upon and papers drawn up. Twain grew exasperated and confessed that he himself had far better terms from his own publisher, the American Publishing Company.
Twain's proposal
The key element in Mark Twain's proposal to Grant was publication through a subscription scheme. Twain himself was preparing to publish his own Adventures of Huckleberry Finn through a subscription plan. This involved door-to-door salesmen (often Civil War veterans) who collected upfront fees by which the eventual publication would be financed. Without a publisher's capital in play to cover printing and distribution, subscription gave the author far more power in determining their eventual share of sales. Further, under a subscription scheme, tens of thousands of dollars would be generated before the finished book was even bound. Twain was famously persuasive and this upfront cash was a powerful inducement to a man in Grant's situation, however it was only after Frederick suggested the present contract be set aside for 24 hours, until the facts of Twain's claims could be investigated, that his father agreed to sign no documents that day.
Knowing the former general's reputation for stubbornness, Twain privately fretted that 24 hours would not be enough time to convince Grant to change his mind. In the end it was Grant's sense of honor, coupled with his fear the memoirs would prove a flop, that persuaded him to accept Twain's plan: Twain had recommended Charles Webster Publishing, a new house run by his wife's nephew and largely capitalized by Twain himself. A subscription would not require Grant to put the money Twain had invested in Charles Webster at risk to publish his memoirs, as the capital necessary for publication and distribution would have been generated by subscription prior to printing. Such was Twain's faith in Grant's prose and the national interest in his thoughts that he gave Grant a sizeable advance anyway.
It is not known how large a role Twain's own financial difficulties played in his decision to intervene in the publication of Grant's memoirs or in his suggestion that the former president use a publisher in which Twain was a significant investor. Notwithstanding the money Twain stood to make from the successful publication of Grant's memoirs, the final terms agreed upon were immensely favorable to the dying man: he or his heirs would receive 70% of all profits generated by subscriptions and sales of the memoir plus a $25,000 advance () paid from Twain's own pocket. Over the two years following publication this percentage would generate more than $450,000 (equivalent to $ today) in royalties for Julia Grant.
Composition
Twain moved in to Grant's New York City townhouse and remained literally at Grant's side while the dying man wrote up his life. Twain provided literary and copy editing at all stages of the book's composition, often offering advice on a page-by-page basis as he sat next to his furiously scribbling friend. Despite his worsening condition and the constant pain it produced, Grant wrote as a man possessed. During the evenings Twain would read all pages produced during that day and make suggestions to enhance consistency and tone. These evening readings often amounted to an astonishing fifty pages of draft, a pace that Grant maintained for more than four months.
Throughout his career Grant had repeatedly told highly detailed stories of his military experiences, sometimes making slight mistakes in terms of dates and locations. As a hardscrabble farmer in St. Louis just before the war he had kept his neighbors spellbound until midnight while they "listen[ed] intently to his vivid narrations of Army experiences." In calm moments during the Civil War he often spoke of his recent experiences, typically "in terse and often eloquent language." Grant had told and retold his war stories so many times that writing his Memoirs was often simply a matter of repetition and polish instead of the more typical summarization of his recollections. This fact, as much as any reticence to discuss his childhood or presidency, may account for the Memoirs' overwhelming focus on the Mexican-American and Civil Wars.
Grant suffered greatly in his final year. He was in constant pain from his illness and sometimes had the feeling that he was choking. Despite his condition, he wrote at a furious pace, sometimes finishing 25 to 50 pages a day. The cancer spread through his body and at his doctor's urging in June 1885 the family moved to a cottage in Mount MacGregor, New York, to make his last weeks more comfortable. He worked at finishing the book, propped up on chairs and too weak to walk. Friends, admirers, and even a few former Confederate opponents made their way to Mount MacGregor to pay their respects. Grant finished the manuscript on July 18; he died five days later.
Adam Badeau
In the early stages of writing his Memoirs Grant had the assistance of Adam Badeau, an author who had served on his staff during the war. Badeau left before the project was complete, having disputed with Grant and his family concerning how much he would be paid and how he would be credited for his research, editing, and fact-checking. This led Badeau to initiate and spread the persistent rumor (before the book was even published) that Twain had ghostwritten Grant's memoirs. In actual fact the original manuscript is manifestly written in only one person's handwriting, that of Grant. Grant's son Frederick took over many of Badeau's fact-checking and research responsibilities after the author's departure in May 1885. Badeau eventually settled with Grant's heirs for $10,000 () in the fall of 1888.
Structure
The Memoirs are divided into two volumes. The autobiography is unusual, but not unique, in that large sections of Grant's life such as his childhood and the presidency are given either brief mention or not discussed at all. The focus of the book is Grant's military career during the Mexican–American and Civil Wars.
Grant's writing has been praised for its conciseness and clarity—a sharp contrast from contemporary Civil War memoirs, which tended to reflect the Victorian fondness for elaborate language.
With regard to the Mexican–American War, Grant recorded his belief that it had been waged unjustly:
Generally, the officers of the army were indifferent whether the annexation was consummated or not; but not so all of them. For myself, I was bitterly opposed to the measure, and to this day regard the war, which resulted, as one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation. It was an instance of a republic following the bad example of European monarchies, in not considering justice in their desire to acquire additional territory.
His account of Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House is particularly notable:
Grant also makes asides to clear up legends that had grown up around his leadership. After dismissing one tale, Grant wrote "Like many other stories, it would be very good if it were only true."
The narrative ends shortly after the Army of the Potomac's final review in Washington in May 1865. Grant deliberately avoids comment on Reconstruction, apart from saying that he favored black suffrage. The final chapter, "Conclusion," is a reflection on the war and its effects, the actions of foreign countries during it, and the reconciliation of North and South. In the final paragraphs, Grant makes note of his own condition and expresses optimism that "Federal and Confederate" can live together.
The work was published in a two-volume set after his death. Grant's printed signature followed the dedication: "These volumes are dedicated to the American Soldier and Sailor. / U. S. Grant / New York City / May 23rd, 1885." There are also numerous facsimile letters and correspondence bound into Volume II.
Legacy
The press and public followed Grant's symptoms throughout his final year, and his work on the book was well known. While interest in his memoirs would have been high had Grant not been ill, his struggle to finish it before his death gave it even more attention.
On release, the book received universal critical praise. Twain compared the Memoirs to Julius Caesar's Commentaries. Matthew Arnold praised Grant and his book in an 1886 essay. Twain, however, felt Arnold's tone was condescending to both Grant and the United States, and the two authors feuded until Arnold's death in 1888. Gertrude Stein also admired the book, saying she could not think of Grant without weeping. The Memoirs quickly became a best seller.
Ulysses S. Grant sought to deliver his moral, political, economic and social argument for waging the war against the South in his Personal Memoirs. As the commander of the Union army and a two-term president, he had a unique perspective on the war that interested both the public and historical scholars, as they wanted to hear his side of the story. Although he was a clear figure in the public eye, Grant was unknown to many people. After the war, Grant's close colleague, General William T. Sherman remarked that, although he had known Grant for decades, "to me he is a mystery, and I believe he is a mystery to himself." In his Personal Memoirs, Grant portrayed himself as representative character of the North. In volume 1, he describes his family background and points to his simple upbringing as the reason for his solid, restrained virtues of a normal Northerner.
Grant goes to the point of declaring himself as "unmilitary" while continually stressing his simple nature. Grant stated that he did not even want to attend West Point, only going because his father thought it would be best, as Grant believed "a military life had no charms for me." Grant wrote of his participation in the Mexican War of 1846–1848, a war he did not support. Grant believed it was very unjust for the larger, stronger United States to pick on a weaker country as they were doing.
Grant used his Personal Memoirs as a way to respond to negative criticism immediately following the war, especially present in his description of the Battle of Shiloh. The two leading generals of the Union army at Shiloh were Grant and General Don Carlos Buell and they had very differing accounts of the battle. Many criticized Grant for being tremendously unprepared and Buell goes as far as to credit himself for the victory, while Grant proclaims the opposite story, stating the Union win was inevitable. Grant was able to use this book to portray his own personal memories of the events of the war and dispute any negative press he may have received.
Grant also used his Personal Memoirs to explain his battlefield action and his motives for the way he led. After the war, Grant was portrayed as a ruthless leader who stopped at nothing to make sure the South was destroyed. However, Grant felt this was a harsh evaluation and sought to improve the public opinion of himself and defend the fact he believed he was a simple and fair man. Grant felt he was being abused by newspaper coverage that he believed was shoddy, inaccurate and defeatist. He stated, "Up to the Battle of Shiloh, I, as well as thousands of other citizens, believed that the rebellion against the Government would collapse suddenly and soon, if decisive victory could be gained over any of its armies. … After Shiloh, I gave up all idea of saving the Union except by complete conquest. … The Northern troops were never more cruel than the necessities of war required."
Geoffrey Perret, the author of Ulysses S. Grant: Soldier and President staunchly disagreed with Grant's assertion that he was acting out of necessity and declared Grant's wartime conquests were against his Northern virtues. In Perret's eyes, Grant was "above all a soldier, and not a reluctant one." Perret argued that Grant in fact liked West Point, had few reservations at the time about the Mexican War and was a very good junior officer. Perret backs these accusations with the fact Grant, while appointed the General-in-Chief, "evolved the future of the United States Army" by applying "maximum firepower, maximum mobility" while relying on "the wide envelopment" as his principal form of maneuver.
Given over a century of favorable literary analysis, according to reviewer Mark Perry, the Memoirs are "the most significant work" of American non-fiction.
Mark Twain's opinion
Modern annotated editions
On October 16, 2017, the first completely annotated edition of the memoirs was published by The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Titled The Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant: The Complete Annotated Edition, it was edited by John F. Marszalek (Executive Director of the Ulysses S. Grant Association from 2008 to 2022), with David S. Nolen and Louie P. Gallo. They completed the project in order to contextualize the memoirs for the modern reader.
In 2018, The Annotated Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant, edited by Elizabeth D. Samet, was published by Liveright Publishing Corporation.
See also
Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant § Primary sources
Bibliography of the American Civil War
References
Grant, Ulysses S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. New York: Charles L. Webster & Company, 1885–1886. .
Notes
External links
Ulysses S. Grant: Friend Mark Twain Offers Terms for Publication of Memoirs– Shapell Manuscript Foundation
1885 non-fiction books
American Civil War memoirs
Books about Ulysses S. Grant
Books by Ulysses S. Grant
Books published posthumously
Mark Twain
Multi-volume biographies
Political memoirs
1886 non-fiction books
Books written by presidents of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We%27re%20Back%21%20A%20Dinosaur%27s%20Story%20%28film%29
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We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story (film)
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We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story is a 1993 British-American animated adventure comedy film directed by Dick Zondag, Ralph Zondag, Phil Nibbelink, and Simon Wells from a screenplay by John Patrick Shanley. Based on the 1987 Hudson Talbott children's book of the same name, it tells the story of three dinosaurs and one pterosaur who travel to the present day and become intelligent by eating a "Brain Grain" cereal invented by scientist Captain Neweyes. The film was produced by Steven Spielberg's Amblimation studio and features the voices of John Goodman, Felicity Kendal, Charles Fleischer, Walter Cronkite, Jay Leno, Julia Child, Kenneth Mars, Yeardley Smith, and Martin Short.
We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story was released by Universal Pictures on November 24, 1993; it was marketed as the more family-friendly equivalent of Spielberg's Jurassic Park, which was released in the same year. The film became a box-office bomb, grossing only $9.3 million worldwide, and received mixed reviews from critics: while its animation, score, and voice performances were praised, most criticisms targeted its story, pacing, and lack of character development.
Plot
In 1993 New York City, a young bluebird named Buster runs away from his siblings and meets an intelligent orange Tyrannosaurus named Rex, who is playing golf. He explains to Buster that he was once a ravaging dinosaur, and proceeds to tell his personal story.
A long time ago, Rex was chasing a small Thescelosaurus. Then, a scientist, Captain Neweyes, wants children of the present day to see real dinosaurs from the Mesozoic era. He and his alien assistant Vorb go back in time to collect dinosaurs, give them the cereal 'Brain Grain' to bestow them sentience, and send them to the present day. The dinosaurs Neweyes has collected include Rex, a blue Triceratops named Woog, a purple Pteranodon named Elsa, and a green Parasaurolophus named Dweeb. Neweyes welcomes them aboard his ship, explains his plan to take them to Dr. Julia Bleeb, who will guide them to the Museum of Natural History, and warns them to avoid Professor Screweyes, his unhinged brother who causes mischief after having lost his left eye to a crow, several years ago.
Neweyes drops the dinosaurs in the East River in the year 1993, but they are unable to meet up with Dr. Bleeb. They encounter two children willing to help them find the museum – a boy named Louie, who is running away to join the circus, and a girl named Cecilia. To avoid being noticed as real dinosaurs, they pose as animatronics in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. The illusion falls apart, however, when Rex accidentally deflates an Apatosaurus balloon after performing a musical number during the parade thus blowing their cover. The citizens panic, causing the dinosaurs to flee to Central Park while being pursued by the police and the army.
Meanwhile, Louie and Cecilia meet Professor Screweyes, who is running the horror-themed "Eccentric Circus". Unaware of Screweyes' dark nature, the children sign a contract to perform in his troupe. When the dinosaurs arrive to save Louie and Cecilia, Screweyes devolves the children into mindless chimpanzees using "Brain Drain", pills that are the polar opposite of Brain Grain. The dinosaurs consume the pills, which cause them to lose their intelligence and revert to their natural forms, in exchange for Screweyes restoring Louie and Cecilia to humans and releasing them. The next morning, a friendly clown named Stubbs, who works for Professor Screweyes, informs the two kids about Screweyes' plan to exploit the dinosaurs for their scare potential.
That night, Louie and Cecilia sneak into the circus, where the dinosaurs perform their terrifying act – Screweyes hypnotizing Rex – before the trick is hindered by a crow turning on flares. Rex grabs and prepares to eat Screweyes, but Louie steps in and talks the Tyrannosaurus out of his vengeance. His and Cecilia's impassioned pleas and loving touch restore the dinosaurs' sentience. Stubbs resigns from Professor Screweyes' employment, and Captain Neweyes arrives in his ship to lift the kids and the dinosaurs out of the circus, leaving Screweyes to be devoured by crows, while the crow (that possibly ate his eye), takes the screw, and blows the magic out of it. The next day, the dinosaurs spend the rest of their lives in the museum, fulfilling Neweyes' plan, while Louie and Cecilia reconcile with their respective parents and become a couple.
Back in the present, Rex returns Buster to his family, ignoring his siblings' taunts while hugging his mother, and Rex tells him to remember his story, as he leaves for the museum.
Voice cast
John Goodman as Rex, a kind Tyrannosaurus rex.
René Le Vant as Woog, a gluttonous Triceratops.
Felicity Kendal as Elsa, an elegant Pteranodon.
Charles Fleischer as Dweeb, a half-witted Parasaurolophus (an Apatosaurus in the original book).
Walter Cronkite as Captain Neweyes, an inventor who brings the dinosaurs to the present.
Jay Leno as Vorb, an alien that works for Captain Neweyes.
Joey Shea as Louie, a brave young boy from a lower-class background who runs away to join a circus.
Julia Child as Dr. Juliet Bleeb, a worker at the Museum of Natural History.
Kenneth Mars as Professor Screweyes, Captain Neweyes' evil twin brother who runs a circus.
Yeardley Smith as Cecilia Nuthatch, a young girl from a wealthy family who is neglected by her parents.
Martin Short as Stubbs the Clown, a clown who used to work for Professor Screweyes.
Blaze Berdahl as Buster the Bird, a young bluebird who is running away from home and is told the film's plot by Rex.
Rhea Perlman as Buster's Mother
Production
Hanna-Barbera was the first company to contact Hudson Talbott about obtaining rights to his 1987 book We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story, and the encounter occurred only months after its release; Universal Pictures then paid off Hanna-Barbera and purchased the rights for Spielberg to produce the film through his studio Amblimation. John Musker and Ron Clements were also interested in adapting the book for Walt Disney Feature Animation, as a potential project after The Little Mermaid, but were informed that Universal and Spielberg had already purchased the rights. Musker envisioned their version "like Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, but a 7-year-old Snow White and with dinosaurs instead of the dwarfs".
Although Talbott had little involvement, he encountered the creators of the film many times during production, including Spielberg who would make several calls to the author from Los Angeles and had a personal meeting with him when he first arrived in London. We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story was directed by Simon Wells, Phil Nibbelink, and the brothers Dick and Ralph Zondag. Nibbelink was the most involved with the project out of the four directors, while Wells only co-directed during the writing process before he was assigned to direct Balto shortly after. All of the directors frequently rotated in and out between projects in Amblimation, with We're Back!, Balto and development on a failed animated adaptation of Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical Cats happening at the same time.
Storyboarding of We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story began in 1990 during the production of An American Tail: Fievel Goes West. The source material was only 20 pages and lacked any antagonist or sense of a plot, making it difficult to convert to a full-length feature. The first screenplay draft was written by Flint Dille and Wells and was not well-received by Spielberg. John Patrick Shanley, writer of Moonstruck, had worked with Spielberg on Joe Versus the Volcano. Spielberg hired Shanley to write another draft, which was done quickly and was the script ultimately used. Shanley made the previous draft darker, which Spielberg liked but Nibbelink disagreed with. Talbott was often skeptical about how the book was being adapted, so Nibbelink instructed the author to have a positive mindset. Talbott felt Shanley's script had none of the book's tongue-in-cheek humor. Near the end of production, $1 million worth of alterations were made following a poor test screening at Universal, including the addition of the Macy's parade scene; the scene features a song originally written for the film by James Horner and Thomas Dolby, "Roll Back the Rock", which Little Richard also sings in the end credits. We're Back was also the first animated film not produced by Disney to fully use digital ink-and-paint technology to complete the animation, while additional animation was provided by Character Builders, Inc. and Lightbox Animation.
Director Phil Nibbelink voiced the characters in animatics, which involved successful imitations of notable figures like Walter Cronkite and Julia Child; Spielberg, enjoying Nibbelink's voicing, cast the people that were impersonated in the animatics. John Goodman started recording his voices shortly after having his wisdom teeth removed, and healed his face between takes. We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story was not Wells' first encounter with Felicity Kendal, as he previously asked to work with her on a student project that she declined. Originally John Malkovich was set to voice the role of Professor Screweyes but dropped out because of disagreements with directors Phil Nibbelink, Simon Wells, Dick Zondag and Ralph Zondag's vision of the film. However, Malkovich's voice can still be heard in one of the film's deleted scenes (found on YouTube as of May 2009). Upon the film's release, Malkovich was a vocal critic of the project, arguing that the scope of the script was not fully realized and that the final product was "sub par, to say the least". To this day, Malkovich generally refuses to talk about the film. In a rare 2003 interview, Malkovich made a brief allusion to the film: "Good ideas go to die in Hollywood. I worked on an animated movie about dinosaurs in New York once. It was completely bureaucratized. They took something that had art in it and put it in the laps of people that only cared about the bottom line, and look what happened". In a later portion of the interview, Malkovich went on to say, "Yeah, projects like We're Back: A Dinosaur's Story-they just make you sick. That's why I left this town. It's all about the money, the bottom line. It's disgusting". Director Nibbelink had offered an alternative version of the story, saying that Malkovich was let go after Speilberg rejected his performance as too dark and frightening. After Malkovich exited the project the directors considered Christopher Lloyd to be the voice of Professor Screweyes, but he was too busy with a play then and the role eventually went to Kenneth Mars. The voice actors and Nibbelink found Shanley's dialogue a bit unnatural, so they changed a few lines while recording; this was not approved by Shanley however, so recordings of his original dialogue were in the final film.
Release and promotion
We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story was meant to capitalize on a craze of dinosaurs in popular culture known as the dinosaur renaissance, which started in the 1960s. The mania included an explosion of dinosaur content in film and television, including television cartoons like Cadillacs and Dinosaurs and Extreme Dinosaurs, with many more produced that were attributed to the release and success of Steven Spielberg's Jurassic Park. We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story was released in the same year as Jurassic Park, and was marketed as the more family-friendly Spielberg-made dinosaur film; the tagline in promotional materials was "A dinosaur adventure for the whole family". Fiction in the dinosaur renaissance presented the creatures in a more friendly and upfront manner; We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story, for example, depicts dinosaurs in an American suburb doing activities like playing golf.
We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story was heavily advertised and promoted with merchandise and fast food tie-ins. A balloon of Rex floated at the real-life 1993 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, which deflated after coming into contact with a traffic light. Hi-Tech Expressions also published platform video games based on the film for the Sega Genesis, Game Boy and Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES). In the Genesis and SNES games, the player plays as Cecilia and Louie helping the dinosaurs get to the museum, while the Game Boy game, a reskinned version of the existing game Baby T-Rex, involves the dinosaur Rex as a playable character rescuing the other three dinosaurs captured by Screweyes.
We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story was released to American theaters on November 24, 1993. It was released on March 15, 1994 on home video. Each copy included pockets of reusable stickers and coupons for Universal Theme Parks and products from Nestle, The Hertz Corporation, and First Alert.
Reception
Box office
In the United States, We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story opened during the Thanksgiving holiday with other new entries including Mrs. Doubtfire, A Perfect World and a film adaptation of George Balanchine's The Nutcracker. It grossed $4.6 million on its opening week, well below expectations. Its opening weekend at the time was attributed to snow storms and weather patterns across the country and had also affected the rest of the film box office that weekend. In its second weekend, We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story grossed $1.5 million, a 60% decline. Its run ended with a total gross of $9.3 million, with journalists quickly evaluating its run as a commercial flop. Journalists called the commercial performance of the film an indicator of how difficult it was to compete with Walt Disney Feature Animation, as from a commercial perspective at the time most of Disney's animated features were commercial successes while other animated films released within those years had performed either disappointingly or outright bombed. Steven Hulett of the union Motion Picture Screen Cartoonists argued the low performances of these films, including We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story, resulted to a lack of focus on plot in a story-driven medium like animation.
Critical response
We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story garnered generally mixed reviews from professional critics. As of September 2021, We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story has an approval rating of based on professional reviews on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of . Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.
An extremely favorable review from Cashbox magazine called it "delightful fun" for children and adults with "warmth, eye-catching visuals and a few chills", while Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times, in his one-star review, thought it wouldn't compete well in the animated film industry due to its "routine" animation and "shallow and kind of dumb" writing. As a critic for The Baltimore Sun summarized his problems with the film, there were "terrific ideas" blurred by "lacking in wit, emotion, memorable music and, most importantly, magic"; and the voice actors are "shackled with insipid dialogue and few opportunities to shine". Some journalists, including Ebert, found the film more like a television cartoon for kids than an actual feature. Coverage included unfavorable comparisons to other Spielberg-produced animations, such as series like Tiny Toon Adventures (1990–1992) and Animaniacs (1993–1998) and films such as The Land Before Time (1988), which also featured dinosaurs. Critics also attacked an easter egg as shameless self-promotion for Spielberg, where a poster of Jurassic Park is seen on a theater building during the parade scene.
Several reviews found the story convoluted, Robert W. Butler calling it "complicated and superficial". Butler and Asbury Park Press writer Eleanor O'Sullivan found the flashback framing device pointless and obnoxious, while the Ottawa Citizens Laura Robin reported inconsistencies, such as with Rex's weight where a light raft holds him yet a bigger dock doesn't. Variety Daniel M. Kimmel found the villain and his motivations not only convoluted but also ableist, as the film attributes his malevolence to his loss of an eye. Jane Horwitz and Janet Maslin noted other iffy moments, such as the police chase, drugging of dinosaurs, the scary circus scenes, and Screweyes' death. The film was considered cliched, preachy, and unoriginal, such as by Pamella Bruce of the Austin Chronicle; she described it as a rip-off of The Jungle Book (1967) that stole elements of the works of Tim Burton and Alfred Hitchcock. Even a favorable review from the Hartford Courants Roger Catlin found recycled aspects of the child characters, particularly Cecilia's "poor little rich girl" lifestyle, Louie's Bowery Boys-esque wise-guy attitude, and him running away to join the circus. Reviewers also felt the writing lacked humor and imagination, Pensacola News Journals Marshall Fine claiming the dialogue was more stuffed than witty.
The fast pacing was also targeted. Some critics argued it caused elements of the writing, particularly its characters, to not fully develop. Robin wrote that Vorb, Stubbs, and Dr. Juliet Bleeb were nothing more than cameos for celebrity voice actors, while Charles Soloman of the Los Angeles Times noted many motivations and feelings of the dinosaurs being unknown, specifically with their relationship with Louie and Cecilia and their sacrificing of intelligence, and argued these unclarities made it difficult to be emotionally invested into them. David Elliot argued the pace didn't allowed for relaxation or moments to be fully emotional, and Soloman similarly opined that it made scenes like the flight through Manhattan far less enjoyable.
The animation was generally acclaimed, a frequently-noted aspect being its mixture of traditional and computer animation. 3D backgrounds, such as those of Manhattan during the flight sequence, were a common highlight, Butler also noting the design of NewEyes' spaceship. Catlin praised the characters as "agreeable and fast-moving", and eagerly noted "all sorts of show-offy animation details such as smoke and shadows". However, the visuals also garnered some lukewarm reactions and were considered inferior to Jurassic Park and the works of Disney. Horwitz felt it "lacks the gorgeous background detail" and "heart-tugging romance" of Disney films. Some critics also panned the non-differentiable designs of the kids.
Multiple reviews positively commented on the voice cast. Some found Cronkite's voice acting one of the film's most hilarious moments. Kimmel called Goodman and Short the top actors, said that Mars and Smith were "handling their chores", and found it amusing Cronkite and Child were voicing animated characters. Robin enjoyed the characters, particularly finding Rex and Captain NewEyes "inspired". Critics also highlighted the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade scene, particularly the dinosaurs' performance of "Roll Back the Rock", Kimmel calling it the film's best scene.
Accolades
For his work on We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story, supervising sound editor Alexander Campbell Askew was nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Sound Editing for an Animated Feature at the Motion Picture Sound Editors' Golden Reel Awards.
Modern reception
Mixed opinions continued in retrospective coverage. Seventeen, in 2017, listed it as one of the 18 best-animated films to view on Netflix; and Country Living, in 2019, included it in a list of the 15 best kid-friendly dinosaur films. On the other hand, The A.V. Club placed it in its 2015 list of the 14 worst dinosaur media; and Paste, that same year, ranked the dinosaur characters the ninth-worst in popular culture, calling them the "silliest, most annoying of the animated dinosaurs". The A.V. Club also ranked Screweyes' devouring by the crows the 19th most terrifying moment in children's entertainment. /Films Dalin Rowell felt that, despite its poor character animation and bizarre writing, the incorporation of a horror circus and real dinosaurs dancing on city streets would fascinate children's minds, and the character of Rex would appeal to young audiences looking for a supportive and very fun friend. Common Sense Media's Renee Schonfeld called it "clever enough, visually appealing enough, and brisk enough to make it satisfying". He praised the "engaging" child protagonists, voice acting, and parade scene, although felt it suffered from an "often tangled, overloaded story" with too many characters.
See also
Barney & Friends
Dink, the Little Dinosaur
List of films featuring dinosaurs
References
External links
1993 films
1993 animated films
1993 children's films
1990s adventure films
1990s American animated films
1990s British animated films
1990s science fiction comedy films
Amblin Entertainment animated films
Films about fear
American adventure comedy films
American children's animated adventure films
American children's animated comic science fiction films
American children's animated science fantasy films
Animated films about dinosaurs
Films about Tyrannosaurus
Animated films based on children's books
Animated films about time travel
Animated films set in the Mesozoic
Amblin Entertainment films
British children's animated films
British films set in New York City
Circus films
Films scored by James Horner
Films directed by Phil Nibbelink
Films directed by Simon Wells
Films directed by Ralph Zondag
Animated films set in Manhattan
Films with screenplays by John Patrick Shanley
Thanksgiving in films
Universal Pictures animated films
Universal Pictures films
1993 directorial debut films
1993 comedy films
1990s children's animated films
1990s English-language films
British adventure comedy films
British science fantasy films
1990s British films
British animated comedy films
Holiday-themed animated films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Sampson%20%28lawyer%29
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William Sampson (lawyer)
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William Sampson (26 January 1764 – 28 December 1836) was a lawyer and jurist who in his native Ireland, and in later American exile, identified with the cause of democratic reform. In the 1790s, in Belfast and Dublin he associated with United Irishmen, defending them in Crown prosecutions, contributing to their press and, according to government informants, participating on the eve of rebellion in their inner councils. In New York, from 1806 he won renown as a trial lawyer representing the abolitionist Manumission Society and disputing race as a legal disability; challenging the conspiracy charges against organised labor; and, in the name of religious liberty, establishing Catholic auricular confession as privileged. Maintaining that the tradition of common law denied citizens equal access to the law, and was a systematic source of injustice, Sampson pioneered the American codification movement.
Early life
Sampson was born in Derry, in the Kingdom of Ireland, to Mary Spaight Sampson and Arthur Sampson, an Anglican clergyman. He attended Trinity College Dublin and after studying law at Lincoln's Inn, in London, he was admitted to the Irish bar in 1792. He settled in Belfast where he served as Junior Counsel to John Philpot Curran in the north-east circuit. In 1790 he married Grace Clarke of Belfast, whose parents, the Rev. John Clarke and Catherine Anne Clarke (née Coates), were early members of the Belfast Society for Promoting Knowledge. With his wife's brother-in-law, the physician and polymath James MacDonnell, he had a mutual friend in the Society's librarian, the future republican martyr Thomas Russell. With Russell, Sampson was to co-author popular political commentary and satire.
Counsel for United Irishmen, agitator and exile
Counsel and radical pamphleteer
In 1782, Sampson was commissioned in the Irish Volunteers. That year, seizing on the occasion of the American War of Independence, the militia movement helped free the Irish Parliament from direct dictation from London. But it failed in what for many Volunteers, particularly in the Presbyterian north-east, was their chief object: to break the monopoly hold upon the parliament of the landed Anglican interest—"the Protestant Ascendancy".
In 1791, when rallying in celebration of the French revolution (Bastille Day), Volunteers in Belfast proposed a political “union” between Protestants of all persuasions and the kingdom's dispossessed and disenfranchised Catholic majority. While acknowledging himself, as a member of the established Anglican communion, to be "of the favoured cast[e]", Sampson embraced the cause. In a succession of cases, with John Philpot Curran, he was to represent the United Irishmen against charges of criminal libel, sedition and treason.
Sampson published anonymous reports of the trials, and contributed to the United Irish paper in Belfast, the Northern Star. Writing as "Fortesque", he urged judicial independence from the Crown. As a preface to demands for still greater change, with Thomas Russell he dispensed with the reformer's usual praise for the celebrated charters of English liberty: the Magna Carta, the Bill of Rights and Habeas Corpus. In their Review of the Lion of Old England; or Democracy Confounded (1794) (dedicated to the reputedly enlightened "Empress of all the Russias", Catherine II), they suggested that, honoured in the breach in Ireland, the invocation of these charters did little more than "amuse the masses".
In The Trial of Hurdy Gurdy (1794), serialised in the Northern Star, Sampson and Russell pilloried the Crown’s suppression of dissent: a barrel organ is charged with playing a seditious tune, Ça Ira. "The King versus Hurdy Gurdy" parodied recent events: the playing of popular radical songs on a hurdy gurdy had been cited in Edinburgh as evidence supporting the transportation (to Botany Bay) of the Scots radical (and honorary United Irishman) Thomas Muir; and in Belfast Ça Ira had triggered a military riot.
Sampson claimed to have taken the United Irish Test (a pledge composed by his friend William Drennan) only in open court and then only to show that its purpose was reform—"the attainment of an impartial and adequate representation of the Irish nation in parliament"—not treason. In Advice to the Rich (1796), he urged the Ascendancy to embrace reform, and prove "by fact and experiment" rather than "idle rhapsodies" that the constitution tended to promote public happiness". But with the Crown at war with the French Republic, all avenues of "experiment" were closed. Sampson's clients turned increasingly toward the prospect of a French-assisted insurrection. In 1795, with Curran, he represented the Rev. William Jackson, an emissary to the United Irishmen from the French Directory. Convicted of treason, the preacher and playwright collapsed and died in the dock.
Agitator and suspect
When on New Years Day 1797, news reached Belfast of a French fleet appearing off Bantry Bay, Sampson addressed an open-air town meeting. Rather than profess loyalty to the Crown, he decried the disarming of the Volunteers and condemned the licentiousness of the "English mercenaries" garrisoning the town. Drennan expressed his astonishment—that Sampson should "leap upon a joint-stool and harangue the populace, at such a time and on such a topic, with such temper, and near such a body of military"—and proposed that he was the "most active" man in Ireland.
In October 1797, Sampson helped establish a rallying cry for the movement (and for the coming rebellion): "Remember Orr!". Having failed to secure an acquittal for William Orr on the capital charge of administering the United test to soldiers, Sampson published sensational reports of the trial and execution (including Orr's declaration from the scaffold, in which his defence counsel may have had some hand). These appeared in The Press, a new paper he had established in Dublin with Arthur O'Connor, Drennan and others (the presses of the Northern Star in Belfast having been smashed by the military). From Drennan's pen, the paper also published a poem, then widely circulated, The Wake of William Orr, and a letter (signed "Marcus") which excoriated the Viceroy, Lord Camden, for having in Orr's execution disgraced the laws. Charges of seditious libel were brought against the nominal owner of the paper, the journalist Peter Finnerty, and the printer, John Stockdale. In court, Sampson and Curran struck reporters less as defence counsel than as prosecutors pressing the indictment of the government.
Dublin Castle was aware that Sampson was preparing further embarrassment. He was collecting affidavits detailing atrocities committed by the military as they sought to break up and disarm the United Irishmen and their Defender allies. While broadcasting their content in pamphlets and the Press, he was supplying these to the liberal Lord Moira who in turn sought to present them to the King. But, critically, a key informant was now placing Sampson, alongside O'Connor, at meetings of the Leinster (Dublin) Directory of the movement, and this at a time when the discussion was clearly of armed insurrection.
Sampson’s response to the execution in May 1797 of four militia men who had refused to renounce their oath to the United Irishmen and betray their comrades—his widely circulated, ballad, Death before Dishonour—had concluded with a clarion call to arms:
Irish heroes grasp your arms,
Firmly clasp the pointed steel,
Shake their souls with fierce alarms,
Teach their harden’d hearts to feel.
Let the tyrants of the world
See their hateful reign is o’er;
From their seats let them be hurl’d,
Nor wield their iron sceptre more.
In March 1798, Sampson was charged with high treason.
Arrest and exile
In April 1798, a month in advance of the United Irish uprisings, Sampson escaped to England, but was returned to Dublin where, under the Banishment Act, he was permitted exile. Barred from the United States by President John Adam’s, whose Federalist administration was wary of importing "Jacobins", he travelled to Portugal. There, in March 1799, he was arrested by order of the English minister on the misapprehension that he was the author of a pamphlet circulating Ireland protesting the country's incorporation in a united kingdom with Great Britain—following the failed rebellion, the government's settled policy.
In May 1799, he was sent to France, where, nursing a quiet disdain for Napoleon’s new imperial regime, he lived under close police surveillance. Having been reunited in Paris, in May 1805 his family departed for Hamburg, and from there, in advance of Napoleon's troops, passed across to England. After being arrested and again permitted exile, Sampson took passage to the United States, now under the more welcoming presidency of Thomas Jefferson. On 4 July 1806, he arrived in New York City where he was met and assisted by fellow exiles Thomas Addis Emmet and William James MacNeven. He was admitted to the New York bar in October. His wife, son, and daughter joined him in 1810.
Lawyer and advocate in New York
Disputing race as a legal disability
In New York City, Sampson set up a business publishing accounts of the court proceedings in cases with popular appeal and which advanced arguments for reform. Sometimes he filled the role of both counsel and reporter. This was the case in two proceedings in which Sampson, representing the New York Manumission Society, upended precedents anchored in racism and in slavery: The Commissioners of the Almshouse v Alexander Whistelo (1808), involving a black man in a case of paternity; and Amos and Demis Broad (1809) in which Sampson succeeded in having sadistically abused slaves, a mother and her 3-year-old daughter, manumitted.
In the Broad case, Sampson lamented that the law kept the woman from testifying on her own behalf: "the silence which fate, for I will not call it law, imposes on the slave who cannot tell us of his own complaint; gagged, and reduced to a state of a dumb brute . . . [is a] weighty obstacle to justice".
In 1808, in a case in which he had occasion to defend "interracial" marriage, he noted that, ‘‘every man must follow his own pleasure . . . neither philosophy nor religion have forbade such mixtures.’’
Labor's right of association
In 1810, Sampson published Trial of the Journeymen Cordwainers of the City of New-York for a Conspiracy to Raise Their Wages, presenting his (unsuccessful) argument in The People v Melvin (1806) for quashing an indictment of unionising workers. Insisting on the supremacy of the elected legislature, Sampson's objected that the prosecution was reasoning "abstractedly" from principles of English common law without any reference to statute. It was this, alone, that allowed them to deny journeymen the right to "conspire against starvation" while, without notice or challenge, leaving master tradesmen in a "permanent conspiracy" to suppress wages. This was one of the earliest attempts in the United States to establish the legality of the labor closed shop.
"Friend of Religious and Civil Liberty"
In The Catholic Question in America (1813), Sampson reported on his success in People v. Phillips in maintaining that a Catholic priest, who had arranged restitution for a parishioner' theft, could not be made to compromise sacramental confession by identifying the culprit. With Richard Riker switching from the prosecution to join Sampson in the view that, until acting “counter to the fundamental principles of morality”, men are to be “protected in the free exercise of their religion", the court ruled for the defence, recognising priest-penitent privilege.
Historians of American Catholicism regard Philips as a "signal victory for religious, ethnic, and cultural equality". Against the backdrop of nativist protest against Catholic-Irish immigration, in his report Sampson had felt it necessary to dispose of popular misconceptions of Catholic doctrine, and to remind Americans of "the superior equity and wisdom" of their jurisprudence by recalling Ireland's anti-Catholic Penal Laws in which "all the principles of law [were] reversed".
In 1824, he and Thomas Addis Emmet, again supported by Riker, defended Irish weavers in Greenwich Village, charged with riot in a 12th of July confrontation with local Orangemen. As he had in Philips, Sampson took the opportunity to decry religious bigotry and to put Britain's resistance to complete Catholic Emancipation, on trial.
In anticipation of Daniel O'Connell's victory at Westminster (the King signed the Catholic Relief Act ending the Protestant monopoly on parliament a month later), on St. Patrick’s Day, 1829, Sampson and MacNeven convened the “Friends of Religious and Civil Liberty” in Tammany Hall. The banqueting members were told they had gathered for same purpose that drew "good men of all nations and creeds" together in protesting the “enslavement of the Africans". The same connection (upon which, O'Connell, an ardent abolitionist, had himself insisted) had been confirmed for Sampson by France’s leading abolitionist, Abbé Henri Grégoire, who (via his translator, David Bailie Warden, veteran of the 1798 rebellion in County Down) had communicated his high praise for Sampson's achievement in Phillips.
In 1831, Sampson had further occasion in Philadelphia to defend Catholics charged in an affray with Orangemen. It elicited the clearest statement of his republican conception of American citizenship. The American Orangemen think that the Catholics have "got into a Protestant country", but their republic, he argued, is "equally a Jewish country, a Seceding country, a fire worshiping country": it is "a country that tolerates all religions".
Father of the American Codification movement
The French-American jurist Peter S. Du Ponceau described Sampson as "the Patriarch" of the American Codification movement. In his parody of "The King v Hurdy Gurdy" (which he had re-published on his arrival in New York), the need to reason from precedent allows the judge to usurp the function of both jurors (forbidden even to reason about the facts) and of legislators. In these apprehensions, Sampson was supported by the frequently sued publisher of the Philadelphia Aurora, William Duane. In Sampson Against the Philistines (1805), Duane argued that, “dark, arbitrary, unwritten, incoherent . . . and contradictory", the common law allows judges "not simply to administer the law, but [to] exercise a legislative and even an executive power directly in defiance and contempt of the Constitution”. and proposed that, conversely, a general codified law of reference would be “justice made cheap, speedy, and brought home to every man's door".
In the Trial of the Journeymen Cordwainers (1810), Sampson rehearsed the same general argument: an "indiscriminating adoption of common law" had caused the New-World society to carry over "barbarities" from the Old: laws that "can only be executed upon those not favoured by fortune with certain privileges" and that in some cases operate "entirely against the poor". "The more I reflect upon the advantages this nation has gained by independence," he concluded, "the more I regret that one thing should still be wanting to crown the noble arch—a NATIONAL CODE".
Sampson's summary Discourse on the Common Law (1823), holding common law to be contrary to the ethos a democratic republic and urging, with reference to the Code Napoleon, its replacement by a general law of reference, was hailed as "the most sweeping indictment of common law idealism ever written in America" . Widely reported in the newspaper and periodical press, it had a decided impact on public opinion. It was a source of inspiration for Edward Livingston who drew upon French, and other European, civil law in drafting the 1825 Louisiana Code of Procedure. Later, Sampson's efforts appeared vindicated in New York where in 1846 a new state constitution directed that the whole body of state law be reduced to a written and systematic code, and in David Dudley Field's subsequent drafting of the New York Code of Civil Procedure (1848).
The call for legal reform had not swayed the leaders of Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Party, in whose east-coast city electoral successes he, Duane and other Irish émigrés had played a significant role. Sampson sought to disassociate codification from the doctrinaire insistence on positive legislation that had marked Jeremy Bentham's championing of the cause. But, focussing on the French experience, critics thought it sufficient to comment on the futility of trying to compress human behaviour into rigid categories. Jefferson had remained neutral when Duane's attempted to force the issue in the 1805 election in Pennsylvania. Federalists joined with "Constitutional Republicans" to defeat the reform agenda.
Opposition to Andrew Jackson and Tammany Hall
Despite the lack of support for legal reform, Sampson did not follow Duane and other radical elements within the dissolving Jeffersonian coalition into the Democratic Party of Andrew Jackson. Jackson stood both for the western expansion of slavery and in opposition to the policies Sampson believed necessary for the development of America's free-labor economy. In 1817-19, Sampson lobbied in Washington against the opposition of southern planters for protective import tariffs against foreign, mainly British, manufactured goods.
In 1833, protesting the decision of Jackson (and his Secretary of the Treasury, Duane's son, William John Duane) to withdrew funds from the Second Bank of the United States, Sampson ran, unsuccessfully, for Congress. He was overwhelmed by the ability of the Tammany Hall Democratic Party machine to deliver the greater part of the growing Irish, and broader immigrant, vote.
An indication of his diminished standing as a veteran United Irishman among the city's increasingly Catholic Irish community was the controversy surrounding his and MacNeven's decision in 1829 to raise a monument (at St. Paul's Chapel, Broadway) to their departed compatriot Thomas Addis Emmet and to do so, in part, with funds unused from those they had collected to support the final act of Catholic emancipation in the Ireland (Catholic entry to the Westminster Parliament). They found themselves denounced by the community's principal paper, the Irish Shield, as presumptuous and oligarchic and for failing in their gratitude toward Daniel O'Connell, the "Emancipator", to whom a monument was truly due.
Last years and death
Tended, as his physician, by William MacNeven, William Sampson died in December 1836. He was buried in the Riker Family graveyard on Long Island in what is now East Elmhurst, Queens, New York. The white marble tomb, erected by his wife, Grace, and daughter, Catherine, bore an inscription describing him as "An United Irishman [who] defended the cause of civil and religious liberty". He was later reinterred in Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, where he is now buried in the same plot as Catherine's husband William Theobald Wolfe Tone and his mother Matilda Witherington Tone, the son and wife of the Irish revolutionary Wolfe Tone.
His son, John Philpot Curran Sampson, Deputy Attorney General in Louisiana, pre-deceased him in 1820.
Selected writing
With Thomas Russell, Review of the Lion of Old England; or Democracy Confounded, Belfast: 1794.
Advice to the Rich, Belfast and Dublin: 1796
With Thomas Russell, A faithful report of the trial of Hurdy-Gurdy, tried and convicted of a seditious libel in the court of King's Bench . . .,, Dublin: Bernard Dornin, 1806
Memoirs of William Sampson with a brief view of Irish History, New York: George Forman, 1807.
Trial of the Journeymen Cordwainers of the City of New-York for a Conspiracy to Raise Their Wages, New York: I Riley, 1810
The Catholic Question in America, whether a Roman Catholic Clergyman be in any case compellable to disclose the secrets of Auricular Confession New York: Edward Gillespy, 1813.
An Anniversary Discourse: Delivered Before the Historical Society of New York, on the Common Law, New York: E Bliss and White, 1823.
References
See also
Theobald Wolfe Tone
Thomas Addis Emmet
1764 births
1836 deaths
Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery
Lawyers from Derry (city)
United Irishmen
Disbarred American lawyers
18th-century Irish lawyers
Irish emigrants to the United States
19th-century American lawyers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic%20mammal
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Aquatic mammal
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Aquatic and semiaquatic mammals are a diverse group of mammals that dwell partly or entirely in bodies of water. They include the various marine mammals who dwell in oceans, as well as various freshwater species, such as the European otter. They are not a taxon and are not unified by any distinct biological grouping, but rather their dependence on and integral relation to aquatic ecosystems. The level of dependence on aquatic life varies greatly among species. Among freshwater taxa, the Amazonian manatee and river dolphins are completely aquatic and fully dependent on aquatic ecosystems. Semiaquatic freshwater taxa include the Baikal seal, which feeds underwater but rests, molts, and breeds on land; and the capybara and hippopotamus which are able to venture in and out of water in search of food.
Mammal adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle vary considerably between species. River dolphins and manatees are both fully aquatic and therefore are completely tethered to a life in the water. Seals are semiaquatic; they spend the majority of their time in the water, but need to return to land for important activities such as mating, breeding and molting. In contrast, many other aquatic mammals, such as hippopotamus, capybara, and water shrews, are much less adapted to aquatic living. Likewise, their diet ranges considerably as well, anywhere from aquatic plants and leaves to small fish and crustaceans. They play major roles in maintaining aquatic ecosystems, beavers especially.
Aquatic mammals were the target for commercial industry, leading to a sharp decline in all populations of exploited species, such as beavers. Their pelts, suited for conserving heat, were taken during the fur trade and made into coats and hats. Other aquatic mammals, such as the Indian rhinoceros, were targets for sport hunting and had a sharp population decline in the 1900s. After it was made illegal, many aquatic mammals became subject to poaching. Other than hunting, aquatic mammals can be killed as bycatch from fisheries, where they become entangled in fixed netting and drown or starve. Increased river traffic, most notably in the Yangtze river, causes collisions between fast ocean vessels and aquatic mammals, and damming of rivers may land migratory aquatic mammals in unsuitable areas or destroy habitat upstream. The industrialization of rivers led to the extinction of the Chinese river dolphin, with the last confirmed sighting in 2004.
Taxonomy and evolution
Groups
This list covers only mammals that live in freshwater. For a list of saltwater mammals, see Marine mammal.
Order Sirenia: sirenians
Family Trichechidae: manatees
Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis)
African manatee (Trichechus senegalensis)
Order Cetartiodactyla: even-toed ungulates
Suborder Whippomorpha
Family Platanistidae
Ganges river dolphin, or susu (Platanista gangetica)
Indus river dolphin, or bhulan (Platanista minor)
Family Iniidae
Amazon river dolphin, or boto (Inia geoffrensis)
Araguaian river dolphin (Inia araguaiaensis)
Family Lipotidae
Chinese river dolphin, or baiji (Lipotes vexillifer) possibly extinct
Family Pontoporiidae
La Plata dolphin, or franciscana (Pontoporia blainvillei)
Family Hippopotamidae: hippopotamuses
Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)
Pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis)
Order Carnivora
Family Mustelidae
Subfamily Lutrinae
Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra)
Hairy-nosed otter (Lutra sumatrana)
Spotted-necked otter (Hydrictis maculicollis)
Smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata)
North American river otter (Lontra canadensis)
Southern river otter (Lontra provocax)
Neotropical river otter (Lontra longicaudis)
Giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis)
African clawless otter (Aonyx capensis)
Oriental small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea)
Subfamily Mustelinae
European mink (Mustela lutreola)
American mink (Neogale vison)
Family Phocidae
Genus Pusa
Baikal seal (Pusa sibirica)
Ladoga seal (Pusa hispida ladogensis)
Saimaa seal (Pusa hispida saimensis)
Order Rodentia: rodents
Suborder Hystricomorpha
Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris)
Lesser capybara (Hydrochoerus isthmius)
Coypu (Myocastor coypus)
Family Castoridae: beavers
North American beaver (Castor canadensis)
Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber)
Family Cricetidae
Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus)
European water vole (Arvicola amphibius)
Order Monotremata: monotremes
Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus)
Order Afrosoricida
Giant otter shrew (Potamogale velox)
Order Eulipotyphla
Family Soricidae: shrews
Malayan water shrew (Chimarrogale hantu)
Himalayan water shrew (Chimarrogale himalayica)
Sunda water shrew (Chimarrogale phaeura)
Japanese water shrew (Chimarrogale platycephala)
Chinese water shrew (Chimarrogale styani)
Sumatran water shrew (Chimarrogale sumatrana)
Elegant water shrew (Nectogale elegans)
Mediterranean water shrew (Neomys anomalus)
Eurasian water shrew (Neomoys fodiens)
Transcaucasian water shrew (Neomys teres)
Glacier Bay water shrew (Sorex alaskanus)
American water shrew (Sorex palustris)
Pacific water shrew, or marsh shrew (Sorex bendirii)
Family Talpidae (moles and relatives)
Russian desman (Desmana moschata)
Order Didelphimorphia: opossums
Family Didelphidae: opossums
Big lutrine opossum (Lutreolina crassicaudata)
Massoia's lutrine opossum (Lutreolina massoia)
Yapok (Chironectes minimus)
Evolution
Mesozoic
One of the first known proto-mammals similar to modern placentals was aquatic, the Jurassic mammaliaform Castorocauda. It seems to have been adapted to water much like a beaver, with teeth different in many ways from all other docodonts, presumably due to a difference in diet. Most docodonts had teeth specialized for an omnivorous diet. The teeth of Castorocauda suggest that the animal was a piscivore, feeding on fish and small invertebrates. The first two molars had cusps in a straight row, eliminating the grinding function suggesting that they were strictly for gripping and not for chewing. This feature of three cusps in a row is similar to the ancestral condition in mammal relatives (as seen in triconodonts), but is almost certainly a derived character in Castorocauda. These first molars were also recurved in a manner adapted to hold slippery prey once grasped. These teeth are very similar to the teeth seen in mesonychians, an extinct group of semiaquatic carnivorous ungulates, and resemble, to a lesser degree, the teeth of seals.
Another docodontan, the Late Jurassic Haldanodon, has been suggested to be a platypus or desman-like swimmer and burrower, being well adapted to dig and swim and occurring in a wetland environment.
The tritylodontid Kayentatherium has been suggested to be semiaquatic. Unlike Castorocauda and Haldanodon, it was an herbivore, being probably beaver or capybara-like in habits.
Another lineage of Mesozoic mammals, the eutriconodonts, have been suggested to be aquatic animals with mixed results. Astroconodon occurred abundantly in freshwater lacustrine deposits and its molars were originally interpreted as being similar to those of piscivorous mammals like cetaceans and pinnipeds; by extension some researchers considered the possibility that all eutriconodonts were aquatic piscivores. However, Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska and other researchers have latter found that the triconodont molars of eutriconodonts were more suited for a carnassial-like shearing action than the piercing and gripping function of piscivorous mammal molars, occluding instead of interlocking, and that Astroconodon'''s aquatic occurrences may be of little significance when most terrestrial tetrapod fossils are found in lacustrine environments anyway.
However, two other eutriconodonts, Dyskritodon and Ichthyoconodon, occur in marine deposits with virtually no dental erosion, implying that they died in situ and are thus truly aquatic mammals. Nonetheless, Ichthyoconodon may not be aquatic, but instead a gliding mammal. More recently, Yanoconodon and Liaoconodon have been interpreted as semiaquatic, bearing a long body and paddle-like limbs.
A metatherian, the stagodontid Didelphodon, has been suggested to be aquatic, due to molar and skeleton similarities to sea otters.
Cenozoic
An extinct genus, Satherium, is believed to be ancestral to South American river otters, having migrated to the New World during the Pliocene or early Pleistocene. The South American continent houses the otter genus Lontra: the giant otter, the neotropical river otter, the southern river otter, and the marine otter. The smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) of Asia may be its closest extant relative; similar behaviour, vocalizations, and skull morphology have been noted.
The most popular theory of the origins of Hippopotamidae suggests that hippos and whales shared a common ancestor that branched off from other artiodactyls around 60 million years ago (mya). This hypothesized ancestral group likely split into two branches around 54 mya. One branch would evolve into cetaceans, possibly beginning about 52 mya, with the protowhale Pakicetus and other early whale ancestors collectively known as Archaeoceti, which eventually underwent aquatic adaptation into the completely aquatic cetaceans. The other branch became the anthracotheres, and all branches of the anthracotheres, except that which evolved into Hippopotamidae, became extinct during the Pliocene without leaving any descendants. River dolphins are thought to have relictual distributions, that is, their ancestors originally occupied marine habitats, but were then displaced from these habitats by modern dolphin lineages. Many of the morphological similarities and adaptations to freshwater habitats arose due to convergent evolution; thus, a grouping of all river dolphins is paraphyletic. For example, Amazon river dolphins are actually more closely related to oceanic dolphins than to South Asian river dolphins.
Sirenians, along with Proboscidea (elephants), group together with the extinct †Desmostylia and likely †Embrithopoda to form the Tethytheria. Tethytheria is thought to have evolved from primitive hoofed mammals ("condylarths") along the shores of the ancient Tethys Ocean. Tethytheria, combined with Hyracoidea (hyraxes), forms a clade called Paenungulata. Paenungulata and Tethytheria (especially the latter) are among the least controversial mammalian clades, with strong support from morphological and molecular interpretations. That is, elephants, hyraxes, and manatees share a common ancestry. The ancestry of Sirenia is distinct from that of Cetacea and Pinnipedia, although they are thought to have evolved an aquatic lifestyle around the same time.
The oldest fossil of the modern platypus dates back to about 100,000 years ago, during the Quaternary period. The extinct monotremes Teinolophos and Steropodon were once thought to be closely related to the modern platypus, but more recent studies show that platypi are more related to the modern echidnas than to these ancient forms and that at least Teinolophos was a rather different mammal lacking several speciations seen in platypi. However, the last common ancestor between platypi and echidnas probably was aquatic, and echidnas thus secondarily became terrestrial. Monotrematum sudamericanum is currently the oldest aquatic monotreme known. It has been found in Argentina, indicating monotremes were present in the supercontinent of Gondwana when the continents of South America and Australia were joined via Antarctica, or that monotremes existed along the shorelines of Antarctica in the early Cenozoic.
Marine mammals
Marine mammals are aquatic mammals that rely on the ocean for their existence. They include animals such as sea lions, whales, dugongs, sea otters and polar bears. Like other aquatic mammals, they do not represent a biological grouping.
Marine mammal adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle vary considerably between species. Both cetaceans and sirenians are fully aquatic and therefore are obligate ocean dwellers. Pinnipeds are semiaquatic; they spend the majority of their time in the water, but need to return to land for important activities such as mating, breeding and molting. In contrast, both otters and the polar bear are much less adapted to aquatic living. Likewise, their diet ranges considerably as well; some may eat zooplankton, others may eat small fish, and a few may eat other mammals. While the number of marine mammals is small compared to those found on land, their roles in various ecosystems are large. They, namely sea otters and polar bears, play important roles in maintaining marine ecosystems, especially through regulation of prey populations. Their role in maintaining ecosystems makes them of particular concern considering 25% of marine mammal species are currently threatened.
Marine mammals were first hunted by aboriginal peoples for food and other resources. They were also the target for commercial industry, leading to a sharp decline in all populations of exploited species, such as whales and seals. Commercial hunting lead to the extinction of Steller's sea cow and the Caribbean monk seal. After commercial hunting ended, some species, such as the gray whale and northern elephant seal, have rebounded in numbers, however the northern elephant seal has a genetic bottleneck; conversely, other species, such as the North Atlantic right whale, are critically endangered. Other than hunting, marine mammals, dolphins especially, can be killed as bycatch from fisheries, where they become entangled in fixed netting and drown or starve. Increased ocean traffic causes collisions between fast ocean vessels and large marine mammals. Habitat degradation also threatens marine mammals and their ability to find and catch food. Noise pollution, for example, may adversely affect echolocating mammals, and the ongoing effects of global warming degrades arctic environments.
Adaptations
Mammals evolved on land, so all aquatic and semiaquatic mammals have brought many terrestrial adaptations into the waters. They do not breathe underwater as fish do, so their respiratory systems had to protect the body from the surrounding water; valvular nostrils and an intranarial larynx exclude water while breathing and swallowing. To navigate and detect prey in murky and turbid waters, aquatic mammals have developed a variety of sensory organs: for example, manatees have elongated and highly sensitive whiskers which are used to detect food and other vegetation directly front of them, and toothed whales have evolved echolocation.
Aquatic mammals also display a variety of locomotion styles. Cetaceans excel in streamlined body shape and the up-and-down movements of their flukes make them fast swimmers; the tucuxi, for example, can reach speeds of . The considerably slower sirenians can also propel themselves with their fluke, but they can also walk on the bottom with their forelimbs. The earless seals (Phocidae) swim by moving their hind-flippers and lower body from side to side, while their fore-flippers are mainly used for steering. They are clumsy on land, and move on land by lunging, bouncing and wiggling while their fore-flippers keep them balanced; when confronted with predators, they retreat to the water as freshwater phocids have no aquatic predators.
Some aquatic mammals have retained four weight-bearing limbs (e.g. hippopotamuses, beavers, otters, muskrats) and can walk on land like fully terrestrial mammals. The long and thin legs of a moose limit exposure to and friction from water in contrast to hippopotamuses who keep most of their body submerged and have short and thick legs. The semiaquatic pygmy hippopotamus can walk quickly on a muddy underwater surface thanks to robust muscles and because all toes are weight-bearing. Some aquatic mammals with flippers (e.g. seals) are amphibious and regularly leave the water, sometimes for extended periods, and maneuver on land by undulating their bodies to move on land, similar to the up-and-down body motion used underwater by fully aquatic mammals (e.g. dolphins and manatees).
Beavers, muskrats, otters, and capybara have fur, one of the defining mammalian features, that is long, oily, and waterproof in order to trap air to provide insulation. In contrast, other aquatic mammals, such as dolphins, manatees, seals, and hippopotamuses, have lost their fur in favor of a thick and dense epidermis, and a thickened fat layer (blubber) in response to hydrodynamic requirements.
Wading and bottom-feeding animals (e.g. moose and manatee) need to be heavier than water in order to keep contact with the floor or to stay submerged, surface-living animals (e.g. otters) need the opposite, and free-swimming animals living in open waters (e.g. dolphins) need to be neutrally buoyant in order to be able to swim up and down the water column. Typically, thick and dense bone is found in bottom feeders and low bone density is associated with mammals living in deep water.
The shape and function of the eyes in aquatic animals are dependent on water depth and light exposure: limited light exposure results in a retina similar to that of nocturnal terrestrial mammals. Additionally, cetaceans have two areas of high ganglion cell concentration ("best-vision areas"), where other aquatic mammals (e.g. seals, manatees, otters) only have one.
Among non-placental mammals, which cannot give birth to fully developed young, some adjustments have been made for an aquatic lifestyle. The yapok has a backwards-facing pouch which seals off completely when the animal is underwater, while the platypus deposits its young on a burrow on land.
Ecology
Keystone species
Beaver ponds have a profound effect on the surrounding ecosystem. Their first and foremost ecological function is as a reservoir for times of drought, and prevent drying of riverbeds. In the event of a flood, beaver ponds slow down water-flow which reduces erosion on the surrounding soil. Beaver dams hold sediment, which reduces turbidity and thereby improving overall water quality downstream. This supplies other animals with cleaner drinking water and prevents degradation of spawning grounds for fish. However, the slower water speed and lack of shade from trees (that have since been cut down to construct the dam), results in the overall temperature increasing. They also house predatory zooplankton which help break down detritus and control algae populations.
Diet
Beavers are herbivores, and prefer the wood of quaking aspen, cottonwood, willow, alder, birch, maple and cherry trees. They also eat sedges, pondweed, and water lilies. Beavers do not hibernate, but rather they store sticks and logs in a pile in their ponds, eating the underbark. The dams they build flood areas of surrounding forest, giving the beaver safe access to an important food supply, which is the leaves, buds, and inner bark of growing trees. They prefer aspen and poplar, but will also take birch, maple, willow, alder, black cherry, red oak, beech, ash, hornbeam and occasionally pine and spruce. They will also eat cattails, water lilies and other aquatic vegetation, especially in the early spring.
Indian rhinoceros are grazers. Their diets consist almost entirely of grasses, but they also eat leaves, branches of shrubs and trees, fruits, and submerged and floating aquatic plants. They feed in the mornings and evenings. They use their prehensile lips to grasp grass stems, bend the stem down, bite off the top, and then eat the grass. They tackle very tall grasses or saplings by walking over the plant, with legs on both sides and using the weight of their bodies to push the end of the plant down to the level of the mouth.
Manatees make seasonal movements synchronized with the flood regime of the Amazon Basin. They are found in flooded forests and meadows during the flood season when food is abundant, and move to deep lakes during the dry season. The Amazonian manatee has the smallest degree of rostral deflection (25° to 41°) among sirenians, an adaptation to feed closer to the water surface.
A moose's diet often depends on its location, but they seem to prefer the new growths from deciduous trees with a high sugar content, such as white birch, trembling aspen and striped maple, among many others. They also eat many aquatic plants such as lilies and water milfoil. To reach high branches, a moose may bend small saplings down, using its prehensile lip, mouth or body. For larger trees a moose may stand erect and walk upright on its hind legs, allowing it to reach plants off the ground. Moose are excellent swimmers and are known to wade into water to eat aquatic plants. Moose are thus attracted to marshes and river banks during warmer months as both provide suitable vegetation to eat and water to bathe in. Moose have been known to dive underwater to reach plants on lake bottoms, and the complex snout may assist the moose in this type of feeding. Moose are the only deer that are capable of feeding underwater.
Hippopotamuses leave the water at dusk and travel inland, sometimes up to , to graze on short grasses, their main source of food. They spend four to five hours grazing and can consume of grass each night. Like almost any herbivore, they consume other plants if presented with them, but their diet consists almost entirely of grass, with only minimal consumption of aquatic plants. The pygmy hippopotamus emerges from the water at dusk to feed. It relies on game trails to travel through dense forest vegetation. It marks trails by vigorously waving its tail while defecating to further spread its feces. The pygmy hippo spends about six hours a day foraging for food, and they do not eat aquatic vegetation to a significant extent and rarely eat grass because it is uncommon in the thick forests they inhabit. The bulk of a pygmy hippo's diet consists of ferns, broad-leaved plants and fruits that have fallen to the forest floor. The wide variety of plants pygmy hippos have been observed eating suggests that they will eat any plants available. This diet is of higher quality than that of the common hippopotamus.
The Amazon river dolphin has the most diverse diet among cetaceans, consisting of at least 53 species of fish. They mainly feed on croakers, cichlids, tetras, and piranhas, but they may also target freshwater crabs and river turtles. South Asian river dolphins mainly eat fish (such as carp, catfish, and freshwater sharks) and invertebrates, mainly prawns.
Generally, all aquatic desmans, shrews, and voles make quick dives and catch small fish and invertebrates. The giant otter shrew, for example, makes quick dives that last for seconds and grabs small crabs (usually no bigger than across). The Lutrine opossum is the most carnivorous opossum, usually consuming small birds, rodents, and invertebrates. Water voles mainly eat grass and plants near the water and at times, they will also consume fruits, bulbs, twigs, buds, and roots. However, a population of water voles living in Wiltshire and Lincolnshire, England have started eating frogs' legs and discarding the bodies.
Interactions with humans
Exploitation
Fur robes were blankets of sewn-together, native-tanned, beaver pelts. The pelts were called castor gras in French and "coat beaver" in English, and were soon recognized by the newly developed felt-hat making industry as particularly useful for felting. Some historians, seeking to explain the term castor gras'', have assumed that coat beaver was rich in human oils from having been worn so long (much of the top-hair was worn away through usage, exposing the valuable under-wool), and that this is what made it attractive to the hatters. This seems unlikely, since grease interferes with the felting of wool, rather than enhancing it. By the 1580s, beaver "wool" was the major starting material of the French felt-hatters. Hat makers began to use it in England soon after, particularly after Huguenot refugees brought their skills and tastes with them from France.
Sport hunting of the Indian rhinoceros became common in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Indian rhinos were hunted relentlessly and persistently. Reports from the middle of the 19th century claim that some British military officers in Assam individually shot more than 200 rhinos. By 1908, the population in Kaziranga had decreased to around 12 individuals. In the early 1900s, the species had declined to near extinction. Poaching for rhinoceros horn became the single most important reason for the decline of the Indian rhino after conservation measures were put in place from the beginning of the 20th century, when legal hunting ended. From 1980 to 1993, 692 rhinos were poached in India. In India's Laokhowa Wildlife Sanctuary, 41 rhinos were killed in 1983, virtually the entire population of the sanctuary. By the mid-1990s, poaching had rendered the species extinct there. In 1950, Chitwan’s forest and grasslands extended over more than and were home to about 800 rhinos. When poor farmers from the mid-hills moved to the Chitwan Valley in search of arable land, the area was subsequently opened for settlement, and poaching of wildlife became rampant. The Chitwan population has repeatedly been jeopardized by poaching; in 2002 alone, poachers killed 37 animals to saw off and sell their valuable horns.
Otters have been hunted for their pelts since at least the 1700s. There has been a long history of otter pelts being worn around the world. In China it was standard for the royalty to wear robes made from them. People that were financially high in status also wore them. Otters have also been hunted using dogs, specifically the otterhound. In modern times, TRAFFIC, a joint program of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), reported that otters are at serious risk in Southeast Asia and have disappeared from parts of their former range. This decline in populations is due to hunting to supply the demand for skins.
Habitat degradation
One problem at Lake Baikal is the introduction of pollutants into the ecosystem. Pesticides such as DDT and hexachlorocyclohexane, as well as industrial waste, mainly from the Baykalsk Pulp and Paper Mill, are thought to have been the cause of several disease epidemics among Baikal seal populations. The chemicals are speculated to concentrate up the food chain and weaken the Baikal seal's immune system, making them susceptible to diseases such as canine distemper and the plague, which was the cause of a serious Baikal seal epidemic that resulted in the deaths of thousands of animals in 1997 and 1999. Baikal seal pups have higher levels of DDT and PCB than known in any other population of European or Arctic earless seal.
In the 1940s, beavers were brought from Canada to the island of Tierra Del Fuego in southern Chile and Argentina, for commercial fur production. However, the project failed and the beavers, ten pairs, were released into the wild. Having no natural predators in their new environment, they quickly spread throughout the island, and to other islands in the region, reaching a number of 100,000 individuals within just 50 years. They are now considered a serious invasive species in the region, due to their massive destruction of forest trees, and efforts are being made for their eradication.
In some European countries, such as Belgium, France, and the Netherlands, the muskrat is considered an invasive pest, as its burrowing damages the dikes and levees on which these low-lying countries depend for protection from flooding. In those countries, it is trapped, poisoned, and hunted to attempt to keep the population down. Muskrats also eat corn and other farm and garden crops growing near water bodies.
Urban and agricultural development, increased damming, and increased use of hydroelectric power in rivers in countries such as Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana are threats to the African manatee's habitat and life, and thick congestion of boats in waterways may cause them to have a deadly run-in with the vessels. However, even natural occurrences, such as droughts and tidal changes, often strand manatees in an unsuitable habitat. Some are killed accidentally by fishing trawls and nets intended for catching sharks. The Amazonian manatee is at risk from pollution, accidental drowning in commercial fishing nets, and the degradation of vegetation by soil erosion resulting from deforestation. Additionally, the indiscriminate release of mercury in mining activities threatens the entire aquatic ecosystem of the Amazon Basin.
As China developed economically, pressure on the Chinese river dolphin grew significantly. Industrial and residential waste flowed into the Yangtze. The riverbed was dredged and reinforced with concrete in many locations. Ship traffic multiplied, boats grew in size, and fishermen employed wider and more lethal nets. Noise pollution caused the nearly blind animal to collide with propellers. Stocks of the dolphin's prey declined drastically in the late 20th century, with some fish populations declining to one thousandth of their pre-industrial levels. In the 1950s, the population was estimated at 6,000 animals, but declined rapidly over the subsequent five decades. Only a few hundred were left by 1970. Then the number dropped down to 400 by the 1980s and then to 13 in 1997 when a full-fledged search was conducted. On December 13, 2006, the baiji was declared functionally extinct, after a 45-day search by leading experts in the field failed to find a single specimen. The last verified sighting was in 2004.
As food
Moose are hunted as a game species in many of the countries where they are found. While the flesh has protein levels similar to those of other comparable red meats (e.g. beef, deer and elk), it has a low fat content, and the fat that is present consists of a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fats rather than saturated fats.
Cadmium levels are high in moose liver and kidneys, with the result that consumption of these organs from moose more than one year old is prohibited in Finland. Cadmium intake has been found to be elevated amongst all consumers of moose meat, though the meat was found to contribute only slightly to the daily cadmium intake. However the consumption of moose liver or kidneys significantly increased cadmium intake, with the study revealing that heavy consumers of moose organs have a relatively narrow safety margin below the levels which would probably cause adverse health effects.
In the 17th century, based on a question raised by the Bishop of Quebec, the Roman Catholic Church ruled that the beaver was a fish (beaver flesh was a part of the indigenous peoples' diet, prior to the Europeans' arrival) for purposes of dietary law. Therefore, the general prohibition on the consumption of meat on Fridays did not apply to beaver meat. This is similar to the Church's classification of other semiaquatic rodents, such as the capybara and muskrat.
See also
Aquatic animal
Marine mammal
References
Further reading
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One%20World%20Trade%20Center
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One World Trade Center
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One World Trade Center, also known as One World Trade, One WTC, and formerly called the Freedom Tower during initial planning stages, is the main building of the rebuilt World Trade Center complex in Lower Manhattan, New York City. Designed by David Childs of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, One World Trade Center is the tallest building in the United States, the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, and the seventh-tallest in the world. The supertall structure has the same name as the North Tower of the original World Trade Center, which was destroyed in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The new skyscraper stands on the northwest corner of the World Trade Center site, on the site of the original 6 World Trade Center. It is bounded by West Street to the west, Vesey Street to the north, Fulton Street to the south, and Washington Street to the east.
The construction of below-ground utility relocations, footings, and foundations for the new building began on April 27, 2006. One World Trade Center became the tallest structure in New York City on April 30, 2012, when it surpassed the height of the Empire State Building. The tower's steel structure was topped out on August 30, 2012. On May 10, 2013, the final component of the skyscraper's spire was installed, making the building, including its spire, reach a total height of . Its height in feet is a deliberate reference to the year when the United States Declaration of Independence was signed. The building opened on November 3, 2014; the One World Observatory opened on May 29, 2015.
On March 26, 2009, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (PANYNJ) confirmed that the building would be officially known by its legal name of "One World Trade Center", rather than its colloquial name of "Freedom Tower". The building has 94 stories, with the top floor numbered 104.
The new World Trade Center complex will eventually include five high-rise office buildings built along Greenwich Street, as well as the National September 11 Memorial & Museum, located just south of One World Trade Center where the original Twin Towers stood. The construction of the new building is part of an effort to memorialize and rebuild following the destruction of the original World Trade Center complex.
History
Original building (1971–2001)
The construction of the original World Trade Center was conceived as an urban renewal project and spearheaded by David Rockefeller. The project was intended to help revitalize Lower Manhattan. The project was planned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which hired architect Minoru Yamasaki. The twin towers at 1 and 2 World Trade Center were designed as framed tube structures, giving tenants open floor plans, unobstructed by columns or walls. One World Trade Center was the North Tower, and Two World Trade Center was the South Tower. Each tower was over high, and occupied about of the total of the site's land. Of the 110 stories in each tower, 8 were set aside as mechanical floors. All the remaining floors were open for tenants. Each floor of the tower had of available space. The North and South tower had of total office space.
Construction of the North Tower began in August 1966; extensive use of prefabricated components sped up the construction process. The first tenants moved into the North Tower in October 1971. At the time, the original One World Trade Center became the tallest building in the world, at tall. After a -tall antenna was installed in 1978, the highest point of the North Tower reached . In the 1970s, four other low-level buildings were built as part of the World Trade Center complex. A seventh building was built in the mid-1980s. The entire complex of seven buildings had a combined total of of office space.
Destruction
At 8:46 a.m. (EDT) on September 11, 2001, five hijackers affiliated with al-Qaeda crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern facade of the North Tower between the 93rd and 99th floors. Seventeen minutes later, at 9:03 a.m. (EDT), a second group of five terrorists crashed the hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern facade of the South Tower, striking between the 77th and 85th floors.
By 9:59 a.m. (EDT), the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes. After burning for 102 minutes, the North Tower collapsed due to structural failure at 10:28 a.m. (EDT). When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center, damaging it and starting fires. The fires burned for hours, compromising the building's structural integrity. Seven World Trade Center collapsed at 5:21 p.m. (EDT).
Together with a simultaneous attack on the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, and a failed plane hijacking that resulted in a plane crash in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, the attacks resulted in the deaths of 2,996 people (2,507 civilians, 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 hijackers). More than 90% of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact. In the North Tower, 1,355 people at or above the point of impact were trapped, and died of smoke inhalation, fell, jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames, or were killed when the building eventually collapsed. One stairwell in the South Tower, Stairwell A, somehow avoided complete destruction, unlike the rest of the building. When Flight 11 hit, all three staircases in the North Tower above the impact zone were destroyed, making it impossible for anyone above the impact zone to escape. 107 people below the point of impact also died.
Current building (2013–present)
Planning
Following the destruction of the original World Trade Center, there was debate regarding the future of the World Trade Center site. There were proposals for its reconstruction almost immediately, and by 2002, the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation had organized a competition to determine how to use the site. The proposals were part of a larger plan to memorialize the September 11 attacks and rebuild the complex. Already the site was becoming a tourist attraction; in the year following the attacks the Ground Zero site became the most visited place in the United States. On September 10, 2002, the Viewing Wall, a temporary display containing information about the attacks and listing the names of the dead, opened to the public.
When the public rejected the first round of designs, a second, more open competition took place in December 2002, in which a design by Daniel Libeskind was selected as the winner in February 2003. Other designs were submitted by Richard Meier, Peter Eisenman, Charles Gwathmey, and Steven Holl; William Pedersen; and Foster and Partners. This design underwent many revisions, mainly because of disagreements with developer Larry Silverstein, who held the lease to the World Trade Center site at that time. Peter Walker and Michael Arad's "Reflecting Absence" proposal was selected as the site's 9/11 Memorial in January 2004.
There was criticism concerning the limited number of floors that were designated for office space and other amenities in an early plan. Only 82 floors would have been habitable, and the total office space of the rebuilt World Trade Center complex would have been reduced by more than in comparison with the original complex. The floor limit was imposed by Silverstein, who expressed concern that higher floors would be a liability in the event of a future terrorist attack or other incident. Much of the building's height would have consisted of a large, open-air steel lattice structure on the roof of the tower, containing wind turbines and "sky gardens".
In a subsequent design, the highest occupiable floor became comparable to the original World Trade Center, and the open-air lattice was removed from the plans. In 2002, former New York Governor George Pataki faced accusations of cronyism for supposedly using his influence to get the winning architect's design picked as a personal favor for his friend and campaign contributor, Ronald Lauder.
A final design for the "Freedom Tower" was formally unveiled on June 28, 2005. To address security issues raised by the New York City Police Department, a concrete base was added to the design in April of that year. The design originally included plans to clad the base in glass prisms in order to address criticism that the building might have looked uninviting and resembled a "concrete bunker". However, the prisms were later found to be unworkable, as preliminary testing revealed that the prismatic glass easily shattered into large and dangerous shards. As a result, it was replaced by a simpler facade consisting of stainless steel panels and blast-resistant glass.
Contrasting with Libeskind's original plan, the tower's final design tapers octagonally as it rises. Its designers stated that the tower would be a "monolithic glass structure reflecting the sky and topped by a sculpted antenna." In 2006, Larry Silverstein commented on a planned completion date: "By 2012 we should have a completely rebuilt World Trade Center, more magnificent, more spectacular than it ever was." On April 26, 2006, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey approved a conceptual framework that allowed foundation construction to begin. A formal agreement was drafted the following day, the 75th anniversary of the 1931 opening of the Empire State Building. Construction began in May; a formal groundbreaking ceremony took place when the first construction team arrived.
Construction
The symbolic cornerstone of One World Trade Center was laid in a ceremony on July 4, 2004. The stone had an inscription supposedly written by Arthur J. Finkelstein. Construction was delayed until 2006 due to disputes over money, security, and design. The last major issues were resolved on April 26, 2006, when a deal was made between developer Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, so the cornerstone was temporarily removed from the site on June 23, 2006. Soon after, explosives were detonated at the construction site for two months to clear bedrock for the building's foundation, onto which of concrete was poured by November 2007. In a December 18, 2006, ceremony held in nearby Battery Park City, members of the public were invited to sign the first steel beam installed onto the building's base. It was welded onto the building's base on December 19, 2006. Foundation and steel installation began shortly afterward, so the tower's footings and foundation were nearly complete within a year. An estimate in February 2007 placed the initial construction cost of One World Trade Center at about $3 billion, or .
In January 2008, two cranes were moved onto the site. Construction of the tower's concrete core, which began after the cranes arrived, reached street level by May 17. The base was not finished until two years later, after which construction of the office floors began and the first glass windows were installed; during 2010, floors were constructed at a rate of about one per week. An advanced "cocoon" scaffolding system was installed to protect workers from falling, and was the first such safety system installed on a steel structure in the city. The tower reached 52 floors and was over tall by December 2010. The tower's steel frame was halfway complete by then, but grew to 80 floors by the tenth anniversary of the September 11 attacks, at which time its concrete flooring had reached 68 floors and the glass cladding had reached 54 floors.
In 2009, the Port Authority changed the official name of the building from "Freedom Tower" to "One World Trade Center", stating that this name was the "easiest for people to identify with." The "Freedom Tower" name had also been subject to ridicule on programs like Saturday Night Live. The name change also served a practical purpose: real estate agents believed that it would be easier to lease space in a building with a traditional street address. The change came after board members of the Port Authority voted to sign a 21-year lease deal with Vantone Industrial Co., a Chinese real estate company, which would become the building's first commercial tenant to sign a lease. Vantone planned to create the China Center, a trade and cultural facility, covering on floors 64 through 69.
Mass media company Condé Nast became One WTC's anchor tenant in May 2011, leasing and relocating from 4 Times Square. While under construction, the tower was specially illuminated on several occasions. For example, it was lit in red, white, and blue for Independence Day and the anniversary of the September 11 attacks, and it was illuminated in pink for Breast Cancer Awareness Month. The tower's loading dock could not be finished in time to move equipment into the completed building, so five temporary loading bays were added at a cost of millions of dollars. The temporary PATH station was not to be removed until its official replacement, the World Trade Center Transportation Hub, was completed, blocking access to the planned loading area. Chadbourne & Parke, a Midtown Manhattan-based law firm, was supposed to lease in January 2012, but the deal was abruptly canceled that March.
Topping-out and completion
By March 2012, One WTC's steel structure had reached 93 stories, growing to the 94th story (labeled as floor 100) and by the end of the month. The tower's estimated cost had risen to $3.9 billion by April 2012, making it the most expensive building in the world at the time. The tower's construction was partly funded by approximately $1 billion of insurance money that Silverstein received for his losses in the September 11 attacks. The State of New York provided an additional $250 million, and the Port Authority agreed to give $1 billion, which would be obtained through the sale of bonds. The Port Authority raised prices for bridge and tunnel tolls to raise funds, with a 56 percent toll increase scheduled between 2011 and 2015; however, the proceeds of these increases were not used to pay for the tower's construction.
The still-incomplete tower became New York City's tallest building by roof height in April 2012, passing the roof height of the Empire State Building. President Barack Obama visited the construction site two months later and wrote, on a steel beam that would be hoisted to the top of the tower, the sentence "We remember, we rebuild, we come back stronger!" That same month, with the tower's structure nearing completion, the owners of the building began a public marketing campaign for the building, seeking to attract visitors and tenants. One World Trade Center's steel structure topped out at the 94th physical story (numbered as floor 104), with a total height of the roof top at , in August 2012. The tower's spire was then shipped from Quebec to New York in November 2012, following a series of delays. The first section of the spire was hoisted to the top of the tower on December 12, 2012, and was installed on January 15, 2013. By March 2013, two sections of the spire had been installed. Bad weather delayed the delivery of the final pieces.
On May 10, 2013, the final piece of the spire was lifted to the top of One WTC, bringing the tower to its full height of , and making it the fourth-tallest building in the world at the time. In subsequent months, the exterior elevator shaft was removed; the podium glass, interior decorations, and other finishes were being installed; and installation of concrete flooring and steel fittings was completed. On November 12, 2013, the Height Committee of the Chicago-based Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) made the controversial announcement that One World Trade Center was the tallest building in the United States, declaring that the mast on top of the building is a spire since it is a permanent part of the building's architecture. By the same reasoning, the building was also the tallest in the Western Hemisphere.
A report in September 2013 revealed that, at the time of the report, the World Trade Center Association (WTCA) was negotiating with regard to the "World Trade Center" name, as the WTCA had purchased the rights to the name in 1986. The WTCA sought $500,000 worth of free office space in the tower in exchange for the use of "World Trade Center" in the tower's name and associated souvenirs.
Opening and early years
On November 1, 2014, moving trucks started moving items for Condé Nast. The New York Times noted that the area around the World Trade Center had transitioned from a financial area to one with technology firms, residences, and luxury shops, coincident with the building of the new tower. The building opened on November 3, 2014, and Condé Nast employees moved into 24 floors. Condé Nast occupied floors 20 to 44, having completed its move in early 2015. It was expected that the company would attract new tenants to occupy the remaining 40% of unleased space in the tower, as Condé Nast had revitalized Times Square after moving there in 1999. Only about 170 of 3,400 total employees moved into One WTC on the first day. At the time, future tenants included Kids Creative, Legends Hospitality, the BMB Group, Servcorp, and GQ. On November 12, 2014, shortly after the building opened supporting wire rope cables of a suspended working platform slacked, trapping a two-man window washing team. During the late 2010s, the Durst Organization leased most of the remaining vacant space. The tower reached 92 percent occupancy just before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City in 2020.
By August 2020, Condé Nast indicated it wanted to leave One World Trade Center. This led Advance Publications, parent company of Conde Nast, to start withholding rent payments in January 2021. By March 2021, Condé Nast had filed plans to reduce the amount of office space that it leased. After a prolonged impasse, Condé Nast agreed in late 2021 to pay almost $10 million in back rent. In December 2021, the New York Liberty Development Corporation announced that it would refinance 1 WTC with a $700 million bond issue. The money from this bond issue would be used to retire the debt from the building's last refinancing in 2012. By March 2022, the building was 95 percent leased, a higher percentage than before the COVID-19 pandemic. One WTC's vacancy rate was half that of the city as a whole; its high occupancy rate contrasted with that of the original Twin Towers, which had never reached full occupancy until just before the September 11 attacks.
Architecture
Many of Daniel Libeskind's original concepts from the 2002 competition were discarded from the tower's final design. One World Trade Center's final design consisted of simple symmetries and a more traditional profile, intended to compare with selected elements of the contemporary New York skyline. The tower's central spire draws from previous buildings, such as the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building. It also visually resembles the original Twin Towers, rather than being an off-center spire similar to the Statue of Liberty. One World Trade Center is considered the first major building whose construction is based upon a three-dimensional Building Information Model.
Just south of the new One World Trade Center is the National September 11 Memorial & Museum, which is located where the original Twin Towers stood. Immediately to the east is World Trade Center Transportation Hub and the new Two World Trade Center site. To the north is 7 World Trade Center, and to the west is Brookfield Place.
Form and facade
The building occupies a square, with an area of , nearly identical to the footprints of the original Twin Towers. The tower is built upon a tall windowless concrete base, designed to protect it from truck bombs and other ground-level attacks. From the 20th floor upwards, the square edges of the tower's cubic base are chamfered back, shaping the building into eight tall isosceles triangles, or an elongated square antiprism. Near its middle, the tower forms a perfect octagon, and then culminates in a glass parapet, whose shape is a square oriented 45 degrees from the base. A 407.9-foot (124.3 m) sculpted mast containing the broadcasting antenna – designed in a collaboration between Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM), artist Kenneth Snelson (who invented the tensegrity structure), lighting designers, and engineers – is secured by a system of cables, and rises from a circular support ring, which contains additional broadcasting and maintenance equipment. At night, an intense beam of light is projected vertically from the spire and shines over above the tower.
David Childs of SOM, the architect of One World Trade Center, said the following regarding the tower's design:
Originally, the base was to be covered in decorative prismatic glass, but a simpler glass-and-steel façade was adopted when the prisms proved unworkable. The current base cladding consists of angled glass fins protruding from stainless steel panels, similar to those on 7 World Trade Center. LED lights behind the panels illuminate the base at night. There are cable-net glass facade panels on all elevations of the building, designed by Schlaich Bergermann, will be consistent with the other buildings in the complex. The facade panels are high, and range in width from on the east and west sides, on the north side, and on the south side. The curtain wall was manufactured and assembled by Benson Industries in Portland, Oregon, using glass made in Minnesota by Viracon.
WSP Group was the lead structural engineer; Jaros, Baum & Bolles (JBB) provided MEP engineering; and Tishman Construction was the main contractor.
Features
One World Trade Center's top floor is officially designated as floor 104, despite the fact that the tower only contains 94 actual stories. The building has 86 usable above-ground floors, of which 78 are intended for office purposes (approximately ). The base consists of floors 1–19, including a public lobby, featuring the mural ONE: Union of the Senses by American artist José Parlá. The lobby also contains two paintings by Donald Martiny, called Lenape and Unami; two paintings by Fritz Bultman, Gravity of Nightfall and Blue Triptych-Intrusion Into the Blue; and two paintings by Doug Argue, Randomly Placed Exact Percentages and Isotropic.
The office floors begin at floor 20 and go up to floor 63. There is a sky lobby on floor 64; designed by Gensler, the sky lobby covers . The space has seating areas, a game room, a meeting room with capacity for 180 people, a cafe, and yoga and fitness classes. Seven oil on canvas paintings by artist Greg Goldberg are displayed in the 64th floor sky lobby, and Bryan Hunt created a sculpture named Prana, which means "life force" in Sanskrit, on the east side of the 64th floor sky lobby. Office floors resume on floor 65 and stop at floor 90. Floors 91–99 and 103–104 are mechanical floors.
The tenants have access to below-ground parking, storage, and shopping; access to PATH, New York City Subway trains, and the World Financial Center is also provided at the World Trade Center Transportation Hub; /Fulton Center; and stations. The building allows direct access to West Street, Vesey Street, and Fulton Street at ground level. The building has an approximate underground footprint of .
One World Observatory
The tower has a three-story observation deck, located on floors 100–102, in addition to existing broadcast and antenna facilities. Its height is , making it the highest vantage point in New York City. Similar to the Empire State Building, visitors to the observation deck and tenants have their own separate entrances; one entrance is on the West Street side of the building, and the other is from within the shopping mall, descending down to a below-ground security screening area. On the observation deck, the actual viewing space is on the 100th floor, but there is a food court on the 101st floor and a space for events for the 102nd floor.
To show visitors the city, and give them information and stories about New York, an interactive tool called City Pulse is used by Tour Ambassadors. The admission fee is $32 per person, but admission discounts are available for children and seniors, and the deck is free for 9/11 responders and families of 9/11 victims. When it opened, the deck was expected to have about 3.5 million visitors per year. Tickets went on sale starting on April 8, 2015. The Manhattan District Attorney investigated whether Legends Hospitality had received the contract for the observation deck's operation based on inappropriate political dealings. It officially opened on May 28, 2015, one day ahead of schedule.
A plan to build a restaurant near the top of the tower, similar to the original One World Trade Center's Windows on the World, was abandoned as logistically impractical. The tower's window-washing tracks are located on a 16-square-foot area, which is designated as floor 110 as a symbolic reference to the 110 floors of the original tower. There are three eating venues at the top of the building: a café (called One Café); a bar and "small plates" grill (One Mix); and a fine dining restaurant (One Dining). Some commentators, including those for the New York Post and Curbed, have criticized the food prices; the need of a full observatory ticket purchase to enter; and their reputations compared to Windows on the World, the top-floor restaurant in the original One World Trade Center.
Sustainability
Like other buildings in the new World Trade Center complex, One World Trade Center includes sustainable architecture features. Much of the building's structure and interior is built from recycled materials, including gypsum boards and ceiling tiles; around 80 percent of the tower's waste products are recycled. Although the roof area of any tower is limited, the building implements a rainwater collection and recycling scheme for its cooling systems. The building's PureCell phosphoric acid fuel cells generate 4.8 megawatts (MW) of power, and its waste steam generates electricity. The New York Power Authority selected UTC Power to provide the tower's fuel cell system, which was one of the largest fuel cell installations in the world once completed. The tower also makes use of off-site hydroelectric and wind power. The windows are made of an ultra-clear glass, which allows maximum sunlight to pass through; the interior lighting is equipped with dimmers that automatically dim the lights on sunny days, reducing energy costs. Like all of the new facilities at the World Trade Center site, One World Trade Center is heated by steam, with limited oil or natural gas utilities on-site. One World Trade Center received a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold Certification, making it one of the most environmentally sustainable skyscrapers in the world.
Security features
Along with the protection provided by the reinforced concrete base, a number of other safety features were included in the building's design, so that it would be prepared for a major accident or terrorist attack. Like 7 World Trade Center, the building has thick reinforced concrete walls in all stairwells, elevator shafts, risers, and sprinkler systems. There are also extra-wide, pressurized stairwells, along with a dedicated set of stairwells exclusively for the use of firefighters, and biological and chemical filters throughout the ventilation system. In comparison, the original Twin Towers used a purely steel central core to house utility functions, protected only by lightweight drywall panels.
The building is no longer away from West Street, as the Twin Towers were; at its closest point, West Street is away. The Port Authority has stated: "Its structure is designed around a strong, redundant steel moment frame consisting of beams and columns connected by a combination of welding and bolting. Paired with a concrete-core shear wall, the moment frame lends substantial rigidity and redundancy to the overall building structure while providing column-free interior spans for maximum flexibility."
In addition to safety design, new security measures were implemented. All vehicles will be screened for radioactive materials and other potentially dangerous objects before they enter the site through the underground road. Four hundred closed-circuit surveillance cameras will be placed in and around the site, with live camera feeds being continuously monitored by the NYPD. A computer system will use video-analytic computer software, designed to detect potential threats, such as unattended bags, and retrieve images based on descriptions of terrorists or other criminal suspects. New York City and Port Authority police will patrol the site.
Before the World Trade Center site was fully completed, the plaza was not completely opened to the public, as the original World Trade Center plaza was. The initial stage of the opening process began on Thursday, May 15, 2014, when the "Interim Operating Period" of the National September 11 Memorial ended. During this period, all visitors were required to undergo airport style security screening, as part of the "Interim Operating Period", which was expected to end on December 31, 2013. Screening did not fully end until the official dedication and opening of the museum on May 21, 2014, after which visitors were allowed to use the plaza without needing passes.
Design evolution
The original design went through significant changes after the Durst Organization joined the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey as the project's co-developer in 2010.
The tall base corners were originally designed to gently slope upward and have prismatic glass. The corners were later squared. In addition, the base's walls are now covered in "hundreds of pairs of vertical glass fins set against horizontal bands of eight-inch-wide [] stainless-steel slats."
The spire was originally to be enclosed with a protective radome, described as a "sculptural sheath of interlocking fiberglass panels". The radome-enclosed spire was then changed to a plain antenna. Douglas Durst, the chairman of the Durst Organization, stated that the design change would save $20 million. SOM strongly criticized the change, and Childs said: "Eliminating this integral part of the building's design and leaving an exposed antenna and equipment is unfortunate ... We stand ready to work with the Port on an alternate design." After joining the project in 2010, the Durst Organization had suggested eliminating the radome to reduce costs, but the proposal was rejected by the Port Authority's then-executive director, Christopher O. Ward. Ward was replaced by Patrick Foye in September 2011. Foye changed the Port Authority's position, and the radome was removed from the plans. In 2012, Douglas Durst gave a statement regarding the final decision: "(the antenna) is going to be mounted on the building over the summer. There's no way to do anything at this point."
The large triangular plaza on the west side of One World Trade Center was originally planned to have stainless steel steps descending to West Street, but the steps were changed to a terrace in the final design. The terrace can be accessed through a staircase on Vesey Street. The terrace is paved in granite, and has 12 sweetgum trees, in addition to a block-long planter/bench.
Durst also removed a skylight from the plaza's plans; the skylight was designed to allow natural light to enter the below-ground observation deck lobby. The plaza is higher than the adjacent sidewalk.
The Port Authority formally approved all these revisions, and the revisions were first reported by the New York Post. Patrick Foye, the executive director of the Port Authority, said that he thought that the changes were "few and minor" in a telephone interview.
A contract negotiated between the Port Authority and the Durst Organization states that the Durst Organization will receive a $15 million fee and a percentage of "base building changes that result in net economic benefit to the project." The specifics of the signed contract give Durst 75% of the savings (up to $24 million) with further returns going down to 50%; 25%; and 15% as the savings increase.
Height
The top floor of One World Trade Center is above ground level, along with a parapet; this is identical to the roof height of the original One World Trade Center. The tower's spire brings it to a pinnacle height of , a figure intended to symbolize the year 1776, when the United States Declaration of Independence was signed. When the spire is included in the building's height, as stated by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), One World Trade Center surpasses the height of Taipei 101 (), is the world's tallest all-office building, and the seventh-tallest skyscraper in the world , behind the Burj Khalifa, Merdeka 118, Shanghai Tower, Abraj Al Bait, Ping An Finance Centre and Lotte World Tower.
One World Trade Center is the second-tallest freestanding structure in the Western Hemisphere, as the CN Tower in Toronto exceeds One World Trade Center's pinnacle height by approximately . The Chicago Spire, with a planned height of , was expected to exceed the height of One World Trade Center, but its construction was canceled due to financial difficulties in 2009.
After design changes for One World Trade Center's spire were revealed in May 2012, there were questions as to whether the -tall structure would still qualify as a spire, and thus be included in the building's height. Since the tower's spire is not enclosed in a radome as originally planned, it could be classified as a simple antenna, which is not included in a building's height, according to the CTBUH. Without the spire, One World Trade Center would be tall, making it the seventh-tallest building in the United States, behind the Trump International Hotel & Tower in Chicago.
Upon completion, the building became the tallest in New York City with the antenna, but its roof was surpassed in 2015 by 432 Park Avenue, which topped out at high. One World Trade Center's developers had disputed the claim that the spire should be reclassified as an antenna following the redesign, with Port Authority spokesman Steve Coleman reiterating that "One World Trade Center will be the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere."
In 2012, the CTBUH announced that it would wait to make its final decision as to whether or not the redesigned spire would count towards the building's height. On November 12, 2013, the CTBUH announced that One World Trade Center's spire would count as part of the building's recognized height, giving it a final height of , and making it the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.
Incidents
In September 2013, three BASE jumpers parachuted off the then-under-construction tower. The three men and one accomplice on the ground surrendered to authorities in March 2014. They were convicted of several misdemeanors in June 2015 and sentenced to community service and a fine.
In March 2014, tower security was breached by 16-year-old Weehawken, New Jersey resident Justin Casquejo, who entered the site through a hole in a fence. He was arrested on trespassing charges. He allegedly dressed like a construction worker, sneaked in, and convinced an elevator operator to lift him to the tower's 88th floor, according to news sources. He then used stairways to get to the 104th floor, walked past a sleeping security guard, and climbed up a ladder to get to the antenna, where he took pictures for two hours. The elevator operator was reassigned, and the guard was fired. It was then revealed that officials had failed to install security cameras in the tower, which facilitated Casquejo's entry to the site. Casquejo was sentenced to 23 days of community service as a result.
Reception
The social center of the previous One World Trade Center included a restaurant on the 107th floor, called Windows on the World, and The Greatest Bar on Earth; these were tourist attractions in their own right, and a gathering spot for people who worked in the towers. This restaurant also housed one of the most prestigious wine schools in the United States, called "Windows on the World Wine School", run by wine personality Kevin Zraly. Despite numerous assurances that these attractions would be rebuilt, the Port Authority scrapped plans to rebuild them, which has outraged some observers.
The fortified base of the tower has also been a source of controversy. Some critics, including Deroy Murdock of the National Review, have said that it is alienating and dull, and reflects a sense of fear rather than freedom, leading them to dub the building "the Fear Tower". Nicolai Ouroussoff, the architecture critic for The New York Times, calls the tower base a "grotesque attempt to disguise its underlying paranoia".
Owners and tenants
One World Trade Center is principally owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Around 5 percent equity of the building was sold to the Durst Organization, a private real estate company, in exchange for an investment of at least $100 million. The Durst Organization assisted in supervising the building's construction, and manages the building for the Port Authority, having responsibility for leasing, property management, and tenant installations. By September 2012, around 55 percent of the building's floor space had been leased, but no new leases were signed for three years until May 2014; the amount of space leased had gone up to 62.8 percent by November 2014.
In 2006, the State of New York agreed to a 15-year lease, with an option to extend the lease's term and occupy up to . The General Services Administration (GSA) initially agreed to a lease of around , and New York State's Office of General Services (OGS) planned to occupy around . However, the GSA ceded most of its floor space to the Port Authority in July 2011, and the OGS withdrew from the lease contract. In April 2008, the Port Authority announced that it was seeking a bidder to operate the observation deck on the tower's 102nd floor; in 2013, Legends Hospitality Management agreed to operate the observatory in a 15-year, $875 million contract.
The building's first lease, a joint project between the Port Authority and Beijing-based Vantone Industrial, was announced on March 28, 2009. A "China Center", combining business and cultural facilities, that would be planned between floors 64 and 69; it is intended to represent Chinese business and cultural links to the United States, and to serve American companies that wish to conduct business in China. Vantone Industrial's lease is for 20 years and 9 months. In April 2011, a new interior design for the China Center was unveiled, featuring a vertical "Folding Garden", based on a proposal by the Chinese artist Zhou Wei. In September 2015, China Center agreed to reduce the leased space to a single floor.
On August 3, 2010, Condé Nast Publications signed a tentative agreement to move the headquarters and offices for its magazines into One World Trade Center, occupying up to of floor space. On May 17, 2011, Condé Nast reached a final agreement with the Port Authority, securing a 25-year lease with an estimated value of $2 billion. On May 25, 2011, Condé Nast finalized the lease contract, obtaining of office space between floors 20–41 and of usable space in the podium and below grade floors. Condé Nast leased of space on floors 42 to 44 in January 2012. In the late 2010s and early 2020s, Condé Nast subleased some of its space to other companies. This included Ambac Financial Group in March 2019; Ennead Architects in April 2019; and Constellation Agency and Reddit in 2021.
In August 2014, it was announced Servcorp signed a 15-year lease for , taking the entire 85th floor. Servcorp subsequently subleased all of its space on the 85th floor as private offices, boardrooms and co-working space to numerous medium-sized businesses such as ThinkCode, D100 Radio, and Chérie L'Atelier des Fleurs.
Key figures
Developer
Larry Silverstein of Silverstein Properties, the leaseholder and developer of the complex, retains control of the surrounding buildings, while the Port Authority has full control of the tower itself. Silverstein signed a 99-year lease for the World Trade Center site in July 2001, and remains actively involved in most aspects of the site's redevelopment process.
Before construction of the new tower began, Silverstein was involved in an insurance dispute regarding the tower. The terms of the lease agreement signed in 2001, for which Silverstein paid $14 million, gave Silverstein, as leaseholder, the right and obligation to rebuild the structures if they were destroyed. After the September 11 attacks, there were a series of disputes between Silverstein and insurance companies concerning the insurance policies that covered the original towers; this resulted in the construction of One World Trade Center being delayed. After a trial, a verdict was rendered on April 29, 2004. The verdict was that ten of the insurers involved in the dispute were subject to the "one occurrence" interpretation, so their liability was limited to the face value of those policies. Three insurers were added to the second trial group. At that time, the jury was unable to reach a verdict on one insurer, Swiss Reinsurance, but it did so several days later on May 3, 2004, finding that this company was also subject to the "one occurrence" interpretation. Silverstein appealed the Swiss Reinsurance decision, but the appeal failed on October 19, 2006. The second trial resulted in a verdict on December 6, 2004. The jury determined that nine insurers were subject to the "two occurrences" interpretation, referring to the fact that two different planes had destroyed the towers during the September 11 attacks. They were therefore liable for a maximum of double the face value of those particular policies ($2.2 billion). The highest potential payout was $4.577 billion, for buildings 1, 2, 4, and 5.
In March 2007, Silverstein appeared at a rally of construction workers and public officials outside an insurance industry conference. He highlighted what he described as the failures of insurers Allianz and Royal & Sun Alliance to pay $800 million in claims related to the attacks. Insurers state that an agreement to split payments between Silverstein and the Port Authority is a cause for concern.
Key project coordinators
David Childs, one of Silverstein's favorite architects, joined the project after being urged by him. Childs developed a design for One World Trade Center, initially collaborating with Daniel Libeskind. In May 2005, Childs revised the design to address security concerns. He is the architect of the tower, and is responsible for overseeing its day-to-day design and development.
Architect Daniel Libeskind won the invitational competition to develop a plan for the new tower in 2002. He gave a proposal, which he called "Memory Foundations", for the design of One World Trade Center. His design included aerial gardens, windmills, and off-center spire. Libeskind later denied a request to place the tower in a more rentable location next to the PATH station. He instead placed it another block west, as it would then line up with, and resemble, the Statue of Liberty. Most of Libeskind's original designs were later scrapped, and other architects were chosen to design the other WTC buildings. However, one element of Libeskind's initial plan was included in the final design – the tower's symbolic height of .
Daniel R. Tishman – along with his father John Tishman, builder of the original World Trade Center – led the construction team from Tishman Realty & Construction, the selected builder for One World Trade Center.
Douglas and Jody Durst, the co-presidents of the Durst Organization, a real estate development company, won the right to invest at least $100 million in the project on July 7, 2010.
In August 2010, Condé Nast, a long-time Durst tenant, confirmed a tentative deal to move into One World Trade Center, and finalized the deal on May 26, 2011. The contract negotiated between the Port Authority and the Durst Organization specifies that the Durst Organization will receive a $15 million fee, and a percentage of "base building changes that result in net economic benefit to the project". The specifics of the signed contract give Durst 75 percent of savings up to $24 million, stepping down to 50, 25, and 15 percent as savings increase. Since Durst joined the project, significant changes have been made to the building, including the base of the tower, the spire, and the plaza to the west of the building, facing the Hudson River. The Port Authority has approved all the revisions.
Port Authority construction workers
A WoodSearch Films short-subject documentary entitled How does it feel to work on One World Trade Center? was uploaded to YouTube on August 31, 2010. It depicted construction workers who were satisfied with the working conditions at the construction site. However, further analysis of the work site showed that dozens of construction-related injuries had occurred at the site during the construction of One World Trade Center, including 34 not reported to the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
Workers left post-9/11-related graffiti at the site, which are meant to symbolize rebirth and resilience.
See also
Notes
References
Cited sources
External links
maintained by the Durst Organization and Cushman & Wakefield
One World Observatory official website
World Trade Center – Maintained by Silverstein Properties
One World Trade Center on CTBUH's Skyscraper Center database
LowerManhattan.info – Official site for Lower Manhattan Construction Command Center
Glass, Steel and Stone – History of Freedom Tower designs
Daniel Libeskind buildings
Financial District, Manhattan
Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan
Office buildings completed in 2014
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill buildings
World Trade Center
2013 establishments in New York City
West Side Highway
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5003064
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Underground%201935%20Stock
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London Underground 1935 Stock
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The London Underground 1935 Stock was an experimental train design by Metropolitan Cammell in London. Twelve two-car units, marshalled into four six-car trains, were built. They served as the prototypes for the later 1938 Stock.
Three of these trains had the cars streamlined, based upon trial with a 1923 Standard Stock Control Trailer built by Metropolitan Cammell. The cars in the fourth set had flat fronts almost identical to the later 1938 stock, for which the cars of the 1935 Stock were in effect the prototypes.
These were the first tube cars built for London Underground with the motors and control equipment, etc., under the frame, freeing the space behind the cabs for use by passengers. For evaluation purposes each trainset had different equipment.
The cars were used on the Piccadilly line from 1937 to 1940. During World War II all the 1935 Stock cars were stored at Cockfosters depot. After the war the streamlined cars were sent to Acton works, where they were rebuilt into trailer cars, used with the 1938 stock. They were eventually withdrawn between 1972 and 1976. The unit with the flat fronts re-entered service and was also used with the 1938 stock, the main difference between the 1935 Stock and 1938 stock DMs being that the driver's door on the 1935 stock was taller, extending into the roof.
History
The London Passenger Transport Board was formed by Act of Parliament in 1933, bringing all of London's underground railways under common control. This allowed large-scale planning to be undertaken, and the 1935-1940 New Works Programme included extensions to what became the Northern Line and major extensions at both ends of the Central London Railway, which became the Central Line. The plan envisaged significant purchases of rolling stock, to service the extended lines, and the 1935 Stock was the forerunner for those purchases. Existing motor cars had a switch compartment behind the drivers cab, occupying nearly one third of the car, and this caused particular problems at busy times. Where two motor cars were coupled together in the centre of the train, there was a length of nearly with no doors for passengers to use.
Prior to placing an order, experiments had been carried out to test various features. A Standard Stock control trailer dating from 1923 had been fitted with a streamlined end. A Tomlinson coupler, which as well as connecting cars together mechanically, also connected the electric and hydraulic systems together automatically, was tried out on two cars, and another had an experimental air-conditioning system fitted. When an order was placed with Metropolitan Cammell for four six-car trains in 1935, variations of all of these features were included in the designs. The trains were supplied as two-car units, permanently coupled together, and three such units made up each six-car train. By careful design, all of the electrical equipment was mounted below the car floor, which meant that the whole length of the motor cars was available for passengers, apart from the drivers cab. A six-car train of the new stock could thus carry as many passengers as a seven-car train of Standard Stock. To meet the second major requirement of improved performance, all of the cars were motor cars.
The inner two axles of each car were fitted with a motor, and adhesion was improved by making the bogies asymmetric. The wheelbase of each bogie was , but the pivot point was from the front axle, resulting in 58 per cent of the weight of the car being used for adhesion. All of the trains were fitted with Crompton Parkinson Type C200 motors, which had been specially designed to fit in the limited space available. They were mounted onto the axle by a roller suspension sleeve. Each motor was rated at , and the car floors sloped upwards at the ends in order to give adequate clearance for the motorised bogies.
Control of the motors used four different systems, one for each six-car train, but all of the systems were compatible, so that any combination of two-car units could be used to form a train. British Thompson-Houston (BTH) provided the only system which was based on previous experience, which became known as the Pneumatic Camshaft Motor (PCM) system. This proved to be the most reliable, and was the system adopted for subsequent batches of trains. The other three systems were new designs, produced by Metropolitan Vickers, General Electric Company, and a collaboration between Crompton Parkinson and Allen West & Co. The PCM system used an air-operated camshaft, to control the switching out of starting resistances. With the motors connected in series, the camshaft rotated in one direction, until no resistances were in circuit. A separate electro-pneumatic switch then controlled the transition from series to parallel configuration, and the camshaft moved back to its starting position, as the resistances were removed again.
Crompton Parkinson provided three different systems, one on each of their two-car units. On the first, two faceplate controllers, driven by 50-volt motors, and an electro-pneumatic camshaft provided 57 notches between rest and full speed. The second system only had one faceplate controller, with the motors permanently connected in parallel, while the third used a motor-driven camshaft to control the switching of the resistances and the transition from series to parallel. The General Electric design used a motor-driven camshaft, which made three complete revolutions between rest and full speed, providing 56 notches. Transition from one notch to the next was based on time, but high motor current could delay the process. The Metropolitan Vickers system used an oil-driver power drum, which ran up to full speed in 45 notches. The resistance bank was reduced in size by using series-parallel switching of the resistances, which also meant that they heated up evenly. All four systems needed a 50-volt supply, and this was provided by a 5 kW motor generator set, which also powered the car lighting.
The first three trains had streamlined cabs fitted at both ends of each two-car unit. The driver's seat was placed in the centre of the semi-elliptical cab, and the armchair seat had the brake and master controller handles on either side, similar to aeroplane joysticks. Drivers did not like the arrangement, and when it was shown that the streamlining would have little effect until speeds of were reached, the fourth train, which was fitted with control equipment by Metropolitan Vickers, was built with flat ends and conventional cabs, an appearance that was carried forwards to the 1938 Stock. The two-car units were fitted with Wedglock couplers at the outer ends, which were a development of the Tomlinson coupler, and joined the units mechanically, pneumatically and electrically. One unit of the first train was fitted with air conditioning and fixed windows, but this was removed and opening windows were installed, as any failure of the system resulted in the car overheating in tunnels, causing discomfort for passengers.
By increasing the number of notches on the speed controller, and fitting more motors, acceleration of the new trains was around per second, an increase from per second on the Standard Stock. Braking rates were also improved to per second by fitting each brake block with its own cylinder, and using a retardation controller to control the brake pressure. This allowed higher pressure to be applied at faster speeds, and the pressure to reduce as the speed dropped, to maintain a constant rate of deceleration without wheel slip.
Delivery
The first three two-car units were delivered to Lillie Bridge Depot in October and November 1936. From there, there were transferred to Ealing Common depot, where staff from the various companies supplying the equipment completed installation and arranged acceptance tests. Most of the two-car units were tested and accepted individually, but the units with Metropolitan Vickers equipment ran as four cars. Testing took place on the test tracks which run between Acton Town and Northfields, with the first taking place on 13 November 1936. Testing continued on most weekdays until 8 January 1937. A Press day was held at Northfields depot on 17 November 1936, and the "streamlined wonders" received widespread coverage in national newspapers.
Prior to the production of the 1935 Stock, driving motor cars were designated as 'A' cars if they faced west, and 'B' cars if they faced east. However, for the new stock, the axles were lettered from 'A' to 'D', and the driving motor cars were lettered according to the nearest axle. They were thus designated as 'A' cars in they faced west and 'D' cars if they faced east, a scheme which has been carried forwards to all subsequent stock.
Operation
The first train to enter passenger carrying service did so on 8 April 1937 on the Piccadilly Line, and the final one followed nearly a year later, on 10 March 1938. Initially, they ran as four-car trains during the daytime, avoiding the morning and evening peak services. From 26 April 1937, an extra two-car unit was added to the four-car trains at the end of the afternoon service, and the six-car formation ran through the evening peak. Four cars of flat-fronted stock began running from 24 January 1938, but cars 10009, 11009, 10010 and 11010 were transferred to Golders Green depot on the Northern Line on 31 March 1938, so that gauging tests for the 1938 Stock could be carried out. They returned to the Piccadilly Line on 4 July 1938.
The various types of streamlined units were used interchangeably to make up four-car and six-car trains, but the flat-fronted units were kept together. There were significant teething problems with the new equipment, and when the outbreak of World War II made maintenance difficult, the trains were put into storage at Cockfosters depot. Three of the cars found temporary use as air raid precaution (ARP) shelters, one at Northfields depot, and two at Cockfosters. They were parked over a pit and surrounded by sandbags, for use in an emergency. They found no further use in service until the end of 1948, when there were plans to remove the streamlining and drivers cabs from the streamlined cars, and for them to become trailer cars which would run in 1938 Stock trains. Work began on the first conversion in early 1950, and was quite extensive. In addition to the rebuilding of the bodywork, all of the traction equipment was removed, and a complete rewire of the electrical system was needed. When the work was completed, the trailers looked similar to the 1938 Stock, but there were some visible differences. The converted cars only had three windows between the single end door and the first set of double doors, whereas the 1938 Stock had four, and the single door itself was further from the end of the car. Trailer number 012484 was outshopped in August 1950, and entered service on the Northern Line in September. It was monitored to see how it performed, and the remaining 17 conversions incorporated changes to the doors and bogies as a result. The motor cars became trailers 012477 to 012494, and the last one to be used in passenger service was number 012489, which was withdrawn in 1976.
In 1949, the flat-fronted units were modified to run as two-car shuttle trains, and were to be transferred to the Central Line. Some of the streamlined cars had been through an overhaul process, where the bogies had been upgraded to conform to 1938 Stock standards. As the flat-fronted units had not received an overhaul, they were given bogies removed from the updated streamlined cars. The Wedglock couplers at the outer ends were removed and replaced by Ward couplers, so that they could be mechanically coupled to Standard Stock trains, and air hoses were fitted. The Metropolitan Vickers control system was removed, and replaced with the British Thomson-Houston equipment, which had been removed when those units were converted to trailers. The guard's control panel, which had been located in the cab, was moved to the trailing end of the 'D' cars, so that the guard remained in the same position whichever the direction of travel. To ensure that each train ran with two compressors, KLL4-type compressors were fitted to all of the cars.
By August 1950, conversion of the shuttles had been completed. Two units entered passenger service in October, with the final one following in February 1951. Central Line services had been extended from Loughton to Epping on 25 September 1949, and the converted trains were primarily used to provide a shuttle service on this section, although they were sometimes used on the Woodford to Hainault section, which had opened on 21 November 1948. The three trains were moved back to the Piccadilly Line on 17 May 1954, for use on the shuttle service from Holborn to Aldwych. Car 11010 overran Aldwych station on 3 April 1955, and was damaged when it hit the buffer stops. The cab was rebuilt at Acton Works, and the finished result looked more like the 1938 Stock than the remaining 1935 Stock cars. Two trains returned to the Central Line for the opening of the Epping to service on 18 November 1957, where they were assisted by a three-car unit of 1938 Stock, specially adapted by fitting two compressors to the trailer car.
The third unit, consisting of cars 10011 and 11011, had been moved to Ealing Common depot in early 1957, to be used in a trial of regenerative braking. The concept, which involves the motors being used as generators, and current being fed back into the system for use by other trains, had been tried previously, on the O and P surface stock trains, which were equipped with metadyne controllers. The metadyne controllers were being replaced at the time, as they were proving increasingly unreliable, but London Underground still hoped that the system could be used to reduce energy costs. The 1935 Stock train was fitted with regenerative braking equipment manufactured by British Thomson-Houston, and the substation at Northfields was adapted to cope with the regenerated current. Because it was a trial system, the equipment was installed in the passenger area, and a self-lapping switch was fitted to the brake controller, which tilted as the brakes were applied. Testing of the system ran from May 1957 to early 1958, when a system manufactured by General Electric Co replaced it, and a third set of tests used equipment by Metropolitan Vickers. Although regenerative braking did not become part of the 1959 Stock or 1962 Stock production runs, the British Thomson-Houston equipment was modified to allow tests of rheostatic braking on a test train of 1960 Stock, which paved the way for it to be incorporated into the 1967 Stock built for the newly constructed Victoria Line.
Demise
The unit used for regenerative testing was returned to passenger service in May 1960, and rejoined the other two units on the Epping to Ongar shuttle. It was fitted with a modified 1927 Stock trailer, as the other two units had been previously, to provide more passenger accommodation. Once the Central Line had been re-equipped with unpainted aluminium 1962 Stock, the red livery of the 1935 Stock looked incongruous, and they were painted silver between August 1963 and May 1965. The trailer cars were fitted with de-icing equipment in 1964, and the units continued to be used on the Epping to Ongar route, until they were withdrawn from passenger service in 1966, when 1962 Stock replaced them. The units, including the 1927 trailers, were stored at Hainault depot for a time, and then moved to a scrap line at Ruislip depot.
When London Underground were considering the use of articulated trains on the Northern Line, to replace the 1938 Stock, the redundant 1935 Stock was used for trials. Motor cars 10010 and 11010 spent some time at Acton Works for preliminary tests, and were then returned to the Ruislip scrap line. On 15 May 1969, motor cars 10011 and 11011 entered Acton Works for full-scale trials to be conducted. The trailing ends of the cars were cut back so that only one window remained beyond the rear doors. The driving end bogies were replaced by new lightweight aluminium ones, while the trailing ends of both cars were supported by a single steel bogie. The conversion work was completed for testing to begin in August 1970, and information was collected for a year. There were plans to re-equip the Northern Line with 8-car articulated trains, but rolling stock requirements were reassessed when authorisation to build the Heathrow extension of the Piccadilly Line was obtained, and the idea of articulated trains was dropped in favour of using conventional 1972 Stock, similar to that running on the Victoria Line. Following the tests, the articulated unit was found to be particularly useful for shunting, as the beams carrying the current collecting shoes were apart, enabling it to cross long gaps in the current rails at low speeds. It was given a maroon livery, and renumbered L14A and L14B, becoming part of the service fleet. The aluminium bogies were removed for further testing on a 1972 Stock car in 1975, and the 1935 cars were scrapped at Acton in early 1975. The units on the Ruislip scrap line lasted until they were officially scrapped on 10 October 1971.
Numbers
The 1935 stock consisted only of Driving Motor (DMs) cars. The number series was continued for the DMs of the 1938 Stock
Trailers
It had originally been planned that three trailer cars would be inserted into the three streamlined units, to lengthen them from six- to seven-car units. These would have been similar to 1938 stock trailers except that they had no compressors. After the war these three cars instead became part of the 1938 Stock and were numbered 012412 - 012414, being fitted with compressors.
References
Bibliography
External links
London Transport Museum Photographic Archive
1935
Metropolitan Cammell multiple units
Scrapped locomotives
Train-related introductions in 1936
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogical%20models
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Analogical models
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Analogical models are a method of representing a phenomenon of the world, often called the "target system" by another, more understandable or analysable system. They are also called dynamical analogies.
Two open systems have analog representations (see illustration) if they are black box isomorphic systems.
Explanation
A simple type of analogy is one that is based on shared properties; and analogizing is the process of representing information about a particular subject (the analogue or source system) by another particular subject (the target system), in order "to illustrate some particular aspect (or clarify selected attributes) of the primary domain".
Analogical models, also called "analog" or "analogue" models, seek the analog systems that share properties with the target system as a means of representing the world. It is often practicable to construct source systems that are smaller and/or faster than the target system so that one can deduce a priori knowledge of target system behaviour. Analog devices are therefore those in which may differ in substance or structure but share properties of dynamic behaviour (Truit and Rogers, p. 1-3).
For example, in analog electronic circuits, one can use voltage to represent an arithmetic quantity; operational amplifiers might then represent the arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). Through the process of calibration these smaller/bigger, slower/faster systems are scaled up or down so that they match the functioning of the target system, and are therefore called analogs of the target system. Once the calibration has taken place, modellers speak of a one-to-one correspondence in behaviour between the primary system and its analog. Thus the behaviour of two systems can be determined by experimenting with one.
Creating an analogical model
Many different instruments and systems can be used to create an analogical model.
"Many important discoveries have been made when scientists commenced their work as if their theoretically postulated models of atoms, viruses, vitamins, hormones, and genes had actual, real world substantial existence. They proceeded as though each imaginary concept actually existed in precisely the form their theoretical speculation outlined; and, discarding any pretence of analogy, they proceeded with the view that the substantial, real world was exactly as they had theoretically described it. ... Consider the analogue model advanced to assist understanding of the behaviour of gases which suggests possible relationships between some theoretical activities of gas particles and some observable activities of billiard-balls. Achinstein (1964, p.332) reminds us that, despite thinking about gases in this useful way, "the physicist obviously supposes that molecules, not billiard balls, comprise gases" Yeates (2004, pp.71, 73)
A mechanical device can be used to represent mathematical calculations. For instance, the Phillips Hydraulic Computer MONIAC used the flow of water to model economic systems (the target system); electronic circuits can be used to represent both physiological and ecological systems. When a model is run on either an analog or digital computer this is known as the process of simulation.
Mechanical analogies
Any number of systems could be used for mapping electrical phenomena to mechanical phenomena, but two principle systems are commonly used: the impedance analogy and the mobility analogy. The impedance analogy maps force to voltage whereas the mobility analogy maps force to current.
The impedance analogy preserves the analogy between electrical impedance and mechanical impedance but does not preserve the network topology. The mobility analogy preserves the network topology but does not preserve the analogy between impedances. Both preserve the correct energy and power relationships by making power conjugate pairs of variables analogous.
Hydraulic analogy
In a hydraulic analogy, a water integrator might perform the mathematical operation of integration.
Physiological analogies
Francis Crick used the study of the visual system as a proxy for the study of awareness.
Formal analogies
"The same equations have the same solutions." -- Richard Feynman
For example, the inverse-square laws of gravitation and electromagnetism can be described by analogous equations on a geometrical basis, almost without regard to the physical details about masses and charges.
In population ecology, differential equations arise that are the same as those found in mechanics, albeit with different interpretations.
Recursion requires a similarity within a situation; for example, Archimedes used the myriad to count the number of grains of sand on a beach by using the concept of myriad myriads.
Dynamical analogies
Dynamical analogies establish analogies between systems in different energy domains by means of comparison of the system dynamic equations. There are many ways such analogies can be built, but one of the most useful methods is to form analogies between pairs of power conjugate variables. That is, a pair of variables whose product is power. Doing so preserves the correct energy flow between domains, a useful feature when modelling a system as an integrated whole. Examples of systems that require unified modelling are mechatronics and audio electronics.
The earliest such analogy is due to James Clerk Maxwell who, in 1873, associated mechanical force with electrical voltage. This analogy became so widespread that sources of voltage are still today referred to as electromotive force. The power conjugate of voltage is electric current which, in the Maxwell analogy, maps to mechanical velocity. Electrical impedance is the ratio of voltage and current, so by analogy, mechanical impedance is the ratio of force and velocity. The concept of impedance can be extended to other domains, for instance in acoustics and fluid flow it is the ratio of pressure to rate of flow. In general, impedance is the ratio of an effort variable and the flow variable that results. For this reason, the Maxwell analogy is often referred to as the impedance analogy, although the concept of impedance was not conceived until 1886 by Oliver Heaviside, some time after Maxwell's death.
Specifying power conjugate variables still does not result in a unique analogy, there are multiple ways the conjugates and analogies can be specified. A new analogy was proposed by Floyd A. Firestone in 1933 now known as the mobility analogy. In this analogy electrical impedance is made analogous to mechanical mobility (the inverse of mechanical impedance). Firestone's idea was to make analogous variables that are measured across an element, and make analogous variables that flow through an element. For instance, the across variable voltage is the analogy of velocity, and the through variable current is the analogy of force. Firestone's analogy has the advantage of preserving the topology of element connections when converting between domains. A modified form of the through and across analogy was proposed in 1955 by Horace M. Trent and is the modern understanding of through and across.
where
V is voltage
F is force
T is torque
p is pressure
I is electric current
u is velocity
ω is angular velocity
Q is volumetric flow rate
Table of equivalents
Hamiltonian variables
The Hamiltonian variables, also called the energy variables, are those variables which when time-differentiated are equal to the power conjugate variables. The Hamiltonian variables are so called because they are the variables which usually appear in Hamiltonian mechanics. The Hamiltonian variables in the electrical domain are charge () and flux linkage () because
(Faraday's law of induction), and
In the translational mechanical domain, the Hamiltonian variables are distance displacement () and momentum () because
(Newton's second law of motion), and
There is a corresponding relationship for other analogies and sets of variables. The Hamiltonian variables are also called the energy variables. The integrand of a power conjugate variable with respect to a Hamiltonian variable is a measure of energy. For instance,
and
are both expressions of energy.
Practical uses
Maxwell's analogy was initially used merely to help explain electrical phenomena in more familiar mechanical terms. The work of Firestone, Trent and others moved the field well beyond this, looking to represent systems of multiple energy domains as a single system. In particular, designers started converting the mechanical parts of an electromechanical system to the electrical domain so that the whole system could be analyzed as an electrical circuit. Vannevar Bush was a pioneer of this kind of modelling in his development of analogue computers, and a coherent presentation of this method was presented in a 1925 paper by Clifford A. Nickle.
From the 1950s onward, manufacturers of mechanical filters, notably Collins Radio, widely used these analogies in order to take the well -developed theory of filter design in electrical engineering and apply it to mechanical systems. The quality of filters required for radio applications could not be achieved with electrical components. Much better quality resonators (higher Q factor) could be made with mechanical parts but there was no equivalent filter theory in mechanical engineering. It was also necessary to have the mechanical parts, the transducers, and the electrical components of the circuit analyzed as a complete system in order to predict the overall response of the filter.
Harry F. Olson helped popularise the use of dynamical analogies in the audio electronics field with his book dynamical analogies first published in 1943.
Non-power-conjugate analogies
A common analogy of magnetic circuits maps magnetomotive force (mmf) to voltage and magnetic flux (φ) to electric current. However, mmf and φ are not power conjugate variables. The product of these is not in units of power and the ratio, known as magnetic reluctance, does not measure the rate of dissipation of energy so is not a true impedance. Where a compatible analogy is required, mmf can be used as the effort variable and dφ/dt (rate of change of magnetic flux) will then be the flow variable. This is known as the gyrator-capacitor model.
A widely used analogy in the thermal domain maps temperature difference as the effort variable and thermal power as the flow variable. Again, these are not power conjugate variables, and the ratio, known as thermal resistance, is not really an analogy of either impedance or electrical resistance as far as energy flows are concerned. A compatible analogy could take temperature difference as the effort variable and entropy flow rate as the flow variable.
Generalisation
Many applications of dynamical models convert all energy domains in the system into an electrical circuit and then proceed to analyse the complete system in the electrical domain. There are, however, more generalised methods of representation. One such representation is through the use of bond graphs, introduced by Henry M. Paynter in 1960. It is usual to use the force-voltage analogy (impedance analogy) with bond graphs, but it is not a requirement to do so. Likewise Trent used a different representation (linear graphs) and his representation has become associated with the force-current analogy (mobility analogy), but again this is not mandatory.
Some authors discourage the use of domain specific terminology for the sake of generalisation. For instance, because much of the theory of dynamical analogies arose from electrical theory the power conjugate variables are sometimes called V-type and I-type according to whether they are analogs of voltage or current respectively in the electrical domain. Likewise, the Hamiltonian variables are sometimes called generalised momentum and generalised displacement according to whether they are analogs of momentum or displacement in the mechanical domain.
Electronic circuit analogies
Hydraulic analogy
A fluid or hydraulic analogy of an electric circuit attempts to explain circuitry intuitively in terms of plumbing, where water is analogous to the mobile sea of charge within metals, pressure difference is analogous to voltage, and water's flow rate is analogous to electric current.
Analogue computers
Electronic circuits were used to model and simulate engineering systems such as aeroplanes and nuclear power plants before digital computers became widely available with fast enough turn over times to be practically useful. Electronic circuit instruments called analog computers were used to speed up circuit construction time. However analog computers like the Norden bombsight could also consist of gears and pulleys in calculation.
Examples are Vogel and Ewel who published 'An Electrical Analog of a Trophic Pyramid' (1972, Chpt 11, pp. 105–121), Elmore and Sands (1949) who published circuits devised for research in nuclear physics and the study of fast electrical transients done under the Manhattan Project (however no circuits having application to weapon technology were included for security reasons), and Howard T. Odum (1994) who published circuits devised to analogically model ecological-economic systems at many scales of the geobiosphere.
Philosophical conundrum
The process of analogical modelling has philosophical difficulties. As noted in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, there is the question of how the physical/biological laws of the target system relate to the analogical models created by humans to represent the target system. We seem to assume that the process of constructing analogical models gives us access to the fundamental laws governing the target system. However strictly speaking we only have empirical knowledge of the laws that hold true for the analogical system, and if the time constant for the target system is larger than the life cycle of human being (as in the case of the geobiosphere) it is therefore very difficult for any single human to empirically verify the validity of the extension of the laws of their model to the target system in their lifetime.
See also
Analogy
Conceptual metaphor
Conceptual model
General purpose analog computer
Homomorphism
Inquiry
Isomorphism
Metaphor
MONIAC
Morphism
Paradigm
Wind tunnel
References
Bibliography
Achinstein, Peter (1964), "Models, Analogies, and Theories", Philosophy of Science, Vol.31, No.4, (October 1964), pp.328-350.
Bishop, Robert H. (2005) Mechatronics: An Introduction, CRC Press .
Borutzky, Wolfgang (2009) Bond Graph Methodology, Springer .
Busch-Vishniac, Ilene J., Electromechanical Sensors and Actuators, Springer Science & Business Media, 1999 .
Care, Charles (2010) Technology for Modelling: Electrical Analogies, Engineering Practice, and the Development of Analogue Computing, Springer .
Carr, Joseph J. (2002) RF Components and Circuits, Oxford: Newnes .
Colyvan, Mark and Ginzburg, Lev R. (2010) "Analogical Thinking in Ecology: Looking Beyond Disciplinary Boundaries", The Quarterly Review of Biology, 85(2): 171–82.
Elmore, William C. and Sands, Matthew (1949) Electronics: Experimental Techniques, National Nuclear Energy Series, Manhattan Project Technical Section, Division V, Vol. 1, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Ginzburg, Lev and Colyvan, Mark (2004) Ecological Orbits: How Planets Move and Populations Grow, Oxford University Press, New York.
Hamill, David C. (1993) "Lumped equivalent circuits of magnetic components: the gyrator-capacitor approach", IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 8, iss. 2, pp. 97–103.
Heaviside, Oliver (1893) "A gravitational and electromagnetic analogy". The Electrician.
Libbey, Robert (1994) Signal And Image Processing Sourcebook, Springer .
Martinsen, Orjan G.; Grimnes, Sverre (2011) Bioimpedance and Bioelectricity Basics, Academic Press .
Odum, Howard T. (1994) Ecological and General Systems: and introduction to systems ecology, Colorado University Press.
Olson, Harry F. (1958) Dynamical Analogies, 2nd ed., Van Nostrand, 1958 (first published 1943).
Regtien, Paul P. L. (2002) Sensors for Mechatronics, Elsevier, 2012 .
Smith, Malcolm C. (2002) "Synthesis of mechanical networks: the inerter]", IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, vol. 47, iss. 10, pp. 1648–1662, October 2002.
Taylor, John T.; Huang, Qiuting (1997) CRC Handbook of Electrical Filters, Boca Raton: CRC Press .
Truit and Rogers (1960) Basics of analog computers, John F. Rider Publishing, Inc., New York.
Vogel and Ewel (1972) A Model Menagerie: Laboratory Studies about Living Systems, Addison-Wesley.
Yeates, Lindsay B. (2004), "Comparative Cognitive Processes", pp.40-76 in L.B. Yeates, Thought Experimentation: A Cognitive Approach, Graduate Diploma in Arts (By Research) Dissertation, University of New South Wales, 2004.
Further reading
(271 pages)
(24 pages)
External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Models in Science
Interdisciplinary Electrical Analogies
Analogy
Scientific models
Semantics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armavia%20Flight%20967
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Armavia Flight 967
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Armavia Flight 967 (U8967/RNV 967) was a scheduled international passenger flight operated by Armavia from Zvartnots International Airport, Zvarnots in Armenia to Sochi, a Black Sea coastal resort city in Russia. On 3 May 2006, the aircraft operating the route, an Airbus A320-200, crashed into the sea while attempting a go-around following its first approach to Sochi airport; all 113 aboard were killed. The accident was the first major commercial airline crash in 2006. It was Armavia's first and only fatal crash.
Flight
The aircraft took off from Zvartnots International Airport (EVN) at a scheduled departure time at 01:45 Armenian Daylight Time (20:45 UTC, May 2), with a scheduled arrival time at Sochi International Airport (AER) of 02:00 Moscow Daylight Time (22:00 UTC, May 2).
To make their decision for departure, the crew obtained the observed weather data and the weather forecast for the takeoff, landing, and alternate aerodromes, all of which met the requirements for IFR flights. All the crew were correctly licensed and adequately rested to operate the flight.
The airplane took off from Zvartnots airport at 20:47 with 113 occupants on board: 105 passengers (including five children and one infant), two pilots, one aircraft engineer, and five flight attendants. Takeoff, climb, and cruise were uneventful.
The first communication between Sochi approach controller and the crew took place at 21:10. At that moment, the airplane was beyond the coverage area of the Sochi radar. Until 21:17, the approach controller and the crew discussed the observed and forecast weather, and as a result, the crew decided to return to Yerevan. At 21:26, after the decision had already been made, the crew asked the controller about the latest observed weather. At 21:30, the controller informed the crew that visibility was and the cloud ceiling was . At 21:31, the crew decided to continue the flight to Sochi airport.
The next communication with the approach controller was at 22:00. The aircraft then was descending to an altitude of and was being tracked by the Sochi radar. The approach controller cleared the flight for a descent to and reported the observed weather at Sochi, as at 22:00, for runway 06, which was above the minima.
The crew was then handed over to the holding and tower controllers, and was cleared for descent to , before entering the turn to the final approach. Whilst performing the turn, the runway extended centreline was overshot. After eliminating the deviation, the crew started descending the aircraft along the glide slope, following the approach pattern. At 22:10, the crew reported that the gear was down and that they were ready for landing. In response, they were advised that they were from the airport and that the weather was now visibility and cloud ceiling, and were cleared for landing. About 30 seconds later, the controller advised the crew of the observed cloud ceiling at and instructed them to cease their descent, abandon the landing attempt, and carry out a right turn and climb to and also to contact the holding controller, who would give instructions for entering the airport's holding pattern. The last communication with the crew was at 22:12. After that, the crew did not respond to any of the controller's calls. At 22:13, the aircraft struck the water, and broke up on impact.
Aircraft
The aircraft involved was an A320 built in France, with its first flight in June 1995. It had an MSN number of 547 with a test registration code of F-WWIU. The aircraft was delivered in 1995 to Ansett Australia, registered in Australia as VH-HYO. It was acquired by Armavia in 2004 registered as EK-32009 with its name as Mesrop Mashtots. Armavia repainted the aircraft with its new livery on 31 October 2004. The aircraft had flown more than 10,000 hours before the crash.
Passengers and crew
Most of the passengers were citizens of Armenia. According to reports, the flight had 85 Armenian citizens, 26 Russian citizens, one Georgian citizen, and one Ukrainian citizen.
Citizenship of the passengers and crew
The captain of Flight 967 was 40-year-old Grigor Grigoryan. Born in 1966, he had completed his primary training in Krasnokutsk Civil Flight School. He graduated in 1986 and also graduated from Moscow Institute of Civil Aviation Engineers. He joined Balaklavsky United as a co-pilot in 1986. He then joined Ararat Airlines in 1997 as a captain of Yakovlev Yak-40s. He then joined Armavia as a co-pilot of Airbus A320s in 2004 and subsequently promoted to a captain in 2005. He had passed a test for an Airbus A320 captain in SAS Flight Academy in Stockholm, Sweden, with satisfactory results. Captain Grigoryan had a total of 5,458 hours of flight experience, including 1,436 hours on the Airbus A320.
The first officer (co-pilot) of Flight 967 was 29-year-old Arman Davtyan. He was born in 1977 and had completed his primary training in Ulyanovsk Civil Flying School and graduated in 1999. He then joined Chernomor-Avia in December 2001 as a co-pilot of Tupolev Tu-154s. He joined Armavia in 2002, joined Armenian Airlines in 2004, and then joined Armavia again in the same year. First Officer Davtyan had passed a training course for an Airbus A320 in SAS Flight Academy in Stockholm, Sweden, with satisfactory results. He had 2,185 flight hours, with 1,022 of them on the A320.
Recovery efforts
Flight 967 disappeared from Sochi's radar at 02:13 local time. Chief of Flight Operation N.G Savelyev alerted all the search-and-rescue services in the area and deployed an Mi-8 helicopter. At 02:19, the disappearance of Flight 967 was informed to Russia's Minister of Emergencies. A search helicopter was ready for takeoff to find the missing flight, but was not allowed by Sochi due to the deteriorating weather. The search-and-rescue operation was then suspended. At 04:08, the Ministry of Emergency's boat Valery Zamarayez found the probable crash area. Rescuers then went to the search area. From 07:30 to 12:30, the search-and-rescue team recovered 9 body parts from the crash site.
Search-and-rescue personnel only managed to recover some of the flight's debris. They recovered the Airbus' nose, landing gear, fin, elevator, and several other fragments. Wiring and electronic units were also found. In total, 52 body fragments were found by the team, as well. The Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety (BEA) noted that at the time when Flight 967 impacted the sea, the landing gear was extended. The lower part of the rudder was severely damaged due to the impact forces. Several parts of the aircraft elevator were also damaged. Some of the aircraft parts recovered from the sea were severely deformed.
Causes
Harmony
The pilot had indicated an unhappiness with the late hour of the flight and the automated procedures or techniques of the autopilot. The pilot used some inputs and adjustments that appeared to be aimed at gaining command of the flight over what the automated systems had to offer. His attitude towards the aircraft and his lack of communication when making adjustments may have put additional strain on the first officer. Numerous deviations from standard procedures occurred once the captain was instructed to break off his landing approach and make a turn. The deviations combined with the lack of inputs and actions resulted in the aircraft not doing all things desired of it and also sounding a number of warnings.
Weather
The weather at the time was considered to be fine; low pressure was present near Sochi. A cold front was also detected and was forming in the Caucasian Edge and further to the east of Turkey at the time. Rain was also present in Adler (Sochi). In the spring transition period, low clouds often occurred in the Caucasian Edge, which could have limited visibility for the pilots. This proved to be dangerous, as most controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) occurs due to this kind of cloud (which obscures the pilots' visual reference).
Prior to takeoff from Yerevan, the crew was briefed on the weather conditions in Sochi. At the time, the weather in Sochi was fine. After the takeoff of Flight 967, the pilots were given another weather briefing. It was still in good condition, with considerable clouds, mist, and light rain. The weather at the time would not have allowed for a vortex (i.e. storm, tornado, downdraft). In the following hours, the probability that a vortex might occur was reduced to zero. By the time Flight 967 entered Sochi, the weather conditions had deteriorated. A cold front wave occurred in Sochi, producing a cumulonimbus cloud. The rain intensified, and the visibility was reduced to 1,500 m. For several minutes, the weather became better for landing. The controllers instructed Flight 967 to abort their descent and conduct a go-around immediately, as low clouds were present at Sochi International Airport. Shortly afterwards, Flight 967 disappeared from Sochi radar.
Recorders analysis
Shortly after Flight 967 hit the water, the radio beacon signals, known as the emergency locator transmitter, started to sound. French BEA retrieved the submerged cockpit voice recorder (CVR) and flight data recorder (FDR) from the Black Sea and found only minor damage to both recorders. BEA later examined both the CVR and the FDR.
Examination
The flight was uneventful until the approach, but during the cruise stage of the flight, First Officer Davtyan stated: "[Expletive] it.. who operates such flights with the jitter and not enough sleep." The BEA also noted that neither pilot understood how the autopilot of an Airbus A320 works. Analysis of the internal communications at this stage of the flight shows that Captain Grigoryan was annoyed by the fact that in DESCENT mode (managed mode), the descent rate was not as high as he expected. BEA noted that in this mode, the descent rate is calculated automatically, depending on a number of parameters describing the descent, e.g. the aircraft attitude in relation to the preset profile and so on.
Flight 967 was then instructed by Sochi tower to pass waypoint GUKIN and TABAN. It then passed both waypoints. While banking to turn to final approach, the rain started. First Officer Davtyan then reacted by saying exclamation words, possibly due to emotional stress. The Sochi controller then told the crew of Flight 967 that the weather in Sochi had deteriorated, and instructed the pilot to abort their descent. The crew reacted to this report, responding with negative words and expletives to the controller. The crew had been discussing the issue for three minutes, swearing about the controller's actions even between the items on the checklist.
The aircraft climbed and started to bank, and the flaps were extended to 18°. At this point, Captain Grigoryan was heard in the CVR saying: "[Expletive] him" to the Sochi controller. The crew then contacted Sochi's holding controller and the final controller. They then selected the "glide-slope capture" descent mode, which is an automatic descent. The aircraft was descending with two engaged autopilots and engaged autothrust. The speed was controlled by the autothrust at the target speed of , stabilised on the glide slope, in the landing configuration, and ready for landing. The crew then proceeded to the landing checklist.
Sochi tower instructed them to abort their descent and conduct a go-around, as low clouds had formed near the airport. The aircraft climbed, the thrust levers were moved to climb position, the flaps and slats remained fully extended, and the landing gear remained fully extended. A few minutes later, the "Speed Speed Speed" (low energy) warning sounded, which advises the crew that "the aircraft energy is decreasing to the limit, below which the engine thrust must be increased to regain a positive angle of the flight path". At the moment when the aural warning sounded, the aircraft altitude was , the crew then pushed the TO/GA button.
BEA stated that none of the crew's actions were important and necessary for a go-around procedure, such as extending the flaps and the landing gear. This demonstrated that at that time, both flight crewmen's' conditions were not at the optimum level. BEA also suspected that the low energy warning was not detected or noticed by the crew.
The autopilot was then disengaged by the crew, as they cast doubts on the autopilot (on the cruise stage of the flight, First Officer Davtyan joked about the autopilot, stating that Captain Grigoryan's autopilot was better than him, indicating that they had doubts about the autopilot and suspected that it was not functioning properly.) Captain Grigoryan then banked the aircraft to the right.
Both crew members then became more physically and emotionally stressed, as further conversations among them revealed that their intonations became higher and higher. The aircraft then decreased its pitch-up attitude and banked to the right. Then, one of the crew stepped on the rudder pedals, causing the rudder to deflect. This was not necessary. The BEA suspected that Captain Grigoryan unknowingly stepped on the pedals, while under psychoemotional stress.
BEA then found that the crew may have been suffering a somatogravic illusion in flight. Somatogravic illusion, in aviation, is a type of optical illusion that can cause the crew to think that they are pitching up, while in reality, they are not. This could happen during night-time flying (causing the crew to lose their visual reference, as it was dark) accompanied by the lack of monitoring of the flight's indicator. Somatogravic illusion was responsible for the crash of Gulf Air Flight 072 in Bahrain. The BEA also suspected the specific features of the speed indication on the PFD, especially speed limitations for the Airbus A320 configuration that are shown as the red bars at the top of the speed indication strip. One of the crew members might have adopted the reflex acquired in training, for example, in response to a TCAS warning when the pilot is anxious to avoid the displayed red part of the instrument scale, which may result in the instinctive forward movement of the side stick, especially when the pilot is in a state of psycho-emotional strain. This version is substantiated by the fact that the pilot was monitoring the flight speed and its limitations (VFE) that depended on the Airbus A320 configuration and retracted the flaps and slats in a timely manner, and the control inputs on the side stick coincided with the moments when the current speed was getting close to the limit value. Neither of these probable causes has enough evidence, however.
The crew of Flight 967 then communicated with Sochi tower. Their words were not completed; "Sochi Radar, Armavia 967...". This was the last communication from Flight 967, as Captain Grigoryan ordered First Officer Davtyan to fully extend the flaps.
After First Officer Davtyan extended the flaps to full, a few seconds later, the master warning sounded, and continued to do so until the end of the recording. The speed at the time was too fast, which could tear the flaps apart and could cause the plane to crash, similar to Austral Lineas Aereas Flight 2553. The plane was banking to the right. Flight 967 began a nose-down attitude and the flaps then retracted to 18°. Captain Grigoryan then made an 11° nose-down input, causing the plane to descend even further.
Captain Grigoryan aggravated the condition further by making a right bank input, causing the plane to bank severely to the right, with a roll angle of 39°. The ground proximity warning system (GPWS) then sounded. First Officer Davtyan then ordered Captain Grigoryan to level off. At this moment, First Officer Davtyan intervened and moved the stick to the left position (20° to the left) to counter the increasing right bank, while Captain Grigoryan continued making his control inputs to increase the right bank. Apparently, First Officer Davtyan was trying to counter the bank only, as he also made a nose-down input, causing the plane to descend even further.
While intervening, First Officer Davtyan had not pressed the take-over push button, so both pilot's control inputs were added and prohibited. This is known as dual input. Such dual piloting is prohibited. The dual-input warning should have sounded at the time, but because its priority is lower than the GPWS, it did not, and so neither pilot knew that he was making dual inputs on the aircraft.
The crew's attention might have been distracted by the controller's direction. The controller was sending the crew a 20-second-long message. While the plane was descending, one of the crew members suddenly moved the thrust lever way back, into its idle position, and then moved the thrust lever forward, causing the autothrottle to disengage. The crew then desperately tried to lift the plane up, but the plane hit water at a speed of , killing all on board.
Primary conclusions of the final accident report
The crash of Armavia Flight 967 was a controlled flight into terrain, specifically water, while conducting a climbing maneuver after an aborted approach to Sochi airport at night with weather conditions below landing minimums for runway 06.
While performing the climb with the autopilot disengaged, the captain, being in a psychoemotional stress condition, made nose-down control inputs due to the loss of pitch and roll awareness. This started the abnormal situation. The captain's insufficient pitch-control inputs led to a failure to recover the aircraft and caused it to crash.
Along with the inadequate control inputs from the captain, the contributing factors of the crash were also the lack of monitoring the aircraft's pitch attitude, altitude, and vertical speed by the first officer and no proper reaction by the crew to GPWS warnings.
Contributory factors and shortcomings
Source:
Safety recommendations
To eliminate the shortcomings revealed during investigation of this accident, the final accident report made 22 safety recommendations:
See also
List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft
Ethiopian Airlines Flight 409
Flydubai Flight 981
Air China Flight 129
Afriqiyah Airways Flight 771
Gulf Air Flight 072
Northwest Airlink Flight 5719, a case where a bully-ish captain treated his first officer disrespectfully, intimidating him before a collision with trees.
Kenya Airways Flight 507, another case where a bully-ish captain treated his first officer disrespectfully, intimidating him from following instructions.
2016 Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 crash, a plane that crashed in 2016 near Flight 967 site.
References
External links
Interstate Aviation Committee
Final accident report - (Statistics about the crash) – English translation done by and hosted by the Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety (BEA) (Archive, Alternate, Archive) – Includes comments by the BEA on the investigation, and the IAC's response to the BEA's comments
Investigation and Report (Archive) - (Statistics about the crash) – The Russian version is the version of record
Technical Report (Archive)
Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety
"Accident near Sochi on 2 May 2006." (Archive)
Armeniapedia.org article on the crash
()
Airbus
ARMAVIA FLIGHT RNV 967 ACCIDENT IN SOCHI, RUSSIA (Archive)
Airliner accidents and incidents caused by pilot error
Aviation accidents and incidents in Russia
Aviation accidents and incidents in Russia in 2006
Airliner accidents and incidents involving controlled flight into terrain
Accidents and incidents involving the Airbus A320
May 2006 events in Asia
Armenia–Russia relations
2006 disasters in Russia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vel%27%20d%27Hiv%20Roundup
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Vel' d'Hiv Roundup
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The Vel' d'Hiv' Roundup ( ; from , an abbreviation of ) was a mass arrest of foreign Jewish families by French police and gendarmes at the behest of the German authorities, that took place in Paris on 16 and 17 July 1942. According to records of the Préfecture de Police, 13,152 Jews were arrested, including more than 4,000 children.
They were held at the Vélodrome d'Hiver ( 'Winter Stadium'; known as "Vel’ d’Hiv") in extremely crowded conditions, almost without food and water and with no sanitary facilities. In the week following the arrests, the Jews were taken to the Drancy, Pithiviers, and Beaune-la-Rolande internment camps, before being shipped in rail cattle cars to Auschwitz for their mass murder.
The roundup was one of several aimed at eradicating the Jewish population in France, both in the occupied zone and in the free zone. French President Jacques Chirac apologized in 1995 for the complicit role that French police and civil servants played in the raid. In 2017, President Emmanuel Macron more specifically admitted the responsibility of the French State in the roundup and hence in the Holocaust.
The Vélodrome d'Hiver
The Vélodrome d'Hiver was a large indoor sports arena at the corner of the and in the 15th arrondissement of Paris, not far from the Eiffel Tower. It was built by Henri Desgrange, editor of L'Auto, who later organised the Tour de France, as a velodrome (cycle track) when his original track in the nearby Salle des Machines was listed for demolition in 1909 to improve the view of the Eiffel Tower. As well as track cycling, the new building was used for ice hockey, wrestling, boxing, roller-skating, circuses, spectacles and demonstrations. In the 1924 Summer Olympics, several events were held there, including foil fencing, boxing, cycling (track), weightlifting, and wrestling.
The Vel d'Hiv was also the site of political rallies and demonstrations, including a large event attended by Xavier Vallat, Philippe Henriot, Leon Daudet and other notable antisemites when Charles Maurras was released from prison. In 1939 Jewish refugees were interned there before being sent to camps in the Paris region and in 1940 it was used as a internment center for foreign women, an event that served as a precedent for its selection as internment location.
Precursors
The "Vel' d'Hiv' Roundup" was not the first roundup of this sort in France during World War II. In what is known as the green ticket roundup (), 3,747 Jewish men were arrested on 14 May 1941, after 6,694 foreign Jews living in France received a summons in the mail (delivered on a green ticket) to a status review (). The summons was a trap: those who honoured their summons were arrested and taken by bus the same day to the Gare d'Austerlitz, then shipped in four special trains to two camps at Pithiviers and Beaune-La-Rolande in the Loiret department. Women, children, and more men followed in July 1942.
Planning the roundup
The Vel' d'Hiv' Roundup, as part of the "Final Solution", was a continent-wide plan to intern and exterminate Europe's Jewish population. It was a joint operation between German and collaborating French administrators.
The first anti-Jewish ordinance of 27 September 1940, promulgated by the German authorities, forced Jewish people in the Occupied Zone, including foreigners, to register at police stations or at sous-préfectures ("sub-prefectures"). Nearly 150,000 people registered in the department of the Seine that encompasses Paris and its immediate suburbs. Their names and addresses were kept by the French police in the fichier Tulard, a file named after its creator, André Tulard. Theodor Dannecker, the SS captain who headed the German police in France, said: "This filing system subdivided into files sorted alphabetically; Jews with French nationality and foreign Jews had files of different colors, and the files were also sorted, according to profession, nationality and street." These files were then given to the Gestapo, in charge of the "Jewish problem." At the request of the German authorities, the Vichy government created in March 1941 the Commissariat Général aux Questions Juives or CGQJ (Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs) with the task of implementing antisemitic policy.
On 4 July 1942 René Bousquet, secretary-general of the national police, and Louis Darquier de Pellepoix, who had replaced Xavier Vallat in May 1942 as head of the CGQJ, travelled to Gestapo headquarters at 93 rue Lauriston in the 16th arrondissement of Paris to meet Dannecker and Helmut Knochen of the SS. The previous roundups had come short of the 32,000 Jews promised by the French authorities to the Germans. Darquier proposed the arrest of stateless Jews in the Southern Zone and the denaturalization of all Jews who acquired French citizenship from 1927. A further meeting took place in Dannecker's office on the avenue Foch on 7 July. Also present were Jean Leguay, Bousquet's deputy, Jean François, who was director of the police administration at the Paris prefecture, Émile Hennequin, head of Paris police, and André Tulard.
Dannecker met Adolf Eichmann on 10 July 1942. Another meeting took place the same day at the CGQJ, attended by Dannecker, Heinz Röthke, Ernst Heinrichsohn, Jean Leguay, Gallien, deputy to Darquier de Pellepoix, several police officials and representatives of the French railway service, the SNCF. The roundup was delayed until after Bastille Day on 14 July at the request of the French. This national holiday was not celebrated in the occupied zone, and they wished to avoid civil uprisings. Dannecker declared: "The French police, despite a few considerations of pure form, have only to carry out orders!"
The roundup was aimed at Jews from Germany, Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union and the apatrides ("stateless"), whose origin couldn't be determined, aged from 16 to 50. There were to be exceptions for women "in advanced state of pregnancy" or who were breast-feeding, but "to save time, the sorting will be made not at home but at the first assembly centre".
The Germans planned for the French police to arrest 22,000 Jews in Greater Paris. They would then be taken to internment camps at Drancy, Compiègne, Pithiviers and Beaune-la-Rolande. André Tulard "will obtain from the head of the municipal police the files of Jews to be arrested. Children of less than 15 or 16 years will be sent to the Union générale des israélites de France (UGIF, General Union of French Jews), which will place them in foundations. The sorting of children will be done in the first assembly centres."
Police complicity
The position of the French police was complicated by the sovereignty of the Vichy government, which nominally administered France while accepting occupation of the north. Although in practice the Germans ran the north and had a strong and later total domination in the south, the formal position was that France and the Germans were separate. The position of Vichy and its leader, Philippe Pétain, was recognised throughout the war by many foreign governments.
This independence, however fictional, had to be preserved. German interference in internal policing, says the historian Julian T. Jackson, "would further erode that sovereignty which Vichy was so committed to preserving. This could only be avoided by reassuring Germany that the French would carry out the necessary measures." Jackson adds that the decision to arrest Jews and Communists and Gaullists was "an autonomous policy, with its own indigenous roots." In other words, the decision to do so was not forced upon the Vichy regime by the Germans. Jackson also explains that the roundup of Jews must have been run by the French, since the Germans would not have had the necessary information or manpower to find and arrest a full 13,000 people.
On 2 July 1942, René Bousquet attended a planning meeting in which he raised no objection to the arrests, and worried only about the ("embarrassing") fact that the French police would carry them out. Bousquet succeeded in reaching a compromise -- that the police would round up only foreign Jews. Vichy ratified that agreement the following day.
Although the police have been blamed for rounding up children younger than 16—the age was set to preserve a fiction that workers were needed in the east—the order was given by Pétain's minister, Pierre Laval, supposedly as a "humanitarian" measure to keep families together. This too was a fiction, given that the parents of these children had already been deported; documents of the period have revealed that the anti-Semitic Laval's principal concern was what to do with Jewish children once their parents had been deported. The youngest child sent to Auschwitz under Laval's orders was 18 months old.
Three former SS officers testified in 1980 that Vichy officials had been enthusiastic about deportation of Jews from France. Investigator Serge Klarsfeld found minutes in German archives of meetings with senior Vichy officials and Bousquet's proposal that the roundup should cover non-French Jews throughout the country. In 1990, charges of crimes against humanity were laid against Bousquet in relation to his role in the Vel' d'Hiv' roundup of Jews, based on complaints filed by Klarsfield.
The historians Antony Beevor and Artemis Cooper record:
Klarsfeld also revealed the telegrams Bousquet had sent to Prefects of départements in the occupied zone, ordering them to deport not only Jewish adults but children whose deportation had not even been requested by the Nazis.
Roundup
Émile Hennequin, director of the city police, ordered on 12 July 1942 that "the operations must be effected with the maximum speed, without pointless speaking and without comment."
Beginning at 4:00 a.m. on 16 July 1942, French police numbering 9,000 started the manhunt. The Police force included gendarmes, gardes mobiles, detectives, patrolmen and cadets; they were divided into small arresting teams of three or four men each, fanning across the city. A few hundred followers of Jacques Doriot volunteered to help, wearing armband with the colours of the fascist French Popular Party (PPF).
In total 13,152 Jews were arrested. According to records of the Paris Préfecture de police, 5,802 (44%) of these were women and 4,051 (31%) were children. An unknown number of people managed to escape, warned by a clandestine Jewish newspaper or the French Resistance, hidden by neighbors or benefiting from the lack of zeal or thoroughness of some policemen. Conditions for the arrested were harsh: they could take only a blanket, a sweater, a pair of shoes and two shirts with them. Most families were split up and never reunited.
Some of those captured were taken by bus to an internment camp in an unfinished complex of apartments and apartment towers in the northern suburb of Drancy, the rest were taken to the Vélodrome d'Hiver which had already been used as an internment center in the summer of 1941.
The Vel' d'Hiv'
The Vel' d'Hiv' was available for hire to whoever wanted it. Among those who had booked it was Jacques Doriot, who led France's largest fascist party, the Parti Populaire Français (PPF). It was at the Vel' d'Hiv' among other venues that Doriot, with his Hitler-like salute, roused crowds to join his cause. Among those who helped in the Rafle du Vel' d'hiv were 3,400 young members of Doriot's PPF.
The Germans demanded the keys of the Vel' d'Hiv' from its owner, Jacques Goddet, who had taken over from his father Victor and Henri Desgrange. The circumstances in which Goddet surrendered the keys remain a mystery and the episode is given only a few lines in his autobiography.
The Vel' d'Hiv' had a glass roof, which had been painted dark blue to avoid attracting bomber navigators. The dark glass increased the heat, as well as windows screwed shut for security. The numbers held there vary from one account to another, but one established figure is 7,500 of a final figure of 13,152. There were no lavatories: of the 10 available, five were sealed because their windows offered a way out, and the others were blocked. The arrested Jews were kept there with only food and water brought by Quakers. The Red Cross and a few doctors and nurses were allowed to enter. There was only one water faucet. Those who tried to escape were shot on the spot. Some took their own lives.
After five days, the prisoners were taken to the internment camps of Drancy, Beaune-la-Rolande and Pithiviers, and later to the extermination camps.
After the roundup
Roundups were conducted in both the northern and southern zones of France, but public outrage was greatest in Paris because of the numbers involved in a concentrated area. The Vel' d'Hiv' was a landmark in the city centre. The Roman Catholic church was among the protesters. Public reaction obliged Laval to ask the Germans on 2 September not to demand more Jews. Handing them over, he said, was not like buying items in a discount store. Laval managed to limit deportations mainly to foreign Jews; he and his defenders argued after the war that allowing the French police to conduct the roundup had been a bargain to ensure the life of Jews of French nationality.
In reality, "Vichy shed no tears over the fate of the foreign Jews in France, who were seen as a nuisance, '' ("garbage") in Laval's words. Laval told an American diplomat that he was "happy" to get rid of them., Tallandier, 2006.
When a Protestant leader accused Laval of murdering Jews, Laval insisted they had been sent to build an agricultural colony in the East. "I talked to him about murder, he answered me with gardening."
Drancy camp and deportation
The internment camp at Drancy was easily defended because it was built of tower blocks in the shape of a horseshoe. It was guarded by French gendarmes. The camp's operation was under the Gestapo's section of Jewish affairs. Theodor Dannecker, a key figure both in the roundup and in the operation of Drancy, was described by Maurice Rajsfus in his history of the camp as "a violent psychopath.... It was he who ordered the internees to starve, who banned them from moving about within the camp, to smoke, to play cards, etc."
In December 1941, forty prisoners from Drancy were murdered in retaliation for a French attack on German police officers.
Immediate control of the camp was under Heinz Röthke. It was under his direction from August 1942 to June 1943 that almost two thirds of those deported in SNCF box car transports requisitioned by the Nazis from Drancy were sent to Auschwitz. Drancy is also where Klaus Barbie sent Jewish children captured in a raid of a children's home before shipping them to Auschwitz, where they were murdered. Most of the initial victims, including those from the Vel' d'Hiv', were crammed into sealed wagons and died from lack of food and water. Those who survived the passage were murdered in the gas chambers.
At the Liberation of Paris in August 1944, the camp was run by the Resistance—"to the frustration of the authorities; the Prefect of Police had no control at all and visitors were not welcome"—who used it to house not Jews, but those it considered collaborators with the Germans. When a pastor was allowed in on 15 September, he discovered cells measuring by that had held six Jewish internees with two mattresses between them. The prison returned to the conventional prison service on 20 September.
Aftermath
The roundup accounted for more than a quarter of the Jews sent from France to Auschwitz in 1942, of whom only 811 returned to France at the end of the war.
With the exception of six adolescents, none of the 3,900 children detained at the Vel d’Hiv and then deported survived.
Pierre Laval's trial opened on 3 October 1945. His first defence was that he had been obliged to sacrifice foreign Jews to save the French. Uproar broke out in the court, with supposedly neutral jurors shouting abuse at Laval, threatening "a dozen bullets in his hide". It was, said historians Antony Beevor and Artemis Cooper, "a cross between an and a tribunal during the Paris Terror". From 6 October, Laval refused to take part in the proceedings, hoping that the jurors' interventions would lead to a new trial. Laval was sentenced to death, and tried to commit suicide by swallowing a cyanide capsule. Revived by doctors, he was executed by a firing squad at Fresnes Prison on 15 October.
Jean Leguay survived the war and its aftermath and became president of Warner Lambert, Inc. in London (now merged with Pfizer), and later president of Substantia Laboratories in Paris. In 1979, he was charged for his role in the roundup.
Louis Darquier was sentenced to death in 1947 for collaboration. However, he had fled to Spain, where the Francisco Franco regime protected him. In 1978, after he gave an interview claiming that the gas chambers of Auschwitz were used to kill lice, the French government requested his extradition. Spain refused. He died on 29 August 1980, near Málaga, Spain.
Helmut Knochen was sentenced to death by a British military tribunal in 1946 for the murder of British pilots. The sentence was never carried out. He was extradited to France in 1954 and again sentenced to death. The sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment. In 1962, French president Charles de Gaulle pardoned him and he was sent back to Germany, where he retired in Baden-Baden and died in 2003.
Émile Hennequin, head of Paris police, was sentenced to eight years' penal labour in June 1947.
René Bousquet was last to be tried, in 1949. He was acquitted of "compromising the interests of the national defence", but declared guilty of for involvement in the Vichy government. He was given five years of dégradation nationale, a measure immediately lifted for "having actively and sustainably participated in the resistance against the occupier". Bousquet's position was always ambiguous; there were times he worked with the Germans and others when he worked against them. After the war he worked at the Banque d'Indochine and in newspapers. In 1957, the Conseil d'État gave back his Légion d'honneur, and he was given an amnesty on 17 January 1958. He stood for election that year as a candidate for the Marne. He was supported by the Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance; his second was Hector Bouilly, a radical-socialist general councillor. In 1974, Bousquet helped finance François Mitterrand's presidential campaign against Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. In 1986, as accusations cast on Bousquet grew more credible, particularly after he was named by Louis Darquier, he and Mitterrand stopped seeing each other. The parquet général de Paris closed the case by sending it to a court that no longer existed. Lawyers for the International Federation of Human Rights spoke of a "political decision at the highest levels to prevent the Bousquet affair from developing". In 1989, Serge Klarsfeld and his , the and the filed a complaint against Bousquet for crimes against humanity for the deportation of 194 children. Bousquet was committed to trial but on 8 June 1993 a 55-year-old mental patient named Christian Didier entered his flat and shot him dead.
Theodor Dannecker was interned by the United States Army in December 1945 and a few days later committed suicide.
Jacques Doriot, whose French right-wing followers helped in the round-up, fled to the Sigmaringen enclave in Germany and became a member of the exile Vichy government there. He died in February 1945 when his car was strafed by Allied fighters while he was travelling from Mainau to Sigmaringen. He was buried in Mengen.
Action against the police
After the Liberation, survivors of the internment camp at Drancy began legal proceedings against gendarmes accused of being accomplices of the Nazis. An investigation began into 15 gendarmes, of whom 10 were accused at the Cour de justice of the Seine of conduct threatening the safety of the state. Three fled before the trial began. The other seven said they were only obeying orders, despite numerous witnesses and accounts by survivors of their brutality.
The court ruled on 22 March 1947 that the seven were guilty but that most had rehabilitated themselves "by active participation, useful and sustained, offered to the Resistance against the enemy." Two others were jailed for two years and condemned to dégradation nationale for five years. A year later they were reprieved.
Government admission
For decades the French government declined to apologize for the role of French policemen in the roundup or for state complicity. De Gaulle and others argued that the French Republic had been dismantled when Philippe Pétain instituted a new French State during the war and that the Republic had been re-established when the war was over. It was not for the Republic, therefore, to apologise for events caused by a state which France did not recognise. President François Mitterrand reiterated this position in a September 1994 speech. "I will not apologize in the name of France. The Republic had nothing to do with this. I do not believe France is responsible."
On 16 July 1995, the next President, Jacques Chirac, reversed that position, stating that it was time that France faced up to its past. He acknowledged the role that "the French State" played in the persecution of Jews and others during the War.
Il est difficile de les évoquer, aussi, parce que ces heures noires souillent à jamais notre histoire, et sont une injure à notre passé et à nos traditions. Oui, la folie criminelle de l'occupant a été secondée par des Français, par l'Etat français. Il y a cinquante-trois ans, le 16 juillet 1942, 450 policiers et gendarmes français, sous l'autorité de leurs chefs, répondaient aux exigences des nazis. Ce jour-là, dans la capitale et en région parisienne, près de dix mille hommes, femmes et enfants juifs furent arrêtés à leur domicile, au petit matin, et rassemblés dans les commissariats de police.... La France, patrie des Lumières et des Droits de l'Homme, terre d'accueil et d'asile, la France, ce jour-là, accomplissait l'irréparable. Manquant à sa parole, elle livrait ses protégés à leurs bourreaux.
("These black hours will stain our history forever and are an injury to our past and our traditions. Yes, the criminal madness of the occupier was assisted by the French, by the French state. Fifty-three years ago, on 16 July 1942, 450 French policemen and gendarmes, under the authority of their leaders, obeyed the demands of the Nazis. That day, in the capital and the Paris region, nearly 10,000 Jewish men, women and children were arrested at home, in the early hours of the morning, and assembled at police stations... France, home of the Enlightenment and the Rights of Man, land of welcome and asylum, France committed on that day the irreparable. Breaking its word, it delivered those it protected to their executioners.")
To mark the 70th anniversary of the Vél d'Hiv' roundup, President François Hollande gave a speech at the monument on 22 July 2012. The president recognized that this event was a crime committed "in France, by France," and emphasized that the deportations in which French police participated were offences committed against French values, principles, and ideals.
The earlier claim that the Government of France during World War II was some illegitimate group was again advanced by Marine Le Pen, leader of the National Front Party, during the 2017 election campaign. In speeches, she claimed that the Vichy government was "not France".
On 16 July 2017, also in commemoration of the victims of the roundup, President Emmanuel Macron denounced his country's role in the Holocaust and the historical revisionism that denied France's responsibility for 1942 roundup and subsequent deportation of 13,000 Jews. "It was indeed France that organised this [roundup]", he said, French police collaborating with the Nazis. "Not a single German took part," he added. Chirac had already stated that the Government during the War represented the French State. Macron was even more specific in this respect: "It is convenient to see the Vichy regime as born of nothingness, returned to nothingness. Yes, it's convenient, but it is false. We cannot build pride upon a lie."
Macron made a subtle reference to Chirac's 1995 apology when he added, "I say it again here. It was indeed France that organized the roundup, the deportation, and thus, for almost all, death."
Memorials and monuments
Paris
A fire destroyed part of the Vélodrome d'Hiver in 1959 and the rest of the structure was demolished. A block of flats and a building belonging to the Ministry of the Interior now stand on the site. A plaque marking the Vel' d'Hiv' Roundup was placed on the track building after the War and moved to 8 boulevard de Grenelle in 1959.
On 3 February 1993, President François Mitterrand commissioned a monument to be erected on the site. It stands now on a curved base, to represent the cycle track, on the edge of the quai de Grenelle. It is the work of the Polish sculptor Walter Spitzer and the architect Mario Azagury. Spitzer's family were survivors of deportation to Auschwitz. The statue represents all deportees but especially those of the Vel' d'Hiv'. The sculptures include children, a pregnant woman and a sick man. The words on the Mitterrand-era monument still differentiate between the French Republic and the Vichy Government that ruled during WW II, so they do not accept State responsibility for the roundup of the Jews. The words are in French: "", which translate as follows: "The French Republic pays homage to the victims of racist and anti-Semitic persecutions and crimes against humanity committed under the de facto authority called the 'Government of the French State' 1940–1944. Let us never forget." The monument was inaugurated on 17 July 1994. A commemorative ceremony is held here every year in July.
A memorial plaque in memory of victims of the Vel' d'Hiv' raid was placed at the Bir-Hakeim station of the Paris Métro on 20 July 2008. The ceremony was led by Jean-Marie Bockel, Secretary of Defense and Veterans Affairs, and was attended by Simone Veil, a deportee and former minister, anti-Nazi activist Beate Klarsfeld, and numerous dignitaries.
Drancy
A memorial was also constructed in 1976 at Drancy internment camp, after a design competition won by Shelomo Selinger. It stands beside a rail wagon of the sort used to take prisoners to the death camps. It is three blocks forming the Hebrew letter Shin, traditionally written on the Mezuzah at the door of houses occupied by Jews. Two other blocks represent the gates of death. Shelomo Selinger said of his work: "The central block is composed of 10 figures, the number needed for collective prayer (Minyan). The two Hebrew letters Lamed and Vav are formed by the hair, the arm and the beard of two people at the top of the sculpture. These letters have the numeric 36, the number of Righteous thanks to whom the world exists according to Jewish tradition."
On 25 May 2001, the cité de la Muette—formal name of the Drancy apartment blocks—was declared a national monument by the culture minister, Catherine Tasca.
A new Shoah memorial museum was opened in 2012 just opposite the sculpture memorial and railway wagon by President François Hollande. It provides details of the persecution of the Jews in France and many personal mementos of inmates before their deportation to Auschwitz and their death. They include messages written on the walls, graffiti, drinking mugs and other personal belongings left by the prisoners, some of which are inscribed with the names of the owners. The ground floor also shows a changing exhibit of prisoner faces and names, as a memorial to their imprisonment and then murder by the Germans, assisted by the French gendarmerie.
The Holocaust researcher Serge Klarsfeld said in 2004: "Drancy is the best known place for everyone of the memory of the Shoah in France; in the crypt of Yad Vashem (Jérusalem), where stones are engraved with the names of the most notorious Jewish concentration and extermination camps, Drancy is the only place of memory in France to feature."
Film documentaries and books
André Bossuroy, 2011. ICH BIN with the support from the Fondation Hippocrène and from the EACEA Agency of the European Commission (Programme Europe for citizens – An active European remembrance), RTBF, VRT.
William Karel, 1992. La Rafle du Vel-d'Hiv, La Marche du siècle, France 3.
Annette Muller, La petite fille du Vel' d'Hiv, Publisher Denoël, Paris, 1991. New edition by Annette et Manek Muller, La petite fille du Vel' d'Hiv, Publisher Cercil, Orléans, 2009, preface by Serge Klarsfeld, prize Lutèce (Témoignage).
Tatiana de Rosnay, Sarah's Key (novel), book: St. Martin's Press, 2007, (also 2010 film)
The events form the framework of:
Les Guichets du Louvre, 1974. French film directed by Michel Mitrani.
Monsieur Klein, 1976. French film directed by Joseph Losey, much of which was shot on location. The film won the 1977 César Awards in the categories of Best Film, Best Director, and Best Production Design.
Velódromo del invierno, 2001. Novel by Juana Salabert which won the 2001 Premio Biblioteca Breve.
The Round Up (La Rafle), 2010. French film directed by Roselyne Bosch and produced by Alain Goldman.
Sarah's Key, 2010. French film directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner and produced by Stéphane Marsil.
See also
Reparations (transitional justice)
The Holocaust in France
Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps
Union générale des israélites de France
Vichy France
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Jean-Luc Einaudi and Maurice Rajsfus, Les silences de la police – 16 juillet 1942, 17 octobre 1961, 2001, L'Esprit frappeur, (Rajsfus is an historian of the French police; the second date refers to the 1961 Paris massacre under the orders of Maurice Papon, who would later be judged for his role during Vichy in Bordeaux)
Serge Klarsfeld, Vichy-Auschwitz: Le rôle de Vichy dans la Solution Finale de la question Juive en France- 1942, Paris: Fayard, 1983.
Claude Lévy and Paul Tillard, La grande rafle du Vel d'Hiv, Paris: Editions Robert Laffont, 1992.
Maurice Rajsfus, Jeudi noir, Éditions L'Harmattan. Paris, 1988.
Maurice Rajsfus, La Rafle du Vél d'Hiv, Que sais-je ?, éditions PUF
Primary sources
Instructions given by chief of police Hennequin for the raid : http://artsweb.bham.ac.uk/vichy/police.htm#Jews
Serge Klarsfeld, "Vichy-Auschwitz: Le rôle de Vichy dans la Solution Finale de la question Juive en France- 1942," Paris: Fayard, 1983.
Klarsfeld's work contains nearly 300 pages of primary sources on French roundups in 1942.
External links
Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence: Case Study: The Vélodrome d'Hiver Round-up: July 16 and 17, 1942
Le monument commémoratif du quai de Grenelle à Paris
Le site de la memoire des conflits contemporains en région parisienne
Occupied France: Commemorating the Deportation
additional photographs
French government booklet
1995 speech of President Chirac
2012 speech of President François Hollande
The Vel' d'Hiv Roundup at the online exhibition The Holocaust in France' at Yad Vashem website
The Holocaust in France
Nazi war crimes in France
Vichy France
1942 in France
Reparations
July 1942 events
1942 in Judaism
French war crimes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raza%20Unida%20Party
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Raza Unida Party
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Partido Nacional de La Raza Unida (LRUP; National United Peoples Party or United Race Party) was a Hispanic political party centered on Chicano (Mexican-American) nationalism. It was created in 1970 and became prominent throughout Texas and Southern California. It was started to combat growing inequality and dissatisfaction with the Democratic Party that was typically supported by Mexican-American voters. After its establishment in Texas, the party launched electoral campaigns in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and California, though it only secured official party status for statewide races in Texas. It did poorly in the 1978 Texas elections and dissolved when leaders and members dropped out.
La Raza, as it was usually known, experienced most of its success at the local level in southwest Texas when the party swept city council, school board, and mayoralty elections in Crystal City, Cotulla, and Carrizo Springs. Much of the success was attributed to aggressive grassroots organizing that was concentrated in cities with the lowest income and education levels.
Platform
The Raza Unida Party stated four main goals in their preamble. They are:
To uphold equal representation for all people by superseding existing systems
To construct a new government that benefits the people while fulfilling the needs of the individual
To dismantle the exploitation of future generations by “ending causes of poverty, misery, and injustice”
To understand the need to negate racist practices in order to discontinue “physical and cultural genocidal practices”
The Raza Unida Party’s ideology was based on Chicano nationalist ideas and some Marxist ideas. Their local platform in Crystal City supported farmers, students, and the working class. The stances they endorsed included multilingual instruction in school, farm subsidies, regulation of utilities, community-based organization of politics, and an impartial tax system.
In 1974, RUP developed a statewide platform in hopes to enlarge its appeal to voters in Texas. They endorsed an improved allocation of funds in public education, a revision and development of new methods of transportation, and a system that provided quality medical care. RUP also believed in the prosecution of industrial polluters, the conservation of “human and natural resources,” and the creation of resolutions to concerns exclusive to urban communities.
Founding
The Mexican American Youth Organization (MAYO) was begun by five young men studying at St. Mary's University in 1967: Jose Angel Gutierrez, Mario Compean, Willie Velasquez, Ignacio Perez, and Juan Patlan. Jose Angel explained "All of us were the products of the traditional Mexican American organizations … All of us were very frustrated at the lack of political efficacy, at the lack of any broad based movement, and at the lack of expertise". Inspired by the Civil rights movement and by leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and black nationalists like Malcolm X, they reached the conclusion that the actions being taken by the leaders of the Chicano Movement were not doing enough to get results. They decided that they would halt the current approach being utilized by groups like LULAC and the American G. I. Forum, "which by the 1960s relied on litigation and support from sympathetic Anglos to achieve their goals". The five men decided that their new tactics would be much more confrontational, utilizing civil disobedience tactics used in the Civil rights movement. They decided to incorporate Saul Alinsky's model of confrontation politics: "And we said that was going to be the strategy[…] use confrontational politics based on information[…] well researched, but also foregoing the use of nice language". MAYO became dedicated to creating meaningful social change by relying on abrasing confrontational (but nonviolent) measures. They protested, picketed, and spread their message through newspapers like El Deguello, El Azteca, and La Revolucion. Their tactics earned them criticisms from both white and Mexican American political figures who felt that they were being too abrasive in their tactics. Jose Angel became targeted especially after comments he made where he called to "eliminate the gringo". While he elaborated to say that by gringo he meant "a person or institution that has a certain policy or program, or attitudes that reflect bigotry, racism, discord, prejudice, and violence", the damage was done. Despite attacks on all sides, MAYO continued to organize protests and boycotts, which is what ultimately led them to Crystal City.
The La Raza Unida Party started with simultaneous efforts throughout the U.S. Southwest. The most widely known and accepted story is that the La Raza Unida Party was established on January 17, 1970 at a meeting of some 300 Mexican-Americans in Crystal City, Texas by José Ángel Gutiérrez and Mario Compean, who had also helped in the foundation of the Mexican American Youth Organization (MAYO) in 1967. In Lubbock, the youth organization was headed by the journalist Bidal Aguero, who later worked in the RUP. The party originated from the group Workmen of the World (WOW). Its original 13 members included Alfredo Zamora, Jr., the first Chicano mayor of Cotulla, Texas, who unseated a member of the Cotulla family. A second Hispanic mayor followed, Arcenio A. Garcia, who was 24 at the time of his election, the youngest mayor then in Texas. Zamora left LaSalle County within two years and the next election in 1972 was won by Garcia under the RUP. Previously in December 1969, at the only national MAYO meeting, Chicano activists decided to form that third party, Raza Unida. This new party would focus on improving the economic, social and political aspects of the Chicano community throughout Texas. This party resulted in the election of the first two Mexican American Mayors in LaSalle County.
After the victory of the RUP in municipal elections in Crystal City and Cotulla, the party grew and expanded to other states, especially California and Colorado. In Colorado, the RUP worked closely with Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales and the Crusade For Justice based out of Denver. In California, the RUP spread throughout the state and held strong ground in the County of Los Angeles at one point with as many as 20 chapters.
The novice city council was not very effective in implementing its goals and damaged the party's reputation in the short term. However, RUP ran candidates for governor of Texas, Ramsey Muniz in 1972 and 1974 and Mario Compean of San Antonio in 1978. They petitioned the conservative Dr. Hector P. Garcia to run on the RUP ticket, but he declined. In 1972, they ran a candidate, Secundion Salazar, in a competitive U. S. Senate race in Colorado. Salazar received 1.4% of the vote, as victory went to the Democrat Floyd Haskell.
1972 Texas elections
After initial successes where Chicanos were elected in the South Texas counties of Dimmit, La Salle, and Zavala, La Raza Unida Party decided to be more ambitious for the 1972 gubernatorial elections. Its campaign was extremely controversial because it was entirely racially based. The Party leaders believed that change could only occur by appealing to the cultural and familial values shared by Mexican Americans. They also asserted that racism against Mexican Americans was so prolific that the entire political system would have to be reevaluated. Mario Compean, past spokesperson for La Raza Unida, said "Ours was a message of liberation from […] a corrupt political system anchored on the twin pillars of racism and discrimination, on the one hand, and social subordination imposed by capitalism on the other". The candidate endorsed by RUP was an ex-Baylor football-player-turned-lawyer named Ramsey Muñiz. He was, at the time, a political unknown, who had been involved with MAYO since 1968 but not distinguished himself.
Muñiz ran an aggressive campaign, "everywhere he went he hammered away at both parties, although the Democrats, who controlled the state legislature and the governor's mansion, received the brunt of the criticism". In a speech at Del Mar College in Corpus Christi, he said,
Ya basta. Raza Unida offers the people an alternative and the days of being led to the polls to vote straight ticket for these two other parties are over… if it is not done this year, it will come next year or the next… as long as there are Mexican Americans there will be persons to replace people like me"
Muñiz ran on a campaign devoted to improving education in Texas, developing multilingual and multicultural curriculums, equal funding for all school districts, for local school boards to proportionately reflect their communities, free early childhood education, and a number of other services. Despite his immense popularity and recognition in the state as one of the leading Mexican-American political figures, his fellow LRUP candidates did not attain the same level of popularity. Despite obstacles, Muñiz campaigned tirelessly both in the state and outside – targeting areas with high numbers of migrant workers from Texas. Similar to campaigns run previously in Crystal City, La Raza Unida distributed massive amounts of buttons, stickers, and posters along with holding huge vote drives on election day in the barrios.
Ramsay Muñiz lost his bid for governor in the 1972 elections. He got 6.28% of the vote, Democrat Dolph Briscoe got 47.8%, and Republican Henry Grover got 45.08%. An estimated 18% of Mexican Americans who voted in the election voted for Ramsay Muñiz. He received very high voting rates in rural cities and counties with lower incomes[xiv]. He received 51% of the vote in Brooks County and 46% in Jim Hogg County. In the 15 Mexican American counties, he received 30,020 votes compared to Grover's 31,641, and the winning Democrat, Dolph Briscoe, who got 60,697 votes. While it lost the gubernatorial election, LRUP won 15 local positions in several borderland counties: La Salle, Dimmit, Zavala, and Hidalgo. Despite this success in the 1972 election, it could not be replicated at the state level again. However, several counties in South Texas continued to see candidates elected by LRUP for years after the 1972 election, until 1978, when the party broke apart.
Political scientists have examined the 1972 gubernatorial race when LRUP called for ethnic solidarity. There was deep alienation among Mexican Americans from Anglo-dominated politics. However, Mexican American support for LRUP was uneven across Texas and reflected differing levels of economic attainment and incorporation.
Women's Involvement
Women played a growing role in the party in Texas in the 1970s, holding party offices at various levels and running as political candidates, as well as doing campaign work in many localities. Women wanted to become involved in the decision-making process in LRUP. Founding party member, Luz Gutierrez wanted to be involved in the political organization of the party. In an interview, she said,[Women] actually had a walk-in to one of their meetings and said… “We really want to be part of the decision-making process." At that time, half the men broke off of Raza Unida, and they said they didn’t want to be a part of it if women were gonna be involved.Women in RUP were not respected or recognized on the same level that the men were. Some believed it was “dangerous” for women to be further involved in the party. After the formation of Mujeres Por La Raza, some factions of LRUP did focus on challenging machismo and patriarchal practices within the party and society.
Mujeres Por La Raza
Mujeres Por La Raza is a women's caucus associated with the Raza Unida Party which developed in 1973. Its creation has been credited to three women: Evey Chapa, Ino Alvárez, and Marta Cotera. Mujeres Por La Raza was conceived in conjunction with the Chicana feminist movement of the 1970s. Many women were involved in the RUP since its creation in 1969. Regardless of their participation in the movement, women were sometimes referred to as “groupies” by men in the party.
Mujeres Por La Raza focused primarily on women and family life. They held many conferences with seminars that focused on community building and political organization. Mujeres Por La Raza had many local communities based in cities such as Houston, Dallas, Corpus Christi, Laredo, San Antonio, Crystal City, Mercedes, Austin, and Temple. Alma Canales, a member of the organization, received the endorsement from the Texas Women’s Political Caucus (TWPC) on her 1972 campaign for lieutenant governor. However, the TWPC failed to commit on Canales’s political campaign. A year later, Mujeres Por La Raza unanimously voted to remove themselves from the TWPC.
Crystal City indictments
In 1976, 11 officials in Crystal City, Texas, were indicted on various counts. Angel Noe Gonzalez, the former Crystal City Independent School District superintendent who later worked in the United States Department of Education in Washington, D.C., upon his indictment retained the San Antonio lawyer and later mayor, Phil Hardberger. Gonzalez was charged with paying Adan Cantu for doing no work. However, Hardberger documented to the court specific duties that Cantu had performed and disputed all the witnesses called against Cantu. The jury acquitted Gonzalez. Many newspapers reported on the indictments but not on the acquittal. John Luke Hill, the 1978 Democratic gubernatorial nominee, had sought to weaken RUP so that he would not lose general election votes to a third party candidate. However Victory went to his Republican rival, Bill Clements. Compean received only 15,000 votes, or 0.6%, just under Clements's 17,000-vote plurality over Hill.
Final Years
During the late 1970s, La Raza Unida Party decided to change tactics from a "get out the vote" organization to a more community-based, grassroots, revolutionary nationalist format seeking the unity of all Chicanos, other Latinos, and Native Americans in the American Southwest, commonly called Aztlán. Xenaro Ayala was voted in as the national party chairman in 1978. The party held a second national convention in which Juan Jose Pena was elected chairman in 1980. By the year 1974, Crystal City was the only city La Raza Unida Party still had political power in. In 1976, Ramsey Muniz pled guilty to one count of drug charges. He was apprehended and convicted to 15 years in prison. Mario Compean’s 1978 gubernatorial campaign ended poorly with only 15,000 votes in his favor. After these events, morale in RUP decreased. On election day in 1978, RUP was eliminated as a political party and lost its state funding. By 1981, the Democratic and Republican parties banned RUP from its ballot status.
Legacy
The Raza Unida Party left many contributions to the political structure of the state of Texas. Some argue that this impact is also felt at a national level. Since the 1970s, RUP allowed Mexican Americans who are interested in politics to be involved in them. Chicano politicians who continued their political careers after the disbanding of RUP learned how to organize politically during the active years of the party. RUP established a Chicano platform within American politics from the local level to the national level. Some members of RUP were able to train as “election clerks, voter registrars, poll watchers, candidates, precinct chairs, and organizers.” The Raza Unida Party also allowed for over 2 million Latinos to register vote in the next 20 years. In that same time span, there would approximately be “5000 Latino elected officials in the United States.”
The Raza Unida Party allowed for the affirmation of Chicano rights throughout the 1970s. Some historians argue that RUP's creation in the 1970s was at the “right moment in Mexican-American history.” A reunion conference commemorating the 40th anniversary of the party was held from July 6 to 7, 2012, in the capital city of Austin. According to an organizer, the aging former members of the party wanted to get together for "el ultimo adios," or "one final goodbye". Attendees included José Ángel Gutiérrez and Mario Compean.
Notable members
Maria L. de Hernández (1896–1986), Mexican-American rights activist
Raúl Grijalva, current representative for Arizona's 3rd Congressional district.
Rosie Castro, activist and mother of 2020 Democratic Party candidate Julian Castro
See also
People's Constitutional Party
References
Further reading
Acosta, Teresa Palomo. "Raza Unida Party," Handbook of Texas Online (2016) accessed October 23, 2016
Garcia, Chris, and Gabriel Sanchez. Hispanics and the US political system: Moving into the mainstream (Routledge, 2015).
Garcia, Ignacio M. United we win: The rise and fall of La Raza Unida Party (University of Arizona Press, 1989).
Gonzales, Richard J. Raza Rising: Chicanos in North Texas (University of North Texas Press, 2016).
Marquez, Benjamin; Espino, Rodolfo. "Mexican American support for third parties: the case of La Raza Unida," Ethnic & Racial Studies (Feb 2010) 33#2 pp 290–312. (online)
Navarro, Armando. Mexican American Youth Organization: Avant-Garde of the Movement in Texas (University of Texas Press, 1995)
Navarro, Armando. The Cristal Experiment: A Chicano Struggle for Community Control (University of Wisconsin Press, 1998)
Navarro, Armando. La Raza Unida Party: A Chicano Challenge to the U.S. Two Party Dictatorship (Temple University Press, 2000) online
External links
Partido Nacional de La Raza Unida
Raza Unida Party Chapters 1970-1974: Maps showing electoral campaigns and party chapters. From the Mapping American Social Movements project at the University of Washington.
La Raza Unida Organizing Committee: Albuquerque chapter, info about party history
1996 documentary film from South Tucson, AZ featuring Raza Unida members
Texas Raza Unida Party, 1974 state convention, Houston, Tex., September 21-22.
Chicano nationalism
Mexican-American organizations
Political parties of minorities
Identity politics in the United States
Political parties established in 1970
Defunct democratic socialist parties in the United States
Defunct social democratic parties in the United States
1970 establishments in the United States
Political parties with year of disestablishment missing
Political parties in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Cairo%20University%20alumni
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List of Cairo University alumni
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Notable alumni and attendees of Cairo University are listed here, first by decade of their graduation (or last attendance) and then alphabetically.
Unknown date of attendance and graduation
Ahmed Mohamed Al-Hofi (1910-1983) Member of the Shu a and of the Academy of the Arabic Language.
Kamil Idris is a former director general of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). He earned a BA in philosophy, political science and economic theories from Cairo University (Division I with Honours). He was also a lecturer in philosophy and jurisprudence there (1976–1977).
Heba Kotb (born 1967), Egyptian sex therapist and tv host
1800s
Naguib Pasha Mahfouz, the father of obstetrics and gynaecology in Egypt, and a world pioneer in obstetric fistula.
Abdel Khalek Sarwat Pasha (1873-1928), twice Prime Minister of Egypt (March 1, 1922 - November 30, 1922) and (April 26, 1927 - March 16, 1928). graduated with a License de Droit from the School of Law, later Cairo University in 1893.
1910s
Taha Hussein (1889–1973) was born in Izbit il-Kilo, Egypt. In 1914 he graduated from Cairo University. Later he was the first Egyptian Dean of the Faculty of the Arts there and the first Egyptian to be nominated for a Nobel Prize in literature. He was also Minister of Education. He was blind from early childhood.
1920s
Hassan Fathy, widely acclaimed architect of the 20th century. Fathy promoted appropriate technology and design for Egyptian construction and context, and was recognized with an Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 1980.
Soheir El-Calamawy, writer and translator; first woman to join the university.
1930s
Mufidah Abdul Rahman, the first female lawyer to take cases to the Court of Cassation in Egypt, the first woman to practice law in Cairo, Egypt, the first woman to plead a case before a military court in Egypt, and the first woman to plead cases before courts in the south of Egypt.
Yehia Hakki is one of the pioneers of the 20th-century modern literary movement in Egypt. He has experimented with the various literary norms: the short story, the novel, literary criticism, essays, meditations, and literary translation.
Writer and philosopher Naguib Mahfouz was born in the Gamaliyya district of Cairo in 1911. He graduated from Cairo University in 1934. He has published more than fifty books of fiction, many of which have been translated and published in English. The film Cairo 1930 was based on his novel al-Qahira al-jadida. In 1988 he won the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Zaki Naguib Mahmoud was a "Philosopher of Authors & Author of Philosophers". He was an associate of philosopher Bertrand Russell and John Eyre. He graduated from the Faculty of Arts at Cairo University in 1930. He earned his PhD in England, then returned to Egypt and became a professor of philosophy at his alma mater. He also taught at Kuwait University and wrote for Al-Ahram newspaper. He wrote many books, including The Philosophy of Science (1952), The Reasonable and the Absurd in our Intellectual Heritage (1975), and Seeds and Roots (1990).
Sameera Moussa was an Egyptian nuclear scientist. She graduated with a BSc in radiology from Cairo University.
Ahmed Shawky Deif was an Arabic literary critic, historian and president of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo.
1940s
Husayn Fawzi Alnajjar(1918-2003), an Egyptian Historian, Political Scientist, Strategist, and Islamic scholar. He graduated in 1940 with a M.A. in Military Sciences.
Hikmat Abu Zayd is the former Minister of Social Affairs (1962–1965) under Gamal Abdel Nasser and the first female cabinet member in Egypt. She received a licence in history from Cairo University (then named Fuad I University) in 1940 and went on to receive a teaching certificate in 1941, a MA in education in 1950, and a PhD in educational psychology from the University of London in 1957.
Said Ashour, professor of history
Boutros Boutros-Ghali is an Egyptian diplomat and was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1992 to December 1996. He graduated from Cairo University in 1946 and earned a PhD in international law from the University of Paris as well as a diploma in international relations from the Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris.
Nazeer Gayed was Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria. Born in 1923, he earned a BA in English and history from Cairo University in 1947. Later he attended the Coptic Theological Seminary. After becoming a hermit for several years, he became Dean of the Coptic Orthodox Theological University. He was consecrated the 117th Pope of Alexandria in 1971.
Mohamed Hassanein Heikal is a prominent Egyptian journalist. He served as the editor-in-chief of the Cairo newspaper Al-Ahram (1957–1974). Heikal has been a respected commentator on Arab and Middle Eastern affairs for more than 50 years.
Halim El-Dabh (born 1921), Egypt's foremost living composer of classical music, and the composer (in 1960) of the original score to the Son et lumière show at the site of the Great Pyramids of Giza. He earned a bachelor of science degree in agricultural engineering in 1945 and emigrated to the United States in 1950.
Hassan Fathy, eco-engineer.
Osman Ahmed Osman, engineer and politician.
Magdi Wahba (1925–1991), Egypt's foremost lexicographer and professor of English Literature from 1957 to 1980 when he retired as emeritus professor. He obtained his LLB from the Faculty of Law in 1946.
1950s
Ihsan Abbas (1920-2003) was a Palestinian scholar and literary critic. He earned his BA, MA and PhD degrees from the University of Cairo between 1950 and 1960. Abbas went on to teach at the University of Khartoum and American University of Beirut, in addition to performing research for the University of Jordan after his retirement.
Fayza Haikal (1938-), is an Egyptian Egyptologist. After earning her BA degree from Cairo University she went on to earn a doctorate degree from Oxford University, as the first Egyptian woman. She was Professor of Egyptology at the American University in Cairo and was Visiting Professor at several other universities.
Latifa al-Zayyat (1923–1996) was an Egyptian artist and intellectual. She was born in Dumyat and earned her PhD in English literature from Cairo University in 1957. She was head of the English department there from 1976-1983. Her first novel, Al-Bab al-Maftooh (The Open Door) was published in 1960. Later in life she founded and led the Committee for the Defense of National Culture, which spearheaded efforts against the normalization of cultural relations with Israel.
Yasser Arafat was chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) (1969–2004), president of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) (1993–2004); and a co-recipient of the 1994 Nobel Peace Prize alongside Shimon Peres and Yitzhak Rabin, for the successful negotiations of the 1993 Oslo Accords. He graduated from the King Fuad Cairo University Faculty of Engineering in 1956. While there, he joined the Muslim Brotherhood and served as president of the Union of Palestinian Students from 1952 to 1956.
Sayyid Abdurahman Imbichikoya Thangal Al-Aydarusi Al-Azhari was the President of Samastha Kerala Jamiat-ul-Ulema(1995–2004), the largest Muslim organisation in Kerala, India
Yusuf Idris, physician and writer.
Amr Moussa is the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States. He graduated from the Cairo University Faculty of Law in 1957.
Magdi Yacoub is a professor of cardiothoracic surgery at Imperial College London. He was involved in the first UK heart transplant in 1980, carried out the first UK live lobe lung transplant and went on to perform more transplants than any other surgeon in the world. Mr. Yacoub graduated from the Faculty of Medicine at Cairo University in 1957.
1960s
Ali Abdelghany is a prominent Egyptian academic and marine biologist. He graduated from the School of Agriculture in 1966. He later attended Auburn University and the University of Idaho as well as working with the FAO.
Ghazi Al-Qusaibi is a Saudi Arabian liberal politician, novelist, Saudi Minister of Labor, and intellectual. He received his law degree from Cairo University in 1961. He earned his MA in international relations from the University of Southern California in 1964, and obtained his PhD in law from the University of London in 1970.
Eid Hassan Doha is a former mathematics professor at the university who earned bachelor's, masters, and doctorate degrees at the school.
Mohamed ElBaradei was the director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency from 1997 to 2005. He was born in Egypt in 1942 and earned a bachelor's degree in law from the University of Cairo in 1962 and a doctorate in international law at the New York University School of Law in 1974. He won the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize. His name has been circulated by opposition groups since 2009 as a possible candidate to succeed President Hosni Mubarak in Egypt's highest executive position.
Mohamed Ghonim The international urologist and founder of the Mansoura University Urology & Nephrology Center.
Saddam Hussein was the president of Iraq from 1979 until he lost power over Iraq when American troops arrived in Baghdad on 9 April 2003. He entered the Faculty of Law at Cairo University in 1962 and left to return to Iraq in 1964. He also attended Mustanseriya University in Baghdad. He was executed on 30 December 2006 for crimes against humanity.
Archaeologist Mikhail Borisovich Piotrovski is the director of the State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, Russia. He was born in Armenia in 1944. In 1967 he graduated from the Oriental Faculty of Leningrad State University, having majored in Arabic Studies. He attended Cairo University from 1965-66. He is a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences and a professor at St. Petersburg State University. He was awarded the Russian Order of Honor in 1997. Asteroid 4869 Piotrovsky is named after him and his father, Professor Boris Borisovich Piotrovski.
Adel S. Sedra received his B.Sc. in electrical engineering from Cairo University in 1964. After completing his M.A.Sc. and PhD degrees, Sedra joined the faculty of the University of Toronto in 1969 and became associate professor in 1972 and professor in 1978. He served as chair of the Department of Electrical Engineering from 1986 to 1993, and was vice president, provost, and chief academic officer from July 1, 1993 to 2002. On July 1, 2003, Sedra joined the University of Waterloo as dean of its Faculty of Engineering and as professor of electrical and computer engineering.
Omar Sharif is an Egyptian-born actor (of Lebanese and Syrian origin) who has starred in many Hollywood films. He studied maths and physics at Cairo University and graduated in 1963.
Ahmed Ezz (born in 1959) graduated from Cairo University with a degree in civil engineering. He is an Egyptian politician and business tycoon and the chairman and managing director of Al Ezz Industries.
George Issac, (born 1938) is a political activist and a Coptic Catholic. He graduated with a BA in history in 1964.
Hoda ElMaraghy (born 1945)
Walid Muallem, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Expatriates of Syria
1970s
Mahmoud al-Zahar, co founded Hamas alongside Sheikh Ahmed Yassin. He currently serves as foreign minister in the Palestinian National Authority government of Ismail Haniyeh in Gaza. He studied medicine at Cairo University.
Ayman al-Zawahiri is a prominent member of the al-Qaeda group, a physician, author, poet, and formerly the head of the militant organization Egyptian Islamic Jihad. He obtained a degree in surgery at Cairo University in 1974 and an advanced medical degree in 1978.
Mohsen Badawi, Chairman of Aracom Systems, was born in Cairo on 10 November 1956. Entrepreneur, political activist and writer, graduated from Cairo University majoring in accounting at the Faculty of Commerce, co-founder of the Egyptian Soviet Chamber of Commerce (1989), the main founder and first Chairman of the Canada Egypt Business Council (2001–2003). He is also the main founder and Chairman of Abdurrahman Badawi Center for Creativity (2008-), a member of the Egyptian Romanian Friendship Association (1988–1991), member of the Arab Scientific Transportation Association (1989-) and a member of the Egyptian International Economic Forum (2003-).
Gawdat Bahgat is a professor of political science at the National Defense University, Washington, D.C. and has published numerous articles and books on Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea region, terrorism, and geopolitics.
Sameh Fahmi was Egypt's former oil minister. He graduated with a BSc in chemical engineering from Cairo University in 1973.
Youssef Boutros Ghali was a politician and was Egypt's former minister of finance.
Abdel Mawgoud Ahmad El Habashy is an Egyptian diplomat who holds a master's degree in Middle Eastern studies from the University of Cairo.
Hani Mahfouz Helal was the Egyptian Minister of Higher Education and State Minister for Scientific Research and the former Cultural and Scientific Chancellor in the Egyptian embassy in Paris. Dr. Helal graduated from the Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University in 1974.
Ahmed Nazif was the Egyptian Prime Minister and former Minister for Communications and Information Technology. Prof. Dr. Nazif graduated with a bachelor's degree in 1973 and a master's degree in 1976, from the Communications and Electronics Department, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University.
1980s
Ezzat el Kamhawi is an Egyptian novelist. He graduated from the department of journalism in the Faculty of Mass Communications, Cairo University in 1983. In December 2012, el Kamhawi was awarded the Naguib Mahfouz Medal for Literature for his novel House of the Wolf.
Mustafa al'Absi is a professor of behavioural medicine and neuroscience at the University of Minnesota Medical School. He was born in Yemen. He received his undergraduate psychology degree from Cairo University in 1985. He also received doctoral training in biological and clinical psychology at the University of Oklahoma. He currently directs multiple behavioural medicine research programs. He has received several honorary awards, including the Herbert Weiner Early Career Award and the Neal E. Miller Young Investigator Award. He has published more than 80 scientific articles, chapters, and edited books. He served as an editor or on editorial boards of multiple journals. He has also assumed leadership positions in several national and international organizations.
Taher Elgamal is a cryptographer and inventor of the Elgamal crypto algorithm. He received his BS in electrical engineering from Cairo University in 1977, and his MS and PhD in computer science from Stanford University in 1984. He served as chief scientist at Netscape Communications from 1995 to 1998.
Rafik Habib (born 1959; graduated from the Faculty of Arts, Psychology section, 1982), Christian (Coptic) Egyptian researcher, activist, author, and politician.
Tarek Kamel is the Minister of Communication and Information Technology since 2005. Dr. Kamel obtained a bachelor's degree in 1985 and a master's degree in 1988 from the Communications and Electronics Department, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University.
Mahmoud Mohieldin the Minister of Investment in Egypt.
Jehan Sadat was the second wife of Anwar Sadat and served as first lady of Egypt from 1970 until Sadat's assassination in 1981. She is a Senior Fellow at the University of Maryland, College Park and won the Pearl S. Buck award in 2001. She earned her BA (1977), MA (1980) and PhD (1986) degrees from Cairo University.
Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd (1943-2010) was an Egyptian academic and civil rights activist. He earned his PhD in Arabic and Islamic studies from Cairo University in 1981. He opposed the use of Islam for political ends in his 1992 book Naqd al-khitab al-dini (Critique of Religious Discourse). As a result, a Cairo court forced him to divorce his wife, Cairo University faculty member Ibtihal Yunis in 1995. After 1996, he and his wife fled Egypt and settled in The Netherlands, where he worked at State University of Leiden.
Magd Abdel Wahab is a Belgian academic, researcher, author and Imam of Islam. He is Full Professor and Chair of applied mechanics at Ghent University, Belgium, where he is also the Head of Finite Element Modelling Research Group of Laboratory Soete.
Baher Abdulhai is a civil engineer, academic, entrepreneur, and researcher. He is a Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, Director of Intelligent Transportation Systems Centre, and Co-Director of iCity Centre for Automated and Transformative Transportation at the University of Toronto. He is also the CEO and Managing Director of IntelliCAN Transportation System Inc.
1990s
Hussein Bassir is an Egyptian archaeologist and novelist. In 1994, he got his BA in Egyptology from Cairo University. Then he travelled to the United States to get his PhD in Egyptology and Near Eastern Studies from the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland.
Essam Heggy is a prominent planetary scientist in the NASA Mars Exploration Program and staff scientist at the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris. He graduated from the faculty of sciences at the Cairo University in 1997 and received the PhD degree from Paris VI University in 2002. He received several international awards for his role in contributing to the development low frequency terrestrial and planetary radars for subsurface exploration. He is currently a scientist at the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston, Texas, United States, where he also serves on a number of NASA panels. Heggy has earned a wide reputation among Egyptian youth after his resignation in 2005 from his staff position at the Cairo University to protest against the marginalization of science and youth in the Egyptian society. Rosa al Youssef, the widely distributed magazine in the Arab world, in its annual report in 2006, selected him as one of the top 10 reformists in Egypt.
See also
Cairo University
List of Egyptians
References
University
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided%20Democracy%20in%20Indonesia
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Guided Democracy in Indonesia
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Guided Democracy () was the political system in place in Indonesia from 1959 until the New Order began in 1966. It was the brainchild of President Sukarno, and was an attempt to bring about political stability. Sukarno believed that the parliamentarian system implemented during the liberal democracy period in Indonesia was ineffective due to its divisive political situation at that time. Instead, he sought a system based on the traditional village system of discussion and consensus, which occurred under the guidance of village elders. With the declaration of martial law and the introduction of this system, Indonesia returned to the presidential system and Sukarno became the head of government again.
Sukarno proposed a threefold blend of (nationalism), (religion), and (communism) into a co-operative Nas-A-Kom or Nasakom governmental concept. This was intended to satisfy the four main factions in Indonesian politics—the army, the secular nationalists, Islamic groups, and the communists. With the support of the military, he proclaimed Guided Democracy in 1959 and proposed a cabinet representing all major political parties including the Communist Party of Indonesia, although the latter were never actually given functional cabinet positions.
Background
The liberal democracy period in Indonesia, from the re-establishment of a unitary republic in 1950 until the declaration of martial law in 1957, saw the rise and fall of six cabinets, the longest-lasting surviving for just under two years. Even Indonesia's first national elections in 1955 failed to bring about political stability.
In 1957, Indonesia faced a series of crises, including the beginning of the Permesta rebellion in Makassar and the army takeover of authority in South Sumatra, due to the increasing dissatisfaction of non-Javanese Indonesians to the centralization policy implemented by Jakarta. One of the demands of the Permesta rebels was that 70 percent of the members of Sukarno's proposed National Council should be members from the regions (non-Javanese). Another demand was that the cabinet and National Council be led by the dual-leaders (Indonesian: dwitunggal) of Sukarno and former Vice-President Hatta.
In March 1957, Sukarno accepted the Army chief of staff General Abdul Haris Nasution's proposal for a declaration of martial law across the whole nation. This would put the armed forces in charge, and would be a way to deal with the rebellious army commanders, as it would effectively legitimise them.
In the face of a growing political crisis amid splits in the cabinet, Prime Minister Ali Sastroamidjojo resigned on 14 March from his position in Sukarno's presence.
Establishment of Guided Democracy
President Sukarno made an official visit to the People's Republic of China in October 1956. He was impressed with the progress made there since the Civil War, and concluded that this was due to the strong leadership of Mao Zedong, whose centralisation of power was in sharp contrast to the political disorder in Indonesia. According to former foreign minister Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung, Sukarno began to believe he had been "chosen by providence" to lead the people and "build a new society".
Shortly after his return from China, on 30 October 1956, Sukarno spoke of his konsepsi (conception) of a new system of government. Two days earlier he had called for the political parties to be abolished. Initially the parties were opposed to the idea, but once it became clear that they would not need to be abolished, the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) threw its support behind Sukarno. As well as the PKI, the Indonesian National Party (PNI) supported Sukarno, while the Islamist Masyumi Party and the Socialist Party of Indonesia opposed the plan. There were public demonstrations in support of it.
On 21 February 1957, Sukarno detailed his plan. Sukarno pointed out that at the village level, important questions were decided by lengthy deliberation with the goal of achieving a consensus. This model of decision-making, he said, was better suited to the nature of Indonesia than the Western-style voting system. While deliberations at the local level were guided by the village elders, Sukarno envisioned that the president would guide them at the national level. The centerpiece would be a 'mutual co-operation' cabinet of the major parties advised by a National Council (Indonesian: Dewan Nasional) of functional groups, while the legislature would not be abolished. Sukarno argued that under this system, a national consensus could express itself under presidential guidance.
On 15 March 1957 President Sukarno appointed PNI chairman Soewirjo to form a "working cabinet", which would be tasked with establishing the National Council in accordance with the president's concept. However, since Masyumi, the largest opposition party, was not asked to participate in the formation of the cabinet, Soewirjo's efforts came to nothing. However, on 25 March, Sukarno asked Soewirjo to try form a cabinet again in one week to, but to no avail, Soewirjo failed.
Finally, Sukarno held a meeting with 69 party figures at the State Palace on 4 April 1957, at which he announced his intention to form an emergency extra-parliamentary working cabinet, whose members Sukarno would choose. The new "Working Cabinet", headed by non-partisan prime minister Djuanda Kartawidjaja was announced on 8 April 1957 at Bogor Palace. Although the PKI was not included, several members were sympathetic to the party. In theory, it was a non-partisan cabinet.
The National Council was established by emergency law in May 1957. It was chaired by Sukarno, with Ruslan Abdulgani as vice-chairman. At its inauguration on 12 July, it had 42 members representing groups such as peasants, workers and women, as well as the various religions. Decisions were reached by consensus rather than through voting. As a non-political body based on functional groups, it was intended as a counterbalance to the political system. The cabinet was not obliged to heed the advice given by the National Council, but in practice they rarely ignored recommendations and proposals it set.
Meanwhile, the armed forces were trying to enhance their political role by establishing functional groups of their own. Nasution began trying to woo the parties' functional groups in June 1957, and managed to unite the many veterans' organizations under armed forces control as the Veterans' Legion of Indonesia, a singular organizaiton dedicated to veterans' affairs. He also used martial law to arrest several politicians for alleged corruption, while regional army commanders restricted party activities, particularly those of the PKI, whose headquarters in Jakarta was attacked in July.
In his Independence Day address on 17 August 1957, Sukarno laid down the ideology of guided democracy, later renamed the Manipol (Political manifesto). This was later expanded into the ideology known as USDEK - combined into Manipol USDEK (USDEK Political Manifesto). The five points of this ideology were the following:
the 1945 Constitution (Undang-Undang Dasar 1945)
Indonesian-styled socialism (Sosialisme ala Indonesia)
Guided democracy (Demokrasi Terpimpin)
Guided economic policies (Ekonomi Terpimpin)
Indonesian identity (Kepribadian Indonesia)
Regional rebellions during the liberal democracy era
In the midst of the Cold War, the CIA—along with the UK and Australian governments—supported rebellions in Sumatra and Sulawesi during 1958. These rebellions were launched as reactions to Sukarno's seizure of parliamentarian power, the increasing influence of the Communists, the corruption and mismanagement of the central government, and against the domination by Java of the outer islands.
In September and October 1957, various rebellious army officers, including members of the Permesta movement, held meetings in Sumatra. They agreed on three objectives: the appointment of a president less in favor of the PKI, the replacement of Nasution as the head of armed forces and the banning of the PKI. Some of these regional rebels were subsequently accused of involvement in the assassination attempt on Sukarno on 30 November. On 10 February 1958, rebels including army officers and Masyumi leaders meeting in Padang, Sumatra, issued an ultimatum to the government demanding the return of parliamentary system, through the dissolution of the cabinet, elections and Sukarno's position as a figurehead role. Five days later, the formation of Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PRRI), announced. It was based in Bukittinggi, Sumatra, joined two days later by the Permesta rebels in Sulawesi.
Despite US support in the form of arms for the PRRI rebels, the Indonesian military defeated the rebels with a combination of aerial bombardment and operations by troops landed from Java. By the middle of 1958, the rebellions had been effectively quashed but guerrilla activity persisted for three years. Amnesty was granted to rebel leaders although their political parties were banned. Early nationalist leaders were discredited, including former Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir, who along with others was arrested in 1962.
Formation
Return to the 1945 Constitution
In 1958, Masyumi and the Nahdlatul Ulama, which had split from Masyumi in 1952, called for the planned 1959 elections to be postponed as they feared a PKI victory. In September, prime minister Djuanda announced the postponement. Meanwhile, the Constitutional Assembly was still unable to reach agreement on the basis of a new constitution, and was deadlocked between those who wanted Indonesia to be an Islamic state, and those who supported the idea of the state based on the Pancasila ideology. In July, Nasution proposed returning to the 1945 Constitution, and in September, he resumed political activity. Sukarno quickly endorsed this idea, as the 1945 document made the president head of government as well as head of state and would thus be better suited to implementing Guided democracy. Under the Provisional Constitution of 1950, the president's role was largely ceremonial as head of state, though Sukarno commanded great moral authority due to his status as Father of the Nation.
Gradually, the return to the 1945 Constitution gained support from the political parties, and on 5 July 1959, Sukarno issued a decree (formally Presidential Decree number 150 of 1959 on the Return to the Constitution of 1945) to reinstate the 1945 constitution and dissolving the Constitutional Assembly. Four days later, a working cabinet with Sukarno as prime minister was announced, and in July, the National Council and Supreme Advisory Council were established. Although political parties continued to exist, only the PKI had any real strength.
Political landscape
Marginalization of Islamic political parties
After the dissolution of the Constitutional Assembly, Sukarno banned Masyumi in 1960 due to its leaders' ties with the PRRI and strong opposition against the new form of government. The representation of Islamic parties in the parliament were down to 25 percent, while Nahdlatul Ulama's influence also reduced even though its official stance was to support the implementation of guided democracy.
Rise of the PKI
In an attempt to strengthen his position in his rivalry with Nasution, Sukarno gradually became closer to the PKI and to the Indonesian Air Force. In March 1960, Sukarno dissolved the legislature after it had rejected his budget. In June, the Mutual Cooperation House of People's Representatives (DPR-GR), in which the armed services and police had representation as functional groups, and a Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) were established, with the PKI chairman, D.N. Aidit, as a deputy chairman. The PKI was estimated to have 17–25 percent of the seats in the DPR-GR, and now had representation in all institutions of state except the cabinet. Despite actions against the PKI by regional army commanders, Sukarno repeatedly defended it. Sukarno also began pushing his ideology uniting Nationalism, Religion and Communism, which would become known as Nasakom. It is an acronym based on the Indonesian words NASionalisme ('nationalism'), Agama ('religion'), and KOMunisme ('communism'). The Nasakom ideology was an attempt by Sukarno to create an Indonesian form of socialism which would mix socialist and nationalist ideas and adapt them to the unique Indonesian situation of a nation of thousands of islands, many ethnic groups, and diverse religions.
However, the army's successes in defeating various rebellions, including the PRRI and the Darul Islam movement in west Java meant that Nasution still had the initiative. Later that year, the PKI began a "unilateral action" (Indonesian: aksi sepihak) campaign to implement the 1959–60 land reform laws, which led to violent conflict with NU supporters. Therefore, in December 1960, Sukarno established the Supreme Operations Command (KOTI), to ensure that the campaign to liberate West Irian from the Dutch would not be controlled by the military. Actual combat operations were to be directed by the Mandala command, headed by (future president) Major-General Suharto, who was the first commander of the Kostrad. The PKI, anxious to make use of the nationalism issue to cement its alliance with Sukarno, wholeheartedly supported this effort. In June 1962, Sukarno managed to foil an attempt by Nasution to be appointed armed forces commander; he instead became chief of staff with no direct military commanding role, although he kept his position as minister of defence and security.
By 1962, the PKI had over two million members, and in March, Sukarno made two of its key figures, Aidit and Njoto, ministers without portfolio. That same year, the West Irian dispute was resolved after the Dutch agreeing a transfer to UN administration. It was later formally annexed by Indonesia after the controversial 'Act of Free Choice' in 1969.
In early 1965, Aidit proposed to Sukarno the creation of "the Fifth Force" (i.e. in addition to the army, navy, air force and police), made up of armed workers and peasants and the appointment of Nasakom advisers to each of the armed forces. This was a direct threat to the armed services. In 1965, Sukarno announced the discovery of a document allegedly written by the British ambassador, the so-called Gilchrist Document, which was touted as proof of armed forces-led plots against the government.
Rise of the political roles of the armed forces and police
The 1960 decision by Sukarno to appoint sectoral representatives each to the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly and the Mutual Cooperation - People's Representative Council began 44 years of a military and police presence in the legislature. Some of the 241 sectoral MPs appointed to the PPCA were active duty personnel of the armed forces and police which gave an even more political role for the armed forces, which served as counterbalance to the PKI presence in the legislature. These armed forces and police representatives thus formed a loyal opposition to the PKI in the legislative branch. To counter the PKI-supported Central All-Indonesian Workers Organization, the SOKSI (Central Workers' Organization of Indonesia) was established in late 1961 with strong armed forces support, three years later, in October 1964, the Sekber Golkar (Sekretariat Bersama Golongan Karya, or Joint Secretariat of Functional Groups), the future Golkar Party, was established to unite the many anti-communist organizations that have been led and sponsored by the armed forces and police. Among the 60 armed forces organizations under the Golkar umbrella, aside from the SOKSI, were the Kosgoro (Union of Mutual Cooperation Multifunction Organizations), MKGR (Mutual Assistance Families Association) and the Gerakan Karya Rakyat (People's Working Movement). Even as some personnel in the armed forces and police sided with the PKI and many were either sympathizers or joining in increasing numbers (including personnel of the Marine Corps, Air Force and the Police Mobile Brigade Corps), majority of the active military personnel and sworn police officers were anti-Communists, including many top Army officers.
Aside from the legislative branch, the armed forces and police also began to be present even in the executive, with Sukarno appointing many officers from the services to government ministries in the state cabinet aside from the Ministry of Defense and Security. In the March 1963 General Session of the PPCA in Bandung in West Java, Sukarno, in a major violation of the 1945 Constitution, was elected to the life presidency (Presiden Seumur Hidup/Panglima Besar Revolusi) with the help of the armed forces and police, including their deputies to the assembly as suggested by Nasution, in a major blow to the PKI's plans for the presidential post.
Economy
Following the failure of a United Nations resolution calling on the Netherlands to negotiate with Indonesia over the West Irian issue, on 3 December, PKI and PNI unions began taking over Dutch companies, but 11 days later, Nasution stated that personnel from the armed forces would run these companies instead. This action then gave the armed forces a major economic role in the country.
On 25 August 1959, the government implemented sweeping anti-inflationary measures, devaluing the currency by 75 percent and declaring that all Rp. 500 and Rp. 1000 notes would henceforth be worth one tenth of their face value. Meanwhile, anti-ethnic Chinese measures, including repatriations and forced transfer to cities, damaged economic confidence further. In 1960, inflation had reached 100 percent per annum.
Foreign policy
West Irian dispute and liberation
After the recognition of Indonesia as a sovereign state () on 27 December 1949, both Indonesia and The Netherlands agreed that the issue regarding the status of New-Guinea or West Irian (present-day Papua and West Papua) will be negotiated one year after the formation of the federal government. Indonesia rejected Netherlands proposal to retain the sovereignty over the territory, considering it as an integral part of the country. On 15 February 1952, the Dutch Parliament voted to incorporate New Guinea into the realm of the Netherlands. After that, the Netherlands refused further discussion on the question of sovereignty and considered the issue to be closed.
On 23 February 1957, a thirteen country–sponsored resolution (Bolivia, Burma, Ceylon, Costa Rica, Ecuador, India, Iraq, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, and Yugoslavia) calling for the United Nations to appoint a "good offices commission" for West New Guinea was submitted to the UN General Assembly. Despite receiving a plural majority (40-25-13), this second resolution failed to gain a two-thirds majority. Undeterred, the Afro-Asian caucus in the United Nations lobbied for the West New Guinea dispute to be included on the UNGA's agenda. On 4 October 1957, the Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio warned that Indonesia would embark on "another cause" if the United Nations failed to bring about a solution to the dispute that favoured Indonesia. That month, the Indonesian Communist Party and affiliated trade unions lobbied for retaliatory economic measures against the Dutch. On 26 November 1957, a third Indonesian resolution on the West New Guinea dispute was put to the vote but failed to gain a two-thirds majority (41-29-11). In response, Indonesia took retaliatory measure against Dutch interests in Indonesia. Following a sustained period of harassment against Dutch diplomatic representatives in Jakarta, the Indonesian government formally severed relations with the Netherlands in August 1960.
By 1960, other countries in the Asia-Pacific region had taken notice of the West Irian dispute and began proposing initiatives to end the dispute. During a visit to the Netherlands, the New Zealand Prime Minister Walter Nash suggested the idea of a united New Guinea state, consisting of both Dutch and Australian territories. This idea received little support from both the Indonesians and other Western governments. Later that year, the Malayan Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman proposed a three-step initiative, which involved West New Guinea coming under United Nations trusteeship. The joint administrators would be three non-aligned nations Ceylon, India, and Malaya, which supported Indonesia's position on West Irian. This solution involved the two belligerents, Indonesia and the Netherlands, re-establishing bilateral relations and the return of Dutch assets and investments to their owners. However, this initiative was scuttled in April 1961 due to opposition from the Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio, who publicly attacked the Tunku's proposal.
On 23 November 1961, the Indian delegation at the United Nations presented a draft resolution calling for the resumption of Dutch–Indonesian talks on terms which favoured Indonesia. On 25 November 1961, several Francophone African countries tabled a rival resolution which favoured an independent West New Guinea. The Indonesians favoured the Indian resolution while the Dutch, Britain, Australia, and New Zealand supported the Francophone African resolution. On 27 November 1961, both the Francophone African (52-41-9) and Indian (41-40-21) resolutions were put to the vote failed to gain a two–thirds majority at the United Nations General Assembly. The failure of this final round of diplomacy in the UN convinced the Indonesians to prepare for a military invasion of West Irian.
On 19 December 1961, President Sukarno gave orders for the Indonesian military to prepare for a full–scale military invasion of the territory; codenamed Operation Trikora. He also ordered the creation of a special People's Triple Command or Tri Komando Rakyat (Trikora) with the objective of 'liberating' West New Guinea by 1 January 1963. Trikora's operational command was to be called the Mandala Command for the Liberation of West Irian (Komando Mandala Pembebasan Irian Barat) and was led by Major-General Suharto, the future President of Indonesia. In preparation for the planned invasion, the Mandala command began making land, air, and sea incursions into West Irian. General Suharto also planned to launch a full-scale amphibious operation invasion of West Irian known as Operation Jayawijaya (or Operation Djajawidjaja).
On 24 June 1962, four Indonesian Air Force C-130 Hercules jets dropped 213 paratroopers near Merauke. Throughout the year, a total of 1,200 Indonesian paratroopers and 340 naval infiltrators landed in West New Guinea. By mid-1962, the Indonesian military had begun preparations to launch Operation Jayawijaya around August 1962. This operation was to be carried out in four phases and would have involved joint air and naval strikes against Dutch airfields, paratroop and amphibious landings at Biak and Sentani, and a ground assault on the territory's capital Hollandia. Unknown to the Indonesians, Dutch intelligence agency Marid 6 NNG had intercepted Indonesian transmissions and obtained intelligence on Indonesian battle plans. However, a ceasefire agreement known as the New York Agreement, which facilitated the transfer of West New Guinea to Indonesia control by 1963, was signed by the Dutch and Indonesians on 15 August 1962. As a result, the Trikora Command cancelled Operation Jayawijaya on 17 August 1962.
Confrontation with Malaysia
In 1963 the establishment of Malaysia was announced, incorporating Federation of Malaya and the former British colonial possessions in northern Borneo. Indonesia rejected the formation as a neo-colonialist project of the United Kingdom. The Philippines also rejected the formation due to its claim to Sabah. PKI once again sought to exploit the issue to strengthen its political position. They organised mass demonstrations in Jakarta, during which the British Embassy was burned to the ground. On 17 September, a day after Malaysia was established, Indonesia broke off diplomatic relations with Malaysia, and shortly after, the low level conflict known as konfrontasi (confrontation) was commenced.
Meanwhile, the army led by Lt. General Ahmad Yani became increasingly concerned with the worsening domestic situation and began to secretly contact the Malaysian government, while managing to obstruct the confrontation to minimal level. This was implemented to preserve an already exhausted army which recently conducted the Operation Trikora, while also maintaining its political position. At the same time, both the Soviet Union and the United States began courting the Indonesian army. The Soviet Union was anxious to reduce the influence of the China-oriented PKI, while the US was worried about communism per se, and large numbers of Indonesian officers travelled to the US for military training. However, during the confrontation the PKI was also targeting the army, and was attempting to infiltrate it.
Sukarno withdrew Indonesia from the United Nations on 7 January 1965 when, with U.S. backing, Malaysia took a seat on UN Security Council. The confrontation largely subsided after the September 30 Movement weakened Sukarno's political standing. Both countries signed the Bangkok Accords on 16 August 1966, albeit protest from Sukarno. Relations between both countries were fully restored on 31 August 1967.
End of Guided Democracy
During his 1964 Independence Day speech, Sukarno publicly denounced the United States. An anti-American campaign ensued in which American companies were threatened, American movies were banned, American libraries and other buildings were attacked, American journalists banned, and the American flag was often torn apart. Large anti-American propaganda posters were set up around Jakarta's streets. American aid was stopped. In August 1965, Sukarno announced that Indonesia was withdrawing from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and in his Independence Day speech on 17 August, announced the Jakarta-Phnom Penh-Hanoi-Peking-Pyongyang Axis, and said that the people would be armed in the coming months. On 27 September, General Nasution announced that he opposed the planned "fifth force" formation and the "Nasakomization" of the entire armed forces.
On the night of 30 September 1965, six generals were kidnapped and murdered and a group calling itself the 30 September Movement seized control of the national radio station and the centre of Jakarta. Although the movement was quickly crushed by Suharto it marked the end of guided democracy and of Sukarno as an effective president. The New Order regime established by Suharto had its own ideology — Pancasila Democracy.
References
Bibliography
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Mortimer, Rex, (1974) Indonesian Communism Under Sukarno: Ideology and Politics, 1959–1965, Cornell University Press, New York
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5004685
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial%20direct-current%20stimulation
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Transcranial direct-current stimulation
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Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a form of neuromodulation that uses constant, low direct current delivered via electrodes on the head. It was originally developed to help patients with brain injuries or neuropsychiatric conditions such as major depressive disorder. It can be contrasted with cranial electrotherapy stimulation, which generally uses alternating current the same way, as well as transcranial magnetic stimulation.
Research shows increasing evidence for tDCS as a treatment for depression. There is mixed evidence about whether tDCS is useful for cognitive enhancement in healthy people. There is no strong evidence that tDCS is useful for memory deficits in Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, non-neuropathic pain, nor for improving arm or leg functioning and muscle strength in people recovering from a stroke. There is emerging supportive evidence for tDCS in the management of schizophreniaespecially for negative symptoms.
Efficacy
Depression
In 2015, the British National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) found tDCS to be a safe and effective treatment modality for depression, though further investigation was needed. Since then, several studies and meta-analyses have demonstrated tDCS to be a safe and effective treatment for depression.
A meta-analysis published in 2020 found moderate- to high-quality evidence for tDCS as a treatment for depression with only low to
moderate clinical efficacy. Active tDCS was significantly superior to sham for response (30.9% vs. 18.9% respectively), remission (19.9% vs. 11.7%) and depression improvement. According to a 2016 meta analysis published in the British Journal of Psychiatry, 34% of tDCS-treated patients showed at least 50% symptom reduction (compared to 19% placebo) across 6 randomised controlled trials.
Other medical use
Recent research on tDCS has shown promising results in treating other mental health conditions such as anxiety and PTSD. More research is required on the topic. There is also evidence that tDCS is useful in treating neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury. There is evidence of very low to moderate quality that tDCS can improve activities of daily living assessment after stroke but further research is needed to evaluate how long this effect is sustained.
Transcranial direct-current stimulaiton is also used to augment speech therapy in patients with acquired language disorders like aphasia, or to help maintain language abilities in the case of primary progressive aphasia, a neurodegenerative condition.
Safety
According to the British National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), the evidence on tDCS for depression raises no major safety concerns.
As of 2017, at stimulation up to 60 min and up to 4 mA over two weeks, adverse effects include skin irritation, a phosphene at the start of stimulation, nausea, headache, dizziness, and itching under the electrode. Typical treatment sessions lasting for about 20–30 minutes repeated daily for several weeks in the treatment of depression. Adverse effects of long term treatment were not known as of 2017. Nausea most commonly occurs when the electrodes are placed above the mastoid for stimulation of the vestibular system. A phosphene is a brief flash of light that can occur if an electrode is placed near the eye.
People susceptible to seizures, such as people with epilepsy should not receive tDCS. Studies have been completed to determine the current density at which overt brain damage occurs in rats. It was found that in cathodal stimulation, a current density of 142.9 A/m2 delivering a charge density of 52400 C/m2 or higher caused a brain lesion in the rat. This is over two orders of magnitude higher than protocols that were in use as of 2009.
Mechanism of action
tDCS stimulates and activates brain cells by delivering electrical signals. The lasting modulation of cortical excitability produced by tDCS makes it an effective solution to facilitate rehabilitation and treat a range of neuropsychiatric disorders. The way that the stimulation changes brain function is either by causing the neuron’s resting membrane potential to depolarize or hyperpolarize. When positive stimulation (anodal tDCS) is delivered, the current causes a depolarization of the resting membrane potential, which increases neuronal excitability and allows for more spontaneous cell firing. When negative stimulation (cathodal tDCS) is delivered, the current causes a hyperpolarization of the resting membrane potential. This decreases neuron excitability due to the decreased spontaneous cell firing.
In case of treating depression, tDCS currents specifically target the left side of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) located in the frontal lobe. Left DLPFC has been shown to be associated with lower activity in the depressed population.
tDCS is able to achieve cortical changes even after the stimulation is ended. The duration of this change depends on the length of stimulation as well as the intensity of stimulation. The effects of stimulation increase as the duration of stimulation increases or the strength of the current increases. tDCS has been proposed to promote both long term potentiation and long term depression, and further research is needed for validation.
Operation
Transcranial direct current stimulation works by sending constant, low direct current through the electrodes. When these electrodes are placed in the region of interest, the current induces intracerebral current flow. This current flow then either increases or decreases the neuronal excitability in the specific area being stimulated based on which type of stimulation is being used. This change of neuronal excitability leads to alteration of brain function, which can be used in various therapies as well as to provide more information about the functioning of the human brain.
Parts
Transcranial direct current stimulation is a relatively simple technique requiring only a few parts. These include two electrodes and a battery-powered device that delivers constant current. Control software can also be used in experiments that require multiple sessions with differing stimulation types so that neither the person receiving the stimulation nor the experimenter knows which type is being administered. Each device has an anodal, positively charged electrode and a cathodal, negative electrode. Current is "conventionally" described as flowing from the positive anode, through the intervening conducting tissue, to the cathode, creating a circuit. Note that in traditional electric circuits constructed from metal wires, charge drift is created by the motion of negatively charged electrons, which actually flow from cathode to anode. However, in biological systems, such as the head, current is usually created by the flow of ions, which may be positively or negatively chargedpositive ions will flow towards the cathode; negative ions will flow toward the anode. The device may control the current as well as the duration of stimulation.
Setup
To set up the tDCS device, the electrodes and the skin need to be prepared. This ensures a low resistance connection between the skin and the electrode. The careful placement of the electrodes is crucial to successful tDCS technique. The electrode pads come in various sizes with benefits to each size. A smaller sized electrode achieves a more focused stimulation of a site while a larger electrode ensures that the entirety of the region of interest is being stimulated. If the electrode is placed incorrectly, a different site or more sites than intended may be stimulated resulting in faulty results. One of the electrodes is placed over the region of interest and the other electrode, the reference electrode, is placed in another location in order to complete the circuit. This reference electrode is usually placed on the neck or shoulder of the opposite side of the body than the region of interest. Since the region of interest may be small, it is often useful to locate this region before placing the electrode by using a brain imaging technique such as fMRI or PET. Once the electrodes are placed correctly, the stimulation can be started. Many devices have a built-in capability that allows the current to be "ramped up" or increased gradually until the necessary current is reached. This decreases the amount of stimulation effects felt by the person receiving the tDCS. After the stimulation has been started, the current will continue for the amount of time set on the device and then will automatically be shut off. Recently a new approach has been introduced where instead of using two large pads, multiple (more than two) smaller sized gel electrodes are used to target specific cortical structures. This new approach is called High Definition tDCS (HD-tDCS). In a pilot study, HD-tDCS was found to have greater and longer lasting motor cortex excitability changes than sponge tDCS.
Types of stimulation
There are three different types of stimulation: anodal, cathodal, and sham. The anodal stimulation is positive (V+) stimulation that increases the neuronal excitability of the area being stimulated. Cathodal (V-) stimulation decreases the neuronal excitability of the area being stimulated. Cathodal stimulation can treat psychiatric disorders that are caused by the hyper-activity of an area of the brain. Sham stimulation is used as a control in experiments. Sham stimulation emits a brief current but then remains off for the remainder of the stimulation time. With sham stimulation, the person receiving the tDCS does not know that they are not receiving prolonged stimulation. By comparing the results in subjects exposed to sham stimulation with the results of subjects exposed to anodal or cathodal stimulation, researchers can see how much of an effect is caused by the current stimulation, rather than by the placebo effect.
At-home administration
Recently, tDCS devices are being researched and created intended for at-home useranging from treating medical conditions such as depression to enhancing general cognitive well-being. Clinical trials are needed to establish the efficacy, feasibility and acceptability of home-based tDCS treatment.
History
The basic design of tDCS, using direct current (DC) to stimulate the area of interest, has existed for over 100 years. There were a number of rudimentary experiments completed before the 19th century using this technique that tested animal and human electricity. Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta were two such researchers that utilized the technology of tDCS in their explorations of the source of animal cell electricity. It was due to these initial studies that tDCS was first brought into the clinical scene. In 1801, Giovanni Aldini (Galvani's nephew) started a study in which he successfully used the technique of direct current stimulation to improve the mood of melancholy patients.
There was a brief rise of interest in transcranial direct current stimulation in the 1960s when studies by researcher D. J. Albert proved that the stimulation could affect brain function by changing the cortical excitability. He also discovered that positive and negative stimulation had different effects on the cortical excitability.
Research continued, further fueled by knowledge gained from other techniques like TMS and fMRI.
Comparison to other devices
In transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), an electric coil is held above the region of interest on the scalp that uses rapidly changing magnetic fields to induce small electrical currents in the brain. There are two types of TMS: repetitive TMS and single pulse TMS. Both are used in research therapy but effects lasting longer than the stimulation period are only observed in repetitive TMS. Similar to tDCS, an increase or decrease in neuronal activity can be achieved using this technique, but the method of how this is induced is very different. Transcranial direct current stimulation has the two different directions of current that cause the different effects. Increased neuronal activity is induced in repetitive TMS by using a higher frequency and decreased neuronal activity is induced by using a lower frequency.
Variants related to tDCS include tACS, tPCS and transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS), a group of technologies commonly referred to as transcranial electrical stimulation, or TES.
Research
Depression
Determining the safety and effectiveness of tDCS treatment for people with depression is being investigated:
A systematic review of placebo-controlled trials investigating tDCS treatment for major depressive disorder was published 2020. The meta-analysis collated results across nine eligible studies (572 participants) up until December 2018 to estimate odds ratio (OR) and number needed to treat (NNT) of response and remission, and depression improvement. The results showed statistically superior efficacy of active tDCS compared to sham for Nine eligible studies (572 participants), presenting moderate/high certainty of evidence, were included. Active tDCS was significantly superior to sham for response (30.9% vs. 18.9% respectively; OR = 1.96, 95%CI [1.30–2.95], NNT = 9), remission (19.9% vs. 11.7%, OR = 1.94 [1.19–3.16], NNT = 13) and depression improvement (effect size of β = 0.31, [0.15–0.47]).
A 2016 meta-analysis showed that 34% of people treated with tDCS showed at least 50% symptom reduction (compared to 19% placebo).
A 2017 study conducted by Brunoni showed 6-weeks of tDCS treatment resulted in reduction of at least half of depression symptoms in 41% of depressed people (vs. 22% placebo and 47% antidepressants).
In 2015, the British National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) found tDCS to be safe and to appear effective for depression treatment. Up until 2014, there have been several small randomized clinical trials (RCT) in major depressive disorder (MDD); most found alleviation of depressive symptoms. There have been only two RCTs in treatment-resistant MDD; both were small, and one found an effect and the other did not. One meta-analysis of the data focused on reduction in symptoms and found an effect compared to sham treatment, but another that was focused on relapse found no effect compared to sham.
Other disorders
Cognition
There is mixed evidence about whether tDCS is useful for cognitive enhancement in healthy people. Several reviews have found evidence of small yet significant cognitive improvements. Other reviews found no evidence at all, although one of them has been criticized for overlooking within-subject effects and evidence from multiple-session tDCS trials. However, the original authors addressed these raised concerns in a further analysis and continued to find no evidence of impact
A 2015 review of results from hundreds of tDCS experiments found that there was no statistically conclusive evidence to support any net cognitive effect, positive or negative, of single session tDCS in healthy populationsthere is no evidence that tDCS is useful for cognitive enhancement. A second study by the same authors found there was little-to-no statistically reliable impact of tDCS on any neurophysiologic outcome.
Parkinson's, Alzheimer's disease, and schizophrenia
There is no strong evidence that tDCS is useful for memory deficits in Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia, non-neuropathic pain. A few clinical trials have been conducted on the use of tDCS to ameliorate memory deficits in Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease and healthy subjects, with mixed results. Research conducted as of 2013 in schizophrenia, has found that while large effect sizes were initially found for symptom improvement, later and larger studies have found smaller effect sizes (see also section on use of tDCS in psychiatric disorders below). Studies have mostly concentrated on positive symptoms like auditory hallucinations; research on negative symptoms is lacking.
Stroke
There is no strong evidence that tDCS can help improve upper limb function after stroke. In stroke, research conducted as of 2014, has found that tDCS is not effective for improving upper limb function after stroke. While some reviews have suggested an effect of tDCS for improving post-stroke aphasia, a 2015 Cochrane review could find no improvement from combining tDCS with conventional treatment. Research conducted as of 2013 suggests that tDCS may be effective for improve vision deficits following stroke.
Motor Learning and Memory Function
There is evidence that certain tDCS montages can increase learning rates for particular tasks in healthy individuals, namely motor tasks and memory function. However, reproducibility remains to be fully tested across studies and standardization for these kinds of studies has not been implemented fully, though an attempt at formalizing standards was released in 2017.
Other
Research conducted as of 2012 on the use of tDCS to treat pain, found that the research has been of low quality and cannot be used as a basis to recommend use of tDCS to treat pain. In chronic pain following spinal cord injury, research is of high quality and has found tDCS to be ineffective. tDCS has also been studied in addiction. There is some moderate (level B) evidence to indicate that, in addition to treating major depressive disorder, tDCS may also be appropriate to treat fibromyalgia, and craving disorders.
tDCS has been used in neuroscience research, particularly to try to link specific brain regions to specific cognitive tasks or psychological phenomena. The cerebellum has been a focus of research, due to its high concentration of neurons, its location immediately below the skull, and its multiple reciprocal anatomical connections to motor and associative parts of the brain. Most such studies focus on the impact of cerebellar tDCS on motor, cognitive, and affective functions in healthy and patient populations, but some also employ tDCS over the cerebellum to study the functional connectivity of the cerebellum to other areas of the brain.
Regulatory approvals
tDCS is a CE approved treatment for major depressive disorder (MDD) in the UK, EU, Australia, and Mexico. As of 2015, tDCS has not been approved for any use by the US FDA. An FDA briefing document prepared in 2012 stated that "there is no regulation for therapeutic tDCS".
See also
Cranial electrotherapy stimulation
Transcranial alternating current stimulation
Transcranial random noise stimulation
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
Brainwave entrainment
Non-invasive cerebellar stimulation
References
Neurophysiology
Medical treatments
Electrotherapy
Neurotechnology
Neurostimulation
Medical devices
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5004886
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20Change%20Science%20Program
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Climate Change Science Program
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The Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009. Toward the end of that period, CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations, changes in the atmosphere, expected climate change, impacts and adaptation, and risk management issues. Shortly after President Obama took office, the program's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) which was also the program's name before 2002. Nevertheless, the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy. Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and in some cases focused specifically on the United States, they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration.
The products
The primary outputs from the CCSP were its strategic plan and 21 Synthesis and Assessment Products (SAP), five of which were released on January 16, 2009, the last business day of the Bush Administration. The CCSP Strategic Plan of 2003 defined five goals:
Extend knowledge of the Earth's past and present climate and environment, including its natural variability, and improve understanding of the causes of observed changes (see Observations and causes of climate change),
Improve understanding of the forces bringing about changes in the Earth's climate and related systems (see Changes in the atmosphere)
Reduce uncertainty in projections of how the Earth's climate and environmental systems may change in the future (see Climate projections)
Understand the sensitivity and adaptability of different natural and managed systems to climate and associated global changes (see Impacts and adaptation)
Explore the uses and identify the limits of evolving knowledge to manage risks and opportunities related to climate variability and change (see Using information to manage risks)
The plan also proposed 21 SAP's, each of which were designed to support one of these five goals. The plan was updated in 2008.
The following sections discuss the SAP's, grouped according to the five topic areas.
Observations and causes of climate change
Three SAP's evaluated observations of climate change and our ability to definitively attribute the causes of these changes.
Temperature trends in the lower atmosphere (SAP 1.1)
NOAA released the first of 21 CCSP Synthesis and Assessment reports in May 2006, entitled Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere: Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences. The report identified and corrected errors in satellite temperature measurements and other temperature observations, which increased scientific confidence in the conclusion that lower atmosphere is warming on a global scale: "There is no longer a discrepancy in the rate of global average temperature increase for the surface compared with higher levels in the atmosphere," said the report, "the observed patterns of change over the past 50 years cannot be explained by natural processes alone". The report also said that "all current atmospheric data sets now show global-average warming that is similar to the surface warming. While these data are consistent with the results from climate models at the global scale, discrepancies in the tropics remain to be resolved."
The Arctic and other high latitude areas (SAP 1.2)
On January 16, 2009 (the last business day of the Bush Administration), USGS released Past Climate Variability and Change in the Arctic and at High Latitudes. According to the USGS press release, the report shows that:
The Arctic has recently been warming about as rapidly as it has ever warned throughout the entire record of past Arctic climate.
The loss of sea ice during summers over the last few decades is highly unusual compared to the last few thousand years. Changes in Earth's orbit alone would have increased summer sea ice.
Sustained warming of at least 2 to 7 °C would be likely to eventually melt the entire Greenland ice sheet, which would raise sea level by several meters.
The past tells us that when thresholds in the climate system are crossed, climate change can be very large and very fast. No one knows whether human activities will trigger such events in the coming decades and centuries.
Attribution of the causes of observed climate change (SAP 1.3)
NOAA released Re-Analyses of Historical Climate Data for Key Atmospheric Features: Implications for attribution of causes of observed change in December 2008. According to the report, from 1951 to 2006 the yearly average temperature for North America increased by 1.6°Fahrenheit, with virtually all of the warmingsince 1970. During this period, the average temperature has warmed approximately 3.6 °F over Alaska, the Yukon Territories, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, but no significant warming occurred in the southern United States or eastern Canada. More than half of the warming of North America is likely (more than 66 percent chance) to have resulted from human activity.
There is less evidence that precipitation is changing. The report found no significant trend in North American precipitation since 1951, although there have been substantial changes from year to year and even decade to decade. Moreover, it is unlikely that a fundamental change has occurred in either how often or where severe droughts have occurred over the continental United States during the past half-century. Nevertheless, drought impacts have likely become more severe in recent decades. It is likely that the impacts have been more severe because the recent droughts have lasted a few years, and because warmer temperatures have created stresses in plants, which make them more vulnerable.
Changes in the atmosphere
Scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions and atmospheric concentrations (SAP 2.1)
The US Department of Energy released the second SAP in July 2007, entitled Scenarios of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Atmospheric Concentrations and Review of Integrated Scenario Development and Application. This two-volume report explored emission scenarios that could stabilize the net effect of greenhouse gases at four different levels. It also outlined key principles and approaches for developing global change scenarios. The two reports were each written by a subset of the members of the Climate Change Science Program Product Development Advisory Committee, a panel organized under the Federal Advisory Committee Act.
The report's executive summary stated that the emission reductions necessary to stabilize radiative climate forcing would "require a transformation of the global energy system, including reductions in the demand for energy... and changes in the mix of energy technologies and fuels." But the authors found great uncertainty in the price that would be necessary to stabilize climate forcing—as well as the resulting economic cost: " These differences are illustrative of some of the unavoidable uncertainties in long-term scenarios."
Other synthesis and assessment products
In addition to SAP 2.1, CCSP produced three other reports to further the goal of improving quantification of climate forcing:
NOAA released "North American Carbon Budget and Implications for the Global Carbon Cycle" (SAP 2.2) in November 2007.
NASA released "Atmospheric Aerosol Properties and Climate Impacts" (SAP 2.3) on January 16, 2009.
NOAA released "Trends in Emissions of Ozone-Depleting Substances, Ozone Layer Recovery, and Implications for Ultraviolet Radiation Exposure" (SAP 2.4) in November 2008.
Climate projections
As provided in the CCSP strategic plan, four SAP's examined issues under CCSP's Goal 3:
DOE released "Climate Models: An Assessment of Strengths and Limitations." (SAP 3.1) in July 2008.
NOAA released "Climate Projections Based on Emissions Scenarios for Long-Lived and Short-Lived Radiatively Active Gases and Aerosols." (SAP 3.2) in September 2008.
NOAA released "Weather and Climate Extremes in a Changing Climate Regions of Focus: North America, Hawaii, Caribbean, and U.S. Pacific Islands." (SAP 3.3) in June 2008.
USGS released "Abrupt Climate Change." (SAP 3.4) in December 2008.
Impacts and adaptation
Seven SAP's examined the effects of climate change, impacts on people and natural systems, and opportunities and capacity to adapt. Those assessments provided the backbone to the Congressionally mandated Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States which was released in June 2009.
Coastal sensitivity to sea level rise (SAP 4.1)
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency released Coastal Sensitivity to Sea-Level Rise: A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic Region (SAP 4.1) on January 16, 2009. According to the report's abstract, rising sea level can inundate low areas and increase flooding, coastal erosion, wetland loss, and saltwater intrusion into estuaries and freshwater aquifers. Much of the United States consists of coastal environments and landforms such as barrier islands and wetlands that will respond to sea-level rise by changing shape, size, or position. The combined effects of sea-level rise and other climate change factors such as storms may cause rapid and irreversible coastal change. Coastal communities and property owners have responded to coastal hazards by erecting shore protection structures, elevating land and buildings, or relocating inland. Accelerated sea-level rise would increase the costs and environmental impacts of these responses.
Preparing for sea-level rise can be justified in many cases, because the cost of preparing now is small compared to the cost of reacting later. Examples include wetland protection, flood insurance, long-lived infrastructure, and coastal land-use planning. Nevertheless, preparing for sea-level rise has been the exception rather than the rule. Most coastal institutions were based on the implicit assumption that sea level and shorelines are stable. Efforts to plan for sea-level rise can be thwarted by several institutional biases, including government policies that encourage coastal development, flood insurance maps that do not consider sea-level rise, federal policies that prefer shoreline armoring over soft shore protection, and lack of plans delineating which areas would be protected or not as sea level rises.
A committee set up under the Federal Advisory Committee Act monitored the progress of SAP 4.1, and questioned several aspects of the final report. The original plan included maps and estimates of wetland loss from a then-ongoing EPA mapping study conducted by James G. Titus, who was also a lead author of SAP 4.1. Early drafts included the maps and results, but the final draft did not. Experts and environmental organizations objected to the deletions. The federal advisory committee also took issue with the maps' removal from SAP 4.1 and recommended that EPA publish the mapping study. EPA later confirmed that EPA management had altered the report and suppressed the mapping study, although it declined to explain why.
Thresholds in ecosystems (SAP 4.2)
USGS released Thresholds of Climate Change in Ecosystems (SAP 4.2) on January 16, 2009.
A key premise of the report was that an ecological threshold is the point at which there is an abrupt change in an ecosystem that produces large, persistent and potentially irreversible changes. The report concluded that slight changes in climate may trigger major abrupt ecosystem responses that are not easily reversible. Some of these responses, including insect outbreaks, wildfire, and forest dieback, may adversely affect people as well as ecosystems and their plants and animals. One of the greatest concerns is that once an ecological threshold is crossed, the ecosystem in question will most likely not return to its previous state. The report also emphasized that human actions may increase an ecosystem's potential for crossing ecological thresholds. For example, additional human use of water in a watershed experiencing drought could trigger basic changes in aquatic life that may not be reversible. Ecosystems that already face stressors other than climate change, will almost certainly reach their threshold for abrupt change sooner.
Effects on agriculture, land resources, water resources, and biodiversity (SAP 4.3)
The United States Department of Agriculture released The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water Resources, and Biodiversity (SAP 4.3) in May 2008. The executive summary includes the following findings.
Agriculture
Life cycle of grain and oilseed crops will likely progress more rapidly; but with rising temperatures and variable rainfall, crops will begin to experience failure, especially if precipitation lessens or becomes more variable.
Climate change is leading to a northward migration of cropland weeds, and range and pasture plant species, which affects crops, grazing land, and livestock operations.
Higher temperatures will very likely reduce livestock production during the summer season.
Land resources
Climate change has likely increased the size and number of forest fires, insect outbreaks and tree mortality in the Interior West (Colorado, the Great Basin), Southwest and Alaska
In arid lands, changes in temperature and precipitation will very likely decrease the vegetation cover that protects the ground surface from wind and erosion.
Rising CO2 will very likely increase photosynthesis for forests, but this increase will likely only enhance wood production in young forests on fertile soils.
Water resources
Runoff may increase in eastern regions, gradually transitioning to little change in the Missouri and lower Mississippi, to substantial decreases in the interior of the west (Colorado and Great Basin).
Stream temperatures are likely to increase, which will harm aquatic ecosystems.
Mountain snowpack is declining and melting earlier in the spring across much of the western United States.
Biodiversity
The rapid rate of warming in the Arctic is dramatically reducing snow and ice cover that provide denning and forage habitat for polar bears.
Corals in many tropical regions are experiencing substantial mortality from increasing water temperatures, increasing storm intensity, and a reduction in pH.
Adaptation options for climate-sensitive ecosystems and resources (SAP 4.4)
EPA released Preliminary Review of Adaptation Options for Climate-Sensitive Ecosystems and Resources (SAP 4.3) in May 2008. The study focuses on national parks, national forests, national wildlife refuges, wild and scenic rivers, national estuaries, and marine protected areas, all of which are protected by the federal
government. The report analyzed how to meet existing management goals set for each protected
area to understand what strategies will increase the resilience of each ecosystem.
EPA concluded that climate change can increase the impact of traditional stressors (such as pollution or habitat destruction) on ecosystems, and that many existing best management practices to reduce these stressors can also be applied to reduce the impacts of climate change. For example, current efforts to reverse habitat destruction by restoring vegetation along streams also increase ecosystem resilience to climate change impacts, such as greater amounts of pollutants and sediments from more intense rainfall. EPA also concluded that the nation's ability to adapt to climate change will depend on a variety of factors including recognizing the barriers to implementing new strategies, expanding collaboration among ecosystem managers, creatively re-examining program goals and authorities, and being flexible in setting priorities and managing for change.
Effects of Climate Change on Energy Production and Use (SAP 4.5)
DOE released Effects of Climate Change on Energy Production and Use in the United States (SAP 4.5) in October 2007. The report concludes that the possible impacts of climate change on energy production are important enough to start considering how to adapt. The report's executive summary summarized the report with three questions and answers:
How might climate change affect energy consumption in the United States? The research evidence is relatively clear that climate warming will mean reductions in total U.S. heating requirements and increases in total cooling requirements for buildings. These changes will vary by region and by season, but they will affect household and business energy costs and their demands on energy supply institutions. In general, the changes imply increased demands for electricity, which supplies virtually all cooling energy services but only some heating services. Other effects on energy consumption are less clear.
How might climate change affect energy production and supply in the United States? The research evidence about effects is not as strong as for energy consumption, but climate change could affect energy production and supply (a) if extreme weather events become more intense, (b) where regions dependent on water supplies for hydropower and/or thermal power plant cooling face reductions in water supplies, (c) where temperature increases decrease overall thermoelectric power generation efficiencies, and (d) where changed conditions affect facility siting decisions. Most effects are likely to be modest except for possible regional effects of extreme weather events and water shortages.
How might climate change have other effects that indirectly shape energy production and consumption in the United States? The research evidence about indirect effects ranges from abundant information about possible effects of climate change policies on energy technology choices to extremely limited information about such issues as effects on energy security. Based on this mixed evidence, it appears that climate change is likely to affect risk management in the investment behavior of some energy institutions, and it is very likely to have some effects on energy technology R&D investments and energy resource and technology choices. In addition, climate change can be expected to affect other countries in ways that in turn affect U.S. energy conditions through their participation in global and hemispheric energy markets, and climate change concerns could interact with some driving forces behind policies focused on U.S. energy security.
Effects on Human Health and Welfare and Human Systems (SAP 4.6)
EPA released Analyses of the Effects of Global Change on Human Health and Welfare and Human Systems. (SAP 4.6) in July 2008. The report was directed by Janet L. Gamble of EPA and written by 28 authors.
According to EPA, some of the key conclusions of this report are:
It is very likely that heat-related illnesses and deaths will increase over coming decades.
An increase in ozone could cause or exacerbate heart and lung diseases.
Several food and water-borne diseases are likely to be transmitted among susceptible populations, although climate will seldom be the only factor.
The very young and old, the poor, those with health problems and disabilities, and certain occupational groups are at greater risk.
The U.S. is better prepared than most developing countries to respond to public health impacts from climate change.
The most vulnerable areas in the United States are likely to be in Alaska, coastal and river basins susceptible to flooding, and arid areas where water scarcity is a pressing issue, and areas where economic bases are climate-sensitive.
Populations are moving toward those areas that are more likely to be vulnerable to the effects of climate change.
The U.S. has a well-developed public health infrastructure and environmental regulatory program to protect our air and water. If these are maintained, the U.S. can respond to many of the effects of climate change, moderating their impact.
The report was formally reviewed by an independent panel set up in compliance with the Federal Advisory Committee Act. This FACA panel's report gave a generally favorable review while providing many specific areas where improvements were needed. The advisory committee's greatest concern was that the report tried so hard to be evenhanded and not overstate what we know, that it came close to leaving the impression that we know little in cases where a lot is known. EPA revised the report to satisfy those concerns and published a response to each of the comments. While not taking issue with the report's findings, the Government Accountability Project complained that EPA delayed releasing the report three months so that its results could be excluded from a regulatory finding about whether greenhouse gases threaten public health.
Impacts on transport and infrastructure (SAP 4.7)
The United States Department of Transportation released Impacts of Climate Variability and Change on Transportation Systems and Infrastructure—Gulf Coast Study (SAP 4.7) in March 2008. The report was prepared by Michael Savonis of the Federal Highway Administration, Joanne Potter (a consultant to DOT), and Virginia Burkett of USGS.
The premise of SAP 4.7 was that climate is changing. Sea levels in the Gulf of Mexico are likely to rise by two to four feet over the next 50 to 100 years from the combination of climate-induced warming and land subsidence. Tropical storms are anticipated to increase in intensity and the number of heavy precipitation events is expected to increase, raising prospects of flooding and structural damage. And the number of very hot days (i.e., >90 °F) could rise by 50%.
The report concluded that the expected impacts of these climate effects on transportation are striking. A significant portion of the region's road, rail, and port network is at risk of permanent flooding if sea levels rise by four feet. This includes more than 2,400 miles (27%) of the major roads, 9% of the rail lines, and 72% of the ports. More than half (64% of interstates; 57% of arterials) of the area's major highways, almost half of the rail miles, 29 airports, and virtually all of the ports are subject to temporary flooding and damage due to increased storm intensity. The increase in daily high temperatures could increase wear on asphalt and the potential for rail buckling. Construction costs are likely to increase because of restrictions on workers on days above 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
Transportation planners can employ climate data to draw meaningful conclusions about the future. In fact, the Gulf Coast Study recommends that transportation decision makers in the Gulf Coast should begin immediately to assess climate impacts in the development of transportation investment strategies. The study also found, however, that transportation planners need new methodological tools to address the longer time frames, complexities and uncertainties that are inherent in projections of climate phenomena. Such methods are likely to be based on probability and statistics (i.e., risk assessment techniques) as much as on engineering and material science.
Using information to manage risks
Three SAP's were prepared to further CCSP's Goal 5
NASA released "Uses and Limitations of Observations, Data, Forecasts, and Other Projections in Decision Support for Selected Sectors and Regions." (SAP 5.1) in September 2008.
NOAA released "Best Practice Approaches for Characterizing, Communicating, and Incorporating Scientific Uncertainty in Decisionmaking." (SAP 5.2) on January 16, 2009.
NOAA released "Decision Support Experiments and Evaluations using Seasonal to Interannual Forecasts and Observational Data." (SAP 5.3) in November 2008.
Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States
To fulfill a statutory requirement for a national assessment, the CCSP released Scientific Assessment of the Impacts of Global Change in the United States in May 2008. Shortly thereafter, a team of authors synthesized key findings from the SAP's. In June 2009, CCSP changed its name to United States Global Change Research Program and released the unified synthesis report, entitled Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States . The report had ten key findings which became the bedrock of the Obama Administration's view of the impacts of climate change.
Global warming is unequivocal and primarily human-induced. Global temperature has increased over the past 50 years. This observed increase is due primarily to human-induced emissions of heat-trapping gases.
Climate changes are underway in the United States and are projected to grow. Climate-related changes are already observed in the United States and its coastal waters. These include increases in heavy downpours, rising temperature and sea level, rapidly retreating glaciers, thawing permafrost, lengthening growing seasons, lengthening ice-free seasons in the ocean and on lakes and rivers, earlier snowmelt, and alterations in river flows. These changes are projected to grow.
Widespread climate-related impacts are occurring now and are expected to increase. Climate changes are already affecting water, energy, transportation, agriculture, ecosystems, and health. These impacts are different from region to region and will grow under projected climate change.
Climate change will stress water resources. Water is an issue in every region, but the nature of the potential impacts varies. Drought, related to reduced precipitation, increased evaporation, and increased water loss from plants, is an important issue in many regions, especially in the West. Floods and water quality problems are likely to be amplified by climate change in most regions. Declines in mountain snowpack are important in the West and Alaska where snowpack provides vital natural water storage.
Crop and livestock production will be increasingly challenged. Many crops show positive responses to elevated responses to carbon dioxide. However, increased heat, pests, water stress, diseases, and weather extremes will pose adaptation challenges for crop and livestock production.
Coastal areas are at increasing risk from sea-level rise and storm surge. Sea-level rise and storm surge place many U.S. coastal areas at increasing risk of erosion and flooding, especially along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, Pacific Islands, and parts of Alaska. Energy and transportation infrastructure and other property in coastal areas are very likely to be adversely affected.
Risks to human health will increase. Health impacts of climate change are related to heat stress, waterborne diseases, poor air quality, extreme weather events, and diseases transmitted by insects and rodents. Robust public health infrastructure can reduce the potential for negative impacts.
Climate change will interact with many social and environmental stresses. Climate change will combine with pollution, population growth, overuse of resources, urbanization, and other social, economic, and environmental stresses to create larger impacts than from any of these factors alone.
Thresholds will be crossed, leading to large changes in climate and ecosystems. There are a variety of thresholds in the climate system and ecosystems. These thresholds determine, for example, the presence of sea ice and permafrost, and the survival of species, from fish to insect pests, with implications for society. With further climate change, the crossing of additional thresholds is expected.
Future climate change and its impacts depend on choices made today. The amount and rate of future climate change depend primarily on current and future human-caused emissions of heat-trapping gases and airborne particles. Responses involve reducing emissions to limit future warming, and adapting to the changes that are unavoidable.
The organization
The CCSP was known as US Global Change Research Program until 2002, as authorized by the Global Change Research Act of 1990. The Bush Administration changed its name to Climate Change Science Program as part of its U.S. Climate Change Research Initiative. The Administration envisioned "a nation and the global community empowered with the science-based knowledge to manage the risks and opportunities of change in the climate and related environmental systems". President Bush reestablished priorities for climate change research to focus on scientific information that can be developed within 2 to 5 years to assist evaluation of strategies to address global change risks. One the CCSP's cornerstones was the creation of 21 Synthesis and Assessment Products (SAPs) to provide information to help policymakers and the public make better decisions.
Participants
The following is a list of participating agencies.
Agency for International Development
United States Department of Agriculture
Department of Commerce: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and National Institute of Standards and Technology
United States Department of Defense
United States Department of Energy
Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health
United States Department of State
Dept. of Transportation
United States Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
National Aeronautics & Space Administration
National Science Foundation
Smithsonian Institution
The CCSP was guided by a committee of senior representatives from each of these departments and agencies, known as the CCSP Principals. The CCSP was also overseen by the Interagency Working Group on Climate Change Science and Technology. (The committee of CCSP Principals was essentially synonymous with the Subcommittee on Global Change Research of the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources under the National Science and Technology Council in the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy.) Specific program activities were coordinated through Interagency Working Groups. A coordination office facilitated the activities of the Principals and IWGs. That office as well as the IWG's continued to operate when the CCSP became the USGCRP.
Directors
James R. Mahoney served as the first director of the CCSP and Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere from April 2002 to March 2006.
William J. Brennan became Acting Director of CCSP in June 2006. Brennan remained as the acting director until June 2008 when he was confirmed as Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere and thereby became the director. (Jane C. Luxton of Virginia had been nominated by President Bush in September 2006 for the position, but her nomination was later withdrawn.)
Jack A. Kaye became Acting Director of CCSP upon Brennan's retirement from NOAA in January 2009.
Reviews and criticism
The Climate Change Science Program operated during an administration that believed that continued scientific investigation was necessary before policies should be implemented. The CCSP faced the challenge of navigating the narrow path between administration officials who were sceptical of the general scientific consensus about greenhouse gases, and scientific critics who were skeptical about almost everything that the administration did related to climate change. As a result, the CCSP was under more scrutiny than most'' federal scientific coordination programs.
The National Research Council (NRC) reviewed CCSP several times. The NRC's 2004 review concluded that "the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program articulates a guiding vision, is appropriately ambitious, and is broad in scope" and "the CCSP should implement the activities described in the strategic plan with urgency." The NRC also recommended that CCSP should expand its traditional focus on atmospheric sciences to better understand the impacts, adaptation, and the human dimension of climate change. More focus on helping decision makers was necessary, it concluded.
A 2007 NRC review was more critical. "Discovery science and understanding of the climate system are proceeding well, but use of that knowledge to support decision making and to manage risks and opportunities of climate change is proceeding slowly." The NRC was particularly critical of the program's failure to engage stakeholders or advance scientific understanding of the impacts of climate change on human well-being. Looking to the future of the program, a 2008 NRC report put forward a set of research recommendations very similar to that embodied in the CCSP Strategic Plan revision of 2008.
The Climate Change Scientific Program was occasionally criticized for the alleged suppression of scientific information. In March 2005, Rick S. Piltz resigned from CCSP charging political interference with scientific reports: "I believe ...that the administration ... has acted to impede forthright communication of the state of climate science and its implications for society." Piltz charged that the Bush Administration had suppressed the previous National Assessment on Climate Change, by systematically deleting references to the report from government scientific documents. Piltz later complained about political tinkering with the timing of SAP 4.6, and suppression of sea level rise mapping studies associated with SAP 4.1.
See also
Effects of global warming
National Assessment on Climate Change
Land change science
Notes
External links
CCSP's archived website
U.S. Global Change Research Program
Climate change organizations based in the United States
Reports of the United States government
Environmental policy in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas%20Georgescu-Roegen
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Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen
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Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (born Nicolae Georgescu, 4 February 1906 – 30 October 1994) was a Romanian mathematician, statistician and economist. He is best known today for his 1971 magnum opus The Entropy Law and the Economic Process, in which he argued that all natural resources are irreversibly degraded when put to use in economic activity. A progenitor and a paradigm founder in economics, Georgescu-Roegen's work was decisive for the establishing of ecological economics as an independent academic sub-discipline in economics.
In the history of economic thought, Georgescu-Roegen was the first economist of some standing to theorise on the premise that all of earth's mineral resources will eventually be exhausted at some indeterminate future point. In his paradigmatic magnum opus, Georgescu-Roegen argues that economic scarcity is rooted in physical reality; that all natural resources are irreversibly degraded when put to use in economic activity; that the carrying capacity of earth – that is, earth's capacity to sustain human populations and consumption levels – is bound to decrease sometime in the future as earth's finite stock of mineral resources is being extracted and put to use; and consequently, that the world economy as a whole is heading towards an inevitable future collapse, ultimately bringing about human extinction. Due to the radical pessimism inherent to his work, based on the physical concept of entropy, the theoretical position of Georgescu-Roegen and his followers was later termed 'entropy pessimism'.
Early in his life, Georgescu-Roegen was the student and protégé of Joseph Schumpeter, who taught that irreversible evolutionary change and 'creative destruction' are inherent to capitalism. Later in life, Georgescu-Roegen was the teacher and mentor of Herman Daly, who then went on to develop the concept of a steady-state economy to impose permanent government restrictions on the flow of natural resources through the (world) economy.
As he brought natural resource flows into economic modelling and analysis, Georgescu-Roegen's work was decisive for the establishing of ecological economics as an independent academic sub-discipline in economics in the 1980s. In addition, the degrowth movement that formed in France and Italy in the early-2000s recognises Georgescu-Roegen as the main intellectual figure influencing the movement. Taken together, by the 2010s Georgescu-Roegen had educated, influenced and inspired at least three generations of people, including his contemporary peers, younger ecological economists, still younger degrowth organisers and activists, and others throughout the world.
Several economists have hailed Georgescu-Roegen as a man who lived well ahead of his time, and some historians of economic thought have proclaimed the ingenuity of his work. In spite of such appreciation, Georgescu-Roegen was never awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics, although benefactors from his native Romania were lobbying for it on his behalf. After Georgescu-Roegen's death, his work was praised by a surviving friend of the highest rank: Prominent Keynesian economist and Nobel Prize laureate Paul Samuelson professed that he would be delighted if the fame Georgescu-Roegen did not fully realise in his own lifetime were granted by posterity instead.
The inability or reluctance of most mainstream economists to recognise Georgescu-Roegen's work has been ascribed to the fact that much of his work reads like applied physics rather than economics, as this latter subject is generally taught and understood today.
Georgescu-Roegen's work was blemished somewhat by mistakes caused by his insufficient understanding of the physical science of thermodynamics. These mistakes have since generated some controversy, involving both physicists and ecological economists.
Life and career
The life of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (born Nicolae Georgescu) spanned most of the 20th century, from 1906 to 1994. In his native Romania, he lived through two world wars and three dictatorships before he fled the country. Living in political exile in the United States in the second half of his life, he witnessed at a distance the rise and fall of socialism in Romania. He made many important contributions to mainstream neoclassical economics before he finally turned against it and published his paradigmatic magnum opus on The Entropy Law and the Economic Process. Although this work was decisive for the establishing of ecological economics as an independent academic sub-discipline in economics, Georgescu-Roegen died disappointed and bitter that his paradigmatic work did not receive the appreciation he had expected for it in his own lifetime.
Childhood, adolescence and education
Nicolae Georgescu was born in Constanța, Romania in 1906 to a family of simple origins. His father, of Greek descent, was an army officer. His mother, an ethnic Romanian, was a sewing teacher at a girls school. His father spent time teaching him how to read, write and calculate, and planted in the boy the seed of intellectual curiosity. By her living example, Nicolae's mother taught her son the value of hard work. After having lost his position in the army for disciplinary reasons, his father died when Nicolae was only eight years old.
Constanța was then a small Black Sea port with some 25,000 inhabitants. The mix of various cultures and ethnic groups in the town shaped Nicolae's cosmopolitan spirit from his earliest years. In primary school, Nicolae excelled at mathematics, and he was encouraged by a teacher to apply for a scholarship at a secondary school, the Lyceum Mânăstirea Dealu ("Lycée of the Monastery of the Hill"), a new military prep school in the town. Nicolae won a scholarship there in 1916, but his attendance was delayed by Romania's entry into World War I. His widowed mother fled with the family to Bucharest, the country's capital, where they stayed with Nicolae's maternal grandmother during the rest of the war. In these times of hardship, Nicolae had traumatic boyhood experiences of the agonies of war. He wanted to become a mathematics teacher, but he could barely keep up his schoolwork.
After the war, Nicolae returned to his home town to attend the lyceum. Teaching standards were high, and many of the teachers later went on to become university professors, but the discipline was regimented, with mock-military physical exercises and wearing uniforms. Students were not permitted to leave the school except in summer and briefly during Christmas and Easter. Nicolae proved to be an excellent student, especially in mathematics. He later credited the five years of secondary education he received at the lyceum for providing him with an extraordinary education that would serve him well later in his career, but he also blamed the discipline and the monastic isolation of the place for having stunted his social abilities, something that would put him at odds with acquaintances and colleagues throughout his life.
At the lyceum, it turned out that Nicolae Georgescu had a namesake. In order to avoid any confusion, he decided to create an addendum to his family name, made up of the first and the last letter of his first name, plus the first four letters of his last name, all six letters put in the reverse order: NicolaE GEORgescu → '-Roegen'. Georgescu-Roegen would retain this addendum for the rest of his life. Later in his life, he also changed his first name to its French and English form, 'Nicholas'.
Georgescu-Roegen received his diploma from the lyceum in 1923. Thanks to a scholarship awarded to children from poor families, he was soon after accepted at the University of Bucharest for further studies in mathematics. The curriculum there was conventional, and the teaching methods were much the same as those that had prevailed at the lyceum. At the university, he met the woman who would later become his wife for the rest of his life, Otilia Busuioc. To sustain himself during his studies, he gave private lessons and taught in a grammar school outside the city. After his graduation cum laude in 1926, he took the examination to qualify as a secondary school teacher and then accepted a teaching post for another year in his former lyceum in Constanța.
At the university, Georgescu-Roegen became closely acquainted with one of his professors, Traian Lalescu, a renowned mathematician of the day who had taken a special interest in applying mathematical methods to economic reality using statistics. Lalescu was concerned with the lack of adequate data needed to analyse Romania's economy, so he encouraged Georgescu-Roegen to pursue this line of research in further studies abroad. Georgescu-Roegen soon followed this piece of advice: In 1927 he went to France to study at the Institute de Statistique, Sorbonne in Paris.
Studying in Paris and London
Georgescu-Roegen's stay in Paris broadened his field of study well beyond pure mathematics. Not only did he attend the lectures of the best statistics and economics professors in France, he also immersed himself in the philosophy of science, especially the works of Blaise Pascal, Ernst Mach, and Henri Bergson. Daily life was not easy for a poor foreign student in a great city. The meager means he received from Romania could barely support even his most basic necessities, and French students habitually referred to all foreign students by the derogatory term métèques, 'strangers'. But his studies progressed splendidly: in 1930, Georgescu-Roegen defended his doctoral dissertation on how to discover the cyclical components of a phenomenon. He passed with extraordinary honour. Émile Borel, one of Georgescu-Roegen's professors, thought so highly of the dissertation that he had it published in full as a special issue of a French academic journal.
While studying in Paris, Georgescu-Roegen learned of the work of Karl Pearson at University College in London. Pearson was a leading English scholar of the time, with a field of interests that coincided with Georgescu-Roegen's own, namely mathematics, statistics, and philosophy of science. Georgescu-Roegen made arrangements to lodge with the family of a young Englishman he had met in Paris and left for England in 1931. During his stay in London, his hosts not only accepted Georgescu-Roegen as their paying guest, but also taught him the basics of the English language, in preparation for his studies in the country.
When he approached Pearson and the English university system, Georgescu-Roegen was amazed with the informality and openness he found. There was no more feeling like a métèque, a stranger. Studying with Pearson for the next two years and reading Pearson's work on the philosophy of science, titled The Grammar of Science, further shaped Georgescu-Roegen's scientific methodology and philosophy. The two became friends, and Pearson encouraged Georgescu-Roegen to carry on with his studies in mathematical statistics. They co-pioneered research on the so-called "problem of moments", one of the most difficult topics in statistics at the time, but neither was able to solve the problem. This was a great disappointment to Pearson, but Georgescu-Roegen was pleased by their joint effort nonetheless.
While studying in London, Georgescu-Roegen was contacted by a representative of the U.S.-based Rockefeller Foundation. Due to his past academic achievements, the foundation wanted to grant Georgescu-Roegen a research fellowship in the U.S. Georgescu-Roegen had earlier learned of the use of time series analyses by the then famous Harvard Economic Barometer at Harvard University, so he accepted the grant. The trip was put off for about a year, however, as he had more pressing obligations in Romania: He needed to conclude his first national editorial project, a 500-page manual on Metoda Statistică, and he had to care for his aging widowed mother who was in bad health.
Trip to the United States, meeting Schumpeter
In autumn 1934, Georgescu-Roegen went to the United States. On arriving at Harvard University, he learned that the Economic Barometer had been shut down years before: The project had completely failed to predict the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and was soon abandoned altogether. After several failed attempts to find another sponsor for his research, Georgescu-Roegen finally managed a meeting with the professor at the university teaching business cycles to see if there were any other opportunities available to him. This professor happened to be Joseph Schumpeter.
Meeting Schumpeter at this point completely changed the direction of Georgescu-Roegen's life and career. Schumpeter warmly welcomed Georgescu-Roegen to Harvard, and soon introduced him to the now famous 'circle', one of the most remarkable groups of economists ever working at the same institution, including Wassily Leontief, Oskar Lange, Fritz Machlup, and Nicholas Kaldor, among others. Georgescu-Roegen was now in a stimulating intellectual environment with weekly evening gatherings and informal academic discussions, where Schumpeter himself presided as the 'ringmaster' of the circle. In Schumpeter, Georgescu-Roegen had found a competent and sympathetic mentor. Although Georgescu-Roegen never formally enrolled in any economics classes, this was how he became an economist: "Schumpeter turned me into an economist ... My only degree in economics is from Universitas Schumpeteriana."
While at Harvard, Georgescu-Roegen published four important papers, laying the foundations for his later theories of consumption and production. The scholarly quality of these articles impressed Schumpeter.
Georgescu-Roegen's trip to the U.S. was not all spent at Harvard. He managed to obtain a modest stipend for himself and his wife Otilia that enabled them to travel about the country, journeying as far as California. Through Schumpeter's contacts, Georgescu-Roegen had the opportunity to meet Irving Fisher, Harold Hotelling, and other leading economists of the day. He also met Albert Einstein at Princeton University.
During his stay, Georgescu-Roegen's relationship with Schumpeter developed. Realising that Georgescu-Roegen was a promising young scholar, Schumpeter wanted to keep him at Harvard. He offered Georgescu-Roegen a position with the economics faculty, and asked him to work with him on an economics treatise as a joint effort, but Georgescu-Roegen declined. He wanted to go back to Romania in order to serve his backward fatherland that had sponsored most of his education so far; besides, his return was expected at home. Later in his life, Georgescu-Roegen would regret having turned down Schumpeter's generous offer at this point in his career.
In spring 1936, Georgescu-Roegen left the U.S. His voyage back to Romania came to last almost a year in itself, as he paid a long visit to Friedrich Hayek and John Hicks at the London School of Economics on the way home. He was in no hurry to return.
The Romanian 'exile' and the flight from there
From 1937 to 1948, Georgescu-Roegen lived in Romania, where he witnessed all the turmoil of World War II and the subsequent rise to power of the communists in the country. During the war, Georgescu-Roegen lost his only brother due to a fatal reaction to a tuberculosis vaccine.
Upon his return from the U.S. to Bucharest, Georgescu-Roegen was soon appointed to several government posts. His doctoral dissertation from Sorbonne as well as his other academic credentials earned him a respectable reputation everywhere, and his fine French and English skills were needed in the foreign affairs department. He became vice-director of the Central Statistical Institute, responsible for compiling data on the country's foreign trade on a daily basis; he also served on the National Board of Trade, settling commercial agreements with the major foreign powers; he even participated in the diplomatic negotiations concerning the reassignment of Romania's national borders with Hungary.
Georgescu-Roegen engaged himself in politics and joined the pro-monarchy National Peasants' Party. The country's economy was still underdeveloped and had a large agrarian base, where the mass of the peasantry lived in backwardness and poverty. Substantial land reforms were called for if the most appalling inequalities between the rural and the urban parts of the population were to be evened out. Georgescu-Roegen put a persuasive effort into this work and was soon elevated to the higher ranks of the party, becoming member of the party's National Council.
Georgescu-Roegen did only little academic work during this period of his life. Apart from co-editing the national encyclopedia, the Enciclopedia României, and reporting on the country's economic situation in some minor statistics publications, he published nothing of scholarly significance. Although he did reside in his native country, Georgescu-Roegen would later refer to this period of his life as his Romanian 'exile': The exile was an intellectual one for him.
By the end of the war, Romania was occupied by the Soviet Union. A trusted government official and a leading member of an influential political party, Georgescu-Roegen was appointed general secretary of the Armistice Commission, responsible for negotiating the conditions for peace with the occupying power. The negotiations dragged out for half a year and came to involve long and stressful discussions: During most of the war, Romania had been an Axis power allied with Nazi Germany, so the Soviet representatives treated the commission as nothing but a vehicle for levying the largest possible amount of war reparations on the Romanian people.
After the war, political forces in the country began encroaching on Georgescu-Roegen. Before and during the war, Romania had already passed through three successive dictatorships, and the fourth one was now imminent. Plenty of items on Georgescu-Roegen's track record were suitable for antagonising both the native Romanian communists and the Soviet authorities that still occupied the country: His top membership of the Peasants' Party, in open opposition to the Communist Party; his chief negotiating position in the Armistice Commission, defending Romania's sovereignty against the occupying power; and his earlier affiliation with capitalist US as a Rockefeller research fellow at Harvard University. Political repression in the country intensified as the rise to power of the communists was completing, and Georgescu-Roegen finally realised it was time to get away: "... I had to flee Romania before I was thrown into a jail from which no one has ever come out alive." By the aid of the Jewish community – he had earlier risked his neck by helping the Jews during the Romanian part of the Holocaust – Georgescu-Roegen and his wife got hold of counterfeit identity cards that secured them the passage out of the country, surrounded by bribed smugglers and stowed away in the hold of a freighter heading for Turkey.
Having visited Turkey before on official business, Georgescu-Roegen was able to use his contacts there to notify Schumpeter and Leontief at Harvard University in the U.S. about his flight. Leontief offered Georgescu-Roegen a position at Harvard, and made the necessary arrangements for the couple in advance of their arrival there.
Settling in the United States, years at Vanderbilt University
After a journey from Turkey through continental Europe, Georgescu-Roegen and his wife reached Cherbourg in France, from where they crossed the Atlantic by ship. Georgescu-Roegen's arrival at Harvard in summer 1948 was something of a return for him there. Only now, the circumstances were very different from what they had been in the 1930s: He was no longer a promising young scholar on a trip abroad, supported and sponsored by his native country; instead, he was a middle-aged political refugee who had fled a communist dictatorship behind the Iron Curtain. Yet, he was welcomed at Harvard just the same, obtaining employment as a lecturer and research associate, collaborating with Wassily Leontief on the Harvard Economic Research Project and other subjects. This was not a permanent employment, however.
While working at Harvard, Georgescu-Roegen was approached by Vanderbilt University, who offered him a permanent academic chair as economics professor. Georgescu-Roegen accepted the offer and moved to Vanderbilt in Nashville, Tennessee in 1949. It has been argued that Georgescu-Roegen's decision to move from Harvard to the permanence and stability of the less prestigious Vanderbilt was motivated by his precarious wartime experiences and his feeling of insecurity as a political refugee in his new country. It has also been argued that Joseph Schumpeter had at this point lost most of his former influence that could have secured Georgescu-Roegen a permanent position at Harvard (Schumpeter died in 1950). Georgescu-Roegen remained at Vanderbilt until his retirement in 1976 at age 70. Except for short trips, he would never leave Nashville again.
During his years at Vanderbilt University, Georgescu-Roegen pursued an impressive academic career. He held numerous visiting appointments and research fellowships across the continents, and served as editor of a range of academic journals, including the Econometrica. He received several academic honours, including the distinguished Harvie Branscomb Award, presented in 1967 by his employer, Vanderbilt University. In 1971, the very same year his magnum opus was published, he was honoured as Distinguished Fellow of the American Economic Association.
In the early-1960s, Georgescu-Roegen had Herman Daly as a student. Daly later went on to become a leading ecological economist as well as the economists profession's most faithful, persistent and influential proponent of the economics of Georgescu-Roegen. However, Georgescu-Roegen, for his part, would later turn critical of his student's work (see below).
The publication of Georgescu-Roegen's magnum opus in 1971 did not trigger any immediate debates in the mainstream of the economics profession, and the only review in a leading mainstream journal warned the readers against the "incorrect statements and philosophical generalisations" made by the author; but Georgescu-Roegen did receive four favourable reviews from heterodox, evolutionary economists.
Through the 1970s, Georgescu-Roegen had a short-lived cooperation with the Club of Rome. Whereas Georgescu-Roegen's own magnum opus went largely unnoticed by mainstream (neoclassical) economists, the report on The Limits to Growth, published in 1972 by the Club of Rome, created something of a stir in the economics profession. In the heated controversies that followed the report, Georgescu-Roegen found himself largely on the same side as the club, and opposed to the mainstream economists. Teaming up with a natural ally, he approached the club and became a member there. Georgescu-Roegen's theoretical work came to influence the club substantially. One other important result of the cooperation was the publication of the pointed and polemical article on Energy and Economic Myths, where Georgescu-Roegen took issue with mainstream economists and various other debaters. This article found a large audience through the 1970s. Later, the cooperation with the club waned: Georgescu-Roegen reproached the club for not adopting a definite anti-growth political stance; he was also sceptical of the club's elitist and technocratic fashion of attempting to monitor and guide global social reality by building numerous abstract computer simulations of the world economy, and then publish all the findings to the general public. In the early-1980s, the parties finally split up.
In continental Europe, Georgescu-Roegen and his work gained influence from the 1970s. When Georgescu-Roegen delivered a lecture at the University of Geneva in Switzerland in 1974, he made a lasting impression on the young and newly graduated French historian and philosopher Jacques Grinevald. The ensuing cooperation and friendship between the two resulted in the French translation of a selection of Georgescu-Roegen's articles entitled Demain la décroissance: Entropie – Écologie – Économie ("Tomorrow, the Decline: Entropy – Ecology – Economy"), published in 1979. Similar to his involvement with the Club of Rome (see above), Georgescu-Roegen's article on Energy and Economic Myths came to play a crucial role in the dissemination of his views among the later followers of the degrowth movement. In the 1980s, Georgescu-Roegen met and befriended Catalan agricultural economist and historian of economic thought Juan Martínez-Alier, who would soon after become a driving force in the establishing of both the International Society for Ecological Economics and the degrowth movement. Since the degrowth movement formed in France and Italy in the early-2000s, leading French champion of the movement Serge Latouche has credited Georgescu-Roegen for being a "main theoretical source of degrowth." Likewise, Italian degrowth theorist Mauro Bonaiuti has considered Georgescu-Roegen's work to be "one of the analytical cornerstones of the degrowth perspective."
Apart from his involvement with the Club of Rome and a few European scholars, Georgescu-Roegen remained a solitary man throughout the years at Vanderbilt. He rarely discussed his ongoing work with colleagues and students, and he collaborated in very few joint projects during his career. In addition, several independent sources confirm the observation that Georgescu-Roegen's uncompromising personality and bad temper made him a rather unpleasant acquaintance to deal with. His blunt and demanding behaviour tended to offend most people in academia and elsewhere, thereby undermining his influence and standing.
On Georgescu-Roegen's formal retirement in 1976, a symposium in his honour was organised by three of his colleagues at Vanderbilt, and the papers presented there were later published as an anthology. No fewer than four Nobel Prize laureates were among the contributing economists; but none of the colleagues from Georgescu-Roegen's department at Vanderbilt participated, a fact that has since been taken as evidence of his social and academic isolation at the place.
Retirement, later years and death
After Georgescu-Roegen's formal retirement from Vanderbilt in 1976, he continued to live and work as an emeritus in his home in Nashville until his death in 1994. Through these later years, he wrote several articles and papers, expanding on and developing his views. He also corresponded extensively with his few friends and former colleagues.
In 1988, Georgescu-Roegen was invited to join the editorial board of the newly established academic journal Ecological Economics, published by the International Society for Ecological Economics; but although most of the people organising the journal and the society recognised and admired Georgescu-Roegen's work, he turned down the invitation: He regarded both the journal and the society as nothing but vehicles for promoting concepts like sustainable development and steady-state economics, concepts he himself dismissed as misdirected and wrong (see below, both here and here). Georgescu-Roegen had more ambitious goals in mind: He wanted to overturn and replace the prevailing, but flawed, mainstream paradigm of neoclassical economics with his own 'bioeconomics' (see below); to downscale (degrow) the economy as soon as possible (see below); and not merely be relegated to some arcane and insignificant – so he believed – economics sub-discipline such as ecological economics.
Georgescu-Roegen lived long enough to survive the communist dictatorship in Romania he had fled earlier in his life (see above). He even received some late recognition from his fatherland: In the wake of the fall of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent Romanian Revolution in 1989, Georgescu-Roegen was elected to the Romanian Academy in Bucharest. He was pleased by his election.
His last years were marked by seclusion and withdrawal from the world. By now, Georgescu-Roegen was an old man. Although he had a productive and successful academic career behind him, he was disappointed that his work had not received the dissemination and recognition he had expected for it in his own lifetime. He believed he had long been running against a current. As he likened himself to one unlucky heretic and legendary martyr of science out of the Italian Renaissance, Georgescu-Roegen grumbled and exclaimed: "E pur si muove is ordinarily attributed to Galileo, although those words were the last ones uttered by Giordano Bruno on the burning stake!" He came to realise that he had failed in his life's work to warn the general public and change people's minds about the looming mineral resource exhaustion he himself was very concerned about. He finally grasped that philosophical pessimism may well be a stance favoured by a few solitary intellectuals like himself, but such a stance is normally shunned like a taboo in wider human culture: "[A] considered pessimist is looked upon as a bearer of bad news and ... is not welcomed ever ...", he lamented. Yet, in spite of his deep disappointment and frustration, he continued to write down and propagate his views as long as he was physically able to do so.
By the end, his health deteriorated. He was becoming rather deaf, and complications caused by his diabetes rendered him unable to climb stairs. In his final years, he isolated himself completely. He cut off all human contact, even to those of his former colleagues and students who appreciated his contribution to economics. He died bitter and (almost) lonely in his home at the age of 88. His wife Otilia survived him by some four years. The couple had no children. At his express request, his ashes were brought to Romania and deposited at Bellu Cemetery, in the sector reserved for academics.
In his obituary essay on Georgescu-Roegen, Herman Daly wrote admirably of his deceased teacher and mentor, concluding that "He demanded a lot, but he gave more." In another obituary article, Georgescu-Roegen was hailed for the "novelty and importance of his contributions", for which he should have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics.
Work
In his work as an economist, Georgescu-Roegen was influenced by the philosophy of Ernst Mach and the later school of logical positivism derived from Mach. Georgescu-Roegen found that two of his other main sources of inspiration, namely Karl Pearson and Albert Einstein, also had a largely Machian outlook. "My philosophy is in spirit Machian: it is ... mainly [concerned] with the problem of valid analytical representations of the relations among facts." Much of his criticism of both neoclassical economics and of Marxism was based on this outlook.
Coming to the U.S. after World War II, Georgescu-Roegen's background soon put him at odds with the dominant theoretical school of neoclassical economics in the country. Having lived in Romania, an underdeveloped and peasant-dominated economy, he realised that neoclassical economics could explain only those social conditions that prevailed in advanced capitalist economies, but not in other institutional settings. He was also critical of the increasing use of abstract algebraic formalism grounded in no facts of social reality. Both of these issues made him attentive to social phenomena that were either overlooked or misrepresented by mainstream neoclassical economic analysis.
It has been argued that an unbroken path runs from Georgescu-Roegen's work in pure theory in the early years, through his writings on peasant economies in the 1960s, leading to his preoccupation with entropy and bioeconomics in the last 25 years of his life.
Magnum opus on The Entropy Law and the Economic Process
According to Georgescu-Roegen's own recollection, the ideas presented in his paradigmatic magnum opus were worked out in his mind over a period of twenty years or so before the final publication. The three most important sources of inspiration for his work were Émile Borel's monograph on thermodynamics he had read while studying in Paris (see above); Joseph Schumpeter's view that irreversible evolutionary changes are inherent in capitalism; and the Romanian historical record of the large oil refineries in Ploiești becoming target of strategic military attacks in both world wars, proving the importance of natural resources in social conflict.
The shortcomings of both neoclassical economics and of Marxism
Georgescu-Roegen outlines that both main streams of economic thought having dominated the world since the end of the 19th century – namely neoclassical economics and Marxism – share the shortcoming of not taking into account the importance of natural resources in man's economy. Hence, Georgescu-Roegen engages himself in an intellectual battle with two fronts.
The relevance of thermodynamics to economics
The physical theory of thermodynamics is based on two laws: The first law states that energy is neither created nor destroyed in any isolated system (a conservation principle). The second law of thermodynamics – also known as the entropy law – states that in an isolated system, entropy, a measure of the disorder in a system, normally cannot decrease.
Georgescu-Roegen argues that the relevance of thermodynamics to economics stems from the physical fact that man can neither create nor destroy matter or energy, only transform it. The usual economic terms of 'production' and 'consumption' are mere verbal conventions that tend to obscure that nothing is created and nothing is destroyed in the economic process – everything is being transformed.
Thermodynamics has relevance to cosmology via the hypothesis of the heat death of the universe. Georgescu-Roegen sees the transformation of energy – whether in nature or in human society – as moving the universe closer towards a final state of inert physical, statistical uniformity and maximum entropy. Georgescu-Roegen argues from this inspiration from cosmology that humanity's economic activities shorten the time frame to planetary heat death, locally on Earth. This view on the economy was later termed 'entropy pessimism'. Some of Georgescu-Roegen's followers and interpreters have elaborated on this view.
Conceptions of scarcity
Georgescu-Roegen's principal argument is that economic scarcity is rooted in physical reality. Introducing the term 'low entropy' for valuable natural resources, and the term 'high entropy' for valueless waste and pollution, Georgescu-Roegen explains that all the economic process does from a physical point of view is to irreversibly transform low entropy into high entropy, thereby providing a flow of natural resources for people to live on. The irreversibility of this economic process is the reason why natural resources are scarce: Recycling of material resources is possible, but only by using up some energy resources plus an additional amount of other material resources; and energy resources, in turn, cannot be recycled at all, but are dissipated as waste heat (according to the entropy law).
Georgescu-Roegen points out that the earth is a closed system in the thermodynamic sense of the term: the earth exchanges energy, but not matter (practically) with the rest of the universe. Hence, mainly two sources of low entropy are available to man, namely the stock of mineral resources in the crust of the earth; and the flow of radiation, received from the sun. Since the sun will continue to shine for billions of years to come, the earth's mineral stock is the scarcer one of these two main sources of low entropy. Whereas the stock of minerals may be extracted from the crust of the earth at a rate of our own choosing (practically), the flow of solar radiation arrives at the surface of the earth at a constant and fixed rate, beyond human control, Georgescu-Roegen maintains. This natural 'asymmetry' between man's access to the stock of minerals and the flow of solar energy accounts for the historical contrast between urban and rural life: The busy urban life, on the one hand, is associated with industry and the impatient extraction of minerals; the tranquil rural life, on the other hand, is associated with agriculture and the patient reception of the fixed flow of solar energy. Georgescu-Roegen argues that this 'asymmetry' helps explain the historical subjection of the countryside by the town since the dawn of civilisation, and he criticises Karl Marx for not taking this subjection properly into account in his theory of historical materialism.
Georgescu-Roegen explains that modern mechanised agriculture has developed historically as a result of the growing pressure of population on arable land; but the relief of this pressure by means of mechanisation has only substituted a scarcer source of input for the more abundant input of solar radiation: Machinery, chemical fertilisers and pesticides all rely on mineral resources for their operation, rendering modern agriculture – and the industrialised food processing and distribution systems associated with it – almost as dependent on earth's mineral stock as the industrial sector has always been. Georgescu-Roegen cautions that this situation is a major reason why the carrying capacity of earth is decreasing. In effect, overpopulation on earth is largely a dynamic long run phenomenon, being a by-product of ever more constraining mineral scarcities.
The production process and the flow-fund model
Georgescu-Roegen's model of the economy grew out of his dissatisfaction with neoclassical production theory as well as the input-output model of the economy, developed by Nobel Prize laureate Wassily Leontief. Georgescu-Roegen realised that production cannot be adequately described by stocks of equipment and inventories only, or by flows of inputs and outputs only. It was necessary to combine these two descriptions. In order to complete the picture, it was also necessary to add the new concept of a "fund".
In Georgescu-Roegen's flow-fund model of production, a fund factor is either labour power, farmland, or man-made capital providing a useful service at any point in time. A "stock" factor is a material or energy input that can be decumulated at will; a "flow" factor is a stock spread out over a period of time. The fund factors constitute the agents of the economic process, and the flow factors are used or acted upon by these agents. Unlike a stock factor, a fund factor cannot be used (decumulated) at will, as its rate of utilisation depends on the distinct physical properties of the fund (labour power and farmland, for instance, may run the risk of overuse and exhaustion if proper care is not taken).
Contrary to neoclassical production theory, Georgescu-Roegen identifies nature as the exclusive primary source of all factors of production. According to the first law of thermodynamics, matter and energy are neither created nor destroyed in the economy (the conservation principle). According to the second law of thermodynamics – the entropy law – what happens in the economy is that all matter and energy is transformed from states available for human purposes to states unavailable for human purposes (the degradation principle). This transformation constitutes a unidirectional and irreversible process. Consequently, valuable natural resources ("low entropy") are procured by the input end of the economy; the resources flow through the economy, being transformed and manufactured into goods along the way; and unvaluable waste and pollution ("high entropy") eventually accumulate by the output end. Humankind lives in, by, and of nature, and we return our residues to nature. By so doing, the entropy of the combined nature-economy system steadily increases.
The presence of natural resource flows in Georgescu-Roegen's model of production (production function) differentiates the model from those of both Keynesian macroeconomics, neoclassical economics, as well as classical economics, including most – though not all – variants of Marxism. Only in ecological economics are natural resource flows positively recognised as a valid theoretical basis for economic modelling and analysis.
Later, Georgescu-Roegen's production model formed the basis of his criticism of neoclassical economics (see below).
From the 1980s, numerous economists have been working on Georgesu-Roegen's flow-fund model. In 1992, Mario Morroni presented a development of the flow-fund model for applied analysis. This model has been implemented in some case studies regarding the textile industry, electronic devices for telecommunication industry, shoe industry, and tie industry.
Man's economic struggle and the social evolution of mankind (bioeconomics)
In his social theory, Georgescu-Roegen argues that man's economic struggle to work and earn a livelihood is largely a continuation and extension of his biological struggle to sustain life and survive. This biological struggle has prevailed since the dawn of man, and the nature of the struggle was not altered by the invention of money as a medium of exchange. Unlike animals, man has developed exosomatic instruments, that is, tools and equipment. These instruments are produced by man and are not a part of his body. At the same time, production is a social, and not an individual, undertaking. This situation has turned man's struggle to sustain life and survive into a social conflict which is unique when compared to animals. Contrasting his own view with those of Karl Marx, Georgescu-Roegen asserts:
When man (some men) attempts to radically change the distribution of access to material resources in society, this may result in wars or revolutions, Georgescu-Roegen admits; but even though wars and revolutions may bring about the intended redistributions, man's economic struggle and the social conflict will remain. There will be rulers and ruled in any social order, and the ruling is largely a continuation of the biological struggle of sustaining life and survive, Georgescu-Roegen claims. Under these material conditions, the ruling classes of past and present have always resorted to force, ideology and manipulation to defend their privileges and maintain the acquiescence of the ruled. This historical fact does not end with communism, Georgescu-Roegen points out; quite the opposite, it goes on during communism, and beyond it as well. It would be contrary to man's biological nature to organise himself otherwise.
Later, Georgescu-Roegen introduced the term 'bioeconomics' (short for 'biological economics') to describe his view that man's economic struggle is a continuation of the biological struggle. In his final years, he planned to write a book on the subject of bioeconomics, but due to old age, he was unable to complete it. He did manage to write a sketch on it, though.
Population pressure, mineral resource exhaustion and the end of mankind
Georgescu-Roegen takes a dismal view on human nature and the future of mankind. On the one hand, his general argument is that the carrying capacity of earth – that is, earth's capacity to sustain human populations and consumption levels – is decreasing as earth's finite stock of mineral resources are being extracted and put to use; but on the other hand, he finds that restraining ourselves collectively on a permanent and voluntary basis for the benefit of future generations runs counter to our biological nature as a species. We cannot help ourselves. Consequently, the world economy will continue growing until its inevitable and final collapse. From that point on, he predicts, ever deepening scarcities will cause widespread misery, aggravate social conflict throughout the globe, and intensify man's economic struggle to work and earn a livelihood. A prolonged 'biological spasm' of our species will follow, ultimately spelling the end of mankind itself, as man has already become completely and irreversibly dependent on the industrial economy for his biological existence. We are not going to make it. We are doomed to downfall, destruction, and demise. Predicts Georgescu-Roegen:
Georgescu-Roegen's radically pessimistic 'existential risk' perspective on global mineral resource exhaustion was later countered by Robert Ayres (see below).
Work after magnum opus
In the years following the publication of his magnum opus in 1971 and until his death in 1994, Georgescu-Roegen published a number of articles and essays where he further expanded on and developed his views.
Criticising neoclassical economics (weak versus strong sustainability)
Criticising neoclassical economics, Georgescu-Roegen argues that neoclassical production theory is false when representing the economy as a mechanical, circular and closed system, with no inlets and no outlets. A misrepresentation such as this fails to take into account the exhaustion of mineral resources at the input end, and the building up of waste and pollution at the output end. In Georgescu-Roegen's view, the economy is represented more accurately by his own flow-fund model of production (see above).
In addition, Georgescu-Roegen finds that neoclassical economics tends to overlook, or, at best, to misrepresent the problem of how to allocate the exhaustible mineral resources between present and future generations. Georgescu-Roegen points out that the market mechanisms of supply and demand are systematically unable to work out the intergenerational allocation problem in a satisfactory way, since future generations are not, and cannot be, present on today's market. This anomaly of the market mechanisms – or ecological market failure – is described by Georgescu-Roegen as 'a dictatorship of the present over the future'. On this issue, notable economists and Nobel Prize laureates Robert Solow and Joseph Stiglitz, Georgescu-Roegen's two main adversaries in academia in the 1970s, have stated their account of the mainstream neoclassical approach to the economics of exhaustible resources: They both claim that across the board substitutability of man-made capital for natural capital constitutes a real possibility. Hence, any concern with intergenerational allocation of the mineral stock should be relaxed somewhat (according to Solow); or even ignored altogether (according to Stiglitz).
The position of Solow and Stiglitz (as well as other, like-minded theorists in the neoclassical tradition) was later termed 'weak sustainability' by environmental economist Kerry Turner.
In response to the position of Solow and Stiglitz, Georgescu-Roegen argues that neoclassical economists generally fail to realise the important difference between material resources and energy resources in the economic process. This is where his flow-fund model of production comes into play (see above). Georgescu-Roegen's point is that only material resources can be transformed into man-made capital. Energy resources, on the other hand, cannot be so transformed, as it is physically impossible to turn energy into matter, and matter is what man-made capital is made up of physically. The only possible role to be performed by energy resources is to assist – usually as fuel or electricity – in the process of transforming material resources into man-made capital. In Georgescu-Roegen's own terminology, energy may have the form of either a stock factor (mineral deposits in nature), or a flow factor (resources transformed in the economy); but never that of a fund factor (man-made capital in the economy). Hence, substituting man-made capital for energy resources is physically impossible.
Furthermore, not all material resources are transformed into man-made capital; instead, some material resources are manufactured directly into consumer goods having only a limited durability. Finally, in the course of time, all man-made capital depreciates, wears out and needs replacement; but both old and new man-made capital is made out of material resources to begin with. All in all, the economic process is indeed a process with steadily increasing entropy, and the 'mechanical' notion of across the board substitutability prevalent in neoclassical economics is untenable, Georgescu-Roegen submits.
Contrary to the neoclassical position, Georgescu-Roegen argues that flow factors and fund factors (that is, natural resources and man-made capital) are essentially complementary, since both are needed in the economic process in order to have a working economy. Georgescu-Roegen's conclusion, then, is that the allocation of exhaustible mineral resources between present and future generations is a large problem that cannot, and should not, be relaxed or ignored: "There seems to be no way to do away with the dictatorship of the present over the future, although we may aim at making it as bearable as possible." Georgescu-Roegen's followers and interpreters have since been discussing the existential impossibility of allocating earth's finite stock of mineral resources evenly among an unknown number of present and future generations. This number of generations is likely to remain unknown to us, as there is no way – or only little way – of knowing in advance if or when mankind will ultimately face extinction. In effect, any conceivable intertemporal allocation of the stock will inevitably end up with universal economic decline at some future point. This approach to mankind's prospects is absent in neoclassical economics.
The position of Georgescu-Roegen, including his criticism of neoclassical economics, was later termed 'strong sustainability' by Kerry Turner. Later still, Turner's taxonomy of 'weak' and 'strong' sustainability was integrated into ecological economics. However, contrary to the widely established use of Turner's simplifying taxonomy, Georgescu-Roegen never referred to his own position as 'strong sustainability' or any other variant of sustainability. Quite the opposite. Georgescu-Roegen flatly dismissed any notion of sustainable development as only so much 'snake oil' intended to deceive the general public. In his last years, he even denounced the notion bitterly as "one of the most toxic recipes for mankind": It is a gross contradiction in terms to speak of a 'sustainable' rate of extraction and use of a finite stock of non-renewable mineral resources – any rate will obviously reduce the remaining stock itself. Consequently, the Industrial Revolution as a whole has brought about unsustainable economic development in the world (see below).
Criticising Daly's steady-state economics
Leading ecological economist and steady-state theorist Herman Daly is a former student and protégé of Georgescu-Roegen. In the 1970s, Daly developed the concept of a steady-state economy, by which he understands an economy made up of a constant stock of physical wealth (man-made capital) and a constant stock of people (population), both stocks to be maintained by a minimal flow of natural resources (or 'throughput', as he terms it). Daly argues that this steady-state economy is both necessary and desirable in order to keep human environmental impact within biophysical limits (however defined), and to create more allocational fairness between present and future generations with regard to mineral resource use. In several articles, Georgescu-Roegen criticised his student's concept of a steady-state economy.
Georgescu-Roegen argues that Daly's steady-state economy will provide no ecological salvation for mankind, especially not in the longer run. Due to the geologic fact that mineral ores are deposited and concentrated very unevenly in the crust of the earth, prospecting for and extraction of mineral resources will sooner or later be faced with the principle of diminishing returns, whereby extraction activities are pushed to still less accessible sites and still lower grades of ores. In the course of time, then, extraction costs and market prices of the incremental amount of resources will tend to increase. Eventually, all minerals will be exhausted, but the economic exhaustion will manifest itself long before the physical exhaustion provides the ultimate backstop for further activity: There will still be deposits of resources left in the crust, but the geologic concentration of these deposits will remain below the critical cutoff grade; hence, continued extraction will no longer pay off, and the market for these resources will then collapse. This long-term dynamics will work itself through any economic (sub-)system, regardless of the system's geographical location, its size and its state of development (whether a progressive, a steady or a declining state). In effect, the arguments advanced by Daly in support of his steady-state economy apply with even greater force in support of a declining-state economy, Georgescu-Roegen points out: When the overall purpose is to ration and stretch mineral resource use for as long time into the future as possible, zero economic growth is more desirable than growth is, true; but negative growth is better still! In this context, Georgescu-Roegen also criticises Daly for not specifying at what levels man-made capital and human population are to be kept constant in the steady-state.
Instead of Daly's steady-state economics, Georgescu-Roegen proposed his own so-called 'minimal bioeconomic program', featuring quantitative restrictions even more severe than those propounded by Daly.
Herman Daly on his part has readily accepted his teacher's judgement on this subject matter: In order to compensate for the principle of diminishing returns in mineral resource extraction, an ever greater share of capital and labour in the economy will gradually have to be transferred to the mining sector, thereby skewing the initial structure of any steady-state system. Even more important is it that the steady-state economy will serve only to postpone, and not to prevent, the inevitable mineral resource exhaustion anyway. "A steady-state economy cannot last forever, but neither can a growing economy, nor a declining economy", Daly concedes in his response to Georgescu-Roegen's criticism. In the same turn, Daly confirms Georgescu-Roegen's general argument that earth's carrying capacity is decreasing as mankind is extracting the finite mineral stock.
Likewise, several other economists in the field besides Georgescu-Roegen and Daly have agreed that a steady-state economy does not by itself constitute a long-term solution to the 'entropy problem' facing mankind.
Technology assessments in historical perspective
In his technology assessments, Georgescu-Roegen puts thermodynamic principles to use in a wider historical context, including the future of mankind.
According to Georgescu-Roegen's terminology, a technology is 'viable' only when it is able to return an energy surplus sufficiently large to maintain its own operation, plus some additional energy left over for other use. If this criterion is not met, the technology in question is only 'feasible' (if workable at all), but not 'viable'. Both viable and feasible technologies depend on a steady flow of natural resources for their operation.
Georgescu-Roegen argues that the first viable technology in human history was fire. By controlling fire, it was possible for man to burn a forest, or all forests. It was also possible to cook food and to obtain warmth and protection. Inspired by the ancient Greek myth of Prometheus, the Titan who stole fire from the gods and gave it to man, Georgescu-Roegen terms fire 'the first Promethean recipe'. According to Georgescu-Roegen, a later important Promethean recipe (technology) of the same (first) kind was animal husbandry, feeding on grass and other biomass (like fire does).
Much later in the history of man, the steam engine came about as the crucial Promethean recipe of the second kind, feeding on coal. The invention of the steam engine made it possible to drain the groundwater flooding the mine shafts, and the mined coal could then be used as fuel for other steam engines in turn. This technology propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain in the second half of the 18th century, whereby man's economy has been thrust into a long, never-to-return overshoot-and-collapse trajectory with regard to the earth's mineral stock. Georgescu-Roegen lists the internal combustion engine and the nuclear fission reactor as other, later examples of Promethean recipes of the second kind, namely heat engines feeding on a mineral fuel (oil and uranium (plus thorium), respectively).
By a Promethean recipe of the third kind, Georgescu-Roegen understands a solar collector returning a net energy output sufficiently large to supply all the energy input needed to manufacture an additional solar collector of the same kind, thereby constituting a full serial reproduction with regard to solar energy only. The fact that solar collectors of various kinds had been in operation on a substantial scale for more than a century without providing a breakthrough in energy efficiency brought Georgescu-Roegen to the conclusion that no Promethean recipe was yet around in the world in his day. Only feasible recipes for solar collectors were available, functioning like what he labelled 'parasites' with regard to the terrestrial inputs of energy for their manufacture and operation – and like any other parasite, these recipes cannot survive their host (the 'host' being the sources of the terrestrial inputs). Georgescu-Roegen believed that for a worldwide solar-powered economy to be truly energy self-supporting, a Promethean kind of solar collector had yet to be invented. Later, some scholars have argued that the efficiency of solar collectors has increased considerably since Georgescu-Roegen made these assessments.
Georgescu-Roegen further points out that regardless of the efficiency of any particular kind of solar collector, the major drawback of solar power per se when compared to terrestrial fossil fuels and uranium (plus thorium) is the diffuse, low-intensity property of solar radiation. Hence, a lot of material equipment is needed as inputs at the surface of the earth to collect, concentrate and (when convenient) store or transform the radiation before it can be put to use on a larger industrial scale. This necessary material equipment adds to the 'parasitical' operation of solar power, Georgescu-Roegen maintains.
Assessing fusion power as a possible future source of energy, Georgescu-Roegen ventured the opinion that, regarding magnetic confinement fusion, no reactor will ever be built to be large enough to effectively withstand and confine the vehement thermal pressure of the plasmic deuterium/tritium fusion processes through an extended period of time (which is a prerequisite for the 'viability' of this technology). He did not assess the other one of the two major fusion power technologies being researched in his day – and still being researched – namely inertial confinement fusion.
All of these technology assessments have to do with energy resources only, and not with material resources. Georgescu-Roegen stressed the point that even with the proliferation of solar collectors throughout the surface of the globe, or the advent of fusion power, or both, any industrial economy will still depend on a steady flow of material resources extracted from the crust of the earth, notably metals. He repeatedly argued his case that in the (far) future, it will be scarcity of terrestrial material resources, and not of energy resources, that will prove to impose the most binding constraint on man's economy on earth. As he held no space advocacy views, Georgescu-Roegen failed to assess the (still) emerging technology of asteroid mining or any other known type of space colonisation as potentials for compensating for this future scarcity constraint facing mankind: He was convinced that throughout its entire span of existence, our species will remain confined solely to earth for all practical purposes. His paradigmatic vision concluded thereby.
Controversies
Georgescu-Roegen's work was blemished somewhat by mistakes caused by his insufficient understanding of the physical science of thermodynamics. While working on The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (see above), Georgescu-Roegen had the firm understanding that the entropy law applies equally well to both energy resources and to material resources, and much of the reasoning in the opus rests on this understanding; but, regrettably for Georgescu-Roegen, this understanding was – and still is – false: In thermodynamics proper, the entropy law does apply to energy, but not to matter of macroscopic scale (that is, not to material resources). Later, when Georgescu-Roegen realised his mistake, his reaction passed through several stages of contemplation and refinement, ultimately leading to his formulation of a new physical law, namely the fourth law of thermodynamics. This fourth law states that complete recycling of matter is impossible. The purpose of Georgescu-Roegen's proposed fourth law was to substantiate his initial claim that not only energy resources, but also material resources, are subject to general and irreversible physical degradation when put to use in economic activity. In addition, he introduced the term 'material entropy' to describe this physical degradation of material resources.
Georgescu-Roegen himself was not confident about this tentative solution to the problem. He remained embarrassed that he had misinterpreted, and consequently, overstretched the proper application of the physical law that formed part of the title of his magnum opus. He conceded that he had entered into the science of thermodynamics as something of a bold novice. Dedicated to interdisciplinarity, he was worried that physicists would dismiss all of his work as amateurism on this count. The predicament would trouble him for the rest of his life. In his last published article on the subject matter before his death, Georgescu-Roegen recollected his encouragement when he had once earlier come across the concept of 'matter dissipation' used by German physicist and Nobel Prize laureate Max Planck to account for the existence of irreversible physical processes where no simultaneous transformation of energy was taking place. Georgescu-Roegen found consolation in the belief that the concept of 'matter dissipation' used by a physicist of Planck's authoritative standing would decisively substantiate his own fourth law and his own concept of material entropy.
Georgescu-Roegen's formulation of a fourth law of thermodynamics and the concept of material entropy soon generated some controversy, involving both physicists and ecological economists.
A full chapter on the economics of Georgescu-Roegen reviews this controversy and has approvingly been included in one elementary physics textbook on the historical development of thermodynamics, and the details (Georgescu-Roegen's mistakes) about the fourth law and material entropy are omitted there.
Modelling a possible future economic system for mankind, Robert Ayres has countered Georgescu-Roegen's position on the impossibility of complete and perpetual recycling of material resources. According to Ayres, it is possible to develop what he conceptualises as a 'spaceship economy' on earth on a stable and permanent basis, provided that a sufficient flow of energy is available to support it (for example, by an ample supply of solar energy). In this spaceship economy, all waste materials will be temporarily discarded and stored in inactive reservoirs – or what he calls 'waste baskets' – before being recycled and returned to active use in the economic system at some later point in time. It will not be necessary, or even possible, for materials recycling to form its own separate and continuous flow to be of use – only, the waste baskets in question have to be large enough to compensate for the rate and the efficiency of the recycling effort. In effect, complete and perpetual recycling of material resources will be possible in a future spaceship economy of this kind specified, thereby rendering obsolete Georgescu-Roegen's proposed fourth law of thermodynamics, Ayres submits. In a later article, Ayres restated his case for a spaceship economy.
In ecological economics, Ayres' contribution vis-à-vis Georgescu-Roegen's proposed fourth law was since described as yet another instance of the so-called 'energetic dogma': Earlier, Georgescu-Roegen had attached the label 'energetic dogma' to various theorists holding the view that only energy resources, and not material resources, are the constraining factor in all economic activity. Ayres appears to be the odd man out on this subject matter: Whatever the scientific status and validity of Georgescu-Roegen's fourth law may be, several other economists in the field besides Georgescu-Roegen deny the practical possibility of ever having complete and perpetual recycling of all material resources in any type of economic system, regardless of the amount of energy, time and information to be assigned to the recycling effort.
Prizes and awards
The Georgescu-Roegen Prize
Each year since 1987, the Georgescu-Roegen Prize has been awarded by the Southern Economic Association for the best academic article published in the Southern Economic Journal.
The Georgescu-Roegen Annual Awards
In 2012, two awards in honour of Georgescu-Roegen's life and work were established by The Energy and Resources Institute in New Delhi, India: The Georgescu-Roegen Annual Awards. The awards were officially announced on Georgescu-Roegen's 106th birth anniversary. The awards have two categories: The award for 'unconventional thinking' is presented for scholarly work in academia, and the award for 'bioeconomic practice' is presented for initiatives in politics, business and grassroots organisations.
Japanese ecological economist Kozo Mayumi, a student of Georgescu-Roegen from 1984 to 1988, was the first to receive the award in the 'unconventional thinking' category. Mayumi was awarded for his work on energy analysis and hierarchy theory.
Famous quotes
See also
Ecological economics
Degrowth movement: Lasting influence on
Steady-state economy: Herman Daly's concept of it
The Limits to Growth
Carrying capacity
Human overpopulation
Peak minerals
Market failure: Ecological market failure
Sustainable development: Critique
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)
Entropy
Heat death of the universe
Pessimism: Philosophical pessimism
Notes
References
Further reading
(Special issue)
External links
(Italian website)
(Introduction to the interview in Spanish (Castilian), the interview itself in English)
(Obituary)
(A thorough account of the historical development of ecological economics, including Georgescu-Roegen's contribution)
(A brief perspective on Georgescu-Roegen's entropy view)
(Blog lamenting the fact that Georgescu-Roegen was never awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics)
(Article speculating on one possible source of inspiration for the pontiff's controversial encyclical on ecological concerns)
(Article shedding some light on 'the famous entropy pessimist')
1906 births
1994 deaths
People from Constanța
University of Bucharest alumni
University of Paris alumni
Alumni of University College London
Academic staff of the University of Bucharest
20th-century Romanian mathematicians
20th-century Romanian economists
Romanian refugees
Romanian expatriates in France
Romanian emigrants to the United States
20th-century American economists
20th-century American mathematicians
Rockefeller Fellows
Vanderbilt University faculty
Ecological economists
Energy economists
Degrowth advocates
People associated with criticism of economic growth
Philosophers of pessimism
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Distinguished Fellows of the American Economic Association
Honorary members of the Romanian Academy
Burials at Bellu Cemetery
Academic staff of the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20anti-invasion%20preparations%20of%20the%20Second%20World%20War
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British anti-invasion preparations of the Second World War
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British anti-invasion preparations of the Second World War entailed a large-scale division of military and civilian mobilisation in response to the threat of invasion (Operation Sea Lion) by German armed forces in 1940 and 1941. The British Army needed to recover from the defeat of the British Expeditionary Force in France, and 1.5 million men were enrolled as part-time soldiers in the Home Guard. The rapid construction of field fortifications transformed much of the United Kingdom, especially southern England, into a prepared battlefield. Sea Lion was never taken beyond the preliminary assembly of forces. Today, little remains of Britain's anti-invasion preparations, although reinforced concrete structures such as pillboxes and anti-tank cubes can still be commonly found, particularly in the coastal counties.
Political and military background
On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland; two days later, Britain and France declared war on Germany, launching the Second World War. Within three weeks, the Red Army of the Soviet Union invaded the eastern regions of Poland in fulfilment of the secret Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Germany. A British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was sent to the Franco-Belgian border, but Britain and France did not take any direct action in support of the Poles. By 1 October, Poland had been completely overrun. There was little fighting over the months that followed. In a period known as the Phoney War, soldiers on both sides trained for war and the French and British constructed and manned defences on the eastern borders of France.
However, the British War Cabinet became concerned about exaggerated intelligence reports, aided by German disinformation, of large airborne forces which could be launched against Britain. At the insistence of Winston Churchill, then the First Lord of the Admiralty, a request was made that the Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces, General Sir Walter Kirke, should prepare a plan to repel a large-scale invasion. Kirke presented his plan on 15 November 1939, known as "Plan Julius Caesar" or "Plan J-C" because of the code word "Julius" which would be used for a likely invasion and "Caesar" for an imminent invasion. Kirke, whose main responsibility was to reinforce the BEF in France, had very limited resources available, with six poorly trained and equipped Territorial Army divisions in England, two in Scotland and three more in reserve. With France still a powerful ally, Kirke believed that the eastern coasts of England and Scotland were the most vulnerable, with ports and airfields given priority.
On 9 April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway. This operation preempted Britain's own plans to invade Norway. Denmark surrendered immediately, and, after a short-lived attempt by the British to make a stand in the northern part of the country, Norway also fell. The invasion of Norway was a combined forces operation in which the German war machine projected its power across the sea; this German success would come to be seen by the British as a dire portent. On 7 and 8 May 1940, the Norway Debate in the British House of Commons revealed intense dissatisfaction with, and some outright hostility toward, the government of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. Two days later Chamberlain resigned and was succeeded by Churchill.
On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded France. By that time, the BEF consisted of 10 infantry divisions in three corps, a tank brigade and a Royal Air Force detachment of around 500 aircraft. The BEF and the best French forces were pinned by the German attack into Belgium and the Netherlands, but were then outflanked by the main attack that came behind them through the Ardennes Forest by highly mobile Panzer divisions of the Wehrmacht, overrunning any defences that could be improvised in their path. In fierce fighting, most of the BEF were able to avoid being surrounded by withdrawing to a small area around the French port of Dunkirk. With the Germans now on the coast of France, it became evident that an urgent reassessment needed to be given to the possibility of having to resist an attempted invasion of Britain by German forces.
British armed forces
British Army
The evacuation of British and French forces (Operation Dynamo) began on 26 May with air cover provided by the Royal Air Force at heavy cost. Over the following ten days, 338,226 French and British soldiers were evacuated to Britain. Most of the personnel were brought back to Britain, but many of the army's vehicles, tanks, guns, ammunition and heavy equipment and the RAF's ground equipment and stores were left behind in France. Some soldiers even returned without their rifles. A further 215,000 were evacuated from ports south of the Channel in the more organised Operation Aerial during June.
In June 1940 the British Army had 22 infantry divisions and one armoured division. The infantry divisions were, on average, at half strength, and had only one-sixth of their normal artillery. Over 600 medium guns, both 18/25 and 25 pounders, and 280 howitzers were available, with a further one hundred 25-pounders manufactured in June. In addition, over 300 4.5-inch howitzers900 were modified in 1940 aloneand some 60-pounder howitzers and their modified 4.5-inch version as well as antiquated examples of the 6-inch howitzer were recovered from reserve after the loss of current models in France. These were augmented with several hundred additional 75-mm M1917 guns and their ammunition from the US. Some sources also state the British army was lacking in transport (just over 2,000 carriers were available, rising to over 3,000 by the end of July). There was a critical shortage of ammunition such that little could be spared for training.
In contrast, records show that the British possessed over 290 million rounds of .303 ammunition of various types on 7 June, rising to over 400 million in August. VII Corps was formed to control the Home Forces' general reserve, and included the 1st Armoured Division. In a reorganisation in July, the divisions with some degree of mobility were placed behind the "coastal crust" of defended beach areas from The Wash to Newhaven in Sussex. The General Headquarters Reserve was expanded to two corps of the most capable units. VII Corps was based at Headley Court in Surrey to the south of London and comprised 1st Armoured and 1st Canadian Divisions with the 1st Army Tank Brigade. IV Corps was based at Latimer House to the north of London and comprised 2nd Armoured, 42nd and 43rd Infantry divisions. VII Corps also included a brigade, which had been diverted to England when on its way to Egypt, from the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Two infantry brigades and corps troops including artillery, engineers and medical personnel from the Australian 6th Division were also deployed to the country between June 1940 and January 1941 as part of the Second Australian Imperial Force in the United Kingdom.
The number of tanks in Britain increased rapidly between June and September 1940 (mid-September being the theoretical planned date for the launch of Operation Sea Lion) as follows:
These figures do not include training tanks or tanks under repair.
The light tanks were mostly MkVIB and the cruiser tanks were A9 / A10 / A13. The infantry tanks included 27 obsolete Matilda MkIs but the rest were almost all the very capable Matilda II. The first Valentine infantry tanks were delivered in May 1940 for trials and 109 had been built by the end of September. In the immediate aftermath of Dunkirk some tank regiments, such as the 4th/7th Royal Dragoon Guards, were expected to go into action as infantry armed with little more than rifles and light machine guns. In June 1940 the regiment received the Beaverette, an improvised armoured car developed by order of the Minister of Aircraft Production Lord Beaverbrook, and former holiday coaches for use as personnel carriers. It did not receive tanks until April 1941 and then the obsolete Covenanter.
Churchill stated "in the last half of September we were able to bring into action on the south coast front sixteen divisions of high quality of which three were armoured divisions or their equivalent in brigades". It is significant that the British Government felt sufficiently confident in Britain's ability to repel an invasion (and in its tank production factories) that it sent 154 tanks (52 light, 52 cruiser and 50 infantry) to Egypt in mid-August. At this time, Britain's factories were almost matching Germany's output in tanks and, by 1941, they would surpass them.
Home Guard
On 14 May 1940, Secretary of State for War Anthony Eden announced the creation of the Local Defence Volunteers (LDV)later to become known as the Home Guard. Far more men volunteered than the government expected and by the end of June, there were nearly 1.5 million volunteers. There were plenty of personnel for the defence of the country, but there were no uniforms (a simple armband had to suffice) and equipment was in critically short supply. At first, the Home Guard was armed with guns in private ownership, knives or bayonets fastened to poles, Molotov cocktails and improvised flamethrowers.
By July 1940 the situation had improved radically as all volunteers received uniforms and a modicum of training. 500,000 modern M1917 Enfield Rifles, 25,000 M1918 Browning Automatic Rifles and millions of rounds of ammunition were bought from the reserve stock of the U.S. armed forces, and rushed by special trains directly to Home Guard units. New weapons were developed that could be produced cheaply without consuming materials that were needed to produce armaments for the regular units. An early example was the No. 76 Special Incendiary Grenade, a glass bottle filled with highly flammable material of which more than six million were made.
The sticky bomb was a glass flask filled with nitroglycerin and given an adhesive coating allowing it to be glued to a passing vehicle. In theory, it could be thrown, but in practice it would most likely need to be placedthumped against the target with sufficient force to stickrequiring courage and good fortune to be used effectively. An order for one million sticky bombs was placed in June 1940, but various problems delayed their distribution in large numbers until early 1941, and it is likely that fewer than 250,000 were produced.
A measure of mobility was provided by bicycles, motorcycles, private vehicles and horses. A few units were equipped with armoured cars, some of which were of standard design, but many were improvised locally from commercially available vehicles by the attachment of steel plates. By 1941 the Home Guard had been issued with a series of "sub-artillery", a term used to describe hastily produced and unconventional anti-tank or infantry support weapons, including the Blacker Bombard (an anti-tank spigot mortar), the Northover Projector (a black-powder mortar), and the Smith Gun (a small artillery gun that could be towed by a private motorcar).
Royal Air Force
In mid-1940, the principal concern of the Royal Air Force, together with elements of the Fleet Air Arm, was to contest the control of British airspace with the German Luftwaffe. For the Germans, achieving at least local air superiority was an essential prerequisite to any invasion and might even break British morale, forcing them to sue for peace.
If the German air force had prevailed and attempted a landing, a much-reduced Royal Air Force would have been obliged to operate from airfields well away from the southeast of England. Any airfield that was in danger of being captured would have been made inoperable and there were plans to remove all portable equipment from vulnerable radar bases and completely destroy anything that could not be moved. Whatever was left of the RAF would have been committed to intercepting the invasion fleet in concert with the Royal Navyto fly in the presence of an enemy that enjoys air superiority is very dangerous. However, the RAF would have kept several advantages, such as being able to operate largely over friendly territory, as well as having the ability to fly for longer as, until the Germans were able to operate from airfields in England, Luftwaffe pilots would still have to fly significant distances to reach their operational area.
A contingency plan called Operation Banquet required all available aircraft to be committed to the defence. In the event of invasion almost anything that was not a fighter would be converted to a bomberstudent pilots, some in the very earliest stages of training, would use around 350 Tiger Moth and Magister trainers to drop bombs from rudimentary bomb racks.
Shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War the Chain Home radar system began to be installed in the south of England, with three radar stations being operational by 1937. Although the German High Command suspected that the British may have been developing these systems, Zeppelin detection and evaluation flights had proved inconclusive. As a result, the Germans underestimated the effectiveness of the expanding Chain Home radar system, which became a vital piece of Britain's defensive capabilities during the Battle of Britain. By the start of the war, around 20 Chain Home stations had been built in the UK; to supplement these and detect aircraft at lower altitudes, the Chain Home Low was also being constructed.
Royal Navy
Although much larger in size and with many more ships, the Royal Navy, unlike the Kriegsmarine, had many commitments, including against Japan and guarding Scotland and Northern England. The Royal Navy could overwhelm any force that the German Navy could muster but would require time to get its forces in position since they were dispersed, partly because of these commitments and partly to reduce the risk of air attack. On 1 July 1940, one cruiser and 23 destroyers were committed to escort duties in the Western Approaches, plus 12 destroyers and one cruiser on the Tyne and the aircraft carrier . More immediately available were ten destroyers at the south coast ports of Dover and Portsmouth, a cruiser and three destroyers at Sheerness on the River Thames, three cruisers and seven destroyers at the Humber, nine destroyers at Harwich, and two cruisers at Rosyth. The rest of the Home Fleetfive battleships, three cruisers and nine destroyerswas based far to the north at Scapa Flow. There were, in addition, many corvettes, minesweepers, and other small vessels. By the end of July, a dozen additional destroyers were transferred from escort duties to the defence of the homeland, and more would join the Home Fleet shortly after.
At the end of August, the battleship was sent south to Rosyth for anti-invasion duties. She was joined on 13 September by her sister ship , the battlecruiser , three anti-aircraft cruisers and a destroyer flotilla. On 14 September, the old battleship was moved to Plymouth, also specifically in case of invasion. In addition to these major units, by the beginning of September the Royal Navy had stationed along the south coast of England between Plymouth and Harwich, 4 light cruisers and 57 destroyers tasked with repelling any invasion attempt, a force many times larger than the ships that the Germans had available as naval escorts.
Field fortifications
The British engaged upon an extensive program of field fortification. On 27 May 1940 a Home Defence Executive was formed under General Sir Edmund Ironside, Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces, to organise the defence of Britain. At first defence arrangements were largely static and focused on the coastline (the coastal crust) and, in a classic example of defence in depth, on a series of inland anti-tank 'stop' lines. The stop lines were designated command, corps and divisional according to their status and the unit assigned to man them. The longest and most heavily fortified was the General Headquarters anti-tank line, GHQ Line. This was a line of pill boxes and anti-tank trenches that ran from Bristol to the south of London before passing to the east of the capital and running northwards to York. The GHQ line was intended to protect the capital and the industrial heartland of England. Another major line was the Taunton Stop Line, which defended against an advance from England's south-west peninsula. London and other major cities were ringed with inner and outer stop lines.
Military thinking shifted rapidly. Given the lack of equipment and properly trained men, Ironside had little choice but to adopt a strategy of static warfare, but it was soon perceived that this would not be sufficient. Ironside has been criticised for having a siege mentality, but some consider this unfair, as he is believed to have understood the limits of the stop lines and never expected them to hold out indefinitely.
Churchill was not satisfied with Ironside's progress, especially with the creation of a mobile reserve. Anthony Eden, the Secretary of State for War, suggested that Ironside should be replaced by General Alan Brooke (later Viscount Alanbrooke). On 17 July 1940 Churchill spent an afternoon with Brooke during which the general raised concerns about the defence of the country. Two days later Brooke was appointed to replace Ironside.
Brooke's appointment saw a change in focus away from Ironside's stop lines, with cement supplies limited Brooke ordered that its use be prioritised for beach defences and "nodal points". The nodal points, also called anti-tank islands or fortress towns, were focal points of the hedgehog defence and expected to hold out for up to seven days or until relieved.
Coastal crust
The areas most vulnerable to an invasion were the south and east coasts of England. In all, a total of 153 Emergency Coastal Batteries were constructed in 1940 in addition to the existing coastal artillery installations, to protect ports and likely landing places. They were fitted with whatever guns were available, which mainly came from naval vessels scrapped since the end of the First World War. These included 6 inch (152 mm), 5.5 inch (140 mm), 4.7 inch (120 mm) and 4 inch (102 mm) guns. Some had little ammunition, sometimes as few as ten rounds apiece. At Dover, two 14 inch (356 mm) guns known as Winnie and Pooh were employed. There were also a few land-based torpedo batteries.
Beaches were blocked with entanglements of barbed wire, usually in the form of three coils of concertina wire fixed by metal posts, or a simple fence of straight wires supported on waist-high posts. The wire would also demarcate extensive minefields, with both anti-tank and anti-personnel mines on and behind the beaches. On many of the more remote beaches this combination of wire and mines represented the full extent of the passive defences.
Portions of Romney Marsh, which was the planned invasion site of Operation Sea Lion, were flooded and there were plans to flood more of the Marsh if the invasion were to materialise.
Piers, ideal for landing troops, and situated in large numbers along the south coast of England, were disassembled, blocked or otherwise destroyed. Many piers were not repaired until the late 1940s or early 1950s.
Where a barrier to tanks was required, Admiralty scaffolding (also known as beach scaffolding or obstacle Z.1) was constructed. Essentially, this was a fence of scaffolding tubes high and was placed at low water so that tanks could not get a good run at it. Admiralty scaffolding was deployed along hundreds of miles of vulnerable beaches.
The beaches themselves were overlooked by pillboxes of various types. These were sometimes placed low down to get maximum advantage from enfilading fire, whereas others were placed high up making them much harder to capture. Searchlights were installed at the coast to illuminate the sea surface and the beaches for artillery fire.
Many small islands and peninsulas were fortified to protect inlets and other strategic targets. In the Firth of Forth in east central Scotland, Inchgarvie was heavily fortified with several gun emplacements, which can still be seen. This provided invaluable defence from seaborne attacks on the Forth Bridge and Rosyth Dockyard, approximately a mile upstream from the bridge. Further out to sea, Inchmickery, north of Edinburgh, was similarly fortified. The remnants of gun emplacements on the coast to the north, in North Queensferry, and south, in Dalmeny, of Inchmickery also remain.
Lines and islands
The primary purpose of the stop lines and the anti-tank islands that followed was to hold up the enemy, slowing progress and restricting the route of an attack. The need to prevent tanks from breaking through was of key importance. Consequently, the defences generally ran along pre-existing barriers to tanks, such as rivers and canals; railway embankments and cuttings; thick woods; and other natural obstacles. Where possible, usually well-drained land was allowed to flood, making the ground too soft to support even tracked vehicles.
Thousands of miles of anti-tank ditches were dug, usually by mechanical excavators, but occasionally by hand. They were typically wide and deep and could be either trapezoidal or triangular in section with the defended side being especially steep and revetted with whatever material was available.
Elsewhere, anti-tank barriers were made of massive reinforced concrete obstacles, either cubic, pyramidal or cylindrical. The cubes generally came in two sizes: high. In a few places, anti-tank walls were constructedessentially continuously abutted cubes.
Large cylinders were made from a section of sewer pipe in diameter filled with concrete typically to a height of , frequently with a dome at the top. Smaller cylinders cast from concrete are also frequently found.
Pimples, popularly known as Dragon's teeth, were pyramid-shaped concrete blocks designed specifically to counter tanks which, attempting to pass them, would climb up exposing vulnerable parts of the vehicle and possibly slip down with the tracks between the points. They ranged in size somewhat, but were typically high and about square at the base. There was also a conical form.
Cubes, cylinders and pimples were deployed in long rows, often several rows deep, to form anti-tank barriers at beaches and inland. They were also used in smaller numbers to block roads. They frequently sported loops at the top for the attachment of barbed wire. There was also a tetrahedral or caltrop-shaped obstacle, although it seems these were rare.
Where natural anti-tank barriers needed only to be augmented, concrete or wooden posts sufficed.
Roads offered the enemy fast routes to their objectives and consequently they were blocked at strategic points. Many of the road-blocks formed by Ironside were semi-permanent. In many cases, Brooke had these removed altogether, as experience had shown they could be as much of an impediment to friends as to foes. Brooke favoured removable blocks.
The simplest of the removable roadblocks consisted of concrete anti-tank cylinders of various sizes but typically about high and in diameter; these could be manhandled into position as required. Anti-tank cylinders were to be used on roads, and other hard surfaces; deployed irregularly in five rows with bricks or kerbstones scattered nearby to stop the cylinders moving more than . Cylinders were often placed in front of socket roadblocks as an additional obstacle. One common type of removable anti-tank roadblock comprised a pair of massive concrete buttresses permanently installed at the roadside; these buttresses had holes and/or slots to accept horizontal railway lines or rolled steel joists (RSJs). Similar blocks were placed across railway tracks because tanks can move along railway lines almost as easily as they can along roads. These blocks would be placed strategically where it was difficult for a vehicle to go aroundanti-tank obstacles and mines being positioned as requiredand they could be opened or closed within a matter of minutes.
There were two types of socket roadblocks. The first comprised vertical lengths of railway line placed in sockets in the road and was known as hedgehogs. The second type comprised railway lines or RSJs bent or welded at around a 60° angle, known as hairpins. In both cases, prepared sockets about square were placed in the road, closed by covers when not in use, allowing traffic to pass normally.
Another removable roadblocking system used mines. The extant remains of such systems superficially resemble those of hedgehog or hairpin, but the pits are shallow: just deep enough to take an anti-tank mine. When not in use the sockets were filled with wooden plugs, allowing traffic to pass normally.
Bridges and other key points were prepared for demolition at short notice by preparing chambers filled with explosives. A Depth Charge Crater was a site in a road (usually at a junction) prepared with buried explosives that could be detonated to instantly form a deep crater as an anti-tank obstacle. The Canadian pipe mine (later known as the McNaughton Tube after General Andrew McNaughton) was a horizontally bored pipe packed with explosivesonce in place this could be used to instantly ruin a road or runway. Prepared demolitions had the advantage of being undetectable from the airthe enemy could not take any precautions against them, or plot a route of attack around them.
Crossing points in the defence networkbridges, tunnels and other weak spotswere called nodes or points of resistance. These were fortified with removable road blocks, barbed wire entanglements and land mines. These passive defences were overlooked by trench works, gun and mortar emplacements, and pillboxes. In places, entire villages were fortified using barriers of Admiralty scaffolding, sandbagged positions and loopholes in existing buildings.
Nodes were designated 'A', 'B' or 'C' depending upon how long they were expected to hold out. Home Guard troops were largely responsible for the defence of nodal points and other centres of resistance, such as towns and defended villages. Category 'A' nodal points and anti-tank islands were usually garrisoned by regular troops.
The rate of construction was frenetic: by the end of September 1940, 18,000 pillboxes and numerous other preparations had been completed. Some existing defences such as mediaeval castles and Napoleonic forts were augmented with modern additions such as dragon's teeth and pillboxes; some Iron Age forts housed anti-aircraft and observer positions. About 28,000 pillboxes and other hardened field fortifications were constructed in the United Kingdom of which about 6,500 still survive. Some defences were disguised and examples are known of pillboxes constructed to resemble haystacks, logpiles and innocuous buildings such as churches and railway stations.
Airfields and open areas
Open areas were considered vulnerable to invasion from the air: a landing by paratroops, glider-borne troops or powered aircraft which could land and take off again. Open areas with a straight length of or more within five miles (8 km) of the coast or an airfield were considered vulnerable. These were blocked by trenches or, more usually, by wooden or concrete obstacles, as well as old cars.
Securing an airstrip would be an important objective for the invader. Airfields, considered extremely vulnerable, were protected by trench works and pillboxes that faced inwards towards the runway, rather than outwards. Many of these fortifications were specified by the Air Ministry and defensive designs were unique to airfieldsthese would not be expected to face heavy weapons so the degree of protection was less and there was more emphasis on all-round visibility and sweeping fields of fire. It was difficult to defend large open areas without creating impediments to the movement of friendly aircraft. Solutions to this problem included the pop-up Picket Hamilton forta light pillbox that could be lowered to ground level when the airfield was in use.
Another innovation was a mobile pillbox that could be driven out onto the airfield. This was known as the Bison and consisted of a lorry with a concrete armoured cabin and a small concrete pillbox on the flat bed.
Constructed in Canada, a 'runway plough', assembled in Scotland, survives at Eglinton Country Park. It was purchased by the army in World War II to rip up aerodrome runways and railway lines, making them useless to the occupying forces, if an invasion took place. It was used at the old Eglinton Estate, which had been commandeered by the army, to provide its army operators with the necessary experience. It was hauled by a powerful Foden Trucks tractor, possibly via a pulley and cable system.
Other defensive measures
Other basic defensive measures included the removal of signposts, milestones (some had the carved details obscured with cement) and railway station signs, making it more likely that an enemy would become confused. Petrol pumps were removed from service stations near the coast and there were careful preparations for the destruction of those that were left. Detailed plans were made for destroying anything that might prove useful to the invader such as port facilities, key roads and rolling stock. In certain areas, non-essential citizens were evacuated. In the county of Kent, 40% of the population was relocated; in East Anglia, the figure was 50%.
Perhaps most importantly, the population was told what was expected from them. In June 1940, the Ministry of Information published If the Invader Comes, what to doand how to do it. It began:
The first instruction given quite emphatically is that, unless ordered to evacuate, "the order ...[was]... to 'stay put'". The roads were not to be blocked by refugees. Further warnings were given not to believe rumours and not to spread them, to be distrustful of orders that might be faked and even to check that an officer giving orders really was British. Further: Britons were advised to keep calm and report anything suspicious quickly and accurately; deny useful things to the enemy such as food, fuel, maps or transport; be ready to block roadswhen ordered to do so"by felling trees, wiring them together or blocking the roads with cars"; to organise resistance at shops and factories; and, finally: "Think before you act. But think always of your country before you think of yourself".
On 13 June 1940, the ringing of church bells was banned; henceforth, they would only be rung by the military or the police to warn that an invasiongenerally meaning by parachutistswas in progress.
More than passive resistance was expectedor at least hoped forfrom the population. Churchill considered the formation of a Home Guard Reserve, given only an armband and basic training on the use of simple weapons, such as Molotov cocktails. The reserve would only have been expected to report for duty in an invasion. Later, Churchill wrote how he envisaged the use of the sticky bomb, "We had the picture in mind that devoted soldiers or civilians would run close up to the tank and even thrust the bomb upon it, though its explosion cost them their lives [Italics added for emphasis]." The prime minister practised shooting, and told wife Clementine and daughter in law Pamela that he expected them each to kill one or two Germans. When Pamela protested that she did not know how to use a gun, Churchill told her to use a kitchen butcher knife as "You can always take a Hun with you". He later recorded how he intended to use the slogan "You can always take one with you."
In 1941, in towns and villages, invasion committees were formed to cooperate with the military and plan for the worst should their communities be isolated or occupied. The members of committees typically included representatives of the local council, the Air Raid Precautions service, the fire service, the police, the Women's Voluntary Service and the Home Guard, as well as officers for medicine, sanitation and food. The plans of these committees were kept in secret War Books, although few remain. Detailed inventories of anything useful were kept: vehicles, animals and basic tools, and lists were made of contact details for key personnel. Plans were made for a wide range of emergencies, including improvised mortuaries and places to bury the dead. Instructions to the invasion committees stated: "... every citizen will regard it as his duty to hinder and frustrate the enemy and help our own forces by every means that ingenuity can devise and common sense suggest."
At the outbreak of the war there were around 60,000 police officers in the United Kingdom, including some 20,000 in London's Metropolitan Police. Many younger officers joined the armed forces and numbers were maintained by recruiting "war reserve" officers, special constables and by recalling retired officers. As well as their usual duties the police, who are a generally unarmed force in Britain, took on roles checking for enemy agents and arresting deserters.
On the same day as the Battle of Dunkirk, Scotland Yard issued a memorandum detailing the police use of firearms in wartime. This detailed the planned training for all officers in the use of pistols and revolvers, as it was decided that even though the police were non-combatant, they would provide armed guards at sites deemed a risk from enemy sabotage, and defend their own police stations from enemy attack. A supplementary secret memorandum of 29 May also required the police to carry out armed motorised patrols of 2–4 men, if invasion happened, though it noted the police were a non-combatant force and should primarily be carrying out law enforcement duties. These arrangements led to high level political discussions; on 1 August 1940 Lord Mottisone, a former cabinet minister, telephoned Churchill to advise that current police regulations would require officers to prevent British civilians resisting the German forces in occupied areas. Churchill considered this unacceptable and he wrote to the home secretary, John Anderson, and Lord Privy Seal, Clement Attlee, asking for the regulations to be amended. Churchill wanted the police, ARP wardens and firemen to remain until the last troops withdrew from an area and suggested that such organisations might automatically become part of the military in case of invasion. The War Cabinet discussed the matter and on 12 August Churchill wrote again to the home secretary stating that the police and ARP wardens should be divided into two arms, combatant and non-combatant. The combatant portion would be armed and expected to fight alongside the Home Guard and regular forces and would withdraw with them as necessary. The non-combatant portion would remain in place under enemy occupation, but under orders not to assist the enemy in any way even to maintain order. These instructions were issued to the police by a memorandum from Anderson on 7 September, which stipulated that the non-combatant portion should be a minority and, where possible, made up of older men and those with families.
Because of the additional armed duties the number of firearms allocated to the police was increased. On 1 June 1940 the Metropolitan Police received 3,500 Canadian Ross Rifles of First World War vintage. A further 50 were issued to the London Fire Brigade and 100 to the Port of London Authority Police. Some 73,000 rounds of .303 rifle ammunition were issued, together with tens of thousands of .22 rounds for small bore rifle and pistol training. By 1941 an additional 2,000 automatic pistols and 21,000 American lend-lease revolvers had been issued to the Metropolitan Police; from March 1942 all officers above the rank of inspector were routinely armed with .45 revolvers and twelve rounds of ammunition.
Guns, petroleum and poison
In 1940, weapons were critically short; there was a particular scarcity of anti-tank weapons, many of which had been left in France. Ironside had only 170 2-pounder anti-tank guns but these were supplemented by 100 Hotchkiss 6-pounder guns dating from the First World War, improvised into the anti-tank role by the provision of solid shot. By the end of July 1940, an additional nine hundred 75 mm field guns had been received from the USthe British were desperate for any means of stopping armoured vehicles. The Sten submachine gun was developed following the fall of France, to supplement the limited number of Thompson submachine guns obtained from the United States.
One of the few resources not in short supply was petroleum oil; supplies intended for Europe were filling British storage facilities. Considerable effort and enthusiasm was put into making use of petroleum products as a weapon of war. The Army had not had flame-throwers since the First World War, but a significant number were improvised from pressure greasing equipment acquired from automotive repair garages. Although limited in range, they were reasonably effective.
A mobile flame trap comprised surplus bulk storage tanks on trucks, the contents of which could be hosed into a sunken road and ignited. A static flame trap was prepared with perforated pipes running down the side of a road connected to a elevated tank; some 200 of these traps were installed. Usually, gravity sufficed but in a few cases a pump assisted in spraying the mixture of oil and petrol.
A flame fougasse comprised a 40-gallon light steel drum filled with petroleum mixture and a small, electrically detonated explosive. This was dug into the roadside with a substantial overburden and camouflaged. Ammonal provided the propellant charge, it was placed behind the barrel and, when triggered, caused the barrel to rupture and shoot a jet of flame wide and long. They were usually deployed in batteries of four barrels and would be placed at a location such as a corner, steep incline or roadblock where vehicles would be obliged to slow.
Variants of the flame fougasse included the demigasse, a barrel on its side and left in the open with explosive buried underneath; and the hedge hopper: a barrel on end with explosive buried underneath a few inches deep and slightly off centre. On firing, the hedge hopper barrel was projected into the air and over a hedge or wall behind which it had been hidden. 50,000 flame fougasse barrels were installed at 7,000 sites mostly in southern England and at a further 2,000 sites in Scotland.
Early experiments with floating petroleum on the sea and igniting it were not entirely successful: the fuel was difficult to ignite, large quantities were required to cover even modest areas and the weapon was easily disrupted by waves. However, the potential was clear. By early 1941, a flame barrage technique was developed. Rather than attempting to ignite oil floating on water, nozzles were placed above high-water mark with pumps producing sufficient pressure to spray fuel, which produced a roaring wall of flame over, rather than on, the water. Such installations consumed considerable resources and although this weapon was impressive, its network of pipes was vulnerable to pre-landing bombardment; General Brooke did not consider it effective. Initially ambitious plans were cut back to cover just a few miles of beaches. The tests of some of these installations were observed by German aircraft; the British capitalised on this by dropping propaganda leaflets into occupied Europe referring to the effects of the petroleum weapons.
It seems likely the British would have used poison gas against troops on beaches. General Brooke, in an annotation to his published war diaries, stated that he "... had every intention of using sprayed mustard gas on the beaches". Mustard gas was manufactured as well as chlorine, phosgene and Paris Green. Poison gases were stored at key points for use by Bomber Command and in smaller quantities at many more airfields for use against the beaches. Bombers and crop sprayers would spray landing craft and beaches with mustard gas and Paris Green.
Deception and disinformation
In addition to hiding real weapons and fortifications, steps were taken to create the impression of the existence of defences that were not real. Drain pipes stood in place of real guns, dummy pillboxes were constructed, and uniformed mannequins kept an unblinking vigil.
Volunteers were encouraged to use anything that would delay the enemy. A young member of the Home Guard (LDV) recalled:
In 1938, a section funded by MI6 was created for propaganda, headed by Sir Campbell Stuart. It was allocated premises at Electra House and was dubbed Department EH. On 25 September 1939, the unit was mobilised to Woburn Abbey where it joined a subversion team from MI6, known as Section D, and by July these teams became a part of the newly created Special Operations Executive (SOE). These SOE elements went on to form the core of the Political Warfare Executive in 1941. Their task was to spread false rumours and conduct psychological warfare. Inspired by a demonstration of petroleum warfare, one false rumour stated that the British had a new bomb: dropped from an aircraft, it caused a thin film of volatile liquid to spread over the surface of the water which it then ignited. Such rumours were credible and rapidly spread. American broadcaster William Shirer recorded large numbers of burns victims in Berlin; though it is not clear what he personally saw, it seems likely his reports were influenced by rumours. The interrogation of a Luftwaffe pilot revealed the existence of such weapons was common knowledge, and documents found after the war showed the German high command were deceived. The rumour seemed to take on a life of its own on both sides leading to persistent stories of a thwarted German invasion, in spite of official British denials. On 15 December 1940, The New York Times ran a story claiming that tens of thousands of German troops had been 'consumed by fire' in two failed invasion attempts.
Planned resistance
The War Office did not treat the threat of invasion seriously until the collapse of France in May 1940. The Secret Intelligence Service had, however, been making plans for this eventuality since February 1940, creating the core of a secret resistance network across the country. This remained in existence until at least 1943 and comprised both intelligence and sabotage units. In May 1940, SIS also began to distribute arms dumps and recruit for a larger civilian guerrilla organisation called the Home Defence Scheme. This was deeply resented by the War Office who created the Auxiliary Units as a more respectable military alternative.
Auxiliary Units were a specially trained and secret organisation that would act as uniformed commandos to attack the flanks and rear of an enemy advance. They were organised around a core of regular army 'scout sections', supported by patrols of 6–8 men recruited from the Home Guard. Although approval for the organisation had been given in June 1940, recruiting only began in early July. Each patrol was a self-contained cell, expected to be self-sufficient. There was, however, no means of communicating with them once they had gone to ground, which greatly reduced their strategic value. Each patrol was well-equipped and was provided with a concealed underground operational base, usually built in woodland and camouflaged. Auxiliary Units were only expected to operate during an organised military campaign, with an expected lifespan of 14 days. They were not, therefore, intended to operate as a long term resistance organisation. The latter was the responsibility of the Secret Intelligence Service Section VII, which would have only begun to expand its operations once the country had actually been occupied, thus confining knowledge of its existence only to those men and women who would have been available at the time.
In addition, the Auxiliary Units included a network of civilian Special Duties personnel, recruited to provide a short-term intelligence gathering service, spying on enemy formations and troop movements. Reports were to be collected from dead letter drops and, from 1941, relayed by civilian radio operators from secret locations. The wireless network only become operational from 1941 and was unlikely to survive more than a few days following invasion. Intelligence gathering after this period would be by the mobile patrols of the GHQ Liaison Unit ('Phantom'), which were staffed by skilled linguists and equipped with powerful wireless sets for direct communication with GHQ.
Offensive anti-invasion operations
The War Cabinet and the Chiefs of Staff Committee were not content to sit and wait for the Germans to make the first move; considerable efforts were made to attack, by air and sea, the enemy shipping which had been assembled in occupied ports between The Hague and Cherbourg, starting in July 1940. These attacks became known as the "Battle of the Barges". Some notable operations are shown below:
12 August: Five Handley Page Hampdens attacked the Ladbergen Aqueduct on the Dortmund-Ems Canal. The waterway was blocked for ten days, impeding the movement of barges towards the Channel ports.
8 September: Two cruisers and ten destroyers swept along the French coast and bombarded Boulogne harbour. In a separate operation, three Motor Torpedo Boats attacked a convoy of small vessels off Ostend; two of the MTBs then entered the harbour and torpedoed two transport ships.
10 September: Three destroyers found a convoy of invasion transports off Ostend and sank an escort vessel, two trawlers that were towing barges and one large barge.
13 September: Three destroyers sent to bombard Ostend but the operation was cancelled due to bad weather. A further twelve destroyers swept parts of the French coast between Roches Douvres, Cherbourg, Boulogne and Cape Griz Nez. while an RAF bombing raid destroyed 80 barges at Ostend.
15 September: Sergeant John Hannah gained the Victoria Cross during a raid by RAF bombers on invasion barges at Antwerp; four transport ships were damaged.
17 September: A major attack by Bomber Command on ports along the occupied coast. 84 barges were damaged at Dunkirk.
26 September: Operation Lucid, a plan to send fire ships into the harbours at Calais and Boulogne to destroy invasion barges, was abandoned when , one of the old tankers that were to be used, had engine failure and the other was suffering so many leaks that she was unfit for sea.
30 September: The monitor fired seventeen 15-inch shells onto Calais docks.
4 October: Second attempt at Operation Lucid, this time cancelled because of bad weather.
7 October: Third attempt at Lucid, cancelled when , the destroyer carrying the force commander, hit a mine and had to be towed home.
10–11 October: Operation Medium, the bombardment of invasion transports in Cherbourg. A concentrated RAF bombing raid during the night occupied the attention of German defences, allowing a Navy task force to approach to within gun range without detection. During the 18-minute bombardment, 120 15-inch shells were fired by the battleship HMS Revenge, and a total of 801 4.7-inch shells were fired by her escorting destroyers. German coastal artillery replied for 30 minutes without hitting any of the warships.
Between 15 July and 21 September, German sources stated that 21 transport vessels and 214 barges had been damaged by British air raids. These figures may have been under-reported.
The threat recedes
After the evacuation of Dunkirk, people believed that the threatened invasion could come at almost any time. Churchill was at times personally pessimistic about Britain's chances for victory, telling Hastings Ismay on 12 June 1940 that "[y]ou and I will be dead in three months' time". German preparations would require at least a few weeks, but all defensive precautions were made with an extreme sense of urgency. In mid-1940, an invasion attempt could have occurred at any time, but some times were more likely than others: the phase of the moon, the tides and, most of all, the weather were considerations. The weather usually deteriorates significantly after September, but an October landing was not out of the question. On 3 October, General Brooke wrote in his diary: "Still no invasion! I am beginning to think that the Germans may after all not attempt it. And yet! I have the horrid thought that he may still bring off some surprise on us."
The Battle of Britain had been won, and on 12 October 1940, unknown to the British, Hitler rescheduled Sea Lion for early 1941. By then, the state of Britain's defences had much improved, with many more trained and equipped men becoming available and field fortifications reaching a high state of readiness. With national confidence rising, Prime Minister Churchill was able to say: "We are waiting for the long promised invasion. So are the fishes ..."
When Germany invaded the Soviet Union, on 22 June 1941, it came to be seen as unlikely that there would be any attempted landing as long as that conflict was undecidedfrom the British point of view at the time, the matter hung in the balance. In July 1941, construction of field fortifications was greatly reduced and concentration given to the possibility of a raid in force rather than a full-scale invasion.
On 7 December 1941, a Japanese carrier fleet launched a surprise air attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor; the United States entered the war on Britain's side. With America's Germany first strategic policy, resources flooded into the UK, effectively ending the danger of invasion after two years.
In 1944, the British Army retained an "abnormally large force of over 100,000 men for defence of the United Kingdom and other contingencies which could have been used in Normandy" according to American historian Carlo d'Este.
Effectiveness
General Brooke frequently confided his concerns to his private diary. When published, he included additional annotations written many years later:
The question of whether the defences would have been effective in invasion is vexed. In mid-1940, the preparations relied heavily upon field fortifications. The First World War made it clear that assaulting prepared defences with infantry was deadly and difficult, but similar preparations in Belgium had been overrun by well-equipped German Panzer divisions in the early weeks of 1940 and with so many armaments left at Dunkirk, British forces were woefully ill-equipped to take on German armour. On the other hand, while British preparations for defence were ad hoc, so were the German invasion plans: a fleet of 2,000 converted barges and other vessels had been hurriedly made available and their fitness was debatable; in any case, the Germans could not land troops with all their heavy equipment. Until the Germans captured a port, both armies would have been short of tanks and heavy guns.
The later experiences of the Canadian Army during the disastrous Dieppe Raid of 1942, American forces on Omaha Beach on D-Day and taking on Japanese defenders on Pacific Islands showed that, under the right conditions, a defender could exact a terrible price from assaulting forces, significantly depleting and delaying enemy forces until reinforcements could be deployed to appropriate places via the sea and inland.
In the event of invasion, the Royal Navy would have sailed to the landing places, possibly taking several days. The German Kriegsmarine had, however, been severely depleted by the Norwegian campaign. It lost a heavy cruiser, a light cruiser, and almost a quarter of its destroyers; two heavy units, a Panzerschiff and a battlecruiser, were out of action due to torpedo damage. In late 1940, the Kriegsmarine was thus virtually bereft of heavy units to either provide gunfire support to a landing or to counter any intervention by the Royal Navy. It is now known that the Germans planned to land on the southern coast of England; one reason for this site was that the narrow seas of the English Channel could be blocked with mines, submarines and torpedo boats and thus prevent the Royal Navy from defending against an invasion. While German naval forces and the Luftwaffe could have extracted a high price from a defending Royal Navy, they could not have hoped to prevent interference with attempts to land a second wave of troops and supplies that would have been essential to German successeven if, by then, the Germans had captured a port essential for bringing in significant heavy equipment. In this scenario, British land forces would have faced the Germans on more equal terms than otherwise and it was only necessary to delay the German advance, preventing a collapse until the German land forces were, at least temporarily, isolated by the Royal Navy and then mounting a counterattack.
Scholarly consideration of the likely outcome of invasion, including the 1974 Royal Military Academy Sandhurst war game, agree that while German forces would have been able to land and gain a significant beachhead, intervention of the Royal Navy would have been decisive and, even with the most optimistic assumptions, the German army would not have penetrated further than GHQ Line and would have been defeated.
Following the failure to gain even local air superiority in the Battle of Britain, Operation Sea Lion was postponed indefinitely. Hitler and his generals were aware of the problems of an invasion. Hitler was not ideologically committed to a long war with Britain and many commentators suggest that German invasion plans were a feint never to be put into action.
While Britain may have been militarily secure in 1940, both sides were aware of the possibility of a political collapse. If the Germans had won the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe would have been able to strike anywhere in southern England and with the prospect of an invasion, the British government would have come under pressure to come to terms: the extensive anti-invasion preparations demonstrated to Germany and to the people of Britain that whatever happened in the air, the United Kingdom was both able and willing to defend itself.
See also
Coats Mission
Eastbourne Redoubt, home of the Combined Service Museum
Dymchurch Redoubt
Operation Lucid
Atlantic Wall
British County Divisions, regular infantry divisions raised for static and coastal defence duties
References
Footnotes
Notes
General references
Official documents
Consolidated Instructions to Invasion Committees in England and Wales (July 1942) HM Government.
Collections
– an online archive of wartime memories contributed by members of the public and gathered by the BBC.
– subscription required
Further reading
Bird, C. Silent Sentinels – A study of the fixed defences constructed in Norfolk during WWI and WWII (Dereham: The Larks Press 1999)
Foot, William. The Battlefields That Nearly Were. Defended England 1940 (Stroud: Tempus Publishing 2006)
Kauffmann, J.E. and Jurga, Robert M. Fortress Europe: European Fortifications of World War II, Da Capo Press, 2002.
Osborne, Mike. 20th Century Defences in Britain (Stroud: Tempus Publishing 2003)
Ross, Stewart. World War II Britain. History from Buildings (London: Franklin Watts 2006)
External links
The German Threat to Britain in World War Two. By Dan Cruickshank BBC
The Real Dad's Army – TV documentary
Churchill's mysterious map
Pillboxesuk.co.uk
Defence of Britain database
Landmarks centre of Great Britain
1940 in military history
1941 in military history
1940 in the United Kingdom
1941 in the United Kingdom
Battle of Britain
British World War II defensive lines
Invasions of the United Kingdom
Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II
United Kingdom home front during World War II
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonga
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Kolonga
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Kolonga is a village and the most populated settlement located on the northeast coast of Tongatapu in the Hahake District, Kingdom of Tonga. Kolonga is a hereditary estate of Lord Nuku.
The current population of Kolonga was recorded in the Tonga 2006 Census as 1,199. Many people have left to go overseas for better opportunities. Many lands have been deserted or they leave it to the care of their relatives, sending money support back home. The majority of the residents owned two lands: one in town where they reside and one agricultural land in the bush.
Nearly 99% of the population are agricultural farmers, out of that population only 60% own some level of qualification to a degree. Only a few have government jobs, while the rest make money out of their farming supplies at Nuku'alofa, the capital city of Tonga.
History
The name Kolonga did not exist till later on, there were two names that were known; Ualako (old residence home of Lord Nuku) and the name Mesimasi.
Estate history
Kolonga village has always been the home and land of Lord Nuku and his people since the installation of Ngata, Tu'i Kanokupolu. In 1875, when King Tupou I declared the Tongan Constitution, Lord Nuku was elevated from being an ancient chiefly titleholder to established hereditary noble.
The title, Nuku, has always been passed from the oldest brother to the youngest, not from father to son. Before King Tupou I left for war to Fiji, he entrusted, Lord Nuku Momoiangaha, to be the King’s Guard at the Royal Palace. When he returned, he was very upset to hear that Moimoiangaha had granted permission for a catholic church in his land. Therefore the title was stripped off.
The title landed among the children of Finauvalevale Finefeuiaki, the youngest brother. His son, Fatanitavake Finefeuiaki, was called to the title but he refused. He along with his sister, Tu’inavu Finefeuiaki, journeyed with Prince Henele Ma'afu 'o Tu'i Tonga to Lau Islands, Fiji. Than the title was bestowed to his brother, Lord Nuku Nehasi Finefeuiaki, since then the title went from father to son.
Lord Nuku Nehasi Finefeuiaki died leaving no male heir. Than the title went to his brother, Lord Nuku Sosaia Finefeuiaki and his son, Lord Nuku Pulu Finefeuiaki. After he died, the title returned to the descendant of Lord Nuku Nehasi Finefeuiaki. Not long after the matter was taken to court. The investigation revealed, Lord Nuku Makoni Kailahi, was a descendant through the female line in three generations. The Tongan Constitution ruled him out and the title reverted to the descendants of Lord Nuku Sosaia Finefeuiaki.
There was also a dispute over the title during the time of Lord Nuku Penisimani Katavake Naufahu Finefeuiaki. Sione Vao (Illegitimate descendant of Fatanitavake Finefeuiaki) and his relatives arrive from Fiji to claim the title. The Tongan Constitution already ruled them out, due to his ancestor, Fatanitavake, signed away his birthright.
Origin of the name
One historical interpretation is that Kolonga was, at one time, a collection of huts. Kolonga got its name during the battle between the people from the Hahake and Hihifo District of Tongatapu during the Tu'i Tonga Empire. As the Hihifo people were winning the battle, the Hahake people retreated and escaped to the middle of the Hahake District. The Hihifo District people found the large hut, the people hiding in it and they burnt the hut down. As the people were crying, a Chief’s Representative (Talking Chief) Nifofa was coming from Nautoka and he asked a person, “What is that sound coming from?” the person answered, “Koe kolo ‘oku nga, ‘uhinga koe kolo ‘oku tangi”, translating “The town is weeping meaning the town is crying”. Once the large hut was burned down, the battle was over and everyone return to the villages where they came from. Therefore, the village was named Kolonga.
It is also said; the name Kolonga also had its origin from the Kanokupolu village, Hihifo District of Tongatapu and the Three Heads (‘Ulutolu). When Ngata was first crowned Tu’i Kanokupolu by the rebel people, he sat on the sia beneath the koka tree in the middle and both Niukapu and Nuku sat on the ground known as Kolonga.
Other names for Kolonga
The metaphoric reference to Kolonga is Lotopoha, Sialehaevala and 'Utulongoa'a.
Sialehaevale (gardenia; torn clothes), originated when Tu'i Tonga Fefine arrived in Kolonga and climbed up the gardenia tree. As she climbed up the tree to pick a flower, her clothes torn apart, this gave rise to the name.
'Utulongoa'a (shore/cliff; noisy) Kolonga was that loud and noisy during the night, the Tu'i Tonga Fefine couldn’t sleep. She grew tired of the noise that it turned out, the sound of the waves keep on crashing against the cliffs. This is another possible reason, the capital Heketa was moved to Mu'a by Tu'i Tonga at a later date.
Tongan proverb
The word Kolonga features in the Tongan proverb, Ala-i-sia-ala-i-Kolonga (Mahina 2004), translated as, skillful at the mound, skillful at the hut. This indigenous proverb derived its meaning from the pigeon trappers’ practice of heu lupe, the snaring of pigeons. The mound on which the pigeons were trapped was called sia, and the temporary huts where the men resided and stored the captured pigeons were called kolonga. The proverb in vernacular language would be written as, Ala 'i sia, ala 'i kolonga. The meaning thus paid tribute to the trapper who was not merely skillful in snaring pigeons, but also skillful at storing and preserving the birds. The proverb referred to individuals who possessed the ability to successfully function in multiple contexts, a trait held in high regard by early Tongans. Relevant to the village characteristic of Kolonga and present day descendants, the proverb captured an element of wisdom known to the early Tongans. That is, humans have greater success at surviving if they are adaptable, skillful and functional in more than one environment.
Commercial area
Kolonga has small numbers of shops and sometimes special events occur at Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga or the LDS Church. Kolonga features the following landmarks:
The Cinema of Finefeuiaki; where all the special events are held such as traditional dances, birthdays and celebration events.
Kolonga Community Health Centre (Kolonga Hospital)
The Hall of Talikaepau Club
Mo'unga'olive College
The Library of Mo'unga'olive College
Transport
According to Tonga 2006 Census, the most common way of getting to work at Nuku'alofa and back, was by car (87%) and public transport (13%).
Schools
There's one private college known as Mo'unga'olive College, is run and owned by the Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga. And one government school known as Kolonga Government Public School (GPS).
Churches
There are seven distinctive churches in Kolonga;
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Free Wesleyan Church of Tonga
Roman Catholic Church
Free Church of Tonga
Church of the Lords
Assembly of God
Seventh-day Adventist Church of Tonga
Lord Nuku and his descendant
Lord Nuku's bloodline had descended into more than twenty traditional chiefly titleholders, eventually reaching to Tu'i Tonga Laufilitonga, Tu'i Pelehake Filiaipulotu, Tui Lau and Tui Nayau of Fiji and the House of Tupou.
Royals
King George Tupou II. Through his paternal grandfather Tu'i Pelehake Filiaipulotu and maternal grandmother Fifita Vava'u, he is a descendant of Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
Queen Sālote Tupou III. Through her mother, Queen Lavinia Veiongo, she is a descendant of Lord Ve'ehala (Lord of Fahefa) and Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape.
Queen Halaevalu Mataʻaho ʻAhomeʻe, she is the queen mother of King Tupou VI. Through her mother, Heu'ifanga Veikune, she is descendant of Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
King Tupou IV, King of Tonga and oldest son of Queen Sālote Tupou III.
King George Tupou V, King of Tonga and oldest son of King Tupou IV.
King Tupou VI, is the current King of Tonga and the grandson of Queen Sālote Tupou III
Queen Nanasipau'u Tuku'aho (8 March 1954), she is the current Queen of Tonga and the consort of King Tupou VI. Through her mother, Baroness Tuputupu Vaea, she is a descended of Lord Ma'afu (Finau Filimoe'ulie) of Vaini, the illegitimate son of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki and Taufa Hoamofaleono (mother of King Tupou I)
Princess Lātūfuipeka Tukuaho, daughter of King Tupou VI and Queen Nanasipau'u Tuku'aho, she is the current High Commissioner to Australia
Crown Prince Tupoutoʻa ʻUlukalala (17 September 1985), eldest son of King Tupou VI and Queen Nanasipau'u Tuku'aho
Prince Taufaʻahau Manumataongo - Taufaahau Manumataongo Tukuaho (born 10 May 2013, Auckland). Oldest son of Crown Prince Tupouto'a 'Ulukalala and Princess Sinaitakala Fakafanua.
Princess Sinaitakala Fakafanua, through her father, Lord Fakafanua of Maufanga, she is a descendant of Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape.
Prince Ata, second son of King Tupou VI and Queen Nanasipau'u Tuku'aho
Lords
Lord Ma'atu of Niua (Fatafehi ʻAlaivahamamaʻo Tukuʻaho), older brother of King Tupou VI and the grandson of Queen Salote Tupou III
Lord Nuku of Kolonga (Stanmore Valevale). He is the only child and son of Lord Nuku Finauvalevale Finefeuiaki
Lord 'Ahome'e of Ha'avakatolo (Viliami Tu'i'oetau 'Ahome'e). The first son of Tangikina Valevale, daughter of Lord Nuku Stanmore Valevale. His also descendant from Tangikinatofetofe through his father, Lord 'Ahome'e (Tevita Vuna Tu'i 'o e Tau)
Pavel Takangamoe Mafi 'Ahome'e, second son of Lord 'Ahome'e (Tevita Vuna Tu'i 'o e Tau) and Tangikina Valevale of Kolonga
Lavinia Veiongo Latuniua 'Ahome'e, daughter of Lord 'Ahome'e (Tevita Vuna Tu'i 'o e Tau) and Tangikina Valevale of Kolonga
Lord Tupouto'a Sione Mateialona (1852 - 15 September 1925). He was the fifth prime minister of Tonga from January 1905 - 30 September 1912. Through his mother, Veisinia Moalapau'u, he descendant from Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
Tupou Veiongo Moheofo. The daughter of Tu'i Kanokupolu Mumui and Tulehu'afaikikava. Through her mother, Tulehu'afaikikava, she is the grand daughter of Lord Ve'ehala and Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
Tu'i Tonga Laufilitonga, son of Tupou Veiongo Moheofo and Tu'i Tonga Fuanunuiava
Lord Kalaniuvalu Fotofili of Lapaha and Niua (Tepuiti Tupoulahi Mailefihi Fatuilangi Ngalu Mo’etutulu) (born 1975). Through his ancestor, Tu'i Tonga Laufilitonga, he is a descendant of Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
Lord 'Ulukalala Ata (Siaosi Tangata-ʻo-Haʻamea) of Vava'u and Kolovai, through his ancestor, Tu'i Tonga Laufilitonga, he is a descendant of Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
Lord Tuita of 'Utungake. He descendant from Tangikinatofetofe, through two ancestors, Lord Tuita Siaosi 'Ulukivaiola and Viliami Vilai Tupou
Lord Veikune, through his ancestor, Tupoutu'a Lamanukilupe, he is descendant of Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
Lord Tu'iha'ateiho, he is descendant from Lord Vaha'ifefeka, son of Lord Nuku'ulutolu. And also descended from Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape.
Lord Vaea of Houma, descendant from Lord Ma'afu (Finau Filimoe'ulie), son of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki and Taufa Hoamofaleono. And descendant of Tangikinatofetofe, through his grandfather, Viliami Vilai Tupou
Lord Tu'i Pelehake (Viliami Tupoulahi Mailefihi Tukuʻaho), through his both ancestors, Tu'i Tonga Laufilitonga and Lord Tu'i Pelehake Filiaipulotu, he is a descendant of Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
Lord Fakafanua of Maufanga. He descendant of Tangikinatofetofe, through three ancestors, Lord Tu'i Pelehake Filiaipulotu, Lord Tuita Siaosi 'Ulukivaiola and Queen Lavinia Veiongo.
Lord Vaha'i of Fo'ui. He is a descendant of Lord Vaha'ifefeka, youngest son of Lord Nuku'ulutolu. He is also descended from Tangikinatofetofe, through three ancestors, Lord Tu'i Pelehake Filiaipulotu, Lord Tuita Siaosi 'Ulukivaiola and Queen Lavinia Veiongo.
Lord Ma'afu of Vaini, descendant of Lord Ma'afu (Finau Filimoe'ulie), illegitimate son of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki and Taufa Hoamofaleono. He descendant from Tangikinatofetofe, through three ancestors, Lord Tu'i Pelehake Filiaipulotu, Lord Tuita Siaosi 'Ulukivaiola and Queen Lavinia Veiongo.
Lord Fielakepa of Haveluloto, descendant from Mele Tangakina Finefeuiaki, daughter of Lord Nuku Sosaia Finefeuiaki. And also descendant from Tangikinatofetofe, through his ancestor, Tu'i Tonga Laufilitonga
Lord Ve'ehala (Toluhama'a Tungi Vi) of Fahefa. He descendant from Tangikinatofetofe, through two ancestors, Lord Ve'ehala (Hoko'ila Ata) and Lord Tuita Siaosi 'Ulukivaiola
Lord Fakatulolo of Falevai, Vava'u, descendant of No'otapa'ingatu, daughter of Te'ehalakamu Finefeuiaki, natural son of Lord Nuku Finefeuiaki
Lord Tu'i'afitu (Lolomana'ia Tu'i'afitu). Through his mother, 'Uhingaevalu'a Lapeti, he is a descendant from Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
Lord Tu'iha'angana, he descendant from Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
Notable people of Kolonga Ancestry
Chief Tu'itufu of 'Eueiki, descendant of Havea Tu'anuku, son of Lord Nuku Hape
Chief Momotu, descendant of Papa, daughter of Lord Nukufo'iva'e.
Chief Tamale of Niutoua, descendant of Chief Siosifa Tamale and Kalolaine, daughter of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki
Chief Kapukava of Holonga. Through his mother, Mele 'Otufelenite, he descendant from Mo'unga'ulufeholoi'olotopoha, daughter of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki. Also descendant from Tangikinalahi, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape.
Chief's Representative (Matapule) Fusitu'a of Niua. He descendant from Tangikinatofetofe, through both ancestors, Tu'i Pelehake Filiaipulotu and Tu'i Tonga Laufilitonga
Chief's Representative (Matapule) Motu'apuaka, descendant of Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
Chief's Representative (Matapule) Nifofa, descendant of Tangikinalahi, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape. He also descendant from Mo'unga'ulufeholoi'olotopoha, daughter of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki
Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara (6 May 1920 – 18 April 2004), the founding father of modern nation Fiji and he once served as a chief minister, prime minister and president of Fiji. He was also the hereditary paramount chief of the Lau Islands, Fiji. Two titles were bestowed upon him: Tui Lau and Tui Nayau. Through his mother, he descendant from Tu’inavu, daughter of Finauvalevale Finefeuiaki, son of Lord Nuku Finefeuiaki
Adi Ateca Moce Ganilau (born 1951), is a Fijian public figure. She is the oldest daughter of Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara
Adi Koila Mara Nailatikau, a lawyer who served as a diplomat and politician; current First Lady of Fiji. She is the second daughter of Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara
Ratu Alifereti Finau Mara (born 1960), a politician, lawyer and diplomat. He is the oldest son of Ratu Kamisese Mara
Ratu Tevita Kapaiwai Lutunauga Uluilakeba Mara, a Fijian soldier who later succeeded from being an army chief to a becoming a colonel. He is the second son of Ratu Kamisese Mara
Ratu Sir Edward Tuivanuavou Tugi Cakobau (21 December 1908 - 26 June 1973), Fijian chief and statesman. Through his father, King Tupou II, he is a descendant of Tangikinatofetofe, daughter of Lord Nuku Hape
Ratu Viliame Dreunimisimisi (1937–2000), former Minister for Tourism and Agriculture. He is the oldest son of Ratu Sir Edward Tuivanuavou Tugi Cakobau. Through his mother, he is descendant from Tu'inavu, daughter of Finauvalevale Finefeuiaki
Ratu Epeli Nailatikau (born 5 July 1941), the current President of Fiji since 2009. The second son of Ratu Sir Edward Tuivanuavou Tugi Cakobau. Through his mother, he is descendant from Tu'inavu, daughter of Finauvalevale Finefeuiaki, son of Lord Nuku Finefeuiaki
Ratu Tu'uakitau Cokanauto, Cabinet Minister. The third son of Ratu Sir Edward Tuivanuavou Tugi Cakobau. Through his mother, he is descendant from Tu'inavu, daughter of Finauvalevale Finefeuiaki, son of Lord Nuku Finefeuiaki
Lord Sevele of Vailahi (1944 – present), was the thirteenth prime minister of Tonga from 30 March 2006 – 22 December 2012. He earned Bachelor of Science/Maths, Bachelor of Arts, master's degrees and Ph.D in Economic Geography
Milika Taufa, is a professional basketball player in the USA representing Ohio State in the Women's Sport. She is the grand-daughter of Milika Finefeuiaki, the oldest legitimate daughter of Lord Nuku Penisimani Katavake Naufahu Finefeuiaki of Kolonga.
Tēvita Orson Kaʻili, earned a doctorate of philosophy, PhD, in anthropology from the University of Washington, Seattle, U.S.A. He is a professor of anthropology at Brigham Young University Hawaiʻi. Tēvita Orson Kaʻili is the grandson of Soakai Pulu.
Sione Junior Kite, was a High Commissioner for Tonga in London. He is the son of Sione Senior Kite and Finau 'Emeline Finefeuiaki, daughter of Lord Nuku Sunia Finefeuiaki
'Akilisi Pohiva, is a Tongan politician and a leader of the country's pro-democracy movement. He was a Minister of Health from 4 January 2011 – 13 January 2011. He is a descendant of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki.
Dr T.J. Brown Pulu, earned a doctors degree of philosophy and PhD in Anthropology. He descendant from Mo'unga'ulufeholoi'olotopoha, daughter of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki
Sione 'Aleki, a well known musician throughout the world for his ukulele performance. He performed at the annual New Zealand Ukulele Festival for the past 30 years, and received the nickname, Tongan King of Ukulele. He is descendant from Pakofe Finefeuiaki, son of Lord Nuku Sosaia Finefeuiaki
Sione Finefeuiaki, is a rugby league footballer in Australia. his The son of Sione 'Ofa Finefeuiaki, son of Lord Nuku Penisimani Katavake Naufahu Finefeuiaki
Seminati Pulu (1969), an athletic who represented Tonga at the Third South Pacific Games, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. He won a Silver Medal and participated in 100 Metre Sprint, 11.0 Seconds; Silver Medal, 200 Metre Sprint, 22.1 Seconds. He descendant from Mo'unga'ulufeholoi'olotopoha, daughter of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki
Soakai Pulu, undefeated Tonga Heavyweight Boxing Championship Title from 1934 – 1953 The adopted son of Lord Nuku Pulu Finefeuiaki. his The great-grandson of Mo'unga'ulufeholoi'olotopoha, daughter of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki
Sione Pulu, in 1974 he represented Tonga as a Heavyweight Contender at the Commonwealth Games, Christchurch, New Zealand. He descendant from Mo'unga'ulufeholoi'olotopoha, daughter of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki
Tony Pulu, from 1970 -1985, he was a Heavyweight Boxer: Won 19 (KO 10), Lost 14 (KO 10), Drawn 1; Total of 34 Fights in 15-Year Period Located in Nuku'alofa Tonga, Los Angeles California, San Diego California, Las Vegas Nevada, Salt Lake City Utah, Dallas Texas. He descendant from Mo'unga'ulufeholoi'olotopoha, daughter of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki
Viliami Pulu. 1984. Represented Tonga: Super Heavyweight Contender. Olympic Games, Los Angeles, United States of America. He descendant from Mo'unga'ulufeholoi'olotopoha, daughter of Lord Nuku Moimoiangaha Finefeuiaki
Douglas Charles Howlett, a rugby player, from 2000 – 2007 he played for New Zealand and represent them at 62 All Black International Caps.
References
Populated places in Tonga
Tongatapu
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lily%20Allen
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Lily Allen
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Lily Rose Beatrice Allen (born 2 May 1985) is an English singer-songwriter and actress. She is the daughter of actor Keith Allen and film producer Alison Owen. Her music career began in 2005 when she made some of her vocal recordings public on Myspace and the publicity resulted in airplay on BBC Radio 1 and a contract with Regal Recordings. Her first mainstream single, "Smile", reached number one on the UK Singles Chart in July 2006. Her debut record, Alright, Still, was well received, selling over 2.6 million copies worldwide and bringing Allen nominations at the Grammy Awards, the Brit Awards, and the MTV Video Music Awards.
In 2009, her second studio album—It's Not Me, It's You—saw a genre shift, having more of an electropop feel, rather than the ska and reggae influences of the first one. The album debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart and the Australian ARIA Charts and was well received by critics, noting the singer's musical evolution and maturity. It spawned the hit singles "The Fear", "Not Fair" and "Fuck You". This success saw her receive the Brit Award for British Female Solo Artist at the 2010 Brit Awards. Allen and Amy Winehouse were credited with starting a process that led to the "year of the women" media label in 2009 that saw five female artists making music of "experimentalism and fearlessness" nominated for the Mercury Prize. She has released two further albums: Sheezus (2014), which debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, and No Shame (2018) debuting at number eight.
Allen also ventured into other careers; in 2008, she hosted her own television talk show, Lily Allen and Friends, on BBC Three before launching her own record label, In the Name Of, in 2011. In 2018, Allen released her autobiographical book, My Thoughts Exactly. As an actress, Allen appeared in the 2019 film How to Build a Girl. In 2021, she made her West End debut in the new play 2:22 A Ghost Story, for which she received a Laurence Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress.
Early life
Allen was born on 2 May 1985 in Hammersmith, West London, the daughter of Keith Allen, a Welsh-born actor, and British film producer Alison Owen. She has an older sister, Sarah; a younger brother, actor Alfie (subject of her song "Alfie"); and a younger sister, Rebecca. Lily Allen's mother was from a devoutly Catholic working-class Portsmouth family, and was 17 when she gave birth to Sarah. Allen is the goddaughter of Wild Colonials vocalist Angela McCluskey and third-cousin of singer Sam Smith.
At the age of three, Allen appeared in The Comic Strip Presents... episode "The Yob", which her father had co-written. When she was four, her father left the family. During her early childhood, Allen lived with her family on a council estate. They later settled in Islington. For that time, the family lived with comedian Harry Enfield while her mother dated him. The Clash singer and guitarist Joe Strummer was close to Allen.
Allen attended 13 schools, including King Charles III's junior alma mater, the Independent Hill House School, Millfield, Bedales School and was expelled from several of them for drinking and smoking. When Allen was eleven, former University of Victoria music student Rachel Santesso overheard Allen singing "Wonderwall" by Oasis in the school's playground; impressed, Santesso, who later became an award-winning soprano and composer, called Allen into her office the next day and started giving her lunchtime singing lessons. This led to Allen singing "Baby Mine" from Disney's Dumbo at a school concert.
Allen told Loveline that the audience was "brought to tears at the sight of a troubled young girl doing something good". At that point Allen said she knew that music was something she needed to do either as a lifelong vocation or to get it out of her system. She played the piano to grade 5 standard and achieved grade 8 in singing. Allen also played violin, guitar and trumpet and was a member of a chamber choir. Her first solo was "In the Bleak Midwinter". In 1998, Allen appeared in the music video to the Fat Les song "Vindaloo". She dropped out of school at age fifteen, not wanting to "spend a third of her life preparing to work for the next third of her life, to set herself up with a pension for the next third of her life."
Music career
2001–2005: Career beginnings
When her family went to Ibiza on holiday, Allen told her mother that she was staying with friends but remained in Sant Antoni de Portmany instead. She earned money by working at a Plastic Fantastic record store and dealing ecstasy at the age of 15. Allen met her first manager, George Lamb in Ibiza. She first recorded the vocals for "On Me Head Not Off Me Head" written by her father for Mike Bassett: England Manager in 2001, and was featured in the 2002 song by her father's group Fat Les, "Who Invented Fish and Chips". She started to work with music producers, and recorded a demo. She was rejected by several labels, which she attributed to her drinking and being the daughter of Keith Allen. She eventually used her father's connections to get signed to London Records in 2002. When the executive who had signed her left, the label lost interest and she left without releasing the folk songs many of which were written by her father. She then studied horticulture to become a florist, but changed her mind and returned to music. Allen began writing songs, while her manager introduced her to production duo Future Cut in 2004. They worked in a small studio in the basement of an office building.
In 2005, Allen was signed to Regal Recordings; they gave her £25,000 to produce an album, though they were unable to provide much support for it due to their preoccupation with other releases such as X&Y (Coldplay) and Demon Days (Gorillaz). Allen then created an account on MySpace and began posting demos that she recorded in November 2005. The demos attracted thousands of listeners, and 500 limited edition 7-inch vinyl singles of "LDN" were rush-released, reselling for as much as £40. Allen also produced two mixtapes – My First Mixtape and My Second Mixtape – to promote her work. As she accumulated tens of thousands of MySpace friends, The Observer Music Monthly (OMM), a magazine published in The Observer, took interest in March 2006. Few people outside of her label's A&R department knew who she was, so the label was slow in responding to publications wanting to report about her. She received her first major mainstream coverage, appearing in the magazine's cover story two months later.
2006–2008: Alright, Still
The success convinced her label to allow her more creative control over the album and to use some of the songs that she had written instead of working with mainstream producers. Allen decided to work with producers Greg Kurstin and Mark Ronson, finishing the rest of the album in two weeks. Allen's debut album, Alright, Still, was released in July 2006. Most of the tracks had been previewed on her MySpace page, including the singles "Smile", "LDN", "Knock 'Em Out", and "Alfie". In September 2006, "Smile" was made available on the US version of iTunes Store. By December 2006, her music video for Smile had been played on various music channels as well as the song getting a little airplay. Entertainment Weekly named Alright, Still as one of the top 10 albums of 2006 despite the fact that it had not yet been released in the US. Allen also did several promotional ads for MTV as their Discover and Download artist of the month for January 2007. The album was released in the US on 30 January 2007, landing at 20 on the Billboard 200. By January 2009, the album had sold 960,000 copies in the UK and 520,000 copies in the US.
In 2007, she played the newly launched Park Stage at the Glastonbury Festival, replacing MIA who had cancelled. During the festival she reunited two members of The Specials, an act that guitarist Lynval Golding claimed played a "massive part" in the group's 2009 reunion. She also sang the vocals on the top ten single, "Oh My God", a cover of the Kaiser Chiefs song by Mark Ronson. On 1 July 2007, Allen appeared at the Concert for Diana held at Wembley Stadium, London to celebrate the life of Princess Diana. She sang "LDN" and "Smile". Allen's single "Littlest Things" from her album produced by Ronson, helped earn him a "Producer of the Year – Non Classical" 2008 Grammy Award. She also provided background vocals to a couple of songs on the Kaiser Chiefs' third album in 2008. Allen won a 2008 BMI songwriting award for "Smile".
Allen later performed at a benefit concert for War Child, an international child protection agency that works with children affected by war. Backed by Keane, Allen sang "Smile" and "Everybody's Changing".
2008–2011: It's Not Me, It's You and musical hiatus
After the release of her first album, her parent record company, EMI, was taken over by Terra Firma. She also changed her management company from Empire Artist Management to Twenty-First Artists, although her core team remained in place. At the urging of her record company, Allen tried unsuccessfully to create the album with several writers and producers. Allen eventually returned to Greg Kurstin who had written three songs for Alright, Still. The album was produced by Kurstin at Eagle Rock Studios in Los Angeles. Before returning to Kus, Allen co-wrote the songs for the album with Kurstin who played piano on it. This is a change from her earlier work in which she wrote lyrics for finished tracks. Allen released a statement saying "We decided to try and make bigger sounding, more ethereal songs, real songs ... I wanted to work with one person from start to finish to make it one body of work. I wanted it to feel like it had some sort of integrity. I think I've grown up a bit as a person and I hope it reflects that." She posted two new song demos on her MySpace page and planned to release a mixtape to give her fans an idea of what the new direction was.
Allen cancelled a scheduled appearance at the 2008 Isle of Wight Festival, telling festival promoter John Giddings the reason for the cancellation was that her album was behind schedule. Giddings said that the reason given was not acceptable and possibly a lie. Giddings decided not to sue her. Photos of her drunk and topless in the Cannes Film Festival were also widely covered in the press. Her appearance at the 2008 Glamour Awards also generated criticism, as she showed up intoxicated wearing a dress covered in decapitated Bambi figures, and had an on-stage, expletive-laced exchange with Elton John. On 29 June 2008, Allen performed at the Glastonbury Festival alongside producer Mark Ronson. An emotional Allen dedicated her performance of "Littlest Things" to her grandmother who died the night before. It's Not Me, It's You was first scheduled for an early 2008 release, but her miscarriage and creative issues delayed the release date to the autumn. During autumn 2008, EMI was undergoing restructuring. Due to this environment, a decision was made to move the album's eventual release date. An online game, Escape the Fear, was created by Matmi as part of the viral marketing campaign targeted at people unaware of Allen or the album. Since its release, "The Game" has topped the worldwide viral charts three times, including the week of Christmas—a highly contested time of the year. By 18 February 2009, "The Game" had been played over two million times. The singer and the Clash guitarist Mick Jones performed the Clash's song "Straight to Hell" on an album for the charity Heroes.
It's Not Me, It's You was released in February 2009. It debuted at the number 1 position in the UK, Canada, and Australia and the number 5 position in the United States. The album has been certified platinum in the United Kingdom. The release of the album was a factor in EMI more than trebling their earnings. The first single from the album, "The Fear", was number 1 for the first four weeks in the UK after its release. The second single released from the album, "Not Fair", reached the number 9 position. She began her It's Not Me, It's You World Tour in March, touring throughout the next two years until September 2010. Her work on this album with Greg Kurstin earned her the Songwriters of the Year at the 2010 Ivor Novello Awards. In addition, she won with Kurstin Best Song Musically and Lyrically and Most Performed Work for "The Fear". Allen appeared overwhelmed by this recognition from what she considered "real awards". In October 2010, Allen won her second BMI Pop Song Award by the United States music licensing organisation Broadcast Music Incorporated for extensive United States radio airplay of her song, "The Fear".
Allen and Jamie Hince, guitarist for The Kills, raised £48,350 for the children's charity The Hoping Foundation. The pair sang "Dream a Little Dream of Me" at a karaoke auction fundraiser.
In September 2009, Allen announced that she was considering a career in acting, that she would not renew her record contract, and that she had "no plans" to make another record. In September 2010, she gave her last performance for two and a half years, supporting Muse at Wembley Stadium in London, England. She featured on the UK top five single, "Just Be Good to Green" by Professor Green in June 2010. The following month, she started writing songs for the musical version of Bridget Jones's Diary which was scheduled to open in London's West End in 2012. Also in 2011, T-Pain used a verse from Allen's "Who'd Have Known" as the chorus to the song "5 O'Clock", which became the second single from his album Revolver. The song, which also features Wiz Khalifa, was released in September 2011, and reached number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, making it Allen's first Top 10 single in the United States.
2012–2018: Sheezus and No Shame
In June 2012, Allen confirmed she was in the studio working with Greg Kurstin on new music. She later changed her professional name from Lily Allen to Lily Rose Cooper and appeared on the track "True Love" on Pink's sixth studio album, The Truth About Love, released in September 2012. In February 2013, she performed live at a Paris fashion show produced by Mark Ronson in what she called her "mumback", and foreshadowed the release of a new album "inspired by her experiences of motherhood" by the end of 2013. In August 2013, she changed her professional name back to Lily Allen and tweeted new music would be arriving "soon".
In November 2013, Allen recorded a cover of Keane's "Somewhere Only We Know" for the John Lewis Christmas advert with a portion of the song's sales earnings donated to Save the Children's Philippine Typhoon Appeal campaign. Released as a download single, it reached number one in the UK singles chart on 24 November. On 12 November 2013, Allen premiered the video for her new song "Hard Out Here" on her official website. The song was released as a download the following week and entered the UK singles chart at number nine, giving Allen two simultaneous top ten hit singles. In December 2013, Allen was announced as one of the newest signees at Warner Bros. Records due to Warner Music Group acquiring Parlophone from Universal Music Group in May 2013. On 13 January 2014, the song "Air Balloon" was premiered on BBC Radio 1 and was released on 2 March 2014, as the second single from Allen's third studio album Sheezus. The album was released on 5 May 2014. Allen performed at the Glastonbury Festival 2014.
Following the release of Sheezus (2014), Allen had an "identity crisis". She did not enjoy the music she was being asked to create and believed people within the music industry were controlling her musical choices. Allen mentioned on the podcast News Roast that she is working on a new album, which will mainly deal with herself, her relationship with her children, the breakdown of her marriage, substance abuse, etc. Allen has been working with Mark Ronson. In late 2017, Allen uploaded numerous songs online in preparation for the album, including the track titled "Family Man". When conceiving the album Allen wanted to work through her problems via music. Allen decided to do this because she felt that people are often led "by outside forces" when they are trying to express themselves – something she wanted to explore when creating No Shame.
Later that year, in December, a song called "Trigger Bang" was leaked and featured rapper Giggs. On 24 January 2018 Allen announced her new album would be called No Shame. The album was released 8 June 2018. No Shame was nominated for a Mercury Prize, with the album being one of 12 to be shortlisted for the award. An electropop album, No Shame takes influence from dancehall and reggae, and features confessional lyrics that discuss the breakdown of Allen's marriage and friendships, maternal guilt, substance abuse, along with social and political issues. Upon release No Shame was met with generally positive reviews from music critics, who praised the album's mature lyrical content and themes, Allen's artistic evolution, the composition and production. The album peaked at number eight on the UK Albums Chart, it reached the top 40 on the New Zealand and Irish charts and became Allen's fourth consecutive top 10 album in Australia. To promote the album, Allen embarked on her worldwide No Shame Tour.
2019–present: Concept album and second hiatus
In April 2019, Allen revealed on Beats 1 radio that she was working on her next record which would be a "concept album". Allen later said in March 2020 that her new album only features "odd mentions" of her past addictions. She said: "This album I've been doing, I've been writing for just over a year, but I feel like I've moved on mentally so far from that time."
In the Glastonbury Festival 2022, Allen appeared during Olivia Rodrigo's set to perform "Fuck You", as a protest against the 2022 Supreme Court ruling that abortion was not protected by the Constitution of the United States. The Guardian described it as a "thrilling and furious" moment. Allen later said that she was unsure that she could perform "on a stage like that sober again", being nearly three years sober.
Acting career
Stage
In June 2021, Allen announced that she would be playing the lead role of Jenny in the West End play 2:22 A Ghost Story at the Noël Coward Theatre from 3 August 2021. The play, directed by Matthew Dunster and written by Danny Robins saw Allen debut in August 2021. Reviewing the play for The Independent, Annabel Nugent wrote, "Allen is superb as Jenny. Exhaustion thrums a fraction below her palpable fear – just visible enough in her performance to have you questioning Jenny's version of events". In 2022, she received a Laurence Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress, and also won a WhatsOnStage Award for her performance.
In 2023, Allen starred in The Pillowman, staged at the Duke of York's Theatre, London. Allen's performance received mixed reviews by critics.
Screen
Allen made an appearance as a lady-in-waiting in the 1998 film Elizabeth, which was co-produced by her mother. She later appeared as Elizabeth Taylor in How to Build a Girl in July 2019, alongside her brother Alfie.
In April 2023, Allen starred alongside Freema Agyeman in Sharon Horgan's comedy-drama Dreamland for Sky Max. It was developed from a short starring Morgana Robinson that aired in 2017.
Other ventures
Allen signed a one series contract to present her own BBC Three TV show titled Lily Allen and Friends based on the social networking phenomenon that helped to launch her music career. Guests included Mark Ronson, Joanna Page, James Corden, Lauren Laverne, Róisín Murphy, Louis Walsh, and Danny Dyer. The show attracted only 2 per cent of the total multi-channel audience despite a high-profile nationwide marketing campaign. Citing Allen's rapid development as a TV host and her popularity among its target audience BBC Three announced it was renewing Lily Allen and Friends for a second season. BBC Three controller Danny Cohen later said that the show would not air in the spring of 2009 as originally scheduled because of music commitments.
In 2009, Allen was named the face of the National Portrait Gallery as part of the gallery's marketing campaign. The picture was photographed by Nadav Kander emblazoned with the words, "vocalist, lyricist, florist". Karl Lagerfeld, the head designer for Chanel personally hired and photographed Allen for a campaign to promote a luxury line of handbags due to launch in September 2009. Allen and her sister opened their own clothing store titled "Lucy in Disguise" on 15 September 2010. Allen did not entirely abandon music during this period, in which she focused on starting her family. In January 2011, she launched her own record label, In the Name Of, with financial backing from Sony Music. The label released the debut album of Tom Odell. The label closed in 2014. In May 2016, Allen announced the launch of her second record label, Bank Holiday Records. British-American R&B singer Celeste was one of the first artists to sign to the label.
On 20 September 2018, Allen published the memoir My Thoughts Exactly with Blink Publishing. It was nominated for the FutureBook Campaign of the Year. The book is one of seven chosen by the Evening Standard as the "best celebrity memoirs of 2018". It is one of nine books listed under the "Showbusiness" category of The Guardians best books of 2018.
In October 2020, Allen worked with the sex tech company Womanizer to create her own sex toy called "Liberty", a clitoral pump. She is the chief liberation officer at Womanizer and is heading up their #IMasturbate campaign which encourages women to embrace their own sexuality. Liberty was positively reviewed in The Independent and Mashable. The product sucks and massages the clitoris without making direct contact, using sonic waves to induce sexual pleasure. It is waterproof and has six different intensity levels. Allen had previously recommended Womanizer's products in her autobiography My Thoughts Exactly.
Personal life
Allen has spoken publicly about her seven-year stalking ordeal and the effect it had on her life. Her stalker, Alex Gray, first made contact with Allen in 2008 when he sent her a series of tweets, claiming he had written her song "The Fear", under the Twitter handle "@lilyallenisRIP". He then sent Allen threatening letters to her home, her clothes shop, her record label and her manager's office. In October 2015, he sent an email to his mother stating he was planning on murdering a celebrity and went on to spend nights in Allen's back garden, broke into her bedroom whilst she was sleeping, and ultimately forced Allen to move. Allen has strongly criticised the Metropolitan Police for their inaction in the case, which included refusals to show Allen a picture of her stalker, lending her a panic alarm before demanding it back and refusal to believe stalking incidents were linked. In April 2016, Gray was convicted of burglary and harassment. At Harrow Crown Court on 10 June, Judge Martyn Barklem sentenced him to an indefinite hospital order. Gray was also made the subject of a restraining order and banned from entering the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham or the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea.
Allen said that she isolated herself following the stalking incidents, believing that "nobody was taking me seriously because the police weren't taking me seriously". This coincided with her divorce, in which she says "everyone sided with [Cooper]", and her album No Shame became the outlet for her issues. In February 2017, Allen said that she had been diagnosed with bipolar disorder.
Allen has been outspoken regarding her body image throughout her career. In an interview for Lorraine, an ITV breakfast program, Allen mentions that she "used to sleep for days so that [she] didn't eat" and that her relationship with her body was "not great" in her 20s. When asked about being influenced by the pressure of the music industry to "look a certain way in order to sell records," she replied that due to her defiant way of dealing with these unrealistic expectations, she was often criticized far more than the average musician. In January 2021, Allen gave an interview to discuss how she became addicted to the prescription drug Adderall in 2014 in order to lose weight before supporting Miley Cyrus on her Bangerz tour. She began a journey of recovery soon after when she was tempted to try heroin.
In November 2010, she took legal action against Associated Newspapers, the parent company of the Daily Mail after the Daily Mail published photographs of her home, citing invasion of privacy and copyright infringement.
Allen is a cricket fan and has appeared on Test Match Special.
In 2023, she was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Relationships and children
Allen began dating musician Ed Simons of the Chemical Brothers in September 2007, and in December, Allen announced that she and Simons were expecting a child. Allen announced that she suffered a miscarriage in January 2008. However, in her 2018 memoir My Thoughts Exactly, Allen writes that she "fake[d]" the miscarriage due to fears over how tabloids would report the story. After five months of dating, Allen's relationship with Simons ended. Allen has stated that she spent three weeks in a psychiatric clinic due to depression.
In July 2009, Allen began dating Sam Cooper, a builder and decorator. On 5 August 2010, Allen announced that she was pregnant with her and Cooper's first child, later confirmed to be a boy, due early in 2011. She experienced complications early in the pregnancy, including "about a week and a half of really heavy bleeding." In late October, six months into her pregnancy, Allen contracted a viral infection, which caused her to suffer a stillbirth, announced on 1 November. On 6 November, Allen was admitted to a hospital, where she responded well to treatment for septicaemia. In February 2017, Allen explained that she was diagnosed with post traumatic stress disorder after the stillbirth.
Allen and Cooper became engaged in December 2010 while on holiday in Bali. They wed on 11 June 2011 at St. James Church in Cranham, Gloucestershire, England. The designer of Allen's wedding dress confirmed she was several months pregnant on the wedding day. Allen gave birth to her daughter, Ethel Mary, in 2011. She gave birth to her second daughter, Marnie Rose, in 2013, following which she experienced postnatal depression.
On 2 September 2018, Allen posted on Instagram that she had had sex with female escorts in 2014 whilst married to Cooper, and whilst on tour promoting Sheezus. Allen had included details of these events in her book My Thoughts Exactly, and said that she made the Instagram post as the Daily Mail were planning to publish an article about it the following day. Saying that "I'm not proud, but I'm not ashamed", Allen has linked the events to her postnatal depression and the breakdown of her marriage. Allen has criticised the press for portraying the events as a "lesbian prostitute sex romp".
In My Thoughts Exactly, Allen writes that she had an affair with Liam Gallagher when he was married to Nicole Appleton. In mid-2015, Allen and Cooper broke up, after she told him about her acts of infidelity. In June 2018, it was publicly announced that a "friendly divorce" from Cooper had been finalised and they would share custody of their children.
Allen began a relationship with actor David Harbour in 2019. They made their red carpet debut during the 26th annual Screen Actors Guild Awards. A day after they obtained their marriage certificate, they got married on 7 September 2020 in Las Vegas, in a wedding that was officiated by an Elvis impersonator. The couple share a home in Brooklyn.
Politics and activism
Allen considers herself to be a socialist. Although she is a staunch supporter of the Labour Party, she was credited with helping inspire a parliamentary rebellion against former Prime Minister Gordon Brown when she wrote to all members of parliament asking them to back an amendment to an energy bill, requiring a reward scheme for home production of renewable energy. She later confirmed her support for the Labour Party and then-Prime Minister Gordon Brown in particular.
After the British government's plans to implement a three-strikes policy for file sharing copyright infringement, Allen came out in support for disconnecting repeat offenders. Creating a blog titled "It's Not Alright" against file sharing, it subsequently came to light that she had copied text directly from the Techdirt website of an interview with 50 Cent, without attribution. This led to accusations that Allen had infringed on other artists' copyrights by creating mix tapes early in her career, that she then made available via her website. A group of supporters of filesharing, operating under the name "Anonymous", launched a denial of service attack dubbed Operation Payback that shut down Allen's website and targeted other critics.
On 1 October 2009, Allen and several other musicians released the world's first digital musical petition aimed at pressuring world leaders attending the December 2009 climate change summit in Copenhagen. The petition included a cover of the song "Beds Are Burning" by Midnight Oil.
During the London assembly and mayoral elections in April 2016, Allen announced that she would be giving "half her vote to the Women's Equality Party" – by voting for them on the London-wide Assembly list but voting Labour elsewhere.
In June 2016, Allen published several tweets and attended protests in support of Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn, after mass resignations from his cabinet and a leadership challenge.
On 15 June 2017, Allen appeared on Channel 4 News to discuss the Grenfell Tower fire. She claimed that "the death count has been downplayed by the mainstream media", disputing the then official figure of 17 fatalities by saying, "I'm hearing from people that the figure is much closer to 150". The official death toll is now 72.
In November 2019, Allen declared during the 2019 UK general election campaign that the Labour Party manifesto was "the best I've ever seen" and shared a picture of her polling card with the caption: "Tories OUT."
Controversies
Due to her outspokenness, Allen was the subject of many controversies early in her career. Disparaging remarks about musicians such as Luke Pritchard of The Kooks, Bob Geldof, Cheryl, Nicola Roberts, Amy Winehouse, Kylie Minogue and Katy Perry have all garnered minor press attention. She later said that making fun of other pop stars was a result of a lack of confidence, saying "I felt like 'Oh God, I'm short, fat, ugly and I hate all these people who flaunt their beauty.'"
On 28 June 2007, Allen was arrested in London for allegedly assaulting photographer Kevin Rush while she was leaving a nightclub in London's West End. Prior to this, she had expressed discomfort with attention from the paparazzi on her Myspace blog. By February 2009, she had stopped addressing controversies about herself on her blog because she found it "boring when people just pick stuff up and write about it. People get hurt, people get upset." In September 2009, she shut down her Myspace account and stopped social networking completely in December due to the abuse she was taking.
In May 2009, French football magazine So Foot published a fake interview in which Allen was quoted as making derogatory remarks about David and Victoria Beckham and Ashley and Cheryl Cole. Some of the material was reprinted in the British tabloid The Sun. Both publications later apologised and paid damages to Allen. In October 2009, after having created her career on MySpace, Allen deleted her social media accounts and announced "I am now a neo-luddite. Goodbye". She re-activated her accounts four months later in February 2010.
Allen's November 2013 video for "Hard out Here" was accused of being racist for its use of mostly black dancers in an allegedly "disapproving" manner. Allen responded that ethnicity was not a factor in hiring the dancers, and the video was a lighthearted satirical look at objectification of women in modern pop music. In November 2016, Allen apologised for the video in an interview with Annie Mac, stating "I definitely wanted to make a feminist statement. But I was guilty of assuming that there was a one-size-fits-all where feminism is concerned."
Artistry
Allen's early released songs saw her singing against retro productions. Her songs also featured other elements, such as the ska influence on second single, "LDN". She was also noted for her liberal use of crude words in her lyrics. Allen has said she cringes now when listening to tracks from Alright, Still, as it reminds her that she was a "sort of over-excitable teenager who desperately wanted attention" when she wrote it. Wanting to move on from the retro sound that many other artists had adapted since her debut, Allen ventured in a new direction sonically and lyrically in her second studio album, It's Not Me, It's You. "The Fear", the first single from the album, is an electro-pop track denouncing consumerism. Her new musical direction and willingness to write lyrics that tackled less-common subjects were lauded by some critics.
Allen's song "Who'd Have Known" was sampled in T-Pain's single "5 O'Clock" because of her accent.
Joe Strummer, a close friend of Allen's father Keith, played mixtapes of Brazilian music and Jamaican reggae and ska when she was young. Allen stated that she had "always been into very black music" such as ska, reggae, and hip hop music. Since she did not know how to rap, she chose to use reggae as a point of reference when making Alright, Still. The album's music blends ska and reggae with pop melodies. Allen's melodies are influenced by the jazz improvisation techniques of American singers Blossom Dearie and Ella Fitzgerald. The album's beats are influenced by various genres such as jazz and grime. Singers Lady Gaga, Tegan and Sara, Bridgit Mendler, Jullie and Victoria Justice have each been influenced by Allen.
Accolades
Allen has received 31 awards and 73 nominations for her music, including nominations for nine BRIT Awards (one won), one Grammy Award, three Ivor Novello Awards (three won), one Mercury Prize and twelve NME Awards (three won). For her acting, she has been nominated for a Laurence Olivier Award.
Discography
Alright, Still (2006)
It's Not Me, It's You (2009)
Sheezus (2014)
No Shame (2018)
Tours
Headlining
Still, Alright? (2007–08)
It's Not Me, It's You World Tour (2009–10)
Sheezus Tour (2014–15)
No Shame Tour (2018–19)
As solo supporting act
Miley Cyrus' Bangerz Tour (North America, 2014)
Filmography
References
External links
1985 births
21st-century English actresses
21st-century English women singers
21st-century English memoirists
21st-century English women writers
BBC people
Brit Award winners
British contemporary R&B singers
English socialists
Capitol Records artists
Electropop musicians
English environmentalists
English women singer-songwriters
English singer-songwriters
English film actresses
English people of Welsh descent
English women pop singers
English television personalities
English television talk show hosts
Ivor Novello Award winners
Labour Party (UK) people
Living people
NME Awards winners
Parlophone artists
People educated at Bedales School
People educated at Hill House School
People educated at Millfield
People educated at Millfield Preparatory School
Musicians from Hammersmith
Actresses from Hammersmith
Actors from Islington (district)
Musicians from Islington (district)
People with bipolar disorder
Singers from London
Women's Equality Party people
BT Digital Music Awards winners
British women memoirists
People with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
English people with disabilities
Privately educated musicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BFI%20London%20Film%20Festival
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BFI London Film Festival
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The BFI London Film Festival is an annual film festival held in London, England in collaboration with the British Film Institute. The festival runs for two weeks in October every year. In 2016, the BFI estimated that around 240 feature films and 150 short films from more than 70 countries are screened at the festival each year.
History
At a dinner party in 1953, at the home of film critic Dilys Powell of The Sunday Times, attended by film administrator James Quinn, guests discussed the lack of a film festival in London. Quinn went on to start the first London Film Festival, which took place at the new National Film Theatre (now renamed BFI Southbank) from 16–26 October 1957. The first festival screened 15–20 films that were already successful at other festivals, including Akira Kurosawa's Throne of Blood (which opened the festival), Satyajit Ray's Aparajito, Andrzej Wajda's Kanał, Luchino Visconti's White Nights, Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal, Federico Fellini's Nights of Cabiria and Elia Kazan's A Face in the Crowd. The first edition was sponsored by The Sunday Times.
The second festival was held from 6–14 October 1958 and saw the introduction of the Sutherland Trophy, an annual award for "the maker of the most original and imaginative film introduced at the National Film Theatre during the year", which was awarded to Yasujirō Ozu for Tokyo Story. The third festival featured François Truffaut's The 400 Blows, for which he famously turned up to the festival without a ticket and unable to speak English.
The third festival opened 12 October 1959 with the Czech puppet version of A Midsummer Night's Dream directed by Jiří Trnka.
Richard Roud became festival director in 1960, the first year that a British film was shown at the festival; the world premiere of Karel Reisz's Saturday Night and Sunday Morning. The fourth edition also featured Michelangelo Antonioni's L'Avventura and Truffaut's Shoot the Pianist.
The fifth edition opened 17 October 1961 with Jacques Demy's Lola. The 1962 festival featured the first midnight matinee, Tony Richardson's The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner. Roman Polanski's first feature-length film Knife in the Water and Jean-Luc Godard's Vivre sa vie were also screened.
A new strand of the festival called London Choices was added in 1965. London Choices featured debut and lesser-known features. One of the first London Choices features was Dear John, directed by Lars-Magnus Lindgren.
1967 saw the first features films directed by women screened - Shirley Clarke's Portrait of Jason, Agnès Varda's Les Créatures and Věra Chytilová's Daisies.
Jean-Luc Godard's first English language film, One Plus One, was shown under the London Choices strand in 1968. After the screening, Godard punched producer Iain Quarrier in the face on stage for changes Quarrier made to the film's ending.
1970–1983
Ken Wlaschin became the festival director in February 1970 and expanded the size and diversity of the festival. His first festival ran 16 November to 2 December 1970 and featured 28 films, opening with Truffaut's L'Enfant sauvage and featuring Kurosawa's Dodes'ka-den and the world premiere of Anthony Friedman's Bartleby. A recently opened second screen at the NFT was also used. David Lynch's short film The Grandmother was also shown in 1970.
The 1971 festival ran 15 November to 1 December and was expanded to include a directors' section, featuring the premiere of Mike Leigh's feature film debut Bleak Moments. Between 13 and 29 November 1972, 44 films were screened. The 1974 festival opened 18 November and featured 60 films starting with the premiere of Peter Hall's Akenfield. The Texas Chain Saw Massacre was screened in a members-only screening due to it not being classified by the BBFC. Similar screenings were held for The Beast in 1975 and Salò, or the 120 Days of Sodom in 1977.
Newsfront directed by Phillip Noyce opened the 1978 festival on 14 November which ended 16 days later with Jack Gold's The Sailor's Return. The 1979 festival ran 15 November to 2 December, opening with Those Wonderful Movie Cranks directed by Jiří Menzel. The 1980 festival was held between 13–30 November, opening with Kurosawa's Kagemusha and closing with Martin Scorsese's Raging Bull.
The 25th festival opened on 4 November 1981 and featured 127 films and also expanded outside of London with 12 programmes playing around the country. The 1982 festival opened 11 November 1982 with 4 independent British films - Claude Whatham's The Captain's Doll, Peter Greenaway's The Draughtsman's Contract, Barney Platts-Mills' Hero and Mai Zetterling's Scrubbers - and closed 28 November.
Expansion
In 1984, Wlaschin's role as program director for the National Film Theatre (NFT) and festival director was split, with The Guardian film critic Derek Malcolm taking over as festival director, initially temporarily, and Sheila Whitaker as NFT program director. Malcolm expanded the festival to 8 theatres other than the NFT; introduced Festival on the Square, which showed more popular films; added a surprise film each year; and increased attendances, trying to change it from a festival for film buffs to one for the public. The 1984 festival opened with Gremlins at the NFT on 14 November and closed on 2 December with a gala presentation at the Dominion Theatre of a new print of the 1924 version of The Thief of Baghdad starring Douglas Fairbanks with the score composed and conducted by Carl Davis. It was the most popular festival to date with 57,000 tickets sold, and Malcolm was retained to organize the festival the following year.
The 1985 festival was expanded to feature 161 films and ran from 14 November to 1 December, opening with Akira Kurosawa's Ran and closing with Michael Cimino's Year of the Dragon and Peter Greenaway's A Zed & Two Noughts. The best films of the festival were to be shown around 15 towns around the country after the event.
The films were grouped into regional categories. In 2009 these were: Galas and Special Screenings, Film on the Square, New British Cinema, French Revolutions, Cinema Europa, World Cinema, Experimenta, Treasures from the Archives, Short Cuts and Animation.
Since 1986, the festival has been "topped and tailed" by the opening and closing galas which have become major red carpet events in the London calendar. The opening and closing galas are often world, European, or UK premiere screenings, which take place in large venues in central London. They are attended by the cast and crew of the films and introduced by the festival director, the film's director or producers, and often the actors themselves.
The 30th edition of the festival in 1986 opened with Nicolas Roeg's Castaway and closed with Ken Russell's film Gothic (Daily Telegraph, October 10th 1986). The festival had a "post script" the next day on 1 December with a Royal charity performance of Labyrinth attended by Charles, Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales.
1987–1996
Sheila Whitaker, who had been the manager of the National Film Theatre, replaced Malcolm in 1987. The 1987 festival was the first to open at the Empire, Leicester Square on 11 November 1987. It was due to open with A Prayer for the Dying, a film about an IRA member but was pulled 2 days before the opening following the IRA's Remembrance Day bombing in Enniskillen on 8 November. The film was replaced with Dark Eyes. Most films were screened at either the Odeon West End or at BFI Southbank.
During her period as director, Whitaker continued to expand the festival. By the end of her tenure as director in 1996, the festival had grown to include screenings of over 200 films from around the world, more venues had been added, and more tickets were sold to non-BFI members. She also began the festival's practice of including newly restored films from the National Film Archive and overseas institutions.
The 1990 festival was held between 8-25 November and featured 180 films compared to 145 in the previous year. It opened with Peter Bogdanovich's Texasville and closed with Bernardo Bertolucci's The Sheltering Sky. It also featured the world premiere of Mike Leigh's Life Is Sweet.
The 1991 festival was held between 6–21 November and was dedicated to David Lean, who had died earlier in the year. The festival opened with the world premiere of Mike Newell's Enchanted April and closed with the European premiere of Mark Peploe's debut film Afraid of the Dark.
In 1993, the Children's London Film Festival was incorporated into the main festival. The opening night film was the European premiere of James Ivory's The Remains of the Day on 4 November and closed on 21 November with Farewell My Concubine.
The 1994 festival opened on 3 November with the world premiere of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein directed by Kenneth Branagh and closed 20 November with Luc Besson's Léon: The Professional. A 12-film sidebar was added for Arabian and Middle Eastern films, in addition to sidebars for French and Asian films.
Due to classification issues, special permission was needed from Westminster City Council to screen Oliver Stone's Natural Born Killers in 1994 and David Cronenberg's Crash in 1996. The 1996 festival opened with The First Wives Club and also featured Shane Meadows' debut film Small Time.
1997–2011
Adrian Wooton was appointed festival director and Sandra Hebron as festival programmer in 1997. The 2002 festival was held 6–21 November. Hebron became artistic director of the festival in 2003, replacing Wooton. The same year, the festival's name was changed to the BFI London Film Festival.
The 2004 festival ran from 20 October to 4 November, opening with the UK premiere of Mike Leigh's Vera Drake and closed with David O. Russell's I Heart Huckabees.
The 2005 festival was held from 19 October to 3 November and had 180 features, opening with Fernando Meirelles' The Constant Gardener and closing with the UK premiere of George Clooney's Good Night, and Good Luck. 161 of the 180 screenings were sold out.
The fiftieth edition of the festival opened with the European premiere of Kevin McDonald's The Last King of Scotland. It also featured the European premieres of Todd Field's Little Children and Anthony Minghella's Breaking and Entering. It closed with Babel.
The world premiere of Frost/Nixon on 15 October 2008 was the opening night gala of the 2008 festival and Danny Boyle's Slumdog Millionaire was the closing film.
Previously a number of festival awards were presented at the Closing gala, but in 2009, with the aid of some funding from the UK Film Council, a stand-alone awards ceremony was introduced. The UK Film Council helped fund the festival for three years until it was abolished in 2011.
In 2009 the festival, whilst focused around Leicester Square (Vue West End, Odeon West End and Empire) and the BFI Southbank in central London, also screened films across 18 other venues – Curzon Mayfair Cinema, ICA Cinema on The Mall, The Ritzy in Brixton, Cine Lumière in South Kensington, Queen Elizabeth Hall on the South Bank, David Lean Cinema in Croydon, the Genesis Cinema in Whitechapel, The Greenwich Picturehouse, the Phoenix Cinema in East Finchley, Rich Mix in Old Street, the Rio Cinema in Dalston, the Tricycle Cinema in Kilburn, the Waterman Art Centre in Brentford and Trafalgar Square for the open air screening of short films from the BFI National Archive. The 2009 Festival featured 15 world premieres including Wes Anderson’s first animated feature, Fantastic Mr. Fox, Sam Taylor-Wood’s feature début Nowhere Boy, about the formative years of John Lennon, as well as the Festival's first ever Archive Gala, the BFI's new restoration of Anthony Asquith’s Underground, with live music accompaniment by the Prima Vista Social Club. European premieres in 2009 included Jean-Pierre Jeunet’s Micmacs, Scott Hicks’ The Boys Are Back and Robert Connolly's Balibo, as well as Umesh Vinayak Kulkarni's The Well and Lucy Bailey and Andrew Thompson's Mugabe and the White African.
In 2009, directors travelling to London to introduce their latest work included Michael Haneke (Cannes Palme d'Or winner, The White Ribbon), Atom Egoyan (Chloe), Steven Soderbergh (The Informant!), Lone Scherfig (An Education), Ang Lee (Taking Woodstock), Jane Campion (Bright Star), Gaspar Noé (Enter The Void), Lee Daniels (Precious), Grant Heslov (The Men Who Stare at Goats), and Jason Reitman (Up in the Air). In addition to Fantastic Mr. Fox and Up in the Air, George Clooney supported his role in The Men Who Stare at Goats. The Festival also welcomed back previous alumni such as John Hillcoat (The Road), Joe Swanberg (Alexander The Last) and Harmony Korine (Trash Humpers), whilst also screening films from Manoel de Oliveira (Eccentricities of a Blonde-Haired Girl), Jim Jarmusch (The Limits Of Control), Claire Denis (White Material), Ho-Yuhang (At The End Of Daybreak), Todd Solondz (Life During Wartime), and Joel and Ethan Coen (A Serious Man).
American Express became the festival's principal sponsor in 2010. Previously it had been sponsored by The Times.
The 2011 festival was held from 12–27 October opening with Mereille's 360 and closed with The Deep Blue Sea, both starring Rachel Weisz.
2012–2017
Clare Stewart was appointed as head of exhibition at the BFI in August 2011 replacing Hebron and was the festival's director from the 2012 edition. Under Stewart, a formal competition was organised in 2012, films were organized into strands such as "Love", "Debate", "Dare" and "Thrill" and films started to be screened outside of London.
The 2012 festival ran from 10–21 October, opening with Tim Burton's Frankenweenie and closing with the European premiere of Mike Newell's Great Expectations.
The 2013 festival was held between 9–20 October opening with Captain Phillips and closing with the world premiere of Saving Mr. Banks, both starring Tom Hanks.
248 films were screened in 2014 and the festival saw a record attendance of 163,000. It ran from 8–19 October, opening with the European premiere of The Imitation Game and closing with the European premiere of Fury. Simultaneous screenings of the opening and closing films took place around the UK.
The Odeon West End, which accounted for 23% of admissions in 2014, closed 1 January 2015, so more screenings moved to the Vue West End as well as moving to the Cineworld Haymarket and Picturehouse Central. Festival attendances fell 4% for the 2015 edition, which ran from 7–18 October. The festival featured 14 world premieres and 40 European premieres, opening with Suffragette and closing with Danny Boyle's Steve Jobs.
The 60th edition of the festival held between 5–16 October 2016 saw the opening of the temporary Embankment Garden Cinema, in Victoria Embankment Gardens. The festival opened with the European premiere of Amma Asante's A United Kingdom and closed with the European premiere of Ben Wheatley's Free Fire.
In the first 60 years of the festival, it had shown 27 films by Rainer Werner Fassbinder, 19 by Satyajit Ray and 18 by Jean-Luc Godard.
The 2017 edition was held between 4–15 October. It opened with Andy Serkis' Breathe and closed with Martin McDonagh's Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri.
BFI London Film Festival today
While the programme still retains the 'festivals' feel, it also now shows new discoveries from "important and exciting talents" in world cinema. Whilst it continues to be first and foremost a public festival, it is also attended by large numbers of film professionals and journalists from all over the world. Importantly, it offers opportunities for people to see films that may not otherwise get a UK screening along with films which will get a release in the near future. Some films are accompanied by Q&A sessions which give the audience unique access to the filmmaker and/or a member of the cast and offer insight into the making of the film and occasionally an opportunity for the audience to engage directly and ask questions. Other than these events the screenings at the Festival are quite informal and similar to the normal cinema experience.
Stewart took a sabbatical for the 2018 edition of the festival and her deputy, Tricia Tuttle stood in as interim artistic director. She became artistic director in December 2018. Current film programmers include Kate Taylor (Senior Programmer), Michael Blyth and Laure Bonville.
The 2018 festival was held from 10–21 October. It opened with the European premiere of Steve McQueen's Widows. It saw the first film at the festival to premiere outside London with the UK premiere of Mike Leigh's Peterloo being held at HOME in Manchester on 17 October as well as the world premiere of Peter Jackson's They Shall Not Grow Old, which was also screened simultaneously around the UK. It closed with the world premiere of Stan & Ollie.
The 2019 edition ran from 2–13 October and opened with Armando Iannucci's The Personal History of David Copperfield which was shown at the Odeon Leicester Square and at the Embankment Garden Cinema. It closed with Martin Scorsese's The Irishman.
The 2020 festival was held between 7–18 October, however, due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom, the festival featured up to 50 online films with only 12 films being shown in London and around the United Kingdom. The festival opened with the European premiere of Steve McQueen's Mangrove and closed with Ammonite, directed by Francis Lee.
The 2021 festival was held from 6 to 17 October 2021, opening with the world premiere of Jeymes Samuel's The Harder They Fall at Royal Festival Hall. It closed with Joel Coen's The Tragedy of Macbeth, his first film without brother Ethan also directing.
The 2022 festival was held from 5 to 16 October 2022, opening with the world premiere of Roald Dahl's Matilda the Musical at the Royal Festival Hall. It closed with Glass Onion: A Knives Out Mystery.
The 2023 festival was held from 4 to 15 October 2023, opening with the international premiere of Saltburn at the Royal Festival Hall. It closed with the world premiere of The Kitchen.
Programmes
The Festival is organized in various sections:
Galas
Opening Night Gala - Film that screened on the opening night.
Closing Night Gala - Film that screened on the closing night.
Headline Galas - About 10 films, includes American Express Gala, Mayor of London's Gala, BFI Patrons' Gala, American Airlines Gala and The May Fair Hotel Gala to name a few.
Festival and Strand Gala - Red carpet galas of themed strands: Cult, Dare, Thrill, Debate, Love, Laugh, Family, Journey, Create, and Treasures.
Special Presentations - Focus on new works from major directors. This section includes Documentary, Experimenta, BFI Flare and other Special Presentations.
Strands - Films were organized according to themes to encourage discovery and to open up the Festival to new audiences. The themes include:
Love - films that are sweet, passionate and tough, as well as charts the highs and lows of many kind of love from around the globe.
Debate - features films that are amplify, scrutinize, argue, surprise and thrives on conversation.
Laugh - celebrates humour in all its form, from laugh-out-loud comedy to dry and understated
Dare - features in-your-face, up-front and arresting films that take audience out of their comfort zones
Thrill - features nerve-shredders that get audience on the edge of their seats
Cult - features films that are mind-altering and classifiable, as well as sci-fi and horror genre
Journey - focused on the journey or the destination that transport and shift the perspectives of audience
Create - features films that channel the electricity of creative process and celebrating artistic expression in all its form
Experimenta - features films and videos by artists that revolutionize and reshape the vision of cinema
Family - showcases films for the young and the young at heart
Treasures - brings recently restored cinematic classics from archives around the world
Expanded - showcases immersive art and extended reality (XR) content
In Competition - celebrate the highest creative achievements of British and international filmmakers.
Official competition - films are competing for the Best Film Award.
First Feature Competition - films are competing for the Sutherland Award.
Documentary Competition - films are competing for the Grierson Award.
Short Film Award - recognizes short from works with a unique cinematic view.
Surprise film
Derek Malcolm introduced a screening of an unannounced film during the festival each year.
Surprise films have included A Chorus Line (1985), The Color of Money (1986), Sideways (2004), Capitalism: A Love Story (2009), Silver Linings Playbook (2012), The Grandmaster (2013), Birdman (2014), Anomalisa (2015), Sully (2016), Lady Bird (2017), Green Book (2018) Uncut Gems (2019), , C’mon C’mon (2021), and The Menu (2022). With the most recent being Ferrari (2023)
For the 50th anniversary of the festival, rather than one surprise film, there were 50 screenings of a surprise film around London.
Awards
The categories highlight both emerging and established talent.
The Sutherland Trophy – for the most original and innovative first feature in the London Film Festival. Named after the BFI's patron, The 5th Duke of Sutherland, this award boasts recipients as noteworthy as Ray, Bertolucci, Fassbinder, Godard and Antonioni.
The Grierson Award – for the best feature-length documentary in the festival. This award is given jointly by the LFF and the Grierson Trust which commemorates the pioneering Scottish documentary-maker John Grierson (1898–1972), famous for Drifters and Night Mail. The Grierson Trust has a long-standing tradition of recognising outstanding films that demonstrate integrity, originality and technical excellence and social or cultural significance.
From 2009, a new standalone awards ceremony was launched which included the following awards:
Best Film – celebrates creative, original, imaginative, intelligent and distinctive filmmaking.
Best British Newcomer Award – celebrates new and emerging British film talent and recognises the achievements of a new writer, producer or director who demonstrates real creative flair and imagination with their first feature.
BFI Fellowships – the Festival showcases both the work of new filmmakers and established ones, and presenting two Fellowships provides a fitting contrast to those Awards recognising new talent.
2004
The Sutherland Trophy
Tarnation, dir. Jonathan Caouette
7th FIPRESCI International Critics Award
Aaltra, dir. Gustave de Kervern and Benoît Delépine
The Alfred Dunhill UK Film Talent Award
A Way of Life, dir. Amma Asante
9th Annual Satyajit Ray Award
The Woodsman, dir. Nicole Kassell
TCM Classic Shorts Award
Nits, dir. Harry Wootliff
2005
The Sutherland Trophy
For the Living and the Dead, dir. Kari Paljakka
8th FIPRESCI International Critics Award
Man Push Cart, dir. Ramin Bahrani
The Alfred Dunhill UK Film Talent Award
Producer Gayle Griffiths
The 10th Annual Satyajit Ray Award
Pavee Lackeen, dir. Perry Ogden
The Grierson Award for Best Documentary
Workingman's Death, dir. Michael Glawogger
TCM Classic Shorts Award
Jane Lloyd, dir. HAPPY (Directing duo Guy Shelmerdine and Richard Farmer (director))
2006
The Sutherland Trophy
Red Road, dir. Andrea Arnold
9th FIPRESCI International Critics Award
Lola, dir. Javier Rebollo
The Alfred Dunhill UK Film Talent Award
Producer Mark Herbert
The 11th Annual Satyajit Ray Award
The Lives of Others, dir. Florian Henckel von Donnersmarck
The Grierson Award for Best Documentary
Thin, dir. Lauren Greenfield
TCM Classic Shorts Award
Silence Is Golden, dir. Chris Shepherd
2007
The Sutherland Trophy
Persepolis, dir. Marjane Satrapi and Vincent Paronnaud
10th FIPRESCI International Critics Award
Unrelated, dir. Joanna Hogg
The Alfred Dunhill UK Film Talent Award
Sarah Gavron, director of Brick Lane
The 12th Annual Satyajit Ray Award
California Dreamin', awarded posthumously to director Cristian Nemescu
The Grierson Award for Best Documentary
The Mosquito Problem and Other Stories, dir. Andrey Paounov
TCM Classic Shorts Award
À bout de truffe, dir. Tom Tagholm
2008
The Sutherland Trophy
Tulpan, dir. Sergey Dvortsevoy
11th FIPRESCI International Critics Award
Three Blind Mice, dir. Matthew Newton
The 13th Annual Satyajit Ray Award
Mid-August Lunch, dir. Gianni Gregorio
The Grierson Award for Best Documentary
Victoire Terminus, dir. Florent de la Tullaye and Renaud Barret
TCM Classic Shorts Award
Leaving, dir. Richard Penfold and Sam Hearn
2009
In 2009, a new annual standalone awards ceremony was launched to showcase the work of imaginative and original filmmakers and to reward distinctive and intriguing work.
The Awards took place at the Inner Temple on 28 October 2009 and were hosted by Paul Gambaccini. Winners of the Sutherland Trophy, Best British Newcomer and Best Film received the inaugural Star of London award designed by sculptor Almuth Tebbenhoff.
Best Film
Un prophète, dir. Jacques Audiard
The Sutherland Trophy
Ajami, dir. Scandar Copti and Yaron Shani
Best British Newcomer Award
Jack Thorne, writer of The Scouting Book For Boys
The Grierson Award for Best Documentary
Defamation, dir. Yoav Shamir
BFI Fellowships
Filmmaker – Souleymane Cissé
Actor – John Hurt
Judges
Best Film: Anjelica Huston, John Akomfrah, Jarvis Cocker, Mathieu Kassovitz, Charlotte Rampling, Iain Softley
The Sutherland Trophy: Paul Greengrass, David Parfitt, Matt Bochenski, Gillian Wearing, Molly Dineen, Mark Cosgrove, Kerry Fox, Sara Frain, Michael Hayden, Sandra Hebron
Best British Newcomer Award: Lenny Crooks, Christine Langan, Tessa Ross, Tanya Seghatchian, Michael Hayden, Sandra Hebron
The Grierson Award: Nick Broomfield, Ellen Fleming, Christopher Hird, Michael Hayden, Sandra Hebron
2010
Best Film
How I Ended This Summer, dir. Alexei Popogrebski
The Sutherland Trophy
The Arbor, dir. Clio Barnard
Best British Newcomer Award
Clio Barnard, director of The Arbor
The Grierson Award for Best Documentary
Armadillo, dir. Janus Metz
BFI Fellowship
Filmmaker – Danny Boyle
2011
Best Film
We Need to Talk About Kevin, dir. Lynne Ramsay
The Sutherland Trophy
Las Acacias, dir. Pablo Giorgelli
Best British Newcomer Award:
Candese Reid, actress in Junkhearts
The Grierson Award for Best Documentary
Into the Abyss: A Tale of Death, A Tale of Life, dir. Werner Herzog
BFI Fellowships
Filmmaker – David Cronenberg
Actor – Ralph Fiennes
2012
2013
Pawel Pawlikowski, best known for his films My Summer of Love and Last Resort, won the Best Film award for his black and white social drama Ida, his first film shot in his native Poland. Pawlikowski, at the time, was a visiting tutor at the National Film and Television School in Buckinghamshire and one of his pupils there, Anthony Chen, picked up the Best First Feature prize for Ilo Ilo.
2014
Leviathan was named the Best Film at the London Film Festival Awards on 18 October 2014, at a ceremony where the main prizes went to Russia, Ukraine (Best First Feature, The Tribe) and Syria (Best Documentary, Silvered Water), three countries at the centre of long-running conflicts. The winning film-makers all said they hoped that culture could help to restore peace to their countries.
2015
At a London Film Festival declared by its director Clare Stewart to be promoting strong women in the industry, both in front of and behind the camera, the theme continued into the awards, with the Best Film being named as the Greek comedy Chevalier, directed by Athina Rachel Tsangari. The winner of the Sutherland Award for Best First Feature, The Witch, was described by the jury as "a fresh, feminist take on a timeless tale." Another woman was honoured with the Grierson Award for the best documentary; the Australian filmmaker Jennifer Peedom, who was shooting Sherpa as a devastating avalanche struck the Himalayas, in April 2014. And the Oscar-winning Cate Blanchett described how she was "deeply honoured and dumbstruck" at being awarded a BFI Fellowship.
2016
Following the previous year's festival aimed to celebrate strong women in the film industry, 2016 was partly designed to better reflect the diverse audiences in society; the festival opened with a film directed by a black director and the BFI Fellowship was awarded to Steve McQueen. Most of the awards, once again, had strong female themes – either being directed by women, about women or both. Kelly Reichardt’s Certain Women won the Official Competition, while Raw, by the French director Julia Ducournau, won the Sutherland Award for the Best First Feature. Noting that there are still too few opportunities for female directors, Ducournau said, "It's about time that things are starting to change. It's good that doors are now being opened." The Grierson Award for the best documentary went to Starless Dreams, filmed inside a rehabilitation centre for juvenile delinquent women in Iran. For the first time, the London Film Festival ran a competition for the best short film. This went to Issa Touma, Thomas Vroege and Floor van de Muelen for the documentary 9 Days – From My Window in Aleppo. Touma, a Syrian photographer who regularly returns to Aleppo, said it was important for intellectuals, academics and artists not to desert the country. "You can't change anything from far away," he said.
2017
Accepting the prestigious BFI Fellowship at the 2017 London Film Festival Awards, director Paul Greengrass acknowledged that it had been a difficult week for the film industry, on the day that Harvey Weinstein was expelled from the Academy that hands out the Oscars. He said the industry had to act and words weren't enough. The Best Film on the night went to Russia's Loveless, making Andrey Zvyagintsev the second director to have won the honour twice. South Africa's John Trengove won the Best First Film award for The Wound. Lucy Cohen's Kingdom of Us, about the aftermath of a suicide, was named the Best Documentary. And Patrick Bresnan's The Rabbit Hunt won the third Best Short Film prize.
2018
Best Film
Joy, dir. Sudabeh Mortezai
(Special mention: Birds of Passage, dir. Cristina Gallego and Ciro Guerra)
The Sutherland Award
Girl, dir. Lukas Dhont
The Grierson Award for Best Documentary
What You Gonna Do When the World's on Fire?, dir. Roberto Minervini
Short Film Award
Lasting Marks, dir. Charlie Lyne
2019
Best Film
Monos, dir. Alejandro Landes
(Special commendations: Honey Boy, dir. Alma Har'el; Saint Maud, dir. Rose Glass)
The Sutherland Award
Atlantics, dir. Mati Diop
(Special commendation: House of Hummingbird, dir. Bora Kim)
The Grierson Award for Best Documentary
White Riot, dir. Rubika Shah
Short Film Award
Fault Line (Gosal), dir. Soheil Amirsharifi
(Special commendation: If You Knew, dir. Stroma Cairns)
2020
Best Film
Another Round, dir. Thomas Vinterberg
Best Documentary
The Painter and the Thief, dir. Benjamin Ree
Best Short Film
Shuttlecock, dir. Tommy Gillard
Best XR/Immersive Art
To Miss the Ending, created by David Callanan and Anna West
IWC Schaffhausen Filmmaker Bursary Award
Cathy Brady
2021
Best Film
Hit the Road, dir. Panah Panahi
Best First Feature Film
Playground, dir. Laura Wandel
Best Documentary
Becoming Cousteau, dir. Liz Garbus
Best XR/Immersive Art
Only Expansion, created by Duncan Speakman
Best Short Film Competition
Love, Dad, dir. Diana Cam Van Nguyen
Audience Award
Costa Brava, Lebanon, dir. Mounia Akl
2022
Sources:
Best Film
Corsage, dir. Marie Kreutzer
Best First Feature Film (Sutherland Award)
1976, dir. Manuela Martelli
Best Documentary (Grierson Award)
All That Breathes, dir. Shaunak Sen
Best XR/Immersive Art
As Mine Exactly, created by Charlie Shackleton
I Have No Legs, and I Must Run, dir. Yue Li
Audience Award – Feature
Blue Bag Life, dir. Lisa Selby, Rebecca Hirsch Lloyd-Evans, Alex Fry
Audience Award – Short
Drop Out - Ade Femzo
2023
Sources:
Best Film
Evil Does Not Exist, dir. Ryusuke Hamaguchi
Best First Feature Film (Sutherland Award)
Paradise Is Burning, dir. Mika Gustafson
Best Documentary (Grierson Award)
Bye Bye Tiberias, dir. Lina Soualem
Best Short Film Competition
The Archive: Queer Nigerians, dir. Simisolaoluwa Akande
See also
British Film Institute Fellowship
References
External links
Official website | Old site
A brief history of the BFI London Film Festival
Every London Film Festival opening and closing night film
Film festivals in London
Annual events in London
London Film Festival
Film festivals established in 1957
1957 establishments in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta%20Eugenics%20Board
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Alberta Eugenics Board
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The Alberta Eugenics Board was an agency created by the Alberta government in 1928 that attempted to impose sterilization on a disabled subset of its population, in accordance with the principles of eugenics. It remained active until 1972, when it was dissolved.
Origin
In 1928, the Alberta government (Alberta, Canada) passed eugenics legislation that enabled the involuntary sterilization of individuals classified as mentally deficient (now known as persons with a developmental disability or mental disorder), with the consent of the patient or his/her guardian or next-of-kin. To implement the Sexual Sterilization Act, a four-member Alberta Eugenics Board was created to recommend individuals for sterilization. The Act was amended in 1937 to allow sterilization without consent. In 1972, the Act was repealed and the Board dismantled. During its 43 years in operation, the Board approved nearly 5,000 cases and 2,832 sterilizations were performed. The actions of the Board came under public scrutiny in 1995 with Leilani Muir's successful lawsuit against the Alberta government for wrongful sterilization.
Eugenics: Like begets like
Although Mendelian inheritance principles were well understood by geneticists in 1928, advocates of the eugenics movement held onto the unfounded premise that "like begets like". They believed that social degenerates would procreate and pass on their "undesirable" traits to their offspring. Although it was known at the time, for recessive disorders, like does not always beget like, and with dominant disorders, there is only a 50% risk of transmission to the child. The progeny of parents with mental deficiencies are not always born with an inherited disorder. Mental disorder phenotypes are influenced by environmental interactions, such as German measles, and are often independent of an individual's genome.
Historical context
The province of Alberta was the first part of the British Empire to adopt a sterilization law, and was the only Canadian province that vigorously implemented it. Eugenics was widely discussed in the U.S. at the time and British Columbia and Alberta were influenced by American trends. During early debates regarding the sexual sterilization bill in Alberta, there were many references made to U.S. legislation. As Canada was being populated by immigrants, the eugenics movement was emerging and gaining the support of influential sponsors, such as J.S. Woodsworth, Emily Murphy, Helen MacMurchy, Louise McKinney, Irene Parlby, Nellie McClung, and Robert Charles Wallace. In Alberta, eugenics supporters had seemingly positive intentions with the goal of bettering the gene pool and society at large. The burden put on hard-working farm mothers by mentally-disabled children with adult sex drives was a major impetus to UFA cabinet minister Irene Parlby.
In 1918, the Canadian National Committee on Mental Hygiene (CNCMH) was established by Dr. Clarence Hincks. The committee's aim was "to fight crime, prostitution, and unemployment" which it claimed was strongly tied to feeble-mindedness. One of the projects that the CNCMH and Hincks took on, along with Dr. C.K. Clarke, was conducting provincial surveys of mental institutions in 1919, and making subsequent recommendations to the provincial government. Visiting several institutions, the results of their survey, published in 1921, attributed social inefficiency and corruption to mental inadequacy, and recommended sterilization as a preventative measure. They claimed to have found "scientific proof" linking feeble-mindedness to social issues.
At the United Farmers of Alberta (UFA) party convention in 1922, in response to this survey, the Alberta government was called on to draft and implement legislation for the segregation of feeble-minded adults. The government was also asked to investigate the feasibility of implementing a sterilization program in Alberta. R.G. Reid, the Minister of Health, assured eugenics supporters that the provincial government was in favour of a sterilization program, and was only waiting for public opinion to catch up.
The United Farm Women of Alberta lobbied for sterilization laws, and members used their connections with the UFA government to get legislation passed. At a campaign in 1924, president Margaret Gunn proclaimed, "Democracy was never intended for degenerates". The rationale that eugenics supporters gave was that families with "defective" offspring were a financial burden on the province, especially in times of economic adversity.
On March 25, 1927, George Hoadley, Minister of Agriculture and Health in John E. Brownlee's UFA government, introduced a sexual sterilization bill. The bill faced enormous opposition, primarily from the Conservative and Liberal parties, and did not pass the second reading. Hoadley promised to reintroduce it the following year and, on February 23, 1928, the bill was passed. On March 21, 1928, the lieutenant governor gave royal assent to the Sexual Sterilization Act. Brought in by the UFA, the Act remained in place under the following Social Credit governments of William Aberhart and Ernest Manning, which amended the Act in 1937 to allow sterilization without consent, and the first year of the Progressive Conservative government. After Peter Lougheed's Progressive Conservative government took power, the Alberta Eugenics Board was finally disbanded and the Sexual Sterilization Act repealed in 1972.
Board structure
The Alberta Eugenics Board was created in order to administer the province's eugenics program. The Sexual Sterilization Act required that a four-person Board determine, on a case-by-case basis, whether sterilization was appropriate for a particular individual. The Act gave the Board power to review cases of patients living in or discharged from mental institutions and order their sterilization, if deemed necessary. A unanimous decision required, as was consent from the patient, parent, or guardian and was essential for the surgical procedures to proceed. The Act put in place specific requirements for its board members: two members were required to be medical practitioners, nominated by the Senate of the University of Alberta and the Council of the College of Physicians. The other two non-medical members were appointed by the Lieutenant Governor in Council, and had esteemed reputations.
The original four members
The first members appointed to the Alberta Eugenics Board were:
Dr. E. Pope, Edmonton
Dr. E.G. Mason, Calgary
Dr. J.M. MacEachran, Edmonton
Mrs. Jean H. Field, Kinuso.
Dr. MacEachran, a philosopher and professor at the University of Alberta, was appointed chair, and he served continuously in this position for nearly 40 years, resigning in 1965. He was succeeded by Dr. R.K. Thompson, a medical doctor who chaired the Board until the Sexual Sterilization Act was repealed in 1972. Over the Board's 43-year duration, there were only 21 board members. Between 1929 and 1972, all four members were present for approximately 97% of the 398 meetings that were held.
Board meetings and procedures
The first meeting of the Alberta Eugenics Board took place in January 1929. At the second meeting, in March 1929, the Board established a protocol to be followed during its quarterly meetings. At meetings the superintendents of Alberta mental institutions presented cases to the Board, along with prepared presentation summaries for each individual considered for sterilization. These summaries documented: family history, sexual history, medical history and diagnosis, personality, psychosocial development, education, results of IQ testing, criminal record, ethnicity, religion, age, and other information that could be used to inform the Board's decision. Presenting mental institutions in Alberta included: the Alberta Hospital in Ponoka, the Provincial Training School (later known as Alberta School Hospital/Deerhome, and Michener Center) in Red Deer, and the Alberta Hospital in Oliver.
Patients were then interviewed by the Board and recommendations were made for sterilization. If they could not attend, members sometimes saw the patient in their institutional ward. Consent was initially required for all operational procedures, either from the patients, their parent or guardian. A competent surgeon was appointed to the case; however the Act stated they were not liable to any civil action. Various types of operations were performed: vasectomies, salpingectomies (tubal ligation), orchidectomies (removal of the testes), oophorectomies (removal of the ovaries), and sometimes hysterectomies. Operations took place in approved hospitals designated by the Board. In addition to the appointed board members and presenters, it was not uncommon for other professionals, support staff, or visitors to attend patient interviews.
Typically, 4–15 people attended Board meetings, averaging 8.4 persons per meeting. On average, the Board spent approximately 13 minutes reviewing each case, and members discussed about 13 cases per meeting. The Board retained individual-level files for all of the cases considered. One of the Board's main concerns was tracking the number of people processed. In addition to the routine case reviews, members spent time during 63% of its meetings discussing general issues, signing forms, and reviewing correspondence.
Amendments to the Sexual Sterilization Act
By 1937, 400 operations had been completed and amendments to the Act were made. The first amendment came shortly after the Social Credit government came into power in 1935. The new Minister of Health, Wallace Warren Cross, was dismayed that only hundreds of individuals had been sterilized when thousands could have been done but were not due to consent requirements. Following the change in legislation, if individuals were regarded as mental defectives, consent was no longer necessary for their sterilization. A month after this amendment a special Alberta Eugenics Board meeting was held in order to review past cases of individuals who were now eligible for sterilization.
Another part of the 1937 amendment increased the Board's power: sterilization procedures were approved if the Board deemed an individual "incapable of intelligent parenthood". The success of this amendment was celebrated in 1937 in an article published by two mental health professionals, R.R. MacLean and E.J. Kibblewhite, where they noted the increasing simplicity with which the Board could proceed with its business.
In 1942, an additional amendment widened the application of the Act to include more mental patients. Non-psychotic individuals with syphilis, epilepsy, and Huntington's Chorea were now encompassed by the Act; however, for reasons unknown, the Board maintained that consent was still required for these cases.
Board actions
Between 1929 and 1972, 4,785 cases were presented to the Alberta Eugenics Board, and 99% of these cases were approved. Of all the approved cases, 60% were completed resulting in the sterilization of 2,832 Albertan children and adults in the Board's 43-year history. There was a high correlation between absence of consent requirement and subsequent sterilization: 89% of all presented and approved cases did not require consent for sterilization to occur, as opposed to 15% of cases where consent was necessary.
Beginning in the 1940s, women were more likely to be presented to the Board than men, even though they constituted less than 40% of all patients in the feeder institutions. On average, 64% of all women whose cases were presented to the Board were sterilized in comparison to 54% of men. Of the 2,832 sterilization procedures completed, 58% were performed on females. The over-representation of women may reflect gender role expectations, where these women were considered "incapable of intelligent parenting".
In addition to women, the Board targeted youth and young adults for sterilization. Although they made up less than 20% of the Albertan population at the time, they comprised 44% of all presented cases and 55% of all sterilization cases. Patients who were age 40 and older were notably under-represented, as the Board focused its efforts on individuals in the "child-bearing years" – those who were able and most likely to reproduce.
Over four decades, Indigenous people (i.e., First Nations, Métis, and Inuit) were the foremost targets of the Board's actions. Only representing 2–3% of Alberta's population, they comprised 6% of all presented sterilization cases. Of all aboriginal cases presented to the Board, 74% resulted in sterilization.
Regarding the feeder institutions, the Alberta Hospital in Ponoka was responsible for about 60% of all cases considered, followed by the Provincial Training School and Deerhome in Red Deer with 25%, and the Alberta Hospital in Oliver with 14%.
Board controversy
The majority of Alberta Eugenics Board activities were conducted in secret, sheltered from public criticism and legislative scrutiny. This secrecy and lack of transparency, combined with the cooperation of the provincial government and feeder institutions, resulted in the Board pursuing illicit activities not encompassed by the Act. The fact that the Board approved 99% of all presented cases calls into question the validity and accountability of its procedures. Some cases were approved even when patients' IQ scores were above the criterion score established by the Board for sterilization. At times, surgeons performed operations without the Board's approval. Sterilization procedures were also ordered for individuals who were already infertile – most notably, a group of 15 boys with Down syndrome where testicular biopsy tissue was surgically removed for the purpose of medical research.
Repeal
The Progressive Conservative party led by Peter Lougheed came to power in 1971 and, a year later, passed the Alberta Bill of Rights. Shortly after, the new provincial government revoked the Sexual Sterilization Act and folded the Alberta Eugenics Board, citing three reasons:
Primarily, the Act violated fundamental human rights.
It was based on medical and genetics theories which are now of questionable scientific validity.
It was full of legal ambiguities, most notably in the section exempting surgeons from civil liability.
In the mid-1990s, Leilani Muir, a victim of involuntary sterilization in 1959, sued the Alberta government for wrongful sterilization. The case went to full trial in 1995, Muir won the case in 1996, and she was awarded nearly C$1 million in damages and legal costs. Since Muir's precedent-setting trial, over 850 victims have filed lawsuits against the Alberta government; the majority of these have been settled out of court and C$142 million in damages have been awarded.
See also
Compulsory sterilization in Canada
Notes
References
Cairney, R. (1996). "'Democracy was never intended for degenerates': Alberta's flirtation with eugenics comes back to haunt it". Canadian Medical Association Journal, 155(6): 789–792.
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC). (1999, Nov 9). "Alberta apologizes for forced sterilization". CBC News. Retrieved on October 11, 2012, from, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/1999/11/02/sterilize991102.html
Christian, T.J. (1973). The mentally ill and human rights in Alberta: A study of the Alberta Sexual Sterilization Act. Edmonton: Faculty of Law, University of Alberta.
Frost, E.M. (1942). Sterilization of Alberta: A summary of the cases presented to the Eugenics Board for the Province of Alberta from 1929 to 1941. Masters Thesis. Edmonton: University of Alberta.
Grekul, J., Krahn, H., & Odynak, D. (2004). "Sterilizing the 'feeble-minded': Eugenics in Alberta, Canada, 1929-1972". Journal of Historical Sociology, 17(4): 358–384. ISSN 0952-1909
McLaren, A. (1990). Our own master race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885-1945. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart.
"Muir v. The Queen in Right of Alberta". (1996). Dominion Law Reports, 132 (4th series): 695–762. Retrieved on October 16, 2012, from,
Pringle, H. (1997, Jun). "Alberta barren". Saturday Night, 12(5): 30–37; 70; 74.
Puplampu, K. (2008). "Knowledge, power, and social policy: John M. MacEachran and Alberta's 1928 Sexual Sterilization Act". The Alberta Journal of Education Research, 54(2): 129–146.
Wahlsten, D. (1997). "Leilani Muir versus the philosopher king: Eugenics on trial in Alberta". Genetica, 99: 185–198.
Developmental disabilities
Eugenics organizations
Alberta law
Alberta
Political history of Alberta
Healthcare in Alberta
Government health agencies in Canada
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Karma in Buddhism
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Karma (Sanskrit, also karman, Pāli: kamma) is a Sanskrit term that literally means "action" or "doing". In the Buddhist tradition, karma refers to action driven by intention (cetanā) which leads to future consequences. Those intentions are considered to be the determining factor in the kind of rebirth in samsara, the cycle of rebirth.
Etymology
Karma (Sanskrit, also karman, Pāli: kamma, Tib. las) is a Sanskrit term that literally means "action" or "doing". The word karma derives from the verbal root kṛ, which means "do, make, perform, accomplish."
Karmaphala (Tib. rgyu 'bras) is the "fruit", "effect" or "result" of karma. A similar term is karmavipaka, the "maturation" or "cooking" of karma:
The metaphor is derived from agriculture:
Buddhist understanding of karma
Karma and karmaphala are fundamental concepts in Buddhism. The concepts of karma and karmaphala explain how intentional actions keep one tied to rebirth in samsara, whereas the Buddhist path, as exemplified in the Noble Eightfold Path, shows us the way out of samsara.
Rebirth
Rebirth,, is a common belief in all Buddhist traditions. It says that birth and death in the six realms occur in successive cycles driven by ignorance (avidyā), desire (trsnā), and hatred (dvesa). The cycle of rebirth is called samsāra. It is a beginningless and ever-ongoing process. Liberation from samsāra can be attained by following the Buddhist Path. This path leads to vidyā (knowledge), and the stilling of trsnā and dvesa. Hereby the ongoing process of rebirth is stopped.
Karma
The cycle of rebirth is determined by karma, literally "action". In the Buddhist tradition, karma refers to actions driven by intention (cetanā), a deed done deliberately through body, speech or mind, which leads to future consequences. The Nibbedhika Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya 6.63:
According to Peter Harvey,
And according to Gombrich,
According to Gombrich, this was a great innovation, which overturns brahmanical, caste-bound ethics. It is a rejection of caste-bound differences, giving the same possibility to reach liberation to all people, not just Brahmanins:
How this emphasis on intention was to be interpreted became a matter of debate in and between the various Buddhist schools.
Karmaphala
Karma leads to future consequences, karma-phala, "fruit of action". Any given action may cause all sorts of results, but the karmic results are only those results which are a consequence of both the moral quality of the action, and of the intention behind the action. According to Reichenbach,
The "law of karma" applies
Good moral actions lead to wholesome rebirths, and bad moral actions lead to unwholesome rebirths. The main factor is how they contribute to the well-being of others in a positive or negative sense. Especially dāna, giving to the Buddhist order, became an increasingly important source of positive karma.
How these intentional actions lead to rebirth, and how the idea of rebirth is to be reconciled with the doctrines of impermanence and no-self, is a matter of philosophical inquiry in the Buddhist traditions, for which several solutions have been proposed. In early Buddhism no explicit theory of rebirth and karma is worked out, and "the karma doctrine may have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology." In early Buddhism, rebirth is ascribed to craving or ignorance.
In later Buddhism, the basic idea is that intentional actions, driven by kleshas ("disturbing emotions"), cetanā ("volition"), or taṇhā ("thirst", "craving") create impressions, tendencies or "seeds" in the mind. These impressions, or "seeds", will ripen into a future result or fruition. If we can overcome our kleshas, then we break the chain of causal effects that leads to rebirth in the six realms. The twelve links of dependent origination provides a theoretical framework, explaining how the disturbing emotions lead to rebirth in samsara.
Complex process
The Buddha's teaching of karma is not strictly deterministic, but incorporated circumstantial factors, unlike that of the Jains. It is not a rigid and mechanical process, but a flexible, fluid and dynamic process, and not all present conditions can be ascribed to karma. There is no set linear relationship between a particular action and its results. The karmic effect of a deed is not determined solely by the deed itself, but also by the nature of the person who commits the deed, and by the circumstances in which it is committed.
Karma is also not the same as "fate" or "predestination".
Karmic results are not a "judgement" imposed by a God or other all-powerful being, but rather the results of a natural process. Certain experiences in life are the results of previous actions, but our responses to those experiences are not predetermined, although they bear their own fruit in the future. Unjust behaviour may lead to unfavorable circumstances which make it easier to commit more unjust behavior, but nevertheless the freedom not to commit unjust behavior remains.
Liberation from samsāra
The real importance of the doctrine of karma and its fruits lies in the recognition of the urgency to put a stop to the whole process. The Acintita Sutta warns that "the results of kamma" is one of the four incomprehensible subjects, subjects that are beyond all conceptualization and cannot be understood with logical thought or reason.
According to Gombrich, this sutra may have been a warning against the tendency, "probably from the Buddha's day until now", to understand the doctrine of karma "backwards", to explain unfavorable conditions in this life when no other explanations are available. Gaining a better rebirth may have been, and still is, the central goal for many people. The adoption, by laity, of Buddhist beliefs and practices is seen as a good thing, which brings merit and good rebirth, but does not result in Nirvana, and liberation from samsāra, the ultimate goal of the Buddha.
Within the Pali suttas
According to the Buddhist tradition, the lord Buddha gained full and complete insight into the workings of karma at the time of his enlightenment. According to Bronkhorst, these knowledges are later additions to the story, just like the notion of "liberating insight" itself.
In AN 5.292, the lord Buddha asserted that it is not possible to avoid experiencing the result of a karmic deed once it has been committed.
In the Anguttara Nikaya, it is stated that karmic results are experienced either in this life (P. diṭṭadhammika) or in future lives (P. samparāyika). The former may involve a readily observable connection between action and karmic consequence, such as when a thief is captured and tortured by the authorities, but the connection need not necessarily be that obvious and in fact usually is not observable.
The Samyutta Nikaya makes a basic distinction between past karma (P. purānakamma) which has already been incurred, and karma being created in the present (P. navakamma). Therefore, in the present one both creates new karma (P. navakamma) and encounters the result of past karma (P. kammavipāka). Karma in the early canon is also threefold: Mental action (S. manaḥkarman), bodily action (S. kāyakarman) and vocal action (S. vākkarman).
Within Buddhist traditions
Various Buddhist philosophical schools developed within Buddhism, giving various interpretations regarding more refined points of karma. A major problem is the relation between the doctrine of no-self, and the "storage" of the traces of one's deeds, for which various solutions have been offered.
Early Indian Buddhism
Origins
The concept of karma originated in the Vedic religion, where it was related to the performance of rituals or the investment in good deeds to ensure the entrance to heaven after death, while other persons go to the underworld.
Pre-sectarian Buddhism
The concept of karma may have been of minor importance in early Buddhism. Schmithausen has questioned whether karma already played a role in the theory of rebirth of earliest Buddhism, noting that "the karma doctrine may have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology." Langer notes that originally karma may have been only one of several concepts connected with rebirth. Tillman Vetter notes that in early Buddhism rebirth is ascribed to craving or ignorance. Buswell too notes that "Early Buddhism does not identify bodily and mental motion, but desire (or thirst, trsna), as the cause of karmic consequences." Matthews notes that "there is no single major systematic exposition" on the subject of karma and "an account has to be put together from the dozens of places where karma is mentioned in the texts," which may mean that the doctrine was incidental to the main perspective of early Buddhist soteriology.
According to Vetter, "the Buddha at first sought, and realized, "the deathless" (amata/amrta), which is concerned with the here and now. Only after this realization did he become acquainted with the doctrine of rebirth." Bronkhorst disagrees, and concludes that the Buddha "introduced a concept of karma that differed considerably from the commonly held views of his time." According to Bronkhorst, not physical and mental activities as such were seen as responsible for rebirth, but intentions and desire.
The doctrine of karma may have been especially important for common people, for whom it was more important to cope with life's immediate demands, such as the problems of pain, injustice, and death. The doctrine of karma met these exigencies, and in time it became an important soteriological aim in its own right.
Vaibhāṣika-Sarvāstivādin tradition
The Vaibhāśika-Sarvāstivāda was widely influential in India and beyond. Their understanding of karma in the Sarvāstivāda became normative for Buddhism in India and other countries. According to Dennis Hirota,
The Abhidharmahṛdaya by Dharmaśrī was the first systematic exposition of Vaibhāśika-Sarvāstivāda doctrine, and the third chapter, the Karma-varga, deals with the concept of karma systematically.
Another important exposition, the Mahāvibhāṣa, gives three definitions of karma:
action; karma is here supplanted in the text by the synonyms kriya or karitra, both of which mean "activity";
formal vinaya conduct;
human action as the agent of various effects; karma as that which links certain actions with certain effects, is the primary concern of the exposition.
The 4th century philosopher Vasubandhu compiled the Abhidharma-kośa, an extensive compendium which elaborated the positions of the Vaibhāṣika-Sarvāstivādin school on a wide range of issues raised by the early sutras. Chapter four of the Kośa is devoted to a study of karma, and chapters two and five contain formulations as to the mechanism of fruition and retribution. This became the main source of understanding of the perspective of early Buddhism for later Mahāyāna philosophers.
Dārṣṭāntika-Sautrāntika
The Dārṣṭāntika-Sautrāntika school pioneered the idea of karmic seeds (S. Bīja) and "the special modification of the psycho-physical series" (S. saṃtatipaṇāmaviśeṣa) to explain the workings of karma. According to Dennis Hirota,
Theravādin tradition
Canonical texts
In the Theravāda Abhidhamma and commentarial traditions, karma is taken up at length. The Abhidhamma Sangaha of Anuruddhācariya offers a treatment of the topic, with an exhaustive treatment in book five (5.3.7).
The Kathāvatthu, which discusses a number of controverted points related either directly or indirectly to the notion of kamma." This involved debate with the Pudgalavādin school, which postulated the provisional existence of the person (S. pudgala, P. puggala) to account for the ripening of karmic effects over time. The Kathāvatthu also records debate by the Theravādins with the Andhakas (who may have been Mahāsāṃghikas) regarding whether or not old age and death are the result (vipāka) of karma. The Theravāda maintained that they are not—not, apparently because there is no causal relation between the two, but because they wished to reserve the term vipāka strictly for mental results--"subjective phenomena arising through the effects of kamma."
In the canonical Theravāda view of kamma, "the belief that deeds done or ideas seized at the moment of death are particularly significant."
Transfer of merit
The Milindapañha, a paracanonical Theravāda text, offers some interpretations of karma theory at variance with the orthodox position. In particular, Nāgasena allows for the possibility of the transfer of merit to humans and one of the four classes of petas, perhaps in deference to folk belief. Nāgasena makes it clear that demerit cannot be transferred. One scholar asserts that the sharing of merit "can be linked to the Vedic śrāddha, for it was Buddhist practice not to upset existing traditions when well-established custom was not antithetic to Buddhist teaching."
The Petavatthu, which is fully canonical, endorses the transfer of merit even more widely, including the possibility of sharing merit with all petas.
Mahayana tradition
Indian Yogācāra tradition
In the Yogācāra philosophical tradition, one of the two principal Mahāyāna schools, the principle of karma was extended considerably. In the Yogācāra formulation, all experience without exception is said to result from the ripening of karma. Karmic seeds (S. bija) are said to be stored in the "storehouse consciousness" (S. ālayavijñāna) until such time as they ripen into experience. The term vāsāna ("perfuming") is also used, and Yogācārins debated whether vāsāna and bija were essentially the same, the seeds were the effect of the perfuming, or whether the perfuming simply affected the seeds. The seemingly external world is merely a "by-product" (adhipati-phala) of karma. The conditioning of the mind resulting from karma is called saṃskāra.
The Treatise on Action (Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa), also by Vasubandhu, treats the subject of karma in detail from the Yogācāra perspective. According to scholar Dan Lusthaus,
According to Bronkhorst, whereas in earlier systems it "was not clear how a series of completely mental events (the deed and its traces) could give rise to non-mental, material effects," with the (purported) idealism of the Yogācāra system this is not an issue.
In Mahāyāna traditions, karma is not the sole basis of rebirth. The rebirths of bodhisattvas after the seventh stage (S. bhūmi) are said to be consciously directed for the benefit of others still trapped in . Thus, theirs are not uncontrolled rebirths.
Mādhyamaka philosophy
Nāgārjuna articulated the difficulty in forming a karma theory in his most prominent work, the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way):
The Mūlamadhyamakavṛtty-Akutobhayā, also generally attributed to Nāgārjuna, concludes that it is impossible both for the act to persist somehow and also for it to perish immediately and still have efficacy at a later time.
Tibetan Buddhism
In Tibetan Buddhism, the teachings on karma belong to the preliminary teachings, that turn the mind towards the Buddhist dharma.
In the Vajrayana tradition, negative past karma may be "purified" through such practices as meditation on Vajrasattva because they both are the mind's psychological phenomenon. The performer of the action, after having purified the karma, does not experience the negative results he or she otherwise would have. Engaging in the ten negative actions out of selfishness and delusions hurts all involved. Otherwise, loving others, receives love; whereas; people with closed hearts may be prevented from happiness. One good thing about karma is that it can be purified through confession, if the thoughts become positive. Within Guru Yoga seven branch offerings practice, confession is the antidote to aversion.
East Asian traditions
Zen
Dōgen Kigen argued in his Shobogenzo that karmic latencies are emphatically not empty, going so far as to claim that belief in the emptiness of karma should be characterized as "non-Buddhist," although he also states that the "law of karman has no concrete existence."
Zen's most famous koan about karma is called Baizhang's Wild Fox (百丈野狐). The story of the koan is about an ancient Zen teacher whose answer to a question presents a wrong view about karma by saying that the person who has a foundation in cultivating the great practice "does not fall into cause and effect." Because of his unskillful answer the teacher reaps the result of living 500 lives as a wild fox. He is then able to appear as a human and ask the same question to Zen teacher Baizhang, who answers, "He is not in the dark about cause and effect." Hearing this answer the old teacher is freed from the life of a wild fox. The Zen perspective avoids the duality of asserting that an enlightened person is either subject to or free from the law of karma and that the key is not being ignorant about karma.
Tendai
The Japanese Tendai/Pure Land teacher Genshin taught a series of ten reflections for a dying person that emphasized reflecting on the Amida Buddha as a means to purify vast amounts of karma.
Nichiren Buddhism
Nichiren Buddhism teaches that transformation and change through faith and practice changes adverse karma—negative causes made in the past that result in negative results in the present and future—to positive causes for benefits in the future.
Modern interpretations and controversies
Social conditioning
Buddhist modernists often prefer to equate karma with social conditioning, in contradistinction with, as one scholar puts it, "early texts [which] give us little reason to interpret 'conditioning' as the infusion into the psyche of external social norms, or of awakening as simply transcending all psychological conditioning and social roles. Karmic conditioning drifts semantically toward 'cultural conditioning' under the influence of western discourses that elevate the individual over the social, cultural, and institutional. The traditional import of the karmic conditioning process, however, is primarily ethical and soteriological—actions condition circumstances in this and future lives."
Essentially, this understanding limits the scope of the traditional understanding of karmic effects so that it encompasses only saṃskāras—habits, dispositions and tendencies—and not external effects, while at the same time expanding the scope to include social conditioning that does not particularly involve volitional action.
Karma theory and social justice
Some western commentators and Buddhists have taken exception to aspects of karma theory, and have proposed revisions of various kinds. These proposals fall under the rubric of Buddhist modernism.
The "primary critique" of the Buddhist doctrine of karma is that some feel "karma may be socially and politically disempowering in its cultural effect, that without intending to do this, karma may in fact support social passivity or acquiescence in the face of oppression of various kinds." Dale S. Wright, a scholar specializing in Zen Buddhism, has proposed that the doctrine be reformulated for modern people, "separated from elements of supernatural thinking," so that karma is asserted to condition only personal qualities and dispositions rather than rebirth and external occurrences.
Loy argues that the idea of accumulating merit too easily becomes "spiritual materialism," a view echoed by other Buddhist modernists, and further that karma has been used to rationalize racism, caste, economic oppression, birth handicaps and everything else.
Loy goes on to argue that the view that suffering such as that undergone by Holocaust victims could be attributed in part to the karmic ripenings of those victims is "fundamentalism, which blames the victims and rationalizes their horrific fate," and that this is "something no longer to be tolerated quietly. It is time for modern Buddhists and modern Buddhism to outgrow it" by revising or discarding the teachings on karma.
Other scholars have argued, however, that the teachings on karma do not encourage judgment and blame, given that the victims were not the same people who committed the acts, but rather were just part of the same mindstream-continuum with the past actors, and that the teachings on karma instead provide "a thoroughly satisfying explanation for suffering and loss" in which believers take comfort.
See also
Buddhism
Paṭṭhāna
Anantarika-karma
Consciousness (Buddhism)
Development of Karma in Buddhism
Index of Buddhism-related articles
Karma
Merit (Buddhism)
Pratitya-samutpada (Dependent Origination)
Samsara (Buddhism)
Secular Buddhism
Twelve Nidanas
Indian religions
Karma in Hinduism
Karma in Jainism
Other
Myth of Er (Plato)
Notes
Quotes
Subnotes
References
Sources
Printed sources
Sutta Pitaka
Buddhist teachers
Scholarly sources
Web-sources
Further reading
Scholarly sources
Gethin, Rupert (1998). Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
Journal
The Buddha's Bad Karma: A Problem in the History of Theravada Buddhism Jonathan S. Walters, Numen, Vol. 37, No. 1 (June 1990), pp. 70–95
Primary sources
Dalai Lama (1992). The Meaning of Life, translated and edited by Jeffrey Hopkins. Wisdom.
Geshe Sonam Rinchen (2006). How Karma Works: The Twelve Links of Dependent Arising. Snow Lion
Khandro Rinpoche (2003). This Precious Life. Shambala
Ringu Tulku (2005). Daring Steps Toward Fearlessness: The Three Vehicles of Tibetan Buddhism. Snow Lion.
External links
General
Buddhist Philosophy, Kamma, Surendranath Dasgupta, 1940
What is Karma?, by Ken McLeod
Essential Points on Karma, by Jeffrey Kotyk
What Is Reincarnation?, by Alexander Berzin
Understanding Karma, by Reginald Ray
Sarvastivada
Alexis sanderson, ''The Sarvastivada and its critics: Anatmavada and the Theory of Karma
Theravada
Karma by Thanissaro Bhikkhu
Misunderstandings of the Law of Kamma by Prayudh Payutto
Dhammapada Verse 128 Suppabuddhasakya Vatthu Story about the Buddha and Suppabuddha, father of the Buddha's former wife Yashodhara
Yogacara
Richard King (1998), Vijnaptimatrata and the Abhidharma context of early Yogacara, Asian Philosophy, Vol. 8 No. 1 Mar.1998.
Nyingma
Longchenpa (1308–1364), Karma, Cause, and Effect, Chapter IV of The Great Chariot
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What Is Life
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"What Is Life" is a song by English rock musician George Harrison from his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass. In many countries, it was issued as the second single from the album, in February 1971, becoming a top-ten hit in the United States, Canada and elsewhere, and topping singles charts in Australia and Switzerland. In the United Kingdom, "What Is Life" appeared as the B-side to "My Sweet Lord", which was the best-selling single there of 1971. Harrison's backing musicians on the song include Eric Clapton and the entire Delaney & Bonnie and Friends band, with whom he had toured during the final months of the Beatles. Harrison co-produced the recording with Phil Spector, whose Wall of Sound production also employed a prominent string arrangement by John Barham and multiple acoustic rhythm guitars, played by Harrison's fellow Apple Records signings Badfinger.
An uptempo soul tune, "What Is Life" is one of several Harrison love songs that appear to be directed at both a woman and a deity. Harrison wrote the song in 1969 and originally intended it as a track for his friend and Apple protégé Billy Preston to record. Built around a descending guitar riff, it is one of Harrison's most popular compositions and was a regular inclusion in his live performances. Rolling Stone magazine has variously described it as a "classic" and an "exultant song of surrender".
"What Is Life" has appeared in the soundtrack for feature films such as Goodfellas (1990), Patch Adams (1998), Big Daddy (1999), Away We Go (2009), This Is 40 (2012) and Instant Family (2018). Harrison's original recording was included on the compilations The Best of George Harrison and Let It Roll, and live versions appear on his album Live in Japan (1992) and in Martin Scorsese's 2011 documentary George Harrison: Living in the Material World. In 1972, Olivia Newton-John had a UK hit with her version of the song. Ronnie Aldrich, the Ventures and Shawn Mullins are among the other artists who have covered the track.
Background
Even before his temporary departure from the Beatles in January 1969 (documented in the song "Wah-Wah"), their Apple Records label was an "emancipating force" for Harrison from the creative restrictions imposed on him within the band, according to his musical biographer, Simon Leng. In his article on All Things Must Pass for Mojo magazine, John Harris has written of Harrison's journey as a solo artist beginning in November 1968 – when he spent time in Woodstock with Bob Dylan and the Band – and incorporating a series of other collaborations through the following eighteen months, including various Apple projects and a support role on Delaney & Bonnie and Friends' brief European tour. One of these projects, carried out intermittently from April to July 1969, was his production of That's the Way God Planned It, an album by Billy Preston, whom Harrison had met during the Beatles' Hamburg years and had recently been recruited to guest on the band's troubled Get Back sessions. It was while driving up to a Preston session in London from his home in Esher, Surrey, that Harrison came up with the song "What Is Life".
In his autobiography, I, Me, Mine, Harrison describes it as having been written "very quickly" and recalls that he thought it would be a perfect, "catchy pop song" for Preston to record. He adds that he changed his mind once he arrived at Olympic Studios and found Preston working on more typical material – or "playing his funky stuff". Rather than attempt it with the Beatles during the band's concurrent Abbey Road sessions, Harrison stockpiled "What Is Life" with his many other unused songs from the period, including "All Things Must Pass", "Let It Down", "I'd Have You Anytime" and "Run of the Mill". He revisited it a year later, after completing work on Preston's second Apple album, Encouraging Words.
Composition
Harrison biographer Simon Leng describes "What Is Life" as "Motown-spiced" and a comparatively rare example of its composer's willingness to embrace the role of "entertainer" in his songwriting. The song is defined by Harrison's descending guitar riff, which also serves as the motif for the chorus. Author Alan Clayson describes "What Is Life" as a seemingly "lovey-dovey pop song" that "craftily renewed the simplistic tonic-to-dominant riff cliché".
The lyrics have a universal quality, being both simple and uplifting. Their meaning has caused some debate among biographers and music critics, as to whether "What Is Life" should be viewed as a straightforward love song – perhaps a "lovingly crafted paean" to Harrison's wife Pattie Boyd, in Clayson's description – or a devotional song like many of Harrison's compositions. Ian Inglis writes that the song title suggests a "philosophical debate about the meaning of life", yet its rendering as "what is my life" in the choruses "reshapes [the meaning] completely".
Theologian Dale Allison finds no religious content in "What Is Life" but comments that the "failure of words to express feelings" implied in the opening line ("What I feel, I can't say") is a recurring theme in Harrison's spiritual songs. Joshua Greene, another religious academic, identifies the song as part of its parent album's "intimately detailed account of a spiritual journey": where "Awaiting on You All" shows Harrison "convinced of his union with God", "What Is Life" reveals him to be "uncertain that he deserved such divine favor". According to musicologist Thomas MacFarlane, the ambiguity in the lyrics suggests a connection between spiritual and physical love.
The second verse repeats what Inglis refers to as the "somewhat confusing promise" from Harrison (in lines 3 and 4) should his love be "rejected":
Recording
By May 1970, having recently collaborated with "genuine R&B heavy-weights" such as Doris Troy and Preston, as well as participating in the "blue-eyed soul" Delaney & Bonnie European tour, along with Eric Clapton, the previous December, Harrison was well placed to record "What Is Life", Leng observes. With Phil Spector as co-producer and all the Friends team on hand, the song was among the first tracks taped for Harrison's debut post-Beatles solo album; recording took place at Abbey Road Studios in London, during late May or early June. The same core of musicians – Bobby Whitlock, Carl Radle, Jim Gordon, Bobby Keys and Jim Price – would similarly elevate other All Things Must Pass tracks such as "Awaiting on You All", "Art of Dying" and "Hear Me Lord". According to Keys, he and Price overdubbed their horns parts at a later session at Abbey Road.
The track opens with Harrison playing the fuzztone guitar riff, which is then joined by Radle's bass and "churning" rhythm guitar from Clapton, before Gordon's drums bring the full band in. During the verses, Gordon moves to a square, Motown-style beat – or "rock-steady Northern soul backbeat" in Leng's words – before returning to the "galloping rhythm" of the more open, "knockout" choruses. The song is driven equally by Badfinger drummer Mike Gibbins' powerful tambourine work.
On "What Is Life", Spector provided what music critic David Fricke terms "echo-drenched theater", in the form of reverb-heavy brass, soaring strings (arranged by John Barham) and "a choir of multitracked Harrisons". Barham stayed at Harrison's new home, Friar Park in Henley-on-Thames, and created the scores for "What Is Life" and other songs from melodies that Harrison sang or played to him on piano or guitar. Barham says that, for inspiration, Harrison also played him Spector productions such as Checkmates, Ltd.'s "Proud Mary". In his autobiography, Every Night's a Saturday Night, Keys recalls that Harrison and Price worked out the horn arrangement together at the overdubbing session. In MacFarlane's description, the strings provide a complementary countermelody to the guitar riff, while the horns' combination of "uptown soul and mariachi" heightens and expands the track's musical colour.
After recording the album's backing tracks with Spector, Harrison carried out most of the overdubbing without him, working at Trident Studios with former Beatles engineer Ken Scott. The song's vocals and strings, along with a brief slide-guitar commentary from Harrison over the final verse, were overdubbed at Trident. Dated 19 August, Spector's written comments on Harrison's early mix of the song had suggested a "proper background voice" was still needed. Harrison performed all the chorus vocals himself and credited them to "the George O'Hara-Smith Singers". Spector was impressed with Harrison's dedication in the studio, saying, "He was a great harmoniser ... he could do all the [vocal] parts himself" and rating Harrison "one of the most commercial musicians and songwriters and quintessential players I've ever known in my entire career".
Release and reception
"What Is Life" was released in late November 1970 as the first track on side two of All Things Must Pass, in its original, triple LP format. Along with "My Sweet Lord" and "Isn't It a Pity", the song had already been identified as a potential hit single by Allan Steckler, manager of Apple's US operation. Backed by "Apple Scruffs", "What Is Life" was issued as a single in America on 15 February 1971 (as Apple 1828), just as the "My Sweet Lord" / "Isn't It a Pity" double A-side was slipping out of the top ten. Billboard magazine's reviewer described "What Is Life" and "Apple Scruffs" as "intriguing rhythm follows-ups" to the first single, which were "sure to repeat that success" and "should prove big juke box items". Record World called it "perhaps the most commercial cut" from All Things Must Pass.
While describing the initial impact of All Things Must Pass, author Robert Rodriguez includes the song as an illustration of how the depth of Harrison's talents had been "hidden in plain sight" behind John Lennon and Paul McCartney during the Beatles' career. The album introduced Harrison as an overtly spiritual songwriter who sought to connect with his audience on a "higher level" compared with the populist approach of McCartney or the confrontationalism adopted by Lennon. Rodriguez concludes: "That the Quiet Beatle was capable of such range – from the joyful 'What Is Life' to the meditative 'Isn't It a Pity' to the steamrolling 'Art of Dying' to the playful 'I Dig Love' – was truly revelatory."
The front of the single's US picture sleeve consisted of a photo of Harrison playing guitar inside the central tower of Friar Park. The tower's sole, octagonal-shaped room was an area that Harrison had adopted as his personal temple and meditation space. This picture was taken by photographer Barry Feinstein, whose Camouflage Productions partner, Tom Wilkes, originally used it as part of an elaborate poster intended as an insert in the album package. The poster featured a painting of the Hindu deity Krishna watching a group of naked maidens beside a bathing pond. Harrison apparently felt uncomfortable with the symbolism in Wilkes's design – the Friar Park tower image filled the top half of the poster, floating among clouds above the Krishna scene – so Wilkes abandoned the concept and instead used a darkened photo of Harrison inside the house as the album poster. In Denmark, the picture sleeve consisted of four shots of Harrison, again with guitar, taken on stage during the Delaney & Bonnie tour.
As with the parent album, the single was a commercial and critical success. "What Is Life" peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 7 on Cash Boxs Top 100 chart, making Harrison the first ex-Beatle to have two top-ten hits in the United States. The single climbed to number 1 in Switzerland and on Australia's Go-Set National Top 60, and reached the top three elsewhere in Europe and in Canada. In Britain, where Harrison had resisted issuing a single from All Things Must Pass until midway through January, "What Is Life" appeared as the B-side of "My Sweet Lord". The record became the top-selling single of 1971 in that country.
Retrospective assessments and legacy
"What Is Life" is one of Harrison's most commercial and popular songs – a "spiritual guitar quest" that "became [a] classic", according to Rolling Stone magazine. In their Solo Beatles Compendium, authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter refer to it as an "intensely catchy track" and view its pairing with "My Sweet Lord" in the UK as perhaps the strongest of all of Harrison's singles. Writing in 1981, NME critic Bob Woffinden grouped "What Is Life" with "My Sweet Lord", "Isn't It a Pity" and "Awaiting on You All" as "all excellent songs".
Reviewing the 2001 reissue of All Things Must Pass, for Rolling Stone, James Hunter wrote of how the album's music "exults in breezy rhythms", among which "the colorful revolutions of 'What Is Life' ... [move] like a Ferris wheel". The following year, in Rolling Stone Press's Harrison tribute book, David Fricke included "What Is Life" among his selection of "essential Harrison performances" (just three of which date from the ex-Beatle's solo years) and described the track as an "exultant song of surrender", abetted by Harrison's "pumping fuzz guitar" and the song's "singalong magnetism". AllMusic's Richie Unterberger similarly praises "What Is Life" for its "anthemic" qualities, "particularly snazzy horn lines", and a guitar riff that is "one more entry in the catalog of George Harrison's book of arresting, low, descending guitar lines".
Writing in the book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die, author Tom Moon refers to "the upbeat single 'What Is Life'" as an example of how Harrison "grabs what he needs from his old band – that insinuating hook sense – and uses it to frame an utterly comfortable metaphysical discourse". Simon Leng credits Harrison's "innate ability to write very fine pop-rock songs" and deems the result "as innovative an exercise in rock-soul as the Temptations' 'Cloud Nine'". Ian Inglis is less enthusiastic, acknowledging that Barham's orchestration and the other musicians give the track "undoubted excitement and energy", but lamenting that the song offers "little overall coherence between words and music". In Thomas MacFarlane's view, "What Is Life" is a "remarkable pop song" that "takes the tone and attitude of Phil Spector's Wall of Sound and channels it through the prism of the late-period Beatles".
Writing for Q magazine in 2002, John Harris said the "widescreen sound" of All Things Must Pass tracks such as "What Is Life" was a forerunner to recordings by ELO and Oasis. PopMatters Jason Korenkiewicz describes the song as a "jangle pop masterpiece and blueprint for the Britpop movement", adding that "Harrison's musical legacy has contributed greatly to the exuberance of Britpop in the '90s." The track is said to be a favourite of Foo Fighters singer Dave Grohl, who titled his 1995 song "Oh, George" in tribute to Harrison. Guitarist Steve Lukather also named it as a favourite, adding of All Things Must Pass: "there is a LOT of deep soul music in those grooves."
Michael Galluci of Ultimate Classic Rock placed "What Is Life" second (behind "My Sweet Lord") in his list titled "Top 10 George Harrison Songs". Galluci wrote of the track having "a giant pop hook as its guide" as well as "the catchiest chorus Harrison ever penned". In 2009, Matt Melis of Consequence of Sound listed it sixth among his "Top Ten Songs by Ex-Beatles", writing: "it's arguable that Harrison's All Things Must Pass is the best solo album put out by a Beatle. 'What is Life' … with its riff-driven bounce, soaring harmonies on the choruses, and perfectly placed sax and trumpet, [is] probably Harrison's catchiest pop song." In the 2005 publication NME Originals: Beatles – The Solo Years 1970–1980, Adrian Thrills rated it first among Harrison's "ten solo gems", adding: "One of Harrison's greatest guitar riffs – brilliant pop." "What Is Life" topped a similar list in Paste magazine, where Madison Desler writes: "Another ambiguous love song that could be directed at a woman or a higher power, 'What Is Life' explodes jubilantly, a rare moment of pure celebration for Harrison." She also describes the track as "an onion of pop gold that reveals different parts of itself the more you listen to it" and "a staple of pop culture" due to the song's popularity in film soundtracks.
In a 2010 poll to find the "10 Best George Harrison Songs", AOL Radio listeners voted "What Is Life" third, behind "My Sweet Lord" and "Blow Away". In a Rolling Stone readers' poll, titled "10 Greatest Solo Beatle Songs", the song placed fourth, with the editor commenting: "The track is deceptively simple, and more layers become apparent the more often you play it." "What Is Life" has featured in Bruce Pollock's book The 7,500 Most Important Songs of 1944–2000, Treble website's "The Top 200 Songs of the 1970s" (ranked at number 101) and Dave Thompson's 1000 Songs That Rock Your World (at number 247).
Subsequent releases and appearances in films
"What Is Life" was included on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison, as the closing track, and 2009's Let It Roll: Songs by George Harrison. The song has also appeared in several popular feature films: Martin Scorsese's Goodfellas (1990), during the "May 11, 1980" sequence; Tom Shadyac's Patch Adams (1998); Sam Mendes' Away We Go (2009); Judd Apatow's This Is 40 (2012), for which it was also used in advance promotion; and Instant Family (2018), directed by Sean Anders. According to Andy Greene of Rolling Stone: "Today, many people know it merely as a song from all those soundtracks ... It's almost as ubiquitous as 'Let My Love Open the Door' or 'Solsbury Hill'."
A portion of "What Is Life" plays in Scorsese's 2011 documentary George Harrison: Living in the Material World, between "Here Comes the Sun" and the Radha Krishna Temple's "Hare Krishna Mantra". It accompanies a sequence of 1969 photos of Harrison with, variously, Preston, Jackie Lomax, the Plastic Ono Band, Clapton and Ravi Shankar, and follows archive footage showing him discussing the restrictions he felt within the Beatles and how the band "had to implode". In his film review for Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman recalled of the song:
I will never forget the tingle I felt while standing, when I was around 11, at a jukebox in a diner in early-'70s Ann Arbor, dropping a coin into the machine to play a song that was still new to me: "What Is Life". That descending guitar line crackled out of the speaker like a sassy, jagged lightning bolt. The drums were as thunderous as Led Zeppelin's, only it was romantic thunder, and Harrison's yearning vocals rode atop Phil Spector's now-electrified wall of sound like a jubilant cry of triumph: He had broken free! Free of the Beatles, of the '60s, of the material world ... It was one of the most ecstatic things I'd ever heard, and ever would hear. It was the spirit of love speaking through George Harrison, as it would speak through him throughout that album.
An alternative studio version of "What Is Life" was one of the five bonus tracks included on the 2001 remaster of All Things Must Pass. This version is a rough mix of the original backing track with different orchestration – in this case, piccolo trumpet and oboe. In the accompanying booklet, Harrison writes that this orchestral arrangement was discarded because he "didn't like the feel". Speaking to Billboard editor-in-chief Timothy White in December 2000, Harrison explained the reason for the lack of a guide vocal on this version: "I'm playing the fuzz guitar part that goes all through the song. So all I could do on the [initial] take was to give the band the cue line – the first line of each verse – and then go back to playing that riff. So that rough mix without the vocal – I'd forgot all about it …"
Music video
Coinciding with the release of the Apple Years 1968–75 box set in September 2014, Harrison's widow and son, Olivia and Dhani Harrison, held an online competition in which filmmakers were invited to create a video clip for "What Is Life". The winner would receive a $5000 cash prize and have their entry become the official video for the track, appearing on the George Harrison YouTube channel and other media platforms. In November, Olivia and Dhani selected Brandon Moore of Oakland, California, as the winner. Moore's video comprises dance interpretations by Emma Rubinowitz and Esteban Hernandez of the San Francisco Ballet, filmed in the streets and woods of the San Francisco Presidio.
Live performance
A live version of the song, recorded with Eric Clapton and his band in December 1991, is available on Harrison's 1992 album Live in Japan album. The performance was recorded at Tokyo Dome on 17 December, during the final show of the tour.
Part of a concert performance of "What Is Life" from Harrison's 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar appears in Scorsese's George Harrison: Living in the Material World. This was the first US tour by a former Beatle but the concerts were highly controversial and proved damaging to Harrison's artistic standing. Rock publications such as Rolling Stone ensured that the tour gained a reputation as a disastrous venture, although bootleg recordings from the shows partly refute this. Simon Leng writes of a Fort Worth performance of "What Is Life" that was "greeted with a reception that matched anything the New York audience at the [August 1971] Bangla Desh concerts expressed".
Cover versions
Olivia Newton-John
British-Australian pop singer Olivia Newton-John included "What Is Life", along with a version of Harrison's All Things Must Pass track "Behind That Locked Door", on her 1972 album Olivia. The song was arranged and produced by Bruce Welch of the Shadows and John Farrar, who was Newton-John's regular producer and collaborator during the 1970s.
Released as a single in some countries, this version reached the UK top 20 in March 1972, peaking at number 16. The song's chart run coincided with Newton-John touring the UK with French balladeer Sacha Distel before beginning a season of solo concerts at London's Prince of Wales Theatre. "What Is Life" subsequently appeared on her compilation albums Back to Basics: The Essential Collection 1971–1992 (1992) and The Definitive Collection (2002).
Other artists
"What Is Life" was one of the songs that middle-of-the-road artists rushed to record as a result of All Things Must Pass popularity. In 1971, British easy listening pianist Ronnie Aldrich covered it (as well as "My Sweet Lord") on his album Love Story, giving the track what AllMusic reviewer Al Campbell views as a regrettable "Muzak arrangement". That same year, the Ventures included an instrumental version on their New Testament album, recorded when the band had progressed from their surf rock roots to embrace fuzz-tone and other heavier guitar sounds. Music critic Bruce Eder cites the track as an example of the album's "loud, jagged guitar" music and of Ventures guitarist Gerry McGee "crossing swords musically" with contemporaries such as Harrison, Clapton and Jimmy Page through the band's choice of covers.
Shawn Mullins recorded "What Is Life" for the soundtrack of the 1999 film Big Daddy. Released as a single, it peaked at number 62 on the UK Singles Chart. In 2004, Christian rock singer Neal Morse included a recording on the special-edition version of his album One, with Phil Keaggy as a guest vocalist. The track later appeared on Morse's 2006 album with Mike Portnoy and Randy George, Cover to Cover, which also includes covers of "Day After Day", which Harrison produced for Badfinger in 1971, and the Clapton–Harrison composition "Badge".
"What Is Life" was performed by "Weird Al" Yankovic at the George Fest tribute concert in Los Angeles on 28 September 2014. The recording was included on the George Fest live album and concert DVD package in 2016.
Personnel
The following musicians are believed to have played on "What Is Life":
George Harrison – vocals, lead guitar, acoustic guitar, slide guitar, backing vocals
Eric Clapton – guitar
Bobby Whitlock – organ
Carl Radle – bass
Jim Gordon – drums
Jim Price – trumpet, horn arrangement
Bobby Keys – saxophone
Pete Ham – acoustic guitar
Tom Evans – acoustic guitar
Joey Molland – acoustic guitar
Mike Gibbins – tambourine
John Barham – string arrangement
Chart performance
George Harrison version
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Olivia Newton-John version
Notes
References
Sources
Dale C. Allison Jr., The Love There That's Sleeping: The Art and Spirituality of George Harrison, Continuum (New York, NY, 2006; ).
Keith Badman, The Beatles Diary Volume 2: After the Break-Up 1970–2001, Omnibus Press (London, 2001; ).
Harry Castleman & Walter J. Podrazik, All Together Now: The First Complete Beatles Discography 1961–1975, Ballantine Books (New York, NY, 1976; ).
Alan Clayson, George Harrison, Sanctuary (London, 2003; ).
The Editors of Rolling Stone, Harrison, Rolling Stone Press/Simon & Schuster (New York, NY, 2002; ).
Peter Doggett, "George Harrison: The Apple Years 1968–1975", Record Collector, April 2001, pp. 34–40.
Michael Frontani, "The Solo Years", in Kenneth Womack (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Beatles, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, UK, 2009; ), pp. 153–82.
George Harrison: Living in the Material World DVD, Village Roadshow, 2011 (directed by Martin Scorsese; produced by Olivia Harrison, Nigel Sinclair & Martin Scorsese).
Joshua M. Greene, Here Comes the Sun: The Spiritual and Musical Journey of George Harrison, John Wiley & Sons (Hoboken, NJ, 2006; ).
George Harrison, I Me Mine, Chronicle Books (San Francisco, CA, 2002; ).
Olivia Harrison, George Harrison: Living in the Material World, Abrams (New York, NY, 2011; ).
Elliot J. Huntley, Mystical One: George Harrison – After the Break-up of the Beatles, Guernica Editions (Toronto, ON, 2006; ).
Chris Ingham, The Rough Guide to the Beatles, Rough Guides/Penguin (London, 2006; 2nd edn; ).
Ian Inglis, The Words and Music of George Harrison, Praeger (Santa Barbara, CA, 2010; ).
Bobby Keys with Bill Ditenhafer, Every Night's a Saturday Night: The Rock 'n' Roll Life of Legendary Sax Man Bobby Keys, Counterpoint (Berkeley, CA, 2012; ).
Simon Leng, While My Guitar Gently Weeps: The Music of George Harrison, Hal Leonard (Milwaukee, WI, 2006; ).
Thomas MacFarlane, The Music of George Harrison, Routledge (Abingdon, UK, 2019; ).
Chip Madinger & Mark Easter, Eight Arms to Hold You: The Solo Beatles Compendium, 44.1 Productions (Chesterfield, MO, 2000; ).
Tom Moon, 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die, Workman Publishing (New York, NY, 2008; ).
Robert Rodriguez, Fab Four FAQ 2.0: The Beatles' Solo Years, 1970–1980, Backbeat Books (Milwaukee, WI, 2010; ).
Patricia Romanowski & Holly George-Warren (eds), The New Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll, Fireside/Rolling Stone Press (New York, NY, 1995; ).
Nicholas Schaffner, The Beatles Forever, McGraw-Hill (New York, NY, 1978; ).
Bruce Spizer, The Beatles Solo on Apple Records, 498 Productions (New Orleans, LA, 2005; ).
Gary Tillery, Working Class Mystic: A Spiritual Biography of George Harrison, Quest Books (Wheaton, IL, 2011; ).
Bobby Whitlock with Marc Roberty, Bobby Whitlock: A Rock 'n' Roll Autobiography, McFarland (Jefferson, NC, 2010; ).
Bob Woffinden, The Beatles Apart, Proteus (London, 1981; ).
Kenneth Womack, The Beatles Encyclopedia: Everything Fab Four, ABC-CLIO (Santa Barbara, CA, 2014; ).
External links
Lyrics of this song
1970 songs
1971 singles
George Harrison songs
Apple Records singles
Songs written by George Harrison
Song recordings produced by George Harrison
Song recordings produced by Phil Spector
Music published by Harrisongs
Song recordings with Wall of Sound arrangements
Number-one singles in Switzerland
British soul songs
Olivia Newton-John songs
Pye Records singles
RCA Records singles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Noble
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Mark Noble
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Mark James Noble (born 8 May 1987) is an English former professional footballer who played as a central midfielder and is well remembered for his time at English club West Ham United, spending eighteen years with the club where he is now sporting director. Apart from two short loan spells at Hull City and Ipswich Town in 2006, he played all of his first team football for the Hammers, which earned him the nickname "Mr West Ham".
Noble has the most Premier League appearances for West Ham, in addition to being the longest serving player in their squad at the end of his time with the club having been in the first team since 2004. He won the club's Hammer of the Year trophy twice, as well as being voted Hammer of the Decade at the end of the 2010s.
Noble played for England at U16, U17, U18, U19 and U21 levels. He captained the U21 side, scoring three goals in 20 games.
In 2020, Noble was rated as the player with the second highest conversion rate for penalty kicks in the world over the last 20 years. His 90.5% conversion rate was only beaten by Robert Lewandowski's rate of 91.1%.
Noble is currently sporting director at West Ham United, a role he commenced on 2 January 2023 after a short break after retiring as a player at the end of the 2021–22 season.
Club career
Early career
Born in Canning Town, East London, Noble played for Barking Colts and moved to Arsenal's academy at age 11. His father, however, who would drive him to training, could not always arrange the time to get Noble to training sessions due to the distance between their home in Beckton and Arsenal's academy in Hale End. Noble supported local club West Ham United as a boy, and grew up just one mile away from Upton Park. Eventually, the club showed an interest in him and Noble signed as a youth player in 2000. He became the youngest player ever to appear in their reserve team, aged 15. He became a trainee in July 2003 and made his debut in the senior team at the age of just 17 in the League Cup on 24 August 2004 in a 2–0 win against Southend United, replacing Luke Chadwick for the final 22 minutes of the game. On 8 January 2005, on his third appearance for West Ham, Noble made his first start for the club, playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–0 FA Cup third round win against Norwich City. He made his league debut in the Championship a week later, 15 January 2005, in a 4–2 defeat away at Wolverhampton Wanderers. On 30 May 2005, Noble played in the 2005 Football League Championship play-off final which saw West Ham beat Preston North End 1–0 to secure a return to the Premier League. He had entered the game as an 83rd-minute substitute for Shaun Newton.
Noble won the Young Hammer of the Year and the runner-up to the Hammer of the Year awards despite making his debut only four months previously.
Upon West Ham's return to the Premier League, he featured in only five League games in the 2005–06 season, including those against Tottenham Hotspur on 20 November 2005 and against Manchester United on 27 November, but after a game against Blackburn Rovers on 10 December, he found regular playing time harder to come by and was sent out on loan. He did not play for West Ham at all in 2006.
Loan periods
Noble was subsequently loaned to Hull City by manager Alan Pardew in order for him to get some games. He made five appearances, his debut coming on 18 February 2006 in a 1–0 away defeat by Cardiff City. Noble's loan ended early after he suffered an injury to his lower back.
Noble signed a three-month loan in August 2006 with Ipswich Town in the hope of gaining necessary first-team experience. He played 13 games in the Championship under manager, Jim Magilton and scored his first professional goal on 12 September in a 2–1 home win over Coventry City.
Return to West Ham
Noble scored his first goal for West Ham against Brighton & Hove Albion, the side's first of three in a 3–0 home win in January 2007 in the third round of the FA Cup, from an assist by Carlos Tevez. On 4 March, he scored his first Premiership goal and the opening goal of the game, against Tottenham at Upton Park in a game West Ham eventually lost 4–3 in the final seconds. He played 11 games in all competitions, scoring three goals in the 2006–07 season.
2007–08 season
Noble established his place in Alan Curbishley's side during the 2007–08 season, starting nearly all games when fit. He scored his first penalty for the club on 18 August 2007 in a 1–0 away win against Birmingham City after Colin Doyle had fouled Craig Bellamy. He was out for several weeks in November 2007 after he had played through an injury for the last several months without letting the medical staff know. In January 2008, Noble scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory over Liverpool from the penalty spot, after Liverpool defender Jamie Carragher had brought down Freddie Ljungberg in the last few seconds of second-half added time. His performance in the match was described as "exceptional".
2008–09 season
The 2008–09 season did not start well for Noble, as he was sent off for two bookable offences in a 3–0 loss away at Manchester City, the first away game of the season. After serving his suspension he came back to score an equaliser against West Bromwich Albion after West Ham went a goal down with West Brom coming back to win 3–2. This was one of five goals he scored in the season with three coming from the penalty spot. After Alan Curbishley left in September, he remained in the first team under new manager Gianfranco Zola. He celebrated his 100th appearance for the Hammers by scoring against Blackburn at Ewood Park on 21 March 2009 to secure a 1–1 draw. In April, he signed a contract extension tying him to the club until 2013.
2009–10 season
Noble began the 2009–10 season well, scoring West Ham's first goal of the new season, in a 2–0 win over Premier League newcomers Wolves. Under Gianfranco Zola, Noble established himself in central midfield in a diamond that included Scott Parker as his partner and Jack Collison and Valon Behrami on the wings. He would only score one other goal during the season – a penalty after Habib Beye had fouled Zavon Hines – in a 2–1 home win against Aston Villa on 4 November 2009.
2010–11 season
With West Ham now managed by Avram Grant, Noble continued to be a regular member of the first team. He played 26 of a possible 38 games in the Premier League missing a month of the season after an appendectomy as West Ham were relegated after finishing in 20th and bottom place. He scored four league goals; all were penalties including two in one game. On 2 April 2011 against Manchester United his two penalties had put West Ham 2–0 up only for Wayne Rooney to score a hat-trick which, with another goal by Javier Hernández, won the game 4–2 for Manchester United.
2011–12 season
During the 2011–12 season with West Ham now back in the Championship, Noble scored eight goals, seven of which were penalties, his only goal from open play coming in a 4–0 away win against Barnsley. Having twice previously been runner-up, Noble was named Hammer of the Year for the 2011–12 season.
In May 2012 Noble played in the 2012 Football League Championship play-off final at Wembley Stadium against Blackpool which West Ham won 2–1 to return to the Premier League after a one-year absence. By the end of the season, he had played 49 games in all competitions, missing just one of their Championship games.
2012–13 season
In September 2012, Noble signed a new three-year contract with an option for a further two years. In February 2013, he was out injured after having been diagnosed with a compression of the thoracic outlet. He did not return until 17 April 2013 in a 2–2 home draw against Manchester United. The missing games saw Noble's tally for the season at 31 games in all competitions with four goals scored. Three goals were penalties with his one-goal from open play coming in a 4–1 home win against Southampton on 20 October 2012.
2013–14 season
Noble scored three goals in the 2013–14 season, the only one from open play being the second goal in a 2–0 away win over Cardiff City in January, despite the team being down to ten men after a James Tomkins sending off. On 6 May 2014, Noble received his second Hammer of the Year, beating runner up Adrián and third-placed James Tomkins. On the same awards night, Noble also won the Players' Player of the Year accolade.
2014–15 season
Noble missed a penalty in a 0–1 home defeat by Tottenham on 16 August 2014, the opening game of the season, but scored his first goal of the season in the next home game, on 30 August, a 1–3 home defeat by Southampton. On 29 November 2014, Noble became West Ham's record appearance maker in the Premier League with his appearance against Newcastle United being his 205th Premier League game, overtaking Steve Potts. Noble signed a contract extension which would keep him at West Ham until 2020, with an option for a further year, on 26 February 2015.
2015–16 season and testimonial
Noble's first goal of the season came from the penalty spot in a 3–4 home defeat by Premier League newcomers, AFC Bournemouth on 22 August 2015. The following week, he scored the second goal in a 3–0 away win against Liverpool; this was West Ham's first win at Anfield since 1963. Noble made his 350th senior appearance for West Ham on 6 February 2016, in a 1–0 defeat away at Southampton. The following week, he scored his third goal of the season, netting West Ham's equalizer in the 77th minute of their 2–2 draw away at Norwich City. On 22 December 2015, it had been announced that Noble was to be granted a testimonial by West Ham following his long service to the club. The game was played on 28 March 2016 between a West Ham XI and a West Ham United all-stars team made up of former players, with all proceeds going to charity. The game was won 6–5 by the West Ham XI in front of 36,000 spectators and featured a goal by Paolo Di Canio and two by Dean Ashton, including a bicycle kick described as "stunning".
On 10 May 2016, Noble became the final man to lead a West Ham United team out at Upton Park, as the Hammers went on to win their final game at their former home 3–2 against Manchester United.
2016–17 season
In March 2017 sections of West Ham supporters called for him to be dropped from the team. Noble described the season as "the most difficult of his career". On 8 April 2017, having played against Swansea City, Noble marked his 400th appearance for West Ham becoming the 19th player to pass this number. He played 35 games in all competitions for West Ham in the 2016–17 season scoring five goals, two in the Europa League and three in the Premier League. His season finished early with two games remaining for West Ham as he required an abdominal operation.
2017–18 season
Noble marked his 300th Premier League appearance with a goal from the penalty spot against Stoke City on 16 December 2017. In March 2018, there were protests against David Sullivan and the West Ham United board at the London Stadium during a 3–0 home defeat to Burnley. There were four pitch invasions with one fan approaching Noble on the pitch. In scenes described as "horrific", Noble grappled with the supporter, throwing him to the ground. On 5 May 2018, he scored the second goal in a 2–0 away win at Leicester City, a result which ensured West Ham's survival in the Premier League. Noble described the goal, a volley from the edge of the penalty area, as "the best of his career".
2018–19 season
Noble scored his first goal of the season on 9 February 2019, a penalty past Vicente Guaita of Crystal Palace after he had fouled Michail Antonio in the area. The game finished 1–1. Noble finished the season with five goals, including a brace on the final day of the season in a 4–1 win against Watford.
2019–20 season
Noble missed the first two games of the season due to injury, but started in the third game of the season, against Watford, scoring a third-minute penalty in a 3–1 win, the Hammers' first win of the season. This was his 25th successful Premier League penalty, with only Shearer (56), Lampard (43) and Gerrard (32) scoring more. Noble marked his 500th appearance for West Ham on 17 July, earning an assist in a 3–1 win over Watford.
2020–21 season
A week before the start of the 2020–21 season, Noble, as club captain, voiced his anger at the sale of West Ham player, Grady Diangana. On Twitter, Noble wrote "As captain of this football club I'm gutted, angry and sad that Grady has left, great kid with a great future". His views were supported by defender Arthur Masuaku and many West Ham fans who expressed dissatisfaction with club owners David Sullivan and David Gold.
Noble signed a new one-year contract on 9 March 2021 and announced that the 2021–22 season would be his final as a West Ham player. On 10 April 2021, in a 3–2 home win against Leicester City, Noble made his 400th Premier League appearance.
2021–22 season
On 16 September 2021, Noble came on as an 83rd-minute substitute for goal scorer and Hammers vice-captain – and captain of the fixture until being replaced – Declan Rice in a 2–0 away win over Dinamo Zagreb, making his first Europa League group stage appearance and his seventh European appearance for the club overall.
On 19 September, in the last minute of the game he had a penalty kick saved by David de Gea in a 2–1 loss against Manchester United after being substituted on just seconds before. On 25 November, Noble scored a penalty in a 2–0 Europa League tie against Rapid Wien, marking his third European goal for the club. The win confirmed West Ham winning group H. On 28 December, Noble started his first Premier League game of the season, in an away game to Watford. West Ham won 4–1 with Noble scoring the third goal, a penalty, marking his 47th Premier League goal, placing him level with Paolo Di Canio as West Ham's second highest scorer of Premier League goals.
In May 2022, West Ham announced that the Young Hammer of the Year award would be renamed the "Mark Noble Award" in honour of the player.
Noble played his last home game for West Ham on 15 May in a 2–2 draw with Premier League champions, Manchester City as he came on as a 77th-minute substitute in front of a sellout stadium. In the 16th minute of the match, there was a standing ovation from both sets of fans for the loyal Hammer that wore the 16 shirt. West Ham marked the occasion with a film with a voiceover from Danny Dyer and Ben Shephard presenting on the pitch. At the end of the game City manager, Pep Guardiola hugged Noble. Albert II, Prince of Monaco, head of the House of Grimaldi and an admirer of West Ham, was in attendance to pay his respects to the player. Following the game Noble was given a farewell by fellow players and supporters on the pitch. On 20 May West Ham named their new academy pitch at Chadwell Heath, the "Mark Noble Arena".
One week later, on 22 May 2022, Noble made his final appearance for the club, in a 3–1 loss against Brighton & Hove Albion, coming on as an 81st-minute substitute. In total, Noble made 550 appearances for West Ham, 414 of those coming in the Premier League, scoring 62 goals.
International career
Noble captained the England U18 team. He was a member of the England U19 team that beat Serbia and Montenegro U19s 3–1 in the 2005 European Championship semi-finals, although they subsequently lost the final to France.
Noble made his debut for the England U21 team on 11 June 2007, coming on as substitute in the 82nd minute for Tom Huddlestone in England's 0–0 draw with the Czech Republic during the 2007 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, held in the Netherlands. He established himself in the starting XI for the remaining matches and scored twice in a dramatic semi-final penalty shootout against the Netherlands where England lost 13–12.
On 11 September 2007, Noble scored his first international goal for the under-21 team against Bulgaria in a 2–0 victory, followed by two more against the Republic of Ireland on 16 October.
Noble captained the U21s at the 2009 European Championships as regular captain Steven Taylor had to withdraw due to injury. The Young Lions ended the tournament as runners-up, losing 4–0 to Germany, with Noble playing his last match for the U21s.
Noble was also eligible to play for the Republic of Ireland national side through his Cork-born grandparents. In August 2014, despite stating on numerous occasions about his ambition of playing for England at senior level, it was reported by the Irish Independent that he might've been willing to make himself available for the Irish national team.
Despite previous reports claiming Noble would accept a call up from Ireland, in February 2017 Noble rejected a call up to the Irish national side, stating: "There are young Irish kids playing well that deserve and would appreciate an Irish cap more than I would. I played through all the age groups as a youth international (with England), went to tournaments and sang the national anthem. But obviously I've never got a senior cap. So for me to turn up to play for Ireland without it having been a dream of mine, and there's an Irish kid out there who might miss out when it's their dream to play for Ireland, I couldn't do that."
Later career
In September 2022, it was announced that Noble would return to West Ham United as a sporting director from January 2023. He attended his first match as sporting director, a Premier League match fixture Leeds United which ended in a 2–2 draw, on 4 January 2023.
Personal life
In May 2016, Noble was granted freedom of the London Borough of Newham for his services to the borough.
Noble has been married to childhood sweetheart Carly since 2012. The couple have a son and a daughter. Their son, Lenny, plays at the West Ham United academy based in Chadwell Heath.
In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Noble donated £35,000 to help vulnerable people in Essex.
In November 2022, his autobiography, Boleyn Boy was published by HarperCollins.
Career statistics
Honours
West Ham United
Football League Championship play-offs: 2005, 2012
England U19
UEFA European Under-19 Championship runner-up: 2005
England U21
UEFA European Under-21 Championship runner-up: 2009
Individual
PFA Team of the Year: 2011–12 Championship
West Ham United Hammer of the Year: 2011–12, 2013–14
West Ham United Young Hammer of the Year: 2004–05
West Ham United Hammer of the Decade (2010s): 2010–19
References
External links
Mark Noble at The Football Association (archived)
Mark Noble at West Ham United F.C. (archived)
1987 births
Living people
Footballers from Canning Town
English men's footballers
England men's youth international footballers
England men's under-21 international footballers
Men's association football midfielders
West Ham United F.C. players
Hull City A.F.C. players
Ipswich Town F.C. players
Premier League players
English Football League players
English people of Irish descent
West Ham United F.C. non-playing staff
English autobiographers
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5008614
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genelia%20D%27Souza
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Genelia D'Souza
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Genelia Deshmukh (née D'Souza; born 5 August 1987) is an Indian actress and model who predominantly appears in Hindi, Telugu, and Tamil language films. After gaining wide attention in a Parker Pen commercial with Amitabh Bachchan, D'Souza began her acting career with the box–office hit Tujhe Meri Kasam in 2003. She was recognized for her role in Boys the same year.
D'Souza received her first Filmfare Award in 2006 for her performance in the Telugu romantic comedy film Bommarillu, which earned her critical acclaim. In 2008, she gave critically acclaimed performances in Santosh Subramaniam, a Tamil remake of Bommarillu, and the Hindi film Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na. In addition to mainstream acting, D'Souza has hosted the television show Big Switch.
Her notable films include Satyam (2003), Sye (2004), Sachein (2005), Happy (2006), Dhee (2007), Ready (2008), Katha (2009), Urumi (2011), and the Hindi films Masti (2004), Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na (2008), Force (2011), Ved (2022). Having acted in several commercially successful movies in Telugu and Tamil, D'Souza was described as one of the leading actresses of the South Indian film industry in the 2000s.
Early life
Born in Mumbai, D'Souza is a Mangalorean Catholic. She was raised in the Bandra suburb of Mumbai. Her mother, Jeanette D'Souza, was a managing director of the Pharma Multinational Corporation. She left her job in 2004 to help D'Souza with her career. Her father, Neil D'Souza, is a senior official with Tata Consultancy Services. She also has a younger brother, Nigel D'Souza, who works with the Bombay Stock Exchange. According to D'Souza, her name means "rare" or "unique", and is a portmanteau of Jeanette and Neil, her mother and father's names. She is also often informally referred to as Geenu, her nickname. D'Souza studied at the Apostolic Carmel High School in Bandra and later joined St. Andrew's College in Bandra to pursue her bachelor's degree of Management Studies. She completed her degree while shooting for her first film, Tujhe Meri Kasam in 2003 and initially thought that an MNC job would suit her. She liked sports and studies in college, and was a state level athlete, sprinter, and a national level football player
D'Souza did her first modeling assignment at the age of 15, the result of being spotted as the bridesmaid at a wedding. She was selected for the Parker Pen commercial with Amitabh Bachchan, just two days before her exams, and had to shoot the next day. Initially she refused, because of her exam the next day, but the director persuaded D'Souza to shoot for the commercial. She gained wide attention from the Parker Pen commercial with Amitabh Bachchan, who said "she was good, and her expressions were spontaneous". She further did a Fair & Lovely 2003 Cricket World Cup advertisement with cricketer Krishnamachari Srikkanth.
Acting career
Debut and breakthrough (2003–2005)
When D'Souza was offered a role in Tujhe Meri Kasam, initially she turned it down, as she was not keen to pursue a career in acting. But the crew insisted and kept contacting her for two months, and she agreed when she saw the Telugu version of the film. Tamil director, S. Shankar, was impressed with her performance in the Parker Pen commercial and decided to cast her in a leading role in his 2003 Tamil film Boys. D'Souza was selected among 300 girls, who had auditioned for the movie. She signed three movies simultaneously in three different languages, Tujhe Meri Kasam (Hindi), Boys (Tamil), and Satyam (Telugu).
D'Souza's professional film career began, with her Hindi film debut Tujhe Meri Kasam in 2003. Film critic Taran Adarsh noted, "D'Souza is a wonderful performer. She catches you unaware with a performance that's natural to the core." The film was a box–office success. However, it could not do much to propel her career in Hindi cinema. Later, she decided to act in South Indian films. The same year, she made her Tamil debut as the teenage girl Harini in Boys, a story about 5 teenagers having stereotypical teen–boy fantasies. The movie, though noted for its vulgar sexual content, was a box–office success, and subsequently she started receiving Telugu film offers. She left Tamil cinema for a while to concentrate on the Telugu film industry. She made her Telugu debut in 2003 as a medical student in Satyam. Sify noted in their review that, "D'Souza is excellent as her body language is her major asset." The film was well received, and it raised her profile in the Telugu film industry.
In 2004, D'Souza appeared in her second Hindi film, Masti. The comedy focuses on 3 close friends who reunite after 3 years, but are now married and are being harassed by their wives. D'Souza portrayed the character of one of the wives. Taran Adarsh was complimentary of D'Souza's role, saying, "Amongst the wives, D'Souza is the best, [...] D'Souza looks the stern and demanding wife and is sure to be noticed." The film was a box–office success. The same year, she appeared in two Telugu movies Samba, and Sye, both succeeding at the box–office.
After appearing in her first Telugu movie in 2005, Naa Alludu, she starred in the Tamil romantic entertainer Sachein. A review in The Hindu noted, "D'Souza, who hardly made an impression in Boys, makes much impact in Sachein." The movie evoked mixed response from audiences, but was well received with the younger generation. She later appeared in the Telugu patriotic film Subhash Chandra Bose.
Turning point in South Indian films and recognition (2006–2008)
The year 2006 marked a significant turning point in D'Souza's career. She completed two Telugu movies in early 2006, one was the romantic comedy Happy, and the other was Raam. She then portrayed the role of Haasini, a vibrant, effervescent and a happy–go–lucky young girl, in the 2006 Telugu romantic comedy Bommarillu. The film was a blockbuster at the box–office, and grossed in India, and also won the 2006 Golden Nandi award. Her performance received high praise, and garnered her the Telugu Filmfare Award for Best Actress, besides the Nandi Special Jury Award and the Santosham Award for Best Actress. Sify concluded about her acting in their review that, "The scene stealer is D'Souza with her innocent looks and cute mannerisms. She does not overact and we just fall in love with her character. D'Souza looks like a dream in chic skirts and is the life of the party and raises the bar of the film."
Following the success of Bommarillu, D'Souza played the role of the daughter of a local don, in the Tamil gangster film Chennai Kadhal alongside Boys co–star Bharath. Rediff.com criticized her commenting, "D'Souza stands up yet again to prove the point that if you are pretty and well dressed, you can get away with anything, without acting." Shortly afterwards in 2007, D'Souza played the role of sister of a notorious gangster in the blockbuster Telugu film Dhee, set against a gang war backdrop.
The following year, D'Souza appeared in the 2008 Telugu romantic thriller Mr. Medhavi, in which she portrayed the role of a student from Canada. The film was successful, with Rediff.com complimenting her performance saying, "D'Souza is her effervescent self – full of joie–de–vivre and lights up the screen." She made her Kannada debut in Satya in Love the same year. Later, she was cast in a leading role in Santosh Subramaniam, a Tamil remake of Bommarillu. The film also turned out to be rather successful as its predecessor. Sify described D'Souza's portrayal as "the soul of the film" and the film's "biggest strength", however Rediff.com described her character as "appears a little too good to be true."
Return to Hindi cinema, subsequent work and success (2008–2016)
In June 2008, following a nearly 5–year hiatus in Hindi cinema, she appeared in Mere Baap Pehle Aap, which failed to make profit at the box–office. A Rediff review noted, "besides her apparent cuteness, brings in tons of freshness and traits to the youthful characters she chooses to play", while a Sify review criticized her stating, "D'Souza is sprightly but has a standard two–three expressions bank in this film." She later appeared in the Telugu love story Ready alongside Ram, which was well received.
Her breakthrough performance came with the blockbuster romantic comedy–drama Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na (2008), in which she portrayed the central character of Aditi Mahant, which was a major commercial success across India and overseas, grossing . Her role was widely admired for her sweetness and freshness, and new style of acting, with Rediff describing her acting as a "spark that has been missing in Hindi cinema for well over a decade now".
In that same year, D'Souza acted in the Telugu romantic comedy Sasirekha Parinayam. The film received favorable reviews, and Sify noted in their review that, "The life of the film is definitely D'Souza and she has shown the varied emotions from innocence, sadness, romance and anger in equal proportions without a hitch."
In 2009, D'Souza was cast in the Hindi film Life Partner, in which she was criticized for her performance. Indian film critic Rajeev Masand commented, "The adorable little imp from Jaane Tu… Ya Jaane Na has turned into a nagging harridan in this film, and how you wish she'd immediately enroll for acting lessons." Her next appearance in 2009 was in the Telugu thriller Katha, which was well received, and for which she won the 2009 Nandi Special Jury Award. In 2010, D'Souza appeared in Chance Pe Dance and Orange, both receiving poor reviews from critics, but her Uthama Puthiran was a moderate success in Tamil.
D'Souza had a major role in 2011, starring as the Muslim warrior princess Arackal Ayesha, in her debut Malayalam film Urumi. The film is about a fictional story happening in Calicut, Kerala during the 15th century, about a boy who plots to assassinate the Portuguese explorer Vasco Da Gama. She learned horse riding, and spent two weeks of training to use the sword, the short stick, and movements of the Dravidian martial art Kalarippayattu. The film portrayed her image makeover from a typical girl–next–door roles to more serious roles. Her next appearance was in the Hindi action thriller Force, which received mixed reviews from critics, with Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama noting that D'Souza is strikingly sweet and subdued. She played the role of a journalist alongside leading actor Vijay in Velayudham, which was also commercially successful. She appeared in Tere Naal Love Ho Gaya and Naa Ishtam in 2012 and in cameo appearances in Jai Ho and Lai Bhaari in 2014. In 2016, she appeared in a cameo role of Maya in Force 2.
Role as producer and return to acting (2018–present)
D'Souza became producer for her husband's Marathi film Mauli, where she also appeared in a song.
D'Souza will make her comeback to full time acting after 10 years with Riteish in Bhushan Kumar's Mister Mummy, star in the Marathi film Ved directed by Riteish, and will also return to South industry after 10 years with a Telugu–Kannada bilingual, film Production No.15.
Personal life
D'Souza is deeply religious and says that, she regularly attends Sunday Mass at St. Anne's Parish (Bandra), and whenever the family is home, a part of their evening is reserved for saying the rosary together. In an interview with The Times of India, she comments, "I keep a Novena every Wednesday at St. Michael's Church in Mahim." In an interview with Daily News and Analysis, she said that "My communication with God is conversational, [...] I'm God's favourite child; I believe that God has always been kind to me." Tabloids repeatedly linked D'Souza romantically with Ritesh Deshmukh, ever since they starred together in their debut film Tujhe Meri Kasam in 2003. They were reportedly ready to get engaged, but Ritesh's father, the then–Maharashtra Chief Minister, Vilasrao Deshmukh did not agree. D'Souza later denied any rumors of a relationship with Deshmukh, and responds that she was just friends with him. However, the couple eventually got married on 3 February 2012, according to Marathi marriage traditions in a Hindu wedding ceremony, they had a Christian wedding in the church on next day. The couple's first child, a son named Riaan, was born on 25 November 2014. Their second son, Rahyl, was born on 1 June 2016.
Other work and events
D'Souza was a part of Tamil director Mani Ratnam's stage show, Netru, Indru, Naalai, an event which seeks to raise funds for The Banyan, a voluntary organisation which rehabilitates homeless women with mental illness in Chennai. She was one of the judges at the grand finale of Gladrags Mega Model and Manhunt 2009 contest on 28 March 2009. She also walked the ramp alongside Tushar Kapoor for fashion designer Manish Malhotra at the Lakme Fashion Week 2009 on 28 March 2009. On 5 April 2009, D'Souza was among several Hindi film celebrities to perform at the Pantaloons Femina Miss India 2009 finale in Mumbai. In October 2009, she appeared as a showstopper for jewellery designer Farah Khan Ali on the second season of Housing Development and Infrastructure Limited (HDIL) India Couture Week. On 24 October 2009, D'Souza began hosting 'Big Switch, a television show based on slum kids on UTV Bindass channel to reach a bigger audience.
D'Souza has been the brand ambassador of Fanta, Virgin Mobile India, Fastrack, LG Mobiles, Garnier Light, Margo, and Perk in India. She has unveiled Spinz Black Magic deodorant on 7 October 2009 in Mumbai, and the Ceres Store retail outlet. At the Chennai International Fashion Week (CIFW) in December 2009, she appeared as a showstopper for designer Ishita Singh's spring–summer indigenous collection of 2010. She also holds a Limca world record of delivering four different super hit films in four different languages, Ready (Telugu), Satya in Love (Kannada), Santosh Subramaniam (Tamil), and Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na (Hindi) in a span of one calendar year.
She was a part of online market portal eBay's 2010 "Dream House" challenge, where she transformed an empty three–room apartment in Bandra into an attractive home with online shopping. She had been provided a budget of and two weeks to create a look she wants with items on sale on the website. On the occasion of Children's Day (14 November), D'Souza auctioned a few items from the apartment. All proceeds received from the auction was given to Aseema, a Non–governmental organization (NGO), which aims to provide education to underprivileged children.
In the media
D'Souza has been often tagged in the media as the "bubbly girl", after portraying the role of a young energetic girl in several movies, particularly in Bommarillu (2006) and Jaane Tu... Ya Jaane Na (2008). She appeared alongside Shahid Kapoor on the fourth episode of Tere Mere Beach Mein, a celebrity chat show, hosted by Farah Khan. The theme of the show was "Second Innings", since both D'Souza and Kapoor had the same history of failures initially and success later in their acting careers. In June 2010, D'Souza was crowned as the "Brand Ambassador of the Year" at the CNBC Awaaz consumer awards, for endorsing nine brands. She is now the brand ambassador of the soft drink Fanta (replacing Rani Mukherjee), the chocolate Perk (replacing Preity Zinta), Virgin Mobile India (along with Ranbir Kapoor), Fastrack watches and accessories, LG mobiles (along with John Abraham and Abhay Deol), Garnier Light fairness cream, Dabur Vatika hair oil, Margo soap, and Spinz deodorant.
Controversies
In June 2010, she was the subject of a controversy, when a Tamil daily reported that she had attended the controversial 2010 IIFA Awards in Colombo. Several Hindi film actors and the South Indian film industry had boycotted the event, over the alleged killing of Tamilian civilians at the height of the conflict between the Sri Lanka Army and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in 2009. The rumours of her visit to Colombo started after her friend Ritesh Deshmukh was seen at the festival in Colombo. Immediately, various Tamil groups and Kollywood associations demanded her films to be banned.
In 2011, a controversy broke out for her film Force, in a wedding sequence scene of herself and John Abraham. Sources claim that the wedding ceremony and rituals conducted were so authentic that they would have actually been husband and wife in real life. Instead of a junior artiste, a real priest was called for the scene. Again, following the reports of Ritesh Deshmukh and D'Souza's marriage plans, the priest landed up at producer Vipul Amrutlal Shah's office to register a complaint. He insisted that the couple couldn't get married, as D'Souza has been already married to John Abraham, as all marriage rituals were observed, from wearing a mangalsutra'' (a sacred thread is worn by Indian women as a symbol of their marriage), to exchanging garlands, and taking the seven steps around the holy fire. Shah dismissed the claims as a publicity stunt.
Filmography
Films
Television
Awards and nominations
See also
List of Hindi film actresses
References
External links
Genelia D'Souza at Yahoo! Movies
Living people
Actresses in Tamil cinema
Actresses in Telugu cinema
Indian film actresses
Actresses in Hindi cinema
Indian Roman Catholics
Athletes from Mumbai
1987 births
St. Andrew's College of Arts, Science and Commerce alumni
Indian women television presenters
Indian television presenters
Actresses in Kannada cinema
Actresses in Malayalam cinema
Filmfare Awards South winners
21st-century Indian actresses
Marathi people
People from Marathwada
Kalarippayattu practitioners
Indian female martial artists
Sportswomen from Maharashtra
21st-century Indian women
21st-century Indian people
Actresses from Mumbai
Female models from Mumbai
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhumati
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Madhumati
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Madhumati is a 1958 Indian Hindi-language paranormal romance film directed and produced by Bimal Roy, and written by Ritwik Ghatak and Rajinder Singh Bedi. The film stars Vyjayanthimala and Dilip Kumar in lead roles, with Pran and Johnny Walker in supporting roles. The plot focuses on Anand, a modern man who falls in love with a tribal woman named Madhumati. But they face challenges in their relationship finally leading to a paranormal consequence. It was ranked 11th in the Outlook Magazine's 25 leading Indian directors' poll for selecting Bollywood's greatest films in 2003.
Madhumati was filmed in various Indian locations, including Ranikhet, Ghorakhal, Vaitarna Dam and Aarey Milk Colony. The soundtrack album was composed by Salil Chowdhury and the lyrics were written by Shailendra. The film was released on 12 September 1958. It earned ₹40 million in India and became the highest-grossing Indian film of the year, and one of the most commercially successful and influential Indian films of all time. It received highly positive reviews from critics, who praised the technicality, soundtrack, and performance of the cast.
Madhumati was one of the earliest films to deal with reincarnation, and was described by analysts as a potboiler that has a gothic and noir feel to it. It inspired later regional and international films that have reincarnation-based themes. It led the 6th Filmfare Awards with 12 nominations and won 9 awards including Best Film, Best Director for Roy, Best Music Director for Chaudhary, Best Female Playback Singer for Mangeshkar—the most awards for a film at that time—a record that it maintained for a record 37 years. It also won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi.
Plot
On a stormy night, engineer Devendra drives down a hill road with his friend to fetch his wife and child from a railway station. A landslide blocks their path and they take shelter in an old mansion. Devendra finds the house eerily familiar. In the large front room, he finds an old portrait, which he recognizes. He’s joined by his friend and the old caretaker. Devendra, experiencing flashbacks of another life, sits down to tell his story while the storm rages outside.
Anand is the new manager of Shyamnagar Timber Estate. An artist in his spare time, he travels to the hills and falls in love with Madhumati, a Kumaoni tribal woman whose songs have haunted him from a distance. Anand's employer, Raja Ugra Narain is a ruthless, arrogant man; Anand, who refuses to bend to his will unlike others, is on the receiving end of his wrath. Anand has enemies among his staff. After he’s sent away on an errand, he returns to find that Madhumati has disappeared. He learns that she has been taken to Ugra Narain and confronts him, but his men beat him unconscious. While taking Anand's body out of the palace, they come across Madhumati's father, who fights to stop his own daughter's death. Although he comes out on top in the fight, he dies on the road shortly after, while Charandas hides and takes Anand's body to a hospital.
Anand lives but his mind wanders. One day, he meets a woman who looks exactly like Madhumati. She introduces herself as Madhavi but Anand refuses to believe her. He tries to reason with her and is beaten by her companions. Later, Madhavi finds a sketch of Madhumati and realizes Anand was telling the truth. She takes the sketch with her and tries to learn his story. Meanwhile, Anand is haunted by the spirit of Madhumati, who tells him Ugra Narain is responsible for her death. He appeals to Madhavi, who agrees to pose as Madhumati before Ugra Narain and make him confess to her murder.
Anand returns to Ugra Narain's palace and seeks permission to paint a portrait of him the next evening. The day after, at the stroke of eight, Ugra Narain sees Madhavi posing as Madhumati in front of him. Ugra Narain is shaken; he confesses his part in her death and is arrested by police waiting outside the room. Anand realizes that the questions Madhavi posed to Ugra Narain, especially about Madhumati 's burial place, were things she could not have known; even Anand did not know. Madhavi smiles and moves towards the stairs. The real Madhavi, dressed as Madhumati, then rushes into the room. She is late because her car broke down on the way. Anand realizes he saw Madhumati's ghost and not Madhavi. He runs to the terrace, where the ghost beckons to him. Madhumati had fallen from the same terrace, trying to escape Ugra Narain. Anand follows the ghost and falls to his death.
After telling the story of Anand and Madhumati, Devendra receives news that the train on which his wife was traveling has met with an accident. The road is cleared and they rush to the station. Devendra walks through the station fearing the worst but is relieved to see his wife Radha, emerging from the train unharmed. Radha is the reincarnation of Madhumati, and Devendra informs her, based on his recent recollections, that they have been partners through several births.
Cast
Vyjayanthimala as Madhumati/Madhavi/Radha (triple role)
Dilip Kumar as Devendra / Anand
Johnny Walker as Charandas
Pran as Raja Ugra Narain
Jayant as Pawan Raja, Madhumati's father
Ramayan Tiwari as Bir Singh
Tarun Bose as Devendra's colleague
Bhudo Advani as Baba
Jagdish Raj as Police captain
Production
Bengali filmmaker Bimal Roy's 1955 film Devdas was commercially unsuccessful, jeopardising his company Bimal Roy Productions; he needed a commercial success to survive. The story of Madhumati was written by the Bengali filmmaker Ritwik Ghatak. He shared the story with Roy, who immediately liked it and started developing the film with Debu Sen as the assistant director. The dialogues were written by Rajinder Singh Bedi in the Urdu script. Manohari Singh was selected for composing the film's music after Roy heard him playing in Kolkata.
Roy had previously signed Vyjayanthimala and Dilip Kumar for two films. The first, Devdas, based on the eponymous novel, received much critical acclaim and a National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi despite being commercially unsuccessful. Kumar and Vyjayanthimala were selected to play the lead roles in Madhumati. The former was eager to work again with Roy after their previous film Devdas and accepted the role. Vyjayanthimala agreed to work on the film after learning that Pran was a part of the cast.
Unlike another film noir, which was mostly filmed indoors, Roy decided to film Madhumati outdoors and at a hill station. It had a six-week schedule at a location in Ranikhet, Nainital. Some scenes were filmed in Ghorakhal near Nainital. When the negatives were developed, most of the footage was found to be fogged. Since a reshoot in far-away Uttarakhand was not possible, sets were created near Vaitarna Dam, Igatpuri. The art direction team, led by Sudhendu Roy, created fake pine trees, which were planted to match the location in Nainital. A large part of the film was filmed in Aarey Milk Colony, a small forested area in Mumbai. A scene in which Dilip Kumar looks for Vyjayanthimala in the woods was filmed in Igatpuri. The foggy effect was recreated using gas bombs. The costumes of the film were designed by Yadugiri Devi, Vyjayanthimala's grandmother; these were later approved by the art director Sudhendu Roy. Vyjayanthimala wore silver jewelry from her collection in the film. The actress had also hurt her foot while dancing.
Due to Madhumatis extensive outdoor shooting, the film went over budget by 8.1 million, adding to the troubles of Bimal Roy Productions, which organized a film preview and lunch for the distributors. Roy told them about the company's financial problems and that he had decided to forego 70,000 of his director's fee to make up for the loss. All of the distributors pitched in with money and made up for the deficit.
Themes
Film critics and academics have analyzed Madhumati in several ways. In the book The Woman Who Pretended to Be Who She Was: Myths of Self-Imitation, Indologist Wendy Doniger said reviewers of the late 1950s had described the film's theme as "a conventional plot, a typical Hindi [f]ilm [p]otboiler, in which the hero experiences a sense of déjà vu leading to his flashback of a former life". In the book Bollywood Cinema: Temples of Desire, Vijay Mishra states that the film has a "gothic noir" feel. According to Mishra, there is a more direct relationship between rebirth, spirits, and ghosts, which naturalizes the Indian Gothic.
Analysts from the University of Iowa compare the initial meeting of the main characters, stating that it resembles the meeting in Raj Kapoor's film Ram Teri Ganga Maili (1984), where the woman "stands in for nature and unspoiled folk tradition and the villain for exploitative (capitalist) culture, with the hero as an intermediary". They also write, "Anand's own egalitarian progressivism, coupled with his sympathy for Madhumati and her family, soon sets him on a collision course with the Raja, who takes revenge through a malevolent scheme".
According to Jayson Beaster-Jones and Natalie Sarrazin, Madhumati was one of the first Hindi films to use the now-common "narrative of the plain-based hero entering the mountains and being seduced by a tribal girl." Rajadhyaksha said the imagery is similar to that of the film Ajantrik (1957), writing that Madhumati links "the beautiful Madhumati with nature and tribal cultures beyond the grasp of capitalist appropriation". Film critic Bharati Pradhan said Madhumati stepped away from "the standard Roy themes of social realism as seen in his Do Bigha Zameen (1953), Biraj Bahu (1954) and Devdas (1955)".
Music
The Madhumati soundtrack features 11 songs composed by Salil Chowdhury. Shailendra wrote the lyrics and Mukesh, Lata Mangeshkar, Manna Dey, Mohammed Rafi, Mubarak Begum, Asha Bhosle, Sabita Chowdhury, Ghulam Mohammed, and Dwijen Mukhopadhyay provided the vocals. The music was composed before the lyrics were written. Folk music sung in the tea gardens of Assam was used in the soundtrack and Polish folk music was used for the song "Dil Tadap Tadap Ke Keh Raha Hai", which was adapted from the 18th century Silesian song "Szla Dzieweczka do Gajeczka". The song "Aaja Re Pardesi" was adapted from the background score of Jagte Raho (1956). Dinesh Raheja, writing for Rediff.com, said, "The music and the tonal correctness of the performances hold us in thrall".
The soundtrack of Madhumati became the best-selling Hindi film soundtrack of 1958. Salil Chowdhury won his first Filmfare Award for Best Music Director. Suhana Safar Aur Yeh Mausam Haseen is one of the most popular songs by recording artist Mukesh and is regularly played at dandiya functions. Filmfare started giving the best playback singer award in this year and Lata Mangeshkar won this award for the song "Aaja re Pardesi". She thus became the first singer ever to win the Filmfare award for a playback singer since, in the beginning, there was only one award given to a playback singer, male and female singers included.
Release
Madhumati premiered at the Roxy Cinema near Opera House, Mumbai on 12 September 1958; the film was a huge commercial success and helped Bimal Roy Productions recover its losses. It became the first Indian film to be released abroad after its release in the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival Theatre in Czechoslovakia. According to Gowri Ramnarayan of The Hindu, "Dilip Kumar faced the camera, while Soviet actress Tatyana Konjuchova, switched on the camera. Polish actress Barbara Połomska acted as clapper-boy." On 18 April 2010, the film was screened at the South Indian Film Chamber Theatre for the Dignity Film Festival held in Chennai; other films also screened included Kadhalikka Neramillai (1964), Server Sundaram (1964), Anbe Vaa (1966) and Thillana Mohanambal (1968).
Madhumati was the highest-grossing Indian film of 1958. It grossed (), including a net income of . Adjusted for inflation, its gross was equivalent to $million () in 2016.
Critical reception
Writing for Rediff.com, Dinesh Raheja noted how Madhumati "beguile[s] the senses" while describing it as "the grandmother of such famous reincarnation films Milan (1967), Mehbooba (1976), Karz (1980), Kudrat (1981), Janam Janam (1988), Karan Arjun (1995)" and Om Shanti Om (2007)" . Writing for Filmfare, Meghna Gulzar calls Madhumati "poetry in black-and-white" and praises Roy, writing "the songs and their picturization – Bimal Da's mastery exudes in every frame". She described the song Aaja Re Pardesi as "mysterious and melancholic". According to Philip Lutgendorf of The University of Iowa, the film sustains its suspense even with the flashback-within-the-flashback frame story, has socio-realistic themes, and is similar to the Alfred Hitchcock films Rebecca (1940) and Vertigo (1958). Lutgendorf praised the performances of Kumar and Vyjayanthimala, and said, "Kumar gives an appropriately haunted performance as the two incarnations of Devendra / Anand, and Vyjayanthimala is alternately earthy and ethereal in the various permutations of the title character".
Vijay Lokapally from The Hindu praises Chowdhury's music, calling it the "soul of the movie" and "enchanting and timeless". Writing for Upperstall.com, Karan Bali commended Roy's ability to "recreate just the right mood and ambiance", especially praising few scenes as "luscious romantic interludes outdoors or the swinging chandeliers", "dark shadows within the haveli" and "several documentary like establishing shots". Bali's view is shared by Manisha Lakhe of Daily News and Analysis, who wrote, "Bimal Roy's masterstrokes are evident when you watch the long shadows of trees falling on that stone with fascination".
Accolades
Madhumati led the 6th Filmfare Awards with 12 nominations and won 9 awards, a record it held for 37 years. Since its release, it had multiple screenings at the Tenth Bite – The Mango Film Festival (2004), the 4th Pune International Film Festival (2006) and the Toronto International Film Festival (2011).
The film got music director Salil Choudhary and playback singer Lata Mangeshkar, their career-first Filmfare awards respectively. Before this there was no Filmfare award for female playback singers.
Madhumati was selected as India's official submission for Best Foreign Language Film at the 31st Academy Awards, but it was not nominated.
Legacy
Madhumati became a source of inspiration for many later works dealing with reincarnation in Indian cinema, Indian television, and perhaps world cinema. According to Javed Akhtar, Madhumati is one among the top three or four romantic films ever made in Hindi cinema. He was quoted by Akshay Manwani of Daily News and Analysis as saying, "Even after Bimal Roy's death, Madhumati'''s success provided for his family. The earning from this film continue[s] even today. It is a terrific film." According to Vyjayanthimala, who played the film's titular character, Madhumati was one of the "most memorable films" of her career.
Wendy Doniger believes that Madhumati may have inspired the American film The Reincarnation of Peter Proud (1975), which in turn was remade into the Hindi film Karz (1980); both of them dealt with reincarnation and have been influential in their respective cultures. Karan Bali notes that the famous "crossing of paths" in Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (1995), where Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol cross each other's paths without noticing the other until the end of the sequence, is present in Madhumati, which was produced 37 years earlier. Parts of the Hindi film Om Shanti Om (2007) including the whole climax sequence were heavily inspired from Madhumati, which led to Bimal Roy's daughter Rinki Bhattacharya accusing the latter film's producers of plagiarism and threatening them with legal action.
In celebration of the 50th anniversary of the film, the Bimal Roy Foundation, headed by Roy's daughter Rinki Bhattacharya, hosted a screening of Madhumati at the Globus Cinema in Mumbai on 11 April 2008. The occasion saw the reunion of the film's cast, including Vyjayanthimala. Subsequently, Bhattacharya published a book about the making of the film, titled Bimal Roy's Madhumati: Untold Stories from Behind the Scenes''.
References
Further reading
External links
1950s Hindi-language films
1950s romantic musical films
1958 films
Best Hindi Feature Film National Film Award winners
Films about reincarnation
Films directed by Bimal Roy
Films scored by Salil Chowdhury
Films set in country houses
Films shot in Maharashtra
Films shot in Uttarakhand
Indian black-and-white films
Indian epic films
Indian mystery films
Indian romantic musical films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Berserk%20characters
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List of Berserk characters
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The Berserk manga and anime series features a cast of characters created by Kentaro Miura. The series takes place in a dark fantasy setting loosely based on medieval Europe. Berserk centers on the life of Guts, a lone mercenary warrior, and Griffith, the leader of a mercenary band called the who made a pact with demons and is reborn as one himself.
Principal characters
Guts
is a mercenary who travels from company to company so he is always fighting. After meeting Griffith, Guts is defeated in battle by Griffith and is forced to join the Band of the Hawk. Guts has also appeared in every Berserk video game. Guts is a Byronic hero who is born as one who may be able to struggle against causality, but who is unable to maintain it indefinitely. His childhood and adolescence is defined by his growing up in a mercenary band after being adopted by a motherly prostitute named Shisu and later the band's leader Gambino, and his later joining of, and departure from, the Band of the Hawk.
The dynamic and turbulent relationship between Guts and Griffith, the leader of the Band of the Hawk, forms the primary focus of the manga for the first thirteen volumes. After the events of the Eclipse, during which he loses his left forearm and right eye, Guts seeks revenge on Griffith, who is now Femto. In the process, he is reunited with Casca after a separation of two years. Following the Incarnation Ceremony at Albion, Guts travels with a new group of companions.
Guts can be seen as the exact opposite of Griffith in just about every way. In appearance, he is a tall, muscular warrior with short black hair, a body full of scars and wields a monstrous weapon while dressed in cursed armor, whereas the latter is of average height, thin, has long white hair, no physical scars and wields a delicate sabre. Guts wears tattered black clothing and, though incredibly skilled, fights like a barbarian; winning by any means necessary. Griffith wears white armor and has a much more refined style resembling fencing. In addition they usually have the exact opposite effect on everyone they meet. Most people are naturally drawn to Griffith upon first meeting him and would die for him without hesitation whereas Guts is usually feared and detested by just about everyone he comes across until they get to know him, after which he will usually end up being revered as a hero by those same people. This extends to their morals and actions as well. Guts maintains the image of a callous warrior who manages to protect the people around him while Griffith puts up a somewhat idealistic facade but is also willing to sacrifice anybody without exception to further his ultimate goal. And while Guts unhesitatingly chooses to battle his way through enemies, Griffith refrains from excessive participation in combat, preferring to manipulate anyone in his way.
Griffith
is originally the founding leader of the mercenary unit known as the Band of the Hawk, both the group and his title "White Hawk" named for his helmet forged in the shape of a Hawk's head. Extraordinarily charismatic, intelligent, handsome, and ambitious, Griffith's skill with his sabre and tactics gave him and his band a reputation of invincibility, making him the favored choice of the Midland King, who was locked in a century long war with the Empire of Tudor. Believing that he is destined for greater things, Griffith is willing to sacrifice everything for the dream of his own kingdom and only values others who are of use to him. The source of his ambition is a Crimson Behelit given to him by a fortune teller who claims it to be an "Egg of the King" that would lead an average person to become a great ruler.
The only two people Griffith truly trusted were Guts and Casca, who were his confidants in private moments. There are several hints in the series that Griffith has feelings for Guts, expressing an obsessive want for the swordsman's strength as he bested him in a duel to force his servitude. When the Hundred Year War ended, Griffith learned of Guts's intention to leave the Band of the Hawk and resolves to kill his friend if he cannot keep him by his side. But Guts instantly defeats Griffith in their second duel by breaking his sabre, leaving Griffith in disbelief with his morale crushed. Later that night, Griffith coldly seduces Princess Charlotte and is later discovered, leading to his imprisonment and torture by the Midland King who labels his group wanted criminals. A year later, now a broken and hateful shell of his former self, Griffith is rescued by Casca, Guts, Judeau, and Pippin. After Wyald's attack and the further realization of his current state from a year of crippling torture, Griffith triggered the Crimson Behelit in an act of desperation. Griffith and the Hawks are drawn into an Interstice known as the Nexus where the God Hand offer him a position among them if he sacrifices his followers to the apostles that have gathered for the Eclipse. With Ubik's powers convincing him that a few more deaths will not matter as long as he fulfills his dream, Griffith agrees to the God Hand's terms and transcends into an incorporeal demon in dark hawk armor with cape-like wings. Rechristened , no longer bound by human ties and seeing the destiny laid before him by the Idea of Evil, Griffith rapes Casca as an act of malevolence towards Guts. Two years later, Griffith is brought back to the physical plane after The Egg of the Perfect World orchestrated the millennial Incarnation Ceremony at Albion, using the body of Casca's malformed child as a vessel with Griffith's mind subverted during the night of a full moon. Griffith creates a new Band of the Hawk composed of Apostles and humans that are drawn to him as the original Hawks were, making himself the sole military leader of Midland's armies. Griffith also wins the loyalty of the Holy See, with its pontiff regarding him as the Hawk of Light incarnate and willing to oversee his marriage to Charlotte. After leading the defeat of the Kushan Empire, using Ganishka's death to establish a worldwide interstice, Griffith establishes the city of Falconia as both a haven for remaining humans and as capital of a new Midland Empire. Despite Falconia's utopian appearance, it has a strong totalitarian undercurrents from Griffith establishing himself as the unquestionable ruler of Midland with any detractors either executed by the Holy See on heresy charges or being secretly murdered by Rakshas.
As Femto, Griffith is capable of flight via his wings and, like other members of the God Hand, can perceive the flow of causality, and manipulate matter and distort space.
Casca
was the only female member in the original Band of the Hawk and is behind only Griffith and Guts in swordsmanship. Her ambivalent relationship to both of them makes her moody and capricious. Casca joins the Hawks after Griffith empowers her to save herself from a sexual assault by a nobleman who bought her from her parents, and since that time harbors feelings towards Griffith which most of their comrades are aware of. While Casca was against Guts joining the Hawks, her hostility towards him gradually waned as she came to accept him as a comrade for saving her life multiple times while developing feelings for him. When Guts is preparing to leave the band, Casca attempts to convince him to stay, but to no avail. After Griffith is imprisoned, Casca becomes the leader of the Band of the Hawk, as they are forced to go into hiding, having been branded as outlaws by Midland. After Guts returns to aid them when they are under attack, Casca falsely blames Guts for Griffith's capture and then laments her perceived failures as a leader before attempting suicide. Guts saves her yet again and the two finally consummate their mutual feelings for one another, embarking on a rescue mission to recover Griffith the following day.
The rescue of Griffith is successful, but his broken spirit leads him to sacrifice the Hawks during the Eclipse. Casca is forced to watch their comrades being slaughtered before being violated by Griffith after his rebirth as Femto. The ordeal emotionally scarred Casca; her mind broke and mentally regressed to a childlike state while losing all her memories as a self-defense measure from the trauma. In addition to being branded with a sacrificial mark on her breast and thus becoming a target for fell creatures on a nightly basis, Casca prematurely gives birth to her child with Guts after it has been corrupted from Griffith's rape. Casca was entrusted to Godo's care. But Casca wandered off to St. Albion two years later, saved from Holy See fanatics by Guts as he attempts to protect her on his own despite the more dangerous spirits attracted by their brands in close proximity. Guts's attempt to protect Casca ultimately resulted in losing her trust when he attacked her while under the influence of his inner darkness. As Casca travels, completely oblivious to her surroundings, Guts and company keep a close watch over her. She has put herself in grave danger many times but Guts' group has yet to fail to come to her rescue and protect her. She seems to slowly be warming up to Guts again even coming to his side when he is unconscious to watch him. Casca's well-being is the driving force for Guts to keep himself from reverting to a revenge-obsessed wanderer. While outside Vritanis, the Skull Knight revealed that her mental state may be cured by the Elvish queen Hanafuku while cryptically warning Guts that "What [Casca] wishes for may not be what [Guts] wish[es] for". When Farnese and Schierke enter the world within Casca's mind as part of Hanafuku's ritual once they reach Elfhelm, the two realize that Casca did not want her mind restored as it would mean dealing with the pain from her ordeal in the Eclipse. But the two restore Casca anyway, with Farnese promising to help her cope with her pain. But Casca, still reluctant to be near Guts due to her traumatic ordeal, is abducted by Griffith.
The Band of the Hawk
The original Band of the Hawk during the Golden Age arc was a group of mercenaries led by Griffith, who achieved great exploits on the battlefield during the hundred-year war. But after Griffith was rescued by his imprisonment, broken and mutilated from the year-long torture, the Hawks were offered up by their leader for the Eclipse ritual. Guts, Casca, and Rickert, the only members of the group not to be taken into the Nexus, are the sole survivors while the rest were all devoured and slaughtered by the gathered Apostles while Griffith used their souls to be reborn as Femto.
Judeau
was part of the original Band of the Hawk and was a former circus performer with a skill in knife-throwing. He was one of Griffith's best fighters, but perhaps his greatest strength came from his ability to read the emotions of others, as shown when he was the first to notice the growing bond between Guts and Casca, before either of them realized it themselves. Patient, calm, and practical, Judeau was often the voice of reason when dealing with more volatile individuals like Corkus. With his easygoing and optimistic personality, he often put the interests of his companions in the band before his own, and showed himself to be at ease with understanding matters of the heart and surmising the true intentions of those around him. Judeau himself admitted that he was pretty good at a lot of things but was not a stand-out in any of them. Throughout his tenure with the Band of the Hawk, he was also secretly in love with Casca, but never acted on it out of respect for Guts' and Casca's feelings for each other. During the Eclipse, still seeing her as their leader, Judeau attempted to help Casca escape and is killed while trying to protect her from the Apostles.
Pippin
was a massive man who wielded an equally massive mace. A former miner who lent his strength to the Band of the Hawk, his finely attuned senses, fast reactions and raw strength saved the skins of the group on many occasions, particularly when he was the first to sense the impending ambush from the Army of Midland following Griffith's capture. In spite of his intimidating physique, he had an even-tempered demeanor, shown when he kept his cool dragging a defiant Guts to the festivities, even after the latter hit him and made him bleed. Pippin was a man of few words, which, along with his appearance, might have led others to wrongly doubt his intelligence. He was often found with Rickert, with whom he seemed to share a big-brotherly relationship. During the Eclipse, he held off an Apostle to buy time for Casca and Judeau to escape. Pippin's hollowed out, lifeless corpse was seen by Guts one last time before the Count ripped the husk in half.
Corkus
was a loud-mouthed man with delusions of grandeur, and a former bandit leader before he joined the Band of the Hawk. He was the one who first tried to assault Guts in order to rob him of the money earned defeating Bazuso, but failed miserably, forcing Casca, and eventually Griffith, to intervene. Since then, Corkus held a grudge against Guts and never fully accepted him as a Hawk. Surprisingly, when Casca and Rickert blamed Guts for Griffith's capture, Corkus refused to agree with them due to his belief that they overestimated Guts' importance to the Band. Despite his outspoken attitude, he was one of the most loyal members in the Band of the Hawk. During the Eclipse, while fleeing for his life amidst the slaughter, Corkus went into denial from shock at his hellish surroundings, before being killed by a nameless female apostle who swallowed his head. Guts would later avenge Corkus when he crossed paths with the apostle at the start of the Black Swordsman arc, pretending to have fallen into her sexual trap.
Rickert
was the youngest member of the original Band of the Hawk and is one of its few surviving members, as he was not present at Griffith's rescue and the Eclipse event that followed. In the aftermath, left in the dark as to what truly happened, Rickert became an apprentice of the blacksmith Godo over the next two years while forging a sword in memory of his fallen comrades to serve as grave markers on a hill that is later called "The Hill of Swords". It is Rickert who tweaks Guts' armor and replaces his old crossbow with a repeating crossbow. When Guts confronts Griffith at the Hill of Swords, Rickert finally learns how the latter's act condemned Judeau, Pippin, and Corkus to horrible deaths while leaving Guts maimed and Casca mute and traumatized. In spite of this, Griffith offers Rickert a position in the new Band of the Hawk. After the death of Godo and the destruction of his mine by Zodd, Rickert travels with Godo's adopted granddaughter Erica to Falconia. There, despite recognizing Griffith's generosity and seeing the good he has been doing for the people, Rickert is unable to forgive him and declines his offer to join the New Band of the Hawk, telling him that the Griffith he once followed is dead. He is then attacked by Rakshas on the orders of either Griffith or Locus, though he is saved by the timely arrival of Silat and his bodyguards. In the anime, possibly due to English errors, Rickert's name is given as "Ricket", lacking the "R", and is addressed as such in the show.
Gaston
was the second in command of Gut's raiders in the Band of the Hawk. He was usually seen by the side of Guts whom he showed deep respect for, both as a commanding officer and friend. During the battle for a Tudor stronghold, Gaston attempted to hold back Guts due to the immense power of Zodd, resulting in Guts threatening to kill Gaston. Despite this, Gaston was the first to aid Guts after his defeat by Zodd. Gaston would eventually leave the Band of the Hawk soon after the battle for Doldrey to pursue his dream of opening a clothing shop in Wyndham using the earnings he saved up as a mercenary. He would later abandon his store to rejoin the band when word got around of their exile, revealing to Guts that it was his obligation to return as the raiders were family to him. Just before the Eclipse, he and the other raiders requested to join Guts in his travels across the land now that the band is not in a state to continue as it once was. During the Eclipse he is the last member of the band to die having been found by Guts in a severely injured state before a demon bursts from within his skull, killing him instantly. In the film trilogy, his demise is instead shown off-screen with a traumatized Guts finding what remains of his corpse.
Guts' Party
Puck
is a Wind spirit from Elfhelm, a utopia on Skellig Island in the Western Sea. Elves in Berserk can only be seen by the open-minded; the devoutly religious cannot see Puck at all, though he can play with their face unbeknownst to them. Puck can secrete a powder from his wings to quickly heal wounds and can emit a bright flash to blind enemies. On occasion, he also resorts to his "Bloody Needle" attack, tossing a chestnut at someone. It deals no injury, but is painful enough to prompt most victims to cry out. Puck was the first to join Guts' journey, and is starting to show a strange attachment to the Behelit Guts took upon his battle with the Count.
Puck initially served as a good-natured foil to Guts during his early Black Swordsman days, but has since then been relegated to comic relief. He is often drawn in an exaggerated manner alongside Isidro in these situations, and has also developed a playful brother-sister relationship with the female elf Ivalera, who is the newest comic relief character.
Farnese de Vandimion
, Erica Lindbeck (English, 2016 anime)
is a noblewoman who led the Holy See's ceremonial guard, the Holy Iron Chain Knights. Since this position has been traditionally held by a woman, Farnese was appointed during her stay at the convent she was sent to by her father, Federico de Vandimion. A bit of a pyromaniac (and possibly a pyrophiliac), Farnese's habit of impulsively burning things she did not like, along with her unstable mentality from her poor upbringing, provoked her to hunt down and burn supposed witches and pagans at the stake. This brought about a secret sadistic pleasure that she constantly tried to deny. She and Serpico left their Holy See positions after her faith was shattered during the devastation of Albion and the events surrounding Griffith's reincarnation. She then chose to follow Guts in hopes of learning more about the world and has changed into a more gentle human being. Since then, Farnese has begun to study witchcraft under Schierke's tutelage. Farnese also seems to have developed a crush on Guts, though she is primarily Casca's care taker and thus rarely involves herself in battles. While given a chainmail of silver and a silver short sword for protection against creatures from the astral plane, Farnese later receives a ring that allows her to manipulate a trio of snake-like rose vines and being taught by Schierke to use magic.
Serpico
, Max Mittelman (English, 2016 anime)
is Farnese's companion and unbeknownst to her, her paternal half-brother. During his time with the Holy See, Serpico was Herald for the Holy Iron Chain Knights. When aggressive, Serpico belies his meek appearance and is comparable to a fox due to his shrewd observation and speed with a rapier. Despite Farnese's childhood abuse and her forcing him to burn his own mother at the stake, he cares deeply for his half-sister. Serpico was her servant since she found him beaten on a snowy street over a decade ago. Serpico's relationship with Guts has forever been plagued with animosity, due in large part to the dangers that inevitably surround Guts and anyone he takes into his Band. After a duel with Guts in the underground pillars of Vritannis, Guts spared his life. Their bond rekindled, and Serpico has since learned to trust Guts to protect her when he can not. Serpico uses two items blessed by the wind spirit Sylph in order to battle with tolerance alongside Guts: a rapier that can generate razor sharp gusts of wind; and a cloak that constantly generates a swirling vortex around its wearer which can deflect projectiles, assist in jumping, and slow falls from great heights.
Isidro
, Erik Scott Kimerer (English, 2016 anime)
A young runaway and petty thief, left home and family behind in order to become a swordsman. After Guts saves him from an attack of Kushan Bakirakas, he follows him around "to spy out his technique".
Although Isidro greatly lacks in swordsman skills, he is an exceptional thrower, managing to kill two pigeons with a double-handed throw at great distance. It is suggested that he has underlying issues regarding his parents, when they are inquired about he becomes more stiff, defensive, and belligerent; or avoids the topic completely. What these issues are, have yet to be revealed. He later receives from Flora the Salamander Dagger, a weapon blessed by the spirits of fire which sears whatever it cuts and also receives an inherited cutlass from an old villager as a gift. He often bickers with Schierke who finds him reckless and ill-mannered.
Schierke
, Mela Lee (English, 2016 anime)
(Pronounced as Shear-keh) is a good-hearted young witch-in-training, and a disciple of the witch Flora. She is accompanied by an elf, Ivalera. She aided Guts's group with a troll infestation in the nearby village Enoch, where she showed how powerful magic can be in Berserk. After a series of events, Schierke was forced to leave her home and Flora behind forever when they faced an attack Griffith ordered. Schierke, having lived a sheltered life, does not like the Human world or the Holy See's religion, but she finds life outside bearable due to her companions. Her magic skills and knowledge of the world are impressive for a child her age. One of her most used and handiest spells is the ability to hypnotize or temporarily desensitize others. But due to her pivotal role in battles, she is sometimes forced to take risks and try unstable spells. Her ability to sense "Od" (life force or spirit energy) means she can sense the power, intent, and alignment of all creatures and artifacts.
As she sees Isidro as an incompetent monkey, there is some friction between the two, which frequently lends itself to comic situations. Though she initially could not stand Guts, Schierke has developed a slight infatuation with him and both now share a sort of ersatz father-daughter relationship. When Sonia gave her an offer to join the Band of the Hawk, Schierke thought of Guts before declining. Schierke also has the ability to astral project and uses it to help Guts maintain his sanity while using the power of the Berserker Armor, the initial use moving her to tears from seeing a bit of the horror Guts suffered during the Eclipse.
Ivalera
, Tara Sands (English, 2016 anime)
is an elf who was tasked by Flora to oversee Schierke. She often provides critical information about Schierke's state to the other members of Guts' party while the former is in a spell trance. Like Puck she has been relegated to a comic relief character, often teasing Farnese about her low self-esteem and poking fun at Schierke regarding her infatuation with Guts. She bickers frequently with Puck whom she shares an odd brother-sister relationship with.
Manifico de Vandimion
is the son of Federico and the brother of Farnese. Federico considers his other sons to be more competent than Manifico, and he has given Manifico the less important family duties as a result. Manifico arranged a marriage between Farnese and his friend Roderick in the hope of improving his standing. When Guts left for Elfhelm, Manifico accompanied him on board Roderick's ship with the intent to capture and breed the elves for commercial purposes. Manifico persuaded Puck to help him by offering him the crown of Elfhelm after Roderick refused to help him, his scheme later exposed and forced to do community service in Elfhelm.
Azan
is a former member of the Holy Iron Chain Knights who served as Farnese's second-in-command. He was named to this position because Farnese was not considered to be sufficiently experienced to lead without supervision. Azan appeared as a round, bald and bearded middle-aged man who conformed to the old-fashioned rules of a knight. Although possessing a hardened demeanor, he still managed to question the Holy See's appalling methods of dealing with supposed heretics. Effectively wielding a metal quarterstaff, he has shown great skill with it in combat against Guts and various other abnormally skilled or strong fighters. He also follows an uncompromising code of "honor", as seen when his fellow Holy Iron Chain Knights wanted to take revenge on an incapacitated Guts for killing their comrades, where Azan forbids them, stating that he was justified in the context of battle and their poor sword-fighting skills were instead a disgrace.
Guts reveals upon their first encounter some information of Azan's former life. He earned his nickname 'The Bridge Knight' (as well as the decidedly less-savory 'Iron Staff Demon Azan') after he came across an old man defending a small bridge, harassed by bandits. He fought the bandits for hours, laughing all the while, only stopping once they retreated. This feat earned him a reputation comparable to that which Guts earned by slaying one hundred of Adon's mercenaries, but Azan had given up that title, along with his formal knighthood, when he joined the Holy Iron Chain Knights.
At Albion, Azan fought alongside the surviving knights to try and hold off the hordes of crazed cultists and flesh-consuming blobs, and survived only because falling debris from the crumbling tower knocked him unconscious and buried him. He ended up going his own separate ways from then on, but later re-emerged in Vritanis where it was brought up that he was expelled from his Order (and possibly excommunicated) because of the disastrous events that took place at Albion. Presently, he accompanies Guts and company on their sea voyage, earning his spot on board by swabbing the deck, and taking some time off to train young Isidro in the ways of combat.
Roderick of Schtauffen
is the third prince of the island nation Iith, and captain of the Sea Horse. He is in a similar situation to his college friend Manifico de Vandimion in the sense that he does not get the respect he feels he deserves from his peers. As a sailor, he sees vast potential in the exploration of the seas, unlike his peers, who focus internally to the point of stagnation. As part of Manifico's plan to join the Vandimion name with the royal Iith family, Roderick agreed to be Farnese's fiancé. His obvious motivations for this arranged marriage are the vast opportunities and support the Vandimion name could bring him, but he seems to take a personal interest in the heiress as well due to her reputation. Roderick, with his long black ponytail, his good looks, and free-flowing attitude, is a superb charmer and a decent blade, and demonstrates a willingness to brave demons, even though he is ill-equipped to take them on. He is currently ferrying Guts and company aboard his ship, on their way to Skellig.
Roderick and the crew of the Sea Horse also have a claim to fame on the high seas as their ship sank five Tudor vessels on its own, thus earning Roderick the title of "Prince of the Seas".
Isma
Isma a teenage girl living a solitary existence as a fisherman on a small and remote island. Although she is kind, cheerful, and energetic, she was a pariah on her island home. Her father was a human fisherman who fell in love with a merrow woman who returned to the sea just after Isma's birth, though she left a magical charm on the house to protect her daughter. Though Isma's father raised her by himself before he died when his boat capsized during a storm on sea, Isma was ostracized by the people who feared her status as the child of a merrow would invoke the Sea God's wrath. But this made Isma, who appeared human, curious of her maternal heritage and if merrows do exist. Because of this, protected from the Sea God by her mother's magic, Isma was glad to have confirmation when she meets Guts's group when they came to the island. When Isma attempts to help Guts and his group against the Sea God as it begins attacking the remaining humans on the Island, Isma learns her true name and gains the ability to assume merrow form while reunited with her mother. Once the Sea God is killed, her home destroyed In the process, Isma joins Guts's group aboard the Seahorse on their voyage to Elfhelm.
Antagonists
The God Hand
A group of powerful entities who manipulate the world of Berserk, messengers of the Idea of Evil (an ancient being spawned from humanity's collective desire for a great evil on which they can blame their misfortune) who appear before those who activated a Behelit. Like the Apostles, all members of the were once humans who were chosen by the Idea of Evil through Crimson Behelits to serve its purpose of giving a reason for humanity's suffering. In a two hundred and sixteen-year cycle, a ritual known as the Eclipse occurs with a new member recruited, as was the case with Griffith, with a mass sacrificial offering. Unlike the Apostles who serve them, the members of the God Hand can not take a true corporeal form in the mortal plane and are forced to use rudimentary bodies for brief moments. But this can be remedied through an Incarnation Ceremony that occurs once in a millennium with the one who invoked it offering his body as a permanent vessel for a God Hand member to manifest, after offering a large amount of lives. When Griffith is successfully reconstituted in the aftermath of Albion's destruction, the rest of the God Hand were scattered across the Astral Plane. In chapter 306, the rest of the God Hand incarnate in the aftermath of Griffith using Ganishka's defeat to remove the barriers between the mortal and astral planes.
Void
is the leader of the God Hand with a large, exposed brain, eyes stitched shut and lips peeled back. He is the most philosophical God Hand member and is primarily concerned with analyzing and controlling the course of destiny. Void is the one who brands the sacrifices made by tortured souls in order for them to become apostles and achieve their dream. His cloak and body seem to be distorted and he has the power to open up a sort of interdimensional mirror portal at his own will. Also notable, he has six fingers on each hand. Being the oldest of the God Hand, Void has a history with the Skull Knight tied to the legend of how the first Midland empire ended. Though it is yet to be revealed who Void and the Skull Knight were at the time, the legends said that a holy man who was imprisoned in the Tower of Conviction prayed to god to send his angels to punish Gaiseric.
Slan
The sole female member of the God Hand, , also called Whore Princess of the Uterine Sea by Skull Knight, takes on the form of a naked woman with black leathery wings and vine-like hair. She is a sadomasochist who thrives on cruelty and the effect it has on those who observe it. Like the other God Hand, she manipulates humanity through a pagan cult under the moniker "The Goddess of Blazes". She appears to have a fascination with Guts since Griffith's induction, her interest in him growing since his victory over the Count and upon the two meeting, revealed her desire to make him her sex slave. After the Incarnation Ritual to give Griffith physical form ran its course, Slan is separated from the other senior God Hand and acts on her own by manifesting the Qliphoth in a forest and creating a temporary body from troll guts to lure Guts to her so, knowing he could not join the God Hand, she can tempt him to use the behelit he stole from the Count. But the Skull Knight's interference allows Guts to defeat Slan with his Dragonslayer, though she enjoyed the pain and gave Guts a kiss before taking her leave.
Ubik
The God Hand has the form of a small floating demon wearing glasses and having tentacle-like legs. Always with an evil grin, Ubik appears to be a deceiver; he is able to persuade potential Apostles to fulfill the ritual of sacrifice by conjuring either images of their past or, in Griffith's case, a reflection of their subconscious. While not an outright liar, Ubik twists the truth to place his target in a despondent state of him while convincing them that they have no choice but to make the sacrifice.
Conrad
is concerned with inevitability and doom and appears as a puckered human face with the body of a massive wood louse. He summoned the mound that lifted Griffith skyward, above the rest of the Hawks. Compared to the rest of the God Hand, Conrad is a stoic individual whose only desire is to spread pestilence to the mortal world, having partially manifesting in diseased rats to orchestrate a Black Plague to force the survivors to flee to St. Albion to be offered for the Incarnation Ritual.
The New Band of the Hawk
After returning to the physical plane, Griffith establishes a new Band of the Hawks using both humans and apostles.
Zodd
(sometimes known as Zodd the Immortal) is a bloodthirsty apostle who has lived for three centuries slaughtering his way through countless battles in search of worthy opponents. He has the ability to transform from his bestial human form into a Baphomet-like beast with the face and tail of a tiger along with a pair of bat-like wings that he can retract and grow at will. Zodd first encountered and defeated Guts and Griffith during a castle raid, ultimately deciding to spare them upon realizing Griffith's Crimson Behelit and what fate was in store for the Band of the Hawk. He has also had a long-standing rivalry with the Skull Knight, along with Guts as he increasingly became a more capable opponent - this went to the extent of throwing his sword to Guts when Guts' own was destroyed in a duel with General Boscogn of Tudor's Purple Rhino Knights. Zodd was further impressed by Guts when, while serving to guard the way to the Nexus from the Skull Knight, he found the swordsman survived the Eclipse and learns of Guts's exploits. Years later, prior to the Incarnation Ritual in St. Albion, Zodd is defeated within a dream by Griffith which cost him his left horn. Zodd eventually arrives to what remained of Albion to spirit the reconstituted Griffith, becoming his right-hand man and first member of his new Band of the Hawk.
Grunbeld
(Sword of the Berserk), Kiyoyuki Yanada (2016 anime)
Grunbeld Ahlkvist, known in Japan as , is a giant red-haired apostle of exceeding strength in dragon-like scale plate armor and armed with a warhammer and a shield containing a hidden cannon. As a member of the reformed Band of the Hawk, his physical built and brute strength make him a replacement of Pippin in retrospect. As revealed in the spin-off novel , Grunbeld was born on the northern island nation of Grant where he befriended princess Benedikte, who saw him an incarnation of a dragon from their folklore. Grunbeld and other children captured by Tudor forces to be raised under their doctrine alongside his new friends Edvard and Sigur, Grunbeld refusing to submit despite embracing Tudor's philosophies as he and the surviving children were freed and enlist in Grant's military. Years later, Grunbeld leads his Flame Dragon Knights to drive off the Tudor invaders before being betrayed by Edvard as he and his father count Haakon are working with the Tudor general Abecassis, arriving too late to find Benedikte and Sigur barely alive and his surviving forces defecting to Tudor. Grunbeld held his ground against three thousand Tudor soldiers before his beherit reacts to his despair-driven desire to forget his grief. Grunbeld accepts the Godhand's offer to reborn an Apostle to destroy his enemies and continue fighting, having Benedikte and Sigur's consent to be his sacrificial offerings with the former telling Grunbeld to find Griffith. Grunbeld then destroyed all of Tudor's remaining strongholds on Grant, becoming a legendary figure in the Hundred Year War with his story lost to history.
Despite being an Apostle, Grunbeld retains his code of honor as he considering Flora's death demeaning despite Grunbeld expressed an interest in fighting Guts when Flora's manor was set inflamed. A disappointed Grunbeld easily defeated Guts, who had yet to recover from his ordeal with Slan at the time, but is then forced to assume his Apostle form after Guts became possessed by the Berserker Armor. In this form, Grunbeld is a quadruped dragon whose outer shell is composed of stylized corundum crystal formations harder than steel and is able to exhale flames from his mouth. Grunbeld is ultimately held back from pursuing Guts and his group by Flora's spirit possessing the flames, returning to Griffith's side to aid in defeating the Kushan army.
Locus
Voiced by: Shougo Nakamura (Japanese, 2016 anime)
, known as the Moonlight Knight, is another of Griffith's new generals in the Hawks. He is undefeated in jousting and was too proud to serve anyone until he swore loyalty to Griffith, who was the object of a vision he experienced. In addition to being an apostle, he also leads the Band of the Hawk's demon lancer division. Along with Irvine, however, he seems to retain the most humanity among the Apostle Army. His Apostle form merges him with his horse to form a metallic centaur, and his lance is transformed into a very long double-ended spear.
Honorable and daring in battle, he could be something of a reversed counterpart to Corkus, as it can also be suggested by the inversion of the first syllabe in their names (with "l" and "r" being the same in Japanese).
Irvine
Voiced by:
is a prominent archer in the new Band of the Hawks. He has spoken with few people aside from Sonia. His eyes have neither pupils nor irises. His monstrously shaped bow has a demonic eye in the middle of its handguard. As a self-described hunter and loner, he prefers to camp out in the woods whilst immersing himself in his only known pleasure: playing the lute by the campfire. Irvine's precision with the bow is peerless. He is able to fire off several arrows simultaneously with unerring accuracy. The bow itself seems to funnel quite a bit of power into its arrows: foes hit at the neck are usually decapitated. In his Apostle form his legs are replaced by a large wolf creature with horns and the same demonic eye as his bow and his body is now covered in fur and his face looks similar to that of a werewolf. In this new form he is able to remove and twist his tail hairs into arrows and his horns can be used as a crossbow with string made from the horns. Once these arrows from his tail pierce the target they suddenly grow unusually large spikes with the shape of a root that perforate the target's body completely. He shares a bond with Sonia, who has taken to riding him as a mount during the final battle with Ganishka.
With his calm demeanor and affinity for ranged weapons, he could be considered the counterpart of Judeau.
Rakshas
Voiced by: Masashi Nogawa (Japanese, 2016 anime)
is a devious leader within the new Band of the Hawk, with a history as an exiled member of the Kushan Empire's Bākiraka Clan. Being amorphous, his entire body appearing to shrouded in a black cloak with nearly featureless face concealed by a white mask with three illustrated eyes, Rakshas uses his skills as an assassin to blend into the shadows and produce string-like extensions to stab his enemies. Although he was the one who exposed Silat to Ganishka's horrific process for breeding demon soldiers, his motivations were less than benevolent. He has also admitted that he only joined Griffith's cause in the interest of making sure no one other than himself would kill him. Rakshas later makes an attempt on Rickert's life in Falconia and ends up facing Silat when he comes to youth's aid, replacing his mask after it was damaged with his near-featureless face having only three eyes and a slight nose protrusion. In his Apostle form, he becomes larger and more monstrous, his tentacles gaining more dexterity, but otherwise looks similar to his 'human' self. Rakshas's only weakness is that he can harmed by fire, Rickert using that to his advantage as he, Silat, and their group flee Falconia.
Sonia
Voiced by: Yoshino Nanjō (Japanese, 2016 anime)
is part of Griffith's reformed Band of the Hawk and is very devout in her admiration of him. Her parents were killed when the Kushans came to her village. She was held prisoner by them until Griffith, with his apostles, rescued her and others in an assault against the invading Kushans forces. Sonia, despite being surrounded in a surreal and sometimes horrific world, remains abnormally laid-back, showing no signs of fear for her life. As a matter of fact, she is amazed and cheerful about the situation in the Hawks. She has the power of clairvoyance, which is amplified when she is near Griffith, with whom she has a childish infatuation and, because of this, is very jealous of Charlotte for being betrothed to Griffith. Sonia uses her ability to sense people's emotions and see visions of the future to aid in the new Band of the Hawk's campaigns. She befriended Schierke when they met in Vritanis and foresees they'll meet again: referring to Schierke as an owl and herself a kite playing in a moonlight forest. She also formed a connection with the distant Irvine.
Recently, when the human followers of Griffith refused to join Griffith's apostles in battle, Sonia charged heedlessly into battle and was saved only by the timely intervention of Irvine. Her bold deed rallied the others, and she now rides Irvine as a mount. After the establishment of Falconia, Griffith places Sonia in the church hierarchy as the new Pope.
Sonia could be seen as a counterpart to Casca: both have been rescued by Griffith, and both have had crushes on him. She also acts as a foil to Schierke, being a young magically inclined girl with feelings for the leader of their team, but while Guts treats Schierke as a friend and surrogate daughter, Griffith merely sees Sonia as a means to an end.
Mule Wolflame
Voiced by: Mitsuki Saiga (Japanese, 2016 anime)
An adolescent Midland noble, ran into Sonia after his group of soldiers was saved by Irvine and the new Band of the Hawk from Kushans. Sonia brought him to meet Griffith; like most people who do so, he was amazed and immediately attracted to Griffith. Ever since that day, he has been Sonia's guardian, a role in which he endures constant frustration. He runs into Isidro in Vritanis while looking for Sonia and the two ultimately became friendly rivals, creating a relationship not unlike the one Guts and Griffith once had. Sonia referred to him as the "duck knight" and offered to promote him to "wild drake" class if he bested Captain Sharkrider.
He is this Band of the Hawks' equivalent to Rickert, a child who is not fully aware of what Griffith's intentions are and is given the duties of a squire. He is also a counterpart to Isidro, being a young boy who looks up to a member of the original Band of the Hawk (Griffith for Mule and Guts for Isidro) and wants to learn from them, though unlike Mule, Isidro is far more perceptive and savvy due to his life as a thief and thus can see right through Griffith and the false utopia of Falconia.
Apostles
Snake Lord
The mercenary known as the was an Apostle who lived in Koka Castle, coercing the mayor of the nearby town to provide him with shipments of human prisoners for consumption. As an Apostle, the Snake Baron transformed into a massive humanoid cobra with his human face set inside the flesh of the snake's lower jaw, with the snake's tongue jutting from his own mouth. In the manga, Guts unintentionally rescued Puck from some of the Snake Baron's men, sparing one to send the message to his master that "The Black Swordsman has come." Guts was flogged and imprisoned by the mayor's men, but escaped after Puck provided him with the keys to his cell. He then confronted the Snake Baron, crippled him, and demanded to know the location of the God Hand. When the Snake Baron could not provide an answer, Guts left the Apostle to die in a fire. In the 1997 anime series, Guts takes Snake Baron's green behelit after killing him.
The Count
In his human form, The Count appeared as an extremely obese man with a penchant for sentencing (innocent) people to death for heresy. He became an Apostle after he found his wife participating in a pagan orgy, slaughtering the pagans and then activating his behelit while preparing to commit suicide to escape the pain of her betrayal. After offering her as a sacrifice to the God Hand, he transformed into a giant tentacled slug-like Apostle with a toothy maw and his human face embedded in its 'forehead'. The Count first met Guts indirectly during the Eclipse, having hollowed out Pippin's body to use as a baiting lure before tearing the husk in half. Guts later encountered the Count again through his court physician Vargas, who sought revenge on the Apostle for the death of his family and mutilation of his body. Guts acquired the Count's behelit from Vargas, who had stolen it while escaping the castle, for his quest for vengeance against Griffith. The Count captured Vargas and has him executed, and nearly killed Guts in the battle that followed. However, a grievously injured Guts managed to outwit and mortally wound him, severing his head after blowing off part of his face with his cannon. The Count's behelit activated while soaked in his blood, however, sending them to realm of the God Hand. The God Hand offered the Count new life in return for sacrificing his daughter Theresia. But the Count hesitated to give up his daughter, the one person he truly loved, and was dragged into the Abyss by a horde of tormented souls, including a vengeful Vargas, after his body expired. The Count's grey behelit remains on Gut's person for the duration of the storyline.
Wyald
(Japanese, Berserk and the Band of the Hawk)
was the sadistic leader of the Black Dog Knights, a battalion most feared in the Midland as it is composed of criminals. His apostle form was a massive primate-like creature. Wyald was charged by the King of Midland to hunt down Griffith and his rescuers, the Band of the Hawk. Badly injured by Guts, he believed that his death could be averted if Griffith could be persuaded to use the Crimson Behelit to summon the God Hand; however, the king's torturer had taken it and thrown it away. Soon after, Wyald is killed by Zodd, and it is subsequently revealed he was a frail old man before he became an apostle. Due to explicit content, Wyald and the Black Dogs do not appear in the 1997 anime or the movies, though some of his lines are given to a human character who leads an attack on Griffith's rescue team and Corkus' relief corps.
Rosine
was a young female apostle who sacrificed her parents to obtain the form of a female elf with the wings and antennae of a Luna moth, as well as a small pair of moth-like limbs near her hips and a 'helmet' similar to the head of a Luna moth. Her motivation for doing so was the legend of a child named Peekaf who believed himself an Elf and in doing so lost his human parents. She referred to herself as the Queen of the Elves and her true form is a monstrous female Luna moth. Rosine is first seen by Rickert, who spots her hovering over the middle of a lake before the camp is attacked by other apostles, and she is seen standing apart from the horde as they devour the wounded Hawks and beckoning at her fellows to attack Rickert.
Dwelling in the Misty Valley, Rosine terrorized a nearby village, sending an army of pseudo-apostles familiars disguised as elves to eat the town's livestock and people, as well as capturing children for her to transform into new servants. Guts, Puck, and Rosine's former friend Jill travelled to the Misty Valley to confront Rosine, who offered to make Jill an elf apostle. Jill was tempted by the promise of flight, but was uneasy with the warlike ways of Rosine's familiars killing each other for fun. Guts found and destroyed the elf demon cocoons while setting the Misty Valley on fire, forcing an enraged Rosine to battle him until she was so badly injured that she could no longer fight. As Guts was about to deliver a killing blow, Jill shielded Rosine with her body. It did nothing to stop Guts, but before he could act, Jill's father arrived and shot him with an arrow. Guts was then attacked by the Holy Iron Chain Knights, led by Farnese. Mortally wounded, Rosine finally understood the moral of Peekaf's fable and in her delirium attempted to return home to her parents but ultimately succumbed to her injuries and fell from the sky to her death. In some translations, she is referred to as Roshinu.
The Egg of the Perfect World
A deformed egg-shaped apostle with no name or knowledge of who he is, Nobody lived the life of an outcast by feeding on the refuse at the base of the Tower of Conviction while curious of people. Shunned by the tower refugees when they first see him, Nobody dug a deep pit into the earth to hide himself from the world that the refugees used as a dumping hole for their dead. But when Nobody used a brown Behelit while being crushed by the corpses piling on him, he appears before the God Hand as they revealed the nature of the world to him. Nobody offers his own existence and St. Albion for the chance to purify the world for salvation. Thus the outcast is transformed into a sentient Behelit, self-titled as the , whose sole purpose is to invoke an Incarnation Ceremony at Albion to bring Griffith back to the mortal plane by using sacrifices while offering his own life for the God Hand to manifest through. During the conviction arc, the Egg used his powers to turn several people around the tower into pseudo-apostles (including Father Mozgus and his torturers) before revealing himself to one of the camp prostitutes so that at least one person would know that he existed. As the moment of the ceremony draws near, the Egg found Guts' deformed Child near death from using its power to save Casca. Out of pity while knowing they both would die soon, the latter serving as Griffith's host body, the Egg swallowed the baby before later "hatching" Griffith once the Incarnation Ceremony had run its course.
Emperor Ganishka
(Japanese, Berserk and the Band of the Hawk)
is the sorcerer-king of Kushan Empire. As the first born son of the previous king, Ganishka was the heir to the throne despite his mother favoring his younger brother. His mother eventually attempted to poison him to put his brother on the throne, though he barely managed to survive. Ganishka, angry and vengeful, responded by killing his brother. This drove his mother insane with grief and eventually caused her to commit suicide, and he ascended the throne after his father's death from a wartime accident. Believing fear to be the best method for conquering others, Ganishka established himself as a heinous tyrant. After nearly dying at the hands of his son, Ganishka became an Apostle with the Behelit donated to him by Daiba, offering said son as payment to the God Hand as revenge. In his Apostle form, reaching a greater depth in the Astral Realm than the others, Ganishka can manipulate water and air to manifest a fog-based construct with only a few weaknesses and the ability to hurl lightning at his enemies. Unlike the other Apostles, Ganishka did not see Griffith as his leader upon the God Hand's arrival to the physical world and acted on his own whims to restore the Kushan Empire to its former glory. This process involved Ganishka having Daiba create a man-made Behelit by sewing the corpses of dead Apostles together to create his army of Daka and animals infused with spirits to conquer Midland and the rest of the world.
After turning the Midland capital of Wyndham into a literal hell, Ganishka next turned his attention to the Holy See's western stronghold of Vrittanis with Griffith as the church's champion. Ganishka agreed to have his final battle with Griffith in Wyndham, using his man-made Behelit in a ritual that takes the life force of those caught in it, namely his patrol men and beasts, to transform himself into a mountainous monstrosity of godlike power that Daiba called "Shiva". However, while gradually losing his mind in his state, Ganishka was destroyed when Griffith redirected the Skull Knight's attack with the Sword of Resonance at him. Because Ganishka transcended his humanity twice, the sword's dimensional properties caused his death to trigger the "World Transformation" that heralded the coming of Fantasia, with his corpse crystallized into a giant tree on the land Falconia is built.
The Royal Court of Midland
The King of Midland
The elderly ruler of Midland who had been fighting a century long war with the neighboring empire of Tudor. Burdened by the demands and responsibilities of his throne, the King's only comfort was his daughter Charlotte whom to him was the sole source of warmth in his existence. Due to the Band of the Hawk's victories on the battlefield, the King supported Griffith despite his common heritage and the disapproval of the nobility and eventually bestowed upon him command over all of Midland's armies. But upon learning that Griffith slept with Charlotte, the king became enraged and ordered Griffith be imprisoned and tortured while labeling the Band of the Hawk as outlaws. Combined with his attempt to rape Charlotte to regain her comfort, completely losing her as a consequence while using hired Bakiraka and the Black Dog Knights to kill Griffith after he was freed by his group, the king gradually loses his mind while his health deteriorates to the point of aging terribly. A few years after the eclipse, the King is bedridden and dying as his pleas for Charlotte to see him are refused. In the King's final moments, he sees a vision of Griffith returning to claim Charlotte and realizes that he supported Griffith to have someone to take his place and free him from the cold loneliness of the throne.
Charlotte
Formerly the princess of Midland, had been in love with Griffith almost at first sight. After Guts defeated Griffith in their duel, the latter, psychologically damaged, seduced Charlotte and was imprisoned and tortured for a year as a result. During that time, she continued to pine for him, and was the one who provided the route for the Hawks to rescue him from prison. In the manga, Charlotte accompanied the rescue party with her maid Anna, but was poisoned by a dart from one of the Bakiraka and was brought back to the king. In the anime, she simply provided the information, and did not accompany the rescue party in person. Two years after the Eclipse, Midland was conquered by the Kushans and she was taken prisoner by Ganishka to be his wife. While in captivity, Charlotte spent her time making embroidery portraits of Griffith, dreaming of his return. Soon after the events at Albion, Griffith did return for her and used Zodd to fly her and Anna out of captivity. She is currently residing in Falconia with the new Band of the Hawk alongside Griffith. She declared them to be Midland's Regular Army after their resounding victory against the Kushans in Vritannis, and has so far maintained her innocent nature throughout the series. Sonia, jealous of her betrothal to Griffith, once referred to her as the "Queen of the Ducks".
Julius
was the brother of the king and the leader of the White Dragon Knights. He resented the rise of Griffith and the Band of the Hawk in the favor of the king, especially given Griffith's common heritage. As a result, he plotted with Minister Foss to kill Griffith by arranging for a stray arrow to be fired during a hunt. The plan went awry when the arrow struck Griffith's Crimson Behelit and the king concluded that the attack was meant for Princess Charlotte, who was accompanying Griffith. In retaliation, Griffith sent Guts to assassinate Julius. Guts successfully completed his task, but as he was escaping, Julius' young son Adonis discovered him, forcing Guts to kill the boy before fleeing into the sewers.
The Queen of Midland
The queen was Charlotte's step mother. Her disapproval of Charlotte's interest in Griffith turned into hatred towards him for plotting the death of her secret lover Julius. She supported a plan conceived by Minister Foss to poison Griffith's wine at a royal party. However, due to the manipulations of Griffith, the minister betrayed her and used a nonlethal drug to make Griffith only appear dead. As the queen and a group of co-conspirators celebrated Griffith's death at the top of a tower, Foss suddenly left the gathering and silently locked the door. The queen and the others began to panic after discovering that the tower had been set on fire. Glancing out a window, she beheld Griffith alive and well, to her horror. The queen furiously declared that Griffith, a commoner, could not be allowed to kill royalty. Griffith replied that on the battlefield, heritage has no meaning, only who is defeated. She dies after being crushed by flaming debris.
Minister Foss
is a master of court intrigue. He conceived of plots with both Julius and the queen to kill Griffith. However, after the death of Julius, Griffith discovered Foss' involvement with the queen because he detected a hint of fear in the look of the minister's eyes. Griffith kidnapped Foss' daughter Elise in order to ensure the minister's cooperation. After Foss helped Griffith end the queen's life, Griffith returned the minister's daughter to him, declaring that there should be no more enmity between them. After the Eclipse, Foss predicted that the visions of the White Hawk signify that Griffith will return. More recently, he has been seen in the company of Laban, discussing Griffith's return and upcoming confrontation with Ganishka.
Laban
was an early supporter of Griffith. He agreed with the king that Griffith should be judged on battlefield merit. After the Eclipse, he traveled about assisting victims of the plague. He is now assisting Griffith in his battle against Ganishka. Most recently, he led a rescue of a group of women who had been held prisoner by the emperor. His name is translated as Raban in the anime.
Owen
believed that he could advance in the court by aligning himself with Griffith. On the eve of the king's death, Owen showed great concern about Charlotte's well-being, but he was denied permission to see her. At Vritanis, only Owen recognized Guts as the leader of the Hawk's Raiders. When Charlotte declared that the new Band of the Hawk was to be Midland's regular army, and Griffith Midland's general, Owen supported her, declaring to the other nobles that Griffith had a right to the position as Midland's former hero during the war with Tudor, and that Charlotte was well informed about Griffith's tactical ability.
Other characters
Gambino
Guts' adoptive father, and leader of a mercenary band, trained Guts to be a mercenary like himself and even gave Guts his first scar (across his nose) when he became insane. Gambino was later hit by a cannon blast in battle and lost his leg and the ability to fight. This incensed his anger towards Guts even further, as he also blamed Guts for the death of his lover, Sys. Gambino became drunk one night and tried to kill Guts in a fit of rage, only to be killed by Guts with his own sword. He constantly haunts Guts during his early years before the massacre of the original Band of Hawk.
The Skull Knight
(Japanese, video game), Akio Ohtsuka (Japanese, movies and 2016 anime), Jamieson Price (English, movies and 2016 anime)
The is one of the most mysterious and prolific characters introduced in Berserk. He is a towering warrior dressed in full armor who rides a massive, ghostly black horse, and whose ornaments, especially his helmet (or actual head), are shaped as parts of a human skeleton. A noble figure in spite of his ominous appearance, he serves as a strong adversary to the God Hand and its acolytes. He can kill Apostles with ease, and often consumes their Behelits afterwards. He is also capable of besting Zodd the Immortal in combat, though with great difficulty, and the latter sees him as a long-time rival. He wields a powerful sword that, when stuck down his throat, becomes coated with Behelits and capable of slashing rifts through reality itself, thus allowing the Skull Knight to move freely around the world or even between different dimensions. This enigmatic knight saved Guts in more than one occasion such as the Eclipse or from Slan, never explaining his reasons but simply declaring that the Struggler (the way he calls Guts) has to keep following his fate. The Skull Knight is also the previous wearer of the Berserker Armor, and knew the witch Flora. During Griffith's final battle with Ganishka's forces, the Skull Knight's attempt on Griffith's life with his sword was diverted to the writhing body of the Kushan Emperor. It is heavily speculated that, during his life as a mortal, the Skull Knight was in fact Supreme King Gaiseric, a warlord notorious for his skull-shaped helmet. According to the legends, Gaiseric unified the continent and ruled an empire from what would become Midland before his ambitions prompted a holy man into invoking God's wrath by sending his angels (implied to be God Hand) to punish him.
Silat
is a highly skilled and agile Kushan fighter first encountered by Guts in the Golden Age arc. He wields exotic weapons including chakrams, Katars (कटार) and urumi. His combat style is similar to kalaripayat, though Guts has referred to him as a circus performer due to Silat's exotic appearance, acrobatics and his almost theatrical tendency to call out his attacks. Silat and Guts first met prior to the Eclipse in a fight tournament at a carnival to determine who would lead a band of mercenaries to finish off a battered and demoralized Band of the Hawk. When a victorious Guts refused to claim the prize, Silat, as runner-up, took on the job, which led to his second defeat. Years later, it was revealed that Silat was the leader of the Bākiraka clan, and that he was working under Emperor Ganishka in order to restore his people to their rightful place. To do this, he continually tried to find and capture Griffith, only to come up unsuccessful. But after he learned that Ganishka was an apostle who had been behind the cruel slaughter of women for his demoniac reinforcements, Silat started to question his sworn allegiance. A Kushan engineer under Griffith named Jaris offered Silat a position in the Band of the Hawk, but Silat decides not to align himself with another demon ruler and instead watch from the shadows until deciding to spirit Rickert from Falconia.
His clan almost all utilize the same style of acrobatics and precision attacks with exotic weapons, such as toothed-swords, bladed discs, and the like, and defeat Midland infantry with ease, only meeting their match (understandably) against foes such as Guts, or, on one occasion, Nosferatu Zodd. Among the clan, however, are four men known as Tapasa who fight in a dramatically different style more suiting their towering frames and nubs of swollen bone near their big toes, index fingers, knees, and elbows (the striking points in their attacks). They are shown not only to be blindingly fast, but also capable of smashing through bone and steel armor alike with their strikes, much of which resembles the real-world Hung Ga fighting style, which emphasizes low stances and powerful hand strikes, though they use their legs as well. Two of them are present at the time when Silat is shown the Apostle-construct that creates the Kushan monsters, but a total of four have been shown at a single time. None have ever been shown killed in combat.
Tudor
The is the opposition to Midland during the Hundred Year War having since set a foothold by taking the Fortress of Doldrey which was put under the command of governor Gennon near the war's end. When power vacuum occurred after the ruler of Tudor died, Griffith exploited the now weakened status of the invading military by using a masterful strategy to reclaim Doldrey for Midland while Tudor's remaining forces retreat back to their homeland. Tudor is also an antagonistic force in the spin-off novel , attempting to conquer the Grand Duchy of Grant on the grounds of spreading the Holy See Faith despite their numerous atrocities.
Adon Coborlwitz
, a principal opponent of the original Band of the Hawk during the Hundred Year War, is the misogynistic commander of Tudor's . He regularly bragged about special attacks and defenses that he called "Coborlwitz family secrets", such as "Bakuretsu Funsai", a 300-year-old fleeing technique, and "Ressha Jinrai", a 1000-year-old crossbow sneak attack. In the 1997 anime, Adon had additional dealings with the Hawks in first an attempt to lure Griffith within range of a hidden explosive cache and losing a castle under his command when Guts first joined the Hawks. First seen in the story where he overpowers a weakened Casca on a cliff ledge while goading her with sexist comments, Adon's face got mangled by Guts when he came to her defense. Though Guts and Casca fall off into the river below after he shot the former in his attempt to save the latter, a revenge-driven Adon tracks them down with about a hundred of his men, including his much bigger and stronger little brother Samson Coborlwitz. But it ended with his men all killed by Guts, who earn the nickname "The Hundred Man Slayer", while Casca fled to reach their comrades. While the manga has Adon demoted by Boscogn and "punished" to remain in Doldrey using the Hawks' siege as a last line of defense, the movies portrayed Adon to be captured by the Hawks and used by Casca's group as a means to infiltrate Doldrey before turning on them. Overpowered by a fully abled Casca, Adon attempted to use dishonest tactics to guard her off guard for a kill before she ultimately kills him.
Boscogn
is the commander of the , Tudor's most powerful army during the Hundred Year War. Considered the most powerful Tudor general with an intolerance towards irresponsibility and cowardice, he is first seen confronting Adon about the fiasco in which he lost a hundred men to Guts. In battle he wields a long-hafted berdiche, with which he is capable of cutting men in half. Placed under the authority of Lord Gennon, Boscone treats the Governor with polite deference but is privately disgusted by Gennon's sexual tastes towards youthful men and frustrated by his master's ill-advised interference with strategy. While he showed great skill as a tactician and as a warrior, during the battle of Doldrey, he was out-ranked by Gennon and consequently could not command the battlefield according to his tactics which included killing Griffith whom Gennon wanted alive. Boscogn confronts Guts in a climactic duel where he dismounted the Hundred Man Slayer and broke his sword, only to end up being decapitated along with his steed in one stroke after Guts acquired a new blade secretly provided by Zodd. Boscogn's death and the loss at Doldrey forces the station Tudor army to retreat, making the end of Midland's war with Tudor.
General Abecassis
The antagonist of the spin-off novel and overseer of Tudor's conquest of the Grand Duchy of Grant under the cover of spreading the Holy See Faith. He based himself in Fort Chester where he oversaw Grunbeld's training as attempted to break his spirit by arranging for him and his friends to be mauled by a tiger. Years after Grunbeld and his friends escaped his custody, Abecassis wins over the Grantian noble Haakon to hand the duchy to Tudor while eliminating Grunbeld and his Flame Dragon Knights. But the attempt on Grunbeld's life caused the events that led to his transition onto an Apostle, with Abecassis dying an agonizing death.
Guts and Casca's Child
A nameless entity who was conceived by Guts and Casca shortly before the eclipse, corrupted by the semen of Griffith when he raped Casca after his ascension as Femto. This resulted in the child being born prematurely as a rat-sized disfigured fetal abomination that appears at night, acting on instinct to be with his parents as he followed Guts for two years before traveling by Casca's side as her protector. The Child displays supernatural abilities that included creating barriers, but their use drained the Child of his life force by the time Egg of the Perfect World swallowed the child so neither of them would die alone. As a result of the Egg's actions, the Child became the vessel of Griffith's new physical body.
But the Child's presence still lingers in first compelling Griffith to protect Casca during Guts's fight with Zodd. It would later be revealed that Child is able to regain use of his body on the night of a full moon, travelling to wherever Guts and Casca are in the form of a raven-haired youth. During the nights he is able to appear, the Child helps Guts and his group during their journey to Elfhelm.
Jill
Jill came from a village terrorized by Misty Valley demons the villagers identified as elves. Her father was drunken and abusive to her and her mother. Guts and Puck rescued her from a man who was about to try out an old sacrifice ritual on her. She took them to her village, where the villagers became alarmed by the appearance of Puck. Jill met up with Guts and Puck after they fled and told them the elves eat livestock and people and carry away children. After the elves attack the village and Guts uses a village boy to lure them into a trap, Jill identifies their leader as her childhood friend, Rosine. When the villagers turn on Guts again, he pretends to kidnap Jill, allowing him to leave peacefully. Jill and Guts set forth separately for the Valley, but Jill arrives first. Rosine takes Jill for a flight and offers to make her an especially powerful elf, but Jill refuses due to the reckless savagery the elves exhibit. When Guts arrives, he burns Rosine's elf cocoons, hunts down the elves, and fights Rosine until she falls to the ground. When Guts tries to deliver the killing blow, Jill shields Rosine. Jill's father arrives, along with the Holy Iron Chain Knights, and Guts is driven away. Jill catches up to Guts, and asks him to take her with him. Guts tells her to go back to her father because the danger is too great. Puck gives Jill a stinging bramble she can use to keep her father in check as a parting gift.
Mozgus
was the golem-faced fanatical inquisitor of the Holy See whose insignia is a set of breaking wheels. He was an exceptionally zealous but equally cruel individual who tortured and often brutally executed large numbers of supposed heretics, usually after forcing them to "confess". While Mozgus had considered everyone to be a sinner, the only exceptions he saw would be his followers, who were unrepentant and sometimes fiendish social pariahs whose reason to learn the act of torture was to repay Mozgus for his sympathy. During the plague in Midland, with the Holy Iron Chain Knights having been assigned the task of escorting him, Mozgus was sent to St. Albion when news had reached the Holy See of pagans in the holy city. After Casca was captured, being revered by the pagans, Mozgus deemed her as a witch and intended to burn her at the stake. But when her presence in the torture chamber caused the spirits of the countless torture victims to manifest in the blood, Mozgus considered the act to be a divine test while taking his transformation by the Egg of the Perfect World into a feather-covered Pseudo-Apostle, believing god had chosen him. After his transformed aides are killed, and with his flames shielding the people from the corpse-possessed spirits, Mozgus battles Guts in a fight that ends with his death. Ironically, Jerome noted afterwards that it made him more like a guardian angel than ever before, with the flames from Mozgus's dead body providing the surviving refugees with protection from the flesh-consuming dead before the Incarnation Ritual would commence.
Luca
is the leader of a band of prostitutes at Albion. She was introduced trying to convince a Holy See official of Casca's guiltlessness in relation to one of Mozgus's victims, using a callous facade to do so. However, she was revealed shortly after to be disgusted with their cruelty (although there is an alternative translation of the scene which paints her in a more heartless light). Luca then took in the wayward Casca, calling the mute former Hawk commander Elaine. When Jerome, a customer and love interest of sorts, gave her a necklace of pearls, she divided them evenly among her girls, believing that they could only survive the hysteria of the heretic hunts by eliminating any cause for jealousy. She covered Casca's face in bandages as a pretense that Casca had contracted syphilis. When the weak-willed prostitute Nina visited the nearby goat worshiping cult and threatened to turn her over to the worshipers, Luca smacked and then spanked the blond haired girl, causing her to submit. When Pepe, one of her prostitutes, was accused of heresy, Luca came to her defense. Luca and Pepe were saved from arrest with the timely appearance of Guts. When Guts discovered that Luca had seen Casca, Luca attempted to reunite him with Casca, but she could not since Nina had taken the mute girl to the cult. When Casca and Nina were taken to Mozgus, Luca bribed a guard to allow her to enter the monastery. While Guts was looking for Casca, Luca released Nina from her imprisonment. After Isidro challenged Mozgus to release Casca, one of the priest's torturers attacked, causing Luca to fall. Nina grabbed Luca and tried to hold her, but Luca let go. Luca was spared injury because she was caught by the Skull Knight. She then met the Egg of the Perfect World, who explained his purpose to her. When Albion was being overrun by the dead, Luca hid Nina in a barrel and herself in a well to survive the ordeal. Some time after, Luca ends up owning an inn in Falconia.
Flora
is Schierke's mistress, who taught her in the arts of magic and Od. In addition to being a powerful witch of indeterminate age, she is an old friend of the Skull Knight, whom she sees as "still having a human heart." This would imply that Flora knew the Skull Knight before he took on his current ghoulish form. Prior to her living in the woods outside Enoch village, she wandered the land, helping people with her magic until the Holy See's influence drove her into reclusion. During their journey to the sea, Guts and his party were recruited by Flora to aide in the extermination of a troll infestation that threatened the nearby villages and forest. In exchange, she provides them with several magical items as well as special tattoos for Guts and Casca which dampen the signal transmitted by the brand of sacrifice. She dies when Griffith sends apostles to hunt down anyone powerful enough to oppose him, her spirit appearing a final time before Schierke as she possessed the flames the Apostles had lit to consume her and her home to create a barricade between them and Guts's party, thereby allowing them to escape.
Federico de Vandimion
is the head of the illustrious Vandimion family, the wealthiest noble clan in Berserk. He is father to Farnese, Serpico, Manifico, Georgio and Politiano. Initially painted as a distant man, he was often working hard to ensure his vast fortune was secure, leaving no time to raise Farnese properly. In truth, he was actually frightened of his unpredictable daughter, as revealed by his wife to Farnese. His neglectful behavior towards his family is likewise returned to him, with the exception of Farnese, who asked Guts to protect her family when Kushan beasts invaded a ball to massacre the attending nobility. Years ago he had an affair, the result of which is none other than Serpico: he granted the latter a noble title in cold exchange for his silence on the matter of their relation.
Captain Bonebeard
is the commander of a pirate ship called the Captain Sharkrider. The stereotypical pirate captain, he attempted to go legit by going into the slave trade business with Kushan children, putting him at odds with Schierke, who had decided to free them. Isidro, who was trying to keep the spirited young witch from being burned at the stake, joined her crusade. Sonia admired her effort and joined her as well, bringing her guard Mule along. Mule attempted to fight the captain but was ill-suited for fighting on the swaying boat. The nimble Isidro fared much better and the captain offered to let the boy thief serve on his ship. Azan, asleep on the boat, was awakened and joined in the melee. Ultimately, the whole group of them forced Bonebeard to give up his slaves.
Once Roderick's ship was at sea, Bonebeard ordered an attack on the warship, ignorant that his enemy was much more than he could handle. Hopelessly out-gunned, Bonebeard was forced to retreat, his ship maimed almost to the point of sinking. In his lack of luck, after the World Transformation occurred, Bonebeard is devoured by the Sea God as he, his crew, and their ship become extensions of the ancient creature. Bonebeard serves as the Sea God's primary helper until the creature is killed by Guts.
Humorously, his ship's name is made reality by the figurehead of his ship: a skeleton pirate captain riding a shark. Also, it's revealed by Bonebeard himself that he became an emotional wreck following his defeat at the docks by Azan and Schierke, having failed to become a legitimate businessman (though via slave trading), he found that he'd lost his touch with piracy, as well. Guts' party, particularly Isidro, are disgusted by how pathetic Bonebeard appears despite his ghoulish form, as he is reduced to hiding behind one of the gunwales of his ship and gnawing on a banister.
Daiba
was Ganishka's loyal sorcerer chief and advisor who desired a powerful kingdom under the rule of magic. He was formerly an ascetic who had given Ganishka the behelit that would make him an Apostle. Daiba also created for Ganishka the man-made behelit used to breed their army of monsters. He challenged Guts' group by conjuring a storm and summoning monstrous beasts from the seas, but even through his greatest sorceries, which included summoning tornadoes and a gigantic water spirit, he was defeated by the combined efforts of Guts and Schierke. Daiba was last seen riding atop a pterodactyl-like creature after Ganishka transformed into an entity he believed to be the deity Shiva, having used his magic to protect himself from the ritual. After Ganishka's death and the world's descent into fantastical chaos, Daiba goes into hiding in Falconia as a stable hand in Luca's inn. He ends up saving Erica from Rakshas and later provided Rickert and Silat assistance in escaping from Falconia.
Video game characters
Rita
is a travelling performer skilled in throwing knives and juggling. Her accomplice, Job was infected with Mandragora and her performing days were cut short when Guts killed him. Reluctantly at first, she eventually helps Guts out throughout the Chapter. She appears on the Dreamcast game version of Berserk.
Balzac
is the baron of a town who was once a considerate ruler, but the pressure of caring for his subjects while researching on Mandragorans to his ailing wife Annette turned him into a dictator. When Guts came to his town, Balzac plotted to use him to acquire the Mandragora Heart in hopes it would restore her mind. However, complications foiled Balzac's plan as he attempted to kill Guts as a Mandragoran. But fatally wounded, his destined behelit unknowingly brought to him by Rita, Balzac sacrifices Anette to be reborn a chimera-like Apostle before Guts kills him for good.
Eriza
is a nun working with the Mandragoras, having become a Mandragoran yet retaining her will. Long ago, a simple-minded pleasant boy named Niko who visited her cathedral regularly died one winter's night. From Niko's body, a Mandragora grew and Eriza resolved to protect it while it spread across her village. Balzac attempted to take the Mandragora's Heart, but only escaped with a fragment for his research before requesting Guts to get the rest. Though Eriza pleas with Guts to leave peacefully, she is forced to fight him when he finds the Mandragora tree and cuts out its heart. Eriza refuses to relinquish the heart, which is Niko's remains, and attempts to flee before finding the Mandragoran villagers being massacred by Balzac's men. In desperation, Eriza chooses to take her own life rather than hand Niko over as she runs back into the burning church. While doing so she drops a pendant she made with an item that she found with the boy's body: a behelit that eventually reaches Balzac as part of his fate.
Charles
, appearing in the Berserk: Millennium Falcon Hen Seima Senki no Shō 2004 game, is a child of noble birth who lost his parents and manor home in a fire. Charles ended up an apostle with illusionary powers at the cost of his sister, appearing to have blocked out the memory of his sister's death and created a phantom of her. Charles also recreated his home where he remained in solitude before Guts intruded, the Apostle conjuring phantoms of the deceased members of the Band of the Hawk to haunt Guts before being killed off by the swordsman.
References
External links
Berserk (manga)
Berserk
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20de%20Sig%C3%BCenza%20y%20G%C3%B3ngora
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Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora
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Don Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora (August 14, 1645 – August 22, 1700) was one of the first great intellectuals born in the New World - Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico City). He was a criollo patriot, exalting New Spain over Old. A polymath and writer, he held many colonial government and academic positions. Sigüenza is considered the da Vinci mexicano ("Mexican da Vinci").
Early life
Sigüenza was born in Mexico City in 1645 to Don Carlos de Sigüenza y Benito, originally from Madrid, and to Doña Dionisia Suárez de Figueroa y Góngora, born in Seville, Spain, whom the elder Don Carlos met following his arrival New Spain in 1640. Sigüenza was the second oldest and first male of nine siblings. He was related to the famous baroque Spanish poet Luis de Góngora through his mother. He studied mathematics and astronomy under the direction of his father, who had been a tutor for the royal family in Spain.
Expulsion from the Jesuits
Sigüenza entered the Society of Jesus as a novice August 17, 1660, took simple vows August 15, 1662 at Tepotzotlán. But he was dismissed from the Jesuits in 1668, for repeatedly flouting Jesuit discipline and going out secretly at night. He repented and pleaded to be reinstated, but the head of the Jesuits, the General of the Order, rejected his plea, saying "The cause of the expulsion of this person is so disreputable, as he himself confesses, that he does not deserve this boon [of being readmitted]." This dismissal was not only a grave disappointment and a blot on his reputation, but it also meant that he would be financially insecure for the rest of this life. He became a secular priest without a parish or a steady income, so the multiple offices he sought during his lifetime were to support himself and his extended family, all of whom, including his father, were dependent on him to the end of his life. He was ordained a secular priest in 1673.
Career in Science
He studied at the Real y Pontificia Universidad de México (Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico) following his dismissal from the Jesuits, and excelled at mathematics and developed a lifelong interest in the sciences. When a faculty position in Mathematics & Astrology (when he held it he taught mainly astronomy) was available, Sigüenza sought to compete for it, although he did not hold a doctoral degree in the subjects. It was not clear that he could even be eligible to compete, but Sigüenza argued successfully to do so. Selection for university posts was via oposiciones or competition between candidates. A question was posed and the candidate had to complete a response within 24 hours to be judged by a panel. Ghost writers or ringers sometimes completed the exercise and Sigüenza successfully argued that his chief rival for the position, and the person who vociferously argued that Sigüenza had no standing to even compete, had to be kept under surveillance during the competition to prevent cheating. On July 20, 1672, he was named to the chair of Mathematics and Astrology. His record as a professor was marred because he was frequently absent from the classroom due to his researches on various topics and to the pressing of other obligations he took on for fiscal reasons. One of his biographers suggests that his absences from the university might be attributable to his disdain for astrology, which he considered "a diabolical invention and consequently, alien to science, method, principle and truth."
In 1681 Sigüenza wrote the book Philosophical Manifest Against the Comets Stripped of their Dominion over the Timid in which he tried to dismiss fears of impending superstitious predictions that linked comets to calamitous events; in the work he takes steps to separate the fields of astrology and astronomy. The Tyrolean Jesuit Eusebio Kino, who had come to New Spain to evangelize on the northern frontier, met Sigüenza at his home in Mexico City. Both men had observed the comet of 1680 and both were keenly interested in the phenomenon. The warm feelings between the two soured quickly, with Sigüenza believing that Kino belittled Mexican-born Spaniards' (creoles) level learning. Kino published a strong criticism of Sigüenza's opinion on comets, without naming him specifically. Kino's criticism was that because they were contradictory to established astronomical/astrological belief in the heavens. Sigüenza often cited authors such as Copernicus, Galileo, Descartes, Kepler, and Tycho Brahe. In 1690, Sigüenza moved to defend his previous work by publishing "Libra Astronómica y Filosófica"; it was unlike many of his other writings, which remained in manuscript form because he could not afford to publish them. He directly attacks Kino by saying "I hereby point out that neither his Reverence [Kino] nor any other mathematician, even if he is Ptolemy himself, can set up dogmas in these sciences, because authority has no place in them at all, but only proof and demonstration." Theology was known as the "Queen of the Sciences", but Sigüenza's stance is on the side of science as defined in the modern era.
Royal geographer
In the 1680s, he prepared the first-ever map of all of New Spain, which won high praise and was widely copied. He also drew hydrologic maps of the Valley of Mexico. In 1692 King Charles II named him official geographer for the colony. As royal geographer, he participated in the 1692 expedition to Pensacola Bay, Florida under command of Andrés de Pez, to seek out defensible frontiers against French encroachment. He mapped Pensacola Bay and the mouth of the Mississippi: in 1693, he described the terrain in Descripción del seno de Santa María de Galve, alias Panzacola, de la Mobila y del Río Misisipi.
When a Spanish attempt to colonize Pensacola Bay in 1698 was thwarted by the arrival of a French fleet, Sigüenza was blamed by the leader of the expedition, Andrés de Arriola, for inciting the French action. He successfully defended himself against these charges in 1699.
Other professional pursuits
In order to supplement his modest salary as a professor, he took on a number of other posts. He was chaplain of the Hospital del Amor de Dios (now Academia de San Carlos) from 1682 until his death. This post provided him with living quarters, which given his strapped financial circumstances was a major benefit. It also was a steady income from celebrating masses for a fixed fee. He also served as Chief Almoner for the Archbishop of Mexico, Don Francisco de Aguiar y Seijas, distributing alms to poor women, a charity the "misogynistic prelate could not abide."
Sigüenza not only pursued his interests in science, but he was also a poet, non-fiction writer, historian, philosopher, cartographer, and cosmographer of the realm. Such was his prestige that the French King Louis XIV tried to induce him to come to Paris. He published his first poem in 1662. From 1671 to 1701 (posthumous) he published a yearly almanac. A. Margarita Peraza-Rugeley has studied the surviving almanacs in her 2013 book.
In 1690 Sigüenza published a pirate captivity narrative which has been considered Latin America's first novel, Los infortunios de Alonso Ramírez. However, new archival evidence discovered by Fabio López Lázaro (2007, 2011), José F. Buscaglia (2009, 2011), and A. Margarita Peraza-Rugeley (2013) proves that this incredible story of a Puerto Rican taken captive by English pirates off the Philippine Islands is a historical account, not a fictional one. The archival documents contain dozens of eyewitness accounts corroborating not only the existence of Ramírez, his marriage in Mexico City, and also his capture in 1687, his life with pirates (most notably William Dampier), his collaboration with them, and his return to Mexico in 1690, at which time Spanish colonial authorities suspected Alonso of piracy. López Lázaro was the first to discover archival evidence (published in 2007) for the historical existence of Ramírez, his meeting with the Viceroy of New Spain, and the writing of Los infortunios in 1690. Buscaglia corroborated the existence of Alonso Ramírez as a true historical figure in 2009, citing his marriage certificate and pinpointing with exactitude, after two expeditions to the coast of Bacalar, the site of his shipwreck. López Lázaro's and Buscaglia's studies are the most significant findings in more than a century of scholarship on the book. The new archival evidence leaves no room to doubt that Sigüenza's key role in creating Los infortunios de Alonso Ramírez was in editing Alonso's coarse narrative into a superior literary piece. According to López Lázaro's analysis, the book was commissioned by the Spanish administration during the war against Louis XIV to solidify Madrid's commitment to the struggle against French colonial rivals and their buccaneer collaborators but also to warn them about Spain's unreliable English and Dutch allies. In his critical bilingual edition of the Infortunios/Misfortunes, Buscaglia argues that the work opens a door into the intricacies of early American subjectivity. In the same edition, Buscaglia furnishes concrete proof of having found the shipwreck of Ramirez's frigate in Punta Herradura, on the coast of Yucatan, Mexico.
Friendship with Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz
Seventeenth-century Mexico City had two savants, Don Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora and Doña Juana Inés de Asbaje y Ramírez de Santillana, known to posterity as the Hieronymite nun, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. It is unclear at what point the two made their acquaintance, but they lived a short distance away from each other, he in the Amor de Dios Hospital and she in the convent where she had taken vows following a time spent in the viceregal court. Although Sor Juana was cloistered, the Hieronymite order followed a more relaxed rule and nuns could have visitors in the locutorio or special room for conversation in the convent. Known as the "Tenth Muse", she was a formidable intellect and poet, and was encouraged in her scientific studies by Sigüenza. Each was well known in circles of power and with the arrival of the new viceroy to New Spain, each was tapped to design a triumphal arch to welcome him, a signal honor to them both. Sor Juana's final years were extremely difficult ones, and when she died in 1695, Sigüenza delivered the eulogy at her funeral. The text of that address is now lost, but in 1680 he had praised her, "There is no pen that can rise to the eminence that hers o'ertops...[the fame of] Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz will only end with the world."
The Ixtlilxochitl-Sigüenza-Boturini collection
Sigüenza had a strong interest in the indigenous past of Mexico and began learning Nahuatl following his dismissal from the Jesuits in 1668. He collected books and other materials related to indigenous culture. At the Hospital de Amor de Dioas Sigüenza became a close friend of Don Juan, the son of indigenous nobleman Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, (1587?-1650). Sigüenza helped Alva Ixtlilxochitl's on Don Juan de Alva with a lawsuit against Spaniards attempting to usurp his holdings near the great pyramids at San Juan Teotihuacan. Don Juan in gratitude for Sigüenza's aid, gifted him the manuscripts and codices of his historian father, Don Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl. This was a rich collection of documents of his royal ancestors and the kings of Texcoco. In 1668, Sigüenza began the study of Aztec history and Toltec writing. On the death of Alva Ixtlilxochitl in 1650, he inherited the collection of documents, and devoted the later years of his life to the continuous study of Mexican history. When Sigüenza made his will shortly before his death, he was very concerned about the fate of his library, since its "collection has cost me great pains and care, and a considerable sum of money." His original intention was to have his library transferred to European repositories, including the Vatican and the Escorial, and to library of the duke of Florence, but in the end he willed them to the College of San Pedro and San Pablo. He was particularly concerned about the native materials in his collection. For an account of what happened to these documents after the death of Sigüenza, see Lorenzo Boturini Bernaducci.
The Virgin of Guadalupe
Sigüenza wrote Indian Spring whose full title in Spanish is Primavera indiana, poema sacrohistórico, idea de María Santíssima de Guadalupe (1662). The work contributed to the midseventeenth-century outpouring of writings on the Virgin of Guadalupe. Sigüenza wrote in praise of Guadalupe, especially her role in aiding creole patriotism. Among these documents was purported to be a "map" (codex) documenting the 1531 apparition of the Virgin Mary as Our Lady of Guadalupe that Luis Becerra Tanco claimed to have seen in the introduction to his 1666 defense of the apparition tradition. Sigüenza writings on Guadalupe were not extensive, but he encouraged Becerra Tanco and Francisco de Florencia to pursue the topic.
Because of his association with these early documents, Sigüenza played a significant role in the development of the Guadalupe story. He was a devotee of the Virgin, and wrote Parnassian poems to her as early as 1662. But his most lasting impact on the history of the apparition was his assertion that the Nican mopohua, the Nahuatl-language rendition of the narrative, was written by Antonio Valeriano, a conception that persists to this day. He further identified Fernando Alva de Ixtlilxochitl as the author of the Nican motecpana. This declaration was stimulated by Francisco de Florencia's Polestar of Mexico, which claimed that the original Nahuatl account had been written by Franciscan Fray Jerónimo de Mendieta.
Creole patriotism and the triumphal arch to welcome the viceroy in 1680
In 1680, he was commissioned to design a triumphal arch for the arrival of the new Viceroy, Cerda y Aragón. Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz was commissioned to design the only other one, which were erected in the Plaza de Santo Domingo, near the main square or Zócalo. No image of the triumphal arches is known to be extant, but both Sigüenza and Sor Juana wrote descriptions of the works. Sigüenza's work was entitled Theater of Political Virtues That Constitute a Ruler, Observed in the Ancient Monarchs of the Mexican Empire, Whose Effigies Adorn the Arch Erected by the Very Noble Imperial City of Mexico. Sigüenza's title was meant to convey to the new viceroy that his tenure in office was in a long line of Mexican monarchs. On the arch were images of all twelve Aztec rulers, "each taken to embody different political virtues. Also represented was the god Huitzilopochtli, whom Sigüenza claimed was not a deity but a "chieftain and leader of Mexicans in the voyage that by his command was undertaken in search of the provinces of Anahuac." Sigüenza's gigantic wooden arch (90 feet high, fifty feet wide) was a manifestation of creole patriotism that embraced the florescence of the Aztecs as a source of their own pride in their patria. He hoped that "on some occasion the Mexican monarchs might be reborn from the ashes to which oblivion had consigned them, so that, like Western phoenixes, they may be immortalized by fame" and be recognized as having "heroic ... imperial virtues." Sigüenza praised the arch that Sor Juana had designed, but hers took the theme of Neptune in fable and did not manifest any explicit theme "contribut[ing] to the growth of creole patriotism."
Ideas about the ancient Mexicans
Sigüenza's ideas about the ancient Mexicans were informed by the hugely valuable manuscripts from Alva Ixtlilxochitl, but he also developed ideas of his own about the origin of the Mexicans. He was one of the first persons, during Spanish rule, to dig around the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan. He took Italian traveler Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri to that ancient site. Sigüenza's ideas about the origins of the ancient Mexicans were influenced by German Jesuit Athanasius Kircher, who saw ancient Egypt as the source of all natural wisdom. Sigüenza embraced Kircher's ideas and in the publication accompanying his triumphal arch for the arrival of the new viceroy, Theater of Political Virtues That Constitute a Ruler, "he boldly pronounced that the Mexican Indians were the descendants of the Naphtuhim, the son of Misraim, founder and ruler of Egypt," and further asserted that Naphtuhim was a variation on the name Neptune, the ruler of Atlantis, populated by Egyptian colonists. In advocating an Egyptian origin for the ancient Mexicans, he rejects Franciscan fray Juan de Torquemada's dismissal of that theory. Sigüenza, also as opposed to Torquemada, believed that St Thomas the Apostle evangelized Mexico and identified him with Quetzalcoatl. He gave notice that a pamphlet entitled Phoenix of the West. St Thomas found with the name of Quetzalcoatl would be published, but whether he wrote it or not is unclear, since many of Sigüenza's works remain in title only.
1692 Mexico City riot
Considering the small proportion of the Spanish population in Mexico as opposed to the Indian and mixed-race casta populations and that the fact that there had been few challenges to Spanish rule since the early sixteenth-century conquest, likely meant the huge riot on June 8, 1692 was a shock to Spaniards. A mob of Indians and castas partially destroyed the viceregal palace and the building of the city council (cabildo or ayuntamiento). Painter Cristóbal de Villalpando's 1696 painting of the Zócalo still shows the damage to the viceregal palace from the mob's attempt to burn it down. Sigüenza wrote a lengthy "racy, vivid account of the riot...he also offered a fascinating profile of his own reactions to the dramatic events." It is a major source for the Spanish version of events, published as "Letter of Don Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora to Admiral Pez Recounting the incidents of the Corn Riot in Mexico City, June 8, 1692." In 1692, there was a severe drought in New Spain and a disease attacking wheat, called in Nahuatl "chiahuiztli". The crown sought sources of corn outside the general sourcing area for the capital, but the price of corn rose significantly. This caused a severe shortage of food for the poor. Tensions rose significantly in the capital, and came to a flashpoint when neither the viceroy nor the archbishop, to whom the crowd of petitioners appealed as legitimate authorities, would meet directly with them. Following the failed attempt to get any official audience or promise of aid, the crowd began throwing stones and set fire to the major buildings around the capital's principal square. Sigüenza saved most of the documents and some paintings in the archives, at the risk of his own life. This act preserved a considerable number of colonial Mexican documents that would otherwise have been lost. Scholars have noted the importance of the 1692 riot in Mexican history.
Later career and death
In 1693, he (along with Admiral Andrés de Pez y Malzarraga), set sail from Veracruz, Mexico and discovered the East Bay River of Florida and the land where the city of Navarre is now located.
In 1694, he retired from the University. His final years were marked by even more financial and personal troubles. He became ill, with what physicians identified as either gallstones or kidney stones and he was in considerable pain. His patron the Archbishop Aguiar y Seijas died and Sigüenza lost his lucrative post of Chief Almoner. He also lost the position of University Accountant. The death of his patron the Archbishop was clustered with the death of Sigüenza's father and favorite brother. His dear friend Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz died and he delivered the eulogy at her funeral. In November 1699, Sigüenza was named corregidor general (book examiner) for the Inquisition, a position that paid little and which took up considerable time vetting books for possible heresy.
As his health deteriorated in these circumstances, Sigüenza prepared for the eventuality of his death, which came in 1700. A scientist to the end, he requested that his body be autopsied, so that physicians could determine what had afflicted him. He explicitly laid out the reasons and concerned that this radical step might be opposed on religious or other grounds by his relatives, he said "I ask in God's name that this [autopsy] be done for the common good, and I command my heir not to interfere, for it matters little that this be done to a body which, within a few days, must be corruption and decay." The autopsy revealed a kidney stone the size of a peach.
Sigüenza left his library and scientific instruments to the Jesuit Colegio Máximo de San Pedro y San Pablo in Mexico City. He was buried at the chapel of this Colegio, which could point to his having been reconciled with the Order. He also left a number of unpublished manuscripts, only fragments of which survived the expulsion of the Society of Jesus from the viceroyalty in 1767.
Works
Oriental planeta evangélica, epopeya sacropanegyrica al apostol grande de las Indias S. Francisco Xavier (1662).
Primavera indiana, poema sacrohistórico, idea de María Santíssima de Guadalupe (1662).
Glorias de Querétaro (1680) (poem)
Teatro de virtudes políticas que constituyen a un Príncipe (1680). [Theater of Political Virtues That Constitute a Ruler, Observed in the Ancient Monarchs of the Mexican Empire, Whose Effigies Adorn the Arch Erected by the Very Noble Imperial City of Mexico]
Glorias de Querétaro en la Nueva Congregación Eclesiástica de María Santíssima de Guadalupe... y el sumptuoso templo (1680).
Libra Astronomica, y Philosophica en que D. Carlos de Siguenza y Gongora Coʃmographo, y Mathematico Regio en la Academia Mexicana, Examina no ʃolo lo que à ʃu Manifiesto Philosophico contra los Cometas opuʃo el R.P. Eusebio Francisco Kino de la Compañia de Jesus; ʃino lo que el miʃmo R.P. opinò, y pretendio haver demoʃtrado en ʃu Exposicion Astronomica del Cometa del año de 1681 (1690).
Manifiesto philosophico contra los cometas despojados del imperio que tenían sobre los tímidos (1681).
Triunfo parthénico que en glorias de María Santíssima... celebró la... Academia Mexicana (1683).
Parayso Occidental, plantado y cultivado en su magnífico Real Convento de Jesüs María de México (1684).
Piedad heróica de Don Hernando Cortés, Marqués del Valle (1689).
Infortunios que Alonso Ramírez natural de la ciudad de S. Juan de Puerto Rico padeció... en poder de ingleses piratas (1690).
Relación de lo sucedido a la armada de Barlovento en la isla de Santo Domingo con la quelna del Guarico (1691).
Trofeo de la justicia española en el castigo de la alevosía francesa (1691).
Letter of Don Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora to Admiral Pez Recounting the incidents of the Corn Riot in Mexico City, June 8, 1692 (1692)
Descripción del seno de Santa María de Galve, alias Panzacola, de la Mobila y del Río Mississippi (1693).
Mercurio volante con la noticia de la recuperacion de las provincias de Nuevo Mexico (1693)
Elogio fúnebre de Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1695).
See also
List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
References
Bibliography
In Spanish
12,000 Minibiografías. Panama City: Editorial América, 1991.
García Puron, Manuel, Mexico y sus gobernantes, v. 1. Mexico City: Joaquín Porrúa, 1984.
Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, Historias del Seno Mexicano, José Francisco Buscaglia Salgado, ed., intro. Havana: Casa de las Américas, 2009.
Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, Infortunios de Alonso Ramírez: Edición crítica de José F. Buscaglia, José F. Buscaglia Salgado, ed., intro., Madrid: Polifemo/Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 2011.
Orozco Linares, Fernando, Gobernantes de México. Mexico City: Panorama Editorial, 1985, .
Peraza-Rugeley, A. Margarita, Llámenme el mexicano: los almanaques y otras obras de Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2013. Currents in Comparative Romance Languages and Literatures Series. Vol. 215.
Solchaga Zamudio, Noé and Solchaga Peña, Luisa A., Efemérides Mexicanas, v. 1. Mexico City: Editorial Avante, 1992.
External links
A chronology of his life
El Mercurio Volante, An Electronic Edition (in English)
Carlos Sigüenza y Góngora in Polymath Virtual Library of Ignacio Larramendi Foundation
People from New Spain
1645 births
1700 deaths
Mexican cartographers
17th-century Mexican historians
Historians of Mexico
Mexican philosophers
Mexican scientists
Mexican male poets
Mexican male writers
Historians of Mesoamerica
Mexican Mesoamericanists
Novohispanic Mesoamericanists
17th-century Mesoamericanists
Aztec scholars
Academic staff of the National Autonomous University of Mexico
Catholic clergy scientists
Writers from Mexico City
17th-century cartographers
17th-century male writers
Baroque writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2090%20Business%20%28New%20Orleans%2C%20Louisiana%29
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U.S. Route 90 Business (New Orleans, Louisiana)
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U.S. Highway 90 Business (US 90 Bus.) is a business route of U.S. Highway 90 located in and near New Orleans, Louisiana. It runs in a general east–west direction from US 90 in Avondale to a junction with Interstate 10 (I-10) and US 90 in the New Orleans Central Business District.
Unlike a typical business route, US 90 Bus. is built to a higher standard than the segment of US 90 that it parallels. More than half of the route is an elevated freeway with frontage roads while mainline US 90 is a divided six-lane surface highway. It is also the only business route of a U.S. Highway in Louisiana that is not derived from a former alignment of its parent route. US 90 Bus. was newly constructed between 1954 and 1960 while the parallel section of US 90 has remained largely unchanged since 1936.
US 90 Bus. initially heads eastward along the Westbank Expressway, serving a number of suburban communities in Jefferson Parish located on the west bank of the Mississippi River. These include Westwego, Marrero, Harvey, and Gretna, the parish seat. After transitioning from a surface route to an elevated freeway in Marrero, US 90 Bus. traverses a high-level bridge over the Harvey Canal, a link in the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, while the frontage roads pass through the Harvey Tunnel. Shortly after entering an area of New Orleans known as Algiers, US 90 Bus. curves due west onto the Crescent City Connection, a twin-span cantilever bridge across the Mississippi River. The highway continues alongside the downtown area as part of the elevated Pontchartrain Expressway to a complex interchange with I-10 and mainline US 90 adjacent to the Superdome.
The entirety of US 90 Bus. is intended to become part of I-49 once that highway is extended along the present US 90 corridor from Lafayette to New Orleans. In the meantime, the route carries the designation of Future I-49, as approved by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials in 1999. While the Federal Highway Administration approved the existing freeway portion of US 90 Bus. to be signed as Interstate 910 in the interim, the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development did not follow through with an application to the AASHTO's U.S. Route Numbering Committee, and the designation remains unused.
Route description
Westwego to Harvey Canal
From the west, US 90 Bus. begins at a modified trumpet interchange with US 90 in a sparsely developed area of Jefferson Parish surrounded by the suburban city of Westwego, Bayou Segnette State Park, and an industrial area formerly known as Avondale Shipyard. Mainline US 90 connects with Boutte to the west and the Huey P. Long Bridge across the Mississippi River to the east (geographically north). Due to the proximity of the BNSF/Union Pacific Railroad overpass on eastbound US 90, the ramp from westbound US 90 Bus. travels in an indirect fashion and intersects an eastbound ramp at grade at a four-way stop. As a result, a significant amount of local traffic circumvents this movement by turning onto Nine Mile Point Road toward a signalized intersection with US 90 that features a protected no-stop turn lane.
US 90 Bus. heads southeast along the Westbank Expressway as a divided four-lane highway and intersects Segnette Boulevard, the entrance to the Alario Center and Bayou Segnette State Park. Soon afterward, US 90 Bus. widens to six lanes, and the median width increases from to . Upon entering the city of Westwego, US 90 Bus. becomes a developed commercial corridor, and an intersection with LA 18 Spur (Louisiana Street) provides a route for truck traffic to the industrial facilities along the riverfront. The highway crosses from Westwego into the unincorporated community of Marrero immediately past Victory Drive and curves due east, maintaining a parallel trajectory to the Mississippi River. At Carmadelle Street, several blocks past a signalized intersection with Westwood Drive, a ramp leads through traffic onto an elevated six-lane freeway, which begins in the median. The ground-level portion of the Westbank Expressway continues straight ahead as frontage roads serving local businesses and maintains a six-lane capacity.
After a short distance, the first in a series of tight diamond interchanges, exit 4A, connects with Ames Boulevard. As it is located near the west end of the freeway, the interchange consists only of an eastbound entrance and westbound exit with the remaining movements accessed from the frontage roads. The following exit (4B) connects with LA 45 (Barataria Boulevard) and leads to Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve as well as several communities situated alongside Bayou Barataria. This exit also serves the nearby West Jefferson Medical Center. US 90 Bus. proceeds through the neighboring unincorporated community of Harvey, which is bisected by the Harvey Canal, a link in the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. An industrial corridor flanks the canal and stretches from the Mississippi River southward into Plaquemines Parish near Belle Chasse. A half-diamond interchange at exit 5 (MacArthur Avenue) serves the industrial area on the west bank of the canal. The highway elevates to a height of to cross the canal while the frontage roads pass underneath it via the Harvey Tunnel. Direct access to the facilities on the east side of the canal, situated along LA 3017 (Peters Road), is limited to a westbound exit ramp.
Harvey Canal to Mississippi River
East of the Harvey Canal, US 90 Bus. heads northwest, returning to its prior elevation and connecting to Manhattan Boulevard via exit 6. It then enters the city of Gretna, the seat of Jefferson Parish government. Two interchanges serve Gretna: exit 7 to LA 18/LA 23 (Lafayette Street) and exit 8 to Stumpf Boulevard. Between these two exits, the expressway frontage roads run concurrent with LA 23, which continues northwest onto Stumpf Boulevard. While passing alongside the Oakwood Center shopping mall, US 90 Bus. enters into its final interchange on the west bank: exit 9 to Terry Parkway and General de Gaulle Drive. These are parallel divided thoroughfares, the former serving the mall and adjacent neighborhood of Terrytown. The first portion of the exit is a tight half-diamond interchange consisting of an eastbound exit and westbound entrance that utilize the frontage roads to connect with both thoroughfares.
Immediately after crossing Terry Parkway, US 90 Bus. enters Orleans Parish and the city of New Orleans, which are co-extensive. All remaining movements on exit 9 are provided via a partial cloverleaf interchange at General de Gaulle Drive with flyover ramps connecting to Terry Parkway, and the US 90 Bus. frontage roads are discontinued at this point. General de Gaulle Drive is part of LA 428 and is the principal thoroughfare of Algiers, a name applied to the west bank section of New Orleans. The highway curves due west to begin its ascent onto the Crescent City Connection, a pair of cantilever bridges each carrying four lanes of through traffic across the Mississippi River. Additionally, the eastbound (geographically westbound) span contains two reversible HOV lanes, separated from the main travel lanes by a row of Jersey barriers. Due to the bend in the Mississippi River from which the "Crescent City" gets its name and the orientation of the bridges, the remainder of US 90 Bus. carries traffic signed "eastbound" and "westbound" in geographically opposite directions.
Downtown New Orleans
After climbing to a height of above the Mississippi River, US 90 Bus. enters the New Orleans Central Business District and crosses over the city's Convention Center. The highway simultaneously engages in an interchange with Tchoupitoulas Street at exit 11A, the designated exit for truck traffic associated with the Port of New Orleans. (This exit is signed westbound as exit 11 to Tchoupitoulas and South Peters Streets.) US 90 Bus. proceeds northwest onto the Pontchartrain Expressway, an elevated six-lane freeway in the center of Calliope Street, a divided surface street. Several overlapping interchanges with limited movements further serve the business district, beginning with exit 12A (Camp Street), which passes between the National World War II Museum and Lee Circle. This is followed by exit 12D (Carondelet Street/St. Charles Avenue). In addition to being a significant downtown street, St. Charles Avenue is a scenic oak tree-lined boulevard that traverses uptown neighborhoods such as the Garden District and Carrollton. Exit 12C connects with Loyola Avenue, a divided downtown thoroughfare that provides access to the Union Passenger Terminal and the city's two major entertainment venues—the Superdome and New Orleans Arena. At Loyola Avenue, Calliope Street becomes Earhart Boulevard, which serves as a frontage road for a short distance until US 90 Bus. departs from its alignment.
US 90 Bus. enters into a complex interchange with both US 90 (South Claiborne Avenue) and I-10. Separate ramps connect to westbound US 90 (exit 13A), eastbound US 90 (13B), and eastbound I-10 (13C). To the east, US 90 travels beneath the elevated I-10 as it passes through the downtown area en route to Slidell, located on the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain. Following exit 13C, eastbound US 90 Bus. continues straight ahead to merge with westbound I-10, which swings to the northwest to proceed along the Pontchartrain Expressway toward New Orleans International Airport and the city of Baton Rouge. Locally, westbound I-10 carries traffic between downtown New Orleans and the suburbs in Jefferson and St. Tammany parishes, the latter accessed via the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway.
Route classification and data
US 90 Bus. is classified as an urban freeway by the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development (La DOTD) and carries the internal designation of US 90-Z. Annual average daily traffic data collected by the department in 2019 showed a low of 38,818 vehicles near Westwego, increasing to a peak of 163,126 vehicles on the Mississippi River bridge. The remainder of the route through downtown New Orleans maintained at least 100,000 vehicles to the junction with I-10. The posted speed limit is along the surface portion of the route, increasing to throughout the west bank freeway portion. The remainder of the route across the Crescent City Connection and along the Pontchartrain Expressway is generally posted at .
The portion of US 90 Bus. between the Lafayette Street and Camp Street exits serves as a link in the ten-state National Scenic Byway known as the Great River Road.
History
The three main elements that constitute the route of US 90 Bus. in New Orleans—the Westbank Expressway, the Crescent City Connection, and the Pontchartrain Expressway—were initially conceived between the 1920s and 1940s as separate projects.
Early planning
In 1926, New Orleans visionary George A. Hero and engineer Allen S. Hackett proposed the construction of a bridge across the Mississippi River located in downtown New Orleans. At the time, there was no automobile bridge spanning the river south of Memphis, Tennessee. While its construction was authorized by the United States Congress the following year, the project languished in the face of the Great Depression. In 1935, the Huey P. Long Bridge was completed in neighboring Jefferson Parish about upriver from the city's business district. This bridge was constructed and financed jointly between the Louisiana Highway Commission and the New Orleans Public Belt Railroad primarily to accommodate railroad traffic, which up to that time was forced to cross the river by ferry between the rail yards at Avondale and Harahan. While it contained automobile lanes that benefited through traffic on US 90 through the area, the bridge's location made it inconvenient for local travel between New Orleans and the developing communities on the opposite side of the river. While increasingly outmoded, the string of existing ferry services along the Mississippi River would continue to serve this purpose for another two decades.
Before the existence of the Westbank Expressway, the only highway traversing the west bank communities between US 90 and Algiers was former State Route 30, a narrow two-lane highway that zigzagged through the center of each town. This route is now generally followed by the modern LA 18, which was created in the 1955 Louisiana Highway renumbering. During the 1930s, this once rural area was transformed into a booming industrial corridor focused along the Mississippi River and the Harvey Canal, which had become a link in the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. By 1942, the existing highway had become heavily congested, and the draw bridge crossing of the Harvey Canal was specifically cited as one of the worst traffic bottlenecks in the entire state. That year, the Jefferson Parish Police Jury and a committee of local citizens began to lobby the state highway department to alleviate the problem by constructing a new four-lane highway parallel to the existing Route 30. The proposed bypass would extend from US 90 near the Huey P. Long Bridge to the Algiers Naval Station. It would also feature a bridge across the Harvey Canal with a higher draw span, allowing most marine traffic to pass underneath without impeding the flow of vehicular traffic.
In 1946, the Louisiana Department of Highways engaged New York-based urban planner, Robert Moses, to study traffic patterns in the New Orleans metropolitan area and compile a report to address current and future transportation needs. Moses devised a multi-phase plan that incorporated both the downtown bridge proposal and the west bank bypass highway. The plan also included the Pontchartrain Expressway, another project discussed for many years involving the construction of a modern highway connecting the downtown area with US 61 (Airline Highway), the main route to the state capital. Moses' plan combined these elements into a continuous traffic artery and provided cost estimates as well as engineering evaluations by the New York firm of Andrews and Clark. Eight more years would pass, however, before construction on these projects would begin.
Construction
The first project that would eventually become part of US 90 Bus. was underway in June 1954 with the construction of the Harvey Tunnel. Approved by the Louisiana Department of Highways in October 1951, the tunnel had replaced the earlier idea of a bridge across the Harvey Canal. Although the more expensive option, the tunnel would be quicker to build and could be used as a bomb shelter in case the Cold War were to heat up. Construction of the Westbank Expressway began in the vicinity of the Harvey Canal and forged a path largely along the southern edge of the west bank's existing development. It was originally configured as a divided four-lane surface highway with interchanges at US 90 and Victory Drive (now General de Gaulle Drive). Intersections were provided at major cross streets between these points while two-lane frontage roads provided access to all services and remaining cross streets. The frontage roads began at Louisiana Street in Westwego and continued to the Victory Drive interchange in Algiers, interrupted only at the Harvey Tunnel, through which only the central express lanes traveled. On September 5, 1957, the Harvey Tunnel was opened to traffic and was touted as the first fully automatic underwater vehicular tunnel in the world. Completion of the tunnel was more than 20 months behind schedule due to unexpected soil and cofferdam difficulties. Also placed into service were the adjacent portions of the West Bank Expressway extending west to Barataria Boulevard in Marrero and east to Franklin Avenue in Gretna. A newly reconstructed and improved Franklin Avenue carried through traffic into Algiers at this time.
The Greater New Orleans Bridge, now the westbound (geographically eastbound) span of the Crescent City Connection, began construction in early 1955. The bridge was designed by Modjeski and Masters, the firm responsible for the earlier Huey P. Long Bridge upriver. When opened to traffic in April 1958, the Greater New Orleans Bridge was declared as having the longest cantilever structure in the United States and third longest in the world, its central span totaling . The bridge originally contained a roadway that carried two travel lanes in either direction. The cost of the bridge was approximately $54 million, to be recouped by tolls collected at a toll plaza located at its west bank approach. (The tolls were later removed by Governor John McKeithen in 1964.) Also opened was the first section of the Pontchartrain Expressway, New Orleans' first controlled access freeway, extending from the bridge to an interchange with US 90 (South Claiborne Avenue). The Pontchartrain Expressway also carried four lanes of traffic in its original configuration and contained partial interchanges at Camp Street, St. Charles Avenue, Dryades Street (now O'Keefe Avenue), and Loyola Avenue.
After the opening of the Greater New Orleans Bridge, the Louisiana Department of Highways focused on extending its adjoining expressways to their intended termini. The Pontchartrain Expressway was completed between US 90 (South Claiborne Avenue) and US 61 (Airline Highway) in February 1960. During construction, this segment had been incorporated into the new Interstate Highway System as part of I-10 and was signed accordingly by the end of the year. In September 1960, the Westbank Expressway was completed westward from Barataria Boulevard to its interchange with US 90 near Avondale, which involved filling in a section of Westwego's historic Company Canal. With this accomplished, the designation of US 90 Bus. was applied to the entire route comprising the Westbank Expressway, Greater New Orleans Bridge, and the Pontchartrain Expressway as far as the Claiborne interchange, as it now connected with US 90 at either end. Prior to 1960, the entire route carried the state highway designation of LA 3019, which was changed from Route 2200 in the 1955 Louisiana Highway renumbering.
Later improvements
In December 1972, the I-10 viaduct in the median of South Claiborne Avenue was completed, closing a gap in the interstate's route between the Pontchartrain Expressway and Tulane Avenue. New ramps were added to directly connect the two sections of I-10 and allow through traffic to bypass the Claiborne interchange. However, no direct connection was provided between US 90 Bus. and the new section of I-10 along South Claiborne Avenue.
During the 1960s and 1970s, the suburbs of New Orleans continued to grow dramatically, including the communities on the west bank of the Mississippi River. The resulting traffic congestion on the Westbank Expressway led to plans that would ultimately convert most of the route into an elevated controlled-access freeway. This project was carried out in stages beginning in September 1977 with the construction of a high-level bridge across the Harvey Canal. When completed in May 1984, the bridge became the route for through traffic while the frontage roads were reconfigured to utilize the existing Harvey Tunnel. Also placed into service at this time was the first section of the elevated expressway on either end of the bridge, extending from Avenue D in Marrero to Manhattan Boulevard in Harvey. The elevated expressway was completed eastward from Manhattan Boulevard to Lafayette Street in Gretna in January 1985 and to Stumpf Boulevard the following September. After several delays, the portion between Stumpf Boulevard and Terry Parkway was completed in February 1987. By 1993, the elevated Westbank Expressway was completed from the General de Gaulle Drive interchange to its present terminus near Westwood Drive in Marrero. The original expressway lanes had been removed from that point through Westwego during the 1980s, leaving all traffic to utilize the existing service roads, which were improved and widened. As of 2020, plans to complete the expressway through Westwego have not come to fruition, although the route is part of the future extension of I-49.
By the 1970s, heavy traffic congestion on the Greater New Orleans Bridge and Pontchartrain Expressway led to the planning of a massive road project that would ultimately become the longest-running in the state's history. Construction began in September 1980 on a parallel span of the Greater New Orleans Bridge designed to carry eastbound traffic on US 90 Bus., freeing the original span to carry four lanes of westbound traffic. The Pontchartrain Expressway was also twinned between the new bridge and the Claiborne interchange, after which the original viaduct was extensively rebuilt. A new exit serving the recently improved Tchoupitoulas Street corridor created a route for truck traffic associated with the Port of New Orleans that had formerly traversed residential uptown neighborhoods. Several ramps accessed directly from neighborhood streets were removed and reconfigured, which was made possible by the construction of new service roads along the expressway. Preservationists celebrated the long-awaited removal of an entrance ramp on Camp Street in the city's historic Lower Garden District, which was replaced by a less conspicuous ramp looping underneath the expressway. Perhaps most significant among the numerous other improvements, new flyover ramps were built to finally provide a direct connection to I-10 east of the Claiborne interchange. For years, motorists had utilized the US 90 east off-ramp to reach I-10 east while performing a dangerous and illegal maneuver that caused numerous accidents and fatalities over the years but was often tolerated by law enforcement out of necessity.
The new span of the Greater New Orleans Bridge was completed in 1988, and both spans were collectively renamed the Crescent City Connection the following year. The entire project was completed and opened to traffic in June 1996 after 16 years and an expenditure of approximately $480 million.
Future
The entire route of US 90 Bus. is planned to become part of I-49, which is currently being extended from Lafayette to New Orleans along the present US 90 corridor. The proposed route south of I-310 in Boutte, which includes US 90 Bus., was officially approved as Future I-49 by the American Association of State Highway Officials on October 1, 1999. Signage identifying the route as such can be seen at various points along the Westbank Expressway. The Federal Highway Administration approved the existing freeway portion of US 90 Bus. to be signed as Interstate 910 in the interim, subject to the approval of the AASHTO's Route Numbering Committee. However, the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development did not follow through, and the designation remains unused.
Major intersections
See also
Notes
References
External links
Maps / GIS Data Homepage, Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development
Great River Road at Louisiana Scenic Byways
Business (New Orleans, Louisiana)
90 Business (New Orleans)
90 Business (New Orleans, Louisiana)
Freeways in the United States
Interstate 10
Interstate 49
Transportation in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana
U.S. Route 90 Business
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea%20snake
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Sea snake
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Sea snakes, or coral reef snakes, are elapid snakes that inhabit marine environments for most or all of their lives. They belong to two subfamilies, Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae. Hydrophiinae also includes Australasian terrestrial snakes, whereas Laticaudinae only includes the sea kraits (Laticauda), of which three species are found exclusively in freshwater. If these three freshwater species are excluded, there are 69 species of sea snakes divided between seven genera.
Most sea snakes are venomous, except the genus Emydocephalus, which feeds almost exclusively on fish eggs. Sea snakes are extensively adapted to a fully aquatic life and are unable to move on land, except for the sea kraits, which have limited land movement. They are found in warm coastal waters from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific and are closely related to venomous terrestrial snakes in Australia.
All sea snakes have paddle-like tails and many have laterally compressed bodies that give them an eel-like appearance. Unlike fish, they do not have gills and must surface regularly to breathe. Along with Cetaceans, they are among the most completely aquatic of all extant air-breathing vertebrates. Among this group are species with some of the most potent venoms of all snakes. Some have gentle dispositions and bite only when provoked, while others are much more aggressive.
Description
The majority of adult sea snakes species grow to between in length, with the largest, Hydrophis spiralis, reaching a maximum of . Their eyes are relatively small with a round pupil and most have nostrils located dorsally. The skulls do not differ significantly from those of terrestrial elapids, although their dentition is relatively primitive with short fangs and (with the exception of Emydocephalus) as many as 18 smaller teeth behind them on the maxilla.
Most sea snakes are completely aquatic and have adapted to sea environments in many ways, the most characteristic of which is a paddle-like tail that has improved their swimming ability. To a varying degree, the bodies of many species are laterally compressed, especially in the pelagic species. This has often caused the ventral scales to become reduced in size, even difficult to distinguish from the adjoining scales. Their lack of ventral scales means they have become virtually helpless on land, but as they live out their entire lifecycles at sea, they have no need to leave the water.
The only genus that has retained the enlarged ventral scales is the sea kraits, Laticauda, with only five species. These snakes are considered to be more primitive, as they still spend much of their time on land, where their ventral scales afford them the necessary grip. Laticauda species are also the only sea snakes with internasal scales; that is, their nostrils are not located dorsally.
Since a snake's tongue can fulfill its olfactory function more easily under water, its action is short compared to that of terrestrial snake species. Only the forked tips protrude from the mouth through a divided notch in the middle of the rostral scale. The nostrils have valves consisting of a specialized spongy tissue to exclude water, and the windpipe can be drawn up to where the short nasal passage opens into the roof of the mouth. This is an important adaptation for an animal that must surface to breathe, but may have its head partially submerged when doing so. The lung has become very large and extends almost the entire length of the body, although the rear portion is thought to have developed to aid buoyancy rather than to exchange gases. The extended lung possibly also serves to store air for dives.
Most species of sea snakes are able to respire through the top of their skin. This is unusual for reptiles, because their skin is thick and scaly, but experiments with the black-and-yellow sea snake, Hydrophis platurus (a pelagic species), have shown this species can satisfy about 25% of its oxygen requirements in this manner, which allows for prolonged dives.
Like other land animals that have adapted to life in a marine environment, sea snakes ingest considerably more salt than their terrestrial relatives through their diets, and when seawater is inadvertently swallowed. Because of this, a more effective means of regulating the salt concentration of their blood is required. In sea snakes, the posterior sublingual glands, located under and around the tongue sheath, allow them to expel salt with their tongue action.
Scalation among sea snakes is highly variable. As opposed to terrestrial snake species that have imbricate scales to protect against abrasion, the scales of most pelagic sea snakes do not overlap. Reef-dwelling species, such as Aipysurus, do have imbricate scales to protect against the sharp coral. The scales themselves may be smooth, keeled, spiny, or granular, the latter often looking like warts. Pelamis has body scales that are "peg-like", while those on its tail are juxtaposed hexagonal plates.
Sensory abilities
Vision, chemoreception (tongue-flicking), and hearing are important senses for terrestrial snakes, but these stimuli become distorted in water. The poor visibility, chemical dilution, and limitation of ground-borne vibrations under water suggest that sea snakes and sea kraits may have unique sensory abilities to compensate for the relative lack of other sensory cues.
Relatively little is known about sea snake vision. A study of photoreceptors in the retina of spine-bellied, Lapemis curtus, and horned, Acalyptophis peronii, sea snakes found three classes of opsins all from cone cells. Despite the absence of rod cells in sea snake eyes, Simeos et al. found the rhodopsin (rh1), the opsin of the rods, still expressed suggesting that in sea snakes some cones may be transmuted rods. Behavioural observations indicate that vision has a limited role for catching prey and mate selection, but sound vibrations and chemoreception may be important. One study identified small sensory organs on the head of Lapemis curtus similar to the mechanoreceptors in alligators and aquatic snake Acrochodus that are used to sense the movement of fish prey. Westhoff et al. recorded auditory brain responses to vibration underwater in Lapemis curtus, which are sensitive enough to detect movement in prey, but were not as sensitive as fish lateral line systems. Similarly, vision appears to be of limited importance for finding mates. Shine experimented with applying skin secretions (pheromones) to snake-like objects to see if male turtle-headed sea snakes, Emydocephalus annulatus, are attracted to female pheromones. Shine found that although vision may be useful over short distances (less than ), pheromones are more important once the male comes in physical contact with an object.
The olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis, has been found to have photoreceptors in the skin of its tail, allowing it to detect light and presumably ensuring it is completely hidden, including its tail, inside coral holes during the day. While other species have not been tested, A. laevis possibly is not unique among sea snakes in this respect.
Other unique senses, such as electromagnetic reception and pressure detection, have been proposed for sea snakes, but scientific studies have yet to be performed to test these senses.
Distribution and habitat
Sea snakes are mostly confined to the warm tropical waters of the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean, with a few species found well out into Oceania. The geographic range of one species, Pelamis platurus, is wider than that of any other reptile species, except for a few species of sea turtles. It extends from the east coast of Africa, from Djibouti in the north to Cape Town in the south, across the Indian Ocean, the Pacific, south as far as the northern coast of New Zealand, all the way to the western coast of the Americas, where it occurs from northern Peru in the south (including the Galápagos Islands) to the Gulf of California in the north. Isolated specimens have been found as far north as San Diego and Oxnard in the United States.
Sea snakes do not occur in the Atlantic Ocean. Pelamis possibly would be found there were it not for the cold currents off Namibia and western South Africa that keep it from crossing into the eastern South Atlantic, or south of 5°S latitude along the South American west coast. Sea snakes do not occur in the Red Sea, believed to be due to its increased salinity, so no danger exists of them crossing through the Suez Canal. A lack of salinity is also thought to be the reason why Pelamis has not crossed into the Caribbean via the Panama Canal.
Despite their marine adaptations, most sea snakes prefer shallow waters near land, around islands, and especially somewhat sheltered waters, as well as near estuaries. They may swim up rivers and have been reported as far as from the sea. Others, such as P. platurus, are pelagic and are found in drift lines, slicks of floating debris brought together by surface currents. Some sea snakes inhabit mangrove swamps and similar brackishwater habitats, and two landlocked freshwater forms are found: Hydrophis semperi occurs in Lake Taal in the Philippines, and Laticauda crockeri in Lake Te Nggano on Rennell Island in the Solomon Islands.
Behavior
Sea snakes are generally reluctant to bite, and are usually considered to be mild-tempered, although variation is seen among species and individuals. Some species, such as P. platurus, which feed by simply gulping down their prey, are more likely to bite when provoked because they seem to use their venom more for defense. Others, such as Laticauda spp., use their venom for prey immobilization. Sea snakes are often handled without concern by local fishermen who unravel and toss them back into the water barehanded, usually without getting bitten, when the snakes frequently become entangled in fishing nets. Species reported as much more aggressive include Aipysurus laevis, Astrotia stokesii, Enhydrina schistosa, Enhydrina zweifeli, and Hydrophis ornatus.
On land, their movements become very erratic. They crawl awkwardly in these situations and can become quite aggressive, striking wildly at anything that moves, although they are unable to coil and strike in the manner of terrestrial snakes.
Sea snakes appear to be active both day and night. In the morning, and sometimes late in the afternoon, they can be seen at the surface basking in the sunlight, and they dive when disturbed. They have been reported swimming at depths over , and can remain submerged for as long as a few hours, possibly depending on temperature and degree of activity.
Sea snakes have been sighted in huge numbers. For example, in 1932, a steamer in the Strait of Malacca, off the coast of Malaysia, reported sighting "millions" of Astrotia stokesii, a relative of Pelamis; these reportedly formed a line of snakes wide and long. The cause of this phenomenon is unknown, although it likely has to do with reproduction. They can sometimes be seen swimming in schools of several hundred, and many dead specimens have been found on beaches after typhoons.
Ecology
They feed on small fish and occasionally young octopus. They are often associated with the sea snake barnacle (Platylepas ophiophila), which attaches to their skin.
Reproduction
Except for a single genus, all sea snakes are ovoviviparous; the young are born alive in the water where they live their entire lives. In some species, the young are quite large, up to half as long as the mother. The one exception is the genus Laticauda, which is oviparous; its five species all lay their eggs on land.
Venom
Like their relatives in the family Elapidae, the majority of sea snakes are highly venomous. They rarely inject their venom when biting, so venomous bites to humans are rare. For example, Hydrophis platurus has a venom more potent than any terrestrial snake species in Costa Rica based on LD50, but despite its abundance in the waters off its western coast, few human fatalities have been reported. The death of a trawler fisherman in Australian waters during 2018 was reported to be the region's first sea snake fatality since a pearl diver was killed in 1935.
Bites in which envenomation does occur are usually painless and may not even be noticed when contact is made. Teeth may remain in the wound. Usually, little or no swelling occurs, and rarely are any nearby lymph nodes affected. The most important symptoms are rhabdomyolysis (rapid breakdown of skeletal muscle tissue) and paralysis. Early symptoms include headache, a thick-feeling tongue, thirst, sweating, and vomiting. The venom is very slow acting and symptoms that happen from little as 30 minutes to several hours after the bite include generalized aching, stiffness, and tenderness of muscles all over the body. Passive stretching of the muscles is also painful, and trismus, which is similar to tetanus, is common. This is followed later on by symptoms typical of other elapid envenomations, a progressive flaccid paralysis, starting with ptosis and paralysis of voluntary muscles. Paralysis of muscles involved in swallowing and respiration can be fatal.
Vick et al (1975) estimated that the LD50 of three sea snake venoms (H. platurus, L. semifasciata and L. laticaudata) for a 70 kg human range from 7.7 to 21 mg. Data from the only sea snake venom conducted in monkeys at that time suggested that primates were slightly more resistant to the venom effects on a dose response basis than mice. In this regard, recall the recent report by Ishikawa et al (1985) indicating a substantially lower binding affinity between sea snake neurotoxin and human and chimpanzee AChR's compared to that in other animals. In humans, the venom targets appear mainly to be the cell walls of voluntary (skeletal) muscles and distal tubular portions of the kidney including the loop of Henle, the second convoluted tubule and the collecting tubules. Sitprija et al (1973) found evidence of tubular necrosis throughout all portions of the renal tubules in two patients severely envenomated by sea snakes. Sea snake venoms in humans are thus more often myotoxic and/or nephrotoxic rather than neurotoxic.
Taxonomy
Sea snakes were at first regarded as a unified and separate family, the Hydrophiidae, that later came to comprise two subfamilies: the Hydrophiinae, or true/aquatic sea snakes (now 6 genera with 64 species), and the more primitive Laticaudinae, or sea kraits (one genus, Laticauda, with eight species). Eventually, as just how closely related the sea snakes are to the elapids became clear, the taxonomic situation became less well-defined. Some taxonomists responded by moving the sea snakes to the Elapidae. Most taxonomists now place the sea snakes in the elapid subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae, although the latter may be omitted if Laticauda is included in the Hydrophiinae. Unlike the traditional Hydrophiinae, the Hydrophiinae as currently seen also includes Australasian terrestrial elapids.
Molecular studies
Molecular data studies suggest all three monotypic semiaquatic genera (Ephalophis, Parahydrophis and Hydrelaps) are early diverging lineages.
Captivity
At best, sea snakes make difficult captives. Ditmars (1933) described them as nervous and delicate captives that usually refuse to eat, preferring only to hide in the darkest corner of the tank. Over 50 years later, Mehrtens wrote in 1987 that although they were rarely displayed in Western zoological parks, some species were regularly on display in Japanese aquariums. The available food supply limits the number of species that can be kept in captivity, since some have diets that are too specialized. Also, some species appear intolerant of handling, or even being removed from the water. Regarding their requirements in captivity, the Laticauda species need to be able to exit the water somewhere at about , along with a submerged shelter. Species that have done relatively well in captivity include the ringed sea snake, Hydrophis cyanocinctus, which feeds on fish and eels in particular. Pelamis platurus has done especially well in captivity, accepting small fish, including goldfish. Housing them in round tanks, or in rectangular tanks with well-rounded corners, prevents snakes from damaging their snouts on the sides.
Conservation status
Most sea snakes are not on the CITES protection lists. One species, Laticauda crockeri, is classified as vulnerable. Several species of Aipysurus are listed with conservation status of greater concern, the Timor species A. fuscus is known to be endangered, and two others found in seas north of Australia, the leaf-scaled A. foliosquama and short-nosed A. apraefrontalis, are classified as critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
See also
List of marine reptiles
Snakebite
Sea serpent
References
Further reading
Graham JB, Lowell WR, Rubinoff I, Motta J. 1987. Surface and subsurface swimming of the sea snake Pelamis platurus. J. exp. Biol. 127, 27-44. PDF at the [Journal of Experimental Biology]. Accessed 7 August 2007.
Rasmussen AR. 1997. Systematics of sea snakes; a critical review. Symp. Zool. Soc. London 70, 15-30.
Smith MA. 1926. Monograph of the sea snakes (Hydrophiidae). British Museum of Natural History, London.
Voris HK. 1977. A phylogeny of the sea snakes (Hydrophiidae). Fieldiana Zool. 70, 79-169.
Whitaker R. 1978. Common Indian Snakes: A Field Guide. Macmillan India Limited.
External links
Sea Snakes in Australia
Sea Snakes at Scubadoc's Diving Medicine Online. Accessed 6 August 2007.
Diving Gunung Api: Volcano Of The Sea Snakes - first hand account of scuba divers interacting with sea snakes at the Indonesian volcano Gunung Api, June 2009
Taxa named by Malcolm Arthur Smith
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5009776
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowland%20Ward
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Rowland Ward
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James Rowland Ward (1848–1912) was a British taxidermist and founder of the firm Rowland Ward Limited of Piccadilly, London. The company specialised in and was renowned for its taxidermy work on birds and big-game trophies, but it did other types of work as well. In creating many practical items from antlers, feathers, feet, skins, and tusks, the Rowland Ward company made fashionable items (sometimes known as Wardian furniture) from animal parts, such as zebra-hoof inkwells, antler furniture, and elephant-feet umbrella stands.
Rowland Ward was also a well-known publisher of natural history books and big-game hunting narratives. The most famous and enduring Rowland Ward Ltd. product is the Records of Big Game series of books, which started in 1892 and is now in its thirtieth edition (2020). These books contain measurements of game animals from all over the world and is the oldest such series of books in existence.
History of Rowland Ward Limited
Even before Rowland's time, his family had been involved in taxidermy and natural history. According to the history of the Rowland Ward company by P. A. Morris, Rowland Ward's grandfather was a naturalist and dealer in animal skins. Edwin Henry Ward (1812–1878), Rowland Ward's father, was a well-known taxidermist in his day. Edwin H. Ward travelled with John James Audubon on his expeditions, and Ward collected and prepared the bird skins for the artist. These specimens were later used by Audubon in his epic The Birds of America.
Edwin H. Ward set up a taxidermy shop in London in 1857 and received a royal warrant from Queen Victoria in 1870. Other distantly related Ward family members had taxidermy-related businesses as far away as New York and Australia. Edwin H. Ward had two sons, Edwin Jr. and James Rowland. Both were trained in their father's business and were successful on their own, mounting heads for the British royal family as well the empress of Austria, among others. Edwin Jr. left the taxidermy business and eventually moved to the United States where he was involved in various ventures. Edwin Jr.'s son, Herbert Ward (1863–1919), served as a zoologist for Henry Morton Stanley during Stanley's 1887–1888 Emin Pasha Relief Expedition into the interior of then-unknown Africa.
Rowland Ward became the best-known taxidermist of the family. In his own book, A Naturalist's Life Study he said he left school at age fourteen to work in his father's shop. Rowland helped his father mount a hummingbird collection for John Gould. Early on, his focus was on sculpting and anatomically correct modelling. Rowland Ward was also a bronze sculptor of note.
By 1870, all three Wards operated taxidermy shops of their own in England. Then Edwin Jr. left for the United States and Edwin H. Ward died in 1878, and these events left Rowland Ward the only family member in the taxidermy business in England. In the later part of the nineteenth century, Rowland Ward located his shop at 167 Piccadilly, London. From far and wide, in newspapers and in casual speech throughout the Empire, his shop was famously referred to as "The Jungle."
Rowland Ward in the Victorian Age
Two forces in the nineteenth century came together to make Rowland Ward Ltd. an international powerhouse of taxidermy and book publishing: the global reach of the British Empire and the Industrial Revolution. The British Empire was composed of dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories that were ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. At its height, the British Empire was the largest in history and, for over a century it was the foremost global power. Its apex occurred during the lifetime of James Rowland Ward. At the end of World War I, the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time. The Empire covered more than 33,700,000 km sq. (13,012,000 sq. miles), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area . . . and Rowland Ward was not only known as the taxidermist to the Empire's rich and powerful, but Rowland Ward Ltd. was the only organisation to keep extensive records of the trophies of the Empire's elites as well as dignitaries from other nations.
The Industrial Revolution had created enormous new wealth, and that revolution started in Britain. The industries founded in Great Britain generated tremendous fortunes for the owners of the newly formed industries. These fortunes created a new class of British sportsmen who ventured out over the world and brought back hunting trophies as well as natural history specimens for public and private museums. Rowland Ward Ltd. thrived as a result. The company's reputation spread, and soon Rowland Ward was receiving commissions from all over Europe to prepare museum specimens. Famous sportsmen from as far away as Russia brought their trophies to Rowland Ward Ltd. In addition, Rowland Ward Ltd. helped many museums and private collections acquire specimens.
Possibly among Ward's most famous work was the taxidermy he did for Percy Powell-Cotton for the famous Powell-Cotton Museum. Rowland Ward wanted to mount Powell-Cotton's elephant, which had the second largest tusks ever recorded, life-size, but to do so would necessitate an extension of the roof of the building to accommodate such a large trophy, and that was something Powell-Cotton did not want to do. Rowland Ward felt so strongly that this elephant should be life size that he made a deal with Powell-Cotton: Rowland Ward would do the taxidermy for free if Powell-Cotton would do the necessary remodelling to accommodate the full-size mount. They agreed, and the full-size mount can still be viewed today in the Powell-Cotton Museum at Quex Park.
More than any other taxidermist of his age, Rowland Ward became known for making items from skins, horns, and skulls that could be used in the home, either for practical purposes or as decorations. Known as Victorian or Edwardian “animal furniture,” these items included a “dumbwaiter” in the form of a mounted bear standing up straight and holding a silver tray on which glasses could be placed; inkwells made from horse hoofs; and letter openers with the blade made from ivory, the handle made of a fox's paw, and the two connected with an elegant silver sleeve. Then there were liquor cabinets made from elephants’ feet; stuffed birds that acted as lamp stands, and items that would seem very odd in the twenty-first century but were highly fashionable and desirable in Victorian England.
In addition, Rowland Ward Ltd. was a great supplier of glass cabinets filled with colourful mounted birds; these were all the rage as home decorations at the time. Because rowing on the Thames was such a fashionable activity during Ward's lifetime, the company also sold canoes imported from Canada. It appears that Rowland Ward Ltd. made a great deal of money from his ventures. Rowland Ward's mounted heads and glass bird boxes are very collectible today in England, with several auction houses offering specialised sales each year.
Rowland Ward Ltd. Publishing
In 1872 Rowland Ward's brother, Edwin Jr., published a small book entitled Knapsack Manual for Sportsmen on the Field. It is clear Rowland Ward borrowed elements from this publication to start his own series of books in 1880 called The Sportsman's Handbook. Today this series is in its fifteenth edition. These handbooks serve as guides on how to conduct hunts, take care of skins, operate camps, hire guides, and select firearms.
Soon other books followed, including the first edition of the Records of Big Game in 1892. Today, the early editions of Rowland Ward's record books and his other publications are highly sought after by collectors worldwide and bring very high prices in the antiquarian market. These titles include Sport in Somaliland by Count Josef Potocki, After Wild Sheep in the Altai and Mongolia by Prince Demidoff; Great and Small Game of Africa by Henry Bryden; The Deer of All Lands by Richard Lydekker; Elephant Hunting in East Equatorial Africa by Alfred Neumann; A Sporting Trip Through Abyssinia by Percy Powell-Cotton; Travel and Big Game by Frederick Selous, and many others. In addition to his own publishing ventures, Rowland Ward also distributed books for other companies.
Rowland Ward himself wrote several books, including one on his angling trip to Florida that was based on the diaries kept by his wife. The company's most prolific author was Richard Lydekker, who happened to be the preeminent naturalist of his time. Lydekker wrote a total of nine books for Rowland Ward.
Many of Rowland Ward's books are instantly recognisable by their "zebra pattern" endpapers, which were granted a patent in Great Britain. The company issued some books in small-number, limited editions signed by Rowland Ward himself. Even the books not signed or limited are now very rare and costly, especially in what book dealers term "fine" condition.
Records of Big Game
The most enduring and famous of all Rowland Ward's publications is his Records of Big Game. Started in 1882, the first edition was entitled Horn Measurements and Weights of the Great Game of the World. It was revised and reprinted in 1894, but the second edition, which was published only four years after the first, had two-and-a-half times the number of pages as the first. The second edition was entitled Rowland Ward's Records of Big Game, and it is this title that has been used ever since.
The series was the talk of its day among hunters and naturalists, and by the time World War I started (1914), seven editions had been issued, each containing more and more measurements and greater variations in the number and species of animals with trophies listed from the early 1800s. In this period, field guides were not published; consequently, the Records of Big Game served as a valuable resource for information as to what mammals could be found and where they could be found in the far-flung corners of the earth and Empire.
Many natural history museums of that day kept a copy of Rowland Ward's Records of Big Game in their reference libraries. Not only were there measurements, but the volumes in the series also contained anecdotes from hunters, naturalists, and Rowland Ward himself about species, subspecies, geographical variations, common weights and measurements, and distribution. As a testament of Rowland Ward's own naturalist qualifications, three animals had the Ward name incorporated in their scientific nomenclature: the Asiatic ibex, Capra sibirica wardi; a subspecies of reedbuck, Redunca redunca wardi; and a subspecies of the Malayan bear, Ursus malayanus wardi.
As time went by, Rowland Ward's Records of Big Game became a who's who of big-game hunting. Those who entered their trophies in “the book,” as it was called, included King George V, Queen Elizabeth II, Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands, Prince Abdorreza of Iran, various Princes of Wales, the Maharaja of Cooch Behar, Sir Winston Churchill, President Theodore Roosevelt, Lord Curzon, and a host of other royalty, nobility, dignitaries, celebrities, and otherwise famous people. After World War II, the influence of American big-game hunters became more apparent as sportsmen such as Ernest Hemingway, Robert Ruark, Jack O’Connor, Herb Klein, Elgin Gates, and James Mellon II entered their exceptional game trophies in “the book.”
Death and succession
At the turn of the twentieth century, Rowland Ward Ltd. was at its zenith, and in 1904 the company was granted a royal warrant. Hunters and naturalists from all over the world came to Rowland Ward for advice on equipment and destinations. In 1907 American Percy Madeira wrote “When in 1907 I saw the possibility of making this hunting trip—a long desired wish—I wrote to Rowland Ward, the naturalist-taxidermist, in London, inquiring where the best bag of African game had been secured that year.” Madeira proceeded to take a steamer to London where he picked up supplies deemed necessary for an extended safari before continuing on to East Africa.
Young Winston Churchill was a customer of Rowland Ward Ltd. Walter Rothschild, kings Edward VII and George V, and numerous American and European celebrities and film stars brought their hunting trophies to "The Jungle" to be mounted. While there they bought various curios and animal furniture, all of which garner very high prices at auction houses today.
Rowland Ward was married to Lina Maple Ward (1868–1951), but the couple had no children. Lina was apparently not involved in the business, and she is rarely mentioned by Ward in his writings. In his book on his Florida fishing trip he refers to her as "Mrs. Ward." The couple appears to have had a high standard of living, keeping staff and a butler in their London home. When Rowland Ward died on 28 December 1912, there was no one to succeed him.
The company issued shares and was incorporated under the name Rowland Ward Limited in 1891. There were several shareholders, but it appears Rowland Ward was the majority shareholder. By the time of Rowland Ward's death, however, John Binmore Burlace was the company manager as well as a shareholder. Burlace continued acquiring shares over time and by the late 1920s he held the majority. He bought out Lina Ward entirely in 1935.
By the mid-1930s, the publishing side of the business had slowed down considerably with only Records of Big Game continuing on a steady basis; however, the taxidermy part of the business and the retail establishment in London were going strong. By the early 1940s, Burlace retired and sold his shares to Gerald Best, who bought the last shares from the remaining shareholders in 1946.
After World War II
Already after World War I, great changes began to occur in the world of taxidermy and international hunting. Whereas before 1914 most of the sportsmen seen in the game fields of the world were British, after 1918 they were gradually replaced by American hunters, and after World War II, more American hunters were seen in Africa and Asia than any other nationality.
At the same time American taxidermists such as Louis Paul Jonas of Denver, the James Clark Studios, and later Klineburger Brothers Taxidermy started providing taxidermy services to their clientele in the United States. Nonetheless, Rowland Ward Ltd. retained a prominent position in the world of taxidermy, and during the Gerald Best years up to 80 percent of all taxidermy work was exported.
In 1950, Rowland Ward Ltd. opened an establishment in Nairobi for taxidermy and as a center for processing and shipping raw skins. In England, the business continued in various locations in London, and in the period between 1960 and 1970 Rowland Ward Ltd. employed from twenty-nine to forty-four people, . When Gerald Best died on 17 October 1969, the taxidermy part of the business was taken over by Anthony Arthur Best, his son.
However, the times were changing and the continued loss of habitat for the world's great mammals had its effect on hunting. Various locales and entire countries closed their hunting programs, including India in 1971 and Kenya in 1976. In 1974 the government of Kenya expropriated the Nairobi Rowland Ward establishment without compensation, a great loss for the company. This, combined with the shifting of the client base to the United States and the increasing competition from American and European companies, caused the taxidermy side of the business to close in the mid-1970s.
Retail Establishment in London
Tim Best, a brother of Anthony, continued to operate the Rowland Ward store, now located in Knightsbridge, London, which sold crystal, porcelain, books, and other animal-themed items. He also published books containing accounts of big-game hunting adventures, including Tony Sanchez's on the Trail of the African Elephant. In addition, Tim Best was in charge of the record book series; in 1981 he published the eighteenth edition of Records of Big Game.
Ownership Moves to the United States and then to South Africa
The eighteenth edition of Records of Big Game was, however, the last edition to be published in England. In 1982 the company was sold to Game Conservation International (known as Game Coin), an organisation based in San Antonio, Texas. Game Coin published one edition of the Records of Big Game and then turned over the publishing of the series to Steve Smith of Johannesburg, South Africa.
Steve Smith greatly revitalised the publishing program and started publishing maps, more hunting narratives, and natural history books as well as the perennial best-seller Records of Big Game. Smith also once again began accepting game entries from Asia, Europe, and North America. (Only African game had been accepted since the tenth edition of Records of Big Game (1935).)
A year after Smith died in a car accident (1993), Game Coin sold the company to Robin Halse of Queenstown, South Africa. Subsequently, the company was taken over by his daughter, Jane Halse, who continues to publish the Records of Big Game series as well as other natural history and hunting publications.
Since the Halse family took over the business, Rowland Ward has continued to remain active in publishing and has also branched out in other areas as well. Besides publishing and selling books, Rowland Ward also sells clothing and leather goods. Its retail establishment in Johannesburg sells its products all over the world via its Web site and catalogs. Safari Press of Huntington Beach, California, distributes the company's publications in North America. In 2015 the company was sold and operations are now based in California.
References
External links
Rowland Ward company site
Rowland Ward (1903) Records of Big game (scanned version)
Taxidermists
1848 births
1912 deaths
19th-century British businesspeople
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric
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Eric
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The given name Eric, Erich, Erikk, Erik, Erick, or Eirik is derived from the Old Norse name Eiríkr (or Eríkr in Old East Norse due to monophthongization).
The first element, ei- may be derived from the older Proto-Norse *aina(z), meaning "one, alone, unique", as in the form Æ∆inrikr explicitly, but it could also be from *aiwa(z) "everlasting, eternity", as in the Gothic form Euric. The second element -ríkr stems either from Proto-Germanic *ríks "king, ruler" (cf. Gothic reiks) or the therefrom derived *ríkijaz "kingly, powerful, rich, prince"; from the common Proto-Indo-European root *h₃rḗǵs. The name is thus usually taken to mean "sole ruler, autocrat" or "eternal ruler, ever powerful". Eric used in the sense of a proper noun meaning "one ruler" may be the origin of Eriksgata, and if so it would have meant "one ruler's journey". The tour was the medieval Swedish king's journey, when newly elected, to seek the acceptance of peripheral provinces.
Eric is one of the most commonly used Germanic names in the United States, along with Robert, William, Edward and others.
The most common spelling across Fennoscandia and in the Netherlands is Erik. In Norway, another form of the name (which has kept the Old Norse diphthong) Eirik is also commonly used. The modern Icelandic version is Eiríkur , while the modern Faroese version is Eirikur.
In Estonia and Finland (where Fenno-Swedish remains an official minority language), the standard Nordic name form Erik is found, but it may also be spelled phonetically as Eerik (), in accordance with Finnic language orthography, along with a slew of other unique Balto-Finnic variant forms including Eerikki, Eero, Erki and Erkki.
Although the name was in use in Anglo-Saxon England, its use was reinforced by Scandinavian settlers arriving before the Norman conquest of England. It was an uncommon name in England until the Middle Ages, when it gained popularity, and finally became a common name in the 19th century. This was partly because of the publishing of the novel Eric, or, Little by Little by Frederic Farrar in 1858.
The Latin form of the name is Euricus or Erīcus (), which was also adopted into Old Swedish usage (for example, cf. 15th century Kalmar Swedish historian Ericus Olai). Whence come the Greek forms Ερίκος (Eríkos) or Ερρίκος (Erríkos) (both ), in addition to the direct Nordic borrowing Έρικ (Érik).
Éric () is used in French, Erico or Errico in Italian, Érico in Portuguese. (Note some phonetically simplified modern forms may be conflated with descendants of cognate name Henry via Henrīcus, Henrik, from Proto-Germanic Haimarīks, sharing the stem *rīks.)
Among Slavic languages, most using the Latin alphabet borrow Erik, but there also exists Polish Eryk. The name is adapted into Cyrillic as Russian Э́йрик (Éyrik) or Э́рик (Érik), and Ukrainian Е́рік (Érik). The Baltic languages use forms such as Latvian Ēriks and Lithuanian Erikas.
And in Germany, Eric, Erik and Erich are used. In South America, the most common spelling is Erick.
In Norway, Sweden and Finland, the name day for derivations of Erik and Eirik is 18 May, commemorating the death of Saint King Eric IX of Sweden, founder of the royal House of Eric.
The feminine derivative is Erica or Erika.
Royalty
Visigothic
Euric, king of the Visigoths between 466 and 484
Danish
Eric I of Denmark, king of Denmark between 1095 and 1103
Eric II of Denmark, king of Denmark between 1134 and 1137
Eric III of Denmark, king of Denmark from 1137 until he abdicated in 1146
Eric IV of Denmark, king of Denmark from 1241 until his murder in 1250
Eric V of Denmark, son of Christopher I, reigned from 1259 to his murder in 1286
Eric VI of Denmark, firstborn son of Eric V, reigned from 1286 to 1319
Eric VII of Denmark, also Eric III of Norway and Eric XIII of Sweden, reigned from 1397 to his deposition in 1439
Norwegian
Eric I of Norway (Eric Bloodaxe), the second king of Norway
Eric II of Norway, the king of Norway from 1280 until 1299
Eric III of Norway, also Eric VII of Denmark and Eric XIII of Sweden
Eiríkr Hákonarson, earl of Lade, ruler of Norway and earl of Northumbria
Erik the Red, the son of Þorvaldr Ásvaldsson
Swedish
Alaric and Eric, two legendary kings of Sweden
Jorund and Eirik, two legendary kings of Sweden
Erik Björnsson, one of the sons of Björn Ironside
Erik Refilsson, Swedish legendary king
Eric Anundsson, Swedish legendary king who ruled during the 9th century, may be the same as Erik Weatherhat, a more or less mythical Swedish king
Eric the Victorious, king of the Swedes during the second half of the 10th century
Eric and Eric, two pretenders around 1066
Eric IX of Sweden, Swedish king between 1150 and 1160, called Saint Eric, Eric the Lawgiver, Eric the Saint, or Eric the Holy
Eric X of Sweden, the King of Sweden between 1208 and 1216
Eric XI of Sweden, the son of king Erik X of Sweden and Richeza of Denmark
Eric XII of Sweden, rival King of Sweden and to his father Magnus IV from 1356 to his death in 1359
Eric XIII of Sweden, Eric of Pomerania
Eric XIV of Sweden, King of Sweden from 1560 until he was deposed in 1568
Given name
Eric, Erich, and Erik are very common given names. The below list is a sampling. See , , and for comprehensive lists.
A–E
Erik (wrestler), stage name for American professional wrestler Raymond Rowe Sr. (born 1984)
Erik Aadahl (born 1976), American sound editor
Eric Abidal (born 1979), French former professional footballer
Eric Adams, American politician and retired police officer
Erich Carl Hugo Adamson (1902–1968), Estonian artist
Eric the Actor, television actor, radio personality
Eric Adjetey Anang, Ghanaian artist
Erik Affholter (born 1966), American football player
Erik Agard, American crossword solver, constructor, and editor
Eric Aho (born 1966), American painter
Eric Albronda (born 1945), American musician
Eric Allen (born 1965), American football coach
Erick Allen (born 1975), Georgia House of Representatives former member
Eric Alterman (born 1960), American historian, journalist, author, media critic, blogger, and educator
Eric Andersen (born 1943), American singer-songwriter
Erik Andersen (disambiguation), several people
Erik Andersson (disambiguation), several people
Eric Andersen (artist) (born 1940), Danish artist
Eric Anderson (disambiguation), multiple people
Eric André, American comedian
Eric Andrews (1933–2001), Australian historian, academic and author
Eric Angle (born 1967), American former amateur and professional wrestler
Eric Arndt (born 1986), American professional wrestler
Eric Ash (1928–2021), British electrical engineer
Eric Arnold, American journalist and author
Eric Arnold (footballer) (1922–2002), English footballer
Eric Ayala (born 1999), Puerto Rican basketball player
Eric Bana (born 1968), Australian actor
Eric Banks (American football) (born 1998), American football player
Eric Wollencott Barnes (1907–1962), American educator, diplomat, actor, and writer
Eric Bauza (born 1979), American voice actor
Eric Bazilian (born 1953), American singer, songwriter, arranger and producer, member of The Hooters
Erich Beer (born 1946), German footballer
Eric Bell (disambiguation), several people
Eric Bellinger (born 1984), American singer and songwriter
Eric Bentley (1916–2020), British-born American theater critic, playwright, singer, editor, and translator
Eric Benét (born 1966), American singer-songwriter and actor
Eric Bercovici (1933–2014), American television and film producer and screenwriter
Eric Berry American football player; Kansas City Chiefs strong safety
Eric Berry (actor) (1913–1993), British stage and film actor
Erick Berry (1892–1974), American writer, illustrator and editor
Eric Bieniemy (born 1969), American football player and coach
Eric Bischoff (born 1955), American television producer, professional wrestling booker, and performer
Eric Marlon Bishop, American actor and musician known by the stage name Jamie Foxx
Eric Arthur Blair, English author known by his pen-name George Orwell
Eric Blore, English character actor
Eric Boe (born 1964), United States Air Force fighter pilot Colonel, test pilot, a Civil Air Patrol member, and a NASA astronaut
Eric Bolling (born 1963), American news commentator
Erik Gustaf Boström (1842–1907), Swedish landowner and politician
Erik Bottcher (born 1979), American politician
Eric Boulter (born 1952), Australian swimmer, athlete, and wheelchair basketball player
Eric DeWayne Boyd (born 1972), American criminal convicted of the kidnapping, rape and murders of Channon Christian and Christopher Newsom
Eric L. Boyd, American software engineer
Erik Brahe (1722–1756), Swedish count
Erich Brandenberger, German general in the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during World War II
Eric R. Braverman (born 1957), American physician
Eric Braeden (born 1941), German-born film and television actor
Eric Brodkowitz, Israeli-American baseball pitcher for the Israel national baseball team
Eric "Nick" Bravin (born 1971), American Olympic fencer
Erik Breukink, Dutch racing cyclist
Eric Brewer (ice hockey), Canadian ice hockey player
Erik Bryggman (1891–1955), Finnish architect
Eric Burdon, English vocalist, songwriter and frontman of The Animals
Erick Cabaco, Uruguayan footballer
Eric Campbell (disambiguation), several people
Erik Campbell (born 1966), American gridiron football coach and former player
Eric Cantona (born 1966), French footballer
Eric Cantor, American politician
Érik Canuel (born 1961), Canadian film director and actor
Eric Carle, children's author
Erik Carrasco, Chilean basketball player
Erick Castillo, Ecuadorian footballer
Eric Maxim Choupo-Moting, Cameroonian footballer
Eric Church, American country music singer and songwriter
Eric Clapton (born 1945), English guitarist, vocalist, and songwriter
Eric Clay (1922–2007), British rugby league referee
Eric L. Clay (born 1948), United States circuit judge
Eric Cobham (c. 1700 – 1760?), British pirate whose existence is disputed
Erick Brian Colón, singer, member of CNCO
Erich Consemüller, German Bauhaus-trained architect and photographer
Eric "Bobo" Correa (born 1968), American percussionist
Eric Christensen (visual effects supervisor)
Eric J. Christensen, American astronomer
Erik Christensen (disambiguation), several people
Éric de Cromières (1953–2020), French sports executive
Eric Czapnik (1958–2009), Polish Ottawa Police Service member
Eric Dane (born 1972), American actor
Eric Darius (born 1982), American saxophonist, vocalist, songwriter, producer, and educator
Erik Darling (1933–2008), American songwriter and a folk music artist
Eric Decker, American football player
Erik Dekker, Dutch racing cyclist
Erik Del Bufalo, Venezuelan philosopher
Erick Delgado, Peruvian footballer
Erik von Detten (born 1982), former American actor
Eric Dever, American painter
Eric Dickerson, American football player
Eric Dier (born 1994), English footballer
Erik Durm, German footballer
Eric Easton (1927–1995), English record producer
Erik Edman, Swedish footballer
Eric Embry (born 1959), American retired professional wrestler
Eric Erickson (disambiguation), multiple people
Erik Erikson, German-born American developmental psychologist
Eric Esch, American boxer
Eric Esrailian, American physician at the David Geffen School of Medicine
Eric J. Essene (1939–2011), American professor emeritus of geosciences and a metamorphic petrologist
Erik Estrada, American actor
Erik Ezelius (born 1986), Swedish politician
Erik Ezukanma (born 2000), American football player
F–L
Erich von Falkenhayn (1861–1922), Chief of the German General Staff during the First World War
Eric Felton, American football player
Erik Frank, Finnish cyclist
Eric Franklin (born 1957), Swiss dancer
Erik Ivar Fredholm, Swedish mathematician
Eric Frenzel (born 1988), German Nordic combined skier
Eric Friedler (born 1954), American tennis player
Eric Fromm (born 1958), American tennis player
Erich Fromm, German sociologist and writer
Eric Gale (1938–1994), American jazz and R&B guitarist
Eric Gales (born 1974), American blues rock guitarist
Eric Garcia (disambiguation), multiple people
Eric Gargiulo (born 1972), American professional wrestling announcer, wrestler, commentator, and radio show host
Eric Garror (born 2000), American football player
Erik Gustaf Geijer, Swedish writer, historian, and composer
Eric F. Goldman (1916–1989), American historian
Erich Gonzales (born 1990), Filipina actress
Eric Gonzalez (lawyer), American lawyer
Erik González (born 1991), Dominican baseball player
Eric Gordon (born 1988), American professional basketball player
Eric Gray (disambiguation), multiple people
Erick Green (born 1991), American basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Eric Greitens, American politician, author, and Navy SEAL
Eric Griffin (basketball) (born 1990), American basketball player
Eric Griffiths (1940–2005), English musician and dry cleaner
Eric Griffiths (critic) (1953–2018), British academic and literary critic
Erik Guay, Canadian alpine skier
Eric Guggenheim (born 1973), American screenwriter
Eric Gutierrez, American college baseball coach and former professional baseball first basemen
Érick Gutiérrez (born 1995), Mexican professional footballer
Eric Hacker, American professional baseball pitcher
Erick Hallett (born 2000), American football player
Erik Hamrén, Swedish football coach
Eric Harper, New Zealand sportsman
Eric Harris (disambiguation), multiple people
Erich Hartmann, German WWII fighter ace
Eric A. Havelock, British classicist
Eric Hayes, British soldier
Eric Hayes (American football), American football player
Eric Heiden, American speed skater
Erik Heinrichs, Finnish general
Eric Himelfarb, Canadian ice hockey player
Eric Hiscock (1908–1986), British sailor and author
Eric Hoffer (1902–1983), American moral and social philosopher
Eric Holcomb, American politician
Eric Holle, American football player
Eric Holmback (1916–1965), American professional wrestler, also known by ring name Yukon Eric
Eric Holtz (born 1965), American Head Coach of the Israel national baseball team
Erich Honecker, (1922–1993), East German leader
Eric Hosmer, American baseball player
Eric Hutchinson, American singer-songwriter
Eric Idle, English comedian, actor, author, singer, writer, and comedic composer
Eric Jacobson, American puppeteer
Erik Flensted-Jensen (1908–1993), founder and leader of the Danish Gym Team
Eric Jensen (racing driver) (born 1970), Canadian race team owner and race car driver
Eric Jensen (Neighbours), a character from the soap opera Neighbours
Erik Jensen (disambiguation), multiple people
Eirik Jensen, Norwegian former policeman turned criminal
Eric Johnson, American guitarist and recording artist
Erik Johnson, American hockey player
Erik Jorpes, Finnish-born Swedish physician and biochemist
Eric Jungmann (born 1981), American actor
Eric Kandel (born 1929), Austrian-American physician and Nobel Prize laureate
Erik Axel Karlfeldt, Swedish Nobel Prize winning poet
Erik Karlsson, Swedish hockey player
Erich Kästner, (1899–1974), German author, poet, screenwriter and satirist
Erik Keedus, Estonian basketball player
Erik Johan Gustaf af Klint (1816–1866), Swedish naval officer and murder victim
Eric Kripke (born 1974), American writer and television producer
Eric Kwok, Hong Kong singer-songwriter
Erik Kynard, American high jumper
Eriq La Salle, American actor and director
Erik Lamela, Argentine footballer
Eric Laneuville (born 1952), American television director, producer and actor
Eric Lange, American actor
Eric Larson, American animator for the Walt Disney Studios starting in 1933 and one of the "Disney's Nine Old Men"
Erik Laxmann, Russian explorer of Swedish origin
Eric LeGrand (born 1990), American former football defensive tackle
Eric L. Levinson, American jurist and lawyer
Eric Liddell, Scottish athlete, rugby union international player, and missionary
Eric Lindell, American singer-songwriter
Eric Lindros, hockey player
Eric Lively (born 1981), American actor
Eric Lloyd (born 1986), American actor
Eric Lloyd (politician) (1918–2003), Australian Real estate agent
Eric Longfield Lloyd (1890–1957), Australian army officer, public servant, and diplomat
Erik Lorig (born 1986), American football player
Erich Ludendorff, German general and one of the most significant commanders of World War I
Eric Van Lustbader (born 1946), American author of thriller and fantasy novels
M–Z
Eric Mabius, American actor
Erich von Manstein, German field marshal
Eric Martsolf, American actor
Erik Mariñelarena, Mexican screenwriter, director and producer
Eric Maskin, American economist and Nobel prize laureate
Eric Maturin (1883–1957), British actor
Eric McCormack (disambiguation), several people
Erik McCoy (born 1997), American football player
Erick McIntosh, American football player
Erik Messerschmidt, American cinematographer
Eric Milroy (1887–1916), Scottish rugby union player
Eric Minkin (born 1950), American-Israeli basketball player
Erik Mongrain, Canadian composer and guitarist
Eric Morecambe, English comedian
Eric Moon, English Librarian
Erich Muhsfeldt, German SS officer at Auschwitz and Majdanek concentration camps executed for war crimes
Eric Mun (born 1979), South Korean rapper, songwriter and actor
Eric Nam, a Korean American singer-songwriter, entertainer and television presenter
Erick Neres da Cruz, Brazilian footballer
Erik Nielsen (disambiguation), several people
Erik Nielson (academic), academic and expert in the use of rap music as evidence in criminal trials
Erik Nielson (footballer) (born 1996), Cape Verdean footballer
Eric Nkansah, Ghanaian sprinter
Eric Nystrom (born 1983), American hockey player
Eric O'Dell (born 1990), Canadian professional ice hockey player
Eric Olson (disambiguation), multiple people
Eric Osborn (1922–2007), Australian theologian
Eric Owens (bass-baritone), American opera singer
Erik Palladino, American actor
Eric Pardinho, Brazilian professional baseball player
Eric Parker (American football), American football player
Eric Peterson, Canadian actor
Erik Peterson (theologian) (1890–1960), German theologian
Eric Pierpoint, American actor
Eric Pinkins, American football player
Eric Poole (disambiguation), several people
Eric Prydz, Swedish disc jockey and producer
Erick Pulgar, Chilean footballer
Eric Radford (born 1985), Canadian pair skater
Eric Ravotti, American football player
Erich Maria Remarque (1898–1970), German writer (All Quiet on the Western Front)
Erik Rhodes (actor, born 1906), American film and Broadway actor
Erich Ribbeck (born 1937), German footballer and coach
Erik Rico, American musician, singer, songwriter, producer, and DJ
Éric Ripert, chef and co-owner of the New York restaurant, Le Bernardin
Eric Roberts, American actor
Eric Rosswood, American activist
Erich Roth (1910–1947), Nazi Gestapo member executed for war crimes
Eric Rubin, American microbiologist and infectious disease specialist
Erich Rudorffer (1917–2016), German Luftwaffe fighter ace
Eric Saade, Swedish singer/songwriter
Eric Saarinen (born 1942), Finnish American cinematographer and film director
Erik Salumäe (born 1970), Estonian politician
Erik Satie, French composer
Eric Saubert (born 1994), American football player
Eric Sbraccia (born 1968), American retired professional wrestler
Eric Schmidt, billionaire executive chairman of Google
Erik Schmidt (painter), Estonian painter
Eric Scott (disambiguation), multiple people
Eric Sevareid, American journalist
Eric Shinseki (born 1942), United States retired Army general
Eric Singer, American hard rock and heavy metal drummer, best known as a member of Kiss
Erik Solbakken, Norwegian television presenter
Erik Sowinski (born 1989), American middle-distance runner
Erik Spoelstra (born 1970), Filipino-American professional basketball coach
Eric Staal, Canadian hockey player
Eric Stanley (violinist), American violinist and composer
Eric Steele (born 1954), English football player and coach
Eric Still (born 1967), American football player
Eric Stokes (disambiguation), multiple people
Eric Stoltz, American actor, director and producer
Erik Swanson (born 1993), American baseball player
Eric Sykes, English radio, television and film writer, actor and director
Éric Tabarly (1931–1998), French Navy officer and yachtsman
Eric Thomas (disambiguation), multiple people
Eric Thorne (1862–1922), English singer and actor
Eric Justin Toth (born 1982), American former fugitive
Eric Trolle (c. 1460–1530), regent of Sweden in 1512
Eric Trolle (1863–1934), Swedish diplomat
Eric Tsang, Hong Kong film actor, producer and director
Erik Turner, rhythm guitarist of glam metal band Warrant
Erick Thohir, Indonesian businessman and entrepreneur
Erik Valdez, American actor
Eric Vale, voice actor and script writer
Erik Verlinde, Dutch theoretical physicist
Erik De Vlaeminck, Belgian racing cyclist
Erick Silva, Brazilian mixed martial artist
Erick Wainaina, Kenyan long-distance runner
Erich Wasicky, German SS pharmacist at Mauthausen concentration camp in charge of gassing victims and was executed
Erik Watts (born 1967), American semi-retired professional wrestler
Eric Welsh, intelligence officer
Eric Wennström, Swedish hurdler
Eric Whitacre, composer and conductor
Erik White, American director
Erik White (Canadian football), Canadian football player
E. B. Wikramanayake, Sri Lankan Sinhala politician and lawyer
Eric Wikramanayake, Sri Lankan Sinhala conservationist
Eric Wilkerson, American football player
Erik Adolf von Willebrand, Finnish internist (von Willebrand disease)
Eric Charles Twelves Wilson (1912–2008), English British Army officer and colonial administrator
Eric Winstanley (1944–2021), English footballer
Eric Lynn Wright, American rapper known as Eazy-E (1964–1995)
Eric Yap (born 1979), Filipino politician
Eric Young (disambiguation), multiple people
Eric Yuan (born 1969/70), American billionaire, founder and CEO of Zoom Video Communications
Erik Zabel (born 1970), German cyclist
Éric Zemmour (born 1958), French far-right politician, essayist, writer and former political journalist and pundit
Eric Zinterhofer (born 1971), American private equity financier
Erik de Zwart, Dutch radio and television maker
Fictional characters
Eric, a character in the 1993 American romantic comedy-drama movie Benny & Joon
Eric, a character in the 2002 American coming-of-age romantic drama movie A Walk to Remember
Erik the Red, fictional Shi'ar character in the Marvel Comics comic book universe
Eric, a character from the video game Zero Time Dilemma
Erik, the titular character in Gaston Leroux's 1910 novel The Phantom of the Opera
Erik, a Reindeer villager from the video game series Animal Crossing
Flat Eric, low-tech, yellow puppet character from Levi's commercials for Sta-Prest One Crease Denim Clothing
Eric Birling, son of Arthur Birling in J B Priestley's play An Inspector Calls
Eric Blonowitz, a character in the Nickelodeon sitcom Drake & Josh
Eric Brooks, also known as Blade in the Marvel Universe
Blade (New Line Blade franchise character)
Blade (Marvel Cinematic Universe)
Eric Cartman, one of the four main characters in the TV series South Park
Eric Cruise, a character in the 1988 American science fiction movie Mac and Me
Eric Duckman, titular character from the TV series Duckman
Erick Erickssong, fictional character
Erik Erikson, fictional central character of 2004 fantasy novel in the Avatar Chronicles trilogy Epic by Conor Kostick
Eric Foreman, major character from the TV series House M.D.
Eric Forman (That '70s Show), the main character in That 70s Show
Eric Gibb, a character in the 1986 American fantasy drama film The Boy Who Could Fly
Eric Kingslake, a character in the 1933 British romance movie Love's Old Sweet Song
General Erich Von Klinkerhoffen, the boss of Colonel Kurt Von Strohm, Captain Alberto Bertorelli, Captain Hans Geering and Lieutenant Hubert Gruber in the TV series 'Allo 'Allo!
Eric McGowen, a character in the 1994 American martial arts drama movie The Next Karate Kid
Eric Murphy, fictional character on the comedy-drama television series Entourage
Eric Northman, the love interest of Sookie Stackhouse in the Southern Vampire Mysteries novels and the TV series True Blood
Eric Draven, the undead avenger of his and his fiancée's murder in the movie The Crow
Erik Von Darkmoor, fictional character appearing in the novels of Raymond E. Feist
Erik Lehnsherr, also known as Magneto in the Marvel Universe
Eric Matthews, a main character from the TV series Boy Meets World and its spinoff Girl Meets World
Eric Myers, a character in Power Rangers Time Force
Erik Pinksterblom, the main character in Erik of het klein insectenboek
Eric Raymond, a character in the American animated musical television series Jem and the Holograms
Erik "Killmonger" Stevens, a Marvel Comics supervillain and the main antagonist of Black Panther
Eric Thursley, a thirteen-year-old demonologist and the titular character of the Discworld novel Eric'×'
Eric van der Woodsen, Gossip Girl character
Erik, a thief as well as one of the main companions of the protagonist in the video game, Dragon Quest XI Eric Yorkie, a character in novel series Twilight Eric Praline, a recurring character in the television show Monty Python's Flying CircusEric, the names of Mr Praline's pet dog, cat, halibut, and fruit bat in the sketch "Fish Licence"
Eric the Half-a-Bee, another of Mr Praline's pets
Prince Eric, the love interest of Princess Ariel in the Disney movie, The Little Mermaid''
Surname
Dobrica Erić (1936–2019), Serbian writer
Elspeth Eric (1907–1993), American actress
Jelena Erić (handballer) (born 1979), Serbian handball player
Micheal Eric (born 1988), Nigerian basketball player
Nenad Erić (born 1982), Serbian football goalkeeper
Slađana Erić (born 1983), Serbian volleyball player
Zoran Erić (born 1950), Serbian composer
See also
Arik
Aric
Éric
Euric
Frederick (given name)
References
English-language masculine given names
English masculine given names
Masculine given names
Danish masculine given names
Dutch masculine given names
German masculine given names
Norwegian masculine given names
Scandinavian masculine given names
Swedish masculine given names
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5010373
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaustive%20ballot
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Exhaustive ballot
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The exhaustive ballot is a voting system used to elect a single winner. Under the exhaustive ballot the elector casts a single vote for their chosen candidate. However, if no candidate is supported by an overall majority of votes then the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated and a further round of voting occurs. This process is repeated for as many rounds as necessary until one candidate has a majority.
The exhaustive ballot is similar to the two-round system but with key differences. Under the two round system if no candidate wins a majority on the first round, only the top two recipients of votes advance to the second (and final) round of voting, and a majority winner is determined in the second round. By contrast, on the exhaustive ballot only one candidate is eliminated per round; thus, several rounds of voting may be required until a candidate reaches a majority. (In some circumstances, the two or more lowest candidates can be eliminated simultaneously if together they have fewer votes than the lowest candidate above them. In other words, this "bulk exclusion" cannot change the order of elimination, unlike a two-round system.)
Because voters may have to cast votes several times, the exhaustive ballot is not used in large-scale public elections. Instead it is usually used in elections involving, at most, a few hundred voters, such as the election of a prime minister or the presiding officer of an assembly. The exhaustive ballot is currently used, in different forms, to elect the members of the Swiss Federal Council, the First Minister of Scotland, the President of the European Parliament, and the speakers of the House of Commons of Canada, the British House of Commons and the Scottish Parliament, the host city of the Olympic Games and the host of the FIFA World Cup, and, formerly, to elect the President and the State Comptroller of Israel, which are now elected—though still indirectly by the Knesset—using a two-round system.
Voting and counting
In each round of an exhaustive ballot the voter simply marks an 'x' beside his or her favourite candidate. If no candidate has an absolute majority of votes (i.e., more than half) in the first round, then the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated while all other candidates advance to a second round. If there is still no candidate with a majority then the candidate with the fewest votes is again eliminated and there is a third round. The process repeats itself for as many rounds as are necessary for one candidate to achieve a majority. If necessary, the election will continue until only two candidates remain. When this occurs one of the two must achieve an absolute majority provided there are an odd number of valid votes cast.
Between rounds, the voter is entirely free to change his/her preferred candidate for whatever reason, even if his/her preferred candidate has not yet been eliminated from voting.
Variations
It is possible to impose a larger number of votes to win, such as a two thirds vote, on either all rounds or on the beginning rounds. For example, on the first several rounds of the election of the President of Italy, a supermajority is required to win, dropping to a majority on the fourth and subsequent ballots.
Under some variants of the exhaustive ballot there is no formal rule for eliminating candidates from one round to another; rather, candidates are expected to withdraw voluntarily.
Some variations slowly raise an elimination threshold in to encourage compromise. For example, the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party for U.S. Senate endorsement 2008 used an exhaustive ballot with a dropoff rule starting at 5% and increasing to 25% after round 5, after which one candidate with the lowest votes was eliminated per round until no more than two remained.
There are also variants which exclude more than one candidate at a time. For example, in elections for the speakers of the Canadian and British Houses of Commons any candidate with fewer than 5% of all votes in the first round is immediately eliminated.
Example
Imagine that the population of Tennessee, a state in the United States, is voting on the location of its capital. The population of Tennessee is concentrated around its four major cities, which are spread throughout the state. For this example, suppose that the entire electorate live in one of these four cities, and furthermore that their sole concern is for the capital to be established as close to their city as possible.
The candidates for the capital are:
Memphis, the state's largest city, with 42% of the voters, but located far from the other cities
Nashville, with 26% of the voters
Knoxville, with 17% of the voters
Chattanooga, with 15% of the voters
Round 1: In the first round of voting everybody votes for their own city and the results will be as follows:
Memphis: 42%
Nashville: 26%
Knoxville: 17%
Chattanooga: 15%
Round 2: No candidate has an absolute majority in the first round (this would be greater than 50%), so Chattanooga, which has the fewest votes, is eliminated and the remaining three candidates proceed to Round 2. In this round the Chattanooga supporters vote instead for Knoxville, the next nearest city to their own. None of the other voters need change their votes. The results are therefore:
Memphis: 42%
Knoxville: 32%
Nashville: 26%
Round 3: Nashville is now eliminated, so that only two candidates remain for the final round. The Nashville supporters change their vote to Knoxville, the next nearest city to their own. The result of the third round is therefore:
Knoxville: 58%
Memphis: 42%
Result: After round three Knoxville has an absolute majority so is the winner.
Use in practice
Scottish government: The First Minister, and the Presiding Officer and Deputy Presiding Officers of the Scottish Parliament are elected by the exhaustive ballot method.
The host city of the Olympic Games is chosen by an exhaustive ballot of members of the International Olympic Committee. Members from a country which has a city competing in the election are forbidden from voting unless the city has been eliminated.
The President of the European Parliament is elected by all members of the body to be its 'speaker' or chairperson. In the election if no candidate receives an absolute majority in the first round then there are up to three more rounds. In the second and third rounds anyone who wants to is free to stand, but candidates who perform poorly sometimes withdraw to help others be elected. If no-one achieves an absolute majority in the third round then only the two candidates with most votes are allowed to proceed to the fourth and final round of voting.
The Speaker of the House of Commons is elected by secret ballot by members of the house. If no candidate achieves an absolute majority in the first round then the candidate with fewest votes and any other candidate who has received less than 5% of all votes is immediately eliminated. Subsequent rounds proceed according to the ordinary rules of the exhaustive ballot.
The Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada is elected under essentially the same variant of the exhaustive ballot used for the British counterpart, with candidates on less than 5% in the first round immediately excluded.
The Leader of the New Democratic Party of Canada is elected by the party membership under a mixture of instant runoff voting (IRV), and exhaustive voting, depending on the member's preferences. Those who want to vote only once may cast a single ballot filled out in the IRV format, while other members may cast separate ballots after each round of balloting. The party used this format for the 2012, and 2017 leadership elections.
Candidates to lead the UK Conservative Party are shortlisted by an exhaustive ballot of elected MPs until only two candidates remain. The final two candidates then enter a ballot of the party membership to select the leader.
The Leader of the Labour Party of New Zealand is elected by an exhaustive ballot of elected MPs; candidate needs two-thirds vote to be elected. If two candidates remain and neither has two-thirds vote, an electoral college made up of MPs, party members and affiliated unions will vote via simple majority.
Similar systems
The two-round system
As noted above the exhaustive ballot is similar to the two-round system. However under the two-round system if no candidate achieves an absolute majority in the first round then, rather than just a single candidate being eliminated, all candidates are immediately excluded except the two with the most votes. There is then a second and final round. Because, at most, it requires voters to return to the polls only once, the two-round system is considered more practical for large public elections than the exhaustive ballot, and is used in many countries for the election of presidents and legislative bodies. However the two systems often produce different winners. This is because, under the two-round system, a candidate may be eliminated in the first round who would have gone on to win the contest if they had been permitted to survive to the second round. In Example I above the winner would not have changed if the two rounds system had been used instead of the exhaustive ballot. However, in Example II the two round system would have selected Nashville instead of Knoxville.
Primary two-round system
A nonpartisan primary election system is a variation of the two-round system which holds a pre-election, and allows the top two candidates to pass to the general election. It generally differs from the two-round system in two ways: (1) the first election isn't allowed to pick a winner, and (2) political parties are not allowed to limit their field using a convention or caucus.
Instant-runoff voting
In some respects the exhaustive ballot closely resembles instant-runoff voting (also known as the 'Alternative Vote'). Under both systems if no candidate has an absolute majority in the first round then there are further rounds, with the candidate with the fewest votes being eliminated after each round. However while under the exhaustive ballot each round involves voters returning to cast a new vote, under instant-runoff, voters vote only once. This is possible because, rather than voting for only a single candidate, the voter ranks all of the candidates in order of preference. These preferences are then used to 'transfer' the votes of those whose first preference has been eliminated during the course of the count.
Because the exhaustive ballot involves separate rounds of voting, voters can use the results of one round to inform how they will vote in the next, whereas this is not possible under IRV. Furthermore, because it is necessary to vote only once, instant-runoff voting has been used for large-scale elections in many places.
Tactical voting
Like instant-runoff voting, the exhaustive ballot is intended to improve upon the simpler 'first-past-the-post' (plurality) system by reducing the potential for tactical voting by avoiding 'wasted' votes. Under the plurality system, which involves only one round, voters are encouraged to vote tactically by voting for only one of the two leading candidates, because a vote for any other candidate will not affect the result. Under the exhaustive ballot this tactic, known as 'compromising', is sometimes unnecessary because, even if the voter's first choice is unlikely to be elected, she will still have the opportunity to influence the outcome of the election by voting for more popular candidates once her favourite has been eliminated. However the exhaustive ballot is still vulnerable to tactical voting under some circumstances. Because of the similarity between the two systems it is open to the same forms of tactical voting as instant-runoff voting, as described below.
Although the exhaustive ballot is designed to avoid 'compromising' the tactic is still effective in some elections. Compromising is where a voter votes for a certain candidate, not because they necessarily support them, but as a way of avoiding the election of a candidate whom they dislike even more. The compromising tactic is sometimes effective because the exhaustive ballot eliminates candidates who are unpopular in early rounds, who might have had sufficient support to win the election had they survived a little longer. This can create strong incentives for voters to vote tactically.
The exhaustive ballot is also vulnerable to the tactic of 'push over', where voters vote tactically for an unpopular 'push over' candidate in one round as a way of helping their true favourite candidate win in a later round. The purpose of voting for the 'push over' is to ensure that it is this weak candidate, rather than a stronger rival, who remains to challenge a voter's preferred candidate in later rounds. By supporting a 'push over' candidate it is hoped to eliminate a stronger candidate who might have gone on to win the election. The 'push over' tactic requires voters to be able to reliably predict how others will vote. It runs the risk of backfiring, because if the tactical voter miscalculates then the candidate intended as a 'push over' might end up actually beating the voter's preferred candidate. Instant-runoff voting is less susceptible to this tactic, as voters cannot change their first preference in successive rounds. Once a voter has chosen a push over as their preferred candidate, it will remain so until this candidate is eliminated, increasing the likelihood of the push over getting elected at the expense of the preferred candidate.
Examples
Compromise
In the example above Knoxville wins, the last choice of both Nashville and Memphis supporters. If Memphis supporters had compromised by voting for Nashville (their second choice) in the first round then Nashville would have been elected immediately, while if Nashville supporters had all compromised by voting for their second choice of Chattanooga in the first round, then Chattanooga would have gone on to be elected in the second round.
Push over
Imagine an election in which there are 100 voters who vote as follows:
Ice Cream: 25 votes
Apple Pie: 30 votes
Fruit: 45 votes
No candidate has an absolute majority of votes so Ice Cream is eliminated in the first round. Ice Cream supporters prefer Apple Pie to Fruit so in the second round they vote for Apple Pie and Apple Pie is the winner. However, if only six Fruit supporters had used the tactic of 'push over' then they could have changed this outcome and ensured the election of Fruit. These six voters can do this by voting for Ice Cream in the first round as a 'push over'. If they do this then the votes cast in the first round will look like this:
Ice Cream: 31
Apple Pie: 30
Fruit: 39
This time Apple Pie is eliminated in the first round and Ice Cream and Fruit survive to the second round. This outcome is deliberate. The tactical voters know that Ice Cream will be an easier candidate for Fruit to beat in the second round than Apple Pie—in other words, that Ice Cream will be a 'push-over'. In the second round the tactical voters vote for their real first preference, Fruit. Therefore, even if only six Apple Pie supporters prefer Fruit to Ice Cream, the result of the second round will be:
Ice Cream: 49
Fruit: 51
Fruit will therefore be elected. The success of this tactic relies on the Fruit supporters being able to predict that Ice Cream can be beaten by Fruit in the second round. If a large majority of Apple Pie supporters had voted for Ice Cream then the 'push over' tactic would have backfired, leading to the election of Ice Cream, which Fruit partisans like even less than Apple Pie.
Strategic nomination
The exhaustive ballot can also be influenced by strategic nomination; this is where candidates and political factions influence the result of an election by either nominating extra candidates or withdrawing a candidate who would otherwise have stood. The exhaustive ballot is vulnerable to strategic nomination for the same reasons that it is open to the voting tactic of 'compromising'. This is because a candidate who knows they are unlikely to win can bring about the election of a more desirable compromise candidate by withdrawing from the race, or by never standing in the first place. By the same token a candidate can bring about a less desirable result by unwisely choosing to stand in an election; this is because of the spoiler effect, by which a new candidate can 'split the vote' and cost another similar candidate the election.
The exhaustive vote's system of multiple rounds makes it less vulnerable to the spoiler effect than the plurality system or the two round system. This is because a potential spoiler candidate often has only minor support; therefore he will be eliminated early and his supporters will have the opportunity to influence the result of the election by voting for more popular candidates in later rounds. Voters can also counteract the effect of vote splitting by using the 'compromise' tactic.
The exhaustive vote is essentially vulnerable to the same forms of strategic nomination as instant-runoff voting, the difference being that under the exhaustive vote candidates can use the results of early rounds to inform whether or not they should strategically withdraw in later rounds. This is impossible under IRV. In IRV the electorate votes only once, so candidates must make the judgement of whether or not to participate in an election before the poll, and before even one round of counting has occurred.
Effect on candidates and factions
The exhaustive ballot encourages candidates to appeal to a broad cross-section of voters. This is because, in order to eventually receive an absolute majority of votes, it is necessary for a candidate to win the support of voters whose favourite candidate has been eliminated. Under the exhaustive ballot, eliminated candidates, and the factions who previously supported them, often issue recommendations to their supporters as to whom they should vote for in the remaining rounds of the contest. This means that eliminated candidates are still able to influence the result of the election.
Notes
External links
Electoral Reform Society: Briefing on the electoral system for the Speaker of the British House of Commons
Single-winner electoral systems
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1960 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1960 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 28th 24 Hours of Le Mans Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 25 and 26 June 1960, on Circuit de la Sarthe. It was the fifth and final round of the F.I.A. World Sports Car Championship as well as being the fifth round of the inaugural FIA GT Cup. It was held just a week after the tragic Belgian F1 GP in which four drivers, including Stirling Moss were either killed or seriously injured. The prospect of a duel between the Ferrari versus the Porsche championship-leaders was enough to draw large crowds to the 24 Hours race and some 200,000 spectators had gathered for Europe's classic sports car race, around the course.
Faced with a must-win result to take the World Championship, Ferrari came well-prepared and with 13 entries, from the works and privateer teams. Their main competition would come from Maserati and the British teams, although American Corvettes also made an appearance in the GT-category. The race was barely three hours old when torrential rain hit the circuit causing a number of accidents and issues as water got into the engines. More and more rivals fell away through the night leaving Ferrari to dominate the race. In the end its Sports and GT cars taking 7 of the top 8 places, with only the Aston Martin of the Scottish Border Reivers team in 3rd breaking the sequence. Belgian Olivier Gendebien got his second victory, this time with his countryman, sports journalist/racing-driver, Paul Frère in the works car. Through fast, but reliable, driving they were never seriously threatened, finishing four laps and over 50 km ahead of the second-placed Ferrari.
Regulations
After its overhaul of the GT classes in its Appendix J regulations, the CSI (Commission Sportive Internationale - the FIA’s regulations body) looked at retro-fitting them to the Appendix C rules for Sports Cars.
There were fourteen classes based on engine capacity (with a maximum of although the World Championship was only open to a maximum) with corresponding set fuel tank sizes. But it was the minimum height and width of widescreens (based on those of GT cars) that caused controversy and after the first round in Argentina a number of senior drivers had protested about the danger in poor weather. There were also new provisions for minimum luggage space, carrying the spare wheel inboard, a minimum ground clearance of and a maximum turning-circle of .
GT cars had to be at least and needed a minimum of 100 cars manufactured within 12 months. Although some bodywork changes could be done the net weight could not change by more than 5%.
With the new fuel-tank sizes, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) dropped the minimum distance between fuel refills but kept the 25-lap limit for the other fluids. The maximum single-stint for a driver was increased to 52 laps (about 4 hours), although the total driver time was still 14 hours. To be classified, cars had to complete the last lap in less than 30 minutes, and stay within 20% of their nominated Index distance at every 6 hour interval.
To promote their new Index of Thermal Efficiency fuel-economy competition, this year the ACO increased the prize money at the expense of the older Index of Performance. After the 1960 currency devaluation, the winner's purse was now 30000 New Francs (about £6750 equivalent at the time) and 2000 New Francs respectively (and 50000 New Frances for the overall distance winner). The Index calculations were also tweaked slightly to account for the bigger windscreens reducing top speeds.
Entries
The ACO received 72 entries for the event, of which only 58 were allowed to practice trying to qualify for the 55 places on the grid (increasing by one from the 54 of previous years). Official ‘works’ entries numbered 27, but a number of companies gave strong support to their customer teams. Going into the last race of the championship both Scuderia Ferrari and Porsche arrived with 4-car teams.
With last year's winner Aston Martin having withdrawn from sports car racing to concentrate on Formula One, Ferrari were once again favourites, even though they had only won the opening round of the championship in Argentina and were trailing Porsche in the championship standings. Four works cars arrived: two were updated Testarossas and two were the new TRI chassis with independent suspension. Driving the updated TR59/60s this year the experienced pairing of Gendebien & Phil Hill were split up. Belgian Gendebien was paired with compatriot Paul Frère (who had been second in 1959 for Aston Martin), while Hill was driving with fellow Ferrari F1 team-member Wolfgang von Trips. One of the newer TRIs were driven by the other Scuderia F1 drivers Willy Mairesse/Richie Ginther and the second by youngsters Ludovico Scarfiotti/ Ricardo Rodríguez. A 1959-model Testarossa was also run by Luigi Chinetti’s North American Racing Team (NART), driven by the older Rodriguez brother, Pedro and André Pilette.
Even though the company was still having financial difficulties, this year marked the successful return of Maserati to sports car racing with the highly competitive Tipo 61 ‘Birdcage’, raced by American Lloyd Casner's Camoradi Racing Team. The new team, sponsored by Goodyear tyres, had just caused an upset winning the previous race in the championship at the Nürburgring. Three cars were entered, driven by Casner himself with Jim Jeffords, Gino Munaron/Giorgio Scarlatti, while Masten Gregory and Chuck Daigh drove the updated original prototype. Designer Giulio Alfieri had carefully interpreted the CSI windscreen rules which specified a height but not an angle. So with a windscreen almost half the length of the car, it was very aerodynamic and very fast – reaching on the Mulsanne straight, compared to the Testarossa's .
This year there were four British cars in the premier class. Ecurie Ecosse entered the 6-year old D-Type that had finished 2nd in 1957, modified with an enlarged windscreen and luggage hump, detracting from its formerly elegant lines. It was driven by Ron Flockhart and Bruce Halford. Their local rivals, Jock McBain's Border Reivers team ran an equally modified Aston Martin DBR, with the previous year's winner Roy Salvadori this year partnered with rising star Jim Clark. The Aston Martin that won that race had been bought by Ian Baillie, a Major in the Grenadier Guards who had Jack Fairman as co-driver.
The other British car caused a sensation and marked a welcome return to Le Mans for American Briggs Cunningham. Jaguar Cars had worked with Cunningham, their New York dealer, to prepare one of their new E-type prototypes for competition. The 3-litre XK-engine developed 290 bhp (against the Testarossa's 300 bhp) giving a top speed of . Americans Dan Gurney and Walt Hansgen were the drivers.
After two outright wins (at Sebring and the Targa Florio) Porsche came to Le Mans as leaders of the Championship with its new RS60 variant. But with a top speed of only 145 mph (235 kp/h) they would be no match for the bigger cars on the long straight. Working with the new rules, they fitted two cars with special 1606cc engines (generating 180 bhp) to put them into the 2-litre category with the consequent bigger fuel tank. They were also the only team to fit wipers on both the inside and outside of the windscreens. This year the works cars were driven by Jo Bonnier/Graham Hill and Hans Herrmann/ Maurice Trintignant. Edgar Barth / Wolfgang Seidel drove the regular RS60, supported again by the two privateer entries from Carel Godin de Beaufort and Jean Kerguen.
Triumph returned to take on the Porsches with their TRS prototype of the upcoming TR4, led once again by former winner Ninian Sanderson. The privateer MG that raced the previous year also returned. In the smaller classes there were single entries from Alfa Romeo and the new Lola company competing in the S-1150 class. The Lola Mk 1 was fitted with the Coventry Climax FWA engine, developing 90 bhp. It was also the lightest car in the field, only
In the next class down, S-1000, two works DB-Panhards would vie with Austin-Healey returning to the circuit with their new Sprite. In the busy smallest class there were eleven entries including four DB-Panhards, as well as Stanguellini, OSCA and a trio of cars from Fiat performance-specialists Abarth. Reflecting changing times, the six DB-Panhard sports were the only French cars in the field this year.
There were 22 entries in the GT classes. The largest cars in the race were four V8 Chevrolet Corvettes after a good showing at Sebring. The Rochester smallblock engine generated over 300 bhp and got up to . Stopping the heavy cars would be an issue and many thought they would suffer from brake problems on the tight corners like at the end of the long Mulsanne Straight. Three were entered by Briggs Cunningham, returning to Le Mans after five years away. He drove one with Bill Kimberly, with the others by Dick Thompson/Fred Windridge and Cunningham team-regular John Fitch/Bob Grossman. The fourth Corvette was entered by the Camoradi team.
Up against them was a squadron of eight Ferrari 250 GT Berlinettas. Forghieri's new short-wheelbase variant had just been homologated on raceweek. The V12 3-litre engine produced 280 bhp with a top speed of . Three were entered by Chinetti's NART, two more by the Belgian Ecurie Francorchamps and Equipe Nationale Belge. There were also entries from the new Italian Scuderia Serenissima, Graham Whitehead (changing from running Jaguar and Aston Martin) and Le Mans local Fernand Tavano who had only received his car at the start of the week.
Lotus dominated the middle categories with the five Elites. One of the three works cars had been given the FPF Climax engine to enter the GT-2000 class against a pair of privateer AC Aces. Porsche entered a new coupé version of the 356, styled by Abarth and capable of over . It would be driven by Herbert Linge and Heini Walter.
Practice
After the success last year, the ACO was again able to close the public roads on 9 April. Fourteen cars took advantage of the 10 hours of extended testing time.
Official qualifying was held over two sessions for a total of 540 minutes over the two days and there were two major accidents. On Wednesday evening after having just done a fast qualifying lap, Dan Gurney in his Jaguar E2A collided at with Fritz d’Orey's Sc. Serenissima Ferrari GT. D’Orey's car speared off the track and hit a roadside tree with such force that it broke the car in two. The young Brazilian suffered severe head injuries that kept him in hospital for 8 months. On Thursday, Jonathon Sieff's Team Lotus car had catastrophic suspension collapse while on the Mulsanne straight. He hit a small hut and the Marks & Spencer heir was badly injured. Out of caution, Lotus withdrew its GT as it was fitted with the same suspension units.
On Friday, when the roads were public domain once again, the repaired Jaguar went out for test laps finding its handling was not perfect.
Race
Start
With no Stirling Moss at the race, it was the equally fleet-footed Jim Clark who was first away in his Aston Martin. But he was soon overtaken, firstly by Walt Hansgen in the Jaguar prototype, then the extremely fast Camoradi Maserati. After a delayed start Masten Gregory blasted past twenty cars to be leading at the end of the first lap. He set about building a considerable lead, getting out to 70 seconds at the end of an incident-free first hour. The five Testarossas, led by Gendebien, were 2nd through 6th, then came the Ecosse Jaguar, Scarlatti's Maserati and Tavano leading the GT classes ahead of Clark in 10th.
But it was as the first pit-stops were approaching that things started going wrong. The increased drag on the enlarged windscreens meant fuel consumption was increased. Two of the Ferraris, pushing hard to keep up with the Maserati were caught out and both von Trips and Scarfiotti ran out of fuel ending up marooned out on the track on their 22nd lap. Gendebien was extremely lucky to run out just as he approached the pits, and coasted into his pit-box. Then when Gregory brought in the Maserati from the lead to refuel and change drivers the car refused to restart. They lost nearly an hour, and 11 laps, while the starter motor was replaced. Rejoining in 46th place they made up 17 places before soaked electrics put them out after midnight. Refueled, Frère, then Gendebien, took a lead they would never relinquish.
Going into the third hour it started to rain heavily, even hailing at times, creating havoc on the track. With the windscreens impossible to see through, many drivers pitted for cushions to allow them to see over the screens. Bill Kimberley had just taken over Cunningham's Corvette, sent out by his team manager on slick tyres when he aquaplaned off at Maison Blanche, rolled end-over-end twice then slid down the grass ending right side up. Fortunately Kimberly was unhurt.
At 8pm, after four hours, Gendebien and Frère had a lap's lead over the field. Gunther/Mairesse led the chase ahead of the NART Ferrari and Ecosse Jaguar then, a lap further back, the Aston Martin & Tavano leading the GT classes.
Night
Going into the night, with the better handling Aston Martin, and superb car control, Clark and Salvadori were able to catch up and overtake the Ferraris, getting up to second place soon after 11pm. The rain then eased allowing the power of the Ferraris to come to bear again. At midnight, after 8 hours racing, Gendebien still led from Ginther/Mairesse, then the Aston Martin, Rodriguez’ Ferrari and the Ecosse Jaguar. In 6th was Whitehead's Ferrari leading the GTs, chased by the Fitch/Grossman Corvette and the French & Belgian Ferrari GTs. In 10th was the first Porsche, of Barth/Seidel, with a handy lead over the rest of the smaller cars.
The final Maserati (Casner's own) retired with engine issues likely caused by debris from Casner's slip into the Tertre Rouge sand-trap. The E-type lost three laps at the start with fuel-injection issues, had fought back to the edge of the top-10, lost time again with burnt pistons, then retired with a blown head gasket after midnight.
Later through the night Pedro Rodriguez put in very fast laps moving up from 5th to catch, pass and then lap Mairesse into second, only to lose it again when he was stopped for ten minutes to fix a misfire. The Ecosse Jaguar had been running alternately third and fourth through the night until at dawn at 5.30am it came to a halt at Arnage with a broken camshaft. It was the end of the illustrious D-type story at Le Mans.
Morning
By Sunday morning, the rain had cleared and the sun was shining. About 8.15am, with Gendebien/ Frère now holding a 5-lap lead, the Ginther/Mairesse Ferrari's gearbox gave up, handing second place back to the NART car, now well ahead of the Aston Martin. Through most of the race the Laureau/Armagnac DB had been leading the Index of Performance from the Guichet/Condriller Abarth, with one of the Porsches back in 3rd. The Porsches had been falling away through the night. After being delayed at the start, the Hill/Bonnier car had got back up to 14th until it too was stopped with engine problems. It was the smaller car of Barth/Seidel that had been the best performer, getting up to 9th and mixing it with the Ferrari and Corvette GTs before it started getting gearbox problems.
The Ferrari GTs had all been running strongly. The Whitehead/Taylor car, after initially leading the GT pack until midnight, had been chasing the French Ferrari of Tavano running in 4th. Then at 12.45, when Taylor was travelling at full speed down the Mulsanne straight, the engine detonated with such force it blew the bonnet off the car.
Finish and post-race
With the retirements, the remaining Corvette of Fitch/Grossman had moved up to 6th. Then with barely two hours Grossman came in with no water, well before the next fluid refill. Fetching ice from their VIP tent, the crew packed it around the engine instructing the driver to do 10-minute laps, attracting great attention from the crowd. Then the gearbox of the Barth Porsche lost three of it gears with a couple of hours to go. The team parked it up waiting for the last quarter-hour to make a fraught final lap. In the meantime it was overtaken by the Porsche GT that finished 10th.
Otherwise, the last part of the race was processional. The winning partnership of Gendebien and Frère, averaged a speed of , and their winning margin over the second placed crew was four laps, driven by Ricardo Rodríguez and André Pilette. Coming home third, a further four laps adrift, was 1959 winner Roy Salvadori with Jim Clark in their Aston Martin, breaking up the Ferrari train. The Ferrari GTs followed up their 3-4-5-6 result in 1959 with a 4-5-6-7, forming up in a formation finish behind the leading Testarossas. The Corvette struggled on, finishing 8th, before the engine seized completely just after the finishing line. The other Aston Martin, despite leaking oil for most of the race, stayed consistent and finished 9th.
Once again the bullet-proof Panhard-engined DBs performed very well, four of the five cars finishing. The coupé of Bouharde and Jaeger ran an impressive fuel economy. The open-top spyder of Armagnac and Laureau comfortably won the Index of Performance going over 25% than its nominal distance. They were also the final winners of the Biennial Cup for best performance over consecutive years.
But it was the two surviving Lotus Elites that carried off the Thermal Efficiency prize – the works car just beating the French privateer entry. The three Triumphs staged a formation finish, however after battling valve problems all race none could cover their mandatory distance and were not classified. British cars also won class trophies – the privateer MG was first 2-litre car home and the Austin-Healey Sprite beat the DBs in the 1-litre class.
A proud day for Belgium with three of the drivers in the first two cars coming from that country. The Belgian Prince de Mérode was the honorary starter in his role as President of the FIA, and on hand to congratulate his countrymen at the end of the race. Likewise the Belgian king sent telegrams of congratulations to the drivers. After this success, Paul Frère retired from racing, to resume his regular employment as a motoring journalist, and consultant on motor-racing regulations.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Class winners are in Bold text.
Note *: Not Classified because car failed to complete 80% of its Index of Performance distance.
Did not finish
Did not start
Class winners
Index of Thermal Efficiency
Index of Performance
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
26th Rudge-Whitworth Biennial Cup (1959/1960)
Note: this was the final awarding of the Biennial Cup.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest lap in practice – Dan Gurney, #6 Jaguar E2A – 4:04.5secs;
Fastest lap – Masten Gregory, #24 Maserati T60/61 – 4:04.0secs;
Distance –
Winner's average speed –
Standings after the race
FIA World Sportscar Championship
Championship points were awarded for the first six places in each race in the order of 8-6-4-3-2-1.
Manufacturers were only awarded points for their highest finishing car with no points awarded for additional cars finishing. Only the best 4 results out of the 5 races would be included for the final score. Total points earned are shown within brackets.
Citations
References
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Jaguar Years 1949-1957' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clarke, R.M. - editor (2009) Le Mans 'The Ferrari Years 1958-1965' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Spurring, Quentin (2010) Le Mans 1960-69 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
Wilkins, Gordon - editor (1960) Automobile Year #8 1960-61 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1960 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 12 November 2017
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 12 November 2017
Sportscars.tv – race commentary. Retrieved 12 November 2017
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 12 November 2017
Formula 2 – Le Mans 1960 results & reserve entries. Retrieved 10 August 2017
ConceptCarz ] – article about Corvette's race. Retrieved 16 November 2017
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 12 November 2017
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 12 November 2017
YouTube “Corvette at Le Mans” colour documentary by GM (35 mins). Retrieved 12 November 2017
Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodall%20Cup
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Goodall Cup
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The Goodall Cup is a perpetual trophy that is, currently, annually awarded to the playoff champions of the Australian Ice Hockey League (AIHL). The trophy is named after Australian born player John Edwin Goodall who originally donated the cup.
The Goodall Cup was originally gifted to the Inter-State Series, which was an annual 3 game series held between state teams, representing a selection of the best available players in each state. It was the championship trophy awarded to the first team to win 2 out of the 3 games in the Inter-State Series, that team would remain in possession of the cup until the following tournament.
The first evidence of the Goodall Cup having been presented was on 18 September 1911 by VAIHSA President Philip John Rupert Steele Sr to New South Wales Captain Jim Kendall, after being donated by John Edwin Goodall. The modern day version of the cup is instantly recognisable by the distinct single gold band of plaques around the lower barrel portion of the trophy.
There are currently three known versions of the Goodall Cup: A 'First Cup' which can be seen in a 1913 photograph, the "Original Cup" that now resides in the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto, Canada, and the "Replica Cup" that is currently used for presentations and is presented to the players upon becoming the AIHL finals champions.
History
With the opening of the Sydney Glaciarium, ice hockey matches between Victoria and New South Wales representative teams began almost immediately. As early as 1907, teams from both states met up in the Sydney Glaciarium to play on 5 August 1907 at 10:15 pm. The New South Wales team won the game 3 – 0.
1909–1910: The beginning of the Inter-State Series
31 August 1909
This evening marked the first Inter-State Series for ice hockey in Australia which was held between a state representative team from Victoria and from New South Wales. This tournament was a best-of-3 format and each game consisted of 2 halves with a break in between. There were 6 players that would play the whole duration of the game, which included the goaltender. In the first series Victoria won the series 2 games to 1. New South Wales was represented by a newly formed team in 1909 and travelled to Melbourne on 29 August 1909 which marked the first national interstate competition for senior men's hockey in Australia.
The first game of the 1909 Inter-State Series had a final score of 2–1 with New South Wales defeating Victoria. Friday 3 September 1909 the Victorian team defeated the New South Wales team 1–0, giving Victorian goaltender Charles Watt the first recorded shutout in the history of the Inter-State Series. In the third game of the series both teams had won a game each. Victoria defeated New South Wales 6–1 and became the first team to win the Inter-State Series Test in Australia.
23 July 1910
The first game of the second Inter-State Series saw team Victoria travel up to the Sydney Glaciarium to meet the New South Wales team in front of an enthusiastic crowd. Victoria defeated the New South Wales team by a score of 4–2 with goals being scored by Victorians Andrew Reid (who had 2 goals), Robert Jackson and Dudley Woods. Scoring for New South Wales was done by Jack Pike and Les Turnbull. The second game was dominated by Victoria who overwhelmed New South Wales by a score of 12–0.
The third night concluded with the 3rd straight win for Victoria with a convincing 8–0 victory over New South Wales. The goals were scored by Henry "Hal" Newman Reid Jr., who had five goals and his brother Andrew Reid with three goals.
1911: The Donation of the Goodall Cup
13 September 1911
The date of the first of 3 games in the third Inter-State Series which saw New South Wales win the Goodall Cup and the dominant skill of Canadian born Jim Kendall who arrived in Australia 2 years before. Jim Kendall scored all 5 goals in the first game of the season for New South Wales in a 5–3 win over Victoria. The second match was closely fought but the dominance of Jim Kendall again proved to be too much for the Victorians as he scored 6 of the 7 goals for New South Wales, often sweeping from end to end like the puck was attached to his stick by a magnet. Dunbar Poole scored the 7th goal for New South Wales as they clinched the series with a 7–5 win over Victoria. In this game, Jim Kendall suffered an injury as a hockey stick split his shin bone during play, rendering him unable to compete in the final game of the 3 game championship. Dunbar Poole was unable to stay and had also left, leaving the New South Wales team short 2 players. A decision was made to complete the final game of the series with a composite team of Dark Blue and Light Blue teams made up of the Victoria and New South Wales teams and emergency back up players for the Victorian team. The final score was 6–3 in favour of the Dark Blue team. The newly appointed second president of the VAIHSA, Philip John Rupert Steele Sr, presented the Goodall Cup to the injured New South Wales captain Jim Kendall on the evening after the final game of this series.
23 August 1912
From this the first game on this date, New South Wales would win the Goodall Cup at home in the Sydney Glaciarium for the first time by winning all 3 games in the fourth inter-state series.
13 August 1913
From winning this first game and the second game two days later, Victoria won the inter-state series and the Goodall Cup was returned to them in this fifth inter-state series, which would be the last series before the Great War began and the series was suspended. The players would discuss the current progress of the war in the change rooms.
After The Great War
New South Wales and Victoria would not play again until 1921 as World War I forced the closure of the Sydney rink (which reopened in 1920) and the abandonment of the 1914 season. New South Wales won the 1921 series with a far superior line-up which included Canadian Jimmy Kendall, who had previously turned down a cadetship with the Montreal Professional Club. This also marked the same year that the first protective hockey equipment arrived from Canada.
In 1922 the Victorians, captained by John Edwin Goodall, won back the Goodall Cup in what was considered an upset. It was the last time the Victorians won the Cup until 1947, and the last time John Edwin Goodall would be part of a team that won the cup that he had donated in 1909.
The three game series had the following scores:
Game 1: Victoria – 4 New South Wales – 1
Game 1: Victoria – 3 New South Wales – 0
Game 1: Victoria – 0 New South Wales – 0
1923–1931 AIHA
In 1923 a national federation formed and was named the Australian Ice Hockey Association (AIHA). John Edwin Goodall became the first elected president and A. De Long became the first elected Secretary/ Treasurer. The Goodall Cup would become the trophy awarded to the inter state championship.
The New South Wales State team would win every Goodall Cup in the 9 years of the national federation being called the Australian Ice Hockey Association (AIHA) from 1923 to 1931.
1932–1937 AIHSSC
In the year of 1932 the Australian Ice Hockey Association (AIHA) was renamed the Australian Ice Hockey and Speed Skating Council (AIHSSC) and the Goodall Cup would remain the awarded championship trophy for the national competition. The New South Wales State team would win every cup for the 6 years that the national federation went under this name from 1932 to 1937, by winning all but the series in 1932 that resulted in a tied series.
There were cost concerns surrounding the yearly inter state series and some of the players were unable to travel due to not being able to afford the trip. After the national council held a meeting in August, they were undecided about the future of the inter state series and left the decision to the rink managers in Sydney and Melbourne.
1938 AIHF and joining the IIHF
In the year 1938, the Australian Ice Hockey and Speed Skating Council (AIHSSC) was renamed the Australian Ice Hockey Federation (AIHF) and became part of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) on 11 February 1938. The Goodall Cup would continue being the awarded trophy for champions of the national competition that remained between Victoria and New South Wales.
New South Wales would win the Goodall Cup in 1938 and 1939 before the national competition was interrupted in 1940 by the events of World War II.
After World War II
In 1946, the national competition recommenced and the series was hosted by Victoria at the St. Moritz Ice Rink located in St. Kilda, Victoria.
A record crowd of 5000 people saw the final game of the series on Wednesday 7 August 1946, which resulted in a tie game and a tied series. This tied series resulted in the New South Wales state team retaining the Goodall Cup for 1946 due to having been the previous champions in 1939 before World War II interrupted the competition.
1st Expansion: Tasmania
1 July 1952 marked the first expansion of the inter-state series with the new inclusion of Tasmania into the competition. The game was played in the Hobart Glaciarium
Glaciarium Closure
The Goodall Cup was not contested from 1956 to 1960, where 1956 saw the Sydney Glaciarium close down and in 1957 the Melbourne Glaciarium close down, making it the longest operating rink at 50 years.
Queensland wins its first (and only) Cup
In 1977 the Queensland state team won the Goodall Cup, the first time a state team other than Victoria or New South Wales had won the championship. It was also the only time to date (2021) that Queensland has won the championship. The team that year was captained by Thornton McLaren and coached (player-coach) by Russ Trudeau and sparked by a 19-year old kid from Burnaby, British Columbia, named Doug Waymark, who won the John Nicholas Trophy as the most valuable player (MVP) of the tournament. The team was composed of eight Aussies, eight Canucks, and one Swiss.
Goodall Cup post-1977
In 1986 the South Australia state team won its first Goodall Cup. It was the only state other than Victoria and New South Wales to win a Goodall Cup since Queensland had won in 1977. Moreover, South Australia won the Goodall Cup again in 1987.
In 1993, the Goodall Cup was not contested due to financial concerns.
In 1998, the Australian Capital Territory won its first Goodall Cup.
2002–2008 AIHL
The AIHL was formed in the year 2000 and consisted of 3 teams: Adelaide Avalanche, Sydney Bears and Canberra Knights.
In 2002, The AIHL expanded from 3 teams to 6 teams with the inclusion of Melbourne Ice, Newcastle North Stars and West Sydney Ice Dogs. The Australian Ice Hockey Federation (AIHF) adopted the official business name Ice Hockey Australia (IHA) and the Goodall Cup was transferred from the IHA interstate championship to the AIHL and became the trophy given to the winners of the finals series for the newly formed AIHL.
The Sydney Bears won the first AIHL Goodall Cup in 2002 in a finals series hosted at the Sydney-based Blacktown Ice Arena where they defeated the Adelaide Avalanche.
Celebrating 100 years
The Goodall Cup was withdrawn from the AIHL in 2009 by the cup's custodians, Ice Hockey Australia (IHA). It was instead awarded to South Australia in a traditional state vs state tournament held in Adelaide, South Australia in October 2009 as a 100-year celebration of the Goodall Cup.
To mark the centenary championship, a single band of gold plaques circles the trophy with each containing the name of each State Team. Those teams that did not participate in the centenary final match have the words "Non-participants" under the state name.
The original Goodall Cup was retired before the centenary finals and now resides in the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. A "Replica Cup" was made for use in the 2009 centenary finals and was the version of the cup that was awarded to the Adelaide state team.
2010–present AIHL
In 2010 the Goodall Cup was offered back to the AIHL, and the cup was accepted by a vote of the members and board. The Goodall Cup has been re-instated by the AIHL as its finals tournament trophy and as the prize signifying Australian champions of ice hockey. Adelaide Adrenaline, winners of the 2009 AIHL playoff were engraved into the cup and are also known as the 2009 Goodall Cup champions.
Traditions and Cup history
Tied Series
There are two different years where the interstate championship series resulted in a tied series, seeing the Goodall Cup being retained by the previous years winner rather than actually awarded to a champion of the series. These years have been incorrectly recorded as a win in many references to these particular series as well as being inscribed on the Goodall Cup as being victories.
1932
Wednesday 3 August 1932 was the final game of the three game series between Victoria and New South Wales and resulted in a win for Victoria to tie the series.
The series results were as follows:
Game 1 (30 July 1932)
Victoria – 0 New South Wales – 6
( Goals scored: NSW- W. Johnson(3), Went(1), Raith(1), Darke(1) )
Game 2 (1 August 1932)
Victoria – 1 New South Wales – 1
( Goals scored: NSW- Went(1) VIC- Moore(1) )
Game 3 (3 August 1932)
Victoria – 2 New South Wales – 0
1946
This series was hosted at the St. Moritz Ice Rink located in St. Kilda, Victoria. The last game of the series was held on Wednesday 7 August 1946 and saw a record crowd of 5000 people at the venue. This tied series resulted in the New South Wales state team retaining the Goodall Cup for 1946 due to having been the previous champions in 1939 before World War II interrupted the competition.
The series results were as follows:
Game 1 (3 August 1946)
Victoria – 2 New South Wales – 3
Game 2 (5 August 1946)
Victoria – 2 New South Wales – 1
( Goals scored: VIC- Nichol(1), Massina(1) NSW- Thorpe(1) )
Game 3 (7 August 1946)
Victoria – 2 New South Wales – 2
( Goals scored: VIC- Nichol(2) NSW- Brown(1), F. Terger(1) )
First, Original and Replica versions
There are technically three known versions of the Goodall Cup championship trophy: the "First Cup", the "Original Cup" and the "Replica Cup" but there was a fourth different cup used as a state level premiership trophy in Victoria after the Great War, appearing in 1922 which was also referred to as the Goodall Cup and also donated by John Edwin Goodall.
First Cup
A cup was awarded in 1911 when the newly appointed second president of the VAIHA, Philip John Rupert Steele Sr, presented the Inter-state cup to the injured New South Wales captain Jim Kendall on the evening after the final game of the 1911 series. This cup was gifted by John Edwin Goodall It is known that the 1913 Goodall Cup was a different cup to the modern 'original' Goodall Cup that is now being stored in the Hockey Hall of Fame.
An earlier "Goodall Cup" can be seen in a 1913 photo taken with the winning Victorian team, it is a bowl with 2 handles. The Victorian team would gain the honour of holding the cup until the next season it was to be contested again.
Original Cup
The 'original' cup refers to the longest used version of the Interstate Cup referred to as the Goodall Cup. Inscribed on the bowl of the original cup are the words: "Inter-State Hockey Cup Presented by J.E. Goodall" for John Edwin Goodall who donated the cup. The original cup can be seen as early as 1922, where John Edwin Goodall is holding the cup while sitting with the winning Victorian team. This cup continued to be presented as a perpetual trophy.
The cup was partially restored in 2004 by the champions at the time, the Newcastle North Stars where the pewter cup was polished and the original wooden single tier mount was replaced with a 2 tier wooden mount.
A 3rd larger redwood tier was added to the trophy between the 2004 restoration works and the 2009 large barrel was added.
Midway through 2009, the cup was again restored and mounted on a large barrel-like base covered in name plates to be ready for the centenary game. This is the cup's current form. This final version of the trophy was retired after being awarded to the players in 2009 and it now resides in the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto.
Replica Cup
The Federation agreed to the purchase of a replica Goodall Cup in March 2009 after the "Original Cup" was considered too precious to continue travelling. The "Replica Cup" was created in 2009 and was to be used at all national championships and state association events.
The replica cup was first awarded in 2009 to the Adelaide state team in the centenary game.
Inscribed on the bowl of the "Replica Cup" are the words: "Inter-State Hockey Cup Presented by J.E. Goodall", like the original cup.
Missing Cup
The 1995 Goodall Cup series was won by South Australia, defeating New South Wales 3 – 2 in front of a capacity crowd at Ringwood Ice Rink in Victoria, Australia. The previous years champions were New South Wales and the cup was not brought to the 1995 tournament, leaving Ice Hockey Australia needing to provide a substitute trophy. The mock trophy was not well received by the South Australian team and was destroyed and left on top of a caravan, never being brought back to their home in Adelaide, South Australia.
Winners of the Goodall Cup
Goodall Cup all-time record
See also
Ice Hockey Australia
Australian Ice Hockey League
Australian Women's Ice Hockey League
Australian Junior Ice Hockey League
Jim Brown Shield
Joan McKowen Memorial Trophy
References
General
Championship & League Winners – Australia at A to Z Encyclopaedia of Ice Hockey
Specific
Ice hockey competitions in Australia
Australian Ice Hockey League
Ice hockey trophies and awards
Awards established in 1909
1909 establishments in Australia
Australian sports trophies and awards
National cup competitions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine%20and%20cosine
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Sine and cosine
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In mathematics, sine and cosine are trigonometric functions of an angle. The sine and cosine of an acute angle are defined in the context of a right triangle: for the specified angle, its sine is the ratio of the length of the side that is opposite that angle to the length of the longest side of the triangle (the hypotenuse), and the cosine is the ratio of the length of the adjacent leg to that of the hypotenuse. For an angle , the sine and cosine functions are denoted simply as and .
More generally, the definitions of sine and cosine can be extended to any real value in terms of the lengths of certain line segments in a unit circle. More modern definitions express the sine and cosine as infinite series, or as the solutions of certain differential equations, allowing their extension to arbitrary positive and negative values and even to complex numbers.
The sine and cosine functions are commonly used to model periodic phenomena such as sound and light waves, the position and velocity of harmonic oscillators, sunlight intensity and day length, and average temperature variations throughout the year. They can be traced to the and functions used in Indian astronomy during the Gupta period.
Notation
Sine and cosine are written using functional notation with the abbreviations sin and cos.
Often, if the argument is simple enough, the function value will be written without parentheses, as rather than as .
Each of sine and cosine is a function of an angle, which is usually expressed in terms of radians or degrees. Except where explicitly stated otherwise, this article assumes that the angle is measured in radians.
Definitions
Right-angled triangle definitions
To define the sine and cosine of an acute angle α, start with a right triangle that contains an angle of measure α; in the accompanying figure, angle α in triangle ABC is the angle of interest. The three sides of the triangle are named as follows:
The opposite side is the side opposite to the angle of interest, in this case side a.
The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle, in this case side h. The hypotenuse is always the longest side of a right-angled triangle.
The adjacent side is the remaining side, in this case side b. It forms a side of (and is adjacent to) both the angle of interest (angle A) and the right angle.
Once such a triangle is chosen, the sine of the angle is equal to the length of the opposite side, divided by the length of the hypotenuse:
The other trigonometric functions of the angle can be defined similarly; for example, the tangent is the ratio between the opposite and adjacent sides.
As stated, the values and appear to depend on the choice of right triangle containing an angle of measure α. However, this is not the case: all such triangles are similar, and so the ratios are the same for each of them.
Unit circle definitions
In trigonometry, a unit circle is the circle of radius one centered at the origin (0, 0) in the Cartesian coordinate system.
Let a line through the origin intersect the unit circle, making an angle of θ with the positive half of the x-axis. The x- and y-coordinates of this point of intersection are equal to and , respectively. This definition is consistent with the right-angled triangle definition of sine and cosine when : because the length of the hypotenuse of the unit circle is always 1, . The length of the opposite side of the triangle is simply the y-coordinate. A similar argument can be made for the cosine function to show that when , even under the new definition using the unit circle. is then defined as , or, equivalently, as the slope of the line segment.
Using the unit circle definition has the advantage that the angle can be extended to any real argument. This can also be achieved by requiring certain symmetries, and that sine be a periodic function.
Complex exponential function definitions
The exponential function is defined on the entire domain of the complex numbers. The definition of sine and cosine can be extended to all complex numbers via
These can be reversed to give Euler's formula
When plotted on the complex plane, the function for real values of traces out the unit circle in the complex plane.
When is a real number, sine and cosine simplify to the imaginary and real parts of or , as:
When for real values and , sine and cosine can be expressed in terms of real sines, cosines, and hyperbolic functions as
Differential equation definition
is the solution to the two-dimensional system of differential equations and with the initial conditions and . One could interpret the unit circle in the above definitions as defining the phase space trajectory of the differential equation with the given initial conditions.
It can be interpreted as a phase space trajectory of the system of differential equations and starting from the initial conditions and .
Series definitions
The successive derivatives of sine, evaluated at zero, can be used to determine its Taylor series. Using only geometry and properties of limits, it can be shown that the derivative of sine is cosine, and that the derivative of cosine is the negative of sine. This means the successive derivatives of sin(x) are cos(x), -sin(x), -cos(x), sin(x), continuing to repeat those four functions. The (4n+k)-th derivative, evaluated at the point 0:
where the superscript represents repeated differentiation. This implies the following Taylor series expansion at x = 0. One can then use the theory of Taylor series to show that the following identities hold for all real numbers x (where x is the angle in radians):
Taking the derivative of each term gives the Taylor series for cosine:
Continued fraction definitions
The sine function can also be represented as a generalized continued fraction:
The continued fraction representations can be derived from Euler's continued fraction formula and express the real number values, both rational and irrational, of the sine and cosine functions.
Identities
Exact identities (using radians):
These apply for all values of .
Reciprocals
The reciprocal of sine is cosecant, i.e., the reciprocal of is . Cosecant gives the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the opposite side. Similarly, the reciprocal of cosine is secant, which gives the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to that of the adjacent side.
Inverses
The inverse function of sine is arcsine (arcsin or asin) or inverse sine (). The inverse function of cosine is arccosine (arccos, acos, or ). (The superscript of −1 in and denotes the inverse of a function, not exponentiation.) As sine and cosine are not injective, their inverses are not exact inverse functions, but partial inverse functions. For example, , but also , etc. It follows that the arcsine function is multivalued: , but also , , etc. When only one value is desired, the function may be restricted to its principal branch. With this restriction, for each x in the domain, the expression will evaluate only to a single value, called its principal value. The standard range of principal values for arcsin is from to and the standard range for arccos is from to .
where (for some integer k):
By definition, arcsin and arccos satisfy the equations:
and
Pythagorean trigonometric identity
The basic relationship between the sine and the cosine is the Pythagorean trigonometric identity:
where sin2(x) means (sin(x))2.
Double angle formulas
Sine and cosine satisfy the following double angle formulas:
The cosine double angle formula implies that sin2 and cos2 are, themselves, shifted and scaled sine waves. Specifically,
The graph shows both the sine function and the sine squared function, with the sine in blue and sine squared in red. Both graphs have the same shape, but with different ranges of values, and different periods. Sine squared has only positive values, but twice the number of periods.
Derivative and integrals
The derivatives of sine and cosine are:
and their antiderivatives are:
where C denotes the constant of integration.
Properties relating to the quadrants
The table below displays many of the key properties of the sine function (sign, monotonicity, convexity), arranged by the quadrant of the argument. For arguments outside those in the table, one may compute the corresponding information by using the periodicity of the sine function.
The following table gives basic information at the boundary of the quadrants.
Fixed points
Zero is the only real fixed point of the sine function; in other words the only intersection of the sine function and the identity function is . The only real fixed point of the cosine function is called the Dottie number. That is, the Dottie number is the unique real root of the equation The decimal expansion of the Dottie number is .
Arc length
The arc length of the sine curve between and is
where is the incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind with modulus . It cannot be expressed using elementary functions.
The arc length for a full period is
where is the gamma function and is the lemniscate constant.
Laws
The law of sines states that for an arbitrary triangle with sides a, b, and c and angles opposite those sides A, B and C:
This is equivalent to the equality of the first three expressions below:
where R is the triangle's circumradius.
It can be proved by dividing the triangle into two right ones and using the above definition of sine. The law of sines is useful for computing the lengths of the unknown sides in a triangle if two angles and one side are known. This is a common situation occurring in triangulation, a technique to determine unknown distances by measuring two angles and an accessible enclosed distance.
The law of cosines states that for an arbitrary triangle with sides a, b, and c and angles opposite those sides A, B and C:
In the case where , and this becomes the Pythagorean theorem: for a right triangle, where c is the hypotenuse.
Special values
For integer multiples of 15° (that is, radians), the values of sin(x) and cos(x) are particularly simple and can be expressed in terms of only. A table of these angles is given below. For more complex angle expressions see .
90 degree increments:
Relationship to complex numbers
Sine and cosine are used to connect the real and imaginary parts of a complex number with its polar coordinates (r, φ):
The real and imaginary parts are:
where r and φ represent the magnitude and angle of the complex number z.
For any real number θ, Euler's formula says that:
Therefore, if the polar coordinates of z are (r, φ),
Complex arguments
Applying the series definition of the sine and cosine to a complex argument, z, gives:
where sinh and cosh are the hyperbolic sine and cosine. These are entire functions.
It is also sometimes useful to express the complex sine and cosine functions in terms of the real and imaginary parts of its argument:
Partial fraction and product expansions of complex sine
Using the partial fraction expansion technique in complex analysis, one can find that the infinite series
both converge and are equal to . Similarly, one can show that
Using product expansion technique, one can derive
Alternatively, the infinite product for the sine can be proved using complex Fourier series.
Using complex Fourier series, the function can be decomposed as
Setting yields
Therefore, we get
The function is the derivative of . Furthermore, if , then the function such that the emerged series converges on some open and connected subset of is , which can be proved using the Weierstrass M-test. The interchange of the sum and derivative is justified by uniform convergence. It follows that
Exponentiating gives
Since and , we have . Hence
for some open and connected subset of . Let . Since converges uniformly on any closed disk, converges uniformly on any closed disk as well. It follows that the infinite product is holomorphic on . By the identity theorem, the infinite product for the sine is valid for all , which completes the proof.
Usage of complex sine
sin(z) is found in the functional equation for the Gamma function,
which in turn is found in the functional equation for the Riemann zeta-function,
As a holomorphic function, sin z is a 2D solution of Laplace's equation:
The complex sine function is also related to the level curves of pendulums.
Complex graphs
History
While the early study of trigonometry can be traced to antiquity, the trigonometric functions as they are in use today were developed in the medieval period. The chord function was discovered by Hipparchus of Nicaea (180–125 BCE) and Ptolemy of Roman Egypt (90–165 CE).
The sine and cosine functions can be traced to the and functions used in Indian astronomy during the Gupta period (Aryabhatiya and Surya Siddhanta), via translation from Sanskrit to Arabic and then from Arabic to Latin.
All six trigonometric functions in current use were known in Islamic mathematics by the 9th century, as was the law of sines, used in solving triangles. With the exception of the sine (which was adopted from Indian mathematics), the other five modern trigonometric functions were discovered by Arabic mathematicians, including the cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant. Al-Khwārizmī (c. 780–850) produced tables of sines, cosines and tangents. Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (853–929) discovered the reciprocal functions of secant and cosecant, and produced the first table of cosecants for each degree from 1° to 90°.
The first published use of the abbreviations sin, cos, and tan is by the 16th-century French mathematician Albert Girard; these were further promulgated by Euler (see below). The Opus palatinum de triangulis of Georg Joachim Rheticus, a student of Copernicus, was probably the first in Europe to define trigonometric functions directly in terms of right triangles instead of circles, with tables for all six trigonometric functions; this work was finished by Rheticus' student Valentin Otho in 1596.
In a paper published in 1682, Leibniz proved that sin x is not an algebraic function of x. Roger Cotes computed the derivative of sine in his Harmonia Mensurarum (1722). Leonhard Euler's Introductio in analysin infinitorum (1748) was mostly responsible for establishing the analytic treatment of trigonometric functions in Europe, also defining them as infinite series and presenting "Euler's formula", as well as the near-modern abbreviations sin., cos., tang., cot., sec., and cosec.
Etymology
Etymologically, the word sine derives from the Sanskrit word 'bow-string'
or more specifically its synonym (both adopted from Ancient Greek 'string'), due to visual similarity between the arc of a circle with its corresponding chord and a bow with its string (see jyā, koti-jyā and utkrama-jyā). This was transliterated in Arabic as , which is however meaningless in that language and abbreviated (). Since Arabic is written without short vowels, was interpreted as the homograph , (جيب), which means 'bosom', 'pocket', 'fold'. When the Arabic texts of Al-Battani and al-Khwārizmī were translated into Medieval Latin in the 12th century by Gerard of Cremona, he used the Latin equivalent sinus (which also means 'bay' or 'fold', and more specifically 'the hanging fold of a toga over the breast'). Gerard was probably not the first scholar to use this translation; Robert of Chester appears to have preceded him and there is evidence of even earlier usage. The English form sine was introduced in the 1590s.
The word cosine derives from an abbreviation of the Latin 'sine of the complementary angle' as cosinus in Edmund Gunter's Canon triangulorum (1620), which also includes a similar definition of cotangens.
Software implementations
There is no standard algorithm for calculating sine and cosine. IEEE 754, the most widely used standard for the specification of reliable floating-point computation, does not address calculating trigonometric functions such as sine. The reason is that no efficient algorithm is known for computing sine and cosine with a specified accuracy, especially for large inputs.
Algorithms for calculating sine may be balanced for such constraints as speed, accuracy, portability, or range of input values accepted. This can lead to different results for different algorithms, especially for special circumstances such as very large inputs, e.g. sin(10).
A common programming optimization, used especially in 3D graphics, is to pre-calculate a table of sine values, for example one value per degree, then for values in-between pick the closest pre-calculated value, or linearly interpolate between the 2 closest values to approximate it. This allows results to be looked up from a table rather than being calculated in real time. With modern CPU architectures this method may offer no advantage.
The CORDIC algorithm is commonly used in scientific calculators.
The sine and cosine functions, along with other trigonometric functions, is widely available across programming languages and platforms. In computing, they are typically abbreviated to sin and cos.
Some CPU architectures have a built-in instruction for sine, including the Intel x87 FPUs since the 80387.
In programming languages, sin and cos are typically either a built-in function or found within the language's standard math library.
For example, the C standard library defines sine functions within math.h: sin(double), sinf(float), and sinl(long double). The parameter of each is a floating point value, specifying the angle in radians. Each function returns the same data type as it accepts. Many other trigonometric functions are also defined in math.h, such as for cosine, arc sine, and hyperbolic sine (sinh).
Similarly, Python defines math.sin(x) and math.cos(x) within the built-in math module. Complex sine and cosine functions are also available within the cmath module, e.g. cmath.sin(z). CPython's math functions call the C math library, and use a double-precision floating-point format.
Turns based implementations
Some software libraries provide implementations of sine and cosine using the input angle in half-turns, a half-turn being an angle of 180 degrees or radians. Representing angles in turns or half-turns has accuracy advantages and efficiency advantages in some cases. In MATLAB, OpenCL, R, Julia, CUDA, and ARM, these function are called sinpi and cospi. For example, sinpi(x) would evaluate to where x is expressed in half-turns, and consequently the final input to the function, can be interpreted in radians by .
The accuracy advantage stems from the ability to perfectly represent key angles like full-turn, half-turn, and quarter-turn losslessly in binary floating-point or fixed-point. In contrast, representing , , and in binary floating-point or binary scaled fixed-point always involves a loss of accuracy since irrational numbers cannot be represented with finitely many binary digits.
Turns also have an accuracy advantage and efficiency advantage for computing modulo to one period. Computing modulo 1 turn or modulo 2 half-turns can be losslessly and efficiently computed in both floating-point and fixed-point. For example, computing modulo 1 or modulo 2 for a binary point scaled fixed-point value requires only a bit shift or bitwise AND operation. In contrast, computing modulo involves inaccuracies in representing .
For applications involving angle sensors, the sensor typically provides angle measurements in a form directly compatible with turns or half-turns. For example, an angle sensor may count from 0 to 4096 over one complete revolution. If half-turns are used as the unit for angle, then the value provided by the sensor directly and losslessly maps to a fixed-point data type with 11 bits to the right of the binary point. In contrast, if radians are used as the unit for storing the angle, then the inaccuracies and cost of multiplying the raw sensor integer by an approximation to would be incurred.
See also
Āryabhaṭa's sine table
Bhaskara I's sine approximation formula
Discrete sine transform
Dixon elliptic functions
Euler's formula
Generalized trigonometry
Hyperbolic function
Lemniscate elliptic functions
Law of sines
List of periodic functions
List of trigonometric identities
Madhava series
Madhava's sine table
Optical sine theorem
Polar sine—a generalization to vertex angles
Proofs of trigonometric identities
Sinc function
Sine and cosine transforms
Sine integral
Sine quadrant
Sine wave
Sine–Gordon equation
Sinusoidal model
SOH-CAH-TOA
Trigonometric functions
Trigonometric integral
Citations
References
External links
Angle
Trigonometric functions
no:Trigonometriske funksjoner#Sinus, cosinus og tangens
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5011063
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clare%20Bates
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Clare Bates
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Clare Bates (also Tyler) is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders, played by Gemma Bissix. Bissix originally played the character as a schoolgirl from 1993 to 1998. She left the serial with her screen stepfather Nigel Bates, when his actor Paul Bradley opted to leave. After a ten-year hiatus, Bissix returned to the role on 1 February 2008. The character was transformed from "cute and sweet" into a gold digging "maneater", chasing wealthy men for their money. The British media focused on the character's penchant for revealing clothing, and while she was praised by some critics, it was suggested that she was underused upon her return. Bissix again left EastEnders at the end of her contract in the summer of 2008. Her departing episode aired on 7 August 2008.
Storylines
1993–1998
Clare, the daughter of Debbie Tyler (Nicola Duffett), arrives in Walford in 1993 when her mother moves in with her new partner Nigel Bates (Paul Bradley). Her father, Liam (Francis Magee) was abusive towards Debbie, which led to them separating. Liam follows them to Walford and tries everything possible to break Nigel and Debbie up. Despite problems, Debbie marries Nigel in 1994 and Clare is happy with them; however, her happiness is cut short when her mother dies in a hit-and-run accident in 1995. Nigel falls apart and Clare has to look after him but Nigel sorts himself out when Liam returns, wanting custody of Clare but Clare is happy and does not want to leave her stepfather. Nigel fights Liam for Clare and wins after Liam is forced to withdraw his case as his girlfriend, Caroline Webber (Franesca Hall) admits in court that Liam has been violent towards her.
Clare is friendly with the other young girls in Walford, Janine Butcher (Alexia Demetriou) and Sonia Jackson (Natalie Cassidy). They cause trouble for the barber Felix Kawalski (Harry Landis) in November 1995, when they spread rumours that he is a pervert who has murdered his wife, and keeps her mutilated body in his cellar. Clare breaks into Felix's barber shop one evening to find the body but she trips on the cellar stairs and is knocked unconscious. The adults of Walford fear Clare has been abducted by Felix; they confront him, but find Clare safe and well. Felix has only been hiding a collection of butterflies.
In 1997, Clare starts socialising with a bad crowd at school, and subsequently begins bullying her friend, Sonia, leading to her being reprimanded by her teacher, Julie Haye (Karen Henthorn). Nigel takes her to his old school to show her the pain that bullies inflict on their victims, making her see sense so she makes peace with Sonia. She then falls for a boy at her school, Josh Saunders (Jon Lee), who rescues Clare from her old gang after they turn on her for leaving their clique. They start dating — despite Nigel's objections — though their romance hits a brief setback when Clare discovers that his mother is also her teacher, Julie. Despite her initial upset, Clare comes round and she is happy when Nigel and Julie begin dating. When Julie gets a job in Scotland, Nigel and Clare decide to join her and Josh, leaving Walford in April 1998.
2008
On 1 February 2008, Clare returns to Albert Square; she is thrown from the back seat of a car. Nigel's former landlady, Dot Branning (June Brown), persuades her to stay. Clare moves in with Dot and gets a job as receptionist at Tanya Branning (Jo Joyner)'s beauty parlour. Preferring rich men, Clare tries to attract the attention of the wealthy men in Albert Square. Jack Branning (Scott Maslen) and his brother Max (Jake Wood) show no interest; however, Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt) is more susceptible despite being married to Jane (Laurie Brett). Clare flirts with Ian, wears revealing clothes and talks suggestively but she is playing a game and has no intention of taking things further, acting shocked when Ian suggests that she does. She blackmails Ian, threatening to inform Jane of his dishonourable intentions unless he pays to keep quiet but Ian tells Jane himself so she confronts Clare, warning her to stay away from Ian.
Clare becomes interested in Bradley Branning (Charlie Clements) when he gets a lucrative property development job. They grow closer and she attempts to seduce him but he rebuffs her advances, due to recently separating from his wife, Stacey (Lacey Turner), but relents when Clare dresses up as Princess Leia to impress him. He propositions her but Clare refuses to have sex with him, breaking down and telling him about an affair she had with an aggressive, married man named Arnold. Arnold traces Clare to Walford, wanting to rekindle their affair but Clare only wanted Arnold to buy her expensive gifts and when he stopped, she fled. Clare knows that Arnold had bought his wife expensive jewellery and persuades Bradley to help her steal it by claiming that it belongs to her. Believing Arnold is a bully, Bradley agrees. The robbery goes off without a hitch, but Arnold sees Clare leaving and returns to Walford to confront her. Clare admits that she never loved Arnold and was only using him for his money. When he threatens to call the police, Clare threatens to ruin his marriage and Bradley throws him out after Clare lies that he was verbally abusing her. Satisfied with her pay off, Clare realises that Bradley is too good for her and tells him this, refusing to start a relationship, but is jealous, however, when Bradley reconciles with Stacey.
Despite starting as enemies, Clare becomes friends with her colleague, Chelsea Fox (Tiana Benjamin) and they regularly go out together, looking for wealthy men. When Chelsea starts using drugs, her behaviour becomes erratic and she steals £100 from Tanya. Sensing an opportunity to make money, Clare also steals £100 and blames the theft on Chelsea, who is fired from her job. Subsequently, Clare and Chelsea's friendship ends.
Revealing a more vulnerable side, Clare becomes morose and upset on the anniversary of her mother's death, telling Dot that she feels alone and can only rely upon herself. The following month, she is devastated when Nigel fails to visit. She breaks down in tears, telling Bradley that she and Nigel had grown apart as she had aged. Later, she tells Garry Hobbs (Ricky Groves) that Nigel was unsupportive when she slept with a boy at school and got a reputation for being promiscuous, simply putting her on the pill. Bradley's support helps Clare realise she has to change and vows to put her gold digging behind her but Bradley finds her diary that shows her plan to take his money. He subsequently turns against her so Clare throws a party at Dot's house, inviting random people who trash the place. Dot, realising Clare is depressed, tries to get her to seek counsel from God. Clare reacts with fury, but following advice from Lucas Johnson (Don Gilet), she tries to make amends with Dot and even attempts to pray but Bradley is not convinced and insists Clare leave Walford. Clare does, leaving behind a goodbye letter for Dot and stealing £200 from Bradley, leaving in a black taxi on 7 August 2008.
Character creation and development
Initial stint (1993–98)
Clare Tyler (later Bates) was introduced by the executive producer of EastEnders, Leonard Lewis. Gemma Bissix was cast in the role. Reflecting on the casting process in 2001, Bissix said, "I was nine when I started on EastEnders. I did drama classes after school and my mum took me to an audition. There were about 50 others. I read through the script and by the time I was home they had phoned my dad to tell him I had the role. I was only supposed to be in it for three episodes, but it turned into five years." It was her first acting job and she had received no formal training. In 2008, Bissix stated, "that was my training [...] quite a lot of people [attend] drama school, I was trained by EastEnders." The character made her first appearance in July 1993 as the daughter of Debbie Tyler (played by Nicola Duffett), a love interest for an EastEnders regular, Nigel Bates (played by Paul Bradley).
Clare's introductory storyline focused upon domestic violence—her father Liam's physical abuse of her mother—and being caught between her feuding parents. Later storylines involved the death of her mother, who was killed in a hit-and-run accident in 1995, and a subsequent custody battle between her father and stepfather, which ultimately led to Nigel being given custody of Clare. After six years in the serial, the character was written out in 1998 as a result of Paul Bradley's decision to leave, reportedly for fear of being typecast in the role of Nigel the "nerd". The writers of EastEnders wanted to give Nigel a happy ending, so a character named Julie Haye (Karen Henthorn) was invented to be a love interest for Nigel, whilst her son, Josh Saunders (Jon Lee), was invented to be a love interest for Clare. In the storyline, Nigel fell for Julie, Clare's teacher, as they tried to sort out Clare's problematic behaviour at school. Simultaneously, Clare fell for Julie's son Josh, and when the storyline reached its climax in April 1998, the Bates family relocated to Scotland to begin a new life with Julie and Josh. Since her initial departure, actress Gemma Bissix has commented on her character's exit from the soap: “it was the right time for the character to go. Besides, when you get to 15 and haven't been able to cut your hair for six years, you want a change.”
Reintroduction (2008)
In September 2007, an official BBC press report announced that actress Gemma Bissix had agreed to reprise the role of Clare, ten years after her initial departure. Bissix was approached about returning by the executive producer of EastEnders, Diederick Santer, following her successful stint as soap villain Clare Devine in Channel 4's Hollyoaks.
Commenting on her reintroduction, Bissix has said, "To be able to reprise the role of Clare, who I played when I was a child, is such a great compliment. It’s fantastic to grab something that once was and try and develop it into something different. I’m loving every minute." Clare Bates made her reappearance on-screen on 1 February 2008 — in her first scene she was thrown out of the back of a car by her lover, the CEO of a big company.
Characterisation
Unlike the "cute, sweet" character she appeared to be during the 1990s, Clare was transformed into a "maneating bitch" upon her reintroduction in 2008; a gold digger, chasing after wealthy men for their money. Bissix has said, "Myself, Diederick [Santer] and [story producer] Dominic [Treadwell-Collins] had a characterisation session and we discussed what Clare's been doing and how she's got to where she is now. Her back story has played a big part in how I'm developing the character."
As part of the character's new look, Bissix was required to wear revealing clothing regularly. She has commented, "That is her character. She thinks she looks sexy and she reckons that's what it takes to get blokes on their knees. You can't blame her – it works for most."
Explaining the reasons for her character's personality change, Bissix said "I think it’s just the fact that she’s lonely. When she was in Scotland Nigel and Julie were getting on with their own thing. Through no fault of Nigel’s she just got pushed out of the family. She’s not his real child, her mum’s dead and her dad was in prison and is a bit of a wrong un. She went to university and was mistreated by a few men. Now she uses her looks to her advantage. Now she’s using the men and treating them badly...she's never felt settled. Her mother died, her father was abusive and she doesn't even know him. She's never felt like she's fitted in. Clare's 'mystery' is brought about by her looking for that father figure and needing that kind of attention, which then leads her into preying on the men of Walford. That's how she makes her money. Her forté is finding men with money and using her assets to entice them and rip them off..."
Gold digging
The character's first return storyline concentrated on her attempt to seduce and then blackmail wealthy resident Ian Beale (played by Adam Woodyatt). An EastEnders insider said: "Ian has been completely blown away by Clare ever since she returned to the Square. She is a saucy little minx and will stop at nothing to get him into bed. But she’s not really interested in him – she just wants his money. So Ian is really playing with fire and risking his marriage just by being alone with Clare. But he’s more of a silly old fool than anything – although I’m not sure that Jane will see it like that, especially if she finds out about their kiss. And Clare being Clare, she probably will – unless of course Ian pays her to keep quiet." However, in the storyline, Clare's games were eventually halted when Ian confessed to Jane and she ordered Clare to "Stay away from Ian!". According to Bissix, filming these scenes was particularly hard for Adam Woodyatt, who knew her well when she was only a child from her first stint in the soap: "Poor Adam. He spent a day staring at my chest for one scene, trying to get the fact that the last time he saw me I was 14 out of his head. He was a friend of Nigel so he was around all the time when I was first here and we'd done scenes together. Now, instead of this snotty-nosed little girl making Nigel's tea, she was trying to seduce him and get him in his Y-fronts."
Clare was later shown to develop an interest in Bradley Branning (Charlie Clements). In an interview with Digital Spy at the 2008 British Soap Awards, Bissix was asked about Clare's relationship with Bradley. She said, "[Their relationship] will be explored to a certain degree, but at the same time [...] it is Bradley at the end of the day, and unless he earns money, it's not going to get very far."
Other characters that Clare has tried to seduce for their wealth have included Bradley's father Max (Jake Wood), and her former sugar daddy, Arnold (Richard Lumsden) — a guest character who was introduced in a storyline that saw Clare steal all his wife's expensive jewellery. In May 2008, Bissix revealed that the "depths to Clare are going to start to be unraveled", which she welcomed as, in her words, she'd had "enough of [Clare's] maneating for a while."
Departure (2008)
Despite Bissix stating early in May 2008 that she was going to be with EastEnders for "a while", it was announced a few weeks later on 23 May 2008 that she would be leaving EastEnders when her contract ended in the summer of 2008. Bissix has since revealed that she decided not to renew her contract. Bissix commented, "I've had a great time at EastEnders and I have loved having the chance to play Clare again. I'm looking forward to trying new things." Press reports suggested that Clare would depart the soap after she was exposed as a "thoroughly nasty piece of work". A source told the press, "Clare has been toiling away, trying it on with all the affluent men of Walford including Bradley Branning, Jack Branning and even Ian Beale but what she had thought was a masterplan to bag the man of her dreams soon gets out of hand. She is forced to flee as it is clear she is not welcome in Albert Square anymore."
Despite Clare showing a more "vulnerable" side in the weeks prior to her departure, in episodes that aired in July 2008, Bradley discovered her original plan to manipulate money from himself and other men in Walford, and subsequently shunned her, leaving Clare "feeling isolated and unwanted by her closest friends and family". Bissix has discussed her character's departure and the "softer side" to Clare that emerged: "she does genuinely care for [Bradley] [...] When he turns against her, it turns into a bit of a drunken mission for her and she wrecks Dot's house. When Dot comes back, she finds her in a bit of a state and hands her a Christianity leaflet. [Clare] actually sits and tries to pray". Kris Green from Digital Spy has suggested that the programme "only really ever scratched the surface with [Clare]" and that there was still a lot that was undiscovered about the character, which Bissix has agreed with. She comments, "This isn't a closed chapter. At the end of the day, she's been outed off the Square and with the character she is, she doesn't even know what's going on in her own head. Someone like Clare doesn't stick around Walford unless there's a reason. I like to believe in what I do and believe in my characters. I'm not going to stay in a job for no reason. Clare would definitely leave in this situation." After one last "huge row" with Bradley and realising that she had no friends in Walford, Clare decided to leave, making her exit in an hour-long episode that aired on 7 August 2008. Discussing her exit, Bissix said, "I leave Albert Square in the back of a Black Cab, of course! Which is how I left with Nigel 10 years ago so it feels kind of right. It’s better than going out in a [coffin] isn’t it? I don’t want to be killed off!" She also revealed that she is hoping Clare Bates will return to EastEnders again one day, commenting, "I don’t think it’s the end of Clare. I’m sure she’ll be back to cause trouble at some point." In 2009, Bissix added that producers told her when she left in August 2008 that they were thinking of bringing her character back in a year or so. She added, "but it's one of those things. I'll just have to wait and see."
Reception
The character's return in 2008, where Clare was thrown out of a car's rear door into the gutter, was called a "sensational entrance" by Daily Mirror critic, Tony Stewart, and "yet another reason to watch Enders again". He speculated that she would be "compulsive viewing", suggesting that there was "an air of desperate mystery" about her and added that the "sweet teenage schoolgirl has grown up to be a self-possessed and manipulative stunner who'll give the Mitchell sisters a run for their money. If Clare's just had a bumpy ride, then Walford should buckle up as she's about to return the favour!".
According to a May 2008 article by Martin Smith, television critic for the Coventry Telegraph, the character of Clare Bates is one of only two reasons to watch EastEnders. He commented, "She's sassy, stylish, sexy and supremely manipulative – and far foxier than either of the Mitchell [sisters]." Though he continued that the character had been underused, saying "Unfortunately, for 'Enders, she's sidelined more often than Harry Kewell in a Champions League final. At least Hollyoaks knew her worth."
The character's "scantily clad" attire has been commented on in the British tabloid press, with Tony Stewart from the Daily Mirror suggesting that Gemma Bissix might "turn up in Albert Square starkers next". In May 2008, Clare was shown dressed as Princess Leia, and according to Stewart she looked like "a porno version" of the Star Wars character, "in white hot pants and a skimpy top that [allowed] her galactic orbs to bounce about".
It has also been noted that the 2008 "minx" version of Clare Bates is similar to the character Clare Devine from the Channel 4 soap Hollyoaks, whom Bissix played during a break from EastEnders between 2005 and 2007. Despite them being entirely different characters, it was suggested in The Herald that Gemma Bissix actually reprised the role between the two soaps. Bissix has acknowledged the comparison between the two characters, but maintains that they differ: "A lot of people ask me this. Clare Bates is a minx and dresses to impress, using her sexuality to get where she wanted [...] Clare Devine doesn't have the emotion Clare Bates does. Clare Devine kills people, she tells little children that they're the reason for their parents' death!"
In reference to the character's brief dalliance with Christianity in 2008, TV critic for heat magazine, Julie Emery commented, "Stop right now, EastEnders. Please do not even try to make us believe that tarty, conniving Clare is about to find God, start wearing sensible floral frocks and run off to be a missionary in Africa [...] we ain't buying Clare realising the error of her ways and turning into a Bible basher. Anyway, we like her nasty bad-girl ways." Bissix was nominated in the "Best Bitch" category at the Inside Soap Awards in 2008, for her role as Clare Bates.
See also
List of EastEnders characters (1993)
List of soap opera villains
References
External links
Clare Bates at BBC Online (archive)
EastEnders characters
Adoptee characters in television
Television characters introduced in 1993
British female characters in television
Female villains
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5011540
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USNS%20Salvor
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USNS Salvor
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USNS Salvor (T-ARS-52) is a , the second United States Navy ship of that name.
Salvor was laid down on 16 September 1983 by Peterson Builders, Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin; launched on 28 July 1984; and commissioned on 14 June 1986.
Salvor is the third ship of the auxiliary rescue and salvage class of vessel constructed for the US Navy. The rugged construction of this steel-hulled vessel, combined with her speed and endurance, make Salvor well-suited for rescue and salvage operations throughout the world. The hull below the waterline is ice-strengthened. Her propulsion plant can develop 4200 shaft horsepower with four Caterpillar 399 diesel engines coupled in pairs to two shafts. She is fitted with a Controllable Reversible Pitch (CRP) propeller within a Kort nozzle on each shaft. The CRP propeller/Kort nozzle combination produces greater thrust and more maneuverability control than conventional propellers. Salvor is also configured with a bow thruster which provides athwartship thrust for additional control of the bow when the ship's speed is less than five knots (9 km/h).
In 1995 and again in 2000, Salvor was the United States Pacific Fleet's winner of the Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award for most battle-ready ship of her type.
USS Salvor was decommissioned and transferred to the Military Sealift Command in January 2007. Salvor was redesignated as USNS Salvor (T-ARS 52). The ship has undergone modifications for civilian crewing as well as automation and control system upgrades at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard.
Mission and capabilities
Like all Safeguard-class rescue and salvage ships, Salvor serves as an element of the United States Navy's Combat Logistics Support Force and provides rescue and salvage services to the fleet at sea. She also supported the protection of forces ashore through post-assault salvage operations in close proximity to the shore. She is designed to perform combat salvage, lifting, towing, off-ship firefighting, manned diving operations, and emergency repairs to stranded or disabled vessels.
Salvage of disabled and stranded vessels
Disabled or stranded ships might require various types of assistance before retraction or towing can be attempted. In her salvage holds, Salvor carries transportable cutting and welding equipment, hydraulic and electric power sources, and de-watering gear. Salvor also has salvage and machine shops, and hull repair materials to effect temporary hull repairs on stranded or otherwise damaged ships.
Retraction of stranded vessels
Stranded vessels can be retracted from a beach or reef by the use of Salvor towing machine and propulsion. Additional retraction force can be applied to a stranded vessel through the use of up to six legs of beach gear, consisting of STATO anchors, wire rope, chain, and salvage buoys. In a typical configuration, two legs of beach gear are rigged on board Salvor, and up to four legs of beach are rigged to the stranded vessel.
In addition to the standard legs of beach gear, Salvor carries four spring buoys. The spring buoys are carried beneath the port and starboard bridge wings and are painted bright orange. Each spring buoy weighs approximately , is long and in diameter, provides a net buoyancy of 7½ tons, and can withstand 125 tons of pull-through force. The spring buoys are used with beach gear legs rigged from a stranded vessel when deep water is found seaward of the stranded vessel.
Towing
Salvors propulsion machinery provides a bollard pull (towing force at zero speed and full power) of 68 tons.
The centerpiece of Salvors towing capability is an Almon A. Johnson Series 322 double-drum automatic towing machine. Each drum carries of drawn galvanized, 6X37 right-hand lay, wire-rope towing hawsers, with closed zinc-poured sockets on the bitter end. The towing machine uses a system to automatically pay-in and pay-out the towing hawser to maintain a constant strain.
The automatic towing machine also includes a Series 400 traction winch that can be used with synthetic line towing hawsers up to 14 inches in circumference. The winch has automatic payout but only manual recovery.
The Salvor caprail is curved to fairlead and prevent chafing of the towing hawser. It includes two vertical stern rollers to tend the towing hawser directly aft and two Norman pin rollers to prevent the towing hawser from sweeping forward of the beam at the point of tow. The stern rollers and Norman pins are raised hydraulically and can withstand a lateral force of at mid barrel.
Two tow bows provide a safe working area on the fantail during towing operations.
Manned diving operations
Salvor has several diving systems to support different types of operations. Divers descend to diving depth on a diving stage that is lowered by one of two powered davits.
The diving locker is equipped with a double-lock hyperbaric chamber that can be used for recompression after deep dives or for the treatment of divers suffering from decompression sickness.
The MK21 MOD1 diving system supports manned diving to depths of on surfaced-supplied air. A fly-away mixed gas system can be used to enable the support of diving to a maximum depth of .
The MK20 MOD0 diving system allows-surface supplied diving to a depth of with lighter equipment.
Salvor carries SCUBA equipment for dives that require greater mobility than is possible in tethered diving.
Mines
Naval mine laying and recovery.
Recovery of submerged objects
In addition to her two main ground tackle anchors ( Navy standard stockless or balanced-fluke anchors) Salvor can use equipment associated with her beach gear to lay a multi-point open water moor to station herself for diving and ROV operations.
A typical four-point-moor consists of an X pattern with four Stato Anchors at the outside corners and Salvor at the center, made fast to a spring buoy for the close end of each mooring leg with synthetic mooring lines. Using her capstans, Salvor can shorten or lengthen the mooring line for each leg and change her position within the moor.
As built, Salvor had a 7.5-ton capacity boom on a forward kingpost. However, the kingpost and boom were removed and replaced by a 10,000-pound deck crane in 2011. She has 40-ton capacity boom on her aft kingpost.
Heavy Lift
Salvor has heavy lift system that consists of large bow and stern rollers, deck machinery, and tackle. The rollers serve as low-friction fairlead for the wire rope or chain used for the lift. The tackle and deck machinery provide up to 75 tons of hauling for each lift. The two bow rollers can be used together with linear hydraulic pullers to achieve a dynamic lift of 150 tons. The stern rollers can be used with the automatic towing machine to provide a dynamic lift of 150 tons. All four rollers can be used together for a dynamic lift of 300 tons or a static tidal lift of 350 tons.
Salvor also has two auxiliary bow rollers, which can support of 75 ton lift when used together.
Off-ship fire-fighting
Salvor has three manually operated fire monitors, one on the forward signal bridge, one on the aft signal bridge, and one on the forecastle, that can deliver up to 1000 gallons per minute of seawater or aqueous film forming foam (AFFF). When originally built, Salvor had a fourth remotely controlled fire monitor mounted on her forward kingpost, but this was later removed. Salvor has a 3600-gallon foam tank.
Emergency ship salvage material
In addition to the equipment carried by Salvor, the US Navy Supervisor of Salvage maintains a stock of additional emergency fly-away salvage equipment that can be deployed aboard the salvage ships to support a wide variety of rescue and salvage operations.
Operational accomplishments
Between 1987 and 2001, Salvor has provided rescue or assistance to ships at sea in seven instances. Two cases involved collisions near Hawaii: the boat accident in August 1987, and the collision of with Ehime Maru in February 2001. Salvor also assisted in the Exxon Houston grounding near Barbers Point, Hawaii, in March 1989, and the Kamalu barge fire in May 1989. On three occasions, Salvor has assisted a ship at sea that has suffered a catastrophic equipment loss: recovering the primary towing pendant of the ex-/ in January 1995, the anchor chain of the in February 1995, and the towed sonar array of the in June 1996. The ship was also involved in the rescue effort after the sinking of ROKS Cheonan.
During the same time, Salvor participated in seven sea-recoveries of submerged military aircraft, including an A-6E Intruder (VA-145) in Puget Sound, Washington, a UH-46D Sea Knight from a world-record depth of near Wake Island, a SH-60 Seahawk, an F/A-18C Hornet (VFA-22) near San Diego, and two United States Air Force F-16 Falcons in Korean waters and the Sea of Japan.
Other salvage operations undertaken by Salvor include repairing the propeller blades of , repairing the hull of , recovering a LARC-V amphibious vehicle, recovering and disposing of a Mark 83 bomb, pumping out oil leaking from the wreck of , and exploring the wreck of the in the Gulf of Thailand.
Operational history as USS Salvor
Maiden voyage
Salvor departed Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin on her first voyage on 25 July 1986. She visited Sault Ste Marie, Michigan, before conducting diving operations for certification in Lake Superior. During the first part of August she made stops in Toronto, Quebec, and Halifax. After departing Halifax, she was diverted to New York City because of Hurricane Charlie. She arrived at Little Creek, Virginia and 21 August 1986 and received her ammunition loadout. Her next stop was Charleston, South Carolina, where she took a single navy harbor tug (ex-) in tow.
Salvor arrived at Beaumont, Texas, on 4 September where she had to wait out Hurricane Danielle for several days before she was able to get underway and take three additional vessels, two World War II vintage auxiliary tugs (ex- and ex-), and an auxiliary fleet tug (ex-), in tow at the mouth of the Sabine River. From there, Salvor towed the four vessels in a "Christmas tree" rig to Christobol, Panama, arriving on 21 September. Salvor transited the canal, and re-rigged her tows again in Rodman, Panama and departed for San Diego, California on 26 September. After a brief stop at San Diego, Salvor continued with the four towed vessels, and arrived at her home port of Pearl Harbor for the first time on 1 November.
Salvor spent the remainder of 1986 in or around Pearl Harbor, conducting training, validations, and trials.
Training and local operations
After holiday upkeep, Salvor began 1987 with an underway shakedown cruise. During the shakedown cruise, Salvor and collided during tow and be towed exercises. The collision caused only minor damage and no injuries. Following shakedown training, Salvor conducted diving operations from 26 to 30 January.
Salvor devoted February 1987 to a full power run, a VERTREP, target towing for Tactical Fighter Wing 419, , and . Along with , she supported SEAL operations from 17 to 20 February.
During early March, Salvor Conducted a de-beaching exercise with the salvage training hulk ex-, a bow lift exercise with a mud monster. Salvor then entered a series of maintenance availabilities and in-port training exercises, followed by more local operations including target towing for , support of submarine operations near Kauai, search and rescue operations for a USS Safeguard boating accident, and off-ship firefighting training with ex-Buckeye.
First Western Pacific deployment
Salvor departed Pearl Harbor for her first WESTPAC deployment on 6 September 1987. She was to accompany the tank-landing ship which would tow three minesweepers, , , and to Subic Bay. Salvor returned to Pearl Harbor to first to onload parts for Conquest and later with USS Conquest in tow, after a collision between Conquest and Barbour County. After more delays because of casualties aboard Conquest, Salvor departed Pearl Harbor again on 26 September 1987. After a fuel stop at Kwajaelein, Salvor arrived at Subic Bay, Philippines, on 16 October 1987.
Salvor visited Hong Kong and returned to Subic Bay where she took two floating drydock sections ( and AFDB-2E) in tow. On 25 November she fueled at sea from . Salvor conducted more at-sea fueling with and passed ADFB-1B to Brunswick on 11 December. Salvor arrived at Pearl Harbor on 18 December with ADFB-2E in tow, and began a holiday leave and upkeep period.
1988 was an uneventful year for Salvor. She spent much of the year in maintenance availability periods, undergoing various training exercises and engineering inspections, and dealing with repairs related to a troublesome design flaw with her port shaft. Salvor was awarded the Battle "E", Green "C", and "DC" awards. However, she did participate in classified special operations from 19 April to 18 May and again from 18 June to 11 July.
Pearl Harbor salvage operations and Southern Pacific deployment
Salvor visited Kaunakakai, Molokai in January 1989 before returning to Pearl Harbor to conduct salvage training and diving operations in February and March. Salvor participated in de-beaching operations when the oil tanker Exxon Houston broke free of her mooring buoy and ran aground near Barbers Point, Hawaii, on 2 March. Salvor was awarded a Meritorious Unit Commendation for her participation in the salvage of Exxon Houston.
Salvor was again called into action for real-world non-military salvage operations when the barge Kamalu caught fire while adrift off the Wainai coast on 20 May. Salvor battled the fire aboard Kamalu for 16 hours.
Later that month, Salvor towed the decommissioned repair ship between 16 and 20 May as part of a synthetic line towing experiment and supported an MK48 torpedo exercise between 21 May and 2 June.
On 19 June, Salvor departed for a SOUTHPAC deployment. During that deployment, she visited the following ports:
Funafuti, Tuvalu, 29 June to 2 July
Apia, Western Samoa, 4 to 8 July
Vavu, Tonga, 10 to 12 July
Nuka Alofa, Tonga, 13 to 17 July
Pago Pago, American Samoa, 18 to 21 July
Papeete Tahaiti, 26 to 30 July
Raratonga, Cook Islands, 31 July to 1 August
A change of command ceremony was conducted while in port at Papeete on 29 July. Salvor returned to Pearl Harbor on August 17.
Salvor departed Pearl Harbor again on 8 September with the ex-YOG-68 gasoline barge in tow, and passed the tow to before sailing to Adak, Alaska, where she arrived on 2 October. Salvor conducted salvage training at Adak and returned to Pearl harbor on 15 October. Salvor spent the remainder of 1989 in our near pearl harbor, conducted dive operations for maintenance, and participated in law-enforcement operations.
First Eastern Pacific deployment
Salvor departed Pearl Harbor for San Diego on 9 January 1990, and arrived in San Diego and 17 January. She participated in lock-in lock-out operations with SEAL Team 3 and near San Diego. She departed San Diego on 1 February. After a port visit in Esquimalt, British Columbia on 6 and 6 February, Salvor arrived at Seattle on 8 February. Salvor searched for, but was unable to find a VA-145 A-6E Intruder from the waters of Puget Sound from 12 to 23 February, and returned to Seattle. After conducting dive operations in Puget Sound, and another brief stop at Seattle from 2 to 4 March, Salvor departed for Oakland, California where she spend most of March in an upkeep with SIMA San Francisco. After stopping at San Diego on 28 March, she returned to Pearl Harbor on 8 April.
RIMPAC '90
Salvor departed Pearl Harbor on 14 April with the decommissioned submarine rescue ship ex- in tow. Ex-Coucal was disposed of in a SINKEX as the target of a Tomahawk missile fired from .
Between 1 and 12 May, Salvor participated in exercise the multi-national Exercise RIMPAC '90. During the exercise she was in and out of Pearl Harbor to provide recovery and surface support craft for special warfare exercises, including SEAL Delivery Vehicle operations.
Between 13 and 14 May she recovered propeller blades for the Australian guided missile frigate , and she provided emergency towing services for the hydrographic survey ship USNS H.H. Hess (T-AGS-138) from 23 to 24 June.
Salvor supported more special warfare exercises from 7 to 8 July and again from 19 to 22 July, after conducting de-beaching exercises with ex-Tunica from 10 to 12 July. She began an upkeep period in Pearl Harbor on 23 July. And entered dry dock in pearl harbor for a planned maintenance availability. Salvor spent most of the remainder of 1990 in the dry dock, in the naval shipyard, and in post-availability trials and examinations.
Second Western Pacific deployment
Salvor departed Pearl harbor for her second WESTPAC deployment on 4 January 1991. In the first leg of her deployment, she towed the floating dry dock AFDL-40 from Pearl harbor to Subic Bay, Philippines. She arrived at Subic bay on 8 February after fuel stops at Kwajelein on 18 January, and Guam on 28 January.
Salvor participated in various exercises and provided towing service in the western Pacific during March, April, and May. She conducted salvage exercises with the Korean and Indonesian navies, and visited the following ports:
Pohang, Korea, 6–7 March
Sasebo, Japan, 19–21
Pusan, Korea, 23–27 May
Subic Bay, Philippines 13–14 April and 27–29 April
Chinhae, Korea, 28 May
Surabaya, Indonesia, 6 May
Bali, Indonesia, 18–21 May
Yokosuka, Japan, 11 June
Salvor departed Yokosuka, Japan on 11 June with ex- in tow. She stopped at Midway, on 25 June for fuel, and returned to Pearl Harbor on 3 July.
Salvor again supported special warfare exercises from 6 to 9 and 12 to 16 August. She participated in EOD operations near Molokai from 26 to 31 August. She then spent the remainder of 1991 in or near Pearl Harbor conducting OPPE power plant evaluations, Salvage training and maintenance availabilities. A change of command ceremony was conducted on 25 October, at Pearl Harbor.
World-record salvage
Salvor began 1992 with test operations for the CURV III undersea recovery vehicle from 6 to 20 January. She departed Pearl Harbor on 21 January for Wake Island where she salvaged a UH-46A Sea Knight (BUNO 150968) helicopter of Helicopter Combat Support Squadron 11, which crashed into the sea on 14 August 1991. The helicopter was recovered from a depth of approximately 17,250 feet, which was a world record at that time.
Eastern Pacific towing operations
Salvor returned to Pearl Harbor on 9 March 1992, and departed en route to San Diego on 22 March. She arrived at San Diego on 1 March, and returned to Pearl Harbor on 3 May with ex- in tow.
Salvor spent much of the summer in a planned maintenance availability, sea trials, and training in or near Pearl Harbor, with a visit to Kailua Kona, Hawaii for the International Billfish Tournament between 31 July and 4 August.
Salvor again departed Pearl Harbor for the Eastern Pacific, this time with ex- in tow. After delivering ex-Flasher for recycling at Bremerton, Washington, she had port visits at Seattle from 16 to 20 September, New Westminster, Canada from 21 to 24 September, and Portland Oregon on from 27 to 31 September. She returned to Pearl Harbor on 10 October where she spent the remainder of 1992.
Salvor conducted training and diving operations at Lahaina, Maui in January 1993, and conducted training operations in February. Her training cycle continued into march when it was interrupted by emergency towing operations for the stranded from 15 to 31 March. She completed her training cycle, earning the CNO afloat safety award on April 7 and completing her operational propulsion plant examination (OPPE) on 22 April.
Salvor departed Pearl Harbor again on 11 May to deliver ex- for recycling at Bremerton, Washington. She then had port visits at Victoria, Canada from 28 to 31 June, Everett, Washington from 1 to 7 June, and Seattle, Washington 7–10 June. After participating in a mine warfare exercise, she arrived at San Diego on 16 June.
Salvor conducted salvage operations in the San Diego area from 1 to 20 July, including the recovery of a Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk helicopter from a depth of 4000 feet. She escorted during the tow of the recently decommissioned ex- to Long Beach, California on 20–21 July. She then arrived at Rodman, Panama on 31 July. Salvor departed Rodman en route Bremerton, Washington again on 1 August, this time with ex- in tow, and she delivered Triton to Bremerton for recycling on 31 August.
Salvor returned to Pearl Harbor on 16 September, where she would spend the remainder of 1993 except for a dependent cruise to Kauai, Hawaii from 15 to 18 October and diving operations at Wainae from 7 to 10 December. Salvor conducted a change of command on 19 November.
Salvor conducted more towing operations in the Eastern Pacific in 1994, beginning when she departed en route to San Diego, California on 18 January, where she took ex- in tow on 29 January. After delivering ex-Peoria for storage at Pearl Harbor on 9 February, Salvor returned to San Diego on February 28. From 5 to 15 March, Salvor towed ex- to Pearl Harbor for storage.
RIMPAC '94 and more Eastern Pacific towing operations
Salvor visited Hilo Hawaii for the Merrie Monarch Festival from 8 to 10 April, and Lahaina, Maui where Salvor conducted diving operations from 12 to 14 April. Salvor conducted maintenance activities at Pearl Harbor during April and May before participating in the multi-national Exercise RIMPAC '94 training exercise in the Hawaii operating areas.
After another maintenance availability at Pearl Harbor in July and August, Salvor Departed for en route Acapulco, Mexico for a port visit from 1 to 4 September. Salvor was in port at Rodman, Panama from 12 to 14 September, and departed with the decommissioned submarine ex- in tow on 15 September. After stopping at San Diego, California for fuel on 29 September, Salvor continued to Bremerton, Washington, where she delivered ex-Woodrow Wilson for recycling on 6 October. Salvor stopped for port visits at Everett, Washington from 8 to 12 October and Vancouver, Canada from 14 to 20 October. Salvor then spent 24–25 October in port at Alameda, California before towing ex- to Bremerton, Washington. Salvor departed Bremerton on 1 November and stopped for a port visit at Portland, Oregon from 5 to 9 November before returning to Pearl Harbor, where she spent the remainder of 1994 in maintenance and holiday upkeep.
Emergent salvage tasks, the Bering Strait, and dry dock
Salvor departed Pearl Harbor on 17 January 1995 to rendezvous with and her tow, ex- after the primary tow pendant parted. Salvor recovered the tow pendant including 180 feet of chain, before Navajo entered Pearl Harbor, and thereby prevented damage to submerged cables in Pearl Harbor.
Salvor conducted salvage training exercises with the salvage hulk ex-Tunica, including beach-gear retractions and at-sea firefighting from 30 January to 3 February 1995. She was supporting diving operations for master diver evaluations in the waters off Reef Runway at the Honolulu airport on 6 January 1995, when lost an anchor and 10 shots of chain over the side in a depth of 170 feet. Salvor recovered the anchor and chain the following day and returned them Pearl Harbor before departing diver training at Molokini crater and a brief visit to Lahaina, Maui on 9 February 1995. She conducted a dependent's cruise during her return transit to Pearl Harbor on 10 February 1995.
Salvor was underway near Pearl Harbor from 21 to 22 February 1995 in support of a special project code-named Cluster CERES, which was related to a technique for passively locating radar transmitters near land and using them to create accurate maps.
After some maintenance availability and inspections at Pearl Harbor in early March 1995, Salvor departed en route San Diego, California on 13 April 1995 and arrived there on 22 April 1995. Salvor was underway off the coast of San Diego from 25 to 31 March 1995 to conduct the recovery of a US Navy McDonnell Douglas F/A-18C Hornet, BuNo 164044 of VFA-22, which crashed on into the ocean off the Southern California coast after a night catapult launch from on 28 January 1995, killing Lt. Glennon Kersgieter. The aircraft was recovered from a depth of 5,000 feet. She off-loaded the aircraft at NAS North Island on 1 April 1995, and returned to Pearl Harbor on 15 April 1995, where she continued preparations for an OPPE inspection, which was conducted from 25 to 27 April 1995.
Salvor served as a platform for tests of MDSU One's fly-away mixed gas (FMG) diving system at the beginning of May 1995, and spend the remainder of May 1995 and the first half of June 1995 in or near Pearl Harbor. On 13 June 1995, Salvor departed Pearl Harbor with ex- in tow. After delivering ex-Silversides to Bremerton, Washington for recycling on 27 June 1995, she conducted port visits at Seattle, Washington, and Victoria, British Columbia.
On 7 July 1995 Salvor arrived at Kodiak, Alaska, where she embarked a diving team from Underwater Construction Team Two. She departed Kodiak on 8 July 1995 for Fairway Rock where she anchored from 11 to 12 July 1995 for an environmental clean-up operation. She returned to Kodiak on 17 July 1995 and debarked the UTC−2 detachment.
Salvor returned home to Pearl Harbor on 27 July 1995. During August 1995, she participated in exercise Cooperation from the Sea '95 with units from the Russian Federated Navy and Russian Federated Naval Infantry. The exercise included an amphibious landing off Bellows Air Force Base, Hawaii and a live at-sea fire fighting exercise with ex-Tunica.
At the beginning of September 1995, Salvor participated in ceremonies to observe the 50th anniversary of the World War II victory in the Pacific. She spent the remainder of 1995 in-port at Pearl Harbor. On 30 October 1995 she entered Dry-Dock Four at Pearl Harbor, along with USS Safeguard, where both ships remained until 22 December 1995. Salvor conducted a change-of-command ceremony on 12 January 1996.
On 18 June 1996, Salvor interrupted training operations to conduct the emergent at-sea recovery of a TB-29 towed sonar array from .
Third Western Pacific deployment 1996
Salvor departed Pearl Harbor on 1 August 1996 for her third deployment to the Western Pacific Ocean. She spent 17–18 August 1996 in Sasebo, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan. From 20 August to 3 September 1996 she conducted a bi-lateral diving and salvage exercise with the Republic of Korea Navy in The East China Sea near Chinhae, South Korea. She returned to Sasebo for upkeep from 5 to 18 September 1996.
Salvor visited Hong Kong from 19 to 23 September 1996 and Singapore from 6 to 9 October 1996, and Phattaya Beach, Thailand from 13 to 18 October 1996. Salvor conducted a bi-lateral diving and Salvage exercise with the Royal Thai Navy from 20 October to 1 November 1996.
Following a brief stop alongside at anchor at Singapore, Salvor arrived at Surabaya, Indonesia for a salvage exercise with the Indonesian Navy from 8 to 12 November 1996. The salvage exercise continued off Pasir Putih, Indonesia from 14 to 22 November 1996. Salvor concluded her visit to Indonesia with a port visit to Benoa, Bali, Indonesia from 24 to 26 November 1996.
On 2 December 1996, Salvor received stores and fuel from by astern underway replenishment off the western coast of Luzon, Philippines. Salvor returned to Chinhae, South Korea for a bilateral diving and salvage exercise from 11 to 16 December 1996. Before the end of the operation, Salvor received emergency tasking to Okinawa, Japan. Salvor was tasked to recover two sunken LARC-V vehicles near White Beach, Okinawa. Salvor arrived at White Beach on 19 December 1996 to load a side-scan sonar. Salvor searched for the vehicles from 20 to 22 December 1996. On 22 December 1996 Salvor received additional emergency tasking and served as the recovery platform for a Mk-82 1000-lb bomb. Salvor entered a three-point moor on 24 December 1996 and recovered the bomb.
After destroying the Mk-82 bomb at a remote location, Salvor continued the LARC-V recovery operations near White Beach. Salvor recovered LARC-V 842 from a depth of 300 feet, and delivered it to White Beach on 28 December 1996. Salvor departed for the return transit to Pearl Harbor on 29 December 1996.
1997 Hawaii operations
Salvor arrived at Pearl Harbor on 12 January 1997, and entered a maintenance availability from 13 January to 13 February. Salvor transited to Hilo, Hawaii on 13 February for a pier survey and port visit followed by a salvage survey of a stranded sailboat at Kailua-Kona, Hawaii. Salvor returned to Pearl Harbor on 20 February.
Salvor spent the remainder of February and March 1997 in maintenance and training activities at Pearl Harbor. Salvor was underway to conduct towing operations with on 7 April. Salvor stopped at Lahaina, Maui from 15 to 17 April for a port visit.
Salvor participated in a MK48 service weapons test in the middle Pacific from 16 to 18 July. From 21 to 24 July, Salvor conducted a SINKEX of ex- northwest of Hawaii.
In late 1997 Salvor conducted various maintenance and training activities at Pearl Harbor, in addition to the salvage and recovery of two Utility Landing Craft 1527 at Ford Island. Salvor also conducted two separate port visits to Kailua-Kona, Hawaii during this period, from 2 to 4 August for the Hawaii International Billfish Tournament and from 16 to 29 October for the 1997 Kailua-Kona International Ironman Triathlon Championship.
Fourth Western Pacific deployment
Salvor departed Pearl Harbor to begin her fourth deployment to the Western Pacific Ocean on March 28, 1998. She stopped at Apra Harbor, Guam from 12 to 19 April to debeach the yard tug boat .
Salvor arrived at Chinhae, Republic of Korea on 25 April. After on-loading stores and equipment, Salvor departed Chinhae to conduct the salvage of a USAF F-16D Fighting Falcon from 27 April to 9 May.
Salvor stopped at Hong Kong for a port visit from 16 to 19 May.
From 26 May to 6 June, Salvor was in port at Sembawang, Singapore. On 27 May divers from Salvor examined the starboard auxiliary power units of .
Salvor arrived at Kuching, Malaysia on the island of Borneo for a port visit from 10 to 15 June. On 19 June Salvor anchored at Pulau Tioman, Malaysia. Salvor arrived at Kuantan, Malaysia on 21 June and commenced participation in the Malaysian phase of exercise CARAT '98. The exercise included salvage dives with the Royal Malaysian Navy. The Malaysian phase of the exercise concluded on 2 July.
Salvor arrived at Sattahip, Thailand on 6 June for the Thailand phase of CARAT '98. While in Thai waters Salvor conducted sidescan sonar operations in Sattahip Harbor and conducted dives to locate the lost anchor of a US Navy submarine.
Salvor returned to Sembawang, Singapore on 21 July for the Singapore phase of CARAT '98. On 25 July, Salvor divers inspected a sea chest on the hull of USS Sides.
From 27 to 28 July, Salvor conducted dive operation in support of the CARAT '98 Singapore phase, while at anchor in the Johor Strait.
From 6 to 9 August, Salvor was at Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia for port visit. Salvor transited the Taiwan Strait from 14 to 15 August, and arrived at Inchon, Republic of Korea on 19 August.
From 1 to 4 September Salvor conducted the salvage of USAF F-16C Fighting Falcon that had crashed in the Sea of Japan, near Kangnung Air Base, Republic of Korea. 50% of the wreckage was recovered, including the engine and flight data recorder. The wreckage was offloaded at Chinhae, Republic of Korea, on 6 September.
From 7 to 11 September, Salvor was at Sasebo, Japan for upkeep. Salvor began her return voyage to Pearl Harbor on 12 September, but was diverted to Yokosuka, Japan to await the passing of Tropical Storm Stella. Salvor departed Yokosuka on 17 September and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 28 September.
Salvor spent the remainder of 1998 in or near Pearl Harbor, conducting training and supporting certifications for other units, including USS Safeguard and Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit 1. Salvor at Nawilwili, Kauai for a port visit from 5 to 6 December. Salvor conducted a dependent's cruise and returned to Pearl Harbor on 7 December. Salvor stopped at Aloha Tower, at Honolulu for a port visit from 12 to 14 December. Salvor entered holiday upkeep from December 16–31 at Pearl Harbor.
1999-2001 Hawaii operations and Eastern Pacific deployments
Salvor spent much of 1999 engaged in maintenance, certifications, and training evolutions in or near her home port at Pearl Harbor.
However, Salvor towed ex-Basswood from Pearl Harbor to San Francisco, California from 22 to 31 March 1999. Salvor then sailed to San Diego, California, where she participated in exercise Kernel Blitz '99 from 12 to 29 April. During this exercise, Salvor conducted mine field security, MK 5 Marine Mammal operations, and recovery of moored mines.
Salvor also stopped at Cabo San Lucas Mexico for a port visit from 4 to 6 May, before returning to Pearl Harbor on May 19.
Salvor stopped at Aloha Tower Market place from 13 to 17 January 2000, and conducted a change of command on 14 January.
Salvor returned to Pearl Harbor from 18 to 30 January and conducted Joint SCUBA diving operations with units of the Canadian military. Salvor also supported SDV operations from 31 January to 1 February.
Salvor stopped at Hilo, Hawaii for a port visit in support of the Merrie Monarch Festival from 27 to 30 April.
Salvor arrived at San Diego, California on 8 March and supported mine-laying and mine recovery operations from 10 to 21 March. "Salvor stopped at San Francisco, California from 25 to 27 May. From 28 May to 15 June Salvor was underway towing two vessels, ex- and ex-General Hugh J. Gaffey, in a dual tow from San Francisco to the vicinity of the Pacific Missile Range Facility. Both towed vessels were disposed of as targets in support of Exercise RIMPAC 2000.
Salvor towed a decommissioned submarine from Pearl Harbor to Bremerton, Washington from 22 July to 6 August 2000. She towed ex- from Bremerton to San Francisco, California from 13 to 17 August. She then returned to Bremerton, towing ex- from 22 to 29 August.
Salvor returned to Pearl Harbor on 9 September and remained there, mostly in the Naval Shipyard, for the remainder of 2000.
Salvor was underway near Pearl Harbor in support for search and rescue operations after the Ehime Maru and USS Greeneville collision from 9 to 12 February 2001. Salvor took on deep drone equipment and was underway for the wreckage survey and recovery of personal items from the sunken Ehime Maru from 17 February to 3 March.
Salvor towed ex- from Pearl Harbor to San Francisco, California from 16 to 26 March. Salvor supported mine shape recover operations as part of Exercise Kernel Blitz 2001 from 5 to 9 April and stopped at San Diego from 10 to 15 April. Salvor stopped at Cabo San Lucas, Mexico from 19 to 23 April before returning to Pearl Harbor on 3 May.
On 27 February 2018 Salvor completed an excavation of aircraft shot down near Ngerekebesang Island, Republic of Palau.
Operational history as USNS Salvor
Salvor freed the grounded guided-missile cruiser from a coral reef near Honolulu International Airport on 9 February 2009.
Salvor participated in the rescue efforts for the ROKS Cheonan sinking during March 2010, supporting Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit ONE and Explosive Ordnance Disposal Mobile Unit FIVE, following involvement in the 2010 joint U.S./South Korean Foal Eagle exercise.
Salvor towed ex- from San Diego to Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility at Middle Loch, Pearl Harbor during June 2011.
Salvor towed ex- to Pearl Harbor, arriving 9 December 2011.
2012 SINKEX towing
Salvor towed ex- from Pearl Harbor to be disposed of as a target during the SINKEX portion of Exercise RIMPAC 2012 on 25 July 2012.
Salvor towed ex- out of Pearl Harbor on 12 July 2012, to be disposed of as a target during the SINKEX portion of Exercise RIMPAC 2012 on 14 July 2012.
Salvor towed ex- from Pearl Harbor on 18 July 2012, to be disposed of as a target during the SINKEX portion of Exercise RIMPAC 2012 on 24 July 2012.
Salvor towed ex- from Pearl Harbor on 17 August 2012 to the vicinity of Guam, where Coronado was disposed of as a target during Exercise Valiant Shield 2012, on 12 September 2012.
During January and February 2013, Salvor participated in the removal of the grounded mine countermeasures ship from Tubbataha Reef.
Towing of HMCS Protecteur
Beginning 16 May 2014, Salvor towed the Royal Canadian Navy replenishment oiler from Pearl Harbor to Esquimalt, British Columbia, after Protecteur suffered an engine-room fire in waters near Hawaii. Protecteur was delivered to Esquimalt on 31 May 2014.
TBF Avenger wreckage investigation
In January 2015 at Simpson Harbour, Rabaul, Salvor investigated and lifted the wreckage of a US Marine Corps Grumman TBF Avenger, BuNo 24264, of VMTB-233. After the cockpit drained during the recovery of remains, the aircraft wreck was replaced at approximately the same location in the harbor.
Orion spacecraft recovery operations
Salvor conducted recovery tests of the Orion spacecraft in the Pacific Ocean from 11–12 September 2014, before handing off the capsule to on 15 September, for another round of testing.
On 5 December 2014, Salvor, along with USS Anchorage, participated in the recovery of the Orion spacecraft capsule after the splashdown of Exploration Flight Test 1 (EFT-1) in the Pacific Ocean.
MV-22B Osprey recovery operations near Okinawa
In early December 2016, Salvor and the embarked Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit (MDSU) ONE, Company 1-8, were supporting Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency operations in Okinawa. A US Marine Corps MV-22B Osprey of Marine Aircraft Group 36 crashed in the early morning of 13 December 2016, near Camp Schwab. Fortunately, all five personnel in the crash were rescued. By 15 December, Salvor was on site awaiting orders to begin recovery operations, while MDSU Company 1-8 performed a salvage survey in the tidal zone where the Osprey wreckage lay. Despite challenges such as weather and sporadic rocks in the area, the divers and Salvors crew fully recovered the aircraft wreckage by the end of 21 December 2016. During the recovery operation, USNS Salvor ran aground forcing her to undergo extensive repairs in dry-dock.
MV-22B Osprey recovery near Australia
In September 2017, Salvor and embarked MDSU-1 divers recovered the sunken wreckage of a US Marine Corps MV-22 Osprey, from a depth of , approximately from Queensland, Australia. The VMM-265 Osprey crashed on 5 August 2017, after taking off from and while attempting to land aboard . Three U.S. Marines were killed in the crash, and 23 others were rescued.
References
External links
USS Salvor official website, archive version of 8 December 2008
navsource.org: USNS Salvor
navysite.de: USNS Salvor
Safeguard-class salvage ships
1984 ships
Ships built by Peterson Builders
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5012024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcantarilla
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Alcantarilla
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Alcantarilla () is a town and municipality in southeastern Spain, in the Autonomous Community of the Region of Murcia. The town is only 7 km away from the capital of the region, the city of Murcia, and one of its peculiarities is that it is completely surrounded by "pedanías" (satellite districts or boroughs) of the municipality of Murcia like Sangonera La Seca, San Ginés, Nonduermas, Puebla de Soto, La Ñora, Javalí Viejo and Javalí Nuevo.
The town is part of a low-lying fertile plain rich in gardens, orchards and citrus fruits, known as the "Huerta", which includes the valleys of the river Segura and its right-hand tributary the Guadalentín or river Sangonera and is surrounded by mountains. The Huerta belongs mainly to the large administrative authority of the city of Murcia but it also includes other small municipalities (Alcantarilla, Beniel y Santomera) that could not be omitted from the Huerta's framework either functionally or visually.
The Paratrooper Military School (Escuela Militar de Paracaidismo) "Méndez Parada" of the Spanish Air and Space Force is quartered at the Alcantarilla Air Base, which is also used by the Paratrooper Brigade of the Spanish Army, an airborne elite unit called the Black Berets, which has a base in Murcia, not far from the air base at Alcantarilla.
History
Human presence in Alcantarilla dates from prehistoric times. Iberian and Roman settlement remains have been found, including a beautiful vase of Greek origin that can be seen in Murcia's Archeological Museum. Since a road linking the former Carthago Nova, (today's Cartagena) with inland Hispanic towns crossed the town in Roman times, Roman presence seems to have been constant in the town for some centuries.
The first reference to the town in historical records is from the twelfth century, when the Muslim geographer Al-Idrisi writes about the town of Qantara Asqaba (قنطرة اشكابة), between Murcia and the nearby Librilla, on the way to the province of Almería. "The nearest bridge" (translation of Qantara Asqaba) must have been the one that over the river Segura, some 400 metres up the river from the present bridge that links La Ñora and Puebla de Soto with Alcantarilla.
Alcantarilla soon became part of Al-Andalus. In the 8th century, nearly all the Iberian peninsula, which had been under Visigothic rule, was quickly conquered (711–718), by Muslims (the Moors), who had crossed over from North Africa, defeating the Visigoths. Visigothic Spain was the last of a series of Christian and pagan lands conquered in a great westward charge from the Middle East and across north Africa by the religiously inspired armies of the Umayyad empire.
During the centuries that the Muslim domination of southern and central Spain lasted, Alcantarilla was part of the Kingdom of Murcia, the latter coming into independent existence as a taifa centered on the Moorish city of Murcia after the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba (11th century). After the Battle of az-Zallaqah (also known as Battle of Sagrajas) in 1086 the Almoravid dynasty swallowed up the taifas and reunited Islamic Spain. With the Reconquista (Reconquest), the town came to be known as "Alcantariella" or "the small bridge".
Ferdinand III of Castile received the submission of the Moorish king of Murcia in 1243. In 1252 the King Alfonso X gave the town to the Order of Alcántara, when Murcia was still only a Castilian protectorate. In 1266, when Murcia finally was under full Christian control, the town remained a part of the territories that were left to the Muslim King of La Arrixaca Muhammad ibn-Hud, but four years later it became a property of Queed Doña Violante. The battles that took place in relation to the succession of King Alfonso X of Castile affected the town and the king handed the town in to the town of Murcia in 1283 on condition that Alcantarilla be inhabited by a Christian population. This would have amounted to the incorporation of the town as a district of the town of Murcia and a different historical development of the town but the death of Alfonso X the following year and the crowning of King Sancho IV did not make the incorporation possible. Alcantarilla would continue to be an independent town with a Muslim population until the 16th century and maintained its independence up until the present day. The town would again be transferred to Queen Doña Violante until 1296, when Murcia and its region (including Alcantarilla) were transferred to the Kingdom of Aragon. The town was then given by the King of Aragon to the nobleman Joan Garcés de Loasia and remained an Aragonese possession until 1300, when Queen Doña Violante took possession of the town again. After the Queen's death, the town came to belong to Ms. María de Molina until her death in 1321. Alcantarilla's status would stabilise that year when the town council and bishop of Cartagena took over.
One of the historical episodes of the town that have made a strong popular impression on the present population is the existence of the Inquisition in the town in the 18th and 19th centuries, based in today's Casa de Cayitas. This seems to be the reason why citizens from Alcantarilla and nearby towns still consider Alcantarilla as "the town of witches", although it is clear that the kind of medieval witch burnings associated with the Inquisition in popular culture never took place in the town.
During the second half of the nineteenth century, many geographic, economical and structural issues made possible a large redevelopment of Alcantarilla. Thus, the once small village saw its biggest growth ever. Indeed, the Main Street and Alcantarilla's centre were completely transformed into a new space. These changes, beginning in the 16th century, were obvious when an important bourgeois class settled down along the Main Street attracted by its strong industry and excellent communications.
Climate
Situated in the meridian border of the Temperate Zone, it enjoys a pleasant Mediterranean climate, as its proximity to the sea acts as a thermal cushion. The average annual temperatures stay around 18 °C. The winters are mild with an average in January of 10.2 °C and the summers are very hot with an August average of 27.2 °C.
Rain is scarce (usually less than 200 mm) and irregular, as are cloudy days, as there are more than 2,800 hours of sun annually.
Demographics
Alcantarilla was for some years the most widely populated municipality in Spain given its land area. It is still the most densely populated place in the Region of Murcia with over 2,500 people per square kilometre. This changed when, in 1987, its surface (5.58 km²) increased in 10.2 km² through the addition of some land from the municipality of Murcia. Alcantarilla then rose from its initial 5.5 km² to today's 15.54 km².
Despite its relatively small land area, the town has different quarters or areas. These are: San Pedro, San Roque, Campoamor, San José Obrero, Vistabella, Cabezo Verde, Las Tejeras, Florentino Gómez, Santa Rosa de Lima, Cayitas and El Potrox.
Population trend:
Economy
The economy of Alcantarilla is mainly based on the industrial sector, as well as on the service sector and trade. The most important industrial area is set in the industrial estate called Poligono Industrial Oeste, shared with the municipality of Murcia, and where most of the enterprises in the town are. The trade and the service sector is focused on the fish market and cattle. The municipal fish market of San Pedro Apóstol is a remarkable center of market auction on the Mediterranean coast and it is considered the third most important indoor marketplace in Spain. The cattle market is basically aimed for the region of Levante, Andalusia and part of Castilla - La Mancha.
Other emblematic business found in Alcantarilla are Hero Spain, Bayern or Derivados Químicos.
Complete listings and reviews of businesses in Alcantarilla can be found online at the Town Hall of Alcantarilla website.
Transport
Alcantarilla is well linked by road to the rest of municipalities in the Region of Murcia. The RENFE railway lines Cartagena-Chinchilla-Madrid y Águilas-Murcia-Alicante link the town to the centre and south-east of Spain. Similarly, several motorways link the town with different points of Murcia and Spain. These include the Autopista del Mediterráneo (A-7), Autovía A-30 (Madrid/Albacete/Murcia/Cartagena), Autovía de Andalucía (A-7/E-15), and Autovía MU-30 (El Palmar/Alcantarilla), which links the A-30 with the A-7/E-15 and recently the Autovía MU-31 (connects the A-30 with MU-30). The MU-31 is still under construction. Public transport in the city consists largely of its bus network, currently franchised to the bus company LATbus, which connects Alcantarilla with all nearby towns, including the city of Murcia.
Education
Alcantarilla has five public high schools, called IES in Spanish (IES Fco. Salzillo, IES Alcántara, IES Sanje, IES Samaniego and IES Sagrado Corazón) as well as numerous public primary schools. The town does not have a university of its own, and students usually go to any of the three universities of the Autonomous Community of Murcia (i.e. University of Murcia, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena or Universidad Católica de Murcia) or to universities in neighbouring autonomous communities.
Facilities
Health
Alcantarilla has two health centres, the Centro de Salud Campoamor and the Centro de Salud San Pedro. The town also has a private Hospital, the Clínica San José. The town has not a hospital of its own due to the proximity of the Hospital Virgen de la Arrixaca, (the largest of the Autonomous Community of the Region of Murcia), less than ten kilometres away, in El Palmar, one of the districts of the municipality of Murcia.
Sports
Sporting facilities in Alcantarilla are numerous. These include an outdoor-swimming pool open during the summer and a heated indoor-swimming pool, open in autumn, winter and spring. Next to the indoor-swimming pool lies a large brand-new sports complex (2.053 m²), inaugurated in 2006. This complex (Pabellón Polideportivo de Entrevias) is next to the primary public school Jara Carrillo.
The town is host to several sporting associationations like the cycling association Peña Ciclista Guerrita or the football club Nueva Vanguardia -Alcantarilla C. F. A full listing of all the sporting associations and clubs in Alcantarilla can be found in the municipality's website.
Shopping
Alcantarilla has a large number of shops, particularly along the Calle Mayor (Main Street), which crosses the town from one edge to the other. In addition, two huge street markets, one in the area of Campoamor and the other near Plaza de San Francisco (San Francisco Square) are also held every Wednesday.
Parks, gardens and squares
Alcantarilla has many different squares, parks and gardens, where citizens typically gather to chat, play, walk, have drinks or in the ice-cream parlours, bars or restaurants found nearby. The squares include the Plaza de San Pedro, which contains the town hall, the Jardín de la Constitución (also known as Jardín de las Palomas) or the Jardin de Campoamor.
Nightlife
Alcantarilla boasts a large number of bars and pubs. Nightlife focusses mainly around the so-called "recinto de Entrevias", in the town centre, where a vibrant nightlife is found particularly on Friday evenings and where thousands crowd during the local festivities of May.As well as this it is the source for the international trade fair show.
Cultural
Alcantarilla has several cultural facilities, most notably the Centro Cultural Infanta Elena, a centre for cultural activities inaugurated by one of King Juan Carlos the First's daughters, the Infanta Elena, from whom the centre takes its name. Regular cultural events and exhibitions take place in it and they engage a large number of citizens.
Air Base
Alcantarilla hosts a Base of the Ejército del Aire y del Espacio de España. Paratroopers are trained there, and there is also a squadron of CASA C-212 Aviocar light transport planes.
Highlights and landmarks
Monuments
Civil
Rueda o Noria (Medieval water wheel)
This monument is formed by the hydraulic remains belonging to a traditional control system which irrigated the orchards of Murcia. When the Arabs first came to the Iberian Peninsula, they found a primitive form of a Roman irrigation network. After making scientific studies of the land, they greatly improved this network, constructing many hydraulic arrangements for irrigating the whole of their domain. Rivers and wells were exploited and underground sources of water were discovered. Channels were cut, even in solid rock, dams built and the windmill introduced from the East. The water-wheel or "noria" (from the Arabic naura) was also brought from the eastern lands. With ingenious feats of engineering they provided water everywhere. The Region of Murcia was no exception and, around or on the Segura River there were several mills operational between the 13th and 15th centuries. The water wheel or "noria" (from the Arabic naura) of Alcantarilla, on the acequia Mayor de Alquibla or "Barreras" acequia, goes back to medieval times. The first modern wheel was built in 1457. This first wheel and subsequent ones were wooden but in the nineteenth century, an iron wheel was built. The present wheel is from 1956, based on the proportions of the previous one from 1890 (11 metres high, 1.90 m wide).
Casa Cayitas o de la Inquisición (18th century)
Also known as Casa del Santo Oficio (House of the Holy Office), it was built in the 18th century, and it hosted for many years the Tribunal Comarcal de La Inquisición or local Inquisition tribunal. The Inquisition was already present in Alcantarilla in the 15th century. However, factual documents date from 1742. The coat of arms found on the façade, the Cross flanked by a sword and a laurel, testifies to this former episode of this monument and the town. In 1982 it was declared "Monumento Histórico Artístico de carácter nacional", or nationally relevant historic monument and it was restored by local and regional authorities. At present, the monument houses Alcantarilla's Municipal Library. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, the house was inhabited by Ms. Caya Arias Castellanos, and later on her daughter Ms. Caya López Arias and the present name derives from these owners.
Casa Consistorial (Town Hall)
El Puente de la Pólvora
Religious
Iglesia Parroquial de la Asunción (20th century).
Convento de los Padres Mínimos (1699–1704).
Iglesia de San Roque (17th/18th century)
Iglesia Parroquial de San Pedro Apóstol
Ermita de Nuestra Señora de la Salud (1970s)
Ermita Nuestra Señora de la Paz
Ermita de la Voz Negra
Museums
Museo Etnológico de la Huerta de Murcia
Inaugurated in 1968, this museum has been declared "National Artistic Historic Monument” by means of the Royal Decree 1757/1982. The museum has two main parts: an indoor area and an outdoor area. The indoor exhibition halls display collections of instruments and tools traditionally used in the Murcian Huerta (the traditional orchards around the town of Murcia) in past centuries and up to the first half of the twentieth century. The collections include pottery, handcrafted furniture, farming implements, metalware, local musical instruments, etc. Mannequins dressed up in ancient typical costumes (wedding and luxury dress, worker costume, lace-maker costume, sericicultural tasks carried out in the orchard and household activities (19th century) are also on display. In the outdoor area there are, among other things, a Barraca, the typical house in the orchards of Murcia, and outside of it: a Moorish oven or a water wheel or Noria, a monument formed by the hydraulic remains belonging to a traditional control system which irrigated the orchards of Murcia.
Local festivities
Civil
Fiestas de mayo (May Festivities)
These are Alcantarilla's most colourful festivities par excellence and attract thousands of people from the town itself, other towns in the Region of Murcia, neighbouring autonomous communities and even from abroad. They are officially declared as a tourist attraction of on a regional scale. They are always held on the last two weeks of May. The festivities feature free public live concerts by national and internationally acclaimed artists as well as folkloric performances from different countries in a Folklore Festival. The "peñas" or party groups made up of people from the town play a major part in the festivities and take significant names such as Piscis, El Barco, El Sombrero, El Cencerro, Baco, Zeus, Vintitantos, El Clavel, Sol y Sombra, Los Flamencos, El Chache y sus sobrinos, Atenea, El Beato, Campoamor, or Los Brujos. The day of the Ofrenda Floral (floral offering) to the patron saint, on the last Friday, is an explosion of colour and joy in which thousands of citizens dressed in the traditional regional costumes parade. The whole of the town takes part, either in the parades or as a member of the public. On the last Saturday, a parade involving featuring high floats overloaded with cheerful members of the "peñas" moves through the centre of the town, handing out the toys, plastic footballs and sweets fill their floats. The festivities also feature the "burning of the witch", symbolising the town's popular interpretation of the historical presence of the Inquisition during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in the town.
February carnival
As many towns and cities in the world, Alcantarilla celebrates the Carnival Season with public celebrations and parades. The carnival parades in Alcantarilla include the so-called Carnaval Infantil (Children's Carnival) in which over 1,500 disguised children parade the town and hold a big party in the city centre with contests, performances, workshops and free shows. It is always held on a Friday afternoon. The adult carnival takes place on Sunday, when different "comparsas" (groups or masquerades) from both the town and elsewhere parade the streets of the town. Among the most important local masquerades are Orinoco, Korumbá, Iguazú, Denébola and Nuevos Pasos.
Religious
Semana Santa (Holy Week)
The Holy Week festivities are amongst the most popular celebrations in Alcantarilla. The Holy Week processions consist of the marching of colourful brotherhoods bearing elaborate sculptured scenes depicting the most important events in the life of Jesus from the day he arrived in Jerusalem until his resurrection as told by the Bible.
Navidad y Reyes (Christmas)
Like numerous towns and cities in Spain, these festivities feature the so-called Three Kings Procession. According to Hispanic tradition, gifts are exchanged on Epiphany rather than Christmas Day and children eagerly await the "Reyes Magos" (or Three Wise Kings), who bring them presents if they have been good or sugar candy coal if they have been naughty. Epiphany is celebrated by staging a big parade or "Cabalgata de Reyes" featuring the Three Kings, who shower the crowds of adults and children with sweets and little toys.
References
Frutos Hidalgo, S. 1975. "El escudo de Alcantarilla". Mvrgetana, 40:93-106.
Frutos Hilalgo, S. 1999. Historia de Alcantarilla: de la Prehistoria al fin del Señorío. Alcantarilla: Ayuntamiento de Alcantarilla.
Mata Olmo, R., & Fernández Muñoz, S. 2004. "La Huerta de Murcia: landscape guidelines for a peri‐urban territory". Landscape Research, 29(4):385-397.
Saura Mira, F. 1969. "En torno al derribo de la fortaleza de Alcantarilla". Mvrgetana, 30:71-75.
Saura Mira, F. 1971. "Trazos sobre la historia de Alcantarilla". Mvrgetana, 36:61-70.
Saura Mira, F. 1971. "Aspecto histórico y jurídico del término de Alcantarilla y problemas que ha planteado". Mvrgetana, 37:19-28.
Saura Mira, F. 1977. "Notas diversas del señorío de Alcantarilla". Mvrgetana, 47:83-90.
Saura Mira, F. 1978. "Contribución de Alcantarilla a los gastos de la Hacienda estatal en la época de Carlos IV". Mvrgetana, 53:5-14.
Torres Fontes, J. 1980. "Murcia medieval. Testimonio documental (VIII)". Mvrgetana, 59:115-158.
Torres Fontes, J. 1989. "El señorío de Alcantarilla en el siglo XIII". Mvrgetana, 78:5-10.
External links
Municipality of Alcantarilla official website
Alcantarilla-virtual.com
Autonomous Community of the Region of Murcia official website
Museo Etnológico de la Huerta de Murcia Information in Spanish, English, French and German
Municipalities in the Region of Murcia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albatross
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Albatross
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Albatrosses, of the biological family Diomedeidae, are large seabirds related to the procellariids, storm petrels, and diving petrels in the order Procellariiformes (the tubenoses). They range widely in the Southern Ocean and the North Pacific. They are absent from the North Atlantic, although fossil remains show they once occurred there and occasional vagrants are found. Albatrosses are among the largest of flying birds, and species of the genus Diomedea (great albatrosses) have the longest wingspans of any extant birds, reaching up to . The albatrosses are usually regarded as falling into four genera, but disagreement exists over the number of species.
Albatrosses are highly efficient in the air, using dynamic soaring and slope soaring to cover great distances with little exertion. They feed on squid, fish, and krill by either scavenging, surface seizing, or diving. Albatrosses are colonial, nesting for the most part on remote oceanic islands, often with several species nesting together. Pair bonds between males and females form over several years, with the use of "ritualised dances", and last for the life of the pair. A breeding season can take over a year from laying to fledging, with a single egg laid in each breeding attempt. A Laysan albatross, named Wisdom, on Midway Island is the oldest-known wild bird in the world; she was first banded in 1956 by Chandler Robbins.
Of the 22 species of albatrosses recognised by the IUCN, 21 are listed as at some level of concern; two species are Critically Endangered, seven species are Endangered, six species are Vulnerable, and six species are Near Threatened. Numbers of albatrosses have declined in the past due to harvesting for feathers. Albatrosses are threatened by introduced species, such as rats and feral cats that attack eggs, chicks, and nesting adults; by pollution; by a serious decline in fish stocks in many regions largely due to overfishing; and by longline fishing. Longline fisheries pose the greatest threat, as feeding birds are attracted to the bait, become hooked on the lines, and drown. Identified stakeholders such as governments, conservation organisations, and people in the fishing industry are all working toward reducing this bycatch.
Description
Taxonomy and evolution
The "albatross" designation comprises between 13 and 24 species (the number is still a matter of some debate, with 21 being the most commonly accepted number) in four genera. These genera are the great albatrosses (Diomedea), the mollymawks (Thalassarche), the North Pacific albatrosses (Phoebastria), and the sooty albatrosses or sooties (Phoebetria). The North Pacific albatrosses are considered to be a sister taxon to the great albatrosses, while the sooty albatrosses are considered closer to the mollymawks.
The taxonomy of the albatross group has been a source of much debate. The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy places seabirds, birds of prey, and many others in a greatly enlarged order, the Ciconiiformes, whereas the ornithological organisations in North America, Europe, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand retain the more traditional order Procellariiformes. The albatrosses can be separated from the other Procellariiformes both genetically and through morphological characteristics, size, their legs, and the arrangement of their nasal tubes (see below: Morphology and flight).
Within the family, the assignment of genera has been debated for over 100 years. Originally placed into a single genus, Diomedea, they were rearranged by Reichenbach into four different genera in 1852, then lumped back together and split apart again several times, acquiring 12 different genus names in total (though never more than eight at one time) by 1965 (Diomedea, Phoebastria, Thalassarche, Phoebetria, Thalassageron, Diomedella, Nealbatrus, Rhothonia, Julietata, Galapagornis, Laysanornis, and Penthirenia).
By 1965, in an attempt to bring some order back to the classification of albatrosses, they were lumped into two genera, Phoebetria (the sooty albatrosses, which most closely seemed to resemble the procellarids and were at the time considered "primitive" ) and Diomedea (the rest). Though a case was made for the simplification of the family (particularly the nomenclature), the classification was based on the morphological analysis by Elliott Coues in 1866, and paid little attention to more recent studies and even ignored some of Coues's suggestions.
Research by Gary Nunn of the American Museum of Natural History (1996) and other researchers around the world studied the mitochondrial DNA of all 14 accepted species, finding four, not two, monophyletic groups within the albatrosses. They proposed the resurrection of two of the old genus names, Phoebastria for the North Pacific albatrosses and Thalassarche for the mollymawks, with the great albatrosses retaining Diomedea and the sooty albatrosses staying in Phoebetria.
While some agree on the number of genera, fewer agree on the number of species. Historically, up to 80 different taxa have been described by different researchers; most of these were incorrectly identified juvenile birds.
Based on the work on albatross genera, Robertson and Nunn went on in 1998 to propose a revised taxonomy with 24 different species, compared to the 14 then accepted. This expanded taxonomy elevated many established subspecies to full species, but was criticised for not using, in every case, peer reviewed information to justify the splits. Since then, further studies have in some instances supported or disproved the splits; a 2004 paper analysing the mitochondrial DNA and microsatellites agreed with the conclusion that the Antipodean albatross and the Tristan albatross were distinct from the wandering albatross, per Robertson and Nunn, but found that the suggested Gibson's albatross, Diomedea gibsoni, was not distinct from the Antipodean albatross. For the most part, an interim taxonomy of 21 species is accepted by ITIS and many other researchers, though by no means all—in 2004 Penhallurick and Wink called for the number of species to be reduced to 13 (including the lumping of the Amsterdam albatross with the wandering albatross), although this paper was itself controversial.
Sibley and Ahlquist's molecular study of the evolution of the bird families has put the radiation of the Procellariiformes in the Oligocene period 35–30 million years ago (Mya), though this group probably originated earlier, with a fossil sometimes attributed to the order, a seabird known as Tytthostonyx, being found in late Cretaceous rocks (70 Mya). The molecular evidence suggests that the storm petrels were the first to diverge from the ancestral stock, and the albatrosses next, with the procellarids and diving petrels separating later. The earliest fossil albatrosses were found in Eocene to Oligocene rocks, although some of these are only tentatively assigned to the family and none appear to be particularly close to the living forms. They are Murunkus (Middle Eocene of Uzbekistan), Manu (early Oligocene of New Zealand), and an undescribed form from the Late Oligocene of South Carolina. The oldest widely accepted fossil albatross is Tydea septentrionalis from the early Oligocene of Belgium. Diomedavus knapptonensis is smaller than all extant albatrosses and was found in late Oligocene strata of Washington State, USA. Plotornis was formerly often considered a petrel but is now accepted as an albatross. It is from the Middle Miocene of France, a time when the split between the four modern genera was already underway as evidenced by Phoebastria californica and Diomedea milleri, both being mid-Miocene species from Sharktooth Hill, California. These show that the split between the great albatrosses and the North Pacific albatrosses occurred by 15 Mya. Similar fossil finds in the Southern Hemisphere put the split between the sooties and mollymawks at 10 Mya.
The fossil record of the albatrosses in the Northern Hemisphere is more complete than that of the Southern, and many fossil forms of albatross have been found in the North Atlantic, which today has no albatrosses. The remains of a colony of short-tailed albatrosses have been uncovered on the island of Bermuda, and the majority of fossil albatrosses from the North Atlantic have been of the genus Phoebastria (the North Pacific albatrosses); one, Phoebastria anglica, has been found in deposits in both North Carolina and England. Due to convergent evolution in particular of the leg and foot bones, remains of the prehistoric pseudotooth birds (Pelagornithidae) may be mistaken for those of extinct albatrosses; Manu may be such a case, and quite certainly the supposed giant albatross femur from the Early Pleistocene Dainichi Formation at Kakegawa, Japan, actually is from one of the last pseudotooth birds. Aldiomedes angustirostris was a uniquely narrow-beaked species from the Pliocene of New Zealand.
Morphology and flight
The albatrosses are a group of large to very large birds; they are the largest of the Procellariiformes. The bill is large, strong, and sharp-edged, with the upper mandible terminating in a large hook. This bill is composed of several horny plates, and along the sides are the two "tubes", long nostrils that give the order its former name (Tubinares, or tubenoses). The tubes of all albatrosses are along the sides of the bill, unlike the rest of the Procellariiformes, where the tubes run along the top of the bill. These tubes allow the albatrosses to measure the exact airspeed in flight; the nostrils are analogous to the pitot tubes in modern aircraft. The albatross needs accurate airspeed measurement to perform dynamic soaring. Like other Procellariiformes, they use their uniquely developed sense of smell to locate potential food sources, whereas most birds depend on eyesight. The feet have no hind toe and the three anterior toes are completely webbed. The legs are strong for the Procellariiformes, making them and the giant petrels the only members of that order that can walk well on land.
Albatrosses, along with all Procellariiformes, must excrete the salts they ingest in drinking sea water and eating marine invertebrates. All birds have an enlarged nasal gland at the base of the bill, above their eyes. This gland is inactive in species that do not require it, but in the Procellariiformes, it acts as a salt gland. Scientists are uncertain as to its exact processes, but do know in general terms that it removes salt by secreting a 5% saline solution that drips out of their noses or is forcibly ejected.
The adult plumage of most of the albatrosses is usually some variation of dark upper-wing and back with white undersides, often compared to that of a gull. The extent of colouration varies: the southern royal albatross is almost completely white except for the ends and trailing edges of the wings in fully mature males, while the Amsterdam albatross has an almost juvenile-like breeding plumage with a great deal of brown, particularly a strong brown band around the chest. Several species of mollymawks and North Pacific albatrosses have face markings like eye patches or have grey or yellow on the head and nape. Three albatross species, the black-footed albatross and the two sooty albatrosses, vary completely from the usual patterns and are almost entirely dark brown (or dark grey in places in the case of the light-mantled albatross). Albatrosses take several years to get their full adult breeding plumage.
The wingspans of the largest great albatrosses (genus Diomedea) are the largest of any bird, exceeding , although the other species' wingspans are considerably smaller at, down to . The wings are stiff and cambered, with thickened, streamlined leading edges. Albatrosses travel long distances with two techniques used by many long-winged seabirds - dynamic soaring and slope soaring. Dynamic soaring involves repeatedly rising into wind and descending downwind, thus gaining energy from the vertical wind gradient. The only effort expended is in the turns at the top and bottom of every such loop. This maneuver allows the bird to cover almost without flapping its wings. Slope soaring uses the rising air on the windward side of large waves. Albatross have high glide ratios, around 22:1 to 23:1, meaning that for every metre they drop, they can travel forward . They are aided in soaring by a shoulder-lock, a sheet of tendon that locks the wing when fully extended, allowing the wing to be kept outstretched without any muscle expenditure, a morphological adaptation they share with the giant petrels.
Albatrosses combine these soaring techniques with the use of predictable weather systems; albatrosses in the Southern Hemisphere flying north from their colonies take a clockwise route, and those flying south fly counterclockwise. Albatrosses are so well adapted to this lifestyle that their heart rates while flying are close to their basal heart rate when resting. This efficiency is such that the most energetically demanding aspect of a foraging trip is not the distance covered, but the landings, take-offs and hunting they undertake having found a food source. A common assumption is that Albatrosses must be able to sleep in flight, although no direct evidence has ever been obtained.
This efficient long-distance travelling underlies the albatross's success as a long-distance forager, covering great distances and expending little energy looking for patchily distributed food sources. Their adaptation to gliding flight makes them dependent on wind and waves, but their long wings are ill-suited to powered flight and most species lack the muscles and energy to undertake sustained flapping flight. Albatrosses in calm seas rest on the ocean's surface until the wind picks up again, as using powered flight is not energetically worthwhile, though they are capable of flight to avoid danger. The North Pacific albatrosses can use a flight style known as flap-gliding, where the bird progresses by bursts of flapping followed by gliding. When taking off, albatrosses need to take a run up to allow enough air to move under the wing to provide lift.
The dynamic soaring of albatrosses is inspiring to airplane designers; German aerospace engineer Johannes Traugott and colleagues have charted the albatross's nuanced flight pattern and are looking for ways to apply this to aircraft, especially in the area of drones and unmanned aircraft.
Distribution and range at sea
Most albatrosses range in the Southern Hemisphere from Antarctica to Australia, South Africa, and South America. The exceptions to this are the four North Pacific albatrosses, of which three occur exclusively in the North Pacific, from Hawaii to Japan, California, and Alaska; and one, the waved albatross, breeds in the Galápagos Islands and feeds off the coast of South America. The need for wind to enable gliding is the reason albatrosses are for the most part confined to higher latitudes; being unsuited to sustained flapping flight makes crossing the doldrums extremely difficult. The exception, the waved albatross, is able to live in the equatorial waters around the Galápagos Islands because of the cool waters of the Humboldt Current and the resulting winds.
Why the albatrosses became extinct in the North Atlantic is unknown for certain, although rising sea levels due to an interglacial warming period are thought to have submerged the site of a short-tailed albatross colony that has been excavated in Bermuda. Some southern species have occasionally turned up as vagrants in the North Atlantic and can become exiled, remaining there for decades. One of these exiles, a black-browed albatross named Albert has been observed travelling to gannet colonies in Scotland for at least 50 years in an attempt to breed. Another black-browed albatross nicknamed Albie has been frequently observed across Northern Europe since 2014, and is also believed to be searching for a mate, having been recorded from Germany, Scandinavia and RSPB Bempton Cliffs in Yorkshire, England.
The use of satellite tracking is teaching scientists a great deal about the way albatrosses range across the ocean to find food. They undertake no annual migration, but disperse widely after breeding; Southern Hemisphere species often undertake circumpolar trips. Evidence also exists of separate ranges for different species at sea. A comparison of the foraging niches of two related species that breed on Campbell Island, the Campbell albatross and the grey-headed albatross, showed the Campbell albatross primarily fed over the Campbell Plateau, whereas the grey-headed albatross fed in more pelagic, oceanic waters. Wandering albatrosses also react strongly to bathymetry, feeding only in waters deeper than 1000 metres (3000 ft); so rigidly did the satellite plots match this contour that one scientist remarked, "It almost appears as if the birds notice and obey a 'No Entry' sign where the water shallows to less than 1000 [metres]" (3000'). Also, evidence shows different ranges for the two sexes of the same species; a study of Tristan albatrosses breeding on Gough Island showed that males foraged to the west of Gough and females to the east.
Diet
The albatross diet is predominantly cephalopods, fish, crustaceans, and offal (organ meat), although they also scavenge carrion and feed on other zooplankton. For most species, a comprehensive understanding of diet is known for only the breeding season, when the albatrosses regularly return to land and study is possible. The importance of each of these food sources varies from species to species, and even from population to population; some concentrate on squid alone, others take more krill or fish. Of the two albatross species found in Hawaii, one, the black-footed albatross, takes mostly fish, while the Laysan feeds on squid.
The use of data loggers at sea that record ingestion of water against time (providing a likely time of feeding) suggests that albatrosses predominantly feed during the day. Analysis of the squid beaks regurgitated by albatrosses has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive, and include midwater species likely to be beyond the reach of albatross, suggesting that, for some species (like the wandering albatross), scavenged squid may be an important part of the diet. The source of these dead squid is a matter of debate; some certainly comes from squid fisheries, but in nature it primarily comes from the die-off that occurs after squid spawning and the vomit of squid-eating whales (sperm whales, pilot whales, and southern bottlenose whales). The diet of other species, like the black-browed albatross or the grey-headed albatross, is rich with smaller species of squid that tend to sink after death, and scavenging is not assumed to play a large role in their diet. The waved albatross has been observed practising kleptoparasitism, harassing boobies to steal their food, making it the only member of its order to do so regularly.
Until recently, albatrosses were thought to be predominantly surface feeders, swimming at the surface and snapping up squid and fish pushed to the surface by currents, predators, or death. The deployment of capillary depth recorders, which record the maximum dive depth undertaken by a bird, has shown that while some species, such as the wandering albatross, do not dive deeper than a metre, some species, such as the light-mantled albatross, have a mean diving depth of almost and can dive as deep as . In addition to surface feeding and diving, they have also been observed plunge diving from the air to snatch prey.
Breeding and dancing
Albatrosses are colonial, usually nesting on isolated islands; where colonies are on larger landmasses, they are found on exposed headlands with good approaches from the sea in several directions, like the colony on the Otago Peninsula in Dunedin, New Zealand. Many Buller's albatrosses and black-footed albatrosses nest under trees in open forest. Colonies vary from the very dense aggregations favoured by the mollymawks (black-browed albatross colonies on the Falkland Islands have densities of 70 nests per 100 m2) to the much looser groups and widely spaced individual nests favoured by the sooty and great albatrosses. All albatross colonies are on islands that historically were free of land mammals. Albatrosses are highly philopatric, meaning they usually return to their natal colony to breed. This tendency is so strong that a study of Laysan albatrosses showed that the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was .
Albatrosses live much longer than other birds; they delay breeding for longer and invest more effort into fewer young. Most species survive upwards of 50 years, the oldest recorded being a Laysan albatross named Wisdom that was ringed in 1956 as a mature adult and hatched another chick in February 2021, making her at least 70 years old. She is the oldest confirmed wild bird and the oldest banded bird in the world.
Albatrosses reach sexual maturity slowly, after about five years, but even once they have reached maturity, they do not begin to breed for another few years (even up to 10 years for some species). Young nonbreeders attend a colony prior to beginning to breed, spending many years practising the elaborate breeding rituals and "dances" for which the family is famous. Birds arriving back at the colony for the first time already have the stereotyped behaviours that compose albatross language, but can neither "read" that behaviour as exhibited by other birds nor respond appropriately.
The repertoire of behaviour involves synchronised performances of various actions such as preening, pointing, calling, bill clacking, staring, and combinations of such behaviours (such as the sky-call).
Albatrosses are held to undertake these elaborate and painstaking rituals to ensure that the appropriate partner has been chosen and to perfect partner recognition, as egg laying and chick rearing is a huge investment. Even species that can complete an egg-laying cycle in under a year seldom lay eggs in consecutive years. The great albatrosses (i.e. wandering albatross) take over a year to raise a chick from laying to fledging. Albatrosses lay a single subelliptical egg, white with reddish-brown spots, in a breeding season; if the egg is lost to predators or accidentally broken, then no further breeding attempts are made that year. The larger eggs weigh from . The "divorce" of a pair is a rare occurrence, due to the diminished lifetime reproductive success it causes, and usually happens only after several years of breeding failure.
All the southern albatrosses create large nests for their egg, using grass, shrubs, soil, peat, and even penguin feathers, whereas the three species in the North Pacific make more rudimentary nests. The waved albatross, though, makes no nest and even moves its egg around the pair's territory, as much as , sometimes causing it to lose the egg. In all albatross species, both parents incubate the egg in stints that last between one day and three weeks. Incubation lasts around 70 to 80 days (longer for the larger albatrosses), the longest incubation period of any bird. It can be an energetically demanding process, with the adult losing as much as of body weight a day.
After hatching, the chick, which is semi-altricial, is brooded and guarded for three weeks until it is large enough to defend and thermoregulate itself. During this period, the parents feed the chick small meals when they relieve each other from duty. After the brooding period is over, the chick is fed in regular intervals by both parents. The parents adopt alternative patterns of short and long foraging trips, providing meals that weigh around 12% of their body weight (around 600 g, or 21 oz). The meals are composed of fresh squid, fish, and krill, as well as stomach oil, an energy-rich food that is lighter to carry than undigested prey items. This oil is created in a stomach organ known as a proventriculus from digested prey items by most Procellariiformes, and gives them their distinctive musty smell.
Albatross chicks take a long time to fledge. In the case of the great albatrosses, it can take up to 280 days; even for the smaller albatrosses, it takes between 140 and 170 days. Like many seabirds, albatross chicks will gain enough weight to be heavier than their parents, and prior to fledging, they use these reserves to build up body condition (particularly growing all their flight feathers), usually fledging at the same weight as their parents. Between 15 and 65% of those fledged survive to breed. Albatross chicks fledge on their own and receive no further help from their parents, which return to the nest after fledging, unaware their chick has left. Studies of juveniles dispersing at sea have suggested an innate migration behaviour, a genetically coded navigation route, which helps young birds when they are first out at sea.
Hybridization is rare in albatrosses, largely due to the low incidence of breeding-site vagrancy.
Etymology
The name "albatross" is derived from the Arabic al-qādūs or al-ḡaṭṭās (a pelican; literally, "the diver"), which travelled to English via the Portuguese form alcatraz ("gannet"), which is also the origin of the name of the former prison Alcatraz. The Oxford English Dictionary notes that the word alcatraz was originally applied to the frigatebird; the modification to albatross was perhaps influenced by Latin albus, meaning "white", in contrast to frigatebirds, which are black.
They were once commonly known as goonie birds or gooney birds, particularly those of the North Pacific. In the Southern Hemisphere, the name mollymawk is still well established in some areas, which is a corrupted form of malle-mugge, an old Dutch name for the northern fulmar. The name Diomedea, assigned to the albatrosses by Linnaeus, references the mythical metamorphosis of the companions of the Greek warrior Diomedes into birds. Finally, the name for the order, Procellariiformes, comes from the Latin word procella meaning "a violent wind" or "a storm".
In culture
Albatrosses have been described as "the most legendary of all birds". An albatross is the central emblem in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, representing the innocence and beauty of God's creation. The albatross metaphor is derived from this poem; someone bearing a burden or facing an obstacle is said to have "an albatross around his neck", the punishment given to the mariner who killed the albatross. A widespread myth holds that sailors believe shooting or harming an albatross is disastrous, due in part to the poem; in truth, sailors regularly killed and ate them, as reported by James Cook in 1772. However, other sailors reportedly caught the birds but let them free again, possibly believing that albatrosses were the souls of lost sailors, so killing them would bring bad luck. The head of an albatross being caught with a hook is used as the emblem of the Cape Horners, i.e. sailors who have rounded Cape Horn on freighters under sail; captains of such ships even received themselves the title "albatrosses" in the Cape Horners' organisation.
A captive albatross tormented by jeering sailors is also a metaphor for the social travails of the sensitive poète maudit in Charles Baudelaire's poem L'Albatros: Le Poète est semblable au prince des nuées
Qui hante la tempête et se rit de l'archer;
Exilé sur le sol au milieu des huées,
Ses ailes de géant l'empêchent de marcher.(Translation: The poet is like this prince of the clouds, who haunts the storm and mocks the archer; but exiled on earth surrounded by jeers, his giant wings make him helpless to walk.)
In golf, shooting three under par on a single hole has been termed scoring an "albatross", as a continuation on the birdie and eagle theme.
Non-European mythologies
The Māori used the wing bones of the albatross to carve flutes. In Hawaiian mythology, Laysan albatrosses are considered aumakua, being a sacred manifestation of the ancestors, and quite possibly also the sacred bird of Kāne. Japanese mythology, by contrast, refers to the short-tailed albatross as ahodori, "fool bird", due to its habit of disregarding terrestrial predators, making it easy prey for feather collectors.
Birdwatching
Albatrosses are popular birds for birdwatchers, and their colonies are popular destinations for ecotourists. Regular birdwatching trips are taken out of many coastal towns and cities, such as Monterey, Dunedin, Kaikōura, Wollongong, Sydney, Port Fairy, Hobart, and Cape Town, to see pelagic seabirds. Albatrosses are easily attracted to these sightseeing boats by the deployment of fish oil and burley into the sea. Visits to colonies can be very popular; the northern royal albatross colony at Taiaroa Head in Dunedin, New Zealand, attracts 40,000 visitors a year.
Threats and conservation
In spite of often being accorded legendary status, albatrosses have not escaped either indirect or direct pressure from humans. Early encounters with albatrosses by Polynesians and Aleuts resulted in hunting and in some cases extirpation from some islands (such as Easter Island). As Europeans began sailing the world, they, too, began to hunt albatross, "fishing" for them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for sport. This sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound for Australia, and only died down when ships became too fast to fish from, and regulations forbade the discharge of weapons for safety reasons. In the 19th century, albatross colonies, particularly those in the North Pacific, were harvested for the feather trade, leading to the near-extinction of the short-tailed albatross.
Of the 22 albatross species recognised by IUCN on their Red List, 15 are threatened with extinction, that is, Critically Endangered (Tristan albatross and waved albatross), Endangered (7 species), or Vulnerable (6 species). Six further species are considered as Near Threatened and only one of Least Concern. One of the main threats is commercial longline fishing, as the albatrosses and other seabirds—which will readily feed on offal—are attracted to the set bait, become hooked on the lines and drown. An estimated 100,000 albatross per year are killed in this fashion. Unregulated pirate fisheries exacerbate the problem. A study showed that potentially illegal longline fishing activities are highly concentrated in areas of illegally-caught fish species, and the risk to bycatch albatrosses is significantly higher in areas where these illegal longline fishing vessels operate.
On Midway Atoll, collisions between Laysan albatrosses and aircraft have resulted in human and bird deaths, as well as severe disruptions in military flight operations. Studies were made in the late 1950s and early 1960s that examined the results of control methods such as the killing of birds, the levelling and clearing of land to eliminate updrafts, and the destruction of annual nesting sites. Tall structures such as traffic control and radio towers killed 3000 birds in flight collisions during 1964–1965 before the towers were taken down. Closure of Naval Air Facility Midway in 1993 eliminated the problem of collisions with military aircraft. By 2008, it was noted that reduction in human activity had helped reduce bird deaths, though lead paint pollution near military buildings continued to poison birds by ingestion. Albatross plumes were popular in the early 20th century. In 1909 alone, over 300,000 albatrosses were killed on Midway Island and Laysan Island for their plumes.
Another threat to albatrosses is introduced species, such as rats or feral cats, which directly attack albatrosses or their chicks and eggs. Albatrosses have evolved to breed on islands where land mammals are absent and have not developed defences against them. Even species as small as mice can be detrimental; on Gough Island, the chicks of Tristan albatrosses are attacked and eaten alive by introduced house mice. Introduced species can have other indirect effects; cattle overgrazed essential cover on Amsterdam Island, threatening the Amsterdam albatross; on other islands, introduced plants reduce potential nesting habitat.
Ingestion of plastic flotsam is another problem, one faced by many seabirds. The amount of plastic in the seas has increased dramatically since the first record in the 1960s, coming from waste discarded by ships, offshore dumping, litter on beaches, and waste washed to sea by rivers. It is impossible to digest and takes up space in the stomach or gizzard that should be used for food, or can cause an obstruction that starves the bird directly. Studies of birds in the North Pacific have shown that ingestion of plastics results in declining body weight and body condition. This plastic is sometimes regurgitated and fed to chicks; a study of Laysan albatross chicks on Midway Atoll showed large amounts of ingested plastic in naturally dead chicks compared to healthy chicks killed in accidents. While not the direct cause of death, this plastic causes physiological stress and causes the chick to feel full during feedings, reducing its food intake and the chances of survival.
Scientists and conservationists (most importantly BirdLife International and their partners, who run the Save the Albatross campaign) are working with governments and fishermen to find solutions to the threats albatrosses face. Techniques such as setting longline bait at night, dyeing the bait blue, setting the bait underwater, increasing the amount of weight on lines, and using bird scarers can all reduce the seabird bycatch. For example, a collaborative study between scientists and fishermen in New Zealand successfully tested an underwater setting device for longliners, which set the lines below the reach of vulnerable albatross species. The use of some of these techniques in the Patagonian toothfish fishery in the Falkland Islands is thought to have reduced the number of black-browed albatrosses taken by the fleet between 1994 and 2004. Conservationists have also worked on the field of island restoration, removing introduced species that threaten native wildlife, which protects albatrosses from introduced predators.
One important step towards protecting albatrosses and other seabirds is the 2001 treaty, the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, which came into force in 2004 and has been ratified by thirteen countries, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, France, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, South Africa, Spain, the United Kingdom, and Uruguay. The treaty requires these countries to take specific actions to reduce bycatch, pollution and to remove introduced species from nesting islands.
Species
Since 1996, albatrosses have been divided into four genera. The number of species is a matter of debate. The IUCN and BirdLife International recognise 22 extant species (listed below), ITIS recognise 21 (the 22 below minus T. steadi), and a 2004 paper proposed a reduction to 13 (indicated in parentheses below), comprising the traditional 14 species minus D. amsterdamensis.
See also
List of albatross breeding locations
Notes
References
External links
HANZAB complete species list (Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds.)
BirdLife International Save the Albatross campaign
The Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP)
Albatross: Don Roberson's family page
Tracking Ocean Wanderers. The global distribution of albatrosses and petrels: Results from the Global Procellariiform Tracking Workshop, 1–5 September 2003, Gordon's Bay, South Africa. BirdLife International
Albatross videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Seabirds
Extant Oligocene first appearances
Taxa named by George Robert Gray
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAKA%20%28TV%29
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WAKA (TV)
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WAKA (channel 8) is a television station licensed to Selma, Alabama, United States, serving as the CBS affiliate for the Montgomery area. It is owned by Bahakel Communications alongside Tuskegee-licensed CW+ affiliate WBMM (channel 22); Bahakel also provides certain services to ABC affiliate WNCF (channel 32) under a shared services agreement (SSA) with SagamoreHill Broadcasting. The stations share studios on Harrison Road in north Montgomery, while WAKA's transmitter is located in Gordonville, Alabama, which is about halfway between Montgomery and Selma.
History
Early years
Channel 8 debuted on March 17, 1960, as WSLA (call letters representing Selma). The station was originally owned by the Brennan family and their company, Deep South Broadcasting, along with WBAM radio in Montgomery (740 AM, now WMSP), and broadcast from a converted home in Selma with the studio located in the garage. Deep South originally sought the WBAM-TV call letters for channel 8. However, in those days, Selma and Montgomery were separate markets, and Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations at the time would not allow companion call letters to be issued to stations located in different markets. Originally an independent, it picked up an ABC affiliation soon afterward.
Channel 8 was the only primary ABC affiliate in south-central Alabama. In Montgomery, ABC was relegated to off-hours clearances on NBC affiliate WSFA-TV and CBS affiliate WCOV-TV. Originally, Deep South could not afford a direct network feed. Instead, station engineers switched in and out of the signal of WBRC-TV in Birmingham whenever ABC programming was available. Often, if the engineer was not paying attention, local WBRC breaks and IDs would air on WSLA. It operated from a tiny tower just west of Selma, with only 3,000 watts of power. This effectively limited its coverage area to Dallas County.
In 1964, WKAB-TV (later WHOA-TV and now WNCF) started up as Montgomery's ABC affiliate, but WSLA continued to broadcast ABC programming to the western part of the market because of UHF's limited coverage at the time. It could be argued that WSLA was almost always a CBS affiliate. Once it ended a brief stint as an independent station and affiliated with ABC, it also established a secondary affiliation with CBS by carrying one hour of that network's programming every week with Ted Mack's Original Amateur Hour.
1968 fire and rebuilding
On the morning of July 31, 1968, WSLA employee Bailey Bowline, Jr. drove to work at 3:30 a.m. to discover the station had been set on fire, completely destroying the facility on Land Line Road and causing more than $100,000 in damage. The night before, the station had been airing a religious program, during which the station received a phone call from a viewer, promising to "settle it with TNT". It was also reported that filing cabinets had been pulled open before the fire. George Singleton, who worked at the station as a teenager and later became its general manager, noted that WSLA's loss was not a large one for the community, saying that "it really wasn't much of a station".
Channel 8 had been for sale prior to the fire, and negotiations continued with H. Guthrie Bell, whose Gay-Bell Broadcasting owned WCOV-TV and a station in Lexington, Kentucky. Gay-Bell agreed to buy WSLA in August for $115,000; it would have operated the station as a semi-satellite of WCOV-TV. However, the application was dismissed on August 25, 1969. Ten months later, on June 11, 1970, the Brennans filed to sell the station to Charles Grisham and his company, Central Alabama Broadcasting, which owned WHNT-TV in Huntsville and WYEA in Columbus, Georgia. Central Alabama also filed to rebuild WSLA with 25,100 watts of effective radiated power—the station had previously broadcast with 2,510 watts—which was approved by the FCC in 1971. A second increase to 53.8 kW followed in 1975.
It would not be until November 1, 1973, when WSLA began broadcasting again. The new WSLA was a full-color CBS affiliate. However, it broadcast in one of the smallest markets in the United States, ranked 211th out of 215; in 1981, its small news department produced just one early evening newscast, and the sports and weather presenters doubled as a swimming pool salesman and a station sales executive, respectively.
Fighting for more power
For over 30 years, channel 8's various owners attempted to substantially increase its power and thus expand its viewing area. In May 1954, three months after the Brennans received the original construction permit, they filed to relocate the transmitter to a new tower just north of Prattville—later amended to a site near Strata in southern Montgomery County which would operate with an effective radiated power of 316,000 watts—the most allowed for a high-band VHF station. The proceeding saw arguments from WCOV-TV, which feared that WSLA's move would jeopardize the development of UHF in Montgomery (and put its own CBS affiliation in jeopardy) and WSFA, but it was ultimately a defect in the proposed tower plan that prompted the FCC to deny the application in September 1958.
By this time, the channel 8 allocation in Selma had caught the attention of Post Stations, the broadcasting division of The Washington Post. In the late 1950s, in an effort to maximize the 12 VHF channels available, the FCC proposed relaxing its mileage separation rules for these channels. The separations were proposed to be decreased only a few miles to minimize interference; however, the channel 8 frequency at Selma would be one of a handful of channels that could fall under this action. Had the proposal been implemented, the channel 8 license would have been moved to Birmingham (Channel 8 at Nashville, then occupied by WSIX-TV, under too close to Birmingham according to established FCC interference separation rules, had prevented this in the past). The Post made it clear that it would like to move the channel 8 allocation to Birmingham. Meanwhile, the Brennans seemed to have no immediate plans to activate channel 8 at Selma. This was logical, since Selma was just barely large enough to support a full-service television station, and the only way for the station to be profitable would be if it operated from a transmitter powerful enough to cover Montgomery. However, when the FCC rejected its application for a tower closer to Montgomery, Deep South went on the air anyway from its originally-specified (quite spartan) facilities in Selma about eight months afterward, presumably fearing it would lose the license otherwise. Later, Deep South applied to build a tower in West Blocton that could serve Birmingham, Tuscaloosa, and Selma. This request also failed after two other UHF stations—WCFT (now WSES) in Tuscaloosa and WBMG (now WIAT) in Birmingham—objected out of concerns for fostering UHF's growth. WCFT and WBMG had construction permits for new towers, but stated they would not do so if channel 8 was granted a tower at West Blocton.
In 1976, Grisham filed once more for an application to build a maximum-powered site, this time from a tall tower near Lowndesboro; it could not build a taller tower in Selma or anywhere else in Dallas County because of existing flight patterns. WCOV fought again, this time suggesting the de-intermixture of the Selma and Montgomery markets to make all stations UHF; in 1978, it proposed moving channel 8 to Tuscaloosa for educational use and channel 12 to Columbus, with WSFA being reassigned channel 45. The FCC denied the WCOV proposal in May 1980. In July, it then proceeded to approve the WSLA application. Appeals from WCOV and WKAB dragged on for several more years until final approval from the FCC was granted in 1983 and a federal appeals court denied further pleas from the UHF stations the next year.
Moving into Montgomery
As planning began on expanded WSLA facilities, nature took aim at the existing channel 8 tower. On May 3, 1984, a tornado toppled the mast, sending its base crashing into the trailer that housed the station's news department. There were no injuries, and the transmitter was not damaged, allowing the station to return to the air within weeks.
The Dallas County Commission approved the tower in September, clearing the final hurdle to allow construction to begin. At the same time, to avoid confusion with WSFA in preparation for the move, WSLA changed its call letters to WAKA—unofficially claimed to stand for "We Are Kicking Ass"—on October 29 and began its $4 million facilities improvement program. The following April, WAKA activated its new tower in Gordonville. It now claimed to have the largest coverage area in the entire state of Alabama, with at least secondary coverage from the fringes of the Birmingham and Tuscaloosa suburbs to the Florida Panhandle and Wiregrass Region to the southeast.
The move-in also brought a new owner. In November 1984, Bahakel Communications, owner of WKAB, announced plans to buy WAKA and sell off the Montgomery UHF station. The Bahakel acquisition immediately sparked speculation about a potential affiliation shuffle in the Montgomery market, with rumors of ABC making the move to WAKA. In June, WCOV officials said that, for "business reasons", CBS had pulled its affiliation from channel 20, effective in March 1986, even though CBS had earlier stated it had no such intentions; additionally, Bahakel's contract with the buyer of WKAB had stipulated that Bahakel maintain CBS affiliation for WAKA for at least two years. The sale of WCOV to Woods Communications brought forward the switch to January 1, 1986.
That February, WAKA's revamped local news department debuted from a new studio on East Boulevard in Montgomery. For a time, newscasts were split between the Selma and Montgomery studios. Before the end of the 1980s, channel 8 moved its entire operation to Montgomery. However, the station maintains a West Alabama news bureau in Selma.
On July 7, 2011, WAKA announced ambitious plans to purchase WBMM and operate a shared services agreement with WNCF. The plans called for merging all three stations' operations at a new, ultra-modern, HD-ready facility at WNCF's studios. Bahakel was WNCF's founding owner and sold it in 1985 in order to buy WAKA, but retained ownership of the Harrison Road facility, leasing it to channel 32's various owners over the years. WAKA's original Montgomery studio had long been hampered by its location close to downtown, which limited its ability to expand. WAKA moved its operations to WNCF's facility in 2012.
Programming
Syndicated programming on WAKA as of September 2020 includes Wheel of Fortune, Dr. Phil, The Doctors, Inside Edition, and Jeopardy! among others, all of which are distributed by CBS Media Ventures.
Until September 2020, the station was known as the first station throughout North America to carry Jeopardy! in a broadcast day, airing the syndicated game show as a mid-morning offering at 9:30 a.m. CT with an Inside Edition lead-in out of CBS This Morning (Wheel airs on WAKA at its more-common timeslot before CBS prime time). This came to the forefront during James Holzhauer's winning streak, when The New York Times hired a Montgomery-based freelancer to watch WAKA's airing of Jeopardy!, and break the news that he was defeated after his 33rd game, well before that episode aired across the remainder of the markets throughout United States and Canada. Both Inside Edition and Jeopardy! have since been moved to their respective 4:00 and 4:30 p.m. timeslots.
News operation
Soon after becoming Montgomery's sole CBS affiliate, WAKA shot to second place in the ratings. It has remained a solid, if usually distant, runner-up to long-dominant WSFA ever since.
In the past several years in order to become more competitive in the ratings, WAKA expanded its news department with additional personnel, outlying bureaus, and more newscasts. It operates two outlying news bureaus with live broadcasting capability—the West Alabama Newsroom in Selma (on Landline Road/SR 22 Truck/SR 219) and the South Alabama Newsroom in Greenville. Recently, a third bureau was established in Troy ("The Troy Newsroom"). Those additions along with improved production values helped WAKA maintain its runner-up position in the market. In the July 2011 ratings, WAKA's weekday noon and weekend show at 10 out-rated WSFA in key demographic areas.
In January 2007, WBMM (then separately owned by SagamoreHill Broadcasting) entered into a news share agreement with WAKA allowing the big three affiliate to produce the market's first prime time newscast on the CW outlet. Known as CW News at Nine, the weeknight-only broadcast could be seen for thirty minutes and originated from WAKA's studios featuring most of its on-air personnel. WBMM would begin to have competition to the outsourced broadcast on January 7, 2008 after Fox affiliate WCOV-TV entered into a news share arrangement with NBC outlet WSFA.
That agreement resulted in Montgomery's second prime time newscast at 9 which was only initially seen on weeknights for 35 minutes (a weekend half-hour edition would begin in Summer 2008). On April 16, 2010, WNCF expanded its partnership with the Independent News Network (INN) and launched a half-hour weeknight newscast at 9 on WBMM airing in high definition. As a result, that outlet terminated the outsourcing arrangement with WAKA.
After WCOV's contract with WSFA expired at the end of 2010, the Fox station entered into another news outsourcing agreement with WAKA to produce a nightly prime time broadcast known as WCOV News at 9. This second incarnation of a WAKA-sponsored newscast in prime time features a music theme and graphics package modified from original use on Fox owned-and-operated stations. WCOV News at 9 can be seen from WAKA's primary set at its facility except with separate duratrans indicating the Fox-branded show. Meanwhile, on January 1, 2011, WSFA transitioned its prime-time show to its second digital subchannel (currently affiliated with Bounce TV) resulting in three options for newscasts at 9. At some point in Summer 2012, WNCF and WBMM terminated their newscast outsourcing agreement with Independent News Network in preparation for local news production duties to be assumed by WAKA. Unlike most CBS affiliates, WAKA did not air a full two-hour weekday morning show until late-October 2012. Rather, it presented a ninety-minute block beginning at 5:30. Despite the merger with WNCF, WAKA's 9 p.m. newscast remains on WCOV due to that station's stronger Fox lead-in, rather than the smaller lead-in offered by WNCF-DT2's CW programming.
WAKA and WNCF officially debuted their combined local news operation on February 2, 2013. Based out of what was formerly WNCF's studios on Harrison Road, a newly expanded high definition-ready facility features state-of-the-art production capabilities which has allowed WAKA to finally offer local news in high definition. The broadcasts on WAKA and WNCF are known on air as Alabama News Network and shows are simulcasted between the CBS and ABC affiliates on weekday mornings, weeknights at 10, and weekends. The latter two time slots can feature a delay or preemption on one network if national programming runs into them.
WAKA airs its own weekday noon broadcast as well as separate newscasts weeknights at 5 and 6. In addition, WNCF has its own local show weeknights at 5:30 while WAKA offers the CBS Evening News. As a result, the ABC outlet airs World News Tonight weeknights at 6 from a second feed offered by the network (live if significant changes have occurred since the 5:30 feed; otherwise on a delay).
Technical information
Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
Analog-to-digital conversion
WAKA shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 8, on November 28, 2008. The station was the first station in the Montgomery market to broadcast in stereo and is the only one to transmit with a full one megawatt in digital (equivalent to five megawatts for an analog transmitter). Because of WAKA's original digital allocation on UHF channel 55, and a belief by ownership that a return to VHF channel 8 for digital service may create reception issues, WAKA petitioned to the FCC to move its post-transition channel to channel 42 since any channel above 51 would not be allocated for digital television after February 17, 2009. In order to get its post-transition channel up and running.
At that time, the analog antenna and broadcasting equipment were removed from its tower and replaced with digital equipment for channel 42 (digital channel 55 continued to operate via a side-mounted antenna at full power). Digital channel 42 signed-on January 19, 2009 while digital channel 55 signed off on the mandated date on February 17. Although for only a month, the station has the distinction of being the only facility in the country to actually operate two digital channels at the same time (42 and 55) as part of the digital transition. WAKA is the only Big Four station in the market to operate at full power (1 megawatt), using PSIP to display the station's virtual channel as its former VHF analog channel 8.
References
External links
CBS network affiliates
MeTV affiliates
Ion Television affiliates
True Crime Network affiliates
Quest (American TV network) affiliates
Get (TV network) affiliates
Bahakel Communications
Television channels and stations established in 1960
AKA
1960 establishments in Alabama
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar%20Isaac
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Oscar Isaac
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Óscar Isaac Hernández Estrada (born March 9, 1979) is an American actor. Recognized for his versatility, he has been credited with breaking stereotypes about Latino characters in Hollywood. He was named the best actor of his generation by Vanity Fair in 2017 and one of the 25 greatest actors of the 21st century by The New York Times in 2020. His accolades include a Golden Globe Award and a nomination for a Primetime Emmy Award. In 2016, he featured on Time list of the 100 most influential people in the world.
Born in Guatemala, Isaac moved with his family to the US while an infant. As a teenager, he joined a punk band, acted in plays and made his film debut in a minor role. A graduate of the Juilliard School, Isaac was a character actor in films for much of the 2000s. His first major role was that of Joseph in the biblical drama The Nativity Story (2006), and he won an AACTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for portraying political leader José Ramos-Horta in the Australian film Balibo (2009). After gaining recognition for playing supporting parts in Robin Hood (2010) and Drive (2011), Isaac had his breakthrough with the eponymous role of a singer in the musical drama Inside Llewyn Davis (2013), which earned him a Golden Globe nomination.
Isaac's career progressed with leading roles in the crime drama A Most Violent Year (2014), the thriller Ex Machina (2015) and the superhero film X-Men: Apocalypse (2016). He became a global star with the role of Poe Dameron in the Star Wars sequel trilogy (2015–2019). Isaac starred in the historical drama Operation Finale (2018)—which marked his first venture into production—the science fiction films Annihilation (2018) and Dune (2021), the crime drama The Card Counter (2021) and the animated superhero film Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse (2023).
On television, Isaac was the lead in three miniseries: Show Me a Hero (2015), in which his portrayal of Nick Wasicsko won him a Golden Globe Award, Scenes from a Marriage (2021), and the Marvel Cinematic Universe's Moon Knight (2022). His stage work includes title roles in Romeo and Juliet (2007), Hamlet (2017) and The Sign in Sidney Brustein's Window (2023).
Early life
Óscar Isaac Hernández Estrada was born on March 9, 1979, in Guatemala City to a Guatemalan mother, María Eugenia Estrada Nicolle, and a Cuban father, Óscar Gonzalo Hernández-Cano, a pulmonologist. He has an older sister, climate scientist Nicole, and a younger brother, journalist Mike. Isaac's family immigrated to the US when he was five months old, and they frequently moved around the country, living in Baltimore, New Orleans and Miami, where they eventually settled. Isaac became a United States citizen in 2006. He has French origins through his grandfather and describes himself as "a big mix of many things". He speaks English and Spanish.
Isaac attended the private grade school Westminster Christian School in southern Florida. Drawn to creating music and film content since a young age, he struggled growing up in Miami, which in his view was not "a flourishing place for the arts" due to its rather conservative nature. When he was four, he and his sister organized plays in their backyard. Around age10, Isaac made a home movie called The Avenger, in which he played dual characters; he also participated in school plays. He wrote his first play in fifth grade; it was based on the Biblical story of Noah's Ark and featured a doubtful platypus. He found great joy at performing in front of people, which proved to be a stress relief at a time when his parents were separating and his mother became sick.
Growing up in a religious household, Isaac was a rebellious child and liked causing trouble at school. "I set off a fire extinguisher in the gym, defaced a mural, just stupid stuff", he recalled in a 2015 interview. At one point, his teacher screened off his desk from the rest of the class with a piece of cardboard. Isaac was eventually expelled. In 1992, Hurricane Andrew destroyed his family's home in Miami. Around this time, his parents divorced and he moved with his mother to Palm Beach where he attended a public high school. Isaac liked his new school and formed a band with boys he met in a trailer park. He learned music, played guitar and continued to make home movies, inspired by Quentin Tarantino's work: "action [films], with lots of blood and cars". Isaac spent his musical years living a "straight-edge" lifestyle.
At age14, Isaac and his bandmates performed Nirvana's "Rape Me" at a talent show and lost. He attended Santaluces Community High School and graduated in 1998. Isaac joined a ska punk band named The Blinking Underdogs, which enjoyed some success, opening for Green Day. During this time, Isaac took a two-day workshop with a casting director and won a brief part in the independent film Illtown (1998). A chance encounter with artistic director John Rodaz at the Area Stage Company in Miami Beach resulted in several roles on stage. Isaac next secured parts in Joseph Adler's 2000 productions of This Is Our Youth and Side Man at GableStage. To avoid getting typecast as a "Latino gangster", he used Isaac as his surname at auditions. In his own words, "Being called Oscar Hernández in Miami is like being called John Smith; there are 15 pages of us in the phone book." To support himself financially, he worked as an orderly at the hospital where his father worked.
Unsure about his career choice, Isaac considered enlisting in the Marines at one point. His father initially disapproved of this, but Isaac had recruiters convince him. Once he had taken the exam, Isaac said he wanted to do combat photography in military reserve, a job they did not offer. Instead, he studied performing arts at Miami Dade College and continued to act in plays. During a trip to New York City to play a young Fidel Castro in an Off-Broadway production of the play When it's Cocktail Time in Cuba, he successfully auditioned to study at the Juilliard School. While a student there, he was cast in a production of Macbeth and worked on the film All About the Benjamins (2002). Isaac graduated from Juilliard with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in 2005.
Career
Early roles (2005–2010)
After graduating from Juilliard, Isaac continued to write music and performed in small New York clubs, and played Proteus in Two Gentlemen of Verona (2005) in The Public Theatre. The following year, he portrayed Federico García Lorca in New York City Center's production of Beauty of the Father; David Rooney of Variety remarked that his "injection of wry humor provides welcome levity". Also in 2006, he briefly appeared on the television series Law & Order: Criminal Intent, and played Joseph in the biblical epic The Nativity Story, opposite Keisha Castle-Hughes. It was the first film to hold its world premiere in the Vatican City. Having grown up in a religious family, Isaac believed it was important to portray his character "as human as possible" and approach him like any other role. To understand Joseph's background better, he read a book titled The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. The film received mixed reviews and grossed $46million against a budget of $35million. A critic for The Abbotsford News wrote that Isaac brought the role "a freshness and vulnerability it usually" lacks. Toddy Burton of The Austin Chronicle found Isaac "endearing", yet thought that his character's selfless personality made him seem unreal.
Isaac played Romeo alongside Lauren Ambrose in the Public Theater's Romeo and Juliet (2007). Michal Daniel of The Record believed that a "persuasively young and inexperienced" Isaac was overshadowed by Ambrose but had an enthusiastic speech and a passionate behavior. For much of the rest of the 2000s, Isaac played minor roles in films—the thriller The Life Before Her Eyes (2007), the biopic Che (2008), the spy thriller Body of Lies (2008) and the Spanish historical drama Agora (2009). In a book published by Rutgers University Press, which analyzes the performances of rising actors in the 2010s, Rick Warner believed that Isaac "momentarily steals the scene" as a United Nations interpreter in Che. Isaac won the AACTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for his role as José Ramos-Horta in Balibo (2009). Chris Barsanti of PopMatters opined that he played his role with "improbable charm". According to R. Kurt Osenlund of Slant Magazine, Isaac became "a bona fide scene-stealer" after Balibo.
Isaac began the 2010s with the role of the villain King John in the film Robin Hood. In preparation, he read about the character and shared ideas with director Ridley Scott on how to portray him. He liked playing a villain, as he said one does not worry about having to make them likable, enabling him to display more facets of his character. The film had a mixed critical consensus and grossed $321million against a budget of $200million. For R. Kurt Osenlund, Isaac skillfully overshadowed Russell Crowe (who played Robin Hood), "bringing new, magnetic venom to the done-and-done-again role". Rick Warner wrote, "In his early minor film roles, Isaac makes the most of the few lines he is given, supplying emotional complexity not just verbally but also through his attractive face and piercing stare."
Breakthrough (2011–2014)
Isaac's profile expanded in 2011 as he gained recognition for several supporting roles. His first role that year was of an asylum orderly in Zack Snyder's Sucker Punch, for which he applied extensive makeup. Isaac credited Snyder for his openness to actors' input on set. He played a security guard in Madonna's W.E. (2011), a critical failure that British Vogue saw as his "one misjudgment", although Drew Taylor of IndieWire believed he was "one of the few worthwhile aspects" of the film. Isaac then portrayed a musician in 10 Years, in which he performed his own song "Never Had", and an ex-convict in Nicolas Winding Refn's critically acclaimed action drama Drive (2011). Initially hesitant about Drive, he accepted the offer after working out a "more nuanced" and less stereotypical version of the character with Refn and screenwriter Hossein Amini. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter praised Isaac's "unanticipated intelligence and sincerity"; Madison Diazm, writing for Comic Book Resources in 2022, called the film an early testament to Isaac's ability to create tension. Drive earned $81.3million against a production budget of $15million.
Isaac had four film releases in 2012. His first, the Mexican epic historical drama For Greater Glory, had him play a freedom fighter, for which he was nominated for an ALMA Award for Favorite Movie Actor – Supporting Role. After playing the main character's cousin in the comedy-drama Revenge for Jolly!, Isaac appeared in the action thriller The Bourne Legacy. Director Tony Gilroy originally considered Isaac for the lead role in the latter, but the film's production company decided against casting an unknown actor. Isaac instead won the brief part of a brainwashed assassin. The film was released to a mixed critical reception and box-office success. Lizzie Logan of Vulture opined that "Isaac took a character with very little screen time and turned him into a living, breathing, hurting person". Won't Back Down, a drama on the American educational system, was Isaac's last film in 2012. It received negative reviews and was a box-office failure.
In 2013, Isaac played the titular character of a struggling folk singer in 1961 Greenwich Village in the Coen brothers' musical drama Inside Llewyn Davis. Isaac accepted the project due to his high regard for the Coen brothers, who in turn were impressed with his musical talent. In preparation for the part, Isaac learned the guitar technique Travis picking and worked with musicians Erik Frandsen and T Bone Burnett. Before production began, Isaac behaved and dressed like Davis to observe people's reaction to him. The film received acclaim, as did Isaac's performance in what proved to be his breakthrough role. Critics from The Oregonian and St. Louis Post-Dispatch added that Isaac "anchors this film with a star-making, soulful performance", and "has a gift for being appealing even when he's unpleasant". A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote, "Isaac, a versatile character actor here ascending to the highest levels of his craft, refuses the easy road of charm. Like his character, he trusts his own professionalism and the integrity of the material." Scott opined that the musical performances elevated the film, especially Isaac's "The Death of Queen Jane" and "The Shoals of Herring". For the film, Isaac was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. He next starred as Laurent LeClaire, a man who seduces his friend's wife (Elizabeth Olsen) in the erotic thriller In Secret (2013). Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune praised Isaac as the film's prime asset, noting that his "sly delineation of the charismatic Laurent provides the through-line".
In 2014, Isaac appeared in the thriller The Two Faces of January, starring alongside Viggo Mortensen and
Kirsten Dunst. He starred with Jessica Chastain in J. C. Chandor's A Most Violent Year (2014), replacing actor Javier Bardem. Described by Isaac as "a gangster movie without the gangsters", the film follows his character Abel Morales, the ambitious owner of a heating-oil company, who is determined to protect his business in a city plagued by violent crime. Chandor first met Isaac upon Chastain's insistence and, finding him "precise, wild and alive", cast him in the part. When Isaac noticed that Morales's background was missing in the script, Chandor allowed him to create it, for which he researched Latin Americans' history in the 1950s and 1960s. Fascinated by Morales's duality—"cold, calculating businessman" but also "highly emotional and highly passionate"—Isaac read books about sociopaths and "corporate America" to prepare for the part. The film failed to recoup its budget but was a critical success. Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post praised Isaac for "deliver[ing] a master class in that skill from the very first moment of A Most Violent Year to the last", adding, "he's a commanding screen presence, even when he's saying nothing." Tad Friend of The New Yorker believed that Isaac's portrayal was reminiscent of the work of actors Treat Williams, Dustin Hoffman and Al Pacino. For his performance in the film, Isaac won a National Board of Review Award for Best Actor.
Mainstream success (2015–2017)
In 2015, Isaac portrayed Nathan Hamlet Bateman, the reclusive inventor of a humanoid artificial intelligence, in the science fiction film Ex Machina. He based his character's look and accent on director Stanley Kubrick and observed his speech patterns. Isaac modeled Bateman's personality on chess champion Bobby Fischer and played the game during filming to get "in that mode of constantly trying to be a few steps ahead". Ex Machina was a commercial and critical success, with praise for Isaac's performance. Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com commended Isaac for possessing "an electrifying star quality, cruelly sneering yet somehow delightful, insinuating and intellectually credible". Isaac followed with his first leading role on television—the 6-episode HBO miniseries Show Me a Hero, in which he played politician Nick Wasicsko. Isaac was approached for the role shortly after he had finished filming for Star Wars: The Force Awakens. Although he found the story "fascinating", he was initially reluctant to sign on as it was "a little impenetrable" for him. He agreed after finding footage of Wasicsko interacting with the media. Because a show's length generally exceeds a film's, Isaac found filming the miniseries a little more difficult and was skeptical about its six-hour format. Isaac's performance, which won him the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film, was lauded by critics. Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker praised it as "a star performance agile enough to elevate scenes that might veer into agitprop".
Isaac co-starred as Poe Dameron, an X-wing pilot, in the epic space opera film Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015). Having liked Star Wars films since childhood, he initially considered himself unfit for the part, but director J. J. Abrams convinced him in a meeting. A fan of Inside Llewyn Davis, Abrams described Isaac as "a far more sophisticated actor than one might get for a role". Isaac suggested to Abrams that his character be from the moon Yavin 4, which first appeared in Star Wars (1977) in scenes filmed in his country Guatemala; this idea was incorporated. While filming The Force Awakens, Isaac initially felt insecure, but soon found a sense of belonging with co-stars Daisy Ridley and John Boyega, who were also newcomers to the film series. In preparation for the role, Isaac read about war, including a book called What It's Like to Go to War. The Force Awakens received positive reviews and grossed $2billion worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of 2015. Forbes and TheWrap critics praised the cast additions, including Isaac, as "outright terrific", and "engaging performers" who "make strong impressions very quickly, and who are charismatic enough to make us care about their characters".
Isaac agreed to play the titular villain in the film X-Men: Apocalypse (2016) because he was a fan of X-Men comic books since childhood. He underwent extensive makeup and prosthetics, and wore a 40-pound suit; the full costume was uncomfortable, which forced Isaac to go to a cooling tent between takes. Critics Angelica Jade Bastién and Glenn Kenny believed Isaac, though a "charismatic and dynamic" actor, "feel[s] so torpid here", and "fares poorly through no fault of his own". Years after Apocalypse underwhelming critical performance, Isaac commented that he wished the film and his character had been better handled. Also in 2016, he starred alongside Charlotte Le Bon and Christian Bale in The Promise, a historical drama about a love triangle set during the Armenian genocide. Critics were dismissive of the film, believing that the trio's talents were wasted. Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote that the film was "derivative of better war romances" but was "bolstered by strong performances from Isaac and Bale, two of the best actors of their generation". The film's producers intended to donate the profits to charity, but it accrued a $102million loss. Outside film in 2016, Isaac narrated the Nike ad Unlimited You, and voiced a soldier trying to rejoin civilian life in the podcast series Homecoming.
About late 2016, Isaac spent most of his time caring for his dying mother. As her condition worsened, he began reading her Hamlet by Shakespeare, whose work he had been a fan of since childhood. In honor of his mother, who died later in February 2017, Isaac starred as Prince Hamlet in The Public Theater production of Hamlet. The play, directed by Sam Gold, ran from July to September 2017. The Hollywood Reporter David Rooney praised Isaac as the production's prime asset, and Jeremy Gerard of Deadline Hollywood described him as "the rare actor as comfortable onstage as before the camera", highlighting his "committed, fully conceived performance". Also that year, Isaac played an insurance investigator in the black comedy Suburbicon, written by the Coen brothers who directed Isaac in Inside Llewyn Davis. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called Isaac's performance the film's best, and David Sims of The Atlantic wrote, "The film's only really electrifying moments are generated by Oscar Isaac[...] it's in his scenes that the darkly funny spark of the Coens' writing flickers to life." For the film, Isaac was nominated for a San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actor. Isaac's final work in 2017 was in the sequel Star Wars: The Last Jedi, in which he reprised the role of Poe Dameron. J. J. Abrams originally intended to kill Dameron off in The Force Awakens, but Isaac convinced him otherwise. The Last Jedi grossed $1.3billion becoming 2017's highest-grossing film.
Professional expansion (2018–present)
Isaac filmed Annihilation (2018) simultaneously with Star Wars: The Last Jedi at the same studio. As such, he did not have enough time rehearsing for his role in the former and credited co-star Natalie Portman (who played his wife) with helping him film their intimate scenes with ease. The film received positive reviews. Tasha Robinson of The Verge complimented Isaac's chemistry with Portman, and Caryn James of the BBC took note of his ability to act well with a mere glance. Isaac debuted as a producer filming the historical drama Operation Finale (2018), in which he played Peter Malkin, the Israeli secret agent who captured Nazi fugitive Adolf Eichmann in 1960. When asked about his first time producing, he said he wanted to contribute to the stories he is part of. He believed that the film's topic still remains relevant in modern times, where extreme views are deemed acceptable. Critical consensus for Operation Finale was that it is "well-intentioned, well-acted, and overall entertaining, even if the depth and complexity of the real-life events depicted can get a little lost in their dramatization". Bhaskar Chattopadhyay of Firstpost thought Isaac was brilliant in certain scenes, but mainly highlighted the performances of the supporting actors. The film was a commercial failure. Isaac's other films in 2018 include At Eternity's Gate (where he played Paul Gauguin), Life Itself and Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse, which featured his voice during the post-credits. Isaac co-starred with Olivia Wilde in the box-office failure Life Itself; Caroline Siede of Consequence found the two leads unconvincing and their roles to be poorly written.
After Isaac finished filming Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker in October 2018, he intended to take a prolonged acting hiatus but was cast as Duke Leto Atreides in Dune (2021) a few months later. In the former, the final film in the Star Wars sequel trilogy, Isaac reprised the role of Poe Dameron. It received mixed reviews but was profitable. Earlier in 2019, Isaac starred as an agent working against a drug cartel in South America in J. C. Chandor's Netflix film Triple Frontier. To avoid feeling exhausted during scenes in which he is running at high altitude, Isaac trained in a New York hall where one can decrease oxygen. He said that filming in a favela with no water or sewage made him realize his privileged life. Reviews for the film were generally positive. Critics Christy Lemire and Richard Roeper highlighted Isaac's screen presence as "charismatic" and "electric". Isaac next voiced the role of Gomez Addams in The Addams Family (2019), a computer-animated film based on the titular characters created by Charles Addams. For years, fans suggested Isaac be cast in the part as they claimed he resembled Raul Julia who played Gomez Addams in live-action films in the 1990s. The Addams Family received mixed reviews and grossed $203million on a $24million budget.
Isaac's only role in 2020 was of a kindhearted prison officer in the short film The Letter Room, for which he was also an executive producer. Roktim Rajpal of the Deccan Herald believed that Isaac "is the backbone of the short and makes an impact with his sincere performance", yet he fails to "internali[z]e the character as much as expected". The following year, he starred alongside Jessica Chastain in Scenes from a Marriage. A remake of the 1973 Swedish series of the same name by Ingmar Bergman, it switches gender roles, and explores the themes of monogamy, marriage and divorce. To film the show, Isaac and Chastain employed their experiences from past relationships and parents' marriage. Isaac performed in a full frontal nude scene in the series. Reviews for the show were positive, particularly for the duo's chemistry. Carol Midgley of The Times praised them for giving "masterclass performances and delivering crackling, wounding dialogue faultlessly". He was nominated for the Golden Globe Award, Screen Actors Guild Award and Primetime Emmy Award for Best Actor in a miniseries.
To avoid what he saw as "green screen alien space land", Isaac starred as William Tell—a troubled, gambling military veteran—in the Paul Schrader-directed crime drama The Card Counter. Because his character writes in his journal every night, Isaac took a penmanship course. To portray Tell's military experience, he drew inspiration from his time as a high-school graduate when he and his friend wanted to join the marines. Near the end, the film's production was halted due to the COVID-19 lockdown; per Isaac's suggestion, he finished it with only Schrader and the cinematographer on set. Critics praised The Card Counter and Isaac's performance, which for Eric Kohn of IndieWire was his career's best. Justin Chang of NPR lauded Isaac for "bring[ing] his usual sly, soulful magnetism to the role" and embodying his character's trauma in his "dark, haunted gaze". The film earned him a nomination for the London Film Critics' Circle Award for Actor of the Year. After reprising the role of Gomez Addams in The Addams Family 2, Isaac starred in Dune as the father of the protagonist Paul Atreides (played by Timothée Chalamet). Based on the 1965 namesake novel by Frank Herbert, Dune premiered at the 78th Venice International Film Festival to mixed reviews but was nominated for 10Academy Awards. It earned over $400million against a budget of $165million.
Isaac began 2022 with the black comedy Big Gold Brick in a brief role that Nick Schager of Variety found "out of left field". In the Marvel Cinematic Universe series Moon Knight (2022), he played the titular superhero, a man with dissociative identity disorder (DID) who serves as an avatar to the Egyptian moon god Khonshu. He also executive produced the show, which is based on Marvel Comics' namesake comic book. Initially reluctant to join another franchise, he had several conversations with Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige before signing on. Drawn to his character's complex mind, Isaac found manifesting each alter a technical challenge that took considerable energy. He read Robert B. Oxnam's book A Fractured Mind to research DID. To distinguish the three alters, Isaac gave them different nationalities. For example, he suggested that the alter Steven Grant be English, and was inspired by comedians Karl Pilkington (from the British travel comedy series An Idiot Abroad) and Peter Sellers to develop his English accent. The third alter, Jake Lockley, speaks Spanish as Isaac wanted to add an aspect of his own life to the role. Moon Knight was released to a positive critical reception. In a review of the fifth episode, Matt Fowler of IGN took note of Isaac's "dynamic and dazzling performance" and "ace acting", highlighting the dramatic scene in which his character revisits his traumatic past. He was nominated for an MTV Movie Award for Best Hero.
In 2023, Isaac starred as the title character in the revival of Lorraine Hansberry's The Sign in Sidney Brustein's Window opposite Rachel Brosnahan. The production had its initial run at the Brooklyn Academy of Music before its Broadway transfer which began in April 2023. Later that year, he voiced the role of Spider-Man 2099, a version of the namesake superhero, in the computer-animated film Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse. The film received critical acclaim and was a commercial success. Critic Maya Phillips of The New York Times found Isaac to be well-cast as a slightly unhinged and self-serious Spider-Man. He will reprise his role in the sequel subtitled Beyond the Spider-Verse.
Reception and acting style
Media publications like Vanity Fair, The Guardian and People have positively commented on Isaac's looks. Rolling Stone and other media outlets have dubbed Isaac "the Internet's Boyfriend", a label he is skeptical about. Hoby Hermione of The Guardian took note of Isaac's "cheerful, vigorous presence", "energy and good humour". Melanie Haupt of The Austin Chronicle identified him as "polite, professional, serene". Joseph Adler, who directed Isaac in plays early in his career, was impressed with his "discipline", "professionalism" and "incredible intelligence". Nick Levine of NME wrote, "In the flesh, Oscar Isaac has a relaxed charisma that puts you at ease." Brett Martin of GQ commented on his "wide, easy smile", adding, "It's been a long time since we've had a leading man whose charisma comes packed with such tetchiness, so little naked desire to be liked."
In 2016, Time named Isaac one of the 100 most influential people in the world. In 2017, Isaac was described as the "best dang actor of his generation" by Vanity Fair chief critic Richard Lawson, who wrote, "He's a classically trained actor of true range, one who can sing and dance, do comedy, action, and drama with equal ease and authority. He's thrilling to watch, a prodigious mind sparking a nimble[...] form into action." The same year, Esquire Miranda Collinge added that after his roles of Hamlet and Poe Dameron, Isaac was becoming the most accomplished leading actor of his generation. In 2020, The New York Times ranked him 14th in its list of the 25 Greatest Actors of the 21st Century. "When I think about what makes him so credible as an actor", wrote the list's co-author A. O. Scott, "[is] whatever Isaac is pretending to do onscreen[...] I always believe that he really knows how to do it, and that I'm watching some kind of authentic mastery in action." Hossein Amini, who directed Isaac in The Two Faces of January, remarked on his "ability to make the tiniest shifts in character incredibly quickly, without revealing any element of process".
Martin identified an extent of "loneliness and menace" in Isaac's most memorable characters, attributing his growing success to "a series of brilliant but darkly idiosyncratic roles" (Inside Llewyn Davis and A Most Violent Year). Isaac himself noted "a sense of melancholy, anger, displacement" in these characters. For Rick Warner, Isaac's roles in these films and Ex Machina signify his "penchant for moody rumination" that "runs together with an expression of intellect that slips into egoism". Madison Diaz of Comic Book Resources praised Isaac for his inclination to "intense and complex" characters and for exploring their hardships and complicated pasts. Tom Shone of The Guardian identified common characters of "ambitious, slightly myopic men whose own movement quickens their fall" (an oil importer struggling to keep his business intact in A Most Violent Year and a doomed politician in Show Me a Hero). Shone noted, "He has made a career playing men for whom careerism doesn't work." Isaac's favorite roles depict "a lot more of the beauty and cruelty of life". He often looks for "the comic in the dramatic and the dramatic in the comic and where those things meet and the brackish waters in between". For Isaac, acting is "the only framework where you can give expression to such intense emotions. Otherwise anywhere else is pretty inappropriate, unless you're just in a room screaming to yourself."
Throughout his career, Isaac has avoided typecasting. Often noted for his versatility, he has played a wide range of nationalities, including Egyptian, Indonesian, Armenian, Greek, Welsh, East Timorese, and English. Rick Warner opined Isaac has "skillfully embodied several different affective dispositions—sensitive, flippant, romantically charming, hyperintelligent, neurotic, cynical, sinister, and menacingly violent". His performance in A Most Violent Year has been credited for a positive ethnic representation in American cinema, with author Charles Ramírez Berg writing in Close-up: Great Cinematic Performances that Isaac's character—a self-acting businessman replacing the usual "barbarous, short-fused ethnic gangster"—broke "the tempestuous, hot-blooded Latino stereotype". In 2017, Isaac became "debatably" the first Latino actor to play Hamlet in a major US production. According to David Román of Theatre Journal, it helped subvert the stereotype that Latinos cannot be proficient in English. Isaac believes that "the artist[...] should be borderless". If his character is Latino, he "take[s] that away and see[s] what's there. People will put that on top of a bland character to make them exotic, to add a little spice."
Personal life
Isaac is indifferent to his celebrity status and remains close with his family. According to a New York Daily News report, he was engaged to Maria Miranda in 2007. Isaac is married to Danish film director Elvira Lind, whom he met in 2012, and married in 2017. They have two sons: Eugene (born 2017) and Mads (born 2019). He lives in Williamsburg, Brooklyn.
Notes
References
Citations
Literary sources
External links
1979 births
21st-century American male actors
American entertainers of Cuban descent
American male film actors
American male Shakespearean actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
American male video game actors
American male voice actors
American people of Cuban descent
American people of French descent
American people of Guatemalan descent
Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actor Golden Globe winners
Best Supporting Actor AACTA Award winners
Guatemalan emigrants to the United States
Guatemalan people of Cuban descent
Guatemalan people of French descent
Hispanic and Latino American male actors
Juilliard School alumni
Living people
Miami Dade College alumni
Actors from Williamsburg, Brooklyn
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism%20in%20Bosnia%20and%20Herzegovina
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Tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina is a fast-growing sector making up an important part in the economy of the country.
Beside a number of spots and attractions in Sarajevo and Mostar, as the country's principal tourist destinations, Bosnia and Herzegovina is regaining its reputation as an excellent ski destination with its Olympic mountain ski resorts such as Jahorina, Bjelašnica and Igman.
The tourist business environment is constantly developing with an increasingly active tourism promotional system.
In 2019, 1.990.451 tourists visited Bosnia and Herzegovina, an increase of 23,6% and had 4.100.401 overnight hotel stays, a 22.6% increase from the previous year. Also, 74.4% ( 1.48 million ) of the tourists came from foreign countries.
Economy and tourism
Tourism is becoming a great contributor to the Bosnian economy. As a result, Bosnia-Herzegovina now has a wide tourist industry and a fast expanding service sector thanks to the strong annual growth in tourist arrivals. The country also benefits from being both a summer and winter destination with continuity in its tourism throughout the year.
Being a predominantly mountainous country Bosnia-Herzegovina provides some of the best-value ski vacations in Europe.
In March 2012, Sarajevo won travel blog Foxnomad's "Best City to Visit" competition, beating out more than one hundred cities around the entire world.
More recently, the town of Visoko has experienced a staggering increase in tourist arrivals due to the alleged discovery of the Bosnian pyramids, attracting in excess of 10,000 tourists in the first weekend of June 2006.
Međugorje has become one of the most popular pilgrimage sites for Catholics (and people of other faiths) in the world and has turned into Europe's third most important religious place, where each year more than 1 million people visit. It has been estimated that 30 million pilgrims have come to Međugorje since the reputed apparitions began in 1981.
Neum on the adriatic coast has steep hills, sandy beaches, and several large tourist hotels. Prices tend to be lower than in neighboring Croatia, making it popular with shoppers. Tourism and the commerce it brings, is the leading contributor to the economy of the area. Tourism in Neum is active mostly in the coastal region. The inland area behind Neum has a rich archeological history and untouched wilderness and is starting to develop agricultural tourism.
Vacationing in Bosnia has become popular among Gulf Arabs from Eastern Arabia.
Tourist attractions
The tourist department of Bosnia and Herzegovina indicated that the most attractive benefits experienced by visitors are - 1) the spirit of the people. 2) Cities across the country are well connected with intercity busses and 3) major cities with the surrounding natural sites are easily reachable within a day.
Some of the tourist attractions in Bosnia and Herzegovina include:
Sarajevo The "Olympic City". Economic, scientific, cultural, political and commercial center of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Called The European Jerusalem.
Mostar, "City on Neretva", "City of Sunshine", the UNESCO site of Stari most and old town Mostar;
Tuzla Birthplace of Mesa Selimovic and known for its Pannonian "Salt lakes".
Banja Luka, the "Green City" with various cultural sights like Kastel fortress, the river Vrbas and Ferhadija mosque;
Bihać and the river Una with its waterfalls and the Una National Park;
Zenica the river Bosna and Vranduk – the medieval fortress with a mosque;
Jajce with its waterfalls, city of The Bosnian Kings, and location of the foundation of Yugoslavia during AVNOJ;
Višegrad, the UNESCO site of the Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge;
Slatina, a famous spa resort with unpolluted nature, fresh air and a reputation since the 1870s.
Shrine of Our Lady of Medjugorje, Catholic pilgrimage site of a Marian apparition;
Prijedor, Old City Mosque (National heritage), Kozara National Park and Bosnia's largest WWII monument at Mrakovica;
The Neretva river and the Rakitnica river canyons in Upper Neretva;
The Trebižat river and its waterfalls Kravice and Kočuša;
The Buna and its spring Vrelo Bune with the historical town of Blagaj;
The Lower Tara river canyon;
The Perućica ancient forest, one of the last two remaining primeval forests in Europe, and the Sutjeska river canyon, both within Sutjeska National Park;
The Ribnik river fly fishing;
The Pliva river fly fishing;
The Una river and National Park rafting, fly fishing;
Mount Bjelašnica and Jahorina, sites of the XIV Olympic Winter Games;
Srebrenica nature, rafting on Drina, boat rides through canyon of river Drina to Višegrad (second deepest canyon in Europe), also a place where some of the worst war crimes committed in war happened;
Mogorjelo, a Roman villa rustica that dates from the early fourth century. It is situated 5 km south of Čapljina.
Neum, the only Bosnian-Herzegovinan coastal city on the Adriatic.
Doboj and its 13th-century fortress;
Stolac, the Begovina neighborhood and Radimlja tombstones;
Visoko, City of Bosnian Kings and site of the alleged Bosnian pyramids;
Tešanj, one of the oldest cities in Bosnia with its old town;
Bijeljina, known for its agriculture and Etno village Stanišić.
Lukavac - Modrac Lake (Jezero Modrac) the largest artificial lake in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Travnik - The birthplace of Ivo Andrić and site of old town Travnik
Ostrožac Castle - 16th-century castle built by the Ottomans and a second addition added by the Habsburg family.
Konjic - known for its old town including the Stara Ćuprija bridge.
Počitelj - a historic village near Čapljina.
UNESCO World heritage sites in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Properties submitted on the Tentative List:
Sarajevo - unique symbol of universal multiculture - continual open city (N.I.) (1997)
Vjetrenica cave (2004)
The natural and architectural ensemble of Jajce (2006)
The historic urban site of Počitelj (2007)
The natural and architectural ensemble of Blagaj (2007)
The natural and architectural ensemble of Blidinje (2007)
The natural and architectural ensemble of Stolac (2007)
The natural monument Vjetrenica cave with architectural ensemble of village Zavala (2007)
The Old Jewish cemetery in Sarajevo (2018)
Winter sports
During the 1984 Winter Olympics, the mountains of Bjelašnica, Jahorina and Igman hosted the skiing events. These are the most visited skiing mountains in Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Jahorina ski resort was the site of the women's alpine skiing events. The men's alpine events were held at Bjelašnica. At Igman The Malo Polije area hosted the ski jumping and the ski jumping part of the Nordic combined events. Meanwhile, the Veliko Polje hosted the biathlon, cross-country skiing, and the cross-country skiing part of the Nordic combined event.
Sarajevo hosted the European Youth Olympic Winter Festival in 2019 and due to this, investments were made to build modern ski lifts and good standards of accommodation, especially at Bjelašnica and Jahorina.
The mountain Vlašić has also become a major center for winter tourism due to its excellent accommodation for skiing, snowboarding and other winter sports. It is also a destination for summer and eco tourism with many hiking trails and undisturbed wilderness areas.
The mountain and National Park Kozara has over the past years also become a tourist attraction for skiing and hiking.
Regions and cities
Bosnia-Herzegovina is known for having various cultural sites of mixed architecture with Roman, medieval, Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian influences.
Sarajevo
The capital city Sarajevo is known for its traditional religious diversity, with adherents of Islam, Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Judaism coexisting there for centuries. Due to this long and rich history of religious diversity, Sarajevo has often been called the "Jerusalem of Europe"
Sarajevo has a strong tourist industry and was named by Lonely Planet one of the top 50 "Best City in the World" in 2006. In December 2009 listed Sarajevo as one of the top ten cities to visit in 2010.
Sports-related tourism uses the legacy facilities of the 1984 Winter Olympics, especially the skiing facilities on the nearby mountains of Bjelašnica, Igman, Jahorina, Trebević, and Treskavica. Sarajevo's 600 years of history, influenced by both Western and Eastern empires, is also a strong tourist attraction. Sarajevo has hosted travellers for centuries, because it was an important trading centre during the Ottoman and Austria-Hungarian empires. Examples of popular destinations in Sarajevo include the Vrelo Bosne park with Roman thermal springs, the Sarajevo cathedral, the Gazi Husrev-beg's Mosque and old town of Sarajevo; Baščaršija. Tourism in Sarajevo is chiefly focused on historical, religious, and cultural aspects.
The city is rich in museums, including the Museum of Sarajevo, the Ars Aevi Museum of Contemporary Art, Historical Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Museum of Literature and Theatre Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina (established in 1888) home to the Sarajevo Haggadah, an illuminated manuscript and the oldest Sephardic Jewish document in the world issued in Barcelona around 1350, containing the traditional Jewish Haggadah, is held at the museum.
The city also hosts the National theatre of Bosnia and Herzegovina, established in 1919, as well as the Sarajevo Youth Theatre. Other cultural institutions include the Centre for Sarajevo Culture, Sarajevo City Library, Art Gallery of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Bosniak Institute, a privately owned library and art collection focusing on Bosniak history.
The Sarajevo Film Festival, established in 1995, has become the premier film festival in the Balkans. The Sarajevo Winter Festival, Sarajevo Jazz Festival and Sarajevo International Music Festival are well-known, as is the Baščaršija Nights festival, a month-long showcase of local culture, music, and dance.
The Sarajevo Film Festival has been hosted at the National Theater, with screenings at the Open-air theatre Metalac and the Bosnian Cultural Center, all located in central Sarajevo and has hosted many world-renowned actors, directors and musicians.
The first incarnation of the Sarajevo Film Festival was hosted in still-warring Sarajevo in 1995, and has now progressed into being the biggest and most significant festival in South-Eastern Europe. A talent campus is also held during the duration of the festival, with numerous world-renowned lecturers speaking on behalf of world cinematography and holding workshops for film students from across South-Eastern Europe.
The Sarajevo Jazz Festival takes place at the Bosnian Cultural Centre (aka "Main Stage"), just down the street from the SFF, at the Sarajevo Youth Stage Theatre (aka "Strange Fruits Stage"), at the Dom Vojske Federacije (aka "Solo Stage"), and at the CDA (aka "Groove Stage").
Central Bosnia
Visoko gained interest from tourists since claims made by Semir Osmanagić about existence of pyramids in that city, a pseudoscientific theory that has been debunked by scientists. He subsequently made shift toward tourism and alleged healing aspect of the tunnels in park Ravne. Visoko is home to tens of thousands tourist yearly since 2006 when the claims were made. Multiple visits to the park and Visočica hill by Serbian tennis player Novak Đoković served a major tourism boost for the area as he hailed the park as "paradise on earth." Other notable visitors include Vlade Divac, Jusuf Nurkić, Amel Tuka, Damir Džumhur, Mirza Teletović, pop singer Goran Karan who also recorded a video for his song in the park, Bosnia national team, Branko Đurić, and others. Osmanagić also claimed that around 92.000 visitors came to the park in 2020.
Mostar and Herzegovina
Mostar is an important tourist destination in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Mostar International Airport serves the city as well as the train and bus stations which connect it to a number of national and international destinations. Mostar's old town is an important tourist destination with the Stari Most being its most recognizable feature.
Partisan Memorial Cemetery in Mostar, which is a World War II memorial, is another important city symbol and it was designed by the architect Bogdan Bogdanović. Its sacrosanct quality consists in the unity of nature (water and greenery) with the architectural expression of the designer; the monument was included into a list of national monuments in 2006.
The "Rondo shopping centre", "Biosfera Mall", and the "Mepas Mall" are some of the city's newer attractions. The Catholic pilgrimage site of Međugorje is also nearby as well as the Tekija Dervish Monastery in Blagaj, 13th-century town of Počitelj, Kravica waterfall, seaside town of Neum, Stolac with its famous Stećak necropolis and the remains of an ancient Greek town of Daorson. Nearby sites also include the nature park called Hutovo Blato, Boračko Lake as well as Vjetrenica cave, the largest and most important cave in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The historic site of Počitelj is located on the left bank of the river Neretva, on the main Mostar to Metković road, and it is to the south of Mostar.
During the Middle Ages, Počitelj was considered the administrative centre and centre of governance of Dubrava župa (county), while its westernmost point gave it major strategic importance. It is believed that the fortified town along with its attendant settlements were built by Bosnia's King Stjepan Tvrtko I in 1383.
The walled town of Počitelj evolved in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries. Architecturally, the stone-constructed parts of the town are a fortified complex, in which two stages of evolution are evident: mediaeval, and Ottoman.
Blagaj is situated at the spring of the Buna river and a historical tekke (tekija or Dervish monastery). The Blagaj Tekija was built around 1520, with elements of Ottoman architecture and Mediterranean style and is considered a national monument.
The source of the Buna river (Vrelo Bune) is a strong karstic spring. The Buna flows west for approximately 9 kilometres and joins the Neretva near the village Buna.
The historic site of the Old Blagaj Fort (Stjepan grad), on the hill above Blagaj, was the seat of Herzegovinian nobleman, Stjepan Vukčić, and the birthplace of Bosnian queen Katarina Kosača-Kotromanić.
The architectural ensemble of the Blagaj Tekke (a Sufi monastery) stands by the source of the Buna river, not far from the centre of Blagaj. The musafirhana (guest house) and türbe (mausoleum) are tucked into the natural surroundings, constituting a single entity with the cliffs, source of the Buna river and mills. The musafirhana of the Blagaj tekke and the türbe have been preserved to this day. The musafirhana was built before 1664, and rebuilt in 1851 - its original appearance is not known. The building was subsequently repaired on several occasions. The ensemble of the Blagaj Tekke was presumably built very soon after Ottoman rule was established in Herzegovina, around 1520 at the latest.
Trebinje which was initially a Byzantine territory governed by the Serbs. In the mid 9th century, Knez Vlastimir gave the Župania (city state) of Trebinje (Travunia) to his son-in-law Krajina to govern under his suzerainty.
It commanded the road from Ragusa (Dubrovnik) to Constantinople, traversed, in 1096, by Raymond of Toulouse and his crusaders. Under the name of Tribunia or Travunja (the Trebigne of the Ragusans), it belonged to the Serbian Empire until 1355. Trebinje became a part of the expanded Medieval Bosnian state under Tvrtko I in 1373. There is a medieval tower in Gornje Police (Gornye Politse) whose construction is often attributed to Vuk Branković. The old Tvrdoš Monastery dates back to the 15th century.
In 1482, together with the rest of Herzegovina and the Bosnian kingdom, it was captured by the Ottoman Empire. The Old Town-Kastel was built by Turks on location of the medieval fortress of Ban Vir, on the western bank of the Trebišnjica River. The city walls, the Old Town square, and two mosques, were built in beginning of the 18th century by Resulbegović family. The Arslanagić bridge was originally built (16th century) at the village of Arslanagić, five kilometres north of the town, by Mehmed-paša Sokolović, and it was managed by Arslanagic family. It was moved closer to Trebinje (1 km) in the late 1960s. The Arslanagić bridge is one of the most attractive Turkish bridges in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It has two large and two small semicircular arches.
During the period of Austro-Hungarian administration (1878–1918), several fortifications were built on the surrounding hills, and there was a garrison based in the town. They also modernized the town expanding it westwards, building the present main street, as well as, several squares, park, new schools, tobacco plantations, etc.
Međugorje. Since 1981, it has become a site of religious pilgrimage due to reports of apparitions of the Virgin Mary to six local Catholics.
Following reports of apparitions, successive bishops of Mostar ruled the claims groundless. In March 2010, in view of continued public interest, the Holy See announced that the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith was forming an investigative commission, composed of bishops, theologians, and other experts, under the leadership of Cardinal Camillo Ruini, the Pope's former Vicar General for the Diocese of Rome.
Bosanska Krajina
The region of Bosanska Krajina is known for its rivers and green landscape. The region also includes cultural cities such as Banja Luka, Prijedor, Bihać and Jajce. Old fortresses and castles such as Ostrožac Castle and Velika Kladusa Castle made by the Ottomans and later Austrian-Hungarians are known national heritage sites. The city of The Bosnian kings, the foundation of Yugoslavia and the Jajce waterfalls Jajce is an UNESCO candidate.
Banja Luka lies on the Vrbas river and is well known in the countries of the Former Yugoslavia for being full of tree-lined avenues, boulevards, gardens, and parks.
The city is also home to the old fortress Kastel and the Ferhadija Mosque listed as a Bosnia and Herzegovina cultural heritage site in 1950. It was subsequently protected by UNESCO until its destruction in 1993. Today the site is being rebuilt and is listed as a national monument of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other attractions of Banja Luka are the Banj Hill and a waterfall of the Vrbas river near Krupa. Rafting on the Vrbas river has become popular among local tourists. There is fishing, rock climbing and hiking along the canyon of the Vrbas between Banja Luka and Jajce, and there is plenty of accommodation for visitors. Near Banja Luka, famous and prominent Trappist monastery, known as Mariastern Abbey, is located. The church and the monastery contains a large number of works of art and valuable cultural and historical legacy.
Prijedor is located on the river Sana and known for its Catholic, Orthodox Christian and Islamic heritage. Historic buildings from the Ottoman and Austrian-Hungarian periods are a feature of the urban landscape. Most known is the old Ottoman houses in the old city and the old city Mosque from the 15th century. The city underwent extensive renovation between 2006–2009.
Within Prijedor municipality is also Kozara National Park that was proclaimed a protected national forest in 1967 by Josip Broz Tito. It is situated between the rivers Una, Sava, Sana and Vrbas, in BiH. These 33.75 square kilometers of dense forest and hilly meadows have earned the nickname 'Green Beauty of Krajina'.
Kozara is a popular hunting ground, with a large 180 square kilometers area of the park open to regulated hunting of deer, pheasants, foxes, boars, hares and ducks.
A smaller part of the park is designated for nature lovers. Walking, hiking, biking and herb picking are among the many activities in Kozara.
Jajce was first built in the 14th century and served as the capital of the independent Bosnian kingdom during its time. The town has gates as fortifications, as well as a castle with walls which lead to the various gates around the town. Skenderbeg Mihajlović besieged Jajce in 1501, but without success because he was defeated by Ivaniš Korvin assisted by Zrinski, Frankopan, Karlović and Cubor. When the Bosnian kingdom fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1463, Jajce was taken by the Ottomans but was retaken next year by Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus. About 10–20 kilometres from the Jajce lies the Komotin Castle and town area which is older but smaller than Jajce. It is believed the town of Jajce was previously Komotin but was moved after the black death.
During this period, Bosnian queen Katarina Kosača-Kotromanić restored the Church of Saint Luke in Jajce, today the oldest church in town. Eventually, in 1527, Jajce became the last Bosnian town to fall to Ottoman rule. There are several churches and mosques built in different times during different rules, making Jajce a rather diverse town in this aspect.
The Franciscan monastery of Saint Luke was completed in 1885.
Jajce gained prominence during the Second World War because it hosted the second convention of the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia on November 29, 1943, a meeting that set the foundation for the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia after WWII.
Bihać was the temporary capital of the Croatian Kingdom. It lost its civic status in the 14th century following dynastic struggles in the kingdom, and became a property of the Frankopan nobles. In the 16th century it passed under direct royal rule, when battles with the Ottoman Empire had begun. The town of Bihać, in the region of the same name, withstood the Ottoman attacks until it fell with the Bosnia sanjak (in 1592).
The Bihać fort would become the westernmost fort taken by the Ottoman army over a hundred years later, in 1592 under the Bosnian vizier Hasan-pasha Predojević. The city was initially made the center of the Bihać sanjak, part of the Bosnian pashaluk. It was demoted in 1699 to become part of the sanjak of Bosnia, during the period of intense border wars between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire. In 1865 it became the center of its own sanjak, but this lasted only until 1878, when all of Bosnia was occupied by Austria-Hungary.
The city landscape of Bihac with the Una river has old mosques, catholic churches and splendid nature surroundings.
Adriatic Sea
Neum is the only coastal town in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It comprises 24.5 km (15 mi) of coastline and is the country's only access to the Adriatic Sea.
Neum has steep hills, sandy beaches, and several large tourist hotels. Prices tend to be lower than in neighboring Croatia, making it popular with shoppers. Tourism and the commerce it brings, is the leading contributor to the economy of the area. Border formalities with Croatia are relaxed at peak times. Neum has over 5,000 beds for tourists, 1,810 in hotels with the remaining capacity in villas and private accommodation. Tourism in Neum is mainly active in the coastal region. The inland area behind Neum has a rich archeological history and untouched wilderness and is starting to develop agricultural tourism.
National parks
National parks of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Nature parks of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Statistics
Tourist arrivals grew by an average of 24% annually from 1995 to 2000. The European region's solid growth in arrivals in 2007 was due in significant part to Southern and Mediterranean Europe's strong performance (+7%).
In particular, Bosnia and Herzegovina were among the stronger players with a growth of 20%. In 2013, the World Economic Forum reported in its Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report that Bosnia and Herzegovina was the world's eighth friendliest nation towards tourists.
In 2015, Bosnia and Herzegovina surpassed 1 million arrivals and continued the growth in 2016 recording 1.148.530 arrivals (+11,6%) combined with 2.376.743 overnight stay (+10,9%). 67,6% of the tourist arrivals and 69% of the overnight stays came from foreign countries. According to an estimate of the World Tourism Organization, Bosnia and Herzegovina will have the third highest tourism growth rate in the world between 1995 and 2020. The major sending countries in 2016 have been Croatia (11% arrivals, 11,9% nights), Serbia (8,9% arrivals, 8,4% nights), Turkey (10,7% arrivals, 8,0% nights), Slovenia (6,5% arrivals, 6,0% nights) and Italy (5,4% arrivals, 6,5% nights). Furthermore, it is estimated that over 1 million people visit Međugorje every year but the vast majority goes unregistered by the accommodation providers.
In 2017, 1,307,319 tourists visited Bosnia-Herzegovina, an increase of 13.7%, and had 2,677,125 overnight hotel stays, a 12.3% increase from the previous year. Also, 71.5% of the tourists came from foreign countries.
In 2018, 1.609.310 tourists visited Bosnia-Herzegovina, an increase of 23,1%, and had 3.343.584 overnight hotel stays, a 24.8% increase from the previous year. Also, 71.2% of the tourists came from foreign countries.
In 2019, 1.990.451 tourists visited Bosnia-Herzegovina, an increase of 23,6% and had 4.100.401 overnight hotel stays, a 22.6% increase from the previous year. Also, 74.4% of the tourists came from foreign countries.
In the first 5 months of 2023. 566.244 Tourists visited Bosnia-Herzegovina, an increase of 27% and had 1.202.826 overnight hotel stays, a 24,4% increase from the same period the previous year.
Number of tourists in Sarajevo
In 2019 number of countries with over 10.000 visitors was 24
List of Top 30 countries most visitors came from:
Bihy by Tourism BiH
Bihy By Tourism BiH is the national tourism organization for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its objectives are to influence and encourage international and domestic travel to Bosnia and Herzegovina and develop economic benefits to Bosnia and Herzegovina from tourism.
Among the organization's tasks is the attraction of visitors to Bosnia and Herzegovina through advertising and promotional campaigns. The organization also operates the Tourismbih.com website which provides information adapted for both local and international visitors.
See also
Visa policy of Bosnia and Herzegovina
References
External links
BiH promotional site by the Tourism Association of Bosnia and Herzegovina
BiH Travel Guide – iOS application
BiH Travel Guide – android application
Bosnia Tourism - Comprehensive Guide
Banja Luka Travel Guide - android application
Bosnia and Herzegovina
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5013523
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book%20talk
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Book talk
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A book talk (or booktalk) is what is spoken with the intent to convince someone to read a book. Booktalks are traditionally conducted in a classroom setting for students; however, booktalks can be performed outside a school setting and with a variety of age groups as well. It is not a book review, a book report, or a book analysis. The booktalker gives the audience a glimpse of the setting, the characters, and/or the major conflict without providing the resolution or denouement. Booktalks attempt to make listeners care enough about the content of the book to want to read it. A long booktalk is usually about five to seven minutes long and a short booktalk is generally 180 seconds to 4 minutes long.
Background
According to Carol Littlejohn (Keep Talking That Book! Booktalks to Promote Reading Volume II) there is "no known inventor of booktalking". As far back as teachers and librarians have promoted reading and literacy booktalks have existed. One of the oldest sources to mention the actual art form of booktalking is Amelia H. Munson's An Ample Field (1950) and in The Fair Garden and the Swarm of Beasts Margaret Edwards discusses performing booktalks in the 1930s when it was difficult to get into Baltimore schools. The actual term "booktalk" was coined in 1985 by children's author and literature teacher Aidan Chambers, in his book Booktalk: occasional writing on literature and children.
In the 1950s, booktalks were originally designed to motivate young adults to read because they had the freedom to read but chose not to. Teenagers do not read for a variety of reasons including (but not limited to): the notion that reading is not cool, unnecessary, and uninteresting. Books also have to compete with movies, television, the Internet, and other media. By the 1980s, there are also booktalks for adults. For example, booktalks in senior centers and in adult book discussion groups in libraries. Booktalks for adults were geared towards the recommendation of new titles rather than the motivation to read. By the 1990s, booktalks were also created for children to motivate kids to read at a younger age. However, booktalks for children focused heavily on teaching kids to read using mostly picture books.
Purpose
The purpose of a booktalk is to motivate listeners in order to foster good reading, writing and speaking skills by encouraging self-directed learning through reading. Booktalkers also try to incorporate learning opportunities following a book talk which include discussion topics, ideas for journals, papers, poems or other creative writing, panel discussions or presentations (visually and/or orally). Book talks are commonly used by school and public librarians, teachers, and reading coaches, to get a reader interested in a book or to recommend similar books. It is an excellent tool for reading motivation. Booktalks were used long before the advent of the Digital Age, and the "traditional" booktalk of yesterday is still used today. However, librarians and educators have been able to utilize the Internet and computer software in order to modernize and improve book talks.
Types of booktalks
Traditional
The traditional booktalk consists of a presenter using few tools to engage his audience, save the script he has created and a copy of the book itself. Having no real "bells and whistles", the booktalker has to get and keep his audience's attention. While there are plenty of sources available, both on the Web and in print (see external links and further reading below), that provide examples of ready-to-present booktalks most librarians and teachers recommend that the presenter read at least a part of the book he will be booktalking. The presenter must engage the audience as any good public speaker would, with an excited feeling, a non-monotonous tone of voice, and eye contact.
Genre booktalks and first-person booktalks are fairly popular. Genres to consider for a booktalk may include classics, sports, historical fiction, science fiction and fantasy, romance, fairy tales, short stories, mystery, adventure, non-fiction, short or thin books, horror, realistic contemporary fiction, humor, adult books, graphic novels, and poetry. A genre booktalk should consist of multiple books within one chosen genre. The number of books talked depends on the age of the audience. People prefer to have multiple genre booktalks ready in case the presenter starts to "lose" his audience.
The first person booktalk is considered most suitable for an "entertainer" presenter and is best suited for books written in first person. The booktalker presents himself as a character from a book. The presenter is not limited to characters of the same sex. However, when considering presenting an opposite sex first person booktalk the presenter must keep in mind his audience, as some audiences may be unable or unwilling to use their imagination during the booktalk.
Some librarians and educators consider the non-fiction booktalk to be the best way to win over a young adult audience. Non-fiction booktalks allow the presenter to tell astonishing yet true stories that can garner an emotional response. Non-fiction booktalks include a wide range of topics such as poetry, history, music, entertainment, crafts, folklore, crime, psychology, UFOs, etc. They lend themselves to audience participation, since the presenter can ask questions throughout the booktalk, such as, "Who has heard of a ___?" "Have you ever seen a ?" or "Who knows what a is?" Common approaches to nonfiction booktalks include using visual or mental imagery, vignettes, notable facts and astonishing statistics, booktalking in the first-person point of view, or initially presenting a nonfiction book as though it were fiction and surprising the audience by revealing that it is nonfiction. Indexes and appendixes are mentioned if they are included in the book.
Digital
From creating book talks on PowerPoint to creating a multimedia booktalk with sound clips and video excerpts, the booktalk has gotten a makeover thanks to the Digital Age (Keane & Cavanaugh, 2009). A number of websites, listed below, have been created solely for the purpose of sharing booktalks or guiding a librarian or educator on how to create one.
Teachers use these sites to create an assignment for their students, asking them to visit a certain number of sites, browse the reviews and/or booktalks and select one book from each site that interests them. From this list the student chooses one book to read and report on. The teacher creates a book review blog (i.e. ) and has the students post their reviews online, as well as comments on other student reviews, subject to teacher approval. By utilizing Web 2.0, such as wikis and podcasts, and software such as Power Point, the presenter creates multimedia booktalks that incorporate film and videos, music and the Internet. Using a projection screen and computer, the presenter no longer has to pass around a book to show cover art, illustrations, or photographs.
Within the scholastic setting librarians can work with teachers to create a set of rotating video booktalks that play in any location that have access to the school's closed-circuit television system. The video booktalk acts as a book trailer and can be as simple as a taped presentation from a podium to as complex as a reenactment of a scene from a book. The possibilities for the contents of a video booktalk are limited only to the creator's imagination and budget. Creating a video booktalk can be used a class assignment, teaching students not only the tools of a booktalk but incorporating the use of audio/visual materials. Software programs, such as Photo Story, iMovie, and Windows Movie Maker, can be used to create a video booktalk without any expensive equipment.
Audience
To find out which types of booktalks work best, people create an evaluation form for the audience to complete. Some booktalkers may have a natural inclination for first-person booktalks, while others may present typical third-person book talks, or a book talk that's been digitally enhanced to keep the interest of the audience. The audience will also determine the length of the presentation, how many booktalks are presented, how much information to disclose, and the length of the individual booktalks. The audiences of booktalks are broken down into the following categories: students (broken down into the sub categories: young children, older children, and teens), adults, senior citizens and professionals (for librarians and educators).
Young children have shorter attention spans so booktalks must be kept brief. Older children and teens are able to focus and sit at attention for longer periods of time and so booktalk presentations can be built in to fit within one class period (30–45 minutes). Within this timeframe 15-20 booktalks that are 2–3 minutes in length can be presented. The presenter will want to appeal to as many students as possible so the individual booktalks should consist of many genres.
Adult and senior citizen booktalks are not strictly limited to adult titles. Choosing a children's title that will also pique the interest of adults helps keep this audience aware of current children's literature. The presenter does not limit himself/herself to the obvious literary groups and books clubs. Booktalks for senior citizens that relate to the life experiences or periods of time that the group may have lived during, help keep the audience intrigued and involved. The presenter takes into consideration books that available in large print or audio format for older audiences.
Booktalks for professionals, such as librarians and teachers, are generally up to 5 minutes in length and include plot summary, genre, interest and reading levels, and note controversial issues and curricular interests. Booktalks of this nature can be presented in a lecture format. The presenter also considers including critical reviews from reliable publications.
Creating a traditional book talk
Most booktalk creators and presenters suggest only writing an outline of a booktalk so the booktalk can be presented less as a lecture and more as a conversation. They also recommend that the presenter not memorize a script. It is up to the discretion of the presenter exactly how much of the plot to talk about in the booktalk, but it is universally acknowledged that a booktalker should never give away the ending of the book.
In The Booktalker's Bible seven parameters are considered when planning a book talk: 1. Size of the group; 2. Age of the group; 3. Geography; 4. Time; 5. Money; 6. Frequency; and 7. Schedule. This title also lists six "Golden Rules of Booktalking": 1. Read the Book; 2. Like the Books You Booktalk; 3. Know Your Audience; 4. Booktalk; 5. Don't Tell the Ending!; 6. Leave a List.
When creating a booktalk, or editing a previously created booktalk, the presenter keeps the talk short and simple. The presenter grabs the audience's attention in the first sentence. Sonja Cole, host of the video booktalk website Bookwink.com, recommends keeping a booktalk for children to no more the seven sentences. When booktalking, the presenter connects with their previous experiences and engages with them. The presenter also defines and discusses the characteristics of the type of booktalk and some audiences will benefit from a comparison of print and film versions and why the book is almost always better.
There are a variety of ways to approach a book talk. Lucy Schall (author of many guides to book talks) describes the three following common ways to perform a book talk for all ages:
Sharing passages aloud and reader response
Reflecting on specific passages for discussion or writing
Preparing dramatic readings or performances
Caroline Feller Bauer offers the following unique alternatives to perform a booktalk for children:
Making and using crafts with children appropriate to the themes of your books
Performing simple magic tricks to illustrate the themes of your books
Using puppets to act out certain passages in a book, to give a booktalk or to narrate a story.
Effectiveness of book talks
There is limited research conducted on the effectiveness of booktalks but they clearly demonstrate the increase of booktalked titles being circulated and lack of effect on reading attitudes.
Joni Bodart's dissertation (1987) concluded that:
Booktalked titles circulated from the library.
Overall attitudes towards reading is unaffected by booktalks.
Pamela Dahl's thesis (1988) concluded that:
Booktalks can have an effect on the number of pages that students report for independent reading.
Booktalks did not have any effect on students’ reading attitudes.
Gender breakdown in terms of reading interests was pronounced: 61 percent of females read one book a week compared to 21 percent of males.
Gail Reeder's dissertation (1991) concluded that:
Booktalking significantly increased the circulation of booktalk titles.
Booktalking did not result in a change in reading attitudes.
Booktalking increased circulation of selected titles but did not extend to other books.
Terrence David Nollen's dissertation (1992) concluded that:
Booktalking had no effect on reading attitudes.
Booktalking had significant effects on student's decisions to check out the booktalked titles.
Booktalking affected student choice, but only for a very short time.
References
Bibliography
Bauer, C. F. Leading kids to books through magic. Chicago: American Library Association, 1996.
Bauer, C. F. Leading kids to books through puppets. Chicago: American Library Association, 1997.
Bauer, C. F., & Laurent, R. Leading kids to books through crafts. Chicago: American Library Association, 2000.
Baxter, K. A., & Kochel, M. A. Gotcha!: Nonfiction booktalks to get kids excited about reading. Englewood, Colo: Libraries Unlimited, 1999.
Belben, Cathy. There Are No Booktalking Police: Alternatives to Stand-and-Deliver Presentations. Library Media Connections, 2(2) 2007, 28–29.
Bodart, J. R. Booktalk!: Booktalking and school visiting for young adult audiences. New York: H.W. Wilson, 1980.
Bodart, J. The effect of a booktalk presentation of selected titles on the attitude toward reading of senior high school students and on the circulation of these titles in the high school library. Ph.D. dissertation, Texas Woman's University, United States – Texas, 1987. Retrieved April 7, 2009, from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text database. (Publication No. AAT 8729673).
Bromann, Jennifer. Booktalking That Works. Neal-Schuman Publishers, 2001.
Cavanaugh, T.W. Creating a Video Booktalk Kiosk. Library Media Connection, 25 (2) 2006, 56–59.
Charles, J.V. Get Real! Booktalking Nonfiction for Teen Read Week 2005. Young Adult Library Services, 4 (1) 2005, 12–16.
Clark, R.E.C. Become the Character! First-Person Booktalks with Teens. Library Media Connection, 26(2) 2007, 24–26.
Clark, Ruth Cox. Booktalk Evaluation Form. Library Media Connection, 27(1) 2008, 42.
Cole, Sonja. Booktalks that Knock ‘em Dead. Teacher Librarian, 35(1) 2007, 41-42.
Dahl, P. K. The effects of booktalks on self-selected reading. Thesis (M.S.)--Moorhead State University, 1988.
Diamant-Cohen, Betsy & Levi, Selma K. Booktalking Bonanza: Ten Ready-to-Use Multimedia Sessions for the Busy Librarian. American Library Association, 2009.
Gruenthal, H. 21st Century Booktalks! CSLA Journal, 31(2) 2008, 23-24.
Jones, P. Connecting young adults and libraries: A how-to-do-it manual. New York: Neal-Schuman, 1998.
Keane, Nancy J. Booktalking across the curriculum: the middle years. Westport: Libraries Unlimited, Teacher Ideas P, 2002.
Keane, Nancy J., and Terence W. Cavanaugh. The tech-savvy booktalker: a guide for 21st-century educators. Westport: Libraries Unlimited, 2009
Kenny, Robert, Gunter, Glenda. Digital Booktalk: Pairing Books with Potential Readers. Association for Educational Communications and Technology, 27: Oct 2004, 330-338.
Lamme, Linda Leonard, Russo, Roseanne. Project Booktalk: Library Outreach to Family Day-Care Homes. Journal of Youth Services in Libraries, 15 (3) 2002, 36-40.
Langemack, Chapple. The Booktalker's Bible: How to Talk about the Books You Love to Any Audience. Libraries Unlimited, Incorporated, 2003.
Nollen, Terrence David. The effect of booktalks on the development of reading attitudes and the promotion of individual reading choices. Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Nebraska - Lincoln, United States – Nebraska, 1992. Retrieved April 7, 2009, from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text database. (Publication No. AAT 9225488).
Paone, K.L. Talking up the BOOKS! Knowledge Quest, 33 (1) 2004, 22-23.
Reeder, Gail M. Effect of booktalks on adolescent reading attitudes. Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Nebraska - Lincoln, United States – Nebraska, 1991. Retrieved April 7, 2009, from Dissertations & Theses: Full Text database. (Publication No. AAT 9129570).
Saricks, J. Teaching Readers’ Advisory and the Art of Booktalking. Booklist, 102 (1) 2005, 61.
Schall, L. Booktalks and beyond: Promoting great genre reads to teens. Westport, Conn: Libraries Unlimited, 2007.
Further reading
Gillespie, John Thomas. Juniorplots: A Book Talk Manual for Teachers and Librarians. R.R. Bowker, 1967.
Gillespie, John Thomas. Juniorplots 4: A Book Talk Guide for Use with Readers Ages 12–16. R.R. Bowker, 1993.
Gillespie, John Thomas. More Juniorplots: A Guide for Teachers and Librarians. R.R. Bowker, 1977.
Gillespie, John T., Naden, Corinne. Classic Teenplots: A Booktalk Guide to Use with Readers Ages 12–18. Libraries Unlimited, 2006.
Gillespie, John T., Naden, Corinne J. Juniorplots 3: A Book Talk Guide for Use with Readers Ages 12–16. Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated, 1992.
Gillespie, John T., Naden, Corinne. Middleplots 4: A Booktalk Guide to Use with Readers Ages 8–12. R.R. Bowker, 1994.
Gillespie, John Thomas, Naden, Corinne. Seniorplots: A Booktalk Guide to Use with Readers Ages 15–18. R.R. Bowker, 1989.
Gillespie, John Thomas, Naden, Corinne. Teenplots: A Booktalk Guide to Use with Readers Ages 12–18. Libraries Unlimited, 2003.
Langemack, Chapple. The Booktalker's Bible: How to Talk about the Books You Love to Any Audience. Libraries Unlimited, Incorporated, 2003.
Spirt, Diana L. Introducing Bookplots: A Book Talk Guide for Use with Readers Ages 8–12. Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated, 1988.
External links
ALA Young Adult Library Services Association Professional Development Topics: Booktalking
Book promotion
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6%20February%201934%20crisis
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6 February 1934 crisis
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The 6 February 1934 crisis (also known as the Veterans' Riot) was an anti-parliamentarist street demonstration in Paris organized by multiple far-rightist leagues that culminated in a riot on the Place de la Concorde, near the building used for the French National Assembly. The police shot and killed 15 demonstrators. It was one of the major political crises during the Third Republic (1870–1940). Leftist Frenchmen claimed it was an attempt to organize a fascist coup d'état. According to historian Joel Colton, "The consensus among scholars is that there was no concerted or unified design to seize power and that the leagues lacked the coherence, unity, or leadership to accomplish such an end."
As a result of the actions of that day, several anti-fascist organisations were created, such as the Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes, in an attempt to thwart fascism in France. After World War II, several historians, among them Serge Berstein, argued that while some leagues had indisputably desired a coup, François de La Rocque had in fact moderated toward a respect for constitutional order. However, the fascist actions on 6 February were arguably an uncoordinated but violent attempt to overthrow the Cartel des gauches government elected in 1932.
Radical-Socialist politician Édouard Daladier, who was president of the Council of Ministers, replaced Camille Chautemps on 27 January 1934 because of accusations of corruption (including the Stavisky Affair). Daladier, who had been popular, was nonetheless forced to resign on 7 February. He was replaced by the conservative Radical Gaston Doumergue as head of the government; this was the first time during the Third Republic that a government was ended because of street demonstrations.
Stavisky affair and the 1930s crisis
France was affected in 1931, somewhat later than other Western countries, by the 1929 Great Depression, initiated by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 ("Black Tuesday"). The economic and social crisis particularly affected the middle classes who tended traditionally to endorse the Republic (in particular the Radical-Socialist Party). Parliamentary instability ensued, with five governments between May 1932 and January 1934, which encouraged anti-parliamentarists.
Dissidents took advantage of a succession of political and financial scandals to gain power, including the Marthe Hanau Affair; the Oustric Affair, which involved the Minister of Justice and provoked the end of André Tardieu's government in 1930; and finally, the Stavisky Affair.
The Stavisky Affair reached the news in 1933. It involved Bayonne's Crédit municipal bank and centered around embezzler Alexandre Stavisky, known as le beau Sasha ("Handsome Sasha"), associated with several Radical deputies, including a minister of Camille Chautemps's government. Tensions rose when the press later revealed that Stavisky had benefited from a 19-month postponement of his trial because the public prosecutor was Chautemps' brother-in-law. On 8 January 1934, Alexandre Stavisky was found dead, and the police reported suicide as the cause—a convenient statement that raised public concerns of a cover-up. According to rightists, Chautemps had had him assassinated to keep him from revealing any secrets. The press then started a political campaign against alleged governmental corruption, while far rightists demonstrated. At the end of the month, after the revelation of yet another scandal, Chautemps resigned.
Édouard Daladier, another politician of the Radical-Socialist Party, succeeded him on 27 January 1934. Thirteen demonstrations had already occurred since 9 January in Paris. While the parliamentary right was trying to use the affair to replace the left-wing majority elected during the 1932 elections, the far right took advantage of its traditional themes: antisemitism, xenophobia (Stavisky was a naturalized Ukrainian Jew), hostility toward Freemasonry (Camille Chautemps was a Masonic dignitary), and anti-parliamentarism. As historian Serge Bernstein emphasized, the Stavisky Affair was exceptional neither in its seriousness nor in the personalities put on trial, but in the rightists' determination to use the opportunity to make a leftist government resign, helped by the fact that the Radical-Socialists did not have an absolute majority in the National Assembly and thus the government was weak and an alternative coalition might be formed by the parties to the right.
However, it was the dismissal of the police prefect Jean Chiappe that ultimately provoked the massive demonstrations of 6 February. Chiappe, a fervent anticommunist, was accused of double standards, including leniency towards the street agitation of the far-right (demonstrations, riots, attacks against the few leftist students in the Quartier Latin by the monarchist Camelots du Roi, the youth organization of the Action Française, etc.). According to leftists, Chiappe's dismissal was due to his involvement with the Stavisky Affair, while the rightists denounced the negotiations with the Radical-Socialists: the departure of Chiappe was said to have been in exchange for an endorsement of Daladier's new government.
The night of 6 February 1934
Forces present
Rightist anti-parliamentary leagues had been the main activists during the January 1934 demonstrations. Although these leagues were not a new phenomenon (the old Ligue des Patriotes ("Patriot League") had been initiated by Paul Déroulède in 1882), they played an important role after World War I, in particular when leftists were in power, as they had been since the 1932 legislative elections. The leagues differed in their goals, but were united by their opposition to the ruling Radical-Socialist party.
Action Française. Among the most important rightist leagues present on 6 February, the oldest one was the royalist Ligue d'Action Française. Founded in 1905 by Charles Maurras, it was composed of 60,000 members whose stated goal was to abolish the Third Republic, in order to restore the Bourbon monarchy and thus revert to the status quo of before the 1848 Revolution. Action Française endorsed a royal restoration, but this specific goal served as a rallying theme for a more general series of ideas, appealing to political Catholics, nationalists and anti-democrats opposed to the secular, internationalist and parliamentary type of republicanism associated with the Radical-Socialists and the Radicals. Although no longer a major mobilised political force, it had great prestige among the rest of the French right and had succeeded in spreading its ideas to other conservatives. The actual street agitation associated with Action Française was performed largely by its youth wing, the Camelots du Roi, which had much influence with students, and was prone to street brawls with leftists students in the Latin Quarter.
The Jeunesses Patriotes ("Patriot Youth") had been initiated by Pierre Taittinger, deputy of Paris, in 1924. With 90,000 members, including 1,500 "elites", it claimed the legacy of the Ligue des Patriotes. Their main point of difference from Action Française was that they did not seek to abolish the republic and restore the monarchy; their chief goal was to end the forty year dominance of Radical-Socialists and Radicals in government, giving the republic a more Catholic and authoritarian direction. The Jeunesses Patriotes had close links with mainstream right-wing politicians, notably the main party of the religious right, the Fédération Républicaine, and boasted several of the capital's municipal councillors in their ranks.
Solidarité Française ("French Solidarity"), founded in 1933 by the Bonapartist deputy and perfume magnate François Coty, had no precise political objectives and few members.
Francisme and others. Marcel Bucard's Francisme had adopted all the elements of the fascist ideology, while the Fédération des contribuables ("Taxpayers federation") shared its political objectives with the other leagues.
The Croix-de-Feu (Cross of Fire). The Croix-de-Feu had been created in 1926 as a World War I veterans association. The most important league by membership numbers, it had extended its recruitment in 1931 to other categories of the population, as directed by Colonel François de la Rocque. Like the other leagues, they also had "combat" and "self-defense" groups, known as "dispos". Although many on leftists accused it of having become fascist, especially after the crisis, historians now categorise it as a populist social-Catholic protest society, and that La Rocque's reluctance to order his protesters to join with the other leagues in attacking parliament directly was a major reason for the riots' failure to escalate into a regime change.
Veterans' associations. The veterans' associations which had participated with the demonstrations of January also began demonstrating on 6 February. The most important, the (UNC), directed by a Parisian municipal counsellor whose ideas were similar to the rightists', counted 900,000 members.
Finally, an indication of the complexity of the situation and the general exasperation of the population, also present were elements associated with the French Communist Party (PCF), including its veterans' association, the (ARAC).
The riots
On the night of 6 February, the leagues, which had gathered in different places in Paris, all converged on Place de la Concorde, located in front of the Bourbon Palace, but on the other side of the river Seine. The police and guards managed to defend the strategic bridge of the Concorde, despite being the target of all sorts of projectiles. Some rioters were armed, and the police fired on the crowd. Disturbances lasted until 2:30 AM. 16 people were killed and 2,000 injured, most of them members of the Action Française.
Far-rightist organisations had the most important role in the riots; most of the UNC veterans avoided the Place de la Concorde, creating some incidents near the Elysée Palace, the president's residence. However, Communists belonging to the rival leftist veterans' organization ARAC may have been involved; one public notice afterward condemned the governing centre-left coalition (known as the Cartel des gauches) for having shot unarmed veterans who shouted "Down with the thieves, long live France!".
While on the right side of the Seine (north, on the Place de la Concorde), the policemen's charges contained the rioters with difficulty, the Croix-de-feu had chosen to demonstrate in the south. The Palais Bourbon, the building used by the National Assembly, is much more difficult to defend on this side, but the Croix-de-feu limited themselves to surrounding the building without any major incident before dispersing. Because of this attitude, they earned the pejorative nickname of Froides Queues in the far-rightist press. Contrary to the other leagues which were intent on abolishing the Republic, it thus seemed that Colonel de la Rocque finally decided to respect the legality of the republican (unlike the Action Française) and parliamentary (unlike the Jeunesses Patriotes) regime.
In the National Assembly, the rightists attempted to take advantage of the riots to cause the Cartel des gauches government to resign. The leftists, however, rallied around president of the Council Édouard Daladier. The session was ended after blows were exchanged between left and right-wing deputies.
Consequences of the riots
Daladier's resignation and the formation of a National Union government
During the night, Daladier took the first measures to obtain the re-establishment of public order. He did not exclude the possibility of declaring a state of emergency, although he finally decided against it. However, the next day the judiciary and the police resisted his directives. Moreover, most of his ministers and his party denied him their endorsement. Thus, Daladier finally chose to resign. This was the first time during the Third Republic that a government had to resign because of pressure from street demonstrations.
The crisis was finally resolved with the formation of a new government directed by former president of the Republic (1924–31) Gaston Doumergue, a rightist Radical Republican who was ostensibly the only figure acceptable to both the far-rightist leagues and to the centrist parliamentary parties. Termed a "National Union government", in reality it was a government containing all political traditions but excluding the Socialist and Communist parties. It included the most important politicians of the parliamentary right wing, among them the Liberal André Tardieu, Radical Louis Barthou, and social-Catholic Louis Marin, although also included were several members of the centre-left (the Radical-Socialist and similar smaller parties), plus War Minister Philippe Pétain, who would later command the collaborationist Vichy regime during World War II.
Toward the union of the left wing
After 6 February, leftists were convinced that a fascist putsch had occurred. The importance of the anti-parliamentarist activity of far-rightist leagues was undeniable. Some of them, such as the Francisque, had copied all of their characteristics from the Italian Fascio leagues which had marched on Rome in 1922, thus resulting in the imposition of the fascist regime. Although historian Serge Bernstein has showed that Colonel de la Rocque had probably been convinced of the necessity of respecting constitutional legality, this was not true of all members of his Croix-de-feu society, which also shared, at least superficially, some characteristics of the fascist leagues, in particular their militarism and fascination for parades.
On 9 February 1934, a socialist and communist counter-demonstration occurred while Daladier was being replaced by Doumergue. Nine people were killed during incidents with the police forces. On 12 February the trade union Confédération générale du travail (CGT) (reformist, with some associations with the Socialist Party) and the Confédération générale du travail unitaire (CGTU) (revolutionary, and associated with the communist party) decided to organize a one-day general strike, while the socialist party Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière (SFIO) and the communist party opted for a separate demonstration. However, at the initiative of the popular base of these societies, the demonstrations finally united themselves into one. Thus, this day marked a first tentative union between the socialists and the communists. It had at its core the anti-fascism shared by both Marxist parties; a union had been opposed since the division of the 1920 Tours Congress, but this new rapprochement resulted in the 1936 Popular Front (consisting of radicals and socialists and endorsed without participation in the government by the Communist party). This antifascist union was in acordance with Stalin's directives to the Comintern, which had asked the European communist parties to ally with other leftist parties, including social-democrats and socialists, in order to block the contagion of fascist and anti-communist regimes in Europe.
Furthermore, several anti-fascist organizations were created after the riots, such as the Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes (Watchfulness Committee of Antifascist Intellectuals, created in March 1934) which included philosopher Alain, ethnologist Paul Rivet and physicist Paul Langevin. The anarchists also participated with many antifascist actions.
The radicalization of the rightists
After the crisis, the parliamentary rightists also began to get closer to the counter-revolutionary far rightists. Several of its main activists would lose all trust in parliamentary institutions. Daniel Halévy, a French historian of Jewish ancestry, publicly declared that since 6 February 1934 he was now a "man of the extreme right". Although he personally abhorred Italian fascism or German national socialism, he later endorsed the Pétain regime of Vichy. The radicalization of the rightists would accelerate after the election of the Popular Front in 1936 and the Spanish Civil War (1936–39).
The American journalist John Gunther wrote in 1940 that the Croix-de-feu "could easily have captured the Chamber of Deputies. But [de la Rocque] held his men back. 'France wasn't ready,' he explained". It was possible, Gunther said, that "like Hitler, he hopes to gain power by legal means". To the far rightists, 6 February represented a failed opportunity to abolish the Republic, which only presented itself again in 1940 after the balance had been changed by the étrange défaite (Marc Bloch) or "divine surprise" (Charles Maurras), that is the 1940 defeat during the Battle of France against Germany. This deception prompted several far-right members to radicalize themselves, endorsing fascism, Nazism, or the wartime Vichy regime.
Despite the claims of the leftists, the 6 February crisis was not a fascist conspiracy. The far-rightist leagues were not united enough and most of them lacked any specific objectives. However, their violent methods, their paramilitary appearances, their cult of leadership, etc., explained why they have often been associated with fascism. Other than these appearances, however, and their will to see the parliamentary regime replaced by an authoritarian regime, historians René Rémond and Serge Bernstein do not consider that they had a real fascist project. Opposing this opinion, other historians, such as Michel Dobry or Zeev Sternhell, considered them as being fully fascist leagues. Brian Jenkins claimed it was pointless to seek a fascist essence in France and preferred to make comparisons which resulted, according to him, in a convergence between Italian fascism and the majority of the French leagues, in particular the Action Française (in other words, Jenkins considers fascism an Italian historic phenomenon, and though a fascist-like philosophy existed in France, it should not be termed "fascist" as that name should be reserved for Benito Mussolini's politics).
See also
Battle of Cable Street
Bonus March
Cartel des gauches
Comité de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes
Far-right leagues
French Third Republic (1871–1940)
Geneva fusillade of 9 November 1932
Interwar France
January 6 United States Capitol Attack
References
Further reading
Beloff, Max. "The Sixth of February." in James Joll, ed. The Decline of the Third Republic (1959)
Dobry, Michel. "February 1934 and the Discovery of French Society's Allergy to the 'Fascist Revolution." in Brian Jenkins, ed. France in the Era of Fascism: Essays on the French Authoritarian Right (Berghahn. 2005) pp 129–50
Hoisington, William A. "Toward the Sixth of February: Taxpayer Protest in France, 1928–1934." Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques (1976): 49–67. in JSTOR
Jankowski, Paul. "The sixth of February 1934: the press against the historians?." Contemporary French Civilization 45.1 (2020): 89-103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3828/cfc.2020.6
Jenkins, Brian. "The six fevrier 1934 and the 'Survival' of the French Republic." French History 20.3 (2006): 333–351; historiography
Jenkins, Brian. "Plots and rumors: Conspiracy theories and the six février 1934." French Historical Studies 34.4 (2011): 649–678.
Jenkins, Brian, and Chris Millington. France and Fascism: February 1934 and the Dynamics of Political Crisis (Routledge, 2015)
Kennedy, Sean. Reconciling France Against Democracy: The Croix de Feu and the Parti Social Francais, 1927–1945 (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2007)
Millington, Chris. Fighting for France: Violence in Interwar French Politics (Oxford UP, 2018).
Passmore, Kevin. "The historiography of fascism in France." French Historical Studies 37.3 (2014): 469–499.
Soucy, Robert, French Fascism: The Second Wave, 1933–1939. (Yale University Press, 1995)
Warner, Geoffrey. "The Stavisky Affair and the Riots of February 6th 1934." History Today (1958): 377–85.
In French
Blanchard, Emmanuel. "Le 6 février 1934, une crise policière?." Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire 4 (2015): 15–28.
Rémond, René. "Explications du 6 février." Revue International des Doctrines et des Institution 2 (1959): 218–30.
(dir.), Le Mythe de l'allergie française au fascisme, éd. Éditions Albin Michel, 2003
Danielle Tartatowsky, Les Manifestations de rue en France. 1918–1968, Publications de la Sorbonne, 1998
Michel Winock, La Fièvre hexagonale : Les grandes crises politiques de 1871 à 1968, éd. du Seuil, coll. « Points »-histoire, 1999,
External links
6 fevrier 1934: Manifestation sanglante a Paris ("6 February 1934: Bloody Demonstration in Paris")
French Third Republic
Far-right politics in France
Riots and civil disorder in France
Police brutality in Europe
1934 in France
Fascist revolts
1934 in Paris
1934 riots
1934 protests
February 1934 events
Attacks on legislatures
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keri%20Hilson
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Keri Hilson
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Keri Lynn Hilson (born December 5, 1982) is an American R&B singer, songwriter and actress.
She was born and raised in Decatur, Georgia and spent most of her youth working with producer Anthony Dent as a songwriter and background vocalist for several R&B and hip hop artists. By the age of 14, Hilson had secured a record deal with the girl group D'Signe, which later disbanded. She attended Oxford College of Emory University in Georgia while she continued writing songs for artists including Britney Spears, The Pussycat Dolls, and Mary J. Blige, with the production and songwriting team The Clutch. In 2006, Hilson signed with American producer and rapper Timbaland's record label Mosley Music. Her breakthrough came in 2007 after appearing on Timbaland's single "The Way I Are", which topped charts around the world.
Hilson's music style is R&B, hip hop, and pop; womanhood, sexual intimacy, and love are the typical themes. Her musical influences come from her father's side of the family. Hilson's debut studio album, In a Perfect World..., was released in 2009, and debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 chart, eventually being certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The album spawned the hit singles "Knock You Down" (featuring Kanye West and Ne-Yo), "Turnin Me On" (featuring Lil Wayne), and "I Like". It also earned Hilson two Grammy Award nominations for Best New Artist and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for "Knock You Down". Her second studio album, No Boys Allowed, was released in 2010 and was somewhat less successful than its predecessor; however, it did include the platinum single "Pretty Girl Rock" (featuring Kanye West). As of , Hilson has not officially released any music as a lead artist since 2011.
Hilson has also contributed to various charities and pursued a career in acting, and she continues to record and perform music. She has contributed in the fight against HIV and AIDS, helped various relief efforts for natural disasters, and become involved with several educational organizations. In 2012, Hilson made her acting debut in the romantic comedy film Think Like a Man. Her achievements include a BET Award, MOBO Award, NAACP Image Award and two Soul Train Music Awards.
Life and career
1982–2007: Early life and career beginnings
Keri Lynn Hilson was born on December 5, 1982, in Decatur, Georgia. Hilson's mother owns and runs a day care center and her father was a developer who served in the Army. She was raised in a middle class family and an African-American neighborhood. Her brother is Kip and her sisters are Kelsee, Kye and Kaycee. Hilson and her siblings did not attend a school within the neighborhood, stating that "they shipped us off for an hour to get to school every day. It was just that important for us to maintain the life that they had created". From the age of 12, Hilson wanted to pursue a musical career, after watching television talent shows, Star Search and Showtime at the Apollo. Her mother then hired a piano teacher to give her piano lessons; however, Hilson wanted to become a singer and therefore "converted those sessions into vocal lessons, accompanying the teacher on piano". By the age of 14, Hilson had secured a record deal with the girl group D'Signe, who later disbanded.
Hilson's first official work as a songwriter was "Jump", written for a Japanese R&B singer Michico's debut album I Do (2002). Hilson spent most of her teenage years working with producer Anthony Dent as a songwriter and background vocalist for the likes of Usher, Ludacris, Kelly Rowland, Toni Braxton, Ciara and Polow da Don. After graduating from Tucker High School in the DeKalb County School District, Hilson attended Oxford College of Emory University and Emory University in Atlanta for three years and studied a course in theater. She continued working as a songwriter and background vocalist during her schooling years. Hilson eventually stopped working with Dent, and began working more with Polow da Don. She also became a member of the songwriting and production team, The Clutch. Together, they wrote Mary J. Blige's "Take Me as I Am" (2006), Omarion's "Ice Box" (2006), Ciara's "Like a Boy" (2006), The Pussycat Dolls' "Wait a Minute" (2006) and Britney Spears' "Gimme More" (2007). In 2006, Polow introduced Hilson to American rapper and producer Timbaland, who then signed her to his record label, Mosley Music Group. In November 2006, Hilson was featured on American rapper Lloyd Banks' single "Help" for his album Rotten Apple (2006).
The following year, Hilson was featured on three singles; in June, on Timbaland's song "The Way I Are", the second single from his album Shock Value (2007); on Rich Boy's "Good Things" with Polow da Don; and thereafter, in December, on Timbaland's song "Scream" with Nicole Scherzinger, the fifth single from Shock Value. Out of the three singles, "The Way I Are" achieved the most success, topping nine charts around the world.
2008–2009: In a Perfect World...
In 2008, Hilson appeared in the music videos for Usher's single "Love in This Club" and Ne-Yo's single "Miss Independent". Her debut studio album, In a Perfect World..., was released on March 24, 2009. The album contained pop-oriented R&B songs. It was initially planned to be released the previous year; however, the album was delayed several times because Hilson wanted to make sure it came out to her liking, stating "I'm just a perfectionist. I have had many [release dates], but it's all for a good cause. The label wants to make sure the album has its proper release, and I'm thankful for that. Very grateful, even though fans look at it like it's a bad thing." In the United States, In a Perfect World... debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 chart, and number one on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, with first-week sales of 94,000 copies. By October 2009, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Its first single, "Energy", released in May 2008, peaked at number 78 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 21 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It reached the top 50 in the United Kingdom, and peaked the highest in New Zealand at number two, and was certified gold in that country. Hilson also featured on three singles in 2008; in June, on rapper Nas' song "Hero"; in September, on Kardinal Offishall's "Numba 1 (Tide Is High)"; and thereafter, in October, on Chris Brown's song "Superhuman".
"Return the Favor", featuring Timbaland, served as the second international single from Hilson's In a Perfect World... album, while "Turnin Me On" featuring Lil Wayne, was released as the second US single. The latter achieved commercial success, reaching number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number two on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, eventually being certified platinum in the United States. "Turnin Me On" spent 10 weeks on the Hot 100. Hilson and Lil Wayne performed the song on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on March 27, 2009. The next single, "Knock You Down" featuring Kanye West and Ne-Yo, achieved more success, reaching number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, eventually being certified two times platinum. The song spent 31 weeks on the Hot 100 and 30 weeks on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It also reached the top ten in Canada, Ireland, The Netherlands, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Hilson and West performed "Knock You Down" on the Late Show with David Letterman on May 4, 2009. "Make Love", "Slow Dance", and "Change Me" featuring Akon, were released as the album's fourth, fifth and sixth US singles, respectively. Hilson performed "Slow Dance" with The Roots on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on September 18, 2009.
Hilson, along with Gym Class Heroes, Gorilla Zoe and T-Pain, were supporting acts on Lil Wayne's I Am Music Tour in North America. At the 2009 BET Awards, she was nominated in four categories, including Best New Artist, Best Female R&B Artist, as well as Viewer's Choice and Best Collaboration for "Turnin Me On" with Lil Wayne. She eventually won the Best New Artist category. In 2009, Hilson was featured on five singles; "Number One" with R. Kelly, "She Don't Wanna" with Asher Roth, "Everything, Everyday, Everywhere" with Fabolous, "Medicine" with Plies, and on the remix of Sean Paul's song, "Hold My Hand". Hilson was nominated for Breakthrough Artist and Favorite Soul/R&B Female Artist at the 2009 American Music Awards. The re-released edition of In a Perfect World..., in January 2010, included the single "I Like", which reached number one in Germany, Poland and Slovakia, and peaked within the top ten in Austria, Norway and Switzerland. At the 52nd Grammy Awards, Hilson was nominated for Best New Artist and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for "Knock You Down" with Kanye West and Ne-Yo.
2010–2014: No Boys Allowed and acting debut
During the first half of 2010, Hilson guest featured on rapper Trina's single "Million Dollar Girl", and on T.I.'s single "Got Your Back". In April 2010, it was made known that she had replaced Jennifer Hudson as the new face of the cosmetics and personal care products company Avon. "Breaking Point" was released as the first single from Hilson's second studio album, No Boys Allowed, in September 2010; it only appeared on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs Chart at number 44, and spent two weeks on the chart. On December 2, 2010, Hilson was one of the many female artists who performed at the VH1 Divas Salute the Troops concert, where she sang "Turnin Me On", "Knock You Down", "Pretty Girl Rock", and a duet with American country music duo Sugarland on the Aretha Franklin song "Think". No Boys Allowed was released on December 21, 2010. Described as a "girl power album", No Boys Allowed was primarily of the R&B and pop genres. Despite the album's title, Hilson stated "it's not about excluding men. It's more about women understanding that there comes a time in your life when you want a man. A real man. A grown up. Not a boy. And that's not a bad thing." Speaking of the songs on the album, she explained "I write from a female perspective, but I'm also telling men what women are really thinking and feeling about them". In the United States, No Boys Allowed debuted at number 11 on the Billboard 200, and number seven on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, with first-week sales of 102,000 copies. Although the album sold 8,000 copies more than Hilson's debut album In a Perfect World..., it failed to match that album's debut chart position of number four on the Billboard 200, due to No Boys Allowed being released during the festive season with several Christmas albums debuting inside the top-ten. As of February 2011, the album has sold 205,500 copies in the United States.
Hilson achieved success with the album's second single, "Pretty Girl Rock", which reached number 24 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number four on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs Chart, eventually being certified platinum. The song spent 14 weeks on the Hot 100 and four weeks on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs Chart. It reached the top twenty in Germany and New Zealand, and top 30 in Austria and Slovakia. Hilson promoted "Pretty Girl Rock" with live performances on televised shows, including The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, the Late Show with David Letterman and Jimmy Kimmel Live!. "One Night Stand" featuring Chris Brown, and "Lose Control (Let Me Down)" featuring Nelly, were released as the album's third and fourth singles, respectively. In 2011, she was featured on British rapper Chipmunk's single "In the Air", for his album Transition (2011). In April 2011, Hilson, along with many other R&B and hip hop acts, traveled to Australia to be part of its biggest urban music festival, Supafest. At the 2011 BET Awards, Hilson was nominated for Best Female R&B Artist and Video of the Year for "Pretty Girl Rock". In July 2011, she was a supporting act on the second leg of Lil Wayne's I Am Still Music Tour in North America, before embarking on her first headlining European tour in October. Hilson made her acting debut in the romantic comedy film Think Like a Man, released on April 20, 2012. She also appeared alongside Vin Diesel in the sci-fi action film Riddick (2013), in a brief role as a prisoner allowed to escape to make room for Riddick.
2015–present: Third album
During an interview on 106 & Park on October 25, 2011, Hilson revealed that she had already begun recording her third studio album. She explained, "There's some people in the world that aren't gon' like this album coming from me. As I was experiencing the world, there were things that I was also experiencing on a personal front, and in my music it's coming out. There's a specific few people who ain't gon' like to listen to this album. Very emotional, I'll say that." She further explained in an interview with The Boombox that she was working on a new sound for the album, and described it as a mixture of her first two albums with some surprising elements added. At the time, Hilson explained that a release date had not yet been confirmed, saying "I just write about my experiences and keep the release dates far, far from me. When I feel that I have [good material] is when I will give it to the label. But I'm not quite there yet. I'm still working." After a five-year musical hiatus, it was leaked on March 14, 2016 that the album would be titled L.I.A.R., an acronym for Love Is a Religion. L.I.A.R. was reported to have contributions from Chris Brown, Danja, Timbaland and Polow Da Don. In July 2017, Hilson was featured on Zambian singer Tiwah Hillz's single "Beautiful".
Hilson announced that she would be releasing new music in summer 2019, nine years after her previous album. She performed on Femme It Forward Tour in summer 2019 alongside Mya, Brandy, Ashanti, Monica and Amerie. In October 2019, Hilson referred to the album as untitled, but said that it was in the final stages of mixing and production. As of July 2023, no further details about the album have been released.
In April 2020, Keri was featured on Ghanaian musician Stonebwoy's song "Nominate". She later recommended Rihanna for a future collaboration with the Ghanaian dancehall musician.
Artistry
Hilson's music is generally R&B, hip hop and pop. Her debut album, In a Perfect World..., consists of a pop/R&B style, with elements of electro music. Many of the album's themes deal with relationships, physical attraction and lovemaking. Hilson said, "lyrically it's a very vulnerable album. You know, I definitely didn't want to paint myself as perfect on this project. Instead, I wanted it to be something that was very relatable, especially to women".
Her second album, No Boys Allowed, displays a wide variety of styles, including pop, R&B, hip hop, soul, acoustic, electronic and reggae. Hilson describes the album as "more self-assured. It's a lot more aggressive". Kristin Macfarlane of The Daily Post noted that the album is "pure girl power and about being sexually confident, and confident as a woman; not putting up with crap relationships and getting your way".
Hilson sings with "smooth vocals". Following the release of her debut album, Sophie Bruce of BBC Music expressed that, "there's no denying Hilson has a great voice, but it lacks the feisty edge of [Nicole] Scherzinger, [Mary J.] Blige or [Beyoncé] Knowles". Mark Nero of About.com commented, "Keri's voice, while strong, isn't particularly distinctive or memorable". Hilson has stated that her musical influences come from her father's side of the family. "My grandmother would sing in the choir; while my dad—while he was in college—sang and recorded with a quartet. ... it was definitely my dad's Southern side that impacted on me musically". Hilson's father also introduced her to artists such as Sade, Anita Baker, The Blind Boys of Alabama, Lisa Stansfield, Take 6 and Stevie Wonder. In addition, she cites Michael Jackson, Lauryn Hill, Janet Jackson, TLC and Aaliyah as her idols.
Activism and philanthropy
Besides her career in music, Hilson has also been involved with several charities. In January 2010, she teamed up with Akon on the charity single "Oh Africa". All proceeds of the single benefited underprivileged African youth. The following month, Hilson joined the extended list of artists during the recording session of the single, "We Are the World 25 for Haiti", to benefit victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. On May 25, 2010, she performed at the Virginia Stand Up! A Call to Action benefit concert, organized by Chris Brown to help with continued relief efforts in Haiti. On October 21, 2010, Hilson attended Collins Academy High School in Chicago as part of the Get Schooled National Challenge and Tour, a "program aimed at increasing high school and college graduation rates and promoting the importance of education". A year later, she received a Get Schooled Award for her involvement with the program. In 2011, Hilson contributed in the fight against AIDS by posing in retail-clothing company H&M's celebrity-driven collection for Fashion Against AIDS. 25% of all sales from the collection were donated to the Designers Against Aids charity. Hilson contributed to the It Gets Better Project, a project which aims to prevent suicide among LGBT youth.
In June 2011, Hilson became an ambassador for MTV Staying Alive, a foundation which raises awareness and prevention of HIV and AIDS. In September 2011, she lent her support to US First Lady Michelle Obama's Let's Move! campaign, which aims to combat childhood obesity. She made T-shirts for the campaign that read "Pretty Girls Sweat", and exercised with the young women at The Educational Alliance's Sirovich Senior Center in New York City on September 24. During Hilson's visit in Africa in November 2011, she stopped by an orphanage to visit her young fans who had lost their families during the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis. She gave each orphan a "care" package, which consisted of bookbags, T-shirts, sunglasses, notebooks and an electric keyboard. In April 2012, Hilson worked with DoSomething.org to encourage young people to take part in the nationwide Epic Book Drive by bringing books to local people in need. In a press release, she stated: "Joining DoSomething.org's newest effort to provide for people in need with Epic Book Drive was the easiest decision ever!. I truly believe providing access to those who want to learn is the key to bettering lives around the country. And helping kids find healthy outlets, such as books, has always been a passion of mine. So my involvement here is a natural fit."
Hilson has also become an active opponent of 5G wireless technology, and was criticized for falsely claiming it caused the coronavirus pandemic.
Personal life
In 2011, Hilson posed nude for the May issue of Allure magazine.
Discography
Studio albums
In a Perfect World... (2009)
No Boys Allowed (2010)
Filmography
Tours
Headlining
European Tour (2011)
Supporting
I Am Music Tour (2009) (with Lil Wayne)
I Am Still Music Tour (2011) (with Lil Wayne)
Femme It Forward Tour (2019) (with various artists)
The Millennium Tour: Turned Up! (2022) (with various artists)
Awards and nominations
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|"The Way I Are" (Timbaland featuring D.O.E. and Keri Hilson)
|MTV Video Music Award for Monster Single of the Year
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|rowspan="14" style="text-align:center;"|2009
|rowspan="4"|Herself
|American Music Award for Favorite Female Soul/R&B Artist
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|American Music Award for Breakthrough Artist
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|BET Award for Best New Artist
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|BET Award for Best Female R&B Artist
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|rowspan="2"|"Turnin Me On" (with Lil Wayne)
|BET Award for Viewer's Choice
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|BET Award for Best Collaboration
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|In a Perfect World...
|Urban Music Award for Best Album
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|rowspan="4"|Herself
|Urban Music Award for Best Female Act
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|MOBO Award for Best International Act
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|MOBO Award for Best R&B/Soul Act
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|Soul Train Music Award for Best New Artist
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|"Turnin Me On" (with Lil Wayne)
|Soul Train Music Award for Song of the Year
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|rowspan="3"|"Knock You Down" (with Kanye West and Ne-Yo)
|Soul Train Music Award for Best Collaboration
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|Soul Train Music Award for Record of the Year
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|rowspan="4" style="text-align:center;"|2010
|Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration
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|rowspan="2"|Herself
|Grammy Award for Best New Artist
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|NAACP Image Award for Outstanding New Artist
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|"Got Your Back" (T.I. featuring Keri Hilson)
|Soul Train Music Award for Best Hip-Hop Song
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|rowspan="4" style="text-align:center;"|2011
|"Pretty Girl Rock"
|BET Award for Video of the Year
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|rowspan="2"|Herself
|BET Award for Best Female R&B Artist
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|Get Schooled Award
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|"Pretty Girl Rock"
|Soul Train Music Award for Best Dance Performance
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|rowspan="1" style="text-align:center;"|2019
|rowspan="1"|Herself
|Power of Women Fundraising Gala honored with The Philanthropy Award
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References
External links
1982 births
Living people
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American women singers
African-American women singers
African-American actresses
African-American women singer-songwriters
American conspiracy theorists
American contemporary R&B singers
American dance musicians
American women hip hop musicians
American women pop singers
American women singer-songwriters
American film actresses
American hip hop singers
American philanthropists
American rhythm and blues singer-songwriters
Dance-pop musicians
Interscope Records artists
People from Decatur, Georgia
Singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state)
Southern hip hop musicians
Emory College alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1959%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1959 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1959 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 27th 24 Hours of Le Mans, Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 20 and 21 June 1959, on Circuit de la Sarthe. It was also the fourth round of the F.I.A. World Sports Car Championship. The prospect of an exciting duel between Ferrari, Aston Martin and giantkillers Porsche was enough to draw large crowds and some 150,000 spectators gathered for France's classic sports car race, around the 8.38-mile course.
Aston Martin finally achieved the coveted outright win, doing it with a 1-2 finish. The marque had first entered the Le Mans race in 1928, running every race since 1931 and had finished second three times and third twice before this victory.
Regulations
Significant changes occurred with the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) regulations this year. The FIA had issued its revamped and revised Appendix J rules for Grand Touring (GT) cars and the ACO followed other endurance races and opened its entry-list to the GT categories for the first time.
Each GT model had to have a minimum production run of 100 cars over 12 consecutive months. Those not meeting those requirements were put into the Sports Prototypes category. Both GT and SP ran to the same engine categories within their respective divisions.
The ACO also introduced a new competition to measure optimal car performance. The Index of Thermal Efficiency (Indice au Rendement Énergétique) took into account a car's weight, speed and fuel consumption (using standard 95/100-octane supplied fuel). Surprisingly, it did not include engine size in the calculation. This ran alongside the regular Index of Performance handicap competition, whose target distances were increased. Fuel, oil and water replenishment remained limited at a minimum of 30 laps between refills. Only two men, and a third as refueller, were allowed to work on a car in the pits, meaning the driver had to get out and behind the pit wall to not count against that total.
Regarding the track and organisation, the ACO installed IBM calculators to help with the administration. As well as considerable re-surfacing, a number of signalling lights were installed. Finally, acknowledging the huge influx of British spectators to the race, the ACO invited the racing magazine The Motor to send a journalist to provide race-commentary in English once an hour. This year the prize-money was £5000 for both the winners on distance and index of performance, and a total of over £30000.
Entries
The increase in potential classes to 10 created a lot of interest with manufacturers and drivers and a total of 97 entries applied for the event. From this the ACO accepted 60 to practise, to qualify for the 54 starting places.
This year there were seven manufacturer works teams, led by Ferrari and Aston Martin as well as Porsche, Lotus, DB, OSCA and Triumph. They were joined by the sports-car specialist Lister, Cooper and Stanguellini teams. It meant that half of the cars in the race were ‘works’ entries.
Defending champions Scuderia Ferrari brought their latest version of the Ferrari 250 TR. The chassis had been redesigned, made shorter and 77 kg lighter. The 3-litre V12 had a new 5-speed gearbox and now developed 306 bhp. Also, after six years Enzo Ferrari had finally relented and installed Dunlop disc brakes on the works cars. His squad of drivers included 1958 winners, Phil Hill/Olivier Gendebien, joined by Jean Behra/Dan Gurney and Hermano da Silva Ramos/Cliff Allison. There were also three 1958-models entered by private teams including the Equipe Nationale Belge and North American Racing Team.
A subsidiary team, Scuderia Eugenio Castellotti, was entrusted with a new prototype to take on the Porsches in the 2-litre division – the V6-engined Dino 196 S that produced 195 PS. It would be driven by Castellotti's close friend Giulio Cabianca with Giorgio Scarlatti.
As in the previous year, Aston Martin arrived with victory in the 1000km of Nürburgring with their DBR1/300. Led by director John Wyer and team manager Reg Parnell (himself a veteran of 7 Le Mans races in the early 1950s), they arrived at Le Sarthe with a very strong driver line-up to give themselves every chance of victory. The three works cars were driven by Nürburgring winners Stirling Moss/Jack Fairman alongside the F1 team driver Roy Salvadori with ex-chicken farmer, Texan Carroll Shelby, and Maurice Trintignant/Paul Frère. This year the cars were more streamlined and Moss and Fairman were given a more powerful 255 bhp engine to keep up with the Ferraris. Graham Whitehead again privately entered another DBR1. After the death of his half-brother Peter, he now had Brian Naylor as co-driver. In the GT category there was also a new DB4 GT (also using the DBR1 engine) entered by the Swiss Ecurie Trois Chevrons
With no Maseratis this year, the remaining five cars in the S-3000 category all had Jaguar-engines: Lister Engineering brought two of their new Frank Costin-designed cars (joined by Jaguar's former team manager, Lofty England), with another for the Equipe Nationale Belge, while the previously successful Ecurie Ecosse team this year entered both a Jaguar D-Type (for Masten Gregory and Innes Ireland) and a Tojeiro-Jaguar (for Ron Flockhart and Jock Lawrence).
After the very strong run to 3rd. 4th and 5th in the previous year, the Porsche 718 RSK was the car to beat in the 2.0 and 1.5-litre prototype classes. They had also just achieved their first outright Championship victory in May's Targa Florio, finishing 1-2-3-4. The two works cars were driven by regulars Hans Herrmann / Umberto Maglioli and new team-members Wolfgang von Trips / Jo Bonnier. Four Porsches made up the only entrants in the S-1500 class, the works car driven by Edgar Barth / Wolfgang Seidel alongside Dutch, French and American privateers.
Colin Chapman's Lotus team arrived in force, entering several classes: F1 team driver Graham Hill was paired with Australian Lotus-agent Derek Jolly in a new 2-litre Lotus 15, while the other team driver, Alan Stacey was in one of the two Lotus 17s in the 750cc class. Additionally, the team joined privateer Dickie Stoop in entering Lotus Elites in the new GT-1500 class.
The 2-litre Prototype class was very competitive with 8 strong entries. Up against the Porsches and Lotus and the new Ferrari, Cooper sent the new T49 ‘Monaco’ (named after its first GP victory) driven by young works driver Bruce McLaren. Triumph returned to Le Mans with three TR3S cars, its driver line-up including 1956 race winner Ninian Sanderson. In the smallest Prototype classes, there was only a single DB in the 1100cc class, but the 750cc was to be contested by DB, OSCA, Lotus and Stanguellini. One of the works OSCAs was notable as it was driven by the Mexican Rodriguez brothers. Ricardo had been refused entry the previous year for being underage. This year he did compete, becoming the youngest ever driver to race at Le Mans, being only 17 years and four months old.
The new GT classes were well supported. The Ferrari 250 GT, in its various guises, was a tried and true racecar, winning since 1956. The V12 engine produced about 250 bhp. Four were in the entry list with only a single Swiss-entered Aston Martin DB4 GT competing against it in the GT-3000 class.
AC and MG each had a single car qualify in the GT-2000 class. After the non-appearance of the Squadra Virgilio Conrero Alfa Romeos, the Lotus Elite was the only model in the GT-1500 class with five entries. Having produced the required 100 units, DB was able to homologate the HBR-5 into the GT class, and four works cars were entered. Along with four privateers, it made DB the second biggest manufacturer present, after Ferrari. They were joined by the first appearance of Swedish manufacturer Saab looking to expand up its growing success in rallying.
Practice
For the first time, the ACO was able to close the public roads in April which allowed a test day for teams to prepare their cars. Only 19 cars took up the opportunity to run for 6 hours, and it was Phil Hill in the new Ferrari that set the pace. Surprisingly, Cabianca in the 2-litre Dino was second fastest, ahead of the Aston Martins.
After scrutineering was held on the Monday and Tuesday, nine hours of qualifying were held over two sessions on the Wednesday and Thursday. Again the Ferraris were fastest and this time it was debutante Dan Gurney putting in the best time of 4:03.3. However Jean Behra had a major argument with team manager Romolo Tavoni who had imposed a 7500rpm rev-limit on the cars, limiting top performance, to protect the engines. Moss recorded 4:10.8, Hansgen's Jaguar 4:12.2 and Graham Hill put in a competitive time of 4:20 in the 2-litre Lotus.
Some of the lap-times recorded during practice were:
Both the Whitehead Aston Martin and the Tojeiro had major problems and needed parts urgently flown in before the race.
After practice, Dickie Stoop's Lotus Elite was in a traffic accident driving back to its garage in the town and was too badly damaged to be ready for the race-start the body having been all but destroyed.
Race
Start
Saturday started with heavy rain, but by 4pm it was dry and very hot. Yet again, Stirling Moss was first away. Parnell had given him team orders to act as the ‘hare’ and to bait the Ferraris into a race-pace that would break them - a role he relished. (This is contradicted by the transcription of Parnells's race briefing published by Moss). Meanwhile, Behra stalled his Ferrari twice on the line and was 15th at the end of the first lap. He subsequently put in some blistering lap-times (setting a new 3-litre lap record) to get back up to 3rd by the end of the first hour. Setting the fastest lap of the race, he then powered his way into the lead passing Moss on the Mulsanne straight around 5.15pm on the 17th lap. Still furious with the team management he hammered the engine at all costs (at one time getting up to 9500rpm on the Mulsanne straight) to prove his point. At the time of the first driver changes on the 30th lap, the car needed a lot of water and suffered from overheating thereafter.
Surprisingly, there was not a single retirement in the first hour (although Lund was delayed after his MG hit a dog at Mulsanne corner). Moss still led from the works Ferraris of Hill, Behra and Allison, then the two Ecosse cars (Jaguar ahead of Tojeiro) and Graham Hill in the remarkable Lotus 15 leading the 2-litre class in 7th. The other Aston Martins were 8th and 9th biding their time, ahead of the two Listers, while the Dino was 13th overall ahead of the Porsches in the 2-litre class.
By 7pm, after three hours, the Behra/Gurney Ferrari had a 40-second lead over the Moss/Fairman Aston Martin. They had a lap's lead over the rest of the field: leading the pack in third was the Hill/Gendebien Ferrari, then the Gregory/Ireland Ecosse Jaguar and the Salvadori/Shelby Aston Martin. The Allison/Ramos works Ferrari had just retired with a blown head gasket and soon after the Hill/Gendebien car was delayed by engine trouble dropping them to 8th. The Hill/Jolly Lotus that had started so well had been stymied by gearbox issues, and would eventually retire during the night. The Dino briefly took over leading until fuel issues started, leaving the Porsches to take up the 2-litre class lead.
Night
It was at dusk, in the fifth hour, that the first major accident occurred: Brian Naylor hit oil and rolled the Whitehead Aston Martin at Maison Blanche. Naylor got out, but the car was then heavily struck by Jim Russell in the Cooper Monaco (running 9th) and then Faure's Stanguellini hit the Cooper's fuel tank. Both smaller cars went up in flames and although Russell had a broken leg and ribs from the initial collision both drivers got away with only minor burns.
The Ecurie Ecosse team was still a competitive force, and by 9pm their Jaguar was running second and the Tojeiro in 4th. But as night fell the pace started taking its toll – around 10pm, on the 70th lap, both the Ireland/Gregory Jaguar running second and the Moss/Fairman Aston Martin in third were put out with engine problems. Innes Ireland had a big moment when the connecting rod broke dropping oil all over his rear tyres and sending him into a big spin in the pitch darkness. And when Behra's Ferrari was called into the pits by officials to fix malfunctioning lights suddenly the Salvadori/Shelby Aston Martin found itself in the lead. Behra and Gurney had slipped to second and the other works Aston Martin in third. Then came the remaining Lister, Hill's Ferrari, the Ecosse Tojeiro and then three Porsches with Bonnier/von Trips leading the 2-litre classes. The Stacey/Greene Lotus headed the Index of Performance.
However, within hours though the Lister and the Tojeiro were out: the Bueb/Halford Lister succumbed to engine issues, then the ‘Toj’ started leaking fluids long before its replenishment point. Inevitably the engine soon seized and the last Jaguar engine was gone. By midnight over half the field had retired. Aston led Gurney's ailing Ferrari, Aston, Ferrari then the Bonnier Porsche. Behra's engine finally let go just before 2am when he had slipped back to fourth.
Meanwhile, Phil Hill had hunted down the leaders and soon after 2am the Aston Martin lost ten minutes when Salvadori pitted with major vibrations in the suspension. Fearing transmission issues, the team was relieved to instead find that it was a destroyed tyre tread lodged up in the wheel-well. The Hill/Gendebien Ferrari finally hit the front – its engine issues resolved when the water levels dropped – and together they set about building a solid lead through the night. By 4am, the halfway mark, that lead was two laps. They were, however, now the sole Testarossa running as the three privateer cars had all retired during the evening. The other Aston Martin was third and the works Porsche 4th (and leading the Performance Index), 4 and 7 laps respectively behind the Ferrari.
Morning
As the sun rose (for once without the thick rolling fog) the S-750 class Stacey/Greene Lotus had risen to 14th, leading the Index of Performance by a big margin, when it was stopped by the same distributor issues that had halted its teammate. The Lotus 17 was the fastest 750cc ever raced at Le Mans, but still fragile.
By 6am the field down to only 23 runners. The Ferrari was leading the two remaining Aston Martins and pulling away. Incredibly, with no other S-3000 class cars left running, four Porsches held down the next places. Then came the four more-powerful Ferrari GTs, headed by the Belgian car of ”Beurlys” / ”Eldé”. But then it started going wrong for Porsche. First, the leading works car of von Trips/Bonnier, running 4th, was stopped by clutch problems. Soon afterward the works 1500cc car lost its gearbox. The Dutch Ecurie Maarsbergen car inherited 4th place for two hours until it too broke its engine. This left Hugus/Erickson, the American privateers, promoted to 4th still pursued by four Ferraris with the older, French, 550A in 9th.
Drama happened soon after 11am when Gendebien pitted the leading Ferrari with major overheating problems. It had been leading for over 9 hours and had a healthy 3-lap lead but it was well ahead of its next fluid-refill pit-window. The team improvised to cool the engine and Gendebien did slow laps to try and make it to his pit window, but to no avail – after two more laps, and just before noon, the engine seized and the last Ferrari hope was gone. Around the same time the last two Porsches retired with engine problems.
With the last Ferrari retired and now holding a comfortable lead, Parnell the Aston Martin team manager, ordered his two cars to hold station and ease off to protect their engines for the last four hours. Where Moss had at the start been doing laps of 4m01s and the other cars were set a target of 4m20s, Salvadori now dropped back down to 4m50s This was prudent as the lead car was starting to go through oil at a rate. However, with no pressure from the other teams the two cars were able to cruise to the finish.
The three Triumphs had had a mixed race: two had been eliminated early when both had cooling-fan blades break off and go through the radiator. The third (raced by Stoop/Jopp) had been called in as a precaution and had its fan removed then had moved up steadily through the field. It had got up to 7th overall by the 23rd hour when the oil pump broke forcing a late retirement. Perhaps the unluckiest drivers were the privateer DB team of Bartholoni/Jaeger who had battled and survived clutch problems through the whole race only for it to break completely with mere minutes to run.
Finish and post-race
In the end Shelby brought his car home a lap ahead of Trintignant in a formation finish. All during the race the Texan had been battling a bout of dysentery. He had even driven with a nitroglycerine capsule under his tongue in case he had heart problems (which he omitted from telling his team). Shortly after the race, he would collapse and sleep for hours. Salvadori drove the majority of the race, doing 14 hours, though he also was getting over flu. Trintignant was also suffering: his right foot had been burned by the overheating throttle pedal.
Such was the eventual domination of Aston Martin, the third car home was fully 26 laps behind the winners. That car was the first GT home, the Ferrari 250 GT LWB of ”Beurlys” and ”Eldé”. Yet again the Equipe Nationale Belge had achieved a podium finish. In fact all the Ferrari GTs finished with the Belgians leading home the NART car and the two French privateers. In 7th was the Rudd Racing AC Ace – the sole 2-litre finisher – followed by the first Lotus Elite and a works DB. The little French car had not even been able to overtake the lap distance of the Hill/Gendebien Ferrari retired 4 hours earlier. In a race of attrition only 13 cars out of the 54 starters were able to complete the race.
It was Aston Martin's finest hour: as well as the 1-2 outright finish, the team also reached the podium in all three competitions. Managing Director David Brown had got changed into his ‘Sunday best’ and in his joy jumped about the winning car for its victory lap. After winning the Tourist Trophy round later in the year, Aston Martin clinched the World Constructors Championship and Brown withdrew the company from motorsport (including its unsuccessful venture into Formula 1).
After several lean years, DB returned to the winners’ rostrums when it cleaned up the other trophies. The team won the lucrative Index of Performance, the new Index of Thermal Efficiency (by the Armagnac/Consten car doing ), and the Biennial Cup for good measure, as well as the GT-750 class win. In contrast the winning Aston Martin only managed to do 10 mpg and even the Porsches could only manage 12 mpg. Perhaps the unluckiest drivers were the privateer DB team of Bartholoni/Jaeger who had battled and survived clutch problems through the whole race only for it to break completely with mere minutes to run.
In a remarkable turn of fortune to the previous year, this was Porsche's worst performance to date with none of their cars, works or privateer, finishing. ‘Lino’ Fayen, who finished 6th in his Ferrari GT had fled France to Venezuela to evade paying debts. He was subsequently arrested while celebrating his finish.
After a number of bust-ups with the Ferrari management, this was Jean Behra's last race for the team. The talented Frenchman was fired but then tragically killed just a fortnight later. He was racing his own Porsche in a sportscar race as a prelude for the German Grand Prix being held that year at the dangerous AVUS circuit near Berlin. It was also one of the last races for double-Le Mans winner Ivor Bueb who was killed two months later in a non-Championship F1 race at Clermont-Ferrand.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Class winners are in bold text.
Note *: Not classified because car failed to complete 70% of winner's distance (226 laps). However, Spurring and Moity list them as a finisher.
Did not finish
Did not start
Class winners
Index of performance
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
Index of Thermal Efficiency
25th Rudge-Whitworth Biennial Cup (1958/1959)
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest lap in practice – Gurney, #12 Ferrari 250 TR/59 – 4m 03.3s;
Fastest lap – Jean Behra, #12 Ferrari 250 TR/59 – 4:00.9secs;
Distance –
Winner's average speed –
Standings after the race
Championship points were awarded for the first six places in each race in the order of 8-6-4-3-2-1.
Manufacturers were only awarded points for their highest finishing car with no points awarded for additional cars finishing. Only the best 4 results out of the 6 races would be included for the final score. Points earned but not counted towards the championship are given in brackets.
Citations
References
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Jaguar Years 1949-1957' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clarke, R.M. - editor (2009) Le Mans 'The Ferrari Years 1958-1965' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Henry, Alan (1988) Fifty Famous Motor Races Northamptonshire: Patrick Stephen Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1949-59 Sherborne, Dorset: Evro Publishing
Wilkins, Gordon - editor (1959) Automobile Year #7 1959-60 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
External links
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 3 April 2017
Sportscars.tv – race commentary. Retrieved 3 April 2017
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries and chassis numbers. Retrieved 3 April 2017
Formula 2 – Le Mans 1959 results and reserve entries. Retrieved 3 April 2017
Team Dan – results and reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 3 April 2017
Unique Cars & Parts – results and reserve entries. Retrieved 3 April 2017
YouTube: Aston Martin at Le Mans English colour documentary (30 mins). Retrieved 3 April 2017
YouTube English colour highlights (8 mins). Retrieved 3 April 2017
Le Mans
24 Hours of Le Mans races
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelbert%20Humperdinck%20%28singer%29
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Engelbert Humperdinck (singer)
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Arnold George Dorsey (born 2 May 1936), known professionally as Engelbert Humperdinck, is a British pop singer who has been described as "one of the finest middle-of-the-road balladeers around". He achieved international prominence in 1967 with his recording of "Release Me".
Starting as a performer in the late 1950s under the name "Gerry Dorsey", he later adopted the name of German composer Engelbert Humperdinck as a stage name and found success after he partnered with manager Gordon Mills in 1965. His recordings of the ballads "Release Me" and "The Last Waltz" both topped the UK Singles Chart in 1967, selling more than a million copies each. Humperdinck scored further major hits in rapid succession, including "There Goes My Everything" (1967), "Am I That Easy to Forget" (1968) and "A Man Without Love" (1968). In the process, he attained a large following, with some of his most devoted fans calling themselves "Humperdinckers". Two of his singles were among the best-selling of the 1960s in the United Kingdom.
During the 1970s, Humperdinck had significant North American chart successes with "After the Lovin'" (1976) and "This Moment in Time" (1979). Having garnered a reputation as a prolific concert performer, he received renewed attention during the 1990s lounge revival with his recordings of "Lesbian Seagull" for the soundtrack of Beavis and Butt-Head Do America (1996), and a dance album (1998). The new millennium brought a range of musical projects for the singer, including the Grammy-nominated gospel album Always Hear The Harmony: The Gospel Sessions (2003) and a double album of duets, Engelbert Calling (2014). In 2012, Humperdinck represented the UK at the Eurovision Song Contest in Baku with the song "Love Will Set You Free". After marking more than 50 years as a successful singer, Humperdinck continues to record and tour, having sold more than 140 million records worldwide.
Early life
Arnold George Dorsey was born in Madras, British India (now Chennai, India) in 1936, one of 10 children born to British Army NCO Mervyn Dorsey, who was of Welsh descent, and his wife Olive who, according to the singer, was of German descent. Various sources also say that he has Anglo-Indian heritage. His family moved to Leicester, England, when he was ten years old. He later showed an interest in music and began learning the saxophone. By the early 1950s, he was playing saxophone in nightclubs, but he is believed not to have begun singing until he was in his late teens. His impression of Jerry Lewis prompted friends to begin calling him "Gerry Dorsey", a name that he worked under for almost a decade.
Dorsey's attempt to get his music career off the ground was interrupted by conscription into the British Army Royal Corps of Signals during the mid-1950s. After his discharge, he got his first chance to record in 1959 with Decca Records. He had been spotted when he won a talent contest in the Isle of Man the previous summer. Dorsey's first single "Crazy Bells" (b/w "Mister Music Man") was not a hit despite him plugging the songs on two appearances on the ITV teenage music show Oh Boy! in February and March 1959. He switched to Parlophone later that year but his first record for them, "I'll Never Fall in Love Again" (b/w "Every Day Is a Wonderful Day") was not successful either. Dorsey would return to record for Decca again, but almost a decade later and with very different results. Also in 1959 he became part of a touring show called "The Big Beat Show" with other pop singers of the time including Billy Fury, Vince Eager, and Terry Dene. Further television appearances followed in 1959 on the ITV show "The Song Parade". A tour as a support to Adam Faith followed and he continued working the nightclubs. In June 1961, however, he was stricken with tuberculosis and spent nine months in hospital. He eventually regained his health and returned to show business in 1962 but had to start virtually all over again. Dorsey went back on the variety stage and to nightclub work, but with little success.
Career
Changes and "Release Me"
In 1965, Dorsey teamed up with Gordon Mills, his former roommate while in Bayswater, London, who had become a music impresario and the manager of Tom Jones. Mills, aware that the singer had been struggling for several years to become successful in the music industry, suggested a name-change to the more arresting Engelbert Humperdinck, borrowed from the 19th-century German composer of operas such as Hansel and Gretel. Humperdinck enjoyed his first real success during July 1966 in Belgium, where he and four others represented Britain in the annual Knokke song contest, winning that year's prize. Three months later, in October 1966, he was on stage in Mechelen. He made a mark on the Belgian charts with "Dommage, Dommage", and an early music video was filmed with him in the harbour of Zeebrugge.
In the mid 60s, Humperdinck visited German songwriter Bert Kaempfert at his house in Spain and was offered arrangements of three songs: "Spanish Eyes", "Strangers in the Night", and "Wonderland by Night". He returned to Britain where he recorded all three songs. He recognised the potential of "Strangers in the Night" and asked manager Gordon Mills whether it could be released as a single, but his request was refused, since the song had already been requested by Frank Sinatra. "Spanish Eyes" and "Wonderland by Night" would be included on the singer's 1968 LP A Man Without Love.In early 1967, the changes paid off when Humperdinck's version of "Release Me" topped the charts in the United Kingdom and hit No. 4 on the US Billboard 100. Arranged by Charles Blackwell in an "orchestral country music" style, with Big Jim Sullivan and Jimmy Page as session musicians and a full chorus joining Humperdinck on the third refrain, the record kept the Beatles' "Strawberry Fields Forever"/"Penny Lane" from the top slot in the United Kingdom (for the first time since 1963). The B-side of "Release Me", "Ten Guitars", continues to be enormously popular in New Zealand. "Release Me" spent 56 weeks in the Top 50 in a continuous chart run, and was believed to have sold 85,000 copies a day at the height of its popularity. The song has remained at the core of Humperdinck's repertoire ever since.
Humperdinck's easygoing style and good looks soon earned him a large following, particularly among women. His hardcore female fans called themselves "Humperdinckers". "Release Me" was succeeded by two more hit ballads: "There Goes My Everything" and "The Last Waltz", earning him a reputation as a crooner, a description which he disputed. As Humperdinck told Hollywood Reporter writer Rick Sherwood:"[I]f you are not a crooner it's something you don't want to be called. No crooner has the range I have. I can hit notes a bank could not cash. What I am is a contemporary singer, a stylised performer."
In 1968, following his major successes the previous year, Humperdinck reached No. 2 on the UK Singles Chart with "A Man Without Love", with his album of the same name climbing to No. 3 on the UK album charts. Another single, "", was a top 10 hit in the United Kingdom and reached the top 40 in the United States. By the end of the decade, Humperdinck's expanding roster of songs also included "Am I That Easy to Forget", "The Way It Used to Be", "I'm a Better Man (For Having Loved You)" (written by Burt Bacharach and Hal David) and "Winter World of Love". He supplemented these big-selling singles with a number of equally successful albums. These albums – Release Me, The Last Waltz, A Man Without Love, and Engelbert Humperdinck—formed the bedrock of his success. For six months in 1969–70, Humperdinck fronted his own television series The Engelbert Humperdinck Show for ATV in the United Kingdom, and ABC in the US. In this musical variety format, he was joined by, among others, Paul Anka, Shirley Bassey, Tony Bennett, Jack Benny, Milton Berle, Ray Charles, Four Tops, Lena Horne, Liberace, Lulu, Carmen McRae, Dusty Springfield, Jack Jones, Tom Jones and Dionne Warwick.
1970s
By the start of the 1970s, Humperdinck had settled into a busy schedule of recordings, and a number of signature songs emerged from this period, often written by noted musicians and songwriters; among them, "We Made It Happen" (written by Paul Anka), "Sweetheart" (written by Barry Gibb and Maurice Gibb), "Another Time, Another Place", and "Too Beautiful to Last" (theme from the film Nicholas and Alexandra). In 1972, he starred in another television series, for BBC 1. Titled Engelbert with The Young Generation, the show ran for thirteen weeks, and featured the dance troupe, regular guests the Goodies and Marlene Charell, and international stars. Also in 1972, he was among the guests in David Winters' musical television special The Special London Bridge Special, starring Tom Jones, and Jennifer O'Neill.
By the middle of the decade, Humperdinck concentrated on selling albums and on live performances, with his style of balladry less popular on the singles charts. He developed lavish stage productions, making him a natural for Las Vegas and similar venues. He performed regularly at the Riviera Hotel in Las Vegas through the early and middle years of the decade, recording a live album at the venue with the Three Degrees as backing singers.
In 1976, Humperdinck's commercial credentials were buoyed by "After the Lovin'", a ballad produced by Joel Diamond and Charles Calello, and released by CBS subsidiary Epic. The song was a top 10 hit in the US went Gold, and won the "most played juke box record of the year" award. The album of the same name reached the top 20 on the US charts, was nominated for a Grammy Award, and was a Double Platinum hit for the singer. Three of the album tracks were produced by Bobby Eli and recorded at the Sigma Sound Studios in Philadelphia. As critics point out, the singer's unexpected foray into the "Philadelphia Sound" was successful, adding to the overall strength of the work. Rounding off the year, Humperdinck made his first appearance on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson with a live performance of the hit single.
Joel Diamond went on to produce a series of albums recorded by Humperdinck for Epic, including This Moment in Time from 1979 (the title song topped the US adult contemporary charts) and two Christmas albums. In 1979, following his late-decade chart successes stateside, Humperdinck took his stage show to Broadway with appearances at the Minskoff Theatre.
1980s and 1990s
In the 1980s, Humperdinck consolidated his discography, recording regularly and performing as many as 200 concerts a year while continuing with headlining appearances in Las Vegas at the Hilton Hotel (Westgate Las Vegas Resort & Casino). In the early and mid-1980s, he made a number of special appearances as an actor on popular television dramas of the time, including The Love Boat, Hotel and Fantasy Island.
Following his stint as a recording artist with Epic, Humperdinck released what William Ruhlmann has called an "ambitious double album" titled A Lovely Way to Spend An Evening (1985). Ruhlmann commends Humperdinck for recording this album of standards from the American Songbook; he notes that the work "was a long time coming", while acknowledging that "the album deserved a broader distribution than it received." The album was released in the United Kingdom as Getting Sentimental and reached the UK Top-40 album charts in the summer of 1985.
In the following years, Humperdinck continued with studio recordings, including a duet with Gloria Gaynor for his album Remember, I Love You (1987). In the latter half of the 1980s, with new material like the song "Portofino" (1985), Humperdinck also focused on recordings influenced by European popular music of the time, particularly German popular music. Albums of this period include Träumen Mit Engelbert (1986) and Step into My Life (1989). Released as Ich Denk An Dich in Germany, Step into My Life included songs composed by Dieter Bohlen and Barry Mason, while the title song was co-written by Humperdinck himself. It spawned several singles, and a cover of Bohlen's hit song, "You're My Heart, You're My Soul".
Humperdinck was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1989 and won a Golden Globe Award as entertainer of the year, while also beginning major involvement in charitable causes such as the Leukemia Research Fund, the American Red Cross, the American Lung Association, and several AIDS relief organisations. He wrote a song for one charity-group titled "Reach Out" (released on his 1992 studio album Hello Out There).
Musical appraisals of Humperdinck's career in the 1990s point to him earning "a new hip cachet" during the Lounge Revival, and note the success of new artistic ventures such as his recording of "Lesbian Seagull" for the soundtrack of the film Beavis and Butt-head Do America (1996), and his dance album from 1998. 1995's Love Unchained, produced by Bebu Silvetti, peaked in the UK Top-20 album charts, marking a return to form in his home country. He retained a public profile during these years, making numerous appearances on radio and television, including the Late Show with David Letterman and The Howard Stern Show, and at events such as the 1996 Daytona 500, where he performed "The Star-Spangled Banner".
2000s
Humperdinck's recording career continued into the new millennium, with a range of musical collaborations. In 2000, he hit the top five of the British album charts with Engelbert at His Very Best, and returned to the top five four years later, after he appeared in a John Smith's TV-advertisement. In the spring of 2003, Humperdinck collaborated with American artist-producer Art Greenhaw to record the roots gospel album Always Hear the Harmony: The Gospel Sessions; joining Humperdinck on the album were the Light Crust Doughboys, the Jordanaires and the Blackwood Brothers. The critically acclaimed album was nominated for a Grammy for "Best Southern, Country or Bluegrass Gospel Album of the Year", while Humperdinck was photographed with generations of fans at the 2004 Grammy Awards in Los Angeles. He was back in the studio soon after, releasing Let There Be Love in 2005. Music critics have remarked on the historical span of material in the album, from songs first made popular in the 1920s to more recent ones from the 1990s, and point especially to Humperdinck's version of Nick Lowe's "You Inspire Me" as a noteworthy cut. In 2007, Humperdinck released The Winding Road. In a conversation with Larry King, Humperdinck discussed the genesis of the album; he pointed out that The Winding Road featured songs exclusively by British composers, as a "tribute to [his] home country", released as it was to mark 40 years since his first international hit recording.
During the recording of the Gorillaz album Plastic Beach, Humperdinck was asked by Damon Albarn to contribute to the album as a guest artist. Humperdinck's management at the time, however, declined the offer without Humperdinck's knowledge. Describing the event, Humperdinck stated that the missed opportunity was, "the most grievous sin ever committed", and that he would have gladly collaborated with Gorillaz. He added that he had since parted ways with his then-management, handing over duties to his son, Scott Dorsey. At the end of the interview, Humperdinck observed: "I'd really like to rekindle that suggestion again and bring it back. Hopefully they will ask me again. My son Scott will definitely say yes".
2010s and 2020s
In March 2012, the BBC announced that Humperdinck would represent the United Kingdom in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2012, to be staged in Baku, Azerbaijan, on 26 May. The song, "Love Will Set You Free" was unveiled on 19 March 2012, produced by Grammy Award-winning music producer Martin Terefe and co-written by Sacha Skarbek. The song was recorded in London, Los Angeles and Nashville, Tennessee, and was mixed by Thomas Juth in London. When Humperdinck's participation was announced, he was set to become the oldest singer to ever participate in the contest at the age of 76. He was however overtaken in the same year when the Buranovskiye Babushki performed later on that night. During the final allocation draw, the United Kingdom was drawn to perform first. Humperdinck eventually finished in 25th place out of 26, coming in second to last in the voting, with 12 points.
With a rapid series of recordings, Humperdinck showed no signs of slowing the pace of his work in the 2010s. A career-first double-CD of duets, Engelbert Calling, was released in the United Kingdom in March 2014 by Conehead Records, charting in the UK Top 40. The album found the singer in the studio with musicians like Charles Aznavour, Elton John, Il Divo, Johnny Mathis, Lulu, Willie Nelson, Olivia Newton-John, Cliff Richard, Smokey Robinson, Kenny Rogers, Neil Sedaka, Ron Sexsmith, Gene Simmons and Dionne Warwick. Engelbert Calling was released in North America by OK! Good Records on 30 September 2014, with Humperdinck making a number of promotional appearances on radio and television, including an extended conversation with Caroline Modarressy-Tehrani on HuffPost Live. In the UK, Humperdinck showcased songs from the album in shows like Weekend Wogan for which he performed acoustic versions of Make You Feel My Love and "The Hungry Years". A special edition vinyl EP with four tracks from the album was released in May 2015. According to OK! Good Records, the EP was Humperdinck's first vinyl release after a gap of twenty-five years, "a limited-edition 7" vinyl record with a first pressing of 1,000 copies on transparent cloudy clear vinyl".
2017 was the 50th anniversary of Humperdinck's first international chart success, and two major celebratory disc sets were produced in the early summer. The first, Engelbert Humperdinck 50, was a two-disc album bringing together the singer's charting singles for Decca, other songs from different points in his career, two new studio recordings, and a new remix of "Release Me". The second was an extended box set of Humperdinck's first eleven albums, reissued by Decca Records, complete with original album artwork and new liner notes. Engelbert Humperdinck 50 was released in the United Kingdom in May 2017, and entered the UK album charts at No. 5, indicating the singer's enduring popularity in his home country. The album was released in North America in June 2017.
The Man I Want to Be was released in late 2017. While composed largely of newly written material, the album included two notable covers: "Photograph" (Ed Sheeran), and "Just the Way You Are" (Bruno Mars). In 2018, the singer came out with a newly recorded Christmas album, Warmest Christmas Wishes. In May 2019, Humperdinck premiered a new song, "You", a self-described ode to motherhood written for him by British songwriters Jon Allen and Jake Fields. As a birthday gift to his wife, Patricia, Humperdinck appeared in a music video of "You", filmed on location at the Houdini Estate. The singer's record label announced the late-2019 release of an EP of songs titled Reflections. Humperdinck followed this up with a 2020-EP, Sentiments.
Well into his sixth decade as an entertainer, Humperdinck continues with international concert dates. While touring North America on an annual basis, he has performed in a range of venues and events in Europe, Australia and the Far East. In 2009, Humperdinck performed at Carols in the Domain, a popular Christmas event held in Sydney. In November 2010, he returned to Australia for a number of concerts, adding a new studio album, Released, to his discography. Humperdinck also returns for performances in the United Kingdom. In May 2015, he appeared at the Bridgewater Hall, Manchester, the Symphony Hall, Birmingham and the Royal Albert Hall and at London's Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in November 2017. In 2019 Humperdinck performed in Singapore, Manila and Tokyo. In late 2021 and 2022 the singer appeared in cities in the UK and Europe, including a return to the London Palladium.
In early 2022, his song A Man Without Love was featured in the Marvel Studios series Moon Knight. Later, he performed a cover of the popular song "I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles" for the film Bullet Train.
Personal life
Lifelong Catholics Humperdinck and Patricia Healey wed in 1964; the two first met at the Palais de Danse, a nightclub in Leicester. They had four children, and the family lived between homes in the UK and the US.
Humperdinck's wife once said that she could paper their bedroom with all of the paternity lawsuits filed against her husband. He was successfully sued for paternity by two women during the 1970s and 1980s. In 1988, Humperdinck filed a libel suit against the National Enquirer. The origin of the libelous statements was said to be Kathy Jetter, the mother of Humperdinck's illegitimate child, and were made in an affidavit filed by Jetter in New York Family Court in an effort to increase child support payments from Humperdinck. Jetter lost the action. Jetter had successfully brought a paternity suit against Humperdinck following the birth of her daughter Jennifer in 1977.
In 2017, the singer revealed that Patricia had been suffering from Alzheimer's disease for 10 years. She died in Los Angeles on 5 February 2021 after contracting COVID-19. Humperdinck later described how the family had prayed with her and blessed her with water from Lourdes before she "slipped softly away".
Humperdinck retains ties with Leicestershire, where he spent much of his youth, and is a fan of Leicester City F.C. In August 2005, he auctioned one of his Harley-Davidson motorbikes on eBay to raise money for the County Air Ambulance in Leicestershire. In 2006, the University of Leicester awarded Humperdinck an Honorary Doctorate of Music. On 25 February 2009, Leicester City Council announced that Humperdinck would be given the Honorary Freedom of Leicester alongside author Sue Townsend and former professional footballer Alan Birchenall. In 2010, Humperdinck was one of the first nine people to be honoured with a plaque on the Leicester Walk of Fame.
He has also been active in real-estate investments in Mexico and the US. In the latter half of the 1970s, the singer bought the Pink Palace in Los Angeles, previously the home of Jayne Mansfield; in 2002, he sold the mansion to developers. During the 1980s, Humperdinck bought a hotel property in La Paz, Mexico, and renamed it La Posada de Engelbert. The hotel was demolished in 2012, and replaced by the Posada Hotel Beach Club.
Humperdinck was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2021 Birthday Honours for services to music.
Discography
References
Bibliography
Claghorn, Charles Eugene. Biographical Dictionary of American Music, Parker Pub. Co., 1974.
Clarke, Donald (ed.). The Penguin Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Viking, 1989.
Larkin, Colin. The Guinness Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Guinness Publishing, 1992.
Sadie, Stanley; Hitchcock, H. Wiley (eds.). The New Grove Dictionary of American Music. Grove's Dictionaries of Music, 1986.
Stambler, Irwin. Encyclopedia of Pop, Rock and Soul, St. Martin's Press, 1974. ASIN B000Q9NHJG/ (Revised 1990)
Whitburn, Joel. The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits, 5th edition, Watson-Guptill Publications, 1992.
External links
– official site
Engelbert Humperdinck at Starpulse
Engelbert Humperdinck at Live Daily
Engelbert Humperdinck at Yahoo!
Entry for Patricia Healey at IMDb
1936 births
Living people
20th-century English singers
21st-century English singers
English people of German descent
English people of Irish descent
English people of Welsh descent
English Roman Catholics
English male singers
English pop singers
English crooners
Schlager musicians
Traditional pop music singers
Musicians from Leicester
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for the United Kingdom
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2012
Epic Records artists
MAM Records artists
Parrot Records artists
Royal Corps of Signals soldiers
Anglo-Indian people
Singers from Chennai
20th-century British male singers
21st-century British male singers
20th-century British Army personnel
Members of the Order of the British Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Colbert%20at%20the%202006%20White%20House%20Correspondents%27%20Dinner
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Stephen Colbert at the 2006 White House Correspondents' Dinner
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On April 29, 2006, American comedian Stephen Colbert appeared as the featured entertainer at the 2006 White House Correspondents' Association Dinner, which was held in Washington, D.C., at the Hilton Washington hotel. Colbert's performance, consisting of a 16-minute podium speech and a 7-minute video presentation, was broadcast live across the United States on the cable television networks C-SPAN and MSNBC. Standing a few feet from U.S. President George W. Bush, in front of an audience of celebrities, politicians, and members of the White House Press Corps, Colbert delivered a controversial, searing routine targeting the president and the media. He spoke in the persona of the character he played on Comedy Central's The Colbert Report, a parody of conservative pundits such as Bill O'Reilly and Sean Hannity.
Colbert's performance quickly became an Internet and media sensation. Commentators remarked on the humor of Colbert's performance, the political nature of his remarks, and speculated as to whether there was a cover-up by the media in the way the event was reported. James Poniewozik of Time noted that whether or not one liked the speech, it had become a "political-cultural touchstone issue of 2006—like whether you drive a hybrid or use the term 'freedom fries.
Performance at the dinner
American comedian Stephen Colbert was the featured entertainer at the White House Correspondents' Association Dinner, held at the Hilton Washington hotel in Washington, D.C., on April 29, 2006. He was invited to speak by Mark Smith, the outgoing president of the White House Press Corps Association. Smith later told reporters that he had not seen much of Colbert's work. Since 1983, the event has featured well-known stand-up comics. Previous performances included President Gerald Ford and Chevy Chase making fun of Ford's alleged clumsiness in 1975, and Ronald Reagan and Rich Little performing together in 1981.
Colbert gave his after-dinner remarks in front of an audience described by the Associated Press as a "Who's Who of power and celebrity". More than 2,500 guests attended the event, including First Lady Laura Bush, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Peter Pace, U.S. Attorney General Alberto Gonzales, China's Ambassador Zhou Wenzhong, AOL co-founder Steve Case, model and tennis player Anna Kournikova, and actor George Clooney. Colbert spoke directly to President Bush several times, satirically praising his foreign policy, lifestyle, and beliefs, and referring to his declining approval rating and popular reputation.
Colbert spoke in the persona of the character he played on Comedy Central's The Colbert Report, a parody of a conservative pundit in the fashion of Bill O'Reilly and Sean Hannity. He began by satirizing mass surveillance, joking "If anybody needs anything else at their tables, just speak slowly and clearly into your table numbers. Someone from the NSA will be right over with a cocktail." While many of his jokes were directed at President Bush, he also lampooned the journalists and other figures present at the dinner. Most of the speech was prepared specifically for the event, but several segments were lifted—largely unchanged—from The Colbert Report, including parts of the "truthiness" monologue from the first episode of the show, where Colbert advocated speaking from "the gut" rather than the brain and denounced books as "all fact, no heart". Colbert framed this part of the speech as though he were agreeing with Bush's philosophies, saying that he and Bush are "not brainiacs on the nerd patrol", implicitly criticizing the way Bush positioned himself as an anti-intellectual.
Following this introduction to his style and philosophy, Colbert listed a series of absurd "beliefs that I live by", such as "I believe in America. I believe it exists." He alluded to outsourcing to China and satirized the traditional Republican opposition to "big government" by referring to the Iraq War. "I believe the government that governs best is the government that governs least. And by these standards, we have set up a fabulous government in Iraq."
Colbert then mocked Bush's sinking approval ratings:
He continued his mock defense of Bush by satirizing Bush's appearances aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, at the site of the collapsed World Trade Center, and in cities devastated by Hurricane Katrina:
Colbert ended the monologue specifically directed at Bush by parodying his energy policy. He then used Laura Bush's reading initiative as a springboard to mock-criticize books for being "elitist", and harshly criticized the White House Press Corps—hosts of the event—and the media in general. Addressing the audience, he remarked:
Colbert also criticized the White House Press Corps for what was widely perceived as its reluctance to question the administration's policies, particularly in regard to the lead up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, saying:
For the remainder of his speech, Colbert joked about other people in the audience, including Peter Pace, Antonin Scalia, John McCain, and Joe Wilson. During this section, he made another reference to global warming while talking about interviewing Jesse Jackson: "You can ask him anything, but he's going to say what he wants, at the pace that he wants. It's like boxing a glacier. Enjoy that metaphor, by the way, because your grandchildren will have no idea what a glacier is."
Colbert received a chilly reception from the audience. His jokes were often met with silence and muttering, although some in the audience, such as Scalia, laughed heartily as Colbert teased them. This was in stark contrast to the warm reception accorded to a skit featuring Bush and his look-alike, Steve Bridges, which immediately preceded Colbert's monologue.
At the end of his monologue, Colbert introduced what he characterized as an "audition" video to become the new White House Press Secretary—Scott McClellan had recently left the position. The video spliced clips of difficult questions from the White House press corps with responses from Colbert as Press Secretary. Colbert's podium included controls marked "Eject", "Gannon" (a reference to erstwhile White House reporter Jeff Gannon, who was suspected of asking planted questions), and "Volume", which he used to silence a critical question from journalist David Gregory. The video continued with Colbert fleeing the briefing room and the White House, only to be pursued by White House correspondent Helen Thomas, who had been a vocal critic of the Bush administration. At one point, Colbert picks up an emergency phone and explains that Thomas "won't stop asking why we invaded Iraq". The dispatcher responds with, "Hey, why did we invade Iraq?" The entire second half of the video is a spoof of horror film clichés, particularly the film Westworld, with melodramatic music accompanying Thomas's slow, unwavering pursuit of Colbert, and Colbert loudly screaming "No!" at intervals. Widely available online, a portion of the mock audition tape aired on The Colbert Report on May 2, 2006.
Although President Bush shook Colbert's hand after his presentation, several of Bush's aides and supporters walked out during Colbert's speech, and one former aide commented that the President had "that look that he's ready to blow". Colbert recalled that "not a lot of people laughed in the front row" during the speech, and that "when it was over, no one was even making eye contact with me ... no one is talking to me in the whole damn room"; only Scalia came to him afterward, praising Colbert's imitation of a gesture the justice had recently been photographed making. He also noted actor Harry Lennix gave him props afterwards.
Early press coverage
Cable channel C-SPAN broadcast the White House Correspondents' Dinner live, and rebroadcast the event several times in the next 24 hours, but aired a segment that excluded Colbert's speech. The trade journal Editor & Publisher was the first news outlet to report in detail on Colbert's performance, calling it a "blistering comedy 'tribute that did not make the Bushes laugh. The reviewer noted that others on the podium were uncomfortable during the speech, "perhaps feeling the material was a little too biting—or too much speaking 'truthiness' to power".
The New York Times and the Chicago Tribune covered the dinner, but not Colbert's remarks. The wire services Reuters and the Associated Press each devoted three paragraphs to discuss Colbert's routine in their coverage of the event, and The Washington Post mentioned Colbert several times throughout its article. The most extensive print coverage came from USA Today, which dedicated more space to Colbert's performance than to President Bush's skit. The day after the dinner, Howard Kurtz played clips of Colbert's performance on his CNN show Reliable Sources. On the Fox News show Fox & Friends, the hosts mentioned Colbert's performance, criticizing him for going "over the line". Tucker Carlson, a frequent target of The Colbert Report before and after the event, criticized Colbert as being "unfunny" on his MSNBC show Tucker.
Much of the initial coverage of the event highlighted the difference between the reaction to Bush and Bridges (very positive) and that for Colbert (far more muted). "The president killed. He's a tough act to follow—at all times," said Colbert. On his show, Colbert joked that the unenthusiastic reception was actually "very respectful silence" and added that the crowd "practically carried me out on their shoulders" even though he was not ready to leave. On the May 1, 2006, episode of The Daily Show, on which Colbert had formerly been a correspondent, host Jon Stewart called Colbert's performance "balls-alicious" and stated, "We've never been prouder of our Mr. Colbert, and, ah—holy shit!"
Lloyd Grove, gossip columnist for the New York Daily News, said that Colbert "bombed badly", and BET founder Bob Johnson remarked, "It was an insider crowd, as insider a crowd as you'll ever have, and [Colbert] didn't do the insider jokes". Congressional Quarterly columnist and CBS commentator Craig Crawford found Colbert's performance hilarious, but observed that most other people at the dinner did not find the speech amusing. Time magazine TV critic James Poniewozik thought that Colbert's critics missed the point: "Colbert wasn't playing to the room, I suspect, but to the wide audience of people who would later watch on the Internet. If anything, he was playing against the room." Poniewozik called the pained, uncomfortable reactions to Colbert's jokes "the money shots. They were the whole point."
Allegations of a media blackout
Some commentators, while noting the popularity of Colbert's dinner speech, were critical of the perceived snubbing he was receiving from the press corps, even though he was the featured entertainer for the evening. The Washington Post columnist Dan Froomkin, calling it "The Colbert Blackout", lambasted the traditional media for ignoring Colbert while focusing on the "much safer" topic of President Bush's routine with Bridges. Amy Goodman of Democracy Now noted that initial coverage ignored Colbert entirely. Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism professor Todd Gitlin remarked, "It's too hot to handle. [Colbert] was scathing toward Bush and it was absolutely devastating. [The mainstream media doesn't] know how to handle such a pointed and aggressive criticism."
Others saw no intentional snub of Colbert by the press. Responding to a question about why The Washington Posts article about the dinner did not go into any detail about Colbert's speech, Media Backtalk writer Howard Kurtz responded, "The problem in part is one of deadline. The presses were already rolling by the time Colbert came on at 10:30, so the story had to be largely written by then." Asked why television news favored Bush's performance over Colbert's, Elizabeth Fishman, an assistant dean at the Columbia School of Journalism and a former 60 Minutes producer, told MTV that the "quick hit" for television news shows would have been to use footage of Bush standing beside his impersonator. "It's an easier set up for visual effect", she noted. Steve Scully, president of the White House Correspondents' Association (which hosted the dinner) and political editor of C-SPAN (which broadcast the dinner), scoffed at the whole idea of the press intentionally ignoring Colbert: "Bush hit such a home run with Steve Bridges that he got all of the coverage. I think that exceeded expectations. There was no right-wing conspiracy or left-wing conspiracy." Time columnist Ana Marie Cox dismissed allegations of a deliberate media blackout, because Colbert's performance received coverage in The New York Times, The Washington Post, and the major wire services. Fellow commentator Kurtz concurred, noting that the video was carried on C-SPAN and was freely available online; he also played two clips on his own show. "Apparently I didn't get the memo," he said.
In an article published on May 3, 2006, The New York Times addressed the controversy. The paper acknowledged that the mainstream media—itself included—had been criticized for focusing on Bush's act with Bridges while ignoring Colbert's speech. The paper then quoted several passages of Colbert's more substantial criticism of the president and discussed various reactions to the event. On May 15, The New York Times public editor, Byron Calame, wrote on his blog that more than two hundred readers had written to complain about the exclusion of any mention of Colbert from the paper's initial lengthy article covering the dinner. Calame quoted his deputy bureau chief in Washington, who said that a mention of Colbert in the first article could not have been long enough to do his routine justice. But he also noted that the paper should have printed an in-depth article specifically covering Colbert's speech in the same issue, rather than waiting until days after the fact.
Internet popularity
Even though Colbert's performance "landed with a thud" among the live audience, clips of Colbert at the dinner were an overnight sensation, becoming viral videos that appeared on numerous web sites in several forms. Sites offering the video experienced massive increases in traffic. According to CNET's News.com site, Colbert's speech was "one of the Internet's hottest acts". Searches for Colbert on Yahoo! were up 5,625 percent. During the days after the speech, there were twice as many Google searches for "C-SPAN" as for "Jennifer Aniston"—an uncommon occurrence—as well as a surge in Colbert-related searches. Nielsen BuzzMetrics ranked the post of the video clip as the second most popular blog post for all of 2006. Clips of Colbert's comic tribute climbed to the number 1, 2, and 3 spots atop YouTube's "Most Viewed" video list. The various clips of Colbert's speech had been viewed 2.7 million times in less than 48 hours. In an unprecedented move for the network, C-SPAN demanded that YouTube and iFilm remove unauthorized copies of the video from their sites. Google Video subsequently purchased the exclusive rights to retransmit the video, and it remained at or near the top of Google's most popular videos for the next two weeks.
Both Editor and Publisher and Salon, which published extensive and early coverage of the Colbert speech, drew record and near-record numbers of viewers to their web sites. 70,000 articles were posted to blogs about Colbert's roast of Bush on the Thursday after the event, the most of any topic, and "Colbert" remained the top search term at Technorati for days. Chicago Sun-Times TV critic Doug Elfman credited the Internet with promoting an event that would have otherwise been overlooked, stating that "Internet stables for liberals, like the behemoth dailykos.com, began rumbling as soon as the correspondents' dinner was reported in the mainstream press, with scant word of Colbert's combustive address". Three weeks after the dinner, audio of Colbert's performance went on sale at the iTunes Music Store and became the No. 1 album purchased, outselling new releases by the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Pearl Jam, and Paul Simon. The CEO of Audible.com, which provided the recording sold at iTunes, explained its success by saying, "you had to not be there to get it". It continued to be a top download at iTunes for the next five months.
Response
Colbert's performance received a variety of reactions from the media. In Washington, the response from both politicians and the press corps was negative—both groups having been targets of Colbert's satire. The Washington press corps felt that Colbert had bombed. The Washington Post columnist Richard Cohen found that Colbert's jokes were "lame and insulting" and wrote that Colbert was "rude" and a "bully". Politician Steny Hoyer felt that Colbert had gone too far, telling the newspaper The Hill that "[Bush] is the President of the United States, and he deserves some respect". Conservative pundit Mary Matalin called Colbert's performance a "predictable, Bush-bashing kind of humor". Columnist Ana Marie Cox chastised those who praised Colbert as a hero: "I somehow doubt that Bush has never heard these criticisms before". She added, "Comedy can have a political point but it is not political action".
On The Daily Show, Jon Stewart remarked, tongue in cheek, "apparently [Colbert] was under the impression that they'd hired him to do what he does every night on television". While comics were expected to tell jokes about the administration, the 2006 dinner was held at a time when the relationship between the administration and the media was under great strain, and the administration was sensitive to criticism. Attorney and columnist Julie Hilden concluded that Colbert's "vituperative parody" might have been unfair under different circumstances, but noted that Bush's record of controlling bad press created a heightened justification for people to criticize him when they got the chance. Media Matters and Editor & Publisher came to Colbert's defense, calling his detractors hypocrites. They contrasted the critical reaction to Colbert to the praise that many in the press had for a controversial routine that Bush performed at a similar media dinner in 2004, where Bush was shown looking for WMDs in the Oval Office and joking, "Those weapons of mass destruction must be somewhere!" and "Nope, no weapons over there!"
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation News Online columnist Heather Mallick wrote, "Colbert had the wit and raw courage to do to Bush what Mark Antony did to Brutus, murderer of Caesar. As the American media has self-destructed, it takes Colbert to damn Bush with devastatingly ironic praise." Comedian and eventual Democratic U.S. Senator Al Franken, who performed at similar dinners twice during the Bill Clinton administration, admired what Colbert had done. In its year-end issue, New York magazine described Colbert's performance as one of the most "brilliant" moments of 2006. Time's James Poniewozik noted that in the "days after Stephen Colbert performed at the White House Correspondents' Dinner, this has become the political-cultural touchstone issue of 2006—like whether you drive a hybrid or use the term 'freedom fries.
For the 2007 dinner, the White House Correspondents' Association brought back the less controversial Rich Little. Arianna Huffington reported that Colbert told her he had specifically avoided reading any reviews of his performance, and remained unaware of the public's reaction. On June 13, 2007, he was presented with a Spike TV Guys' Choice Award for "Gutsiest Move". He accepted the award via video conference. Six months later, New York Times columnist Frank Rich called Colbert's after-dinner speech a "cultural primary", christening it the "defining moment" of the United States' 2006 midterm elections. Three and a half years after the speech, Frank Rich referred to it again, calling it "brilliant" and "good for the country", while columnist Dan Savage referred to it as "one of the things that kept people like me sane during the darkest days of the Bush years". The editor of The Realist, Paul Krassner, later put Colbert's performance in historical context, saying that it stands out among contemporary US satire as the only example of the spirit of the satire of Lenny Bruce, George Carlin, and Richard Pryor, which took risks and broke barriers to free speech, "rather than just proudly exercising it as comedians do now."
References
External links
2006 in American politics
2006 in Washington, D.C.
April 2006 events in the United States
Criticism of journalism
Roast (comedy)
Stephen Colbert
Viral videos
Television controversies in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Tucson%20Studios
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Old Tucson Studios
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Old Tucson (aka Old Tucson Studios) is an American movie studio and theme park just west of Tucson, Arizona, adjacent to the Tucson Mountains and close to the western portion of Saguaro National Park. Built in 1939 for the movie Arizona (1940), it has been used for the filming location of many movies and television westerns since then, such as Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957), Rio Bravo (1959), El Dorado (1966), Little House on the Prairie TV series of the 1970s–1980s, the film Three Amigos! (1986) and the popular film Tombstone (1993). It was opened to the public in 1960 as a theme park with historical tours offered about the movies filmed there, along with live cast entertainment featuring stunt shows, shootouts, can-can shows...as well as themed events. It is still a popular filming location used by Hollywood.
Early history
Old Tucson was originally built in 1939 by Columbia Pictures on a Pima County-owned site as a replica of 1860s’ era Tucson for the movie Arizona (1940), starring William Holden and Jean Arthur. Workers built more than 50 buildings in 40 days. Many of those structures are still standing.
After Arizona completed filming, the location lay dormant for several years, until the filming of The Bells of St. Mary's (1945), starring Bing Crosby and Ingrid Bergman. Other early movies filmed on this set included The Last Round-Up (1947) with Gene Autry and Winchester '73 (1950) with James Stewart and The Last Outpost (1951) with Ronald Reagan. The 1950s saw the filming of Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957), The Lone Ranger and the Lost City of Gold (1958), Cimarron (1960), Last Train from Gun Hill (1959), and Rio Bravo (1959) among others.
Open to the public
In 1959, entrepreneur Robert Shelton leased the property from Pima County and began to restore the aging facility. Old Tucson re-opened in 1960, as both a film studio and a theme park. The park grew building by building with each movie filmed on its dusty streets. John Wayne starred in four movies at Old Tucson. Rio Bravo (1959) added a saloon, bank building and doctor's office; McLintock! (1963) added the McLintock Hotel; El Dorado (1966) brought a renovation of the storefronts on Front Street; and with Rio Lobo (1970) came a cantina, a granite-lined creek, a jail and a ranch house.
In 1968, a 13,000 square foot (1,208 square meter) soundstage was built to give Old Tucson greater movie-making versatility. The first film to use the soundstage was Young Billy Young (1968), starring Robert Mitchum and Angie Dickinson.
The park also began adding tours, rides and shows for the entertainment of visitors, most notably gunfights staged in the "streets" by stunt performers. One of the rides is a narrow gauge railroad powered by two Chance Rides C.P. Huntington train sets, which encircles most of the property.
Old Tucson served as an ideal location for shooting scenes for TV series like NBC's The High Chaparral (1967–1971) with Leif Erickson and Cameron Mitchell where the ranch house survived the 1995 fire; the 1970s–1980s series Little House on the Prairie with Michael Landon, Kung Fu, and later Father Murphy, featuring Merlin Olsen and Petrocelli (1974–76) used the site. Three Amigos was a popular comedy movie shot there in the 1980s with Steve Martin, utilizing the church set. From 1989 to 1992, the western show The Young Riders filmed here and at the Mescal, Arizona sister site. The main street appears prominently in 1990s westerns such as Tombstone (1993) with Kurt Russell and Val Kilmer. A partial mirror set exists at Mescal and is featured in The Quick and the Dead (1995), with Sharon Stone and Gene Hackman which filmed all of the town of Redemption scenes at the studios.
Fire
On April 24, 1995, a fire destroyed much of Old Tucson Studios. Buildings, costumes, and memorabilia were lost in the blaze. Among the memorabilia destroyed was the wardrobe from Little House on the Prairie. Also lost in the blaze was the only copy of a short film about the history of Old Tucson Studios. This film included rare behind-the-scenes footage of stars such as William Holden, John Wayne, and Angie Dickinson. The Reno, a steam locomotive from the Virginia and Truckee Railroad on static display in the park, was also badly damaged.
Fire control efforts were hampered by high winds. Most of the buildings in the studio were classified as "Temporary Structures," meaning fire prevention devices such as sprinklers were not required. A large propane tank, stashes of black powder used in staging gunfights, and a diesel fuel tank demanded the attention of firefighters and much of the scarce water supply. So much water was used in the attempt to prevent an explosion that the surrounding areas became flooded, further impeding the firefighters as they attempted to wade through the mud. After four hours of firefighting, the flames were extinguished. Damages were estimated to be around $10 million ($15 million in 2013), with 25 buildings destroyed and no human casualties.
After 20 months of reconstruction, Old Tucson re-opened its doors on January 2, 1997. The sets that were lost were not recreated; instead, entirely new buildings were constructed, and the streets were widened. The Reno locomotive was cosmetically restored before the filming of Wild Wild West, in which it was featured as Union Pacific 119 in the scene at the driving of the final spike of the First Transcontinental Railroad, but was subsequently used in an explosion in the scene and is in need of additional restoration. The soundstage was not rebuilt. Film production at Old Tucson was seriously affected by the fire. In 2003, Old Tucson reduced its hours of operation, opening from 10am to 4pm. Focusing on seasonal events, Old Tucson hosts the popular Nightfall event for Halloween which runs through the month of October, Wednesday through Sunday nights.
Recent history
In 2011, Old Tucson embarked on a project to build new movie-quality sets that fill out the park, and restore the pre-fire feel of close-together buildings, providing the look and depth of a genuine old west town circa 1865–1900. “After the rebuild of Old Tucson following the 1995 fire, the town just didn’t have the same look and feel,” says Old Tucson CEO and General Manager Pete Mangelsdorf. “We started discussions with Bob Shelton several years ago to develop a plan to fill the empty space in Town Square with movie-quality sets that bring the magic back.”
The Heritage Square Project, a 5,000-square-foot spread with three new streets lined with 12 new buildings, was completed in November 2011 at an estimated cost of $300,000. The design and construction of the new sets was led by Production Designer Gene Rudolf, credited with creating sets for movies including Young Guns II (1990), The Great Gatsby (1974), The Right Stuff (1983), Raging Bull (1980), Marathon Man (1976), and Three Days of the Condor (1975). The project added dressmaker shops, a general store and a blacksmith, and are part of "living history" presentations. One of the goals of the Heritage Project was to add "more programs that have to do with the different cultural aspects, the Hispanic culture, the Chinese culture, the Native American culture," said Mangelsdorf. Along those lines, another new exhibit now open to the public features a Tohono O'odham village as it would have appeared in the 1860s. It includes traditional houses, a garden and other facets of village life.
On Tuesday, September 8, 2020, Old Tucson, the Western-themed attraction that was the filming location of more than 400 feature-films and TV shows, closed indefinitely, with its future to be determined by Pima County.
The decision to close the Arizona landmark "was made with a heavy heart," according to Old Tucson general manager Terry Verhage, who said in a news release that the theme park would have remained in business "if not for the COVID-19 pandemic."
“We know how important Old Tucson is to our community, guests and employees,” he said. “We did everything possible to keep our loyal fans safe when we were open, but the ongoing COVID-19 public health protocols and restrictions limited park attendance to the point where Old Tucson could no longer stay in business.”
Pima County took over responsibility for the theme park on September 14, 2020, and "will seek ideas from potential operators and lessors about what Old Tucson could be in the future," the news release said.
On August 24, 2021, the Reno locomotive was acquired by the revived Virginia and Truckee Railroad and was trucked off the property. She arrived in Virginia City, Nevada for the first time since 1938 two days later.
While closed, Pima County Administrator said the county has invested over $1M on upgrading the site and repairing neglected items to prepare the facility for a new operator.
On April 5, 2022, Pima County selected American Heritage Railways (AHR) as the new operators of Old Tucson (aka Old Tucson Studios). It would be operated as Old Tucson Entertainment, LLC. The famous sister-site, Mescal Movie Set, was not part of the deal and will not be operated by the new AHR operators.
This historic movie location and theme park will reopen on Oct 6, 2022 with the popular "Nightfall at Old Tucson" event followed by a new Christmas-themed event called "Yuletide at Old Tucson" on Nov 25, 2022. John Harper serves as vice president and Chief Operating Officer of American Heritage Railways and will oversee the property's Executive Team, General Managers, and key employees. John has over 10 years in the historic preservation industry as well. They plan to utilize the facility not only as a theme-park but also reinstate its history as a filming location with the addition of sets, backdrops, sound stage, and pre and post-production facilities in 2023.
In July 2022, the Arizona State legislature passed the Arizona Film Tax Incentive bill which would encourage productions to return to facilities like Old Tucson. The passage of this bill is likely to increase film production at Old Tucson. As of Sept. 2022, they have been fielding offers for film and TV series to resume.
Movies filmed at Old Tucson
Many films, not all of them Westerns, were shot at Old Tucson Studios in whole or in part including the following:
1940: Arizona
1945: The Bells of St. Mary's
1947: The Last Round-up
1950: Winchester '73
1950: Broken Arrow
1951: The Last Outpost
1955: Strange Lady in Town
1955: Ten Wanted Men
1955: The Violent Men
1956: Backlash
1956: The Broken Star
1956: Walk the Proud Land
1957: 3:10 to Yuma
1957: Gunfight at the O.K. Corral
1957: The Guns of Fort Petticoat
1957: Carbine Webb and the Four Sisters
1957: Tale of Consequence
1958: Buchanan Rides Alone
1958: The Badlanders
1958: Gunsmoke in Tucson
1958: The Lone Ranger and the Lost City of Gold
1959: Last Train from Gun Hill
1959: Rio Bravo
1959: The Hangman
1960: Cimarron
1960: Heller in Pink Tights
1961: The Deadly Companions
1961: Sounds of Arizona
1961: A Thunder of Drums
1962: Young Guns of Texas
1963: McLintock!
1963: Lilies of the Field
1964: The Outrage
1965: Arizona Raiders
1965: The Great Sioux Massacre
1965: The Reward
1966: El Dorado
1966: Johnny Tiger
1966: Pistolero
1967: Hombre
1967: Return of the Gunfighter
1967: The Last Challenge
1967: The Way West
1967: A Time for Killing
1967: The Long Ride Home
1967: Rango
1968: The Mini-Skirt Mob
1969: Heaven with a Gun
1969: Lonesome Cowboys
1969: Young Billy Young
1969: Again a Love Story
1969: The Mountain Men
1969: Charro!
1969: Whatever Happened to Aunt Alice
1970: Dirty Dingus Magee
1970: C.C. & Company
1970: Monte Walsh
1970: Rio Lobo
1971: Wild Rovers
1971: The Animals
1971: Ballad of the Old West
1971: Bearcats!
1971: Dirty Little Billy
1971: Forgotten Man
1971: Gunfight at the OK Corral
1971: Moments of Destiny – The OK Corral
1971: Scandalous John
1971: Showdown at the O.K Corral
1971: A Ton of Grass Goes to Pot
1971: Yuma
1971: Death of a Gunfighter
1972: Joe Kidd
1972: Moonfire
1972: Rage
1972: Night of the Lepus
1972: Pocket Money
1972: The Legend of Nigger Charley
1972: The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean
1973: Guns of a Stranger
1973: Boomtown Band and Cattle Company
1973: The Man Who Loved Cat Dancing
1973: Outlaw Legacy
1974: Death Wish
1974: A Knife for the Ladies
1974: The Trial of Billy Jack
1974: Abduction of St. Anne
1974: Backtrack
1974: The Gun and the Pulpit
1974: The Hanged Man
1974: Mark of Zorro
1974: Pray for the Wildcats
1974: Wish You Were Here
1975: Posse
1975: Go USA
1975: Katherine
1976: Hawmps!
1976: The Last Hard Men
1976: The Lizard
1976: The Quest
1976: Royce
1976: A Star is Born
1976: Tales of Nunundaga
1976: Wanted: The Sundance Woman
1976: The Outlaw Josey Wales
1977: Another Man, Another Woman
1977: Harlem Globetrotters
1977: The Incredible Rocky Mountain Race
1977: Stones
1978: The American Cowboy
1978: Wild and Wooly
1978: Go West Young Girl
1978: The Sacketts
1979: The Villain
1979: Authentic Life of Billy the Kid
1979: Buffalo Soldiers
1979: The Dooley Brothers
1979: Frisco Kid
1979: Hunter's Moon
1979: Japanese Quiz Show
1979: Wild Wild West Revisited
1979: The Gambler
1980: Tom Horn
1980: Death Valley
1980: High Noon part II: The Return of Will Kane
1980: More Wild, Wild West
1980: That's Incredible: Lost Dog
1981: Father Murphy
1981: The Cannonball Run
1980: American Frontier
1980: Ransom of Red Chief
1983: Calamity Jane
1983: Cannon Ball Run Part II
1983: I Married Wyatt Earp
1983: September Gun
1983: The Reflection Natas
1984: The Assumption
1984: Flashpoint
1984: Little Arliss
1984: Revenge of the Nerds
1985: The Ascension
1985: Centurion Odyssey
1985: Cowboy Up
1985: Dream West
1985: Go West-Sing West
1985: Jackals
1985: Le Grand Rallye
1986: Buckeye and Blue
1986: Here a Thief, There a Thief
1986: It's the Girl in the Red Truck
1986: Three Amigos
1986: Stagecoach (TV movie)
1987: Desperado #1
1987: Desperado #2
1987: Nobody Likes It Hot
1987: Poker Alice
1987: Walker
1987: The Quick and the Dead (TV movie)
1988: Ghost Town
1988: Once Upon a Texas Train
1988: Red River
1988: Return of the Desperado
1988: South of Reno
1988: Stones for Ibarra
1989: Desperado Badland Justice
1989: El Diablo
1989: Laughing Dead
1989: Law at Randado
1989: Third Degree Burn
1989: Gore Vidal's Billy the Kid
1990: Young Guns II
1990: The Highwaymen
1990: Two Fisted Tales
1990: The Legend of Grizzly Adams
1991: Four Eyes and Six Guns
1991: Gunsmoke III: To the Last Man
1991: Kid
1992: California Dreaming
1992: Ghosts of Ruby
1992: Legends of the West
1992: Newton's Apple
1992: Showdown
1992: Stay Tuned
1993: Nemesis (filmed scenes in 1992)
1993: Tombstone
1993: Geronimo
1993: Gunsmoke V: One Man's Justice
1993: Horse Opera
1993: Marshal Charley
1993: Music of the West
1993: Posse
1994: The Last Bounty Hunter
1994: The West
1994: Terminal Velocity
1994: Lightning Jack
1995: Hard Bounty
1995: The Quick and the Dead
1995: Legend
1995: Timemaster
1995: Under the Hula Moon
1997: Buffalo Soldiers
1997: Los Locos
2000: South of Heaven, West of Hell
2002: Legend of the Phantom Rider
2003: Ghost Rock
2003: Gunfight at the OK Corral
2004: Treasure of the Seven Mummies
2005: Miracle at Sage Creek
2005: Cutoff
2005: Dual
2005: Ghost Town
2005: Wild West Tech – Gang Technology
2006: The Dead Evil Seven Mummies
2006: Wild and the West
2007: Legend of Pearl Hart
2007: The Wild West
2008: Mad, Mad Wagon Party
2011: To Kill a Memory
2013: Hot Bath an’ a Stiff Drink
2019: The Legend of 5 Mile Cave
Some scenes from the 1994 arcade game Lethal Enforcers II: Gunfighters from Konami were also shot at Old Tucson Studios, along with The Last Bounty Hunter, Fast Draw Showdown, and Shootout at Old Tucson by American Laser Games.
Television
Many TV series and TV movies have had at least one episode filmed at Old Tucson in whole or in part including the following:
1958–1961: Wanted Dead or Alive
1959–1965: Rawhide
1962: Have Gun Will Travel
1963: Wagon Train
1966–1969: Death Valley Days
1966–1971: The High Chaparral
1966/1971–72: Bonanza
1967: Dundee and the Culhane
1971: Bearcats! (either the TV movie title that started the series or at least one episode)
1972–1974: Gunsmoke
1972–1975: Kung Fu
1974–1975: Petrocelli
1975–1976: The Young Pioneers
1977–1979: How The West Was Won
1977–1983: Little House on the Prairie
1978: The New Maverick (TV movie)
1980: Hart to Hart
1984: Highway to Heaven
1984: Ripley's Believe it or Not
1984: Little House on the Prairie: Bless All the Dear Children (TV movie)
1985–1988: Webster
1987: Highway to Heaven (episode: "Why Punish the Children")
1987: Reading Rainbow (episode: "Meanwhile Back at the Ranch")
1987: Love Among Thieves (TV movie)
1988–1991: The Young Riders
1988: One Life to Live
1989: America's Most Wanted
1989: WWF Prime Time Wrestling
1990: Unsolved Mysteries
1998: Magnificent Seven
See also
Old Vegas
Goldfield Ghost Town
References
External links
Official site
American film studios
Buildings and structures in Tucson, Arizona
Culture of Tucson, Arizona
History of Tucson, Arizona
Landmarks in Tucson, Arizona
Tourist attractions in Tucson, Arizona
Western (genre) theme parks
1939 establishments in Arizona
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden%20line
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Golden line
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The golden line is a type of Latin dactylic hexameter frequently mentioned in Latin classrooms and in contemporary scholarship about Latin poetry, but which apparently began as a verse-composition exercise in schools in early modern Britain.
Definition
The golden line is variously defined, but most uses of the term conform to the oldest known definition from Burles' Latin grammar of 1652:
"If the Verse does consist of two Adjectives, two Substantives and a Verb only, the first Adjective agreeing with the first Substantive, the second with the second, and the Verb placed in the midst, it is called a Golden Verse: as,
Lurida terribiles miscent aconita novercae. (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.147)
Pendula flaventem pingebat bractea crinem."
These lines have the abVAB structure, in which two adjectives are placed at the beginning of the line and two nouns at the end in an interlocking order.
Lurida terribiles miscent aconita novercae.
adjective a, adjective b, VERB, noun A, noun B (abVAB)
"fearsome stepmothers mix ghastly aconites"
Pendula is an adjective modifying bractea and flaventem is an adjective modifying crinem.
Pendula flaventem pingebat bractea crinem.
"hanging gold leaf was colouring her yellow hair"
Another would be Virgil, Aeneid 4.139:
Aurea purpuream subnectit fibula vestem,
"a golden clasp fastens her purple cloak"
Word-by-word the line translates as "golden purple fastens clasp cloak". The endings on the Latin words indicate their syntactical relationship, whereas English uses word order to do the same task. So a Latin listener or reader would know that golden and clasp go together even though the words are separated.
The term "golden line" and its form originated in Britain, where it was an exercise for composing Latin verses. The first known use, as aureus versus, is by the Welsh epigrammatist John Owen in a footnote to his own Latin poem in 1612. The definition quoted above is in an obscure Latin textbook published in England in 1652, which never sold well and of which only four copies are extant today. It appeared in about a dozen citations between 1612 and 1900, including in some American and British Latin Grammars in the 19th and early 20th century. Scholars outside the English-speaking world have only mentioned the golden line since 1955. It is not found in any current handbooks on Latin grammar or metrics except for Mahoney's online Overview of Latin Syntax and Panhuis's Latin Grammar.
The term "golden line" did not exist in Classical antiquity. Classical poets probably did not strive to produce them (but see the teres versus in the history section below). S. E. Winbolt, the most thorough commentator on the golden line, described the form as a natural combination of obvious tendencies in Latin hexameter, such as the preference for putting adjectives towards the beginning of the line and nouns at the emphatic end. The golden line is an extreme form of hyperbaton.
There are about ten different definitions of the "golden line". Often scholars do not explicitly offer a definition, but instead present statistics or lists of golden lines, from which one must extrapolate their criteria for deeming a verse golden.
The so-called "silver line"
Although Burles's 1652 definition (see the introduction above) is explicit about the abVAB structure, many scholars also consider lines with this chiastic pattern to be "golden":
Humanum miseris volvunt erroribus aevum (Prudentius, Hamartigenia 377)
adjective a, adjective b, VERB, noun B, noun A (abVBA)
"they involve the human race with wretched errors"
Perhaps this more inclusive definition is based upon the famous definition offered by the poet John Dryden in his introduction to the Silvae, "That Verse commonly which they call golden, or two Substantives and two Adjectives with a Verb betwixt them to keep the peace." Wilkinson offered the humorous definition "silver line" for this variant. Wilkinson also offered another humorous distinction, the "bronze line", but this term has rarely been used since.
Criteria for inclusion and exclusion
Different scholars use different definitions of a golden line. Most scholars exclude the less common variants in which one or both nouns precede the verb, gold (aBVAb, AbVaB, ABVab) and silver (aBVbA, AbVBa, ABVba). Some scholars include lines with extra prepositions, adverbs, exclamations, conjunctions, and relative pronouns. For example, Orchard does not offer a definition of the golden line, but his criteria can be extracted from his list of the golden lines in Aldhelm's Carmen de virginitate. He allows relative pronouns (2, 4, 112, 221, 288), prepositions (278, 289), conjunctions like ut and dum (95, 149, 164, 260), exclamations (45), and adverbs (14). He also allows extra adjectives, as in "Haec suprema". He includes silver lines (4, 123, 260). He disqualifies inverted or mixed order, where nouns come first (101, 133, 206, 236, 275, 298). He allows participles as the verb in the middle (71, 182), but he does not include the periphrastic verbal form in 271: Atque futurorum gestura est turma nepotum.
Use by classical poets
Statistics illuminate some long-term trends in the use of the golden line. The following statistical tables are based on one scholar's definitions of golden and "silver" lines (the tables are from Mayer (2002)). with additions of Juvenal, Calpurnius, and Nemesianus from Heikkinen). Table 1 gives the totals for the golden and silver lines in classical poetry, listed in approximate chronological order from Catullus to Statius. Table 2 gives similar figures for a few poets in late antiquity, while Table 3 gives figures for a selection of early medieval poems from the fifth to tenth centuries.
In all three tables, the first column is the total number of verses in the work in question, followed by the number of "golden lines" and "silver lines" in the work. The last three columns give the percentage of golden and silver lines in respect to the total number of verses. Aside from a few exceptions, only poems with more than 200 lines are included, since in shorter poems the percentage figures are arbitrary and can be quite high. See, for example, the combined percentage of 14.29 in the Apocolocyntosis. Other short poems that are not included on the tables, such as the Copa, Moretum, Lydia, and Einsiedeln Eclogues, have rather high combined percentages between 3.45 and 5.26.
Table 1 Golden and Silver Lines in Classical Poetry
From Table 1 it appears that golden and silver lines occur in varying frequencies throughout the classical period, even within the corpus of a single author. There are no Latin golden or silver lines before Catullus, who uses them in poem 64 to an extent almost unparalleled in classical literature. Lucretius has a few examples. Horace has about 1 in every 300 lines, as does Virgil's Aeneid. Virgil's earlier works have a higher percentage. Ovid and Lucan use the golden line about once in every 100 lines. The high percentage of golden lines found in the Laus Pisonis and other works of the Neronian period has led some scholars to claim that the form is a mark of Neronian aesthetics. While several scholars have claimed that the golden line is mainly used to close periods and descriptions, the poems do not seem to bear this out.
Heikkinen makes the case that the golden line was a conscious feature of classical Latin pastoral poetry, as shown by the high percentages in Vergil's, Calpurnius's, and Nemesianus's Eclogues. However, statistics cannot prove that the golden line was a recognized form of classical poetics.
Table 2: Golden lines in selected late antique poetry
As Table 2 shows, in late antiquity the use of golden lines remains within the general range found in classical times. Of particular interest is their use by Claudian. On the average the golden line is found in every 50 lines of Claudian, but there are considerable differences between works. Table 2 gives his poem with the lowest percentage (On Honorius's Fourth Consulship) and that with the highest (On Honorius's Third Consulship).
Figurative poetry, such as that of Publilius Optatianus Porfyrius and, in Carolingian times, that of Hrabanus Maurus, rarely uses the golden line. These poets use a variety of hexameters praised by Diomedes: rhopalic verses, echo verses, and reciprocal verses. They use the golden line only once or twice, possibly because the form is rather elementary compared to their usual pyrotechnic displays.
Use by medieval poets
Table 3: Golden lines in some early medieval poetry
Table 3 reveals several interesting tendencies in golden line usage in the early medieval period. The fact that Caelius Sedulius, Aldhelm, and the Hisperica Famina have a pronounced preference for the form has long been noted. Corippus in the sixth century also uses the golden line significantly more than classical authors. Note that there is not a comparable increase in the silver line: If anything, these authors have fewer silver lines. This trend may be due to the growing fondness for leonine rhymes, which are facilitated by the golden line structure but not by the silver line. Another tendency, seen in Corippus, Sedulius, Aldhelm, and Walther de Speyer, is an extremely large number of golden lines in the beginning of a work, which is not matched in the rest of the work. Many scholars only tallied figures for the golden line at the beginnings of these poems, and therefore can have inflated numbers. In the first 500 lines of Aldhelm's Carmen de virginitate, for example, there are 42 golden lines and 7 silver lines, yielding percentages of 8.4 and 1.4 respectively; in the last 500 lines (2405-2904) there are only 20 golden lines and 4 silver lines, yielding percentages of 4 and 0.8 respectively—a reduction by half. Corippus's Ioannis and Sedulius's Paschale have even more extreme reductions. These skewed percentages may indicate that the golden line is an ideal that is artfully strived for but which cannot be continuously realized over the course of a long epic.
Another possible explanation for the diminished use of golden lines within an author's work (observed already in Virgil; see Table 1) is that, with time, poets may gradually free themselves from the constraints of the form. The golden line may have been taught in the schools as a quick way to elegance, which poets would use with increasing moderation as their experience grew. Two poems that appear to be juvenalia point to this conclusion. The Hisperica Famina is a bizarre text which is apparently from seventh-century Ireland. It seems to be a collection of school compositions on set themes that have been run together. Of its 612 lines, 144—23.53 percent—have the golden line structure. Most of the lines that are not "golden" are merely too short to have more than three words; or, occasionally, they are too long. These extremely short or long lines are due to the fact that the poem is not written in hexameter. It may be written in some rough stress-based meter, but even that cannot be stated with certainty. But the ideal model that the composers took for their verses appears to have been the golden line. Walther de Speyer composed his poem on the life of St. Christopher in 984 when he was seventeen. The percentage of golden lines is high, but the number of near-misses is enormous. When you read Walther you get the impression that he was programmed in school to write golden lines.
The large number of golden lines in poetry from the sixth through ninth centuries could reflect the combination of several trends, such as the preference for hyperbaton and the growing popularity of leonine rhymes. The statistics do not (and cannot) prove that the form was ever taught and practiced as a discrete form. Even if the golden line was not a conscious poetic conceit in the classical or medieval period, it might have some utility today as a term of analysis in discussing such poetry. However, the form now appears in canonical English commentaries to authors from Callimachus to Aldhelm and most scholars who refer to the golden line today treat it as an important poetic form of indisputable antiquity.
History
The first person to mention the golden line may be the grammarian Diomedes Grammaticus, in a list of types of Latin hexameters in his Ars grammatica. This work was written before 500 CE, and it has been plausibly suggested that he wrote after 350 CE.
Diomedes' chapter entitled "De pedibus metricis sive significationum industria" (Keil 498-500) describes the teres versus, which has been identified by del Castillo (p. 133) as the golden line:
Teretes sunt qui volubilem et cohaerentem continuant dictionem, ut
Torva Mimalloneis inflatur tibia bombis
Rounded verses are those that conjoin a fluent and contiguous phrase, such as
Torva Mimalloneis inflatur tibia bombis.
The example verse is a golden line. However, it is difficult to understand what "conjoin a fluent and contiguous phrase" ( volubilem et cohaerentem continuant dictionem) means and how exactly it applies to this verse. None of the other ancient metricians use the term teres versus or (the Greek form that Diomedes mentions as its equivalent). The only other commentator to mention the teres versus was the Renaissance scholar Julius Caesar Scaliger (1484–1558), who did not seem to understand Diomedes. In his book Poetices Libri Septem (1964 Stuttgart facsimile reprint of the 1561 Lyon edition, p. 71-72, text in Mayer), Scaliger offers a muddled attempt at understanding Diomedes. He mentions that "Quintilian and others" mention this as a teres versus:
Mollia luteola pingens vaccinia calta (a mangled version of Virgil, Eclogue 2.50)
Our manuscripts of Quintilian do not include this verse of Virgil, but it is the first pure golden line in Virgil and it becomes the most famous golden line citation. Scaliger's use of this example is evidence that someone between Diomedes and him took the term teres versus to be similar to a modern golden line.
The English fascination with the golden line seems to trace back to Bede. Bede advocated a double hyperbaton, and also the placing of adjectives before nouns. In the examples from each criterion (double hyperbaton and adjectives before nouns) Bede includes at least one golden line, but from his other examples it is clear that he did not limit these injunctions to the golden line:
But the best and most beautiful arrangement [optima ... ac pulcherrima positio] of the dactylic verse is when the penultimate parts respond to the first ones and the last parts respond to the middle ones [primis penultima, ac mediis respondet extrema]. Sedulius was in the habit of using this arrangement often, as in
Pervia divisi patuerunt caerula ponti [Sedulius, Paschal. 1.136, a golden line]
and
Sicca peregrinas stupuerunt marmora plantas [Sedulius, Paschal. 1.140, another golden line]
and
Edidit humanas animal pecuale loquelas [Sedulius, Paschal. 1.162, not a golden line]
Bede's remarks in his De arte metrica were repeated and made more strict by Renaissance guides to versification, ultimately leading to Burles's description of the golden line. The earliest is the 1484 De arte metrificandi of Jacob Wimpfeling:
It will be a mark of extraordinary beauty and no mean glory will accrue when you have distanced an adjective from its substantive by means of intervening words, as if you were to say
pulcher prevalidis pugnabat tiro lacertis.
And two years later the Ars Versificandi of Conrad Celtes followed Wimpfeling:
Fifth precept: the most charming form of poem will be to have distanced an epithet from its substantive by means of intervening words, as if you were to say
maiores{que} cadunt altis de montibus umbre
pulcer prevalidis pugnabit tiro lacertis.
In 1512 Johannes Despauterius quoted Celtis's remarks verbatim in his Ars versificatoria in the section De componendis carminibus praecepta generalia and then more narrowly defined excellence in hexameters in the section De carmine elegiaco:
Elegiac poetry rejoices in two epithets, this is to say adjectives, (not swollen, or puffed-up, or affected adjectives). This is almost always done so that the two adjectives are placed in front of two substantives, so that the first responds to the first. Nonetheless, you will frequently find different types, for we are not imparting laws, but good style. Propertius, book 2:
Sic me nec solae poterunt avertere sylvae
Nec vaga muscosis flumina fusa iugis.
Nor is this inelegant in other genres of poetry, for examples
Sylvestrem tenui musam meditaris avena.
Care must be taken that the two words are not in the same case and number, because that leads to ambiguity. That is not the case when Virgil says
Mollia lutheola pingit vaccinia calta.
Moreover, there should not be two epithets [for one noun], because that is faulty according to Servius. An example would be:
dulcis frigida aqua.
Despauterius here combines Bede's two rules into one general precept of elegance: Two adjectives should be placed before two substantives, the first agreeing with the first. It is not quite the golden line, for there is no provision for a verb in the middle. However, Despauterius quotes the famous example of the golden line, Eclogue 2.50, as a good example of the type. This line is the first pure golden line in Virgil's works. It is also the example line given in Scaliger above.
The same general remarks about epithets are found in John Clarke's 1633 Manu-ductio ad Artem Carmificam seu Dux Poeticus (345):
Epitheta, ante sua substantiva venustissime collocantur, ut :
Pendula flaventem pingebat bractea crinem
Aurea purpuream subnectit fibula vestem, [Aeneid 4.139]
Vecta est fraenato caerula pisce Thetis.
The source of Clarke's first example line is unknown, but the same line is also one of Burles's examples of the golden line. Burles's discussion of the golden line is clearly based upon this tradition concerning the position of epithets. Burles's golden line is a narrow application of the principles outlined by Bede almost a millennium earlier.
The earliest citations of the golden line term, such as Burles, are in British guides to composing Latin verses, and it seems that the term derives from school assignments in 17th century Britain and perhaps earlier.
Scholars like to believe that their critical approaches to classical poetry are direct and immediate, and that they understand classical literature in its own context or, depending on their critical stance, from the perspective of their own context(s). However, the use of "the golden line" as a critical term in modern scholarship demonstrates the power of the intervening critical tradition. The golden line may originally have been the teres versus of Diomedes, but this fact does not legitimate its use as a critical term today. No commentators today count up versus inlibati, iniuges, quinquipartes, or any of the other bizarre forms assembled by Diomedes.
Far more interesting than the appearance of the golden line in ancient and medieval poetry is the use of the term by these modern critics. Today major works and commentaries on canonical poets in Latin and Greek discuss them in light of the golden line, and occasionally even the silver line: Neil Hopkinson's Callimachus, William Anderson's Metamorphoses, Richard Thomas's Georgics, Alan Cameron's Claudian, Andy Orchard's Aldhelm. Most of these critics assume or imply that golden lines were deliberate figures, practiced since Hellenistic times and artfully contrived and composed by the poets in question. This process of scouring the canonical texts for such special verse forms is entirely in the spirit of the ancient lists of Servius, Victorinus, and Diomedes Grammaticus. Thus, in a curious way, the arcane wordplay that fascinated ancient grammarians has—in the English-speaking world, at least—come again to play a role in interpreting and explicating the central works of the classical canon.
In non-English scholarship
Although English-speaking scholars have referred to the golden line since 1612, the first non-English scholars to mention the form appear to be around 1955. Non-English-speaking scholars who refer to the golden line in print usually pointedly use the English term: Munari 1955:53-4 "golden lines", Hernández Vista 1963: "golden lines", Thraede p. 51: "die Spielarten der 'golden line.' " Baños p. 762: "el denominado versus aureus o golden line" Hellegouarc'h p. 277: "l'origine du 'versus aureus' ou 'golden line.'" Schmitz p. 149 n 113, "der von John Dryden gepraegte Terminus Golden Line." Baños, Enríquez, and Hellegouarc'h all refer exclusively to Wilkinson 215–217 and other English scholars for discussions of the term. Typical would be the French article of Kerlouégan, which never mentions the term, but which is entirely devoted to the form. Scholars writing in all languages use English golden line used together with translations such as verso áureo (Spanish, first attested 1961), verso aureo (Italian 1974), goldene Zeile (German 1977), vers d’or (French 1997), goldener Vers (German 1997), gouden vers (Dutch 1998), goue versreels (Afrikaans 2001), χρυσóς στíχоς (Greek 2003), Золотой стих (Russian 2004), zlaté verše (Slovak 2007), verso dourado (Portuguese 2009) and vers d’or (Catalan 2013). However, most scholarship in languages besides English (and by non-native speakers writing in English) has been versus aureus.
Precursors
These works are often cited in golden line literature, but they do not mention the term and are only peripherally connected to the form, except for Kerlouégan:
1908 – Friedrich Caspari, De ratione, quae inter Vergilium et Lucanum intercedat, quaestiones selectae. Dissertation, Leipzig, p. 85-93.
1916 – Eduard Norden, P. Vergilius Maro Aeneis Buch VI Teubner, Leipzig Berlin, p. 384-389.
1949 – J. Marouzeau, L' Ordre des mots dans la phrase latine. Volume Complementaire p. 106 paragraph 266 and p. 127 paragraph 18.
1972 – François Kerlouégan, "Une mode stylistique dans la prose latine des pays celtiques." Études Celtiques 13:275–297.
Chronological listing of non-English golden line citations
1955 – F. Munari, Marci Valerii Bucolica. Collez. Filol. Testi e Manuali. 2 (Firenze: Vallecchi Editore, 1955) p. 53.
1961 – J. de Echave-Sustaeta, 'Acotaciones al estilo de Las Geórgicas', Helmantica 12, no. 37 (1961), pp. 5–26.
1962 – J. Echave-Sustaeta, Virgilio Eneida libro II. Introducción, edición y comentario, Madrid: Clásicos Emerita, C.S.I.C 1962 p. 40.
1963 – V. E. Hernández Vista, 'La introducción del episodio de la muerte de Príamo: estudio estilístico', Estudios Clásicos 38, (1963), pp. 120–36.
1964 – M. Lokrantz, L'opera poetica Di S. Pier damiani. Acta Univ. Stockh. Stud. Lat. Stockh. (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1964).
1969 – Serafín Enríquez López, Virgilio en sus versos aureos : tesis de Licenciatura, Barcelona : Universidad de Barcelona. Facultad de Filosofía y Letras. Sección Lenguas Clásicas, 1969 Directed by Javier Echave-Sustaeta.
1969 – Iosephus (J.M.) Mir, "Laocoontis Embolium" Latinitas vol 17 1969 p. 101-112.
1970 – Iosephus (J.M.) Mir “De verborum ordine in oratione Latina. Pars I.” Latinitas, 18: 32-50, p. 40.
1972 – Iosephus (J.M.) Mir, “Quid nos doceat Vergilius ex disciplina stilistica proposito quodam Aeneidis loco” Palaestrina Latina 42.4 (1972) p. 163-176. p.174-175.
1972 – Francisco Palencia Cortés "El mundo visual-dinámico-sonoro de Virgilio." Cuadernos de Filología Clásica 3 (1972) p. 357-393. (p. 370-374).
1973 – Veremans, J. 1973. “Compte-Rendu Des Séances Du Groupe Strasbourgeois.” Rev. Etud. Lat. 51: 29–32. See Veremans 1976
1973 – Javier Echave-Sustaeta, "Virgilio desde dentro dos claves de estilo en las «Églogas»" Estudios clásicos,17, Nº 69-70, 1973, p. 261-289. p.284.
1974 – Arsenio Pérez Álvarez El Verso áureo en Juvenco : tesis de licenciatura ; bajo la dirección del Doctor José Closa Farré. Barcelona : Universidad de Barcelona. Facultad de Filosofía y Letras. Departamento de Filología Latina, 1974
1974 – G. B. Conte, Saggio Di Commento a Lucano: Pharsalia VI 118-260, l'Aristia Di Sceva (Pisa: Libreria goliardica, 1974), p. 72.
1975 – Werner Simon, Claudiani Panegyricus de consulatu Manlii Theodori: (Carm. 16 u. 17), Berlin: Seitz, 1975, p. 141.
1976 – Ulrich Justus Stache, Flavius Cresconius Corippus in laudem Iustini Augusti Minoris. Ein Kommentar. Berlin: Mielke 1976, p. 110
1976 – Jozef Veremans, “L'asclépiade mineur chez Horace, Sénèque, Terentianus Maurus, Prudence, Martianus Capella et Luxorius”, Latomus, 35, Fasc. 1 (JANVIER-MARS 1976), pp. 12-42. Note: the apparent beginning of a bizarre Francophone understanding of the term to mean minor asclepiads with two hemistichs each with 2 words of 3 syllables.
1976 – Dietmar Korzeniewski, Hirtengedichte aus spätrömischer und karolingischer Zeit: Marcus Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus, Severus Sanctus Endelechius, Modoinus, Hirtengedicht aus d. Codex Gaddianus, Wiss. Buchges., 1976 p. 126
1977 – Victor Schmidt, Redeunt Saturnia regna: Studien zu Vergils vierter Ecloga, Dissertation. Groningen., 1977 p. 132 Attributessperrungen (goldene Zeile) also p. 10.
1977 – Antoni González i Senmartí, “En torno al problema de la Cronología de Nono: su posible datación a partir de testimonios directos e indirectos,” Universitas Tarraconensis 2 (1977) p. 25-160. p. 95-96, 151.
1977 – Javier Echave-Sustaeta, “El estilo de la Oda I, 1 de Horacio,” Anuario de filología, ISSN 0210-1343, Nº. 3, 1977, págs. 81-100, p. 92
1978 – Klaus Thraede. Der Hexameter in Rom. Munich: C. H. Beck'sche. p. 51: "die Spielarten der 'golden line.'
1978 – Giovanni Ravenna “Note su una formula narrativa (forte -- verbo finito) " in Miscellanea di Studi in Memoria di Marino Barchiesi. Rivista Di Cultura Classica E Medioevale vol 20 1978 p. 1117-1128. p. 1118 1126.
1978 – Raul Xavier. Vocabulário de poesia Rio de Janeiro: Imago. 1978. p. 53.
1987 – J. Hellegouarc'h, "Les yeux de la marquise...Quelques observations sur les commutations verbales dans l'hexamètre latin." Revue des Études Latines 65:261–281.
1988 – S. Enríquez El hexámetro áureo en latín. Datos para su estudio, Tesis doctoral, Granada (available in microfiche).
1990 – Marina del Castillo Herrera, La metrica Latina en el Siglo IV. Diomedes y su entorno. Granada: Universidad de Granada. Connects Diomedes' teres versus with the áureo verso but does not define or elaborate.
1992 – J. M. Baños Baños, "El versus aureus de Ennio a Estacio", Latomus 51 p. 762-744.
1993 – Norbert Delhey. Apollinaris Sidonius, Carm. 22: Burgus Pontii Leontii. Einleitung, Text und Kommentar. Untersuchungen zur antiken Literatur und Geschichte 40. Berlin/New York, p. 86. (silver lines).
1994 – J. J. L. Smolenaars, Statius: Thebaid VII, Commentary. Leiden: E.J. Brill, p. 37.
1995 – Fernando Navarro Antolín, Lygdamus: Corpus Tibullianum III. 1–6, New York : E.J. Brill, 1995, p. 381.
1998 – Dirk Panhuis, Latijnse grammatica. Garant, Leuven-Apeldoorn "gouden, zilveren, en bronzen vers."
1999 – S. Enríquez. "El hexámetro áureo en la poesía latina", Estudios de Métrica Latina" I, pp.327–340, Luque Moreno-Díaz Díaz (eds.).
2000 – Christine Schmitz, Das Satirische in Juvenals Satiren. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2000, p. 148-9.
2003 – Abdel-gayed Mohamed, A.H. 2003. Scholia Sto 10 Vivlio Epigrammaton Tou Martiali (Epigr. 1-53) Σχολια Στο 10ο Βιβλιο Επιγραμματων Του Μαρτιαλη (Επιγρ. 1 – 53). Thessalonike, Greece: Aristoteleio Panepistemio Thessalonikis Philosophiki Scholi Αριστοτελειο Πανεπιστημιο Θεσσαλονικης Φιλοσοφικη Σχολη - Τμημα Φιλολογιας Τομεας Κλασικων Σποδων.
2004 – Andreas Grüner, Venus ordinis der Wandel von Malerei und Literatur im Zeitalter der römischen Bürgerkriege. Paderborn: Verlag Ferd.Schoning GmbH & Co, 2004, p. 88-94. "Seit Dryden bezeichnet man das betreffende Schema als golden line."
2004 – Enrico Di Lorenzo. L'esametro greco e latino. Analisi, problemi e prospettive, Atti delle "Giornate di Studio" su L'esametro greco e latino: analisi, problemi e prospettive. Fisciano 28 e 29 maggio 2002. Quaderni del Dipartimento di Scienze dell'Antichità. Napoli, p. 77.
2004 – Shmarakov, R.L. 2004. “‘Jeweled Style’ и Архитектоника Целого: ‘Гильдонова Война’ Клавдиана.” Вестник Тульского Государственного Педагогического Университета. 1: 67–73.
2007 – Škoviera, D. 2007. “Der Humanistische Dichter Valentinus Ecchius Und Die Legende von Dem Heiligen Paulus Dem Eremiten = Humanistický Básnik Valentín Ecchius a Legenda o Svätom Pavlovi Pustovníkovi.” Graecolatina Orient. 29–30: 109–40.
2008 – Unknown author "Gouden Vers: PV in het midden + 2 adj vooraan + 2 subst achteraan (of omgekeerd)"
2009 – Vieira, B. 2009. “Em Que Diferem Os Versos de Virgílio e Lucano.” Aletria Rev. Estud. Lit. 19.3: 29–45.
See also
Hyperbaton
Prosody (Latin)
Synchysis
Notes
Bibliography
Edward Burles, Grammatica Burlesa. London 1652, p. 357. Facsimile edition, ed. R. C. Alston, in the series English Linguistics 1500-1800 (A Collection of Facsimile Reprints), 307. Menston, England: Scholar Press Ltd. 1971.
M. del Castillo Herrera, La metrica Latina en el Siglo IV. Diomedes y su entorno, Granada: Universidad de Granada, 1990.
Seppo Heikkinen, "From Persius to Wilkinson: The Golden Line Revisited", Arctos : Acta Philologica Fennica 49 (2015), pages 57-77.
K. Mayer, "The schoolboys' revenge: how the golden line entered classical scholarship", Classical Receptions Journal, Volume 12, Issue 2, April 2020, Pages 248–278, https://doi.org/10.1093/crj/clz029
K. Mayer, "The Golden Line: Ancient and Medieval Lists of Special Hexameters and Modern Scholarship," in C. Lanham, ed., Latin Grammar and Rhetoric: Classical Theory and Modern Practice, Continuum Press 2002, pp. 139–179.
A. Orchard, The Poetic Art of Aldhelm, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
L. P. Wilkinson, Golden Latin Artistry, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963, pp. 215–216.
S. E. Winbolt, Latin Hexameter Verse: An Aid To Composition, London: Methuen, 1903, pp. 220–221.
External links
Scans of early citations of the "golden line" in a Flickr album
The golden line according to Magister J. White's Real New Latin Grammar
The golden line in Carmina's guide to interpreting poetry
The golden line according to Anne Mahoney's Overview of Latin Syntax, (note that one of her examples of the golden line is a line with a noun in the genitive instead of an adjective)
Uni-Koeln.de, an article suggesting that the golden line is from Greek Hellenistic poetry, J.D. Reed, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 106 (1995) 94–95
Emory.edu, note about the golden line in N. W. Slater, "Calpurnius and the Anxiety of Vergilian Influence".
Poetic rhythm
Virgil
Latin poetry
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital%20control
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Capital control
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Capital controls are residency-based measures such as transaction taxes, other limits, or outright prohibitions that a nation's government can use to regulate flows from capital markets into and out of the country's capital account. These measures may be economy-wide, sector-specific (usually the financial sector), or industry specific (e.g. "strategic" industries). They may apply to all flows, or may differentiate by type or duration of the flow (debt, equity, or direct investment, and short-term vs. medium- and long-term).
Types of capital control include exchange controls that prevent or limit the buying and selling of a national currency at the market rate, caps on the allowed volume for the international sale or purchase of various financial assets, transaction taxes such as the proposed Tobin tax on currency exchanges, minimum stay requirements, requirements for mandatory approval, or even limits on the amount of money a private citizen is allowed to remove from the country. There have been several shifts of opinion on whether capital controls are beneficial and in what circumstances they should be used. Capital controls were an integral part of the Bretton Woods system which emerged after World War II and lasted until the early 1970s. This period was the first time capital controls had been endorsed by mainstream economics. Capital controls were relatively easy to impose, in part because international capital markets were less active in general. In the 1970s, economic liberal, free-market economists became increasingly successful in persuading their colleagues that capital controls were in the main harmful. The US, other Western governments, and multilateral financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank began to take a critical view of capital controls and persuaded many countries to abandon them to facilitate financial globalization.
The Latin American debt crisis of the early 1980s, the East Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s, the Russian ruble crisis of 1998–1999, and the global financial crisis of 2008 highlighted the risks associated with the volatility of capital flows, and led many countries, even those with relatively open capital accounts, to make use of capital controls alongside macroeconomic and prudential policies as means to dampen the effects of volatile flows on their economies. In the aftermath of the global financial crisis, as capital inflows surged to emerging market economies, a group of economists at the IMF outlined the elements of a policy toolkit to manage the macroeconomic and financial-stability risks associated with capital flow volatility. The proposed toolkit allowed a role for capital controls. The study, as well as a successor study focusing on financial-stability concerns stemming from capital flow volatility, while not representing an IMF official view, were nevertheless influential in generating debate among policy makers and the international community, and ultimately in bringing about a shift in the institutional position of the IMF. With the increased use of capital controls in recent years, the IMF has moved to destigmatize the use of capital controls alongside macroeconomic and prudential policies to deal with capital flow volatility. More widespread use of capital controls raises a host of multilateral coordination issues, as enunciated for example by the G-20, echoing the concerns voiced by John Maynard Keynes and Harry Dexter White more than six decades ago.
History
Pre-World War I
Prior to the 19th century, there was generally little need for capital controls due to low levels of international trade and financial integration. In the First Age of Globalization, which is generally dated from 1870 to 1914, capital controls remained largely absent.
World War I to World War II: 1914–1945
Highly restrictive capital controls were introduced with the outbreak of World War I. In the 1920s they were generally relaxed, only to be strengthened again in the wake of the 1929 Great Crash. This was more an ad hoc response to potentially damaging flows rather than based on a change in normative economic theory. Economic historian Barry Eichengreen has implied that the use of capital controls peaked during World War II, but the more general view is that the most wide-ranging implementation occurred after Bretton Woods. An example of capital control in the interwar period was the Reich Flight Tax, introduced in 1931 by German Chancellor Heinrich Brüning. The tax was needed to limit the removal of capital from the country by wealthy residents. At the time, Germany was suffering economic hardship due to the Great Depression and the harsh war reparations imposed after World War I. Following the ascension of the Nazis to power in 1933, the tax was repurposed to confiscate money and property from Jews fleeing the state-sponsored antisemitism.
Bretton Woods era: 1945–1971
At the end of World War II, international capital was caged by the imposition of strong and wide-ranging capital controls as part of the newly created Bretton Woods system—it was perceived that this would help protect the interests of ordinary people and the wider economy. These measures were popular as at this time the western public's view of international bankers was generally very low, blaming them for the Great Depression. John Maynard Keynes, one of the principal architects of the Bretton Woods system, envisaged capital controls as a permanent feature of the international monetary system, though he had agreed current account convertibility should be adopted once international conditions had stabilised sufficiently. This essentially meant that currencies were to be freely convertible for the purposes of international trade in goods and services but not for capital account transactions. Most industrial economies relaxed their controls around 1958 to allow this to happen. The other leading architect of Bretton Woods, the American Harry Dexter White, and his boss Henry Morgenthau, were somewhat less radical than Keynes but still agreed on the need for permanent capital controls. In his closing address to the Bretton Woods conference, Morgenthau spoke of how the measures adopted would drive "the usurious money lenders from the temple of international finance".
Following the Keynesian Revolution, the first two decades after World War II saw little argument against capital controls from economists, though an exception was Milton Friedman. From the late 1950s, the effectiveness of capital controls began to break down, in part due to innovations such as the Eurodollar market. According to Dani Rodrik, it is unclear to what extent this was due to an unwillingness on the part of governments to respond effectively, as compared with an inability to do so. Eric Helleiner posits that heavy lobbying from Wall Street bankers was a factor in persuading American authorities not to subject the Eurodollar market to capital controls. From the late 1960s the prevailing opinion among economists began to switch to the view that capital controls are on the whole more harmful than beneficial.
While many of the capital controls in this era were directed at international financiers and banks, some were directed at individual citizens. In the 1960s, British individuals were at one point restricted from taking more than £50 with them out of the country for their foreign holidays. In their book This Time Is Different (2009), economists Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff suggest that the use of capital controls in this period, even more than its rapid economic growth, was responsible for the very low level of banking crises that occurred in the Bretton Woods era. According to Barry Eichengreen, capital controls were more effective in the 1940s and 1950s than they were subsequently.
Post-Bretton Woods era: 1971–2009
By the late 1970s, as part of the displacement of Keynesianism in favour of free-market orientated policies and theories, and the shift from the social-liberal paradigm to neoliberalism countries began abolishing their capital controls, starting between 1973 and 1974 with the US, Canada, Germany, and Switzerland, and followed by the United Kingdom in 1979. Most other advanced and emerging economies followed, chiefly in the 1980s and early 1990s. During the period spanning from approximately 1980–2009, the normative opinion was that capital controls were to be avoided except perhaps in a crisis. It was widely held that the absence of controls allowed capital to freely flow to where it is needed most, helping not only investors to enjoy good returns, but also helping ordinary people to benefit from economic growth. During the 1980s, many emerging economies decided or were coerced into following the advanced economies by abandoning their capital controls, though over 50 retained them at least partially.
The orthodox view that capital controls are a bad thing was challenged following the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Asian nations that had retained their capital controls such as India and China could credit them for allowing them to escape the crisis relatively unscathed. Malaysia's prime minister Mahathir bin Mohamad imposed capital controls as an emergency measure in September 1998, both strict exchange controls and limits on outflows from portfolio investments; these were found to be effective in containing the damage from the crisis. In the early 1990s, even some pro-globalization economists like Jagdish Bhagwati, and some writers in publications like The Economist, spoke out in favor of a limited role for capital controls. While many developing world economies lost faith in the free market consensus, it remained strong among Western nations.
After the global financial crisis: 2009–2012
By 2009, the global financial crisis had caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought which reversed the previously prevailing orthodoxy. During the 2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis, the IMF proposed that capital controls on outflows should be imposed by Iceland, calling them "an essential feature of the monetary policy framework, given the scale of potential capital outflows".
In the latter half of 2009, as the global economy started to recover from the global financial crisis, capital inflows to emerging market economies, especially, in Asia and Latin America, surged, raising macroeconomic and financial-stability risks. Several emerging market economies responded to these concerns by adopting capital controls or macroprudential measures; Brazil imposed a tax on the purchase of financial assets by foreigners and Taiwan restricted overseas investors from buying time deposits. The partial return to favor of capital controls is linked to a wider emerging consensus among policy makers for the greater use of macroprudential policy. According to economics journalist Paul Mason, international agreement for the global adoption of Macro prudential policy was reached at the 2009 G20 Pittsburgh summit, an agreement which Mason said had seemed impossible at the London summit which took place only a few months before.
Pro-capital control statements by various prominent economists, together with an influential staff position note prepared by IMF economists in February 2010 (Jonathan D. Ostry et al., 2010), and a follow-up note prepared in April 2011, have been hailed as an "end of an era" that eventually led to a change in the IMF's long held position that capital controls should be used only in extremis, as a last resort, and on a temporary basis. In June 2010, the Financial Times published several articles on the growing trend towards using capital controls. They noted influential voices from the Asian Development Bank and the World Bank had joined the IMF in advising there is a role for capital controls. The FT reported on the recent tightening of controls in Indonesia, South Korea, Taiwan, Brazil, and Russia. In Indonesia, recently implemented controls include a one-month minimum holding period for certain securities. In South Korea, limits have been placed on currency forward positions. In Taiwan, the access that foreigner investors have to certain bank deposits has been restricted. The FT cautioned that imposing controls has a downside including the creation of possible future problems in attracting funds.
By September 2010, emerging economies had experienced huge capital inflows resulting from carry trades made attractive to market participants by the expansionary monetary policies several large economies had undertaken over the previous two years as a response to the crisis. This has led to countries such as Brazil, Mexico, Peru, Colombia, South Korea, Taiwan, South Africa, Russia, and Poland further reviewing the possibility of increasing their capital controls as a response. In October 2010, with reference to increased concern about capital flows and widespread talk of an imminent currency war, financier George Soros has suggested that capital controls are going to become much more widely used over the next few years. Several analysts have questioned whether controls will be effective for most countries, with Chile's finance minister saying his country had no plans to use them.
In February 2011, citing evidence from new IMF research (Jonathan D. Ostry et al., 2010) that restricting short-term capital inflows could lower financial-stability risks, over 250 economists headed by Joseph Stiglitz wrote a letter to the Obama administration asking them to remove clauses from various bilateral trade agreements that allow the use of capital controls to be penalized. There was strong counter lobbying by business and so far the US administration has not acted on the call, although some figures such as Treasury secretary Tim Geithner have spoken out in support of capital controls at least in certain circumstances.
Econometric analyses undertaken by the IMF, and other academic economists found that in general countries which deployed capital controls weathered the 2008 crisis better than comparable countries which did not. In April 2011, the IMF published its first ever set of guidelines for the use of capital controls. At the 2011 G-20 Cannes summit, the G20 agreed that developing countries should have even greater freedom to use capital controls than the IMF guidelines allow. A few weeks later, the Bank of England published a paper where they broadly welcomed the G20's decision in favor of even greater use of capital controls, though they caution that compared to developing countries, advanced economies may find it harder to implement efficient controls. Not all momentum has been in favor of increased use of capital controls however. In December 2011, China partially loosened its controls on inbound capital flows, which the Financial Times described as reflecting an ongoing desire by Chinese authorities for further liberalization. India also lifted some of its controls on inbound capital in early January 2012, drawing criticism from economist Arvind Subramanian, who considers relaxing capital controls a good policy for China but not for India considering her different economic circumstances.
In September 2012, Michael W. Klein of Tufts University challenged the emergent consensus that short-term capital controls can be beneficial, publishing a preliminary study that found the measures used by countries like Brazil had been ineffective (at least up to 2010). Klein argues it was only countries with long term capital controls, such as China and India, that have enjoyed measurable protection from adverse capital flows. In the same month, Ila Patnaik and Ajay Shah of the NIPFP published an article about the permanent and comprehensive capital controls in India, which seem to have been ineffective in achieving the goals of macroeconomic policy. Other studies have found that capital controls may lower financial stability risks, while the controls Brazilian authorities adopted after the 2008 financial crisis did have some beneficial effect on Brazil itself.
Capital controls may have externalities. Some empirical studies find that capital flows were diverted to other countries as capital controls were tightened in Brazil. An IMF staff discussion note (Jonathan D. Ostry et al., 2012) explores the multilateral consequences of capital controls, and the desirability of international cooperation to achieve globally efficient outcomes. It flags three issues of potential concern. First is the possibility that capital controls may be used as a substitute for warranted external adjustment, such as when inflow controls are used to sustain an undervalued currency. Second, the imposition of capital controls by one country may deflect some capital towards other recipient countries, exacerbating their inflow problem. Third, policies in source countries (including monetary policy) may exacerbate problems faced by capital-receiving countries if they increase the volume or riskiness of capital flows. The paper posits that if capital controls are justified from a national standpoint (in terms of reducing domestic distortions), then under a range of circumstances they should be pursued even if they give rise to cross-border spillovers. If policies in one country exacerbate existing distortions in other countries, and it is costly for other countries to respond, then multilateral coordination of unilateral policies is likely to be beneficial. Coordination may require borrowers to reduce inflow controls or an agreement with lenders to partially internalize the risks from excessively large or risky outflows.
In December 2012, the IMF published a staff paper which further expanded on their recent support for the limited use of capital controls.
Impossible trinity trilemma
The history of capital controls is sometimes discussed in relation to the impossible trinity (trilemma, the unholy trinity), the finding that its impossible for a nation's economic policy to simultaneously deliver more than two of the following three desirable macroeconomic goals, namely a fixed exchange rate, an independent monetary policy, and free movement for capital (absence of capital controls). In the First Age of Globalization, governments largely chose to pursue a stable exchange rate while allowing freedom of movement for capital. The sacrifice was that their monetary policy was largely dictated by international conditions, not by the needs of the domestic economy. In the Bretton Woods period, governments were free to have both generally stable exchange rates and independent monetary policies at the price of capital controls. The impossible trinity concept was especially influential during this era as a justification for capital controls. In the Washington Consensus period, advanced economies generally chose to allow freedom of capital and to continue maintaining an independent monetary policy while accepting a floating or semi-floating exchange rate.
Examples since 2013
Capital controls in the European Single Market and EFTA
The free flow of capital is one of the Four Freedoms of the European Single Market. Despite the progress that has been made, Europe's capital markets remain fragmented along national lines and European economies remain heavily reliant on the banking sector for their funding needs. Within the building on the Investment Plan for Europe for a closer integration of capital markets, the European Commission adopted in 2015 the Action Plan on Building a Capital Markets Union (CMU) setting out a list of key measures to achieve a true single market for capital in Europe, which deepens the existing Banking Union, because this revolves around disintermediated, market-based forms of financing, which should represent an alternative to the traditionally predominant in Europe bank-based financing channel. The project is a political signal to strengthen the European Single Market as a project of European Union (EU)'s 28 member states instead of just the Eurozone countries, and sent a strong signal to the UK to remain an active part of the EU, before Brexit.
There have been three instances of capital controls in the EU and European Free Trade Association (EFTA) since 2008, all of them triggered by banking crises.
Iceland (2008–2017)
In its 2008 financial crisis, Iceland (a member of the EFTA but not of the EU) imposed capital controls due to the collapse of its banking system. Iceland's government said in June 2015 that it planned to lift them; however, since the announced plans included a tax on taking capital out of the country, arguably they still constituted capital controls. The Icelandic government announced that capital controls had been lifted on 12 March 2017. In 2017, University of California, Berkeley, economist Jon Steinsson said that he had opposed the introduction of capital controls in Iceland during the crisis but that the experience in Iceland had made him change his mind, commenting: "The government needed to finance very large deficits. The imposition of capital controls locked a considerable amount of foreign capital in the country. It stands to reason that these funds substantially lowered the government's financing cost, and it is unlikely that the government could have done nearly as much deficit spending without capital controls."
Republic of Cyprus (2013–2015)
Cyprus, a Eurozone member state which is closely linked to Greece, imposed the Eurozone's first temporary capital controls in 2013 as part of its response to the 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis. These capital controls were lifted in 2015, with the last controls being removed in April 2015.
Greece (2015–2019)
Since the Greek debt crisis intensified in the 2010s decade, Greece has implemented capital controls. At the end of August, the Greek government announced that the last capital restrictions would be lifted as of 1 September 2019, about 50 months after they were introduced.
Capital controls outside Europe
India (2013)
In 2013, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) imposed capital outflow controls due to a rapidly weakening currency. The central bank reduced direct investment in foreign assets to one-fourth of the original. It achieved this by lowering the limit on overseas remittances from $200,000 to $75,000. Special permission had to be obtained from the central bank for any exceptions to be made. The RBI reversed the measure gradually over subsequent weeks, as the Indian rupee stabilised.
Adoption of prudential measures
The prudential capital controls measure distinguishes itself from the general capital controls as summarized above as it is one of the prudential regulations that aims to mitigate the systemic risk, reduce the business cycle volatility, increase the macroeconomic stability, and enhance the social welfare. It generally regulates inflows only and take ex-ante policy interventions. The prudence requirement says that such regulation should curb and manage the excessive risk accumulation process with cautious forethought to prevent an emerging financial crisis and economic collapse. The ex-ante timing means that such regulation should be taken effectively before the realization of any unfettered crisis as opposed to taking policy interventions after a severe crisis already hits the economy.
Free movement of capital and payments
Full freedom of movement for capital and payments has so far only been approached between individual pairings of states which have free trade agreements and relative freedom from capital controls, such as Canada and the US, or the complete freedom within regions such as the EU, with its "Four Freedoms" and the Eurozone. During the First Age of Globalization that was brought to an end by World War I, there were very few restrictions on the movement of capital, but all major economies except for the United Kingdom and the Netherlands heavily restricted payments for goods by the use of current account controls such as tariffs and duties.
There is no consensus on whether capital control restrictions on the free movement of capital and payments across national borders benefits developing countries. Many economists agree that lifting capital controls while inflationary pressures persist, the country is in debt, and foreign currency reserves are low, will not be beneficial. When capital controls were lifted under these conditions in Argentina, the peso lost 30 percent of its value relative to the dollar. Most countries will lift capital controls during boom periods.
According to a 2016 study, the implementation of capital controls can be beneficial in a two-country situation for the country that implements the capital controls. The effects of capital controls are more ambiguous when both countries implement capital controls.
Arguments in favour of free capital movement
Pro-free market economists claim the following advantages for free movement of capital:
It enhances overall economic growth by allowing savings to be channelled to their most productive use.
By encouraging foreign direct investment, it helps developing economies to benefit from foreign expertise.
Allows states to raise funds from external markets to help them mitigate a temporary recession.
Enables both savers and borrowers to secure the best available market rate.
When controls include taxes, funds raised are sometimes siphoned off by corrupt government officials for their personal use.
Hawala-type traders across Asia have always been able to evade currency movement controls
Computer and communications technologies have made unimpeded electronic funds transfer a convenience for increasing numbers of bank customers.
Arguments in favour of capital controls
Pro-capital control economists have made the following points.
Capital controls may represent an optimal macroprudential policy that reduces the risk of financial crises and prevents the associated externalities.
Global economic growth was on average considerably higher in the Bretton Woods periods where capital controls were widely in use. Using regression analysis, economists such as Dani Rodrik have found no positive correlation between growth and free capital movement.
Capital controls limiting a nation's residents from owning foreign assets can ensure that domestic credit is available more cheaply than would otherwise be the case. This sort of capital control is still in effect in both India and China. In India the controls encourage residents to provide cheap funds directly to the government, while in China it means that Chinese businesses have an inexpensive source of loans.
Economic crises have been considerably more frequent since the Bretton Woods capital controls were relaxed. Even economic historians who class capital controls as repressive have concluded that capital controls, more than the period's high growth, were responsible for the infrequency of crisis. Large uncontrolled capital inflows have frequently damaged a nation's economic development by causing its currency to appreciate, by contributing to inflation, and by causing unsustainable economic booms which often precede financial crises, which are in turn caused when the inflows sharply reverse and both domestic and foreign capital flee the country. The risk of crisis is especially high in developing economies where the inbound flows become loans denominated in foreign currency, so that the repayments become considerably more expensive as the developing country's currency depreciates. This is known as original sin.
See also
Prudential capital controls
Price control
Bretton Woods System
Embedded liberalism
Impossible trinity
Mundell–Fleming model
Financial repression
Macroprudential policy
Notes and references
Further reading
States and the Reemergence of Global Finance (1994) by Eric Helleiner – Chapter 2 is excellent for the pre World War II history of capital controls and their stenghening with Bretton Woods. Remaining chapters cover their decline from the 1960s through to the early 1990s. Helleiner offers extensive additional reading for those with a deep interest in the history of capital controls.
Erten, Bilge, Anton Korinek, and José Antonio Ocampo. 2021. "Capital Controls: Theory and Evidence". Journal of Economic Literature, 59 (1): 45–89.
External links
Christopher J. Neely, An introduction to capital controls (PDF), Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, November/December 1999, pp. 13–30
James Oliver, What are Capital Controls?, University of Iowa Center for International Finance & Development
Ethan Kaplan, Dani Rodrik (2001) Did the Malaysian capital controls work? NBER Working Paper No. 8142
Bryan Balin, India's New Capital Restrictions: What Are They, Why Were They Created, and Have They Been Effective? The Johns Hopkins University, 2008
José Antonio Cordero and Juan Antonio Montecino, Capital Controls and Monetary Policy in Developing Countries, Center for Economic and Policy Research, April 2010
Financial Times (2011) Global summary showing most of the worlds population are subject to capital controls as of 2011
Kevin Gallagher, Regaining control – detailed paper on the use of capital controls post WWII, with emphases on the increased use after the 2008 crises, UMass, 2011
Anton Korinek (2011), The New Economics of Prudential Capital Controls (PDF), IMF Economic Review 59(3), 2011
Monetary policy
Foreign direct investment
Price controls
Protectionism
Economics catchphrases
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchmen%20%28film%29
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Watchmen (film)
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Watchmen is a 2009 American superhero film based on the 1986–1987 DC Comics limited series of the same name co-created and illustrated by Dave Gibbons (with co-creator and author Alan Moore choosing to remain uncredited). Directed by Zack Snyder from a screenplay by David Hayter and Alex Tse, the film features Malin Åkerman, Billy Crudup, Matthew Goode, Carla Gugino, Jackie Earle Haley, Jeffrey Dean Morgan, and Patrick Wilson. A dark and dystopian deconstruction of the superhero genre, the film is set in an alternate history in the year 1985 at the height of the Cold War, as a group of mostly retired American superheroes investigate the murder of one of their own before uncovering an elaborate and deadly conspiracy, while their moral limitations are challenged by the complex nature of the circumstances.
For nearly two decades from October 1987 until October 2005, a live-action film adaptation of the Watchmen series became stranded in development hell. Producers Lawrence Gordon and Joel Silver began developing the project at 20th Century Fox, later moving it to Warner Bros. Pictures, the sister company of Watchmen publisher DC Comics, and hiring director Terry Gilliam, who eventually left the production and deemed the complex comic "unfilmable". During the 2000s, Gordon and Lloyd Levin collaborated with Universal Pictures, Revolution Studios and Paramount Pictures to produce the film. Directors David Hayter, Darren Aronofsky and Paul Greengrass were attached to the project before it was cancelled over budget disputes. In October 2005, the project returned to Warner Bros., where Snyder was hired to direct. Paramount remained as its international distributor, whereas Warner Bros. would distribute the film in the United States. However, Fox sued Warner Bros. for copyright violation arising from Gordon's failure to pay a buy-out in 1991, which enabled him to develop the film at the other studios. Fox and Warner Bros. settled this before the film's release, with Fox receiving a portion of the gross. Principal photography began in Vancouver, in September 2007. As with his previous film 300 (2006), Snyder closely modelled his storyboards on the comic, but chose not to shoot all of Watchmen using green screens and opted for real sets instead.
Following its world premiere at Odeon Leicester Square on February 23, 2009, the film was released in both conventional and IMAX theatres on March 6, 2009. The film underperformed at the box office, grossing over $185.4 million worldwide against a production budget between $130–138 million; however, the film later found financial success at the home media markets. Greg Silverman (former Warner Bros executive) said that the film did later become profitable.
The film received mixed to positive reviews from fans and critics; the style was praised, but Snyder was accused of making an action film that lacked the thematic depth and nuance of the comic. A DVD based on elements of the Watchmen universe was released, including an animated adaptation of the Tales of the Black Freighter comic within the story voiced by Gerard Butler, and a fictional documentary titled Under the Hood, detailing the older generation of superheroes from the film's back-story. A director's cut with 24 minutes of additional footage was released in July 2009. The "Ultimate Cut" edition incorporated the animated comic Tales of the Black Freighter into the narrative as it was in the original graphic novel, lengthening the runtime to 3 hours and 35 minutes, and was released on November 3, 2009. The director's cut was better received than the theatrical release.
Plot
In 1985, a man living in a Manhattan apartment watches news about escalating Cold War tensions and the response from five-term President Richard Nixon, when an unknown assailant attacks and hurls him to the street below. Throughout the opening credits, a montage reviews the rise of costumed crime-fighters from 1939 to 1977, culminating in public backlash and the passage of an anti-vigilante act.
Rorschach, a vigilante detective who operates illegally, discovers that the dead man was Edward Blake, better known as "The Comedian", a costumed hero who worked for the government. Suspecting that other vigilantes could be attacked, Rorschach warns members of his former team, the Watchmen. Rorschach's former partner Dan Dreiberg believes he is paranoid but relays his concerns to Adrian Veidt, a crime-fighter turned businessman. Rorschach later visits Doctor Manhattan, a physicist whose accidental superpowers make him a national security asset, but Manhattan is preoccupied with energy research and ignores him.
At Blake's funeral, Manhattan, Veidt and Dreiberg each recall the Comedian's pessimism in his later years about the Watchmen's mission. After the service, a lone mourner pays his respects. Rorschach tracks down and questions the mourner, former supervillain Edgar Jacobi. Jacobi says that Blake had recently broken into his apartment while he was sleeping — tearful, unmasked and incoherent. Rorschach is astonished, but doubts that Jacobi would tell a lie so bizarre. During a press interview with Doctor Manhattan, an investigative journalist tells him that several people who had been in contact with Manhattan have developed cancer, including his former girlfriend. As other reporters mob Manhattan with questions, he snaps and exiles himself to Mars. Alone, Manhattan reflects on his existence and his regrets at being turned into a weapon. In his absence, the Warsaw Pact countries make aggressive moves and Nixon prepares for war.
Veidt survives an assassination attempt, suggesting that Rorschach's "mask-killer" theory is correct. Dreiberg takes in Laurie Jupiter, a second-generation vigilante and estranged friend of Manhattan, for protection. Rorschach's investigation of the assassin leads him back to Jacobi. While attempting to question him again, Rorschach is framed for his murder, arrested, and unmasked as a low-born vagrant. In prison, Rorschach defends his vigilantism to a psychiatrist, saying that he cannot ignore evil and the people who cause it. Dreiberg and Jupiter, growing nostalgic for their crime-fighting days, put on their costumes and break Rorschach out of prison. Manhattan teleports Jupiter to Mars while Dreiberg joins Rorschach's investigation of the Blake murder. Evidence points them to Veidt as the mastermind; they find him at an Antarctic hideout, where he has just overseen activation of Doctor Manhattan's energy reactors in New York City and other locations across the planet. On Mars, Jupiter tries to convince Manhattan that humanity is worth saving, and succeeds only when he learns that Jupiter is Blake's illegitimate daughter, a fact so unlikely that it restores his respect for life.
Veidt admits orchestrating Manhattan's exile, staging the assassination, framing Rorschach, and killing Blake who was spying on his activities. He has also executed the final step of his plan: turning the world against Manhattan by rigging his reactors to explode, killing 15 million people. Manhattan returns with Jupiter to a devastated New York, pieces together what has happened and teleports to Veidt's hideout. After a brief struggle, Veidt shows him that the countries of the world have put aside their rivalries to focus on a common enemy. Realizing the logic of Veidt's plan, the Watchmen agree to keep his secret, with the exception of Rorschach, whom Manhattan reluctantly kills to preserve the new global peace. Manhattan departs permanently for another galaxy while Dreiberg rebukes Veidt's moral sacrifice, and Jupiter finally comes to terms with her parentage. A New York tabloid editor, disgusted that there is no war to report on, tells a fellow journalist to grab something from a box of crank submissions that contains Rorschach's journal.
Cast and characters
Production for Watchmen began casting in July 2007 for look-alikes of the era's famous names for the film—something director Zack Snyder declared would give the film a "satirical quality" and "create this '80s vibe." Snyder said he wanted younger actors because of the many flashback scenes, and it was easier to age actors with make-up rather than cast two actors in the same role. Snyder's son appears as a young Rorschach, while the director himself appears as an American soldier in Vietnam. Actor Thomas Jane was invited by Snyder, but declined to work in the film due to being too busy.
The Watchmen/The Crimebusters
Malin Åkerman as Laurie Jupiter / Silk Spectre II: Åkerman described her character as the psychology and the emotion of the film. The actress worked out and trained to fight for her portrayal of the crime-fighter. In earlier attempts to make the film, Hilary Swank, Natalie Portman, Rachel Weisz, Jennifer Connelly, and Jessica Alba were considered for the part of Laurie.
Haley Guiel as Young Laurie Jupiter
Billy Crudup as Jon Osterman / Doctor Manhattan: The only member of the group with genuine superpowers, Doctor Manhattan is virtually omnipotent and works for the U.S. government. He is a scientist who suffered an accident during 1959, giving him superhuman powers. Crudup plays Osterman in flashbacks as a human and is replaced for his post-accident scenes with a motion-capture CG version of himself. During filming, Crudup acted opposite his co-stars, wearing a white suit covered in blue LEDs, so he would give off an otherworldly glow in real life, just as the computer-generated Manhattan does in the movie. His body was modeled on that of fitness model and actor Greg Plitt. The crew then 3D-digitized Crudup's head and "frankensteined it onto Greg Plitt's body." Snyder chose not to electronically alter Crudup's voice for Manhattan, explaining the character "would try and put everyone as much at ease as he could, instead of having a robotic voice that I think would feel off-putting." Keanu Reeves was also offered the role. Reeves was interested in the role but he ultimately passed.
Jaryd Heidrick as Young Jon Osterman
Matthew Goode as Adrian Veidt / Ozymandias: A retired superhero who has since made his identity public. At first Snyder wanted Jude Law (a big fan of the character) for the part, but said that Goode was "big and tall and lean," which aided in bringing "this beautiful ageless, German superman" feel to the character. Goode interpreted Veidt's back-story to portray him with a German accent in private and an American one in public; Goode explained Veidt gave up his family's wealth and traveled the world, becoming a self-made man because he was ashamed of his parents' Nazi past, which in turn highlighted the themes of the American Dream and the character's duality. Snyder said Goode "fit the bill... We were having a hard time casting [the role], because we needed someone handsome, beautiful and sophisticated, and that's a tough combo." Tom Cruise was also interested in the part, and met with Snyder.
Jackie Earle Haley as Walter Kovacs / Rorschach: A 45-year-old masked vigilante who continues his extralegal activities after they are outlawed. He takes his name from the Rorschach test, as the shifting black-and-white patterns on his mask resemble its inkblots. Unlike the other principal actors, Haley had read the comic as a young adult and was keen to pursue the role when he heard he had become a favorite candidate among fans. Rorschach wears a mask with ink blots: motion capture markers were put on the contours of Haley's blank mask for animators to create his ever-changing expressions. Haley has a black belt in kenpō, but described Rorschach's attack patterns as sloppier and more aggressive due to the character's boxing background. Rorschach appears several times in the movie without his mask before he is apprehended, carrying a placard sign proclaiming, "The End is Nigh", but not until he is unmasked by the police is it made apparent that the sign bearer is Rorschach. Haley said that upon hearing of the casting of Rorschach, he actively sought the role. His agent came up with the idea that they should do a shoestring-budgeted audition tape of Haley wearing his own "little cheesy Halloween" Rorschach outfit. All of the audition was shot in the living room and kitchen of Haley's house. The tape was then sent to the film production crew where Snyder watched it. After viewing the tape, Snyder cast Haley in the role of Rorschach, saying, "Very low-tech but awesomely acted. Clearly there was no other Rorschach."
Eli Snyder as Young Walter Kovacs
Patrick Wilson as Daniel Dreiberg / Nite Owl II: A 40-year-old retired superhero with technological expertise. Snyder cast Wilson after watching 2006's Little Children, which also co-starred Haley. Wilson put on to play the overweight Dreiberg. He compared Dreiberg to a soldier who returns from war unable to fit into society. During several attempts to get Watchmen adapted as a film, Kevin Costner, Christopher Walken and Richard Gere were each considered for the part. John Cusack, who is an admitted fan of the graphic novel, expressed great interest in playing the role.
The Minutemen
Carla Gugino as Sally Jupiter / Silk Spectre: A retired superheroine, mother of Laurie Juspeczyk and the first Silk Spectre. Gugino's character ages from 25 years old in the 1940s to 67 years old in the 1980s, and the then-37-year-old actress wore prosthetics to reflect the aging process. Gugino described her character's superhero outfit as "Bettie Page meets Alberto Vargas." In earlier attempts to make the film, Liv Tyler, Jamie Lee Curtis, Ann-Margret, Catherine Zeta-Jones, and Sigourney Weaver were considered for the part of Sally.
Jeffrey Dean Morgan as Edward Blake / The Comedian: A superhero and a former member of the Minutemen who is commissioned by the U.S. government as a black-ops specialist. When reading the comic for the part, Morgan stopped when he saw his character was killed off three pages in. When telling his agent he did not want the part, he was told to continue reading it and find out how important his character was. Morgan found the role a challenge, explaining, "For some reason, in reading the novel, you don't hate this guy even though he does things that are unmentionable [like beat up and sexually assault Jupiter]. [...] My job is to kind of make that translate, so as a viewer you end up not making excuses to like him, but you don't hate him like you should for doing the things that he does." Of his casting, Snyder said, "It's hard to find a man's man in Hollywood. It just is. And Jeffrey came in and was grumpy and cool and grizzled, and I was, like, 'OK, Jeffrey is perfect!'"
Stephen McHattie as Hollis Mason / Nite Owl: A retired former member and the first Nite Owl, Mason now owns and lives over an auto shop.
Clint Carleton as Young Hollis Mason
Dan Payne as William Brady / Dollar Bill: A deceased member, Brady was a bank-sponsored member of The Minutemen who was created for publicity purposes. He dies during a bank robbery in 1947 when his cape is caught in the bank's revolving doors, allowing the robbers to shoot him at point-blank range.
Niall Matter as Byron Lewis / Mothman: A former member, Lewis had a privileged upbringing and sought to help the less fortunate and fight oppression and corruption as a crime fighter. To this end, Lewis created a costume with special wings that helped him glide. His mental stability ultimately deteriorated after he was called before HUAC, leading to him being forcibly brought to a mental asylum.
Apollonia Vanova as Ursula Zandt / The Silhouette: Deceased. A gun-toting vigilante, motivated by the deaths of her parents and sister at the hands of the Nazis in their native Austria. Zandt is killed along with her lesbian lover in what is implied to be a hate crime.
Glenn Ennis as Hooded Justice: A deceased former member, H.J. was a violent vigilante who was trained in hand-to-hand combat.
Darryl Scheelar as Nelson Gardner / Captain Metropolis: A former Marine Lieutenant, he was one of the more active members of the Minutemen, having organized its formation. He died in a car accident in 1974 which decapitated him, though it is believed by some to be a form of suicide.
Other characters
Matt Frewer as Edgar Jacobi / Moloch: A former supervillain. Moloch was jailed for a time during the 1970s. He is dying of cancer which he received from Adrian Veidt. Moloch was later murdered by Veidt, who frames Rorschach.
Mike Carpenter as Young Moloch
Laura Mennell as Janey Slater: A scientist who was Osterman's first girlfriend until he fell for Laurie.
Danny Woodburn as Tom Ryan / Big Figure: A jailed dwarf crime boss and old adversary of Nite Owl and Rorschach. He tries to get revenge when Rorschach is imprisoned in the same jail as he is.
Robert Wisden as Richard Nixon
Frank Novak as Henry Kissinger
Gary Houston as John McLaughlin
Sean Allan and Garry Chalk as NORAD Generals
Michael Kopsa as Paul Klein
Chris Gauthier as Seymour David
Cameo roles include Jay Brazeau as a news vendor, Mark Acheson as a large man at Happy Harry's, Leah Gibson as Silhouette's girlfriend, Alessandro Juliani as a Rockefeller Military Base technician, Salli Saffioti as Annie Leibovitz, and Ted Cole as Dick Cavett.
Production
In 1986, producers Lawrence Gordon and Joel Silver acquired film rights to Watchmen for 20th Century Fox. After author Alan Moore declined to write a screenplay based on his story, Fox enlisted screenwriter Sam Hamm. Hamm rewrote Watchmens complicated ending, making a "more manageable" conclusion involving an assassination and a time paradox. Fox put the project into turnaround in 1991, and the project was moved to Warner Bros. Pictures, where Terry Gilliam was attached to direct and Charles McKeown to rewrite the script. Gilliam and Silver were only able to raise $25 million for the film (a quarter of the necessary budget) because their previous films had gone overbudget. Gilliam eventually left Watchmen, describing the comic as "unfilmable", and Warner Bros. dropped the project.
In October 2001, Gordon partnered with Lloyd Levin and Universal Pictures, hiring David Hayter to write and direct. Hayter and the producers left Universal due to creative differences, and Gordon and Levin expressed interest in setting up Watchmen at Revolution Studios. The project did not hold together at Revolution Studios and subsequently fell apart. In July 2004, it was announced Paramount Pictures would produce Watchmen, and Michael Bay was considered to direct. Eventually, they attached Darren Aronofsky to direct Hayter's script. Producers Gordon and Levin remained attached, collaborating with Aronofsky's producing partner, Eric Watson. Paul Greengrass replaced Aronofsky when he left to focus on The Fountain. Ultimately, Paramount placed Watchmen in turnaround.
In October 2005, Gordon and Levin met with Warner Bros. once again to develop the project. Tim Burton at one point expressed interest in directing the film, but ultimately turned it down. Impressed with Zack Snyder's work on 300, Warner Bros. approached him to direct an adaptation of Watchmen. Screenwriter Alex Tse was hired to rewrite Hayter's script, and while he drew from his favorite elements of Hayter's script, he also returned the story to the original Cold War setting of the Watchmen comic, in contrast to Hayter's script, which took place in modern times. Similar to his approach to 300, Snyder used the comic book as a storyboard. Following negotiations, Paramount, which had already spent $7 million in their failed project, earned the rights for international distribution of Watchmen and 25% of the film's ownership.
The fight scenes were extended, and a subplot about energy resources was added to make the film more topical. Although he intended to stay faithful to the look of the characters in the comic, Snyder intended Nite Owl to look scarier, and made Ozymandias' armor into a parody of the rubber muscle suits from 1997's Batman & Robin. Production took place in Vancouver, where a New York City back lot was built. Sound stages were used for apartments and offices, while sequences on Mars and in Antarctica were shot against green screens. Filming started on September 17, 2007, and ended on February 19, 2008, on an estimated $120 million budget. To handle the 1,100 shots featuring visual effects, a quarter of them being computer-generated imagery, ten different effects companies were involved with Watchmen. While 20th Century Fox filed a lawsuit to block the film's release, the studios eventually settled, and Fox received an upfront payment and a percentage of the worldwide gross from the film and all sequels and spin-offs in return.
Dave Gibbons became an adviser on Snyder's film, but Moore has refused to have his name attached to any film adaptations of his work. Moore has stated he has no interest in seeing Snyder's adaptation; he told Entertainment Weekly in 2008, "There are things that we did with Watchmen that could only work in a comic, and were indeed designed to show off things that other media can't." While Moore believes that David Hayter's screenplay was "as close as I could imagine anyone getting to Watchmen," he asserted he did not intend to see the film if it were made.
With regard to changing the ending to where Dr. Manhattan was fingered as the culprit instead of the squid, Snyder stated that "we figured it took about 15 minutes to explain [the squid's appearance] correctly; otherwise, it's pretty crazy." By omitting the squid Snyder felt that he could give more time to explore and develop the existing characters. Oscar Gonzalez of CNET stated that "Because of this change, however, the movie is not canon in regards to the Watchmen TV series." Earlier drafts had Veidt die, but Snyder reversed this change.
Music
Both a soundtrack and excerpts from Tyler Bates' film score were released as albums on March 3, 2009. The soundtrack features three songs written by Bob Dylan—"Desolation Row", "All Along the Watchtower" and "The Times They Are a-Changin'"—with only the latter performed by Dylan on the soundtrack. It includes some songs mentioned in the comic, such as Simon and Garfunkel's "The Sound of Silence" and Leonard Cohen's "Hallelujah". Dylan's "The Times They Are a-Changin'" and "All Along the Watchtower" are also quoted in the graphic novel. Music by Philip Glass from Koyaanisqatsi plays when Doctor Manhattan is looking back on his life when he arrives on Mars. The Introitus of Mozart's Requiem appears at the end of the film. "Desolation Row" was covered by My Chemical Romance specially for the film, and the song plays in the end credits.
Release
Marketing
Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment published a US-only episodic video game to be released alongside the film called Watchmen: The End Is Nigh. Warner Bros. took this low-key approach to avoid rushing the game on such a tight schedule, as most games adapted from films are panned by critics and consumers. The game is set in the 1970s, and is written by Len Wein, the comic's editor; Dave Gibbons is also an advisor. On March 4, 2009, Glu Mobile released Watchmen: The Mobile Game, a beat 'em up mobile game featuring Nite Owl and The Comedian fighting enemies in their respective settings of New York City and Vietnam. On March 6, 2009, a game for the Apple Inc. iPhone and iPod Touch platform was released, titled Watchmen: Justice is Coming. Though highly anticipated, this mobile title suffered from serious gameplay and network issues which have yet to be resolved.
As a promotion for the film, Warner Bros. Entertainment released Watchmen: Motion Comic, a series of narrated animations of the original comic book. The first chapter was released for purchase in the summer of 2008 on digital video stores, such as iTunes Store and Amazon Video on Demand. DC Direct released action figures based on the film in January 2009. Director Zack Snyder also set up a YouTube contest petitioning Watchmen fans to create faux commercials of products made by the fictional Veidt Enterprises. The producers also released two short video pieces online, which were intended to be viral videos designed as fictional backstory pieces, with one being a 1970 newscast marking the tenth anniversary of the public appearance of Doctor Manhattan. The other was a short propaganda film promoting the Keene Act of 1977, which made it illegal to be a superhero without government support. An official viral marketing website, The New Frontiersman, is named after the tabloid magazine featured in the graphic novel, and contains teasers styled as declassified documents. After the trailer to the film premiered in July 2008, DC Comics president Paul Levitz said that the company had had to print more than 900,000 copies of Watchmen trade collection to meet the additional demand for the book that the advertising campaign had generated, with the total annual print run expected to be over one million copies. DC Comics reissued Watchmen #1 for the original cover price of $1.50 on December 10, 2008; no other issues are to be reprinted.
The teaser trailer was attached in July 2008 and debuted in November 2008.
Home media
Tales of the Black Freighter, a fictional comic within the Watchmen limited series, was adapted as a 26-minute, direct-to-video animated feature from Warner Premiere, Warner Bros. Animation, and Legendary titled Watchmen: Tales of the Black Freighter, and released on March 24, 2009. It was originally included in the Watchmen script, but was changed from live-action footage to animation because of the $20 million it would have cost to film it in the stylized manner of 300 that Snyder wanted; this animated version, originally intended to be included in the final cut, was then cut because the film was already approaching a three-hour running time. Gerard Butler, who starred in 300, voices the Captain in the animated feature, having been promised a role in the live-action film that never materialized. Jared Harris voices his deceased friend Ridley, whom the Captain hallucinates is talking to him. Snyder had Butler and Harris record their parts together. Like the original live-action film itself, international rights to the Black Freighter film are held by Paramount Home Entertainment.
The Black Freighter releases also include Under the Hood, a 38-minute, fictional in-universe documentary detailing the characters' backstories, which takes its title from that of Hollis Mason's memoirs in the comic book. Unlike the film and Tales of the Black Freighter which were both R-rated, Under the Hood is PG-rated because it is meant to resemble a behind-the-scenes television news magazine profile of the characters. The actors themselves were allowed to improvise during filming interviews in character. Bolex cameras were even used to film faux archive footage of the Minutemen.
In addition, the 325-minute Watchmen: Motion Comic was released via Blu-ray, DVD and digital video stores on March 3, 2009, as part of the Warner Premiere: Motion Comics series.
Warner released a 186-minute director's cut of the film, expanded from the 162-minute theatrical cut, on all formats on July 21, 2009. This was followed by the November 10, 2009, home video release of the 215-minute "Ultimate Cut". It comprises the director's cut with Tales of the Black Freighter edited in throughout, along with additional newsstand framing sequences. The Ultimate Cut was released on 4K UHD Blu-ray on July 19, 2016.
All DVD and Blu-ray editions of the three cuts come in various permutations, with varying quantities of extra features.
Watchmen debuted at the top of the rental, DVD, and Blu-ray charts. First week sales of the DVD stood at 1,232,725 copies, generating $24,597,425 in sales revenue. By November 1, 2009, the DVD had sold a total of 2,510,321 copies and made $46,766,383 in revenue.
As of 2022, it has made $152,601,532 from domestic DVD and Blu-ray sales.
Greg Silverman (former Warner Bros executive) said that the film did eventually become profitable.
Reception
Box office
Watchmen was released at midnight on March 5, 2009, and earned an estimated $4.6 million for the early showing, approximately twice as much as 300, Snyder's previous comic book adaptation earned. The film earned $24,515,772 in 3,611 theaters during its first day, and later finished its opening weekend grossing $55,214,334. At that point, it had the biggest number of screenings for an R-rated film, breaking the previous record held by The Matrix Reloaded. Watchmens opening weekend is the highest of any Alan Moore adaptation to date, and the income was also greater than the entire box office take of From Hell, which ended its theatrical run with $31,602,566. Although the film finished with $55 million for its opening, while Snyder's previous adaptation 300 earned $70 million in its opening weekend, Warner Bros.' head of distribution, Dan Fellman, stated that the opening weekend success of the two films were not comparable because Watchmen's runtime was 45 minutes longer than 300, allowing for fewer showings a night. Watchmen pulled in $5.4 million at 124 IMAX screens, the second-largest IMAX opening at that time.
Following its first week at the box office, Watchmen saw a significant drop in attendance. By the end of its second weekend, the film brought in $17,817,301, finishing second on that weekend's box office chart. The 67.7% overall decrease was at the time of its release one of the highest for a major comic book film. Losing two-thirds of its audience from its opening weekend, the film finished second for the weekend of March 13–15, 2009. The film continued to drop about 60% in almost every subsequent weekend, leaving the top ten in its fifth weekend, and the top twenty in its seventh. Watchmen crossed the $100 million mark on March 26, its twenty-first day at the box office, and finished its theatrical run in the United States on May 28, having grossed $107,509,799 in 84 days. The film had grossed one fifth of its ultimate gross on its opening day, and more than half of that total by the end of its opening weekend.
Watchmen was the 31st-highest-grossing film of 2009, and the sixth-highest-grossing R-rated film of the year, behind The Hangover, Inglourious Basterds, District 9, Paranormal Activity, and It's Complicated. At the North American box office, Watchmen currently sits in the lower half of the forty-two films based on a DC Comics comic book (narrowly ahead of 1997's Batman & Robin).
Watchmen earned $26.6 million in 45 territories overseas; of these, Britain and France had the highest box office with an estimated $4.6 million and $2.5 million, respectively. Watchmen also took in approximately $2.3 million in Russia, $2.3 million in Australia, $1.6 million in Italy, and $1.4 million in South Korea. The film collected $77,873,014 in other territories, bringing its worldwide total to $185,382,813.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, Watchmen has approval rating based on 311 reviews, and an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, "Gritty and visually striking, Watchmen is a faithful adaptation of Alan Moore's graphic novel, but its complex narrative structure may make it difficult for it to appeal to viewers not already familiar with the source material." On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating reviews from mainstream critics, the film has a score of 56 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale; the primary audience was older men.
Patrick Kolan of IGN Australia awarded it a perfect 10/10 and said, "It's the Watchmen film you always wanted to see, but never expected to get." Also praising the film along with another perfect score (4/4) was Kyle Smith of the New York Post, comparing it to some of Stanley Kubrick's films: "Director Zack Snyder's cerebral, scintillating follow-up to 300 seems, to even a weary filmgoer's eye, as fresh and magnificent in sound and vision as 2001." Roger Ebert gave it four out of four stars and wrote: "It's a compelling visceral film—sound, images and characters combined into a decidedly odd visual experience that evokes the feel of a graphic novel." Richard Corliss of Time concluded "this ambitious picture is a thing of bits and pieces," yet "the bits are glorious, the pieces magnificent." Jonathan Crocker of Total Film awarded it 4/5 stars, with the verdict: "It's hard to imagine anyone watching the Watchmen as faithfully as Zack Snyder's heartfelt, stylised adap. Uncompromising, uncommercial, and unique." When comparing the film with the original source material, Ian Nathan of Empire felt that while "it isn't the graphic novel... Zack Snyder clearly gives a toss, creating a smart, stylish, decent adaptation." Nick Dent of Time Out Sydney gave the film 4 out of 5 in his review of February 25, praising the film's inventiveness but concluding, "While Watchmen is still as rich, daring, and intelligent an action film as there's ever been, it also proves Moore absolutely right [that Watchmen is inherently un-filmable]. As a comic book, Watchmen is an extraordinary thing. As a movie, it's just another movie, awash with sound and fury."
Some critics who wrote negative reviews disliked the film's use and depiction of the Cold War-period setting, stating that the film's attempt to use the 1980s fears that never came to pass felt dated, and that Snyder's slavish devotion to faithfully adapting the source material as literally as possible did not allow his work to exhibit a creative distinctiveness of its own, and that as a result, the film and its characters lacked vitality and authenticity. Philip Kennicott of The Washington Post, for example wrote, "Watchmen is a bore [...] It sinks under the weight of its reverence for the original." Devin Gordon wrote for Newsweek, "That's the trouble with loyalty. Too little, and you alienate your core fans. Too much, and you lose everyone—and everything—else." Owen Gleiberman's Entertainment Weekly review reads, "Snyder treats each image with the same stuffy hermetic reverence. He doesn't move the camera or let the scenes breathe. He crams the film with bits and pieces, trapping his actors like bugs wriggling in the frame." "[Snyder] never pause[s] to develop a vision of his own. The result is oddly hollow and disjointed; the actors moving stiffly from one overdetermined tableau to another," said Noah Berlatsky of the Chicago Reader. David Edelstein of New York agrees: "They've made the most reverent adaptation of a graphic novel ever. But this kind of reverence kills what it seeks to preserve. The movie is embalmed." Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "Watching 'Watchmen' is the spiritual equivalent of being whacked on the skull for 163 minutes. The reverence is inert, the violence noxious, the mythology murky, the tone grandiose, the texture glutinous." Donald Clarke of The Irish Times was similarly dismissive: "Snyder, director of the unsubtle 300, has squinted hard at the source material and turned it into a colossal animated storyboard, augmented by indifferent performances and moronically obvious music cues." The trade magazines Variety and The Hollywood Reporter were even less taken with the film. Justin Chang of Variety commented that, "The movie is ultimately undone by its own reverence; there's simply no room for these characters and stories to breathe of their own accord, and even the most fastidiously replicated scenes can feel glib and truncated," and Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter writing, "The real disappointment is that the film does not transport an audience to another world, as 300 did. Nor does the third-rate Chandler-esque narration by Rorschach help...Looks like we have the first real flop of 2009."
Analyzing the divided response, Geoff Boucher of the Los Angeles Times felt that, like Eyes Wide Shut, The Passion of the Christ, or Fight Club, Watchmen would continue to be a talking point among those who liked or disliked the film. Boucher felt in spite of his own mixed feelings about the finished film, he was "oddly proud" that the director had made a faithful adaptation that was "nothing less than the boldest popcorn movie ever made. Snyder somehow managed to get a major studio to make a movie with no stars, no 'name' superheroes and a hard R-rating, thanks to all those broken bones, that oddly off-putting Owl Ship sex scene and, of course, the unforgettable glowing blue penis."
Accolades
Watchmen was nominated for one award at the 2009 VES Awards, seven awards at the 36th Saturn Awards, and 13 awards at the 2009 Scream Awards. The film was also pre-nominated for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, although it did not make the final shortlist.
See also
Watchmen, an HBO limited series
List of films set on Mars
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Official website
Watchmen (film)
2000s American films
2000s English-language films
2009 science fiction action films
2000s superhero films
2009 films
American alternate history films
American dystopian films
American nonlinear narrative films
American science fiction action films
American superhero films
American vigilante films
Cold War films
Cultural depictions of Richard Nixon
Films based on DC Comics
Films based on works by Alan Moore
Films directed by Zack Snyder
Films produced by Deborah Snyder
Films produced by Lawrence Gordon
Films scored by Tyler Bates
Films set in 1985
Films set in New York City
Films shot in Vancouver
Films using motion capture
Films with screenplays by David Hayter
Genocide in fiction
Hyperlink films
IMAX films
Legendary Pictures films
Live-action films based on comics
Mars in film
Paramount Pictures films
Superhero drama films
The Stone Quarry films
Vietnam War films
Warner Bros. films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expressionist%20architecture
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Expressionist architecture
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Expressionist architecture was an architectural movement in Europe during the first decades of the 20th century in parallel with the expressionist visual and performing arts that especially developed and dominated in Germany. Brick Expressionism is a special variant of this movement in western and northern Germany, as well as in the Netherlands (where it is known as the Amsterdam School).
In the 1920s
The term "Expressionist architecture" initially described the activity of the German, Dutch, Austrian, Czech and Danish avant garde from 1910 until 1930. Subsequent redefinitions extended the term backwards to 1905 and also widened it to encompass the rest of Europe. Today the meaning has broadened even further to refer to architecture of any date or location that exhibits some of the qualities of the original movement such as; distortion, fragmentation or the communication of violent or overstressed emotion.
The style was characterised by an early-modernist adoption of novel materials, formal innovation, and very unusual massing, sometimes inspired by natural biomorphic forms, sometimes by the new technical possibilities offered by the mass production of brick, steel and especially glass. Many expressionist architects fought in World War I and their experiences, combined with the political turmoil and social upheaval that followed the German Revolution of 1919, resulted in a utopian outlook and a romantic socialist agenda. Economic conditions severely limited the number of built commissions between 1914 and the mid-1920s, resulting in many of the most important expressionist works remaining as projects on paper, such as Bruno Taut's Alpine Architecture and Hermann Finsterlin's Formspiels. Ephemeral exhibition buildings were numerous and highly significant during this period. Scenography for theatre and films provided another outlet for the expressionist imagination, and provided supplemental incomes for designers attempting to challenge conventions in a harsh economicate.
Important events in Expressionist architecture include; the Werkbund Exhibition (1914) in Cologne, the completion and theatrical running of the Großes Schauspielhaus, Berlin in 1919, the Glass Chain letters, and the activities of the Amsterdam School. The major permanent extant landmark of Expressionism is Erich Mendelsohn's Einstein Tower in Potsdam. By 1925, most of the leading architects such as Bruno Taut, Erich Mendelsohn, Walter Gropius, Mies van der Rohe and Hans Poelzig, along with other expressionists in the visual arts, had turned toward the Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity) movement, a more practical and matter-of-fact approach which rejected the emotional agitation of expressionism. A few, notably Hans Scharoun, continued to work in an expressionist idiom.
In 1933, after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany, expressionist art was outlawed as degenerate. Until the 1970s scholars(Most notably Nikolaus Pevsner) commonly played down the influence of the expressionists on the later International Style, but this has been re-evaluated in recent years.
Characteristics
Expressionist architecture was individualistic and in many ways eschewed aesthetic dogma, but it is still useful to develop some criteria which defines it. Though containing a great variety and differentiation, many points can be found as recurring in works of Expressionist architecture, and are evident in some degree in each of its works:
Distortion of form for an emotional effect.
Subordination of realism to symbolic or stylistic expression of inner experience.
An underlying effort at achieving the new, original, and visionary
Profusion of works on paper, and models, with discovery and representations of concepts more important than pragmatic finished products.
Often hybrid solutions, irreducible to a single concept.
Themes of natural romantic phenomena, such as caves, mountains, lightning, crystal and rock formations. As such it is more mineral and elemental than florid and organic which characterized its close contemporary Art Nouveau.
Uses creative potential of artisan craftsmanship.
Tendency more towards the Gothic than the Classical architecture. Expressionist architecture also tends more towards the Romanesque and the Rococo than the classical.
Though a movement in Europe, expressionism is as eastern as western. It draws as much from Moorish, Islamic, Egyptian, and Indian art and architecture as from Roman or Greek.
Conception of architecture as a work of art.
Context
Political, economic and artistic shifts provided a context for the early manifestations of Expressionist architecture; particularly in Germany, where the utopian qualities of Expressionism found strong resonances with a leftist artistic community keen to provide answers to a society in turmoil during and after the events of World War I. The loss of the war, the subsequent removal of Kaiser Wilhelm II, the deprivations and the rise of social democracy and the optimism of the Weimar Republic created a reluctance amongst architects to pursue projects initiated before the war and provided the impetus to seek new solutions. An influential body of the artistic community, including architects, sought a similar revolution as had occurred in Russia. The costly and grandiose remodelling of the Großes Schauspielhaus, was more reminiscent of the imperial past, than wartime budgeting and post-war depression.
Artistic movements that preceded Expressionist architecture and continued with some overlap were the Arts and Crafts movement and Art Nouveau or in Germany, Jugendstil. Unity of designers with artisans, was a major preoccupation of the Arts and Crafts movement which extended into Expressionist architecture. The frequent topic of naturalism in Art Nouveau, which was also prevalent in Romanticism, continued as well, but took a turn for the more earthen than floral. The naturalist Ernst Haeckel was known by Finsterlin and shared his source of inspiration in natural forms.
The Futurist and Constructivist architectural movements, and the Dada anti-art movement were occurring concurrently to Expressionism and often contained similar features. Bruno Taut's magazine, Frülicht included constructivist projects, including Vladimir Tatlins Monument to the Third International. However, Futurism and Constructivism emphasized mechination and urbanism tendencies which were not to take hold in Germany until the Neue Sachlichkeit movement. Erich Mendelsohn is an exception whose work bordered on Futurism and Constructivism. A quality of dynamic energy and exuberance exists in both the sketches of Mendelsohn and futurist Antonio Sant'Elia. The Merzbau by Dada artist Kurt Schwitters, with its angular, abstract form, held many expressionist characteristics.
Influence of individualists such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Antoni Gaudí also provided the surrounding context for Expressionist architecture. Portfolios of Wright were included in the lectures of Erich Mendelsohn and were well known to those in his circle. Gaudí was also both influenced and influencing what was happening in Berlin. In Barcelona, there was no abrupt break between the architecture of Art Nouveau and that of the early 20th century, where Jugendstil was opposed after 1900, and his work contains more of Art Nouveau than that of, say, Bruno Taut. The group Der Ring did know about Gaudí, as he was published in Germany, and Finsterlin was in correspondence. Charles Rennie Mackintosh should also be mentioned in the larger context surrounding Expressionist architecture. Hard to classify as strictly Arts and Crafts or Art Nouveau, buildings such as the Hill House and his Ingram chairs have an expressionist tinge. His work was known on the continent, as it was exhibited at the Vienna Secession exhibition in 1900.
Underlying ideas
Many writers contributed to the ideology of Expressionist architecture. Sources of philosophy important to expressionist architects were works by Friedrich Nietzsche, Søren Kierkegaard, and Henri Bergson. Bruno Taut's sketches were frequently noted with quotations from Nietzsche, particularly Thus Spoke Zarathustra, whose protagonist embodied freedoms dear to the expressionists; freedom to reject the bourgeois world, freedom from history, and strength of spirit in individualist isolation. Zarathustra's mountain retreat was an inspiration to Taut's Alpine Architecture. Henry van de Velde drew a title page illustration for Nietzsche's Ecce Homo. The author Franz Kafka in his The Metamorphosis, with its shape shifting matched the material instability of Expressionist architecture Naturalists such as Charles Darwin, and Ernst Haeckel contributed an ideology for the biomorphic form of architects such as Herman Finsterlin. Poet Paul Scheerbart worked directly with Bruno Taut and his circle, and contributed ideas based on his poetry of glass architecture.
Emergent psychology from Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung was important to Expressionism. The exploration of psychological effects of form and space was undertaken by architects in their buildings, projects and films. Bruno Taut noted the psychological possibilities of scenographic design that "Objects serve psychologically to mirror the actors' emotions and gestures." The exploration of dreams and the unconscious, provided material for the formal investigations of Hermann Finsterlin.
Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries philosophies of aesthetics had been developing, particularly through the work of Kant and Schopenhauer and notions of the sublime. The experience of the sublime was supposed to involve a self-forgetfulness where personal fear is replaced by a sense of well-being and security when confronted with an object exhibiting superior might. At the end of the nineteenth century the German Kunstwissenschaft, or the "science of art", arose, which was a movement to discern laws of aesthetic appreciation and arrive at a scientific approach to aesthetic experience. At the beginning of the twentieth century Neo-Kantian German philosopher and theorist of aesthetics Max Dessoir founded the Zeitschift für Ästhetik und allgemeine Kunstwissenschaft, which he edited for many years, and published the work Ästhetik und allgemeine Kunstwissenschaft in which he formulated five primary aesthetic forms: the beautiful, the sublime, the tragic, the ugly, and the comic. Iain Boyd Whyte writes that whilst "the Expressionist visionaries did not keep copies of Kant under their drawing boards. There was, however, in the first decades of this century [20th] a climate of ideas that was sympathetic to the aesthetic concerns and artistic production of romanticism.
Artistic theories of Wassily Kandinsky, such as Concerning the Spiritual in Art, and Point and Line to Plane were centerpieces of expressionist thinking.
Materials
A recurring concern of expressionist architects was the use of materials and how they might be poetically expressed. Often, the intention was to unify the materials in a building so as to make it monolithic. The collaboration of Bruno Taut and the utopian poet Paul Scheerbart attempted to address the problems of German society by a doctrine of glass architecture. Such utopianism can be seen in the context of a revolutionary Germany where the tussle between nationalism and socialism had yet to resolve itself. Taut and Scheerbart imagined a society that had freed itself by breaking from past forms and traditions, impelled by an architecture that flooded every building with multicolored light and represented a more promising future. They published texts on this subject and built the Glass Pavilion at the 1914 Werkbund Exhibition. Inscribed around the base of the dome were aphoristic sayings about the material, penned by Scheerbart: "Coloured glass destroys hatred", "Without a glass palace life is a burden", "Glass brings us a new era, building in brick only does us harm."
Another example of expressionist use of monolithic materials was by Erich Mendelsohn at the Einstein Tower. Not to be missed was a pun on the tower's namesake, Einstein, and an attempt to make the building out of one stone, that is, Ein Stein. Though not cast in one pour of concrete (due to technical difficulties, brick and stucco were used partially) the effect of the building is an expression of the fluidity of concrete before it is cast. 'Architecture of Steel and Concrete' was the title of a 1919 exhibition of Mendelsohn's sketches at Paul Cassirer's gallery in Berlin.
Brick was used in a similar fashion to express the inherent nature of the material. Josef Franke produced some characteristic expressionist churches in the Ruhrgebiet in the 1920s. Bruno Taut used brick as a way to show mass and repetition in his Berlin housing estate "Legien-Stadt". In the same way as their Arts and Crafts movement predecessors, to expressionist architects, populism, naturalism, and according to Pehnt "Moral and sometimes even irrational arguments were adduced in favor of building in brick". With its color and pointillist like visual increment, brick became to expressionism what stucco later became to the International Style.
Theatres, films, paintings and magazines
Europe witnessed a boom in theatrical production in the early twentieth century; from 1896 to 1926, the continent's 302 permanent theatres became 2,499. Cinema witnessed a comparable increase in its use and popularity and a resulting increase in the number of picture houses. It was also able to provide a temporary reality for innovative architectural ideas.
Many architects designed theatres for performances on the stage and film sets for expressionist films. These were defining moments for the movement, and with its interest in theatres and films, the performing arts held a significant place in expressionist architecture. Like film, and theatre, expressionist architecture created an unusual and exotic environment to surround the visitor.
Built examples of expressionist theatres include Henry van de Velde's construction of the model theatre for the 1914 Werkbund Exhibition, and Hans Poelzig's grand remodelling of the Großes Schauspielhaus. The enormous capacity of the Großes Schauspielhaus enabled low ticket prices, and the creation of a "people's theatre". Not only were expressionist architects building stages, Bruno Taut wrote a play intended for the theatre, Weltbaumeister.
Expressionist architects were both involved in film and inspired by it. Hans Poelzig strove to make films based on legends or fairy tales. Poelzig designed scenographic sets for Paul Wegener's 1920 film Der Golem. Space in Der Golem was a three-dimensional village, a lifelike rendering of the Jewish ghetto of Prague. This contrasts with the setting of the Cabinet of Doctor Caligari, which was painted on canvas backdrops. Perhaps the latter was able to achieve more stylistic freedom, but Poelzig in Der Golem was able to create a whole village that "spoke with a Jewish accent."
Herman Finsterlin approached Fritz Lang with an idea for a film. Fritz Lang's film Metropolis demonstrates a visually progressive 'Futurist' society dealing with relevant issues of 1920s Germany in relation to labour and society. Bruno Taut designed an unbuilt theatre for reclining cinema-goers. Bruno Taut also proposed a film as an anthology for the Glass Chain, entitled Die Galoschen des Glücks(The Galoshes of Fortune) with a name borrowed from Hans Christian Andersen. On the film, Taut noted, "an expressionism of the most subtle kind will bring surroundings, props and action into harmony with one another". It featured architectural fantasias suited to each member of the Chain. Ultimately unproduced, it reveals the aspiration that the new medium, film, invoked.
Abstraction
The tendency towards abstraction in art corresponded with abstraction in architecture. Publication of Concerning the Spiritual in Art in 1912 by Wassily Kandinsky, his first advocacy of abstraction while still involved in Der Blaue Reiter phase, marks a beginning of abstraction in expressionism and abstraction in expressionist architecture. The conception of the Einstein Tower by Erich Mendelson was not far behind Kandinsky, in advancing abstraction in architecture. By the publication of Kandinsky's Point and Line to Plane in 1926 a rigorous and more geometric form of abstraction emerged, and Kandinsky's work took on clearer and drafted lines. The trends in architecture are not dissimilar, as the Bauhaus was gaining attention and Expressionist architecture was giving way to the geometric abstractions of modern architecture.
Brick Expressionism
The term Brick Expressionism () describes a specific variant of expressionism that uses bricks, tiles or clinker bricks as the main visible building material. Buildings in the style were erected mostly in the 1920s. The style's regional centres were the larger cities of Northern Germany and the Ruhr area, but the Amsterdam School belongs to the same category.
Amsterdam's 1912 cooperative-commercial Scheepvaarthuis (Shipping House) is considered the starting point and prototype for Amsterdam School work: brick construction with complicated masonry, traditional massing, and the integration of an elaborate scheme of building elements (decorative masonry, art glass, wrought-iron work, and exterior figurative sculpture) that embodies and expresses the identity of the building. The School flourished until about 1925.
The great international fame of German Expressionism is not related to the German Brick Expressionist architects, but to the German Expressionist painters of the two groups Die Brücke in Dresden since 1905 (Kirchner, Schmidt-Rottluff, Heckel, Nolde) and Der Blaue Reiter in Munich since 1912 (Kandinsky, Marc, Macke, Münter, Jawlensky).
Expressionism since the 1950s
The influential architectural critic and historian Sigfried Giedion in his book Space, Time and Architecture (1941) dismissed Expressionist architecture as a side show in the development of functionalism. In the middle of the twentieth century, in the 50s and 60s, many architects began designing in a manner reminiscent of Expressionist architecture. In this post war period, a variant of Expressionism, Brutalism, had an honest approach to materials, that in its unadorned use of concrete was similar to the use of brick by the Amsterdam School. The designs of Le Corbusier took a turn for the expressionist in his brutalist phase, but more so in his Notre-Dame du Haut.
In Mexico, in 1953, German émigré Mathias Goeritz, published the "Arquitectura Emocional" (Emotional architecture) manifesto where he declared that "architecture's principal function is emotion." Modern Mexican architect Luis Barragán adopted the term that influenced his work. The two of them collaborated in the project Torres de Satélite (1957–58) guided by Goeritz's principles of Arquitectura Emocional.
Another mid-century modern architect to evoke expressionism was Eero Saarinen. A similar aesthetic can be found in later buildings such as Saarinen's 1962 TWA Terminal at JFK International Airport. His TWA Terminal at JFK International Airport has an organic form, as close to Herman Finsterlin's Formspiels as any other, save Jørn Utzon's Sydney Opera House. It was only in the 1970s that expressionism in architecture came to be re-evaluated in a more positive light.
More recently still, the aesthetics and tactility of expressionist architecture have found echo in the works of Enric Miralles, most notably his Scottish Parliament building, deconstructivist architects such as Zaha Hadid and Daniel Libeskind, as well as Canadian Aboriginal architect Douglas Cardinal.
Timeline
1900
Reactions to Art Nouveau impelled partly by moral yearnings for a sterner and more unadorned style and in part by rationalist ideas requiring practical justification for formal effects. Art Nouveau had however, opened up a language of abstraction and pointed to lessons to be learned from nature.
August 25, 1900, death of Friedrich Nietzsche.
1905
Formation of the Dresden Die Brücke expressionist art movement.
Construction of the Casa Milà, a forerunner of the movement, begins.
1907
The poet Paul Scheerbart independently offers a science fiction image of utopian future.
1909
(1909–1912) Adolf Loos gives a collection of speeches throughout Germany that eventually become his satirical essay/manifesto "Ornament and Crime", which rejects applied ornament in favour of abstraction.
The New Munich Artist's Association, Neue Künstlervereinigung München, is established by Wassily Kandinsky and others in Munich.
1910
Publication in Berlin of the journals Der Sturm by Herwarth Walden and Die Aktion by Franz Pfemfert as counterculture mouthpieces against the Deutscher Werkbund.
1911
Hans Poelzig sets up practice in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland). Designs a water tower for Posen (now Poznań, Poland), described by Kenneth Frampton as a certain Die Stadtkrone image, and an office building which led to the architectural format of Erich Mendelsohn's later Berliner "Mosse-Haus" in 1921.
Wassily Kandinsky resigns chairmanship of the Neue Künstlervereinigung München.
Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer build the Fagus Factory, Alfeld an der Leine.
Der Blaue Reiter forms and has first exhibits in Munich and Berlin.
1912
Hans Poelzig designs a chemical plant in Luban (now: Luboń, Poland), with strongly expressively articulated brick massing.
Wassily Kandinsky publishes Über das Geistige in der Kunst ("Concerning the Spiritual in Art").
Work of the Amsterdam School starts with the cooperative-commercial Scheepvaarthuis (Shipping House), designed by Johan van der Mey.
1913
Michel de Klerk starts work on the first of three apartment buildings at Spaarndammerplantsoen, Amsterdam the last to be completed in 1921.
Rudolf Steiner commences work on the first Goetheanum. Work is completed in 1919.
Peder Vilhelm Jensen-Klint wins design competition for Grundtvig's Church in Copenhagen, Denmark.
1914
Paul Scheerbart publishes Glasarchitecktur
Cologne Werkbund exhibition demonstrates ideological split between:
Normative form (Typisierung) – Behrens, Muthesius, and,
Individualists – Taut, van de Velde, Gropius
1915
Death of Paul Scheerbart.
Franz Kafka publishes The Metamorphosis.
1917
Michel de Klerk starts building the Het Schip the third and most accomplished apartment buildings at Spaarndammerplantsoen, for the Eigen Haard development company in Amesterdam . Work is completed in 1921.
Bruno Taut publishes Alpine architecture.
1918
Adolf Behne expands the socio-cultural implications Scheerbarts writings about glass.
Armistice – Republican revolution in Germany. Social Democrats form Workers and Soldiers Councils. General strikes.
Free expression of the Amsterdam School elucidated in the Wendingen (Changes) magazine.
November – Arbeitsrat für Kunst (Worker's Council for the Arts), founded by Bruno Taut and Adolf Behne. They model themselves consciously on the Soviets and attach a leftist programme to their Utopian and Expressionist activities. They demand; 1. A spiritual revolution to accompany the political one. 2. Architects to form ‘Corporations’ bound by ‘mutual aid’.
November – Novembergruppe formed only to merge with Arbeitsrat für Kunst the following month. It proclaims; 1. Creation of collective art works. 2. Mass housing. 3. The destruction of artistically valueless monuments (This was a common reaction of the Avant Garde against the elitist militarism that was perceived as the cause of World War I).
December – Arbeitsrat für Kunst declares its basic aims in Bruno Tauts Architeckturprogramm. It calls for a new 'total work of art', to be created with active participation of the people.
Bruno Taut publishes Die Stadtkrone.
1919
Spring manifesto of Arbeitsrat für Kunst is published. Art for the masses. Alliance of the arts under the wing of architecture. 50 artists, architects and patrons join led by Bruno Taut, Walter Gropius and Adolf Behne.
April – Erich Mendelsohn, Hannes Meyer, Bernard Hoetger, Max Taut and Otto Bartning stage exhibition called 'An Exhibition of Unknown Architects'. Walter Gropius writes the introduction, now considered to be a first draft for the Bauhaus programme published later in the month. Called for a ‘Cathedral of the Future’, to unify the creative energy of society as in the Middle Ages.
Bauhaus established and begins expressionist phase, to last until 1923.
Adolf Behne publishes Ja! Stimmen des Arbeitsrates für Kunst in Berlin (Yes! Voices from the art Soviet in Berlin).
Spartacist revolt ends the overt activities of Arbeitsrat für Kunst. The group starts the first Utopian letter of the Glass Chain by Bruno Taut. They are joined by previously peripheral architects; Hans Luckhardt, Wassili Luckhardt and Hans Scharoun. The letters demand; 1. Return to medieval integration of the building team. 2. Irregular form. 3. Facetted form. 4. Glass monuments.
Opening of the Grosses Schauspielhaus by Hans Poelzig in Berlin. Hanging pendentive forms create a ‘luminous dissolution of form and space’.
Bruno Taut launches the magazine Frühlicht (Early Light).
Bruno Taut and Hans Scharoun stress the creative importance of the Freudian unconscious.
Hans Poelzig is made chairman of the Deutscher Werkbund.
Design work starts on Piet Kramers De Dageraad. Construction is completed in 1923. Mendelsohn see it as more structural than the work of Hendrikus Wijdeveld.
1920
February 26, the film The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari premiered at the Marmorhaus in Berlin.
Hans Poelzig declares affinity with the Glass Chain. He designs sets for The Golem.
Solidarity of the Glass Chain is broken. Final letter written by Hermann Finsterlin. Hans Luckhardt recognises the incompatibility of free unconscious form and rationalist prefabrication and moves to Rationalism.
Taut maintains his Scheerbartian views. He publishes ‘Die Auflösung der Städt' (The dissolution of the city) in line with Kropotkinian anarchist socialist tendencies. In common with the Soviets, it recommends the breakup of cities and a return to the land. He models agrarian communities and temples in the Alps. There would be 3 separate residential communities. 1. The enlightened. 2. Artists. 3. Children. This authoritarianism is noted in Frampton as although socialist in intent, paradoxically containing the seeds of the later fascism.
1921
Taut is made city architect of Magdeburg and fails to realise a municipal exhibition hall as the harsh economic realities of the Weimar republic become apparent and prospects of building a ‘glass paradise’ dwindle.
Walter Gropius designs the Monument to the March Dead in Weimar. It is completed in 1922 and inspires the workers' gong in the 1927 film Metropolis by Fritz Lang.
Frühlicht loses its impetus.
Erich Mendelsohn visits works of the Dutch Wendingen group and tours the Netherlands. He meets the rationalists J.J.P. Oud and W.M. Dudok. He recognises the conflict of visionary and objective approaches to design.
Erich Mendelsohn's Mossehaus opens. Construction is complete on the Einstein Tower. It combines the sculptural forms of Van de Weldes Werkbund Exhibition theatre with the profile of Taut's Glashaus and the formal affinity to vernacular Dutch architecture of Eibink and Snellebrand and Hendrikus Wijdeveld. Einstein himself visits and declares it ‘organic’.
Mendelsohn designs a hat factory in Luckenwalde. It shows influences of the Dutch expressionist De Klerk, setting dramatic tall pitched industrial forms against horizontal administrative elements. This approach is echoed in his Leningrad textile mill of 1925 and anticipates the banding in his department stores in Breslau, Stuttgart, Chemnitz and Berlin from 1927 and 1931.
Hugo Häring and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe submit a competition entry for a Friedrichstrasse office building. It reveals an organic approach to structure and is fully made of glass.
1922
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe publishes a glass skyscraper project in the last issue of Frühlicht.
Toompea Castle is rebuilt for the Riigikogu in Tallinn, Estonia, as the only expressionist style parliamentary building in the world.
The film Nosferatu by F.W. Murnau is released.
1923
Bauhaus expressionist phase ends. Standard arguments for the reasons for this are 1. Expressionism was difficult to build. 2. Rampant inflation in Germany changed the climate of opinion to a more sober one. Jencks postulates that the standard arguments are too simplistic and instead argues that 1. Expressionism had become associated with extreme utopianism which in turn had been discredited by violence and bloodshed. Or 2. Architects had become convinced that the new (rationalist) style was equally expressive and more adequately captured the Zeitgeist. There is no large disagreements or public pronouncements to precipitate this change in direction. The only outwardly visible reaction was the forced resignation of the head of the basic Bauhaus course, Johannes Itten, to be replaced with the, then constructivist, László Moholy-Nagy.
Chilehaus in Hamburg by Fritz Höger.
Walter Gropius abandons expressionism and moves to rationalism.
Bruno and Max Taut begin work on government funded low cost housing projects.
Berlin secession exhibition. Mies van der Rohe and Hans and Wassili Luckhardt demonstrate a more functional and objective approach.
Rudolf Steiner designs second Goetheanum after first was destroyed by fire in 1922. Work commences 1924 and is completed in 1928.
Michel de Klerk dies.
1924
Germany adopts the Dawes plan. Architects more inclined to produce low-cost housing than pursue utopian ideas about glass.
Hugo Häring designs a farm complex. It uses expressive pitched roofs contrasted with bulky tectonic elements and rounded corners.
Hugo Häring designs Prinz Albrecht Garten, residential project. Whilst demonstrating overt expressionism he is preoccupied with deeper inquiries into the inner source of form.
Foundation of Zehnerring group.
June 3, Death of Franz Kafka.
Hermann Finsterlin initiates a series of correspondence with Antoni Gaudí.
1925
Hans Poelzig abandons expressionism and returns to crypto-classicism.
Zehnerring group becomes Der Ring. Hugo Häring is appointed secretary.
Max Brod publishes Franz Kafka's The Trial
Eugen Schmohl completes the Borsig-Tower in Berlin-Tegel
1926
Founding of the architectural collective Der Ring largely turns its back on expressionism and towards a more functionalist agenda.
Wassily Kandinsky publishes Point and Line to Plane.
Max Brod publishes Franz Kafka's The Castle
1927
Anzeiger-Hochhaus, Hannover by Fritz Höger
Grundtvig's Church, Bispebjerg by Peder Vilhelm Jensen-Klint
Release of Fritz Lang's Metropolis.
Weissenhof Estate is built in Stuttgart. Expressionist architects, Taut, Poelzig, Scharoun, build in international style.
1928
Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM) convenes in Switzerland. Hugo Häring fails to move consensus away from Le Corbusier's call for rationalism towards an organic approach. Finally the Scheerbartian vision is eclipsed as the non-normative ‘place’ orientated approach is cast aside.
The Großmarkthalle at Frankfurt (by Martin Elsaesser) is completed.
Chapel of the Cemetery of Glienicke/Nordbahn (Germany) is completed. Architect: Paul Poser
1930
Completion of Europahaus (Leipzig)
1931
Completion of 'The house of Atlantis' in Böttcherstraße (Bremen).
1938
After Nazi seizure of power, expressionist art was outlawed as degenerate art.
1937
Design of Hallgrímskirkja in Reykjavík, Iceland by Guðjón Samúelsson.
1940
The Berlin Philharmonic concert hall is destroyed in 1944 during World War II.
1950
Le Corbusier constructs Notre Dame du Haut signaling his postmodern return to an architectural expressionism of form. He also constructs the Unité d'Habitation, which emphasizes the architectural expression of materials. The Brutalist use of béton brut (reinforced concrete) recalls the expressionist use of glass, brick, and steel.
1960
Expressionism reborn without the political context as Fantastic architecture.
Rebuilding of the Berlin Philharmonic in 1963 by Hans Scharoun.
Church of The Highway by Giovanni Michelucci is inaugurated in Italy.
Expressionist architects of the 1920s
Adolf Behne
Víctor Eusa
Hermann Finsterlin
Antoni Gaudí
Walter Gropius – early period
Hugo Häring
Fritz Höger
Bernhard Hoetger
Michel de Klerk
Piet Kramer
Carl Krayl
Erich Mendelsohn
Hans Poelzig
Hans Scharoun
Rudolf Steiner
Bruno Taut
Legacy
The legacy of Expressionist architecture extended to later movements in the twentieth century. Early expressionism is heavily influenced by Art Nouveau and can be considered part of its legacy, while post 1910 and including Amsterdam School it is considered adjacent to Art Deco. The New Objectivity (Neue Sachlichkeit) art movement arose in direct opposition to Expressionism. Expressionistic architecture today is an evident influence in Deconstructivism, the work of Santiago Calatrava, and the organic movement of Blobitecture.
Another movement that grew out of expressionism to become a school in its own right is Metaphoric architecture, which includes elements of biomorphism and Zoomorphic architecture. The style is very much influenced by the form and geometry of the natural world and is characterised by the use of analogy and metaphor as the primary inspiration and directive for design.
Perhaps the most prominent voice of the Metaphoric architectural school at present is Dr. Basil Al Bayati whose designs have been inspired by trees and plants, snails, whales, insects, dervishes and even myth and literature.
He is also the founder of the International School of Metaphoric Architecture in Málaga, Spain.
Many of the founders and significant players in Expressionist architecture were also important in modern architecture. Examples are Bruno Taut, Hans Scharoun, Walter Gropius, and Mies van der Rohe. By 1927 Gropius, Taut, Scharoun and Mies were all building in the International Style and participated in the Weissenhof Estate. Gropius and Mies are better known for their modernist work, but Gropius' Monument to the March Dead, and Mies' Friedrichstrasse office building projects are basic works of Expressionist architecture. Le Corbusier started his career in modern architecture but took a turn for a more expressionist manner later in life.
Notes
Bibliography
Breitschmid, Markus (2017). "Alpine Architecture – Bruno Taut", in: Disegno – Quarterly Journal for Design, No. 14, London (Spring 2017),pp. 62–70.
Rauhut, Christoph and Lehmann, Niels (2015). Fragments of Metropolis Berlin, Hirmer Publishers 2015,
Stissi, Vladimir (2007). Amsterdam, het mekka van de volkshuisvesting, 1909-1942 (Amsterdam, the Mecca of Social Housing, 1909-1942), Dutch language, more than 500 ill., NAi Rotterdam.
Frampton, Kenneth (2004). Modern architecture - a critical history, Third edition, World of Art,
Jencks, Charles (1986). Modern Movements in Architecture, Second edition, Penguin,
Whyte, Iain Boyd ed. (1985). Crystal Chain Letters: Architectural Fantasies by Bruno Taut and His Circle, The MIT Press,
Bletter, Rosemarie Haag (Summer 1983). "Expressionism and the New Objectivity", in: Art Journal, 43:2 (Summer 1983), pp. 108–120.
Bletter, Rosemarie Haag (March 1981). "The Interpretation of the Glass Dream: Expressionist Architecture and the History of the Crystal Metaphor, in: JSAH (Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians), vol. 40, no. 1 (March 1981): 20–43.
Pehnt, Wolfgang (1973). Expressionist Architecture, Thames and Hudson,
Banham, Reyner (1972). Theory and Design in the First Machine Age, Third edition, Praeger Publishers Inc.,
Sharp, Dennis (1966). Modern Architecture and Expressionism, George Braziller New York,
External links
Fostinum: German Expressionist Architecture
Wendingen, digital Magazines IADDB (date of editing, not date in magazine)
Architectural history
Architectural styles
Modernism
20th-century architectural styles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakh%20Khanate
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Kazakh Khanate
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The Kazakh Khanate (, , ), in eastern sources known as Ulus of the Kazakhs, Ulus of Jochi, Yurt of Urus, was a Kazakh state in Central Asia, successor of the Golden Horde existing from the 15th to the 19th century, centered on the eastern parts of the Desht-i Qipchaq.
The khanate was established by Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan in 1465. Both khans came from the Turco-Mongol clan of Tore which traces its lineage to Genghis Khan through dynasty of Jochids. The Tore clan continued to rule the khanate until its fall to the Russian Empire.
From the 16th to the 17th centuries, the Kazakh Khanate ruled and expanded its territories to eastern Cumania (modern-day West Kazakhstan), most of Uzbekistan, Karakalpakstan and the Syr Darya river with military confrontation as far as Astrakhan and Khorasan Province, which are now in Russia and Iran, respectively. The Khanate was later weakened by a series of Oirat and Dzungar invasions. These resulted in a decline and further disintegration into three Juzes, which gradually lost their sovereignty and were incorporated to the expanding Russian Empire in the 19th century.
The establishment of the Kazakh Khanate marked the beginning of Kazakh statehood whose 550th anniversary was celebrated in 2015.
History
In 1227, the White Horde, a proto-Kazakh state, was formed within the Golden Horde in the steppe. After its separation from the Golden Horde in 1361, the White Horde became an independent state for a certain period of time, sometimes uniting with the Blue Horde to reestablish the Golden Horde. However, after the death of Khan of the Golden Horde, Barak Khan in 1428 the Golden Horde became fragmented, and the White Horde itself was divided into the Uzbek Khanate and the Nogai Horde (descendants of ruling Mongol tribes), the remaining land was divided between Mustafa Khan in the south and Mohammed Khan in the north. The Uzbek Khanate, which dominated most of present-day Kazakhstan, was ruled by Abu'l-Khayr Khan who conspired in killing Barak Khan. Under Abu’l-Khayr Khan's leadership, the Uzbek Khanate became a corrupt, unstable, and weak state that often dealt with internal problems. To make matters worse, the khanate itself was raided by Oirats who pillaged nomadic settlements and major cities where they were looted, damaged, and had civilians massacred. Peace was made in 1457 between the Uzbeks and the Oirats where Abu’l-Khayr Khan suffered a severe defeat which made him lose reputation among the Uzbeks.
Formation
The formation of the Kazakh Khanate began in 1459, when several Kazakh tribes dissatisfied with Abu’l-Khayr's rule, led by great-grandson of Urus Khan, Janibek and Kerei, fled the Uzbek Khanate in an event known as the Great Migration. The two cousins led the nomads towards Moghulistan, eventually settling and establishing an independent state. The Khan of Moghulistan united with them, offering them support against their opponents. Around 200,000 nomads joined Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan's movement, which had had a huge power and influence that it sparked fear in Abu'l-Khayr. The new khanate soon became a buffer state between the Moghulistan and the Uzbek Khanate. Although both Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan were considered the founding rulers of the Kazakh Khanate, it was Janibek Khan who initially wielded the most power. Eager to liberate his land from Abu’l Khayr Khan, Janibek invaded the Uzbek Khanate in 1468, sparking the Kazakh War of Independence. Abu’l Khayr, in response, launched a campaign against the Kazakhs, but died on his way to Zhetysu. Upon the death of Kerei Khan in 1473/4 Janibek Khan became the sole ruler.
The early years of the Kazakh Khanate were marked by struggles for control of the steppe against the Abu'l-Khayr's grandson, Muhammad Shaybani. In 1470, the Kazakhs defeated Shaybani at the city of Iasy (present-day Turkistan), forcing the Uzbeks to retreat south to Samarkand and Bukhara.
In 1480, Kerei Khan's son Burunduk became khan. During his reign, the Kazakhs were able to muster an army of 50,000 ghazis and to repeatedly defeat the forces of Muhammad Shaybani along the Syr Darya river. It was during his reign, that the Uzbeks concluded peace with the Kazakhs in 1500, thus giving all the former Uzbek Khanate lands in the north of Syr Darya to the Kazakh Khanate.
Regarding these events, 16th century Khaidar Duglati in his Tarikh-i Rashidi reports:
Expansion of the Kazakh Khanate
Kasym, son of Janibek, became the Khan in 1511 and from that point only the descendants of Janibek Khan ruled Kazakh khanate until its fall. Under his rule, the Kazakh Khanate reached its greatest strength so much that the Nogai Horde, which occupied the territory of modern Western Kazakhstan, became its number one enemy. Kasym successfully captured the Nogai capital Saray-Juk in 1520, pushing the Nogai Horde to the Astrakhan Khanate. Under Kasym Khan, the borders of the Kazakh Khanate expanded, the population reached 1 million people. It was during the reign of Kasym Khan that the Kazakh Khanate gained fame and political weight in the modern Euro-Asian arena. Kasym Khan also became a major patron of the arts, literature, and religion, allowing Islam to hold great political and sociocultural importance among Kazakh society. Under his reign, the Tsardom of Russia also became the first major state to establish diplomatic relations with the Kazakh Khanate. Upon doing so, Kasym Khan established his reputation as a successful leader, as his empire became known as an up-and-coming political entity to the Western Europe.
The manuscript of "Tarikh-Safavi", written in Persian by Persian historians, wrote about Kasym Khan, bringing most of the Dasht-i-Kipchak under his absolute control. The manuscript also describes how a Kazakh squad of eight thousand soldiers helped Sheibani Khan of Bukhara annex the Iranian city of Khorasan.
Kasym Khan also instituted the first Kazakh code of laws in 1520, called (transliterated, – "Bright Road of Kasym Khan"). Kasym Khan also ratified his alliance with the Timurid leader Babur, particularly after the fall of the Shaybanids, and was thus praised by the Mughals and the populace of Samarqand.
Mirza Muhammad Haidar wrote in his Tarikh-i-Rashidi that:
Turmoil and civil war
After the death of Kasym Khan, the Nogaiys restored their status quo by capturing the territory before in the west of the Turgai River. The Kazakh Khanate itself focused on the territory of Zhetysu and South Kazakhstan, where strife was starting to happen. The central territory of Kazakhstan, Sary-Arka, at that time was nominally part of the Kazakh Khanate. The Khanate of Sibir seized the northern regions of Sary-Arka.
When Tahir Khan took the Kazakh throne, the Oirats invaded and captured eastern parts of Sary Arka in the 1520s.
In the early 1530s, a civil war began in the Kazakh Khanate between the grandsons of Janibek Khan. Haqnazar Khan emerged as victorious and reunited the khanate under his control.
Haqnazar Khan (1537–1580)
Under Haqnazar Khan, also known as Haq-Nazar or Khaknazar Khan or Ak Nazar Khan, the Kazakh Khanate faced competition from several directions: the Nogai Horde in the west, the Khanate of Sibir in the north, Moghulistan in the east and the Khanate of Bukhara in the south.
Haqnazar Khan began to liberate the occupied Kazakh lands. He returned the northern regions of Sary-Arka to the Kazakh Khanate. Having begun a campaign against the Nogai Horde, Haqnazar reconquered Saraishyk from the Nogai Horde and the surrounding Kazakh territories as well. In the fight against the Khivans, the Kazakhs conquered the Mangyshlak peninsula and successfully repelled the Oirats. Haqnazar began a campaign against Moghulistan with the aim of finally incorporating Zhetysu into the Kazakh Khanate. The campaign ended successfully and resulted in defeat for Moghulistan. However, in the north, there was a threat from the Khanate of Sibir, led by Khan Kuchum.
In 1568, the Kazakhs successfully defeated the Nogai Horde at the Emba River and reached Astrakhan, but were repelled by Russian forces.
Shygai Khan (1580–1582)
The ninth Khan of the Kazakh Khanate ruled between 1580 and 1582.
After the death of Haqnazar khan, Shygai, the grandson of Zhanibek khan, the son of Zhadik sultan, became khan in 1580–1582. Although he was eighty years old at the time, he was an influential khan among the Kazakhs. Little is known about his life. Chygai khan continued the direction of foreign policy of the Kazakh Khanate, followed by Haknazar khan. He rationally used the conflicts between Shaibani's heirs to strengthen the Kazakh state.
In 1582, Bukhara khan Abdullah, Kazakh khan Shygai and his son Tauekel sultan joined forces and organized the Ulytau campaign against the ruler of Tashkent Baba sultan. Baba Sultan was defeated and fled to the Desht-Kipchak steppe, Uzbek and Kazakh troops chased Baba Sultan to Sarysu and Ulytau. Chygai Khan died during that campaign. On his way back to Turkestan, Baba Sultan was killed by Sultan Tauekel and brought to Abdullah. Satisfied with the elimination of the enemy, Abdullah Khan presented Risk to the province of Afrikent in the Samarkand region.
Tauekel Khan (1582–1598)
Tauekel Khan expanded control of the Kazakh Khanate over Tashkent, Fergana, Andijan, and Samarkand. In 1598, Kazakh forces approached Bukhara and besieged it for 12 days, but afterwards the Bukharan leader Pir-Muhammad and reinforcements under the command of his brother Baki-Muhammad pushed back the Kazakhs. In that battle, Tauekel Khan was wounded and died during the retreat back to Tashkent.
Esim Khan (1598–1628)
After the death of Tauekel Khan came Esim Sultan, son of Sheehan Khan. Esim khan was called "Ensegei boily er Esim" which could be translated as "very tall man – Esim". His reign was the time of the next (third) strengthening of the Kazakh Khanate after Kasim Khan and Khak-Nazar Khan. Esim Khan moved the capital of the khanate to Sygnak in Turkestan and suppressed the revolts of the Karakalpaks.
There followed a 15-year period of calm between the Kazakh Khanate and the Khanate of Bukhara.
Esim Khan established peace with the Khanate of Bukhara and returned control of Samarkand to them. However, Bukhara was still bitter about the loss of Tashkent, which led to additional conflicts. Starting in 1607, the Khanate of Bukhara engaged in several battles and eventually obtained control of Tashkent.
Esim Khan united the Kazakh army and began a campaign against the Tashkent Khan Tursun Muhammad and Khan of Bukhara. In 1627, he defeated the enemy. Esim Khan abolished the Tashkent Khanate and the war finally ended.
Esim Khan also made his own laws called (transliterated, – "The old path of Esim Khan").
Salqam-Jangir Khan (1629–1652)
During the reign of Salqam-Jangir Khan, a new and powerful rival of the Kazakhs appeared in the east, known as the Zunghar Khanate.
Major battle began in the winter of 1643 with the attack of Erdeni Batur on the Kazakh lands. The Dzungars conquered a large part of the Jetisu Region and captured about ten thousand people. Salqam-Jangir Khan marched along the Orbulak River with 600 soldiers to repel the Zunghars. The famous Battle of Orbulaq takes place here. Jalangtos Bahadur, the ruler of Samarkand, comes to help Jangir Khan with 20,000 soldiers. Thanks to the help of Jalangtos Bahadur, Jangir Khan wins this battle. Erdeni Batur will be forced to retreat. The defeated Zunghars lost about ten thousand people in this battle. According to the preserved historical data, in this battle, Salqam-Jangir Khan was able to show great commanding talent and military skills.
In 1652, in the third major battle between the Kazakhs and the Dzungars, the Kazakh troops were defeated, and Salqam-Jangir Khan was killed.
Tauke Khan (1680–1718)
After the death of Jangir Khan, In 1652, Tauke Khan became the Khan of Junior Zhuz and from 1672 he was the ruler of the Kazakh Khanate.He is the middle son of Jangir Khan.
Tauke Khan led the battered Kazakh warriors across the steppes to resist the advance of the Zunghars. The already weakened Kazakhs were once again faced with defeat at Sayram and soon lost many major cities to the Zunghars.
Tauke Khan soon sought alliances with the Kirghiz in the southeast who were also facing a Zunghar invasion in their Issyk-Kul Lake region and even the Uyghurs of the Tarim Basin. In 1687, Zunghars besieged Hazrat-e Turkestan and were forced to retreat after the arrival of Subhan Quli Khan.
In 1697, Tsewang Rabtan became the leader of the Zunghar Khanate, and he dispatched several of his commanders to subjugate Tauke Khan and many major wars between the Zunghars and the Kazakh Khanate continued into the following years: 1709, 1711–1712, 1714 and 1718. The Kazakh Khanate had indeed been weakened by the confrontation and nearly one-third of their population had been lost by the ensuing conflict. With Tauke Khan's death in 1718, the Kazakh Khanate splintered into three Jüz – the Great jüz, the Middle jüz and the Little jüz. Each Jüz had its own Khan from this time onward.
Tauke Khan is also known for refining the Kazakh code of laws, and reissuing it under the title (transliterated, – "Seven Charters").
Abylai Khan (1771–1781)
Ablai Khan was a khan of the Middle jüz or Horde who managed to extend his control over the other two jüzes to include all of the Kazakhs. Before he became khan, Ablai participated in Kazakh-Dzungar Wars and proved himself a talented organizer and commander. He led numerous campaigns against the Kokand Khanate and the Kyrgyz. In the latter campaign, his troops liberated many cities in Southern Kazakhstan and even captured Tashkent. During his actual reign, Ablai Khan did his best to keep Kazakhstan as independent as possible from the encroaching Russian Empire and the Chinese Qing dynasty. He employed a multi-vector foreign policy to protect the tribes from Chinese and Dzungar aggressors. He also sheltered the Dzungar Oirat taishas Amursana and Dawachi from attacks by the Khan of Dzungar Khanate, Lama Dorji, as the Dzungar Khanate fractured following the death of Galdan Tseren in 1745. However, once Amursana and Dawachi were no longer allies, Ablai Khan took the opportunity to capture herds and territory from the Dzungars.
Kenesary Khan (1841–1847)
Kenesary Khan was the last Kazakh Khan who defeated Shergazi Muhammad Khan (khan of the Junior jüz) and Gubaidullah Khan (khan of the Elder jüz) to unite the Kazakhs one last time. Following his rule, he became leader of national liberation movement that resisted the capture of Kazakh lands and segregation policies by the Russian Empire. He was the grandson of Ablai Khan and is largely regarded as the last ruler of the Kazakh Khanate.
By the mid 19th century, the Kazakhs fell under the full control of the Russian Empire and were banned from electing their own leader or even given representation in the empire's legislative structures. All fiscal/tax collections were also taken away from local Kazakh representatives and given to Russian administrators. Kenesary Khan fought against the Russian imperial forces until his death in 1847.
In 1841, at an all-Kazakh Kurultai, Kenesary was elected as Khan (supreme leader) by all Kazakh representatives. The ceremony of coronation followed all Kazakh traditions.
As a freedom fighter and popular as a leading voice against the increasingly aggressive and forceful policies of the Russian Empire, Kenesary was ruthless in his actions and unpredictable as a military strategist. By 1846, however, his resistance movement had lost momentum as some of his rich associates had defected to the Russian Empire, having been bribed and been promised great riches. Betrayed, Kenesary Khan grew increasingly suspicious of the remaining members of the Resistance, possibly further alienating them. In 1847, the Khan of the Kazakhs met his death in Kyrgyz lands during his assault on northern Kyrgyz tribes. He was executed by Ormon Khan, the Kyrgyz khan who was subsequently rewarded by the Russians with a larger estate and an official administrative role. Kenesary Khan's head was cut off and sent to the Russians.
Over the last decade, Kenesary Khan has been increasingly regarded as a hero in Kazakh literature and media. A monument to Kenesary Khan can be seen on the shore of the river Esil in the capital of Kazakhstan, Astana.
Disintegration of Khanate and Russian conquest
Gradual decline, disintegration and accession of Kazakh territories into the Russian Empire began in the mid-18th and ended in the second part of the 19th century. By the mid-18th century, as a result of long-lasting armed conflicts with Dzungars and Oirats, the Kazakh Khanate had started to decline and further disintegrate into three Jüzes, which formerly constituted the Kazakh Khanate in a confederate form.
On October 10, 1731, the khan of the Junior Jüz, Abu'l Khayr, swore fealty to Anna of Russia to obtain Russian help against his rival Sultan Qayip and to secure economic stability. Shortly thereafter the Middle Jüz's Khan Semeke agreed to suzerainty under the same terms. Neither khan remained very loyal to the Russians, but from this point Russian sovereigns began to assert the right to appoint the khans of the Junior and Middle Jüzes and to exert greater influence on them. The Kazakhs in turn began to view the khanate with greater suspicion, as khans increasingly sought Russian help against their rivals within the Khanate.
Following the rule of Abu'l-Mansur Khan's death in 1781, the Middle jüz was nominally ruled by his son Vali, but Vali never achieved control of the entire jüz. In an attempt to establish some order in 1798, Russia created a tribunal at Petropavlovsk to resolve disputes among the Kazakhs, but it was ignored by the Kazakhs. Following Vali's death in 1817 and his rival Bukei's death in 1818, Russia abolished the Khanate of the Middle jüz. In 1822, Russia began to refer to the land until then occupied by the Middle jüz as the territory of the Siberian Kirgiz and introduced a set of administrative reforms, some of them intended to encourage the Kazakhs to become farmers, but the Kazakhs remained nomadic.
1827–28 saw the first serious Kazakh resistance to the Russians, as Qayip Ali led fighters of the Bukey Horde against a Russian garrison blocking them from crossing the Ural River to find needed grazing land. In the following years, Qayip Ali helped Isatay Taymanuly build a resistance movement designed to free his people from both the khan of the Bukey Horde and the Russians. The movement was crushed in July 1838.
By 1837 some tribes of the Middle jüz led by Kenesary Kasymov started war with the Russian occupiers. Support for the resistance was fueled by Russians' refusal to allow them much-needed additional grazing land, taxes, and the feeling that they were being exploited by Russian merchants. Kasymov managed to unite the entire Middle jüz for the last time in popular opposition to the Russians. The resistance came to an end when Russia deployed sufficient forces to make Kenesary surrender in 1846. He died the next year fighting Kokand forces in Kirgizia.
Russian colonial policies/strategies brought military fortresses, many settlements, and externally imposed rules into Kazakh lands. A series of laws were introduced by the Russian Empire, abolishing local indigenous government in the form of Khan rule, instituting segregationist settlement policies, etc., resulting in numerous uprisings against colonial rule. Significant resistance movements were led by leaders such as Makhambet Utemisuly (1836–1838) and Eset Kotibaruli (1847–1858).
Meanwhile, the Senior Jüz sided with the Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Kokand from the south, and started opposing the expansion of the Russian Empire.
Full Russian rule over all Kazakh lands was established in the second half of the 19th century, after the southern towns of Aq-Meshit, Shymkent, Aulie-Ata and others were taken by the Russian Imperial Army.
Khans
Family Tree
Economy
Located at the middle of the Silk Road its main source of income was trading horses, cattle, pottery, fur etc....
By the mid 18th century, the Russian Empire had expanded into Siberia, and Russian settlements started to appear along the Volga and Yaik rivers. The Kazakh-Russian relationship at the border regions was tense, which often resulted in mutual raids by Russian Cossacks on Kazakh lands and Kazakhs on Russian settlements.
Kazakh Khanate slave trade on Russian settlement
During the 18th century, raids by Kazakhs on Russia's territory of Orenburg were common; the Kazakhs captured many Russians and sold them as slaves in the Central Asian market. The Volga Germans were also victims of Kazakh raids; they were ethnic Germans living along the River Volga in the region of southeastern European Russia around Saratov.
In 1717, 3,000 Russian slaves, men, women, and children, were sold in Khiva by Kazakh and Kyrgyz tribesmen.
In 1722, they stole cattle, robbed from Russian villages and people trapped in captivity and sold in the slave markets of Central Asia (in 1722 in Bukhara were over 5,000 Russian prisoners). In the middle of the 17th century, 500 Russians were annually sold to Khiva by Kazakhs
In 1730, the Kazakhs' frequent raids into Russian lands were a constant irritant and resulted in the enslavement of many of the Tsar's subjects, who were sold on the Kazakh steppe.
In 1736, urged on by Kirilov, the Kazakhs of the Lesser and Middle Hordes launched raids into Bashkir lands, killing or capturing many Bashkirs in the Siberian and Nogay districts.
In 1743, an order was given by the senate in response to the failure to defend against the Kazakh attack on a Russian settlement, which resulted in 14 Russians killed, 24 wounded. In addition, 96 Cossacks were captured by Kazakhs.
In 1755, Nepliuev tried to enlist Kazakh support by ending the reprisal raids and promising that the Kazakhs could keep the Bashkir women and children living among them (a long-standing point of contention between Nepliuev and Khan Nurali of the Junior Jüz). Thousands of Bashkirs would be massacred or taken captive by Kazakhs over the course of the uprising, whether in an effort to demonstrate loyalty to the Tsarist state, or as a purely opportunistic maneuver.
In the period between 1764 and 1803, according to data collected by the Orenburg Commission, twenty Russian caravans were attacked and plundered. Kazakh raiders attacked even big caravans which were accompanied by numerous guards.
In spring 1774, the Russians demanded the Khan return 256 Russians captured by a recent Kazakh raid.
In summer 1774, when Russian troops in the Kazan region were suppressing the rebellion led by the Cossack leader Pugachev, the Kazakhs launched more than 240 raids and captured many Russians and herds along the border of Orenburg.
In 1799, the biggest Russian caravan which was plundered at that time lost goods worth 295,000 rubles.
By 1830, the Russian government estimated that two hundred Russians were kidnapped and sold into slavery in Khiva every year.
Russian empire slave trade on Kazakh settlement
In 1737, Empress of Russia Anna Ioannovna issued an order that legalized slave trade in Siberia.
There were accounts of Russian Cossack raids that captured Kazakh families, which were then taken to Petropavlovsk and Omsk, where they were sold to wealthy Russian land owners into serfdom.
By the end of 18th century, the lands of Kazakh Junior Jüz (or Junior Horde) were incorporated into the Russian Empire, and raids by Kazakhs on Russian colonies has gradually declined and stopped.
On May 23, 1808, Governor Peter Kaptzevich signed an order that freed all slave or serf Kazakhs of both genders who reached the age of 25.
Abolition of slavery
At major markets in Bukhara, Samarkand, Karakul, Karshi and Charju, slaves consisted mainly of Iranians and Russians, and some Kalmuks; they were brought there by Turkmen, Kazakh and Kyrgyz. A notorious slave market for captured Russian and Persian slaves was centered in the Khanate of Khiva from the 17th to the 19th century. During the first half of the 19th century alone, some one million Persians, as well as an unknown number of Russians, were enslaved and transported to Central Asian khanates. When Russian troops took Khiva in 1873 there were 29,300 Persian slaves, captured by Turkoman raiders. According to Josef Wolff (Report of 1843–1845) the population of the Khanate of Bukhara was 1,200,000, of whom 200,000 were Persian slaves.
See also
List of wars involving Kazakhstan
History of Kazakhstan
List of Kazakh khans
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
Nomad (2006 film)
Kazakh Khanate – Golden Throne
References
Former countries in Central Asia
1731 disestablishments in Asia
Wars involving Kyrgyzstan
Former monarchies of Asia
Former monarchies of Europe
States and territories established in 1465
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LRT%20Line%201%20%28Metro%20Manila%29
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LRT Line 1 (Metro Manila)
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The Light Rail Transit Line 1, commonly referred to as LRT Line 1 or LRT-1, is a light rapid transit system line in Metro Manila, Philippines, operated by Light Rail Manila Corporation (LRMC) and owned by the Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA) as part of the Manila Light Rail Transit System. Originally referred to as Metrorail and the Yellow Line, LRT Line 1 was reclassified to be the Green Line in 2012. It travels in a general north–south direction from to , and then east–west from Monumento to Fernando Poe Jr.. Currently, the line consists of 20 stations and runs on of fully elevated route. Although it has the characteristics of light rail, such as with the type of rolling stock used, it is more akin to a rapid transit system owing to its total grade separation and high passenger throughput.
A 1977 study conducted by Freeman Fox and Associates suggested a street-level railway in Manila but the government revised this recommendation to an elevated system. In 1980, President Ferdinand Marcos created the LRTA and construction of the line began the following year. With the opening of its first segment in 1984, it became the first rapid transit service in Southeast Asia.
The line was the busiest among Metro Manila's three rapid transit lines from 2016 to 2020, after Lines 3 and 2. It served 216,667 passengers on average in 2022, making it the second-busiest.
The line is integrated with the public transit system in Metro Manila, and passengers also take various forms of road-based public transport, such as buses and jeepneys, to and from a station to reach their intended destination. Although the line aimed to reduce traffic congestion and travel times in Metro Manila, the transportation system has only been partially successful due to the rising number of motor vehicles and rapid urbanization. Expanding the network's revenue line to accommodate more passengers, through extension projects, is set on resolving this problem.
Route
The line is predominantly aligned to the path of Taft Avenue (Radial Road 2) which was chosen largely due to its straight course. Later on, as Taft Avenue ends, it shifts to Rizal Avenue and Rizal Avenue Extension (Radial Road 9) then turning right on EDSA before ending at the corner of North and West Avenues and EDSA. The line links the cities of Quezon City, Caloocan, Manila, and Pasay, with the upcoming stations passing through the cities of Parañaque, Las Piñas, and Bacoor in Cavite.
Stations
The line serves 20 stations along its route. A twenty-first station is yet to be constructed. Eight stations which are part of the south extension are also set to be constructed south of Baclaran. station in Caloocan was previously proposed during the construction of the northern extension located between and , becoming a bargaining object during the entire extension line's construction in the jurisdiction of Caloocan. However, the planned Malvar station was completely shelved by the Aquino administration.
Three stations serve as connecting stations between other lines in the metro. is indirectly connected to the of the LRT Line 2 through a covered walkway; is immediately above its PNR Metro Commuter Line counterpart; and is connected to the station via a covered walkway. No stations are connected to other rapid transit lines within the paid areas, though that is set to change when the North Triangle Common Station, which has interchanges to MRT Line 3 and MRT Line 7, opens in 2023.
Operations and services
The line operates from 4:30 a.m. PST (UTC+8) until 10:15 p.m. on weekdays, and 5:00 a.m. until 9:45 p.m on weekends and holidays. It operates almost every day of the year unless otherwise announced. Special schedules are announced via the PA system in every station and also in newspapers and other mass media. During Holy Week, a public holiday in the Philippines, the rail line is closed for annual maintenance, owing to fewer commuters and traffic around the metro. Normal operation resumes after Easter Sunday. During the Christmas and year-end holidays, the operating hours of the line are shortened due to the low ridership of the line during the holidays.
History
Planning and funding
The 1977 Metro Manila Transport, Land Use and Development Planning Project (MMETROPLAN), a fourteen-month study conducted by Freeman Fox and Associates and funded by the World Bank, recommended the construction of a street-level light rail line in Manila. Following a review by the Ministry of Transportation and Communications, later the Department of Transportation (DOTr), the proposal was revised to an elevated railway in order to avoid building over the city's many intersections, while the option of constructing the line underground was also rejected due to the high water table in Manila. This raised the project's cost from ₱1.5 billion to ₱2 billion. An alignment along Rizal and Taft avenues, which spanned from Monumento, Caloocan in the north to Baclaran, Pasay in the south, was selected because it followed a relatively straight path for most of its route. On July 12, 1980, President Ferdinand Marcos created the Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA) and assigned First Lady and Governor of Metro Manila Imelda Marcos as its chairman. While the LRTA confined its roles to policy making, fare regulation, and future planning, the line's operations were assigned to Metro, Inc., a sister company of Meralco. The line came to be referred to as Metrorail.
The Belgian Government granted a ₱300 million soft and interest-free loan for the project's construction, with a repayment period of 30 years. Additional funding was later sourced from a ₱700 million loan, provided by a Belgian consortium consisting of ACEC, La Brugeoise et Nivelles, Tractionnel Engineering International, and Transurb Consult. The consortium also supplied the line's first light rail vehicles, power control, signalling, and telecommunications, as well as provided training and technical assistance. Designed as a public utility rather than a profit center, the line was expected to incur a deficit through 1993, but complete its repayments within a period of 20 years.
Construction
The government-owned Construction Development Corporation of the Philippines was the project's sole contractor. Single column cast-in-place concrete piers carrying precast concrete T-girders and a concrete deck slab were used for the original line from Monumento to Baclaran. The columns are spaced apart by rising from a cap on top of bored or driven concrete piles. Four of the wide girders are side by side in each span to accommodate bidirectional standard-gauge railway tracks located above the street level.
Driven piles were originally used for 80 percent of the project, with spread footings being used for the remaining portion. However, during construction, it was determined that bored piles should be utilized in some areas to mitigate noise and avoid potential damage to nearby buildings. Additionally, the original use of stockpiled precast piles caused clutter on the streets during construction.
In 1981, an economic recession hit the country and the government's were unable to provide counterpart funds for civil works and right-of-way acquisition, which amounted to 60 percent of the project's total cost, led to a delay in construction. Work finally resume after the Economic Recession and the EDSA Revolution in September of that year along Taft Avenue, between Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) and Libertad Street. In order to make way for Carriedo station and a segment of tracks approaching the Pasig River, a department store and a classroom building owned by FEATI University were demolished.
Opening
The southern section, between the Baclaran and United Nations stations, was inaugurated on September 11, 1984, and commercial operation along this section commenced on December 1. The line became fully operational on May 12, 1985, when the northern section between Central Terminal and Monumento opened. During the first several years, two-car trains that could accommodate up to 748 passengers were utilized. This amounted to a capacity of 20,000 passengers per direction.
Capacity expansions
First phase
During the 1990s, the Line 1 reached its capacity due to traffic congestion and air pollution. In year 90s, the Line 1 fell so far into disrepair due to premature wear and tear that trains headed to Central Terminal station had to slow to a crawl to avoid further damage to the support beams below as cracks reportedly began to appear. The premature aging of Line 1 led to an extensive refurbishing and structural capacity expansion program with a help of Japan's official development assistance.
The capacity expansion project was one of the flagship projects of the administration of President Fidel V. Ramos. A loan agreement for the first phase of the capacity expansion project was signed in 1994. In August 1996, a consortium of Marubeni Corporation, Adtranz, and ABB was awarded the contract and was signed the following September. The project, undertaken at a cost of , involves the procurement of seven four-car trains that were ordered from Hyundai Precision, and the refurbishment and conversion of the original two-car trains into three-car trains in 1999. In line with the introduction of the four-car trains, the station platforms were also extended. The project was completed in 2002.
During the first phase of the capacity expansion, a labor strike was launched by employees of Meralco Transit Organization (METRO, Inc.) in July 2000 as their operations and maintenance contract was about to expire. It paralyzed the operations of the line for a week. The Light Rail Transit Authority decided not to renew its contract with METRO, Inc. that expired on July 31, 2000, and the former assumed operational responsibility.
Second phase
Another capacity expansion project was initiated in April 2000 during the administration of President Joseph Estrada due to the high demand of passengers in line with the completion of the MRT Line 3 (and eventually, LRT Line 2). Funded through an ₱8.893-billion loan from the Japan Bank for International Cooperation, the second phase of the capacity expansion project is divided into two packages. Package A involves the procurement of twelve four-car trains, upgrades to the signalling and communications equipment, and upgrades to the stations and depot. Package B, on the other hand, involves the procurement and installation of air conditioning units for the 1000 class trains, replacement of faulty air conditioning units of the 1100 class trains, renovation of of railway track and railway sleepers, and procurement of equipment and spare parts used for track works. The installation of equipment for the automatic fare collection system was also included in the capacity expansion project.
North extension
With the completion of the first phase of the MRT Line 3 in 1999, there were plans to extend Line 3 towards station (Phase 2) to create a seamless rail loop around Metro Manila. However, the extension was shelved by then-President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo in favor of a extension of the LRT-1 to the MRT-3 station. The project involved the construction of three stations: , Roosevelt (renamed Fernando Poe Jr.) , and a common station at North Avenue. However, due to disputes in the common station's location, the station would only begin construction on September 29, 2017. The extension was part of the MRT-LRT Closing the Loop project under the Arroyo administration.
In September 2008, during construction, station was proposed and was met with controversies between the Caloocan local government, the general public, and the Light Rail Transit Authority. The station was approved in July 2009. Though it was reported that the feasibility study for the station was completed, construction has yet to start.
The project was originally divided into three packages. Package A covered the construction of the viaduct while Package B covered the construction of the stations. Package C would cover the electro-mechanical systems in which includes the power supply, signalling and telecommunication systems, and railway track works. Several modifications were made in Packages A and C. Package A would be divided into two packages: Package A1, which covers the construction of the viaduct from Monumento to Balintawak, while Package A2 covered the construction of the viaduct from Balintawak to North Avenue. The joint venture of First Balfour and DMCI was awarded the contract for the viaduct and stations for the north extension project. Package C, on the other hand, would cover the power supply system, overhead catenary system, and station equipment. Package C was awarded to the joint venture of Miescor and GTC. Its sub-components, the signalling system, telecommunication systems, fare systems, and railway track works were contracted as four separate contracts. The signalling contract was awarded to the joint venture of DMCI, Beta Electric, and Tewet. The communications contract, on the other hand, was awarded to the Philippine subsidiary of Alcatel-Lucent. The fare systems contract was awarded to AP Trans SA, and the track works contract was awarded to the joint venture of Daxi and Frateur-De Pourcq.
The project was intended to integrate the LRT Line 1 and MRT Line 3 operations. Structure gauge tests were conducted in the extension by February 2010. The project's consultant, MetroLink Joint Venture, found that the LRT Line 1 trains can run on MRT Line 3 tracks. On February 25, 2010, as part of the 24th anniversary of the People Power Revolution, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo and Vice President Noli de Castro rode an MRT-3 train from to before transferring to an LRT-1 train that passed along the extension until station. Balintawak station opened on March 22, 2010, while FPJ station opened seven months later, on October 22.
The Tewet Group of Germany, together with its signalling partner BBR Verkehrstechnik, conducted the signalling integration of the original line and north extension. Integration works were completed in May 2011, while the integration works passed inspection tests by TÜV Rheinland in June 2011.
To integrate the operations of the LRT Line 1 and MRT Line 3, the then-Department of Transportation and Communications, under Secretary Jose de Jesus, launched an auction for a temporary five-year operations and maintenance contract for the two lines. The bidding was set by July 2011. Over 21 companies from around the world expressed interest to bid which included Metro Pacific Investments, Sumitomo Corporation, Siemens, DMCI Holdings, San Miguel Corporation, and others. After de Jesus resigned from the DOTC, his successor, Mar Roxas, halted the auction process and was later shelved.
Privatization
A plan to privatize the line was pursued as part of the south extension project. The bidding was set for August 2013, but failed. The project was rebidded, and on September 12, 2014, the operation and maintenance of LRT Line 1 and the construction of a extension project to Bacoor, Cavite was awarded to the Light Rail Manila Corporation (LRMC), a joint venture company of Metro Pacific's Metro Pacific Light Rail Corporation (MPLRC), Ayala Corporation's AC Infrastructure Holdings Corporation (AC Infra), and the Philippine Investment Alliance for Infrastructure's Macquarie Infrastructure Holdings (Philippines) PTE Ltd. (MIHPL) (with Sumitomo Corporation following in May 2020). The consortium signed a concession agreement with the DOTr and LRTA on October 2, 2014. LRMC contracted the operation and maintenance of the line for 20 years to RATP Dev under its subsidiary RATP Dev Transdev Asia, a joint venture between Transdev and RATP Dev on December 8, 2014. The 32-year concession started on September 12, 2015.
Rehabilitation
A rail replacement program commenced in 2016, as a continuation of the previous rail replacement program completed by the Light Rail Transit Authority. LRMC signed a contract with First Balfour for the structural restoration project of Line 1 on April 19, 2017, and in November 2018, LRMC tapped First Balfour and MRail, a subsidiary of Meralco for the rehabilitation of rectifier substations.
LRMC has also rehabilitated the first and second-generation trains to add more trains servicing the line.
Station facilities, amenities, and services
All stations in Line 1 are elevated, with the exception of Zapote station.
Station layout and accessibility
Most stations are composed of only one level, accessible from the street below by stairway, containing the station's concourse and platform areas separated by fare gates. Some stations tend to have a concourse level below the platforms. The single-level stations of Line 1, however, was not built with accessibility in mind, due to the lack of barrier-free facilities such as escalators and elevators. Some stations, such as and , are connected at concourse level to nearby buildings, such as shopping malls, for easier accessibility. Some trains have spaces for passengers using wheelchairs.
As of November 8, 2009, folding bicycles are allowed to be brought into trains provided that it does not exceed the LRTA's baggage size limitations of . The last car of each train are also designated as "green zones", where folding bicycle users can ride with their bikes.
All stations have side platforms except for Baclaran, which has one side and one island platform. Due to the high patronage of the line, part of the platform corresponding to the front car of the train is cordoned off for the use of women, children, elderly and disabled passengers.
Shops and services
Inside the concourse of some stations are stalls or shops where people can buy food or drinks. Stalls vary by station, and some have fast food stalls. The number of stalls also varies by station, and some stations tend to have a wide variety.
Stations such as Monumento and Baclaran are connected to or are near shopping malls and/or other large shopping areas, where commuters are offered more shopping varieties.
Ridership
The current designed daily ridership of the line is 560,000 passengers and currently aims to increase the number of passengers being served on the line to more than 800,000 passengers, as the line's south extension is set to be fully operational by 2027.
On January 9, 2012, the line served a record 620,987 passengers during the Feast of the Black Nazarene ( station is near to the Quiapo Church), and since the day falls on a working weekday. In 2018, the line carried 300,000 to 500,000 passengers daily, due to the increased number of trains, from 86 vehicles to 113 vehicles available for daily trips. This gradually reduces the waiting time of passengers from 5 minutes to as much as 2 to 3.5 minutes. It also carried as much as 14.63 million passengers monthly in 2018. However, as of 2023, the waiting time has been officially reported at 5 to 6 minutes.
Rolling stock
The line at various stages in its history has used different configurations of two-car, three-car, and four-car trainsets. The two-car trains are the original first-generation BN and ACEC trains (railway cars numbered from 1000). Most were transformed into three-car trains, although some two-car trains remain in service. The four-car trains are the more modern second-generation Hyundai Precision / Adtranz (1100) and third-generation Kinki Sharyo / Nippon Sharyo (1200) trains. There are 139 railway cars grouped into 40 trains serving the line: 63 of these are first-generation cars, 28 second-generation, and 48 third-generation. One train car (1037) was severely damaged in the Rizal Day bombings in 2000 and was subsequently decommissioned.
The maximum design speed of these cars ranges between , but only run at a maximum operational speed of . Until 2011, all trains ran at the maximum speed until it was downgraded to due to the deteriorating condition of the railway tracks, except for the north extension which continued running on the maximum speed. After a three-year rail replacement program, the operating speed was restored to on April 5, 2021.
The line's fleet is being modernized to cope with increasing numbers of passengers. In the initial phase of its capacity expansion program completed in 1999, the line's seven four-car second-generation trains were commissioned providing an increased train capacity of 1,358 passengers while the original two-car trains capable of holding 748 passengers were transformed into three-car trains with room for 1,122. As part of the second phase of expansion, twelve new trains made in Japan by Kinki Sharyo and Nippon Sharyo were purchased in 2005 and were introduced in December 2006, providing a capacity of 1,388 passengers. The fourth-generation trains, ordered in 2017 with Japanese funding for the south extension project to replace the first-generation trains, were delayed in deployment due to the need to rectify factory defects in the roofs of the units that went undetected prior to delivery due to the inability to conduct factory inspections during the COVID-19 pandemic. Rectification works were conducted with costs shouldered by the manufacturer. The new train sets entered revenue service on July 20, 2023.
Prior to 1999, the first-generation trains were notorious for its lack of air conditioning, relying instead on forced-air roof ventilation for cooling. This however resulted in hot and stuffy rides. Although the entry of the second-generation trains in 1999 marked the introduction of air-conditioned trains in the line, the problem was fully addressed after a preparatory rehabilitation program completed in 2001 allowed the installation of air conditioners to the older rolling stock in 2004.
LRMC has also built an in-house laboratory for production, manufacturing, fabrication and repair of train parts that are no longer available in the market.
The Passenger Assist Railway Display System, a passenger information system powered by LCD screens installed near the ceiling of the train that shows news, advertisements, current train location, arrivals and station layouts, are already installed in the third-generation trains, along with the trains of Line 2 and the first-generation trains of Line 3. As of the 4th quarter of 2023, these units were discreetly removed and prior to removal, were no longer operating.
Depot
The line maintains an at-grade depot in Baclaran, Pasay. It serves as the center of the operations and maintenance of the line. It is connected to the mainline through a spur line. Before its expansion, the depot had a capacity of 145 light rail vehicles and an area of . It was expanded to an area of to accommodate 197 vehicles, with Shimizu Corporation and First Balfour implementing the project. Expansion works were completed after the depot was inaugurated on February 23, 2022.
A satellite depot is being constructed in Zapote as part of the line's south extension project. When completed, the satellite depot will handle 72 light rail vehicles.
Other infrastructure
Signalling
Throughout its history, the line used different signalling systems. The line currently uses the Alstom Atlas 100 solution based on ETCS Level 1.
The original signalling system used in the LRT Line 1 was based on fixed block and relay type trackside systems. Trains had an automatic train stop system that activates if the train passes by a red signal or over-speeding. Based on a procurement plan published by the Light Rail Transit Authority, most of the signalling equipment, including track circuits, were supplied by ACEC.
In 2007, as part of a capacity expansion project, the signalling system was replaced with a signalling and train control system based on automatic train protection (ATP) and automatic train supervision (ATS) using Siemens technology. The ATP system monitors the speed of the trains, while the ATS system directs train operations. Prior to the 2022 upgrade, the signalling system was designed to operate at a headway of 112 seconds. Aside from the ATP and ATS systems, its subsystems include train detection through axle counters, and microprocessor-based interlocking.
The signalling system was again upgraded as part of the line's south extension. Alstom was awarded a contract in February 2016 to supply the signalling and communications systems for the line. Alstom supplied the Atlas 100 solution based on ETCS Level 1. The testing and commissioning phase of the upgraded signalling system started in November 2021 and was completed on February 1, 2022.
Tracks
The tracks have two types: ballasted and slab tracks. Ballasted sections are found in the original section from to , while slab tracks are found in the north extension. The tracks are supported by twin-block concrete railroad ties, and have a track center distance of .
The tracks in the original line consist of rails designed to the EB 50T rail profile, while the tracks in the future extension line consist of rails designed to the UIC 54 rail profile.
Due to the deterioration of the rail tracks in the original line, speed restrictions were implemented in 2011 except for the north extension. In 2012, a contract to replace of rails was awarded to the joint venture of Oriental and Motolite Marketing Corporation, Korail, Erin-Marty Fabricators Company, Inc., and Jorgman Construction and Development Corporation. However, there were delays in the project implementation until February 2014, when the then-Department of Transportation and Communications issued a notice to proceed for the joint venture. The first phase of the replacement started in 2014, while the rails at Monumento station were replaced in March 2015. The first phase of the rail replacement was completed in December 2015. The second and final phase of replacement works commenced in August 2016 by the Light Rail Manila Corporation, which contracted Joratech to replace of rails and was completed in 2017. This was intended to increase the operating speed from to and was achieved on April 5, 2021.
Extensions
South extension
An extension of LRT Line 1 to the south, known as the South Extension Project or the Cavite Extension Project, is under construction and will serve the areas of Parañaque to Cavite. The extension will span from the Quirino Avenue, Harrison Avenue, and Taft Avenue Extension intersection, then would travel down from Redemptorist Road, Roxas Boulevard, and Manila–Cavite Expressway, afterwards, it will traverse through the Parañaque River and will enter Ninoy Aquino Avenue until reaching and traversing the C5 Extension Road; and will once again enter Coastal Road, crossing the Las Piñas-Bacoor Boundary Bridge along the Zapote River, and traverse through the Alabang–Zapote Road and Aguinaldo Highway intersection, until reaching the Niog station located along the Bacoor Boulevard at Bacoor, Cavite. The extension project would add 8 stations covering of new elevated railway sections and would be the third rail line extending outside the Metro Manila area (after the east extension of Line 2 and the construction of Line 7). The project is divided in two phases—Phase 1 covers five stations from Redemptorist to Dr. Santos, while Phase 2 covers the remaining three stations from Las Piñas to Niog.
The original plan for the line's extension as the MRT Line 6, which was identified in the Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integration Study Master Plan by the Japan International Cooperation Agency in 1999, would have constructed a 12 to 15-kilometer elevated railway from Baclaran to Imus, with extensions leading to Cavite City (10.0 km), Dasmariñas (14.5 km), Airport, Sucat (9.0 km), and Alabang (12.0 km). However, the project never materialized.
The project was first approved by the National Economic and Development Authority in 2000, while the Implementing Agreement for the project was approved in 2002, to be undertaken by SNC-Lavalin as a public-private partnership project. The proposal however was subsequently terminated in 2006. In the same year, the government worked with International Finance Corporation, White & Case, Halcrow and other consultants to conduct an open-market invitation to tender for the extension and for a 40-year concession to run the extended line. However, the project was shelved months before Gloria Macapagal Arroyo would end her term as President.
In 2014, during President Benigno Aquino III's 5th State of the Nation Address, he cited the line's extension project as one of the infrastructure projects approved by his administration, with other projects including LRT Line 2 East Extension and the Cebu Bus Rapid Transit Project that were also approved.
The plans for the southern extension project were restarted as early as 2012 and was expected to begin construction in 2014 but was delayed due to right of way issues. The issues were resolved in 2016 and on May 4, 2017, the project broke ground. It would be implemented in a hybrid scheme (combination of the official development assistance funds from Japan and the private proponent, the Light Rail Manila Corporation). Civil works on the extension began on May 7, 2019.
The extension project also features the construction of three intermodal facilities, one satellite depot located at Zapote, and mass upgrades to the existing Baclaran depot. The project is expected to cater more than 800,000 passengers daily once completed.
The line would be extended from Parañaque southwards, connecting Las Piñas and Bacoor to the Mega Manila railway network. Aside from the construction of eight stations (Redemptorist, Manila International Airport, Asia World, Ninoy Aquino, Dr. Santos, Las Piñas, Zapote, Niog) and another two planned stations ( and ), the construction of the extension line will be built using a full span launching method, renowned as one of the fastest methods of construction for bridges and elevated viaducts that cuts time and total land space needed for construction. A total of 203 pi-girders were used for the construction of the extension's first phase, the last of which was laid on February 7, 2022. The extension project will also serve as the first railway line to use the new construction method.
The LRMC partnered with Bouygues Construction for the civil works, Alstom for the installation of the signalling and communication systems, and the RATP Dev Transdev Asia for the overall engineering, procurement, consultation, construction and assistance services for the project.
, the project is 82.7% complete. Phase 1 of the extension is slated to be operational by the 4th quarter of 2024, with full operations by 2027.
Second north extension
The original north extension until Fernando Poe Jr. station will be extended to the under-construction North Triangle Common Station. The project site of the common station was disputed for years until an agreement with the stakeholders was signed in January 2017. Construction of the station began on September 29, 2017 and is planned to open in July 2023.
Incidents and accidents
Rizal Day bombings
On December 30, 2000, during the Rizal Day, a 1000 class LRV train (Car number 1037) was involved in the Rizal Day bombings at Blumentritt station. The attack on the line killed some 22 people and injured hundreds. Eight members of both Jemaah Islamiyah and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), which include Hambal, Asia's most wanted man, and Fathur Rahman al-Ghozi, were charged with plotting and masterminding the attacks in 2003, some three years after the attacks. Three suspects were put on trial, with al-Ghozi receiving 17 years in prison due to the illegal possession of explosives. Al-Ghozi later died in a firefight after attempting to escape from prison.
Other incidents
On January 3, 2008, a fire blazed at a shopping mall in Baclaran. Due to the smoke, the Baclaran station was temporarily closed. A provisional service was implemented between EDSA and Monumento (at the time, the north extension was not opened yet), with southbound trains still proceeding towards Baclaran to only serve as a turnback siding. The station remained closed the following day until it was reopened a few days later.
On August 11, 2008, a fire blazed in a mall near the Baclaran station. The station was closed to the public until the station was reopened on August 13.
On December 8, 2008, a train encountered a glitch while approaching Carriedo station.
On February 18, 2011, two trains (1G and 3G) collided near Fernando Poe Jr. station in Quezon City at the reversing tracks, around a kilometer away to the east. There were no passengers on board when the incident happened. The cause of the collision is yet to be determined, whether due to driver error or technical malfunction.
On April 15, 2011, a door malfunction disrupted the operations of Line 1 at Blumentritt station.
On June 21, 2011, at 8:00 AM, a train suffered a short circuit in one of its electrical components at Libertad station. On the same day, at 2:23 PM, a power cable was hit by lightning, disrupting the line's operations for three hours.
On August 30, 2012, at 5:50 AM, a woman committed suicide after jumping in front of an approaching train at EDSA station. Operations were disrupted until operations resumed at 9:40 AM.
On December 21, 2012, a train stalled at the Monumento station.
On November 14, 2014, a signaling fault at Fernando Poe Jr. station limited the operations between Monumento and Baclaran stations. The situation normalized at 3:57 PM.
On May 23, 2015, thousands of passengers were stranded after two trains (1G and 3G) collided near the Monumento station. A train driver was hurt after the impact caused his head to slam into the dashboard of the train. The accident, later revealed to be caused by power fluctuation that affected the signalling system, forced passengers to alight from the station until services was restored around 1 pm at the same day.
On March 10, 2016, a 1G train car door was left open while running between Central Terminal and Pedro Gil stations. The problem was fixed at the Pedro Gil station.
On March 22, 2016, the doors of a 1G train car at the Central Terminal station failed to open, leaving passengers trapped inside the train.
On September 26, 2016, a faulty door in a 1G train car suddenly slammed shut in less than a second. No one was injured.
On November 6, 2017, a man's leg got stuck when a train door closed at the Gil Puyat station. The man was dragged at the platform when the train was moving, leaving the man with severe injuries. The man was then sent to a nearby hospital, where he was confined in an intensive care unit. According to a report, a number of trains, particularly the 1000 class (1G) trains, do not have sensors, that detects an object between doors.
On November 27, 2017, an 1100 class (2G) train door malfunctioned after a passenger forcibly opened it at Vito Cruz station, causing the sensor to malfunction. The train continued its journey with the door left open, and a passenger recorded this incident on camera.
On February 20, 2018, at around 6:00am, a train at R. Papa station unloaded 120 passengers after the air pressure gauge inside the train malfunctioned. The operations returned to normal 30 minutes later.
On July 21, 2018, at around 6:00 AM, a contact wire sparked near Libertad station. A provisional service between Fernando Poe Jr. and United Nations stations was implemented. Normal operations resumed at 2:59 PM after the cable was fixed.
On September 26, 2018, a faulty 1G train door was unable to open at the Balintawak station. A passenger pushed the door open and was able to disembark. The next passenger pushed the door but it abruptly closed on him but managed to get through.
On October 3, 2019, a mechanical problem limited the LRT-1 operations between Monumento and Baclaran stations. The operations returned to normal at 1:50 AM.
On November 6, 2020, a 1G train car emitted smoke at Gil Puyat station at 2:00 PM due to a catenary fault. Passengers were evacuated, and the line implemented a provisional service from Balintawak to Central Terminal and vice versa. The situation normalized at 8:00 PM.
On April 4, 2022, a train suffered a glitch at Tayuman station, causing a speed restriction of . Operations normalized at 7:34 AM.
On February 17, 2023, operations were limited between Fernando Poe Jr. and Gil Puyat due to electrical problems.
On April 14, 2023, at 10:17 AM, a speed restriction of was put in place in the whole train line due to the reported fault of the affected LRV. At 10:25 AM, the operations stop in whole line due to the fault of affected train at Bambang station northbound and the line implemented a provisional service from Baclaran to Central Terminal and vice versa at 10:52 AM. Operations normalized from Baclaran to Roosevelt and vice versa at 11:01 AM.
References
External links
The LRT Line 1 System
Light Rail Manila Corporation
Line 1
Light Rail Transit System Line 1
Transportation in Cavite
Light Rail Transit System Line 1
750 V DC railway electrification
RATP Group
Transdev
Transportation in Luzon
Railway lines opened in 1984
1984 establishments in the Philippines
Establishments by Philippine executive order
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LRT%20Line%202
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LRT Line 2
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The Light Rail Transit Line 2, also known as LRT Line 2 (LRT-2) or Megatren, is a rapid transit line in Metro Manila in the Philippines, generally running in an east–west direction along the Radial Road 6 and a portion of the Circumferential Road 1, referred to as the Purple Line, and previously known as the Mass Rapid Transit Line 2 or MRT Line 2 (MRT-2).
Although the line is operated by the Light Rail Transit Authority, resulting in it being called as "LRT-2", it is actually a heavy rail, rapid transit line. Instead of the light rail vehicles used in earlier lines, it uses very large metro cars, longer and wider than those used on the PNR network, and roughly the same size as those used on the MTR in Hong Kong, MRT in Bangkok and Singapore, and the heavy metro lines of the Taipei Metro. Until the opening of MRT Line 7 (MRT-7) in 2025 and the Metro Manila Subway (MMS) in 2027, it is the country's only line using these types of trains.
Envisioned in the 1970s as part of the Metropolitan Manila Strategic Mass Rail Transit Development Plan, the thirteen-station, line was the third rapid transit line to be built in Metro Manila when it started operations in 2003. The line became the first rapid transit line extending outside the Metro Manila area after its extension to Antipolo, Rizal opened in 2021. It is operated by the Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA), a government-owned and controlled corporation attached to the Department of Transportation (DOTr).
Serving close to 200,000 passengers daily before the COVID-19 pandemic in the country, the line is the least busy among Metro Manila's three rapid transit lines, and was built with standards such as barrier-free access and the use of magnetic card tickets to facilitate passenger access in mind. Total ridership however is significantly below the line's built maximum capacity, with various solutions being proposed or implemented to increase ridership in addition to the planned extensions to the line. However, the short-term solutions have had a minimal effect on ridership, and experts have insisted that the extensions be built immediately, despite pronouncements that the system is steadily increasing ridership each year. Regardless, the line encounters periods of peak ridership during rush hour in the morning and the evening.
The line is integrated with the public transit system in Metro Manila, and passengers also take various forms of road-based public transport, such as buses and jeepneys, to and from a station to reach their intended destination. Although the line aimed to reduce traffic congestion and travel times along R-6 and portions of C-1, the transportation system has only been partially successful due to the rising number of motor vehicles and rapid urbanization. Expanding the network's revenue line to accommodate more passengers is set on tackling this problem.
Future plans include a three-station westbound extension in Manila by 2024 and another proposed eastbound extension from station in Masinag towards Cogeo and downtown Antipolo.
Route
The rail line serves the cities that Radial Road 6 (Marcos Highway, Aurora Boulevard, Ramon Magsaysay Boulevard, Legarda Street and Recto Avenue) passes through: Manila, San Juan, Quezon City, Marikina, Pasig (depot), and Antipolo. The rails are mostly elevated and erected either over or along the roads covered, with sections below ground before and after the station, the only underground station on the line.
Stations
The line serves 13 stations along its route. The western terminus of the line is the station at Recto Avenue, while the eastern terminus of the line is the station along Marcos Highway.
Three stations serve as connecting stations between other lines in the metro. is within walking distance to the station of the PNR Metro Commuter Line; is indirectly connected to the station of the same name on the MRT Line 3 through local streets and inter-connected mall passageways inside Araneta City (formerly Araneta Center); and is indirectly connected to the station of the LRT Line 1 through a covered walkway. No stations are connected to other rapid transit lines within the paid areas.
Operations
The line currently runs from 5:00 a.m. PST (UTC+8) until 9:30 p.m. on a daily basis. It operates almost every day of the year unless otherwise announced. Special schedules are announced via the PA system at every station and also in newspapers and other mass media. During Holy Week, a public holiday in the Philippines, the rail system is closed for annual maintenance, owing to fewer commuters and traffic around the metro. Normal operation resumes after Easter Sunday. During the Christmas and year-end holidays, the operating hours of the line are modified and shortened, due to the low ridership of the line during the holidays.
History
Planning and early delays
During the construction of the first line of the Manila Light Rail Transit System in the early 1980s, a Swiss company called Electrowatt Engineering Services designed a comprehensive plan for metro service in Metro Manila. The plan—still used as the basis for planning new metro lines—consisted of a network of rapid transit lines spanning all major corridors within 20 years, including a line on the Radial Road 6 alignment, one of the region's busiest road corridor.
A feasibility study for the LRT Line 2 that would connect Marikina to the City of Manila via Aurora Boulevard and Ramon Magsaysay Boulevard was carried out in 1988. The project was to be bid out as a build-operate-transfer project together with the LRT Line 1 capacity expansion project in 1989. Although sixteen firms were reported to have submitted bids for the line's construction, the bidding failed, causing delays. Another feasibility study was conducted in 1991 with financing from the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF). The final revised project was approved in 1995 as a separate project from the LRT-1 capacity expansion project.
Construction and opening
The LRT Line 2 project officially began in 1996, twelve years after the opening of Line 1, with the granting of the official development assistance loans from the Japan Bank for International Cooperation for the line's construction starting in March of that year. The LRTA would have ownership of the system and assume all administrative functions, such as the regulation of fares and operations as well as the responsibility over construction and maintenance of the system and the procurement of spare parts for trains.
Construction started in 1997 after the LRTA signed the first three packages of the agreement with Sumitomo Corporation delivering Package 1 in which covers the construction of the depot and its facilities, while the Hanjin-Itochu joint venture delivered packages 2 and 3 in which covers the substructure and the superstructure plus the stations respectively.
The project suffered delays in 1998 when the fourth package of the project, which includes the communications and fares systems, vehicles, and trackworks, were alleged to had irregularities with the contract. In September 2000, Package 4 was awarded to the Asia-Europe MRT Consortium (AEMC), a consortium of local and foreign companies led by Marubeni Corporation and composed of Balfour Beatty, Toshiba, Daewoo Heavy Industries, and a local company which was D.M. Consuji Incorporated (DMCI). AEMC, through Marubeni Corporation, entered into a contract with Singapore Technologies Engineering on December 12 of that year to supply and install the communications system, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system, automatic fare collection system, and the management information system. The consortium provided the eighteen four-car trainsets built by Rotem and Toshiba.
During construction, the LRTA, along with the project consultants oversaw all the design, construction, equipping, testing, commissioning, and technical supervision of the project activities. Halcrow was appointed in 1997 as the lead consultant for the project.
The pre-casting segmental method, a method used to launch girders and connect them to create a full span, was used in the construction of the original line (except the underground section in Katipunan).
On April 5, 2003, the first of the line, which forms part of the line's first phase, from to was inaugurated by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. In December 2003, a test run from to with passengers was conducted. Due to the absence of seamless interconnection between the initial section and the section beyond Araneta Center-Cubao, westbound passengers alighted at Cubao station before riding a train to V. Mapa. An estimated 3,000 passengers took the ride during the three-day test run. All remaining stations that are part of the line's second phase opened on April 5, 2004, except for Recto which opened on October 29, 2004. However, ridership was initially moderate yet still far below expectations, since the passenger volume in this line is not yet fully achieved.
To address passenger complaints on the lack of universal access on earlier train lines, the LRTA made sure during the construction phase that the stations were equipped with universal access by putting up escalators and elevators for easier access, as well as making passenger fares at par with the other existing lines. However, while all stations have elevators to and from the platform, not all stations have elevators to and from the station concourse on both sides of the road.
East extension
Plans to extend the line to Antipolo were first laid out as part of Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integration Study Master Plan by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in 1999. The extension was first approved by the Investment Coordination Committee (ICC) board of the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) in October 2003. The Light Rail Transit Authority announced its intention to extend the line eastward to Antipolo in 2006. The project aims to accommodate an additional 80,000 passengers and reduce traffic congestion along Marcos Highway.
The Light Rail Transit Authority secured funds for the project from Philippine banks in May 2011. In October 2011, the Japan International Cooperation Agency released a feasibility study report for the project. The extension, starting from the eastern terminus of Santolan Station up to Antipolo station in Antipolo, calls for two additional stations, Marikina station in Barangay San Roque, Marikina near Sta. Lucia East Grand Mall; and Antipolo station, in Barangay Mayamot, Antipolo near SM City Masinag. The ₱9.7 billion project, at its current form, was approved by the National Economic and Development Authority chaired by then-President Benigno Aquino III on September 4, 2012. The Philippine national government funded the civil works packages, while the Japan International Cooperation Agency funded the electrical and mechanical systems package as part of its Capacity Enhancement of Mass Transit Systems in Metro Manila Project, wherein JICA allotted ¥43.2 billion for various extension and capacity expansion projects of railway lines in Metro Manila.
The civil works packages, Packages 1 and 2, covered the design and construction of the viaduct and stations, respectively. Both packages were awarded to D.M. Consunji Incorporated (DMCI). Package 3, awarded to Marubeni and DMCI, covered the design and installation of the railway tracks and electrical and mechanical (E&M) systems of the extension.
A groundbreaking ceremony was held on June 9, 2015 to mark the start of construction of the extension. Another groundbreaking ceremony was held on May 30, 2017 to mark the start of construction of the two stations. The final phase of construction, covering the installation of the tracks, electrical and mechanical systems, commenced on April 16, 2019.
During construction, on March 10, 2017, a truck slammed in a concrete post of the east extension viaduct, killing one and injuring two people.
Unlike the original line which used the pre-casting segmental method of construction, the east extension viaduct made use of AASHTO girders with a deck slab above the girders.
The east extension was originally expected to be completed in the fourth quarter of 2020. However, construction delays brought by the COVID-19 pandemic delayed its opening. The extension was initially set to open in April 2021, but was postponed twice. After series of delays, the extension opened on July 5, 2021 after being inaugurated on July 1 by President Rodrigo Duterte. The Light Rail Transit Authority offered free rides for the East Extension stations for two weeks from its opening.
The opening of the east extension was met with long lines and inconveniences reported by passengers. These include the lack of trains in the line and the inefficient shuttle service between Santolan and Antipolo pending signaling integration works (of which only one train served this temporary service, causing waiting times that can reach as long as 20 to 30 minutes). Seamless end-to-end train services begun on September 3 after integration works were completed.
LRT Line 2 is planned to be further extended eastward up to Cogeo, and the Antipolo city government is very supportive of the project.
Station facilities, amenities, and services
With the exception of station, all stations are above ground.
Station layout and accessibility
Stations have a standard layout, with a concourse level and a platform level. The concourse is usually below the platform except for the underground station, with stairs, escalators and elevators leading down to the platform level. The levels are separated by fare gates. All stations are barrier-free inside and outside the station, and trains have spaces for passengers using wheelchairs.
The concourse contains ticket booths. Some stations, such as , are connected at concourse level to nearby buildings, such as shopping malls, for easier accessibility.
Stations either have island platforms, such as , or side platforms, such as and . Part of the platform at the front of the train is cordoned off for the use of pregnant women, children, elderly, and persons with disabilities. At side-platform stations, passengers are able to switch platforms at the concourse level without leaving the closed system, while passengers can easily switch sides at stations with island platforms. Stations have toilets at the concourse level, both inside and outside the closed system.
Most station platforms have a length of and a width of , with some stations having a length of .
As of November 8, 2009, folding bicycles are allowed to be brought into trains provided that it does not exceed the LRTA's baggage size limitations of . The last car of each train are also designated as "green zones", where folding bicycle users can ride with their bikes.
The line has a total of 72 escalators and 40 elevators across all 13 stations. However, by 2021, only a few elevators and escalators remain operational due to anomalies and corruption involving the procurement contracts, causing complaints from passengers. The elevators and escalators are being repaired and restored since 2022, and more are being repaired and restored as of April 2022.
Shops and services
Inside the concourse of all stations is at least one stall or stand where people can buy food or drinks. Stalls vary by station, and some have fast food stalls. The number of stalls also varies by station, and stations tend to have a wide variety, especially in stations such as Recto and V. Mapa.
Stations such as Recto and Santolan are connected to or are near shopping malls and/or other large shopping areas, where commuters are offered more shopping varieties.
In cooperation with the Philippine Daily Inquirer, passengers are offered a copy of the Inquirer Libre, a free, tabloid-size, Tagalog version of the Inquirer, which is available from 6 a.m. at all stations.
Ridership
The line is designed and was forecasted to carry 570,000 passengers daily. However, the line operates under its designed capacity since its opening, government officials have admitted that system extensions are overdue, although in the absence of major investment in the system's expansion, LRTA has resorted to experimenting with and/or implementing other solutions to maximize the use of the system, including having bus feeder lines.
Before the pandemic, the line had a ridership of 200,000 passengers, but the ridership soon decreased in 2019 due to lack of trains and a power trip that closed three stations in October 2019 that was reopened in January 2021. The line served 33,267 passengers daily on average in 2021, with 8 trains available for revenue service running at an operating speed of in 10 minute intervals, and 1 train in reserve for rush hour services, which cuts the time intervals to a minimum of 8 minutes.
Statistics
Rolling stock
The line runs sixteen electric multiple units made in South Korea by Hyundai Rotem powered by Toshiba-made VVVF inverters. The trains came in together with the fourth package during the system's construction. The four-car trains have a capacity of 1,628 passengers, which is more than the normal capacity of the rolling stock of Lines 1 and 3. The trains are capable of running at a maximum design speed of , but only run at a maximum operational speed of . These trains prominently use wrap advertising.
In 2017, the entire train fleet was retrofitted with the TUBE (formerly known as PARDS), a passenger information system powered by LCD screens installed near the ceiling of the train that shows news, advertisements, current train location, arrivals and station layouts.
In 2019, the train ventilation was upgraded to replace the aging air-conditioning units and to alleviate complaints of the commuters for uncomfortable hot rides. Two years later, three train sets underwent refurbishment and resulted in new fitted propulsion systems and train monitoring systems from Woojin Industrial Systems.
The LRTA is also acquiring 14 additional train sets by 2020 to augment the existing 18 sets, due to the expected increase of passengers ahead of the East Extension, and the West Extension. The purchase however was delayed to 2022.
Included in the design-and-build contract of the west extension is the procurement of five four-car train sets.
Depot
The line maintains an at-grade depot in Barangay Santolan in Pasig, near Santolan station in the side of Barangay Calumpang in Marikina. The depot occupies approximately of space and serves as the headquarters for light and heavy maintenance of the line. Due to its location in a flood-prone area, the depot was raised above ground level. It is connected to the mainline network by a spur line.
The depot is capable of storing 24 sets of electric multiple units, with the option to expand to include more vehicles as demand arises. They are parked on several sets of tracks, which converge onto the spur route and later on to the main network.
There are eight decommissioned 1000 class and one set of 1100 class trains formerly used in LRT Line 1 being stored in this depot due to the expansion of the Line 1 depot in Parañaque.
Other infrastructure
Signalling
The line uses a fixed block system with automatic train control (ATC), which has three subsystems: automatic train protection (ATP), automatic train operation (ATO), and Rail9000 automatic train supervision (ATS). The ATO subsystem automatically drives the trains, while the opening and closing of doors is controlled by an onboard train attendant. The ATP system, meanwhile, maintains safe operations and monitors the train's speed. Lastly, the Rail9000 ATS system is located at the operations control center at the line's Santolan Depot, which directs train operations and monitors the train movement along the line. Other components of the signalling system includes train detection through track circuits and Westrace MK1 computer-based interlocking.
The signalling equipment were manufactured by Westinghouse Signals. Westinghouse Signals, later renamed as Westinghouse Rail Systems, became part of Siemens Mobility after its acquisition by Siemens in 2013.
The signalling system is set to be upgraded with the replacement of the system's communication link and the upgrading of the interlocking module. The project started on February 15, 2022.
Tracks
The rails are rails designed to the UIC 54 rail profile. The rails are supported by concrete plinths.
Plans and proposals
West extension
A extension of the line to the Manila North Harbor in Tondo, Manila has been proposed. It was first announced in August 2006, when the LRTA announced its intention to extend the line eastward to Antipolo and westward to the Pier 4 of the Manila North Harbor. It was approved by the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) on May 19, 2015. The construction of this extension would create three stations, one near the Tutuban PNR station, one in Divisoria, and one near the North Port Passenger Terminal in Manila North Harbor's Pier 4 which would serve as its terminus. In an interview, LRTA Administrator Ret. Gen. Reynaldo Berroya stated that they are aiming to finish the project by 2022 to 2023.
The total project cost is estimated to be ₱10.12 billion. In 2019, WESTRAX Joint Venture was awarded the contract for the consultancy services for the project.
In October 2019, the project was under bidding process, consisting 3 stations, , , and , with the project scheduled to be completed by 2024.
On August 27, 2020, the Light Rail Transit Authority published the bidding documents for the design-and-build contract for the west extension. According to the documents, the turn back area after the station will have three tracks; two of which are the main tracks and one serves as a pocket track. The three stations will feature side platforms.
The project was originally planned to be funded through a public-private partnership (PPP) scheme, in line with the Marcos administration's policy to use the said scheme to complete various infrastructure projects. The contract would have also covered the procurement of five new four-car trains, along with the maintenance of the line and the refurbishment of the trains. However, it was decided that the government will instead fund the project through the national budget.
Extension to Cogeo
The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has also proposed for a second phase of the east extension to extend the line to Cogeo and downtown Antipolo. There are provisions at the end of the current rail line at Antipolo station for an extension. Two proposals were presented by JICA: a , one-station underground extension, and a , five-station extension, both originating from the Antipolo station.
As of November 2022, the feasibility study is nearing its conclusion. The extension would have three stations and the alignment is still being finalized.
On May 29, 2023 the Department of Transportation (DOTr), Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA) and Korean consultants conducted a collaborative joint inspection together with the Antipolo local government unit to study the potential locations for the 3 stations to be construct as part of the LRT-2 Cogeo East extension project. The said joint inspection paved the way for the possibility of integrating the new stations with the Southeast Metro Manila Expressway.
Privatization
The privatization of the operations and maintenance of Line 2 was planned by the then-Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC; later the Department of Transportation as part of the agency's improvement and modernization of the railway lines in the Philippines. The bidding process for this project begun on September 13, 2014. In this project, the interested companies were required to submit pre-qualification documents and submit a bid proposal if the company is qualified for the bidding. In January 2015, four companies submitted pre-qualification documents for the project. The bidders included Aboitiz Equity Ventures with SMRT Transport Solutions (Aboitiz Equity Ventures and SMRT International Pte Ltd. through SMRT Trains), DMCI Holdings with Tokyo Metro, Light Rail Manila 2 Consortium (RATP and Metro Pacific), and San Miguel Corporation with Korea Railroad Corporation. All bidders were pre-qualified for the bidding. However, the project would eventually be shelved in 2016.
In 2017, it was reported that the Metro Pacific Investments Corporation was interested in a possible auction for the privatization of the line. The plan to privatize the operations and maintenance of the line was restarted in October 2019, following a power trip that damaged two rectifiers. Since then, no new reports have surfaced about this plan as of 2021.
Capacity expansion and upgrade
Due to the aging of the line, a capacity expansion project for the line was announced in April 2022. The project would include upgrades to the trains, signalling, telecommunications, power supply, overhead systems, railway tracks, and other system equipment. The project is still under the stages of the procurement of a consultant for the project, which would assess the current condition of the line.
TÜV Rheinland has been shortlisted for the list of consultants and is the only consultant to be shortlisted in June 2022.
Like the west extension, the upgrading of the train cars would be funded through a public-private partnership scheme. The contract would also cover the maintenance of the line and the construction of the west extension.
Incidents
2000s
On July 12, 2006, at 7:30 AM, a lightning struck the power cables near the Santolan station, interrupting train operations.
On August 15, 2006, at 8:45 AM, a lightning struck the power cables, which is the second incident reported in a month. Normal operations were restored before 12:00 noon.
On May 20, 2008, at 6:45 PM, a lightning struck the line's power supply, interrupting operations.
On July 23, 2008, a power interruption disrupted the line operations, leaving the Santolan-Cubao section only operational.
2010s
On June 11, 2011, a man jumped in front of a moving train at the Araneta Center-Cubao station, leaving the man severely injured. This forced the line operations to be suspended.
On May 9, 2017, at 4:03 PM, a tree fell to the tracks at the Anonas area, causing the line's operations to be disrupted and a 2000 class train nearby was hit. The Department of Public Works and Highways local office was doing roadworks at the site of the incident when they accidentally hit a tree that fell on the tracks. Partial operations between Recto and V. Mapa were implemented, until the line's operations were suspended an hour later. The incident area was cleared and full operations resumed at 7:41 PM.
On May 30, 2018, a damaged cable between J. Ruiz and V. Mapa stations caused limited operations between Santolan and Araneta Center-Cubao stations at 11:46 AM. Normal operations resumed at 7:46 PM.
On May 15, 2019, at 7:27 PM, an air pressure glitch halted the operations of Line 2. Operations resumed at 7:47 PM.
On May 18, 2019, trainset no. 13 broke down between Anonas and Katipunan stations at 2:00 PM and was subsequently moved to the pocket track of Anonas waiting to be towed back to the depot. However at 9:15 PM, the train was reported to have moved on its own towards the eastbound track going towards Santolan station. At this time, trainset no. 18 was going towards Santolan station from Cubao station on the same track. The runaway train was reported via radio but eventually ran into train No. 13, injuring 34 passengers, with none in critical condition. The driver of one of the two trains was reported to have jumped out of his train before the collision, sustaining wounds and bruises. Revenue operations were suspended to give way to maintenance checks, and normal operations resumed at 10:47 AM the next day. Trainset no. 18 returned to service in June 2021, while Trainset no. 13 returned to service in September 2021.
On October 2, 2019, at 9:43 am, a lightning struck the station, causing the power transformers at the and stations to trip and disrupt the power supply. The operations of the line were suspended for safety checks and normal operations resumed at 10:11am.
On October 3, 2019, another power trip caused rectifier substations located between Anonas and Katipunan stations and in the Santolan depot to catch fire at around 11 in the morning, cutting the line's power supply in the area. Line operations from Recto to Santolan were suspended at 11:24 am, and passengers were evacuated from the line with no injuries. The LRTA, MMDA and the Philippine Coast Guard immediately deployed shuttle buses to help ferry stranded passengers. Partial operations between Cubao and Recto stations resumed on October 8, 2019, while Santolan, Katipunan and Anonas Stations are expected to reopen after nine months. The initial estimated amount of damages is at around PHP428 million. Due to the incident, the Light Rail Transit Authority claimed full operations would be back in 2 to 3 months. As the initial deadline was not met the three stations that were caught in a power trip were expected to resume services at the end of June 2020. However, this deadline was also not met due to delays brought by the COVID-19 pandemic, rescheduled for the first quarter of 2021. Finally, the three stations were reopened, albeit in partial speed, on January 22, 2021. The reopening was made possible by a temporary power supply system installed in the damaged portion while the proper systems are still on order and awaiting delivery.
2020s
On October 8, 2020, a fire broke out in the electrical room at causing the operations to be suspended at 5:10am. The fire damaged the station's uninterruptible power supply. Normal operations returned a few hours later.
On April 7, 2021, the operations of the LRT-2 were halted due to an unspecified "technical problem." Normal operations resumed at 10:50 AM.
On May 24, 2021, an unspecified technical problem at Santolan station limited the LRT-2 operations between Recto and Araneta Cubao stations. Full operations resumed the following day.
On June 17, 2021, a technical problem at the line's control center halted the LRT-2 operations. Normal operations resumed at 4:59pm.
On August 16, 2021, operations were suspended between Cubao and Santolan due to an unspecified technical problem. Operations resumed at 4:20pm.
On September 17, 2021, a defective catenary wire at the east extension area caused disruptions in operations. A shuttle service between Santolan and Antipolo was implemented at 9:43 AM. On the same day, the line's operations were briefly suspended at 11:36 AM after a tangled t-shirt was seen hanging at the contact wires between Cubao and Anonas stations. Operations with the shuttle service resumed at 11:49 AM, while full end-to-end operations were known to be resumed the following day.
On October 9, 2021, an entangled balloon was discovered between V. Mapa and Pureza stations, causing the line's operations to be temporarily suspended. The operations resumed after 30 minutes.
On November 3, 2021, operations of Line 2 were suspended at 6:00 AM due to a signalling system problem. Operations resumed at 7:57 AM.
Multiple signalling system problems were reported on November 6, 14, and 25, 2021.
On July 31, 2022, at 8:00 a.m., operations of Line 2 were limited from Cubao to Antipolo stations due to a broken catenary wire between Legarda and Pureza stations. Full operations resumed the following day at 5:00 a.m.
On May 14, 2023, at 5:30 AM, operations of Line 2 were limited from V. Mapa to Antipolo stations due to a fire that broke out in the vicinity of Recto station, affecting the power supply and signalling system up to Pureza station. The fire was declared under control at 6:40 AM and line operations returned to normal at 1:15 PM.
Notes
References
External links
Official LRTA website on LRT Line 2
Line 2
Manila Light Rail Transit System Line 2
Transportation in Rizal
Railway lines opened in 2003
2003 establishments in the Philippines
Transportation in Luzon
1500 V DC railway electrification
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5017253
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union%20Square%2C%20Baltimore
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Union Square, Baltimore
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Union Square is a neighborhood located in the Sowebo area of Baltimore. It dates to the 1830s and includes a historic district of houses and commerce buildings.
Overview
Named for the graceful park at its center, Union Square is a diverse urban setting - home to art galleries, artist studios, H.L. Mencken’s lifelong residence, and spacious three-story Italianate and Victorian rowhouses. On the historic ground of Southwest Baltimore is known to locals as "Sowebo" (SouthWest Baltimore). Union Square is less than a mile from Camden Yards and within walking distance of the "Inner Harbor" (formerly known as "The Basin" of the harbor), the Northwest Branch of the Patapsco River, the B&O Railroad Museum, Ravens Stadium (later known as M. & T. Bank Stadium), and the University of Maryland at Baltimore, (the original and founding campus of the U. of M. system, from 1807). The state-of-the-art U.M.B. Biotech Park on West Baltimore Street is a recent addition, with portions still under construction. One of the several public golf courses is nearby in Carroll Park, also home to the historic Mount Clare Mansion of 1754 built by Charles Carroll, Barrister, (1723-1783), next to the newly renovated Montgomery Park office building, formerly the store and regional warehouse of the Montgomery Ward & Company, famous for their catalog orders and sales in the last century. Access to several transportation directions are minutes away with the Martin Luther King, Jr. Boulevard running in an arch around the west side of downtown with its connection to the Jones Falls Expressway, (Interstate 83) going north towards the Baltimore-Harrisburg Expressway, the main East Coast highway, north to south is Interstate 95 with its Fort McHenry Tunnel and the Baltimore Harbor Tunnel cutting under the harbor and port of the Patapsco River and the commuter rail service MARC Train beginning in the northeastern corner of the state at Havre de Grace at the head of the Chesapeake Bay down to Baltimore and onto Washington, D.C. 40 miles away. Surrounding the city is the encircling Baltimore Beltway which is also Interstate 695 and connects via four parallel highways, from east to west: Interstate 95, then the Baltimore-Washington Parkway which is also (Md. Route 295 and Interstate 295), and the old historic Washington Boulevard from colonial times now of U.S. Route 1, and further to the west is U.S. Route 29, all connecting to the Capital Beltway around the Nation's Capital, in Maryland and Virginia, Interstate 495.
Attractions
Union Square Park
A public space at the west side of the neighborhood, Union Square Park dates from 1847 and contains the community's signature structure, a Greek Revival Pavilion (1850) with fluted iron columns. Other features include the H. L. Mencken Memorial Fountain (1976) and curved walkways with park benches. Throughout the year, there are many impromptu events in the Square, including neighborhood dinners, outdoor movies, tag sales, Easter egg hunts, Halloween pumpkin carvings, and various other parties.
Hollins Market
A vital part of the community, Hollins Market was built in the Italianate style in 1838 at the east side of the neighborhood and is Baltimore's oldest home to food merchants.
Mencken House
The H. L. Mencken House is located at 1524 Hollins Street. Baltimore's famous son, Henry Louis Mencken, lived here from 1883 until his death in 1956. More details in History section (below).
Arts festival
An annual event - the Sowebohemian Arts Festival - is held in the streets around Hollins Market on the Sunday afternoon of the Memorial Day weekend.
Other highlights
Also in the Union Square Historic District, attractions include annual events such as the Union Square Christmas Cookie Tour plus the Black Cherry Puppet Theater, the Enoch Pratt Free Library No. 2 Branch (1886), and Sowebo Arts, Inc.
Nearby attractions
Other nearby sites of interest include the B&O Railroad Museum, the Lithuanian Hall, Carroll Park, the Mount Clare Museum, the Babe Ruth Museum, the Irish Shrine and Railroad Workers Memorial Museum, and the Edgar Allan Poe House and Museum.
Historic district
The Union Square-Hollins Market Historic District is a dense area of rowhouses and commercial structures located approximately 10 blocks west of the Inner Harbor in Baltimore. The district contains approximately 1,321 buildings with about 31 structures which do not contribute to the district. There are two major features in the district: Union Square Park, a speculative park and housing development of the 1840s, and Hollins Market, an Italianate style market house built in 1838 and 1864. The remainder of the district developed after 1830 mainly as housing for workers in nearby industries and consist of low scale, two and three story brick vernacular dwellings while larger, high-style rowhouses surround the park.
The Union Square-Hollins Market Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.
Real estate
On the Square and on nearby streets, spacious three-story rowhouses predominate. Most are pre- and post-Civil War Italianate in style, but there are many examples of Early Victorian Greek Revival and Late Victorian Romanesque Revival. A majority of the homes have ten- to fourteen-foot ceilings, tall distinctive windows, wood floors, and plaster walls. Exteriors are brick and mortar facades with attractive cornices and marble steps. On the side streets and alleys there are an additional variety of charming two-story and two-story-with-attic rows. House prices range from $40,000 to $400,000.
Schools
Southwest Baltimore Charter School
Opened in August 2005, the Southwest Baltimore Charter School (SBCS) is located at 31 South Schroeder Street. Its K – 4 enrollment serves a diverse population in southwest Baltimore City. SBCS accomplishments include increases in reading performance across all grade levels and student performances at Taste the Arts, a Young Audiences Gala and fundraiser.
Steuart Hill Academy (Baltimore City School #4)
Steuart Hill Academy is located at 30 South Gilmor Street directly across the street from Union Square Park. The school was originally named Steuart Hill Elementary as a pre-K –6 school. The school's playground was torn down in 1999 and the school went without a playground for 4 years until awareness was brought to the attention of the city by a group of the students. In 2002 these students were presented a grant from the Department of Parks and Recreation for $1 million. This money was used to rebuild their playground and several other Baltimore City playgrounds as well. In 2002, Steuart Hill Academy enrolled as a pre-K – 8 school.
Boundaries
The District is bounded by South Fulton Street to the west and South Schroeder Street to the east, with north and south borders of West Baltimore and West Pratt Streets. Union Square proper, just west of the Market, is bounded by S. Stricker and S. Gilmore Streets from the east and west respectively, and by Hollins and W. Lombard Streets to the north and south. The area is built on a grid street system which conforms to the original 1818 layout of the area. Zip Code: 21223.
History
Origins
Begun during the influx of English, Irish and German immigration of the 1830s, the Union Square / Hollins Market Historic District is a dense area of rowhouses that includes Federal, Greek Revival and Italianate architectural styles. To the west, Union Square Park contains an ornate fountain and Greek Revival pavilion, and forms one of the two open spaces preserved in the neighborhood. Hollins Market, in the east, is an Italianate-style market house built in 1838 and expanded in 1864, and is the oldest city market still in operation.
A large part of the neighborhood is built on the former estate of merchant-shipper Thorowgood Smith (1744–1810). Smith was Baltimore's second mayor, from 1804 to 1808, filling the vacancy caused by the resignation of James Calhoun (Calhoun Street passes through the Union Square neighborhood). In 1799, Smith built his summer home, Willow Brook, in the Palladian style popular in mid-18th century England and the United States. At the time, the property was on the outskirts of the city. Across town, next door to the Shot Tower (1828), Smith's principal residence is restored as the Circa 1790 Home, open to the public, and maintained by the Women's Civic League.
Upon the death of the childless Smith, the villa with twenty-six acres passed to his wife, the former Mary Blaikley Stith (1750–1822) and then to a nephew, merchant and privateer John Donnell.
Donnell was responsible for parceling out the first plots of land for the construction of homes. Three sons of John Donnell leased grounds around the park, laid out specifications for houses, and graded and paved streets bordering the Square in the 1840s.
Dubbed “Millionaire’s Row,” the portion of Stricker Street facing the Square featured the Italianate residences of bankers, investors, and factory owners. Other variations of the Italianate style lined the blocks leading up to and surrounding the square. Less ornate homes were put up in groups on side and alley streets, but all shared many identical features such as cornices, marble steps, and iron work. Developers and homeowners attempted to build the most economic dwellings possible, so they crammed narrow rowhouses along every road, avenue and alley in the district. Common brick was often used on side walls, with hard surface English brick on the front. The largest rooms were typically the front parlors and master bedrooms – smaller rooms were placed to the rear.
Ceiling medallions, cornices, staircase millwork, and fireplace designs were individualized features, chosen from home order catalogs. Most of the wrought or cast ironwork in the neighborhood was made in the Hayward, Bartlett, and Co. Factory near the B&O Yards to the south of the neighborhood. The buildings were brick and low-scale – no more than three stories except for some commercial buildings. Evenly spaced doorsteps, windows, and doors, as well as continuous rooflines create the visual rhythms for which Baltimore rowhouses are noted. Although residential construction ended in the 1880s, commercial building continued into the early 20th century.
The two-and-one-half acres for the park was approved for that use and donated by the Donnells in 1847. The park is one block square, bordered by Lombard, Stricker, Gilmor, and Hollins streets. The landscape of Union Square – with its walkways, pavilion, fountain, and wrought iron lamps – recalls Victorian Era Baltimore. Architect John F. Hoss designed the iron Greek-style pavilion with fluted columns in 1850 – it covers a natural spring that was once accessible by steps and, at one time, supplied water to the B&O Railroad. The source of the name “Union Square” is uncertain but probably reflects the patriotic sentiment of this time before the Civil War. Fog scenes of the Square, lights agleam over wet pavements and barren limbs, were often featured in local landscape artistry.
Willow Brook, the estate house, was acquired in 1864 by Emily Caton McTavish, granddaughter of Charles Carroll (a signer of the Declaration of Independence), and daughter of General Winfield “Old Fuss and Feathers” Scott (a hero in the War of 1812 and unsuccessful Whig presidential candidate in 1852). Within a year, she donated it to the Roman Catholic Church as a school for delinquent girls, under the administration of the Congregation of the Good Shepherd. Additions and renovations changed the original structure over the next 100 years until the school closed in 1965, the property was sold, and the buildings were dismantled. Willow Brook's interior oval drawing room had long enjoyed national acclaim and, still intact, it was moved to the Baltimore Museum of Art for public and permanent display. Steuart Hill Elementary School was constructed on the site. The area was designated a National Register Historic District in 1967, two years after Willow Brook was razed.
The original iron urns in the park were smelted down during World War II for the war effort. Economic decline occurred in the mid-20th until extensive rehabilitation began during a renaissance in the 1960s and 1970s. The Square benefitted from new lighting, shrubs, pink sidewalks, and cast iron benches installed during the 1970s.
Hollins Market
The city's oldest market structure still in use, Hollins Market is part of the Baltimore public market system that began in 1763. In 1835, the City granted a petition of piano manufacturer Joseph Newman and “others” to erect a market house at their own expense. Banker George T. Dunbar donated the land which, at that time, was on the western fringe of the city. The doors opened in September 1836 and the market soon became very successful, but the fragile structure blew down in a windstorm two years later. Newman organized the effort to quickly rebuild and re-open the market by the end of 1839. The market was named for John Smith Hollins (1786–1856), an estate owner in West Baltimore and one-term mayor of the city from 1852 to 1854.
In 1863, the City Council appropriated $23,000 to erect the high-ceilinged Italianate red brick edifice as an addition to the old market house. As this was during the divisive time of the Civil War, the council refused to consider any bid for the market's construction that did not come from “parties... known to be thoroughly and unconditionally Union Men.”
By 1900, Hollins Market stretched from Poppleton to Carey Streets, with 160 inside and 180 outside stalls. Over the years, an assortment of West Baltimore butchers, various European and Asian immigrants with vendor traditions, and African-American merchants have all sold and purchased meats, farm-fresh produce, baked goods, and home-produced wares. Somewhat smaller today, the traditions and diversity of the market and the quality of goods still holds true. The 1990 Barry Levinson film “Avalon” depicts Hollins Market in its heyday.
Hollins Market, at 26 South Arlington Street, is open Monday through Saturday from 7:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. It is closed on Sunday.
Malachai Mills
At 1504 W. Baltimore Street is the residence of Malachai Mills, a free-born African-American businessman in the early and mid-19th century. Mr. Mills was a prominent cabinetmaker and carpenter, providing furnishings and carpentry for many of the early homes in the neighborhood. Bill Adler of the Union Square neighborhood is at the head of a preservation effort to revitalize this valuable structure as a “historic life museum” and as a preservation, fine arts, or urban studies field site for local universities.
H. L. Mencken House
Designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985, this Italianate brick row house at 1524 Hollins Street was the home of one of Baltimore's most famous citizens – noted Baltimore Sun journalist and author Henry Louis Mencken lived here from 1883 until his death in 1956. Mencken wrote of his home: “I have lived in one house in Baltimore for nearly 45 years. It has changed in that time, as I have – but somehow it still remains the same.... It is as much a part of me as my two hands. If I had to leave it I’d be as certainly crippled as if I lost a leg.”
After his death on January 26, 1956, his home was bequeathed to the University of Maryland. In 1983 the City of Baltimore acquired the H. L. Mencken House from the University, in exchange for the Old Pine Street Station. With period furniture, his restored second-floor office, and backyard gazebo, the H. L. Mencken House opened as part of the City Life Museums and a center for theatrical, literary and musical events. Although the City Life Museums closed in 1997, a $3 million donation from retired naval commander Max Hency allowed the organization to begin renovating the house, and it opened to the public in 2019, though only by prior reservation.
Celebrating History
The park and fountain – as well as parts of Stricker, Hollins and Lombard streets – were transported back to the 1850s when Union Square played the title role in the lush 1997 movie adaptation of Henry James's biting novel Washington Square from acclaimed director Agnieszka Holland.
The excitement continued in 1997 as the community celebrated the sesquicentennial of Union Square with a re-dedication of the park including the placement of a stone tablet commemorating the event at the foot of one of the pavilion columns. The celebration was highlighted with concerts and a marching band performance, and the dedication of a new park at Pratt and Gilmor streets.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 5,420 people living in the neighborhood. The racial makeup of Union Square was 30.2% White, 63.4% African American, 0.0% Native American, 3.0% Asian, 1.1% from other races, and 2.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.1% of the population. 38.0% of occupied housing units were owner-occupied. 34.9% of housing units were vacant.
49.5% of the population were employed, 7.4% were unemployed, and 43.7% were not in the labor force. The median household income was $30,765. About 14.9% of families and 27.5% of the population were below the poverty line.
References
External links
Union Square Association (neighborhood association)
Union Square Online
Live in Baltimore - Union Square
, including photo dated 2001, at Maryland Historical Trust
Boundary Map of the Union Square-Hollins Market Historic District, Baltimore City, at Maryland Historical Trust
Union Square listing at CHAP includes map
Demographics from Neighborhood Indicators Alliance
Baltimore, Maryland, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
Friends of the H. L. Mencken House
Sowebo Arts Inc.
The Irish Shrine at Lemmon Street
Southwest Baltimore Charter School (SBCS)
Mount Clare Museum
Black Cherry Puppet Theater
Union Square Christmas Cookie Tour
Friends of West Baltimore Squares
Neighborhoods in Baltimore
Urban public parks
Market houses
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Baltimore
Federal architecture in Maryland
Greek Revival architecture in Maryland
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5017332
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross%20of%20Honour%20of%20the%20German%20Mother
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Cross of Honour of the German Mother
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The Cross of Honour of the German Mother (), referred to colloquially as the Mutterehrenkreuz (Mother's Cross of Honour) or simply Mutterkreuz (Mother's Cross), was a state decoration conferred by the government of the German Reich to honour a Reichsdeutsche German mother for exceptional merit to the German nation. Eligibility later extended to include Volksdeutsche (ethnic German) mothers from, for example, Austria and Sudetenland, that had earlier been incorporated into the German Reich.
The decoration was conferred from 1939 until 1945 in three classes: bronze, silver, and gold, to Reichsdeutsche mothers who exhibited probity, exemplary motherhood, and who conceived and raised at least four children in the role of a parent. A similar practice, that continues to this present day, was already established in France since 1920, by conferring the Médaille de la Famille française (Medal of the French Family), a tribute to the French mother who raised several children appropriately.
History
In recognition of the substantial importance a woman's role and motherhood was in support of a strong Germany, the Cross of Honour of the German Mother was introduced by decree in Berlin on 16 December 1938 by Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor) Adolf Hitler. The preamble of the statutory decree declared:
As a visible sign of gratitude of the German nation to children-rich mothers I establish this Cross of Honour of the German Mother (Original text in German: "Als sichtbares Zeichen des Dankes des Deutschen Volkes an kinderreiche Mütter stifte ich das Ehrenkreuz der Deutschen Mutter").
The crosses were awarded annually on the second Sunday in May (Mothering Sunday or Mother's Day), but also extended to include other national annual occasions of celebration. So despite its institution in 1938, the first awards were rendered in May 1939.
Decoration
The Mother's Cross was composed of three classes, and conferred to mothers in accordance with its statutory legislation: Verordnung des Führers und Reichskanzlers über die Stiftung des Ehrenkreuzes der Deutschen Mutter vom 16. Dezember 1938. Reichsgesetzblatt (RGBI) Teil I, 1938, Nr. 224, Seite 1923 (In English: Statutory Order of the Leader and Chancellor on the establishment of the Cross of Honour of the German Mother of 16 December 1938. Imperial-(Reichs) Law Gazette (RGBl) Part I, 1938, No. 224, Page 1923), and its stringent nomination screening protocol.
Classes
1st class, Gold Cross: eligible mothers with eight or more children
2nd class, Silver Cross: eligible mothers with six or seven children
3rd class, Bronze Cross: eligible mothers with four or five children
Cross design
The cross design is a slender elongated form of the Iron Cross or cross pattée and very similar in design to the Marian Cross of the Teutonic Order (Marianerkreuz des Deutschen Ritterordens), enamelled translucent-blue with a slim opaque-white border. Resting on the centre radiant starburst rays is a metal roundel decorated with the words "DER DEUTSCHEN MUTTER" (in English: TO THE GERMAN MOTHER) around an enamelled black straight centred "swastika" symbol, infilled white enamel. The cross design was the creation of the established Munich-based architect and sculptor Franz Berberich. The production of the cross involved several established Präsidialkanzlei (Presidential Chancellery) approved medal makers from across the German Reich. A maker's mark was never applied to the crosses produced; though each official house of manufacture did apply their name to the dark-blue presentation case (inside cover) for the 1st Class Gold Cross and the presentation sachets (reverse side) for each of the 2nd and 3rd Class Cross.
Cross reverse side inscription
Inscribed on the reverse side of the cross, of which two official reverse-side styles exist, is the inscription Das Kind adelt die Mutter (The Child ennobles the Mother) found on the initial version produced on inception during the early part of 1939. On the succeeding version produced from 1939 to 1945 the initial former reverse inscription was replaced during production with the date of the decoration decree 16. Dezember 1938. Directly beneath each of the two styles is the inscribed facsimile signature of Adolf Hitler; a style variation in this signature exists between the initial and succeeding version produced.
Neck ribbon
The decoration was worn around the neck on its accompanying narrow blue and white ribbon of about 60–70 cm in length. No other format of wear or placement was permitted.
Deed of Conferral and identification documents
Accompanying the decoration was a deed of conferral (Besitzzeugnis otherwise Verleihungsurkunde) sealed with the Hoheitszeichen des Deutschen Reiches (Great Seal of the German Reich) and the facsimile signature of Adolf Hitler and facsimile countersignature of the Minister of State Otto Meissner, head of the Office of the President of Germany (Präsidialkanzlei). An official pale-blue photo identification document (Ausweis) was also available, this identified the holder and attested the bestowal of the decoration to the recipient mother, as well as provided instructions on the reverse side for correct wearing of the decoration, permitted at all "formal" state, celebrative and family occasions only.
Miniature of the Mother's Cross
An optional semi-official approved miniature version of the Mother's Cross measuring about 2 cm with reverse-side inscription, attached to a blue-white ribbon bow, was also produced in each of its three classes; it was authorized for purposes of general everyday wear only. The wearing of the blue-white ribbon bow alone, without the miniature cross attached, was also authorized for the same purpose. The miniature was an optional supplement, that could be purchased privately from relevant authorized supply stockists such as high-street jewellers or directly from the LDO (Leistungsgemeinschaft der Deutschen Ordenshersteller) approved medal makers responsible for manufacturing private retail supply. Other formats made available by those manufacturers to recipients of the honour, such as brooches, were simply unofficial merchandising embellishments.
Legacy
The Mother's Cross of Honour, upon the death of the honoured recipient mother, was permitted by statute to remain inheritable with the bereaved family as a keepsake remembrance.
Special Grade
There was a version of this award that had small diamonds placed on the swastika. The precise requisites are unknown, but a photograph of this variant (seen on page 75 in the book Political and Civil Award of the Third Reich ) stated that it had been awarded to a Dresden woman who was the mother of sixteen children.
Nomination and conditions of conferral
Ideology
The Cross of Honour of the German Mother represented the fundamental ideologies of the role of the mother (the role of women under National Socialism) and ethnic-nationalism (the Völkisch movement) of that time period in Germany. Its inception followed the earlier "Roaring Twenties" or "golden 1920s" as it was later referred in Europe and a period during Germany's Weimar Republic, which saw young women breaking with traditional "mores" or likewise step aside from "traditional" lifestyle patterns.
Nomination
A recommendation presented collectively at the beginning of each month to the Präsidialkanzlei der Ordenskanzlei (Presidential Chancellery of the Chancellery of Honours) in Berlin for the Mother's Cross honour, could only be instigated by the local mayor's office, or on application from the Ortsgruppenleiter (local political party leader) of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), or the Kreiswart des Reichsbund der Kinderreichen (District Warden of the Reichs Union of Children-rich families).
Eligibility, criteria and bureaucratic process
The nomination involved a lengthy and exhaustive bureaucratic process. Not only were certain characteristics of the mother observed and eligibility studied thoroughly, but those too leading to the grandparents. The conferral of the Mother's Cross was so highly regarded by the government in Berlin, that additional bureaucratic resources assigned to lesser civil and military decorations were pulled for the exhaustive administrative procedures that this decoration alone required. Its precedence especially during Germany's wartime period saw all other civil honours and decorations but the Mother's Cross temporarily suspended since the original purpose for its establishment was now more significant. Local government agencies such as the Social Welfare Agency (Wohlfahrtsamt), Public Health Department (Gesundheitsamt), Youth Welfare Agency (Jugendamt), Police (Polizei) and other government agencies were all consulted in the eligibility investigation process. The decoration could and was only to be bestowed to the most honourable proven mothers. Accordingly, the following legislative prerequisites were to be strictly met:
a) that both parents of the children were deutschblütig (of German blood-heredity) and genetically fit,
b) that the mother of the decoration was indeed "worthy" of the decoration, and
c) that the children were live births.
In some detail, these criteria required, for example:
I). Evidence to be provided by the mother in the form of a signed declaration "that the mother—and her husband—is/are deutschblütig (of German blood-heredity), that their four grandparents are not of Jewish or other foreign ethnic origin, nor have ever belonged or subscribed to the Jewish religion, and in circumstances where the husband or marriage is deceased—confirms further that no contradictory facts are known in believing the Deutschblütigkeit (German bloodline) of the former husband". Unless doubts were cast to suggest otherwise in the validity of the declaration given, it was to be accepted as sufficient.
II). The mother was indeed "worthy" of the decoration (I.e. proven an honourable mother of reputable moral standing, genetically healthy and genetically fit. With no evidence of prior confinement to a state penitentiary (Zuchthaus), marital infidelity, unlawful abortion, or any other personal burdens of taboo or social offences such as prostitution or promiscuous behaviour, intimate interracial relationships (miscegenation) or otherwise exogamy, amongst other criteria that were required to be investigated and evidenced by government authorities).
III). Further conditions observed, involving the entire family, were that the children are clear of hereditary illnesses or genetic disorders, that a conscious responsibility exists without supervision in the parents being mindful of maintaining the family home to acceptable orderly standards and to nurturing their children towards being useful compatriots. The husband had not served a prison sentence, the family was not conceiving a great number of dependants (children) as a form of subsistence for the receipt of significant monetary disbursements of state child support (Kinderbeihilfe) and thereby feel entitled to avoid regular employment in exploiting such lifestyle, the family members were not chronic alcoholics, work-shy nor had conflicts with the law and police or presented other social delinquencies, and the family were not burdening private or public social welfare aid.
In the event the authorities were to find such discrepancies during their investigations leading to non-eligibility, the family risked being regarded or stigmatised as "asozial" (anti-social) or dysfunctional, which at that time was viewed as a risk and threat for the wellbeing of the German nation. It was declared inconceivable and abhorrent to consider or recommend any mother of such a family background for the Mother's Cross honour. In a further extract from the official application screening protocol, the local mayor's office was also encouraged, if his office was recommending a mother, to consider whether the mother in question, who has gifted her children life, has borne children likely to bear sacrifices in the interest of preserving the German nation, or whether the children posed a burden and peril to the future of the German nation, and the children perhaps should have better remained unborn.
Benefits and privileges
Various privileges were bound to honour, one example being preferential treatment, precedence and priority service within society and public services. As one recount recalls "...they were always given the best of everything: housing, food, clothing, and schooling for their children. Old people even had to give up their seats on the bus or streetcar. They were treated like royalty with the greatest respect. No standing in line for them. At the butcher's shop, the best cuts of meat would go into their baskets. A helper or nurse was assigned by the government to help them take care of the brood and arrived first thing in the morning". An annuity was also considered for a recipient mother of the decoration, but due to government budget constraints, this proved unworkable. Members of the Hitler Youth organization were also instructed; a wearer of the Mother's Cross was to be honourably greeted (saluted) when encountered. The Völkischer Beobachter (People's Observer) national newspaper (1938 Issue No. 25) stated: "...the holder of the Mother's Cross of Honour will in future enjoy all types of privileges that we by nature have accustomed to our nation's honoured comrades and our injured war veterans."
Annulment of recognition
The receipt of the decoration was no guarantee of permanent recognition, it could be annulled on a case-by-case basis under certain circumstances on the advice of the Reichsminister des Innern (Reichs-Minister of Interior). For instance, it could be annulled if the mother ceased to be "worthy" by neglecting her children, marital infidelity, or exhibited other problematic behaviour.
Recipients
Public presentation ceremonies
The first public presentation ceremonies, following the inception of the Mother's Cross in December 1938, were held on Mother's Day 21 May 1939 across Germany. However, due to the unexpected high number of mothers eligible for the decoration across all classes on its inception, despite a stringent nomination criteria, resulted in the initial presentations being restricted to mothers of age 60 and above due to various administrative and logistics limitations. The first year presentations were also extended to include 1 October 1939 "harvest festival" day (Erntedankfest), equivalent to thanksgiving, and 24 December 1939 Christmas Eve. It was not until Mother's Day 1940 onwards that eligible mothers aged below 60 were finally presented with their Mother's Cross decoration and once again these presentations were deferred until a later date that same year. A recipient mother who could not attend her official invitation to a local public presentation ceremony received her decoration delivered through the postal service. Some presentation ceremonies were also recorded filmed events chronicled by the Die Deutsche Wochenschau (The German Weekly Newsreel).
Total decorations conferred
Exact total decorations bestowed throughout its existence are no longer traceable through the limited official records that survived the Second World War, the central application archives held at the Präsidialkanzlei (Presidential Chancellery) in Berlin were lost or otherwise destroyed by closing war events; however, it is estimated that up until September 1941 there were a total of 4.7 million recipient mothers honoured with the Mother's Cross decoration.
Miscellaneous
Since the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945, the Mother's Cross has occasionally been referred to as the Mütterverdienstkreuz (Mother's Cross of Merit). The Mother's Cross belongs to the decorations and medals bestowed under Nazi rule, and its design incorporates a swastika. The public display of Nazi symbols is a crime in Germany and other countries. In 1957, the West German government passed the Law on Titles, Orders and Honours ("Ordensgesetz") which regulates all civil and military decorations. Although some Nazi-era medals were re-issued with updated, denazified designs, the Mother's Cross was not, and its public display remains forbidden.
See also
Médaille de la Famille française – the French equivalent
Order of Maternal Glory and Mother Heroine – the Soviet Union-era equivalent
List of awards honoring women
Notes and references
External links
Natalism
Orders, decorations, and medals of Nazi Germany
Orders, decorations, and medals for women
1938 establishments in Germany
1945 disestablishments in Germany
Awards established in 1938
Awards disestablished in 1945
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Gangster%20%28film%29
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American Gangster (film)
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American Gangster is a 2007 American biographical crime film directed and produced by Ridley Scott and written by Steven Zaillian. The film is loosely based on the criminal career of Frank Lucas, a gangster from La Grange, North Carolina who smuggled heroin into the United States on American service planes returning from the Vietnam War, before being detained by a task force led by Newark Detective Richie Roberts. The film stars Denzel Washington and Russell Crowe, with co-stars Ted Levine, John Ortiz, Josh Brolin, Chiwetel Ejiofor, Ruby Dee, Lymari Nadal and Cuba Gooding Jr.
Development for the film initially began in 2000, when Universal Pictures and Imagine Entertainment purchased the rights to a New York magazine story about the rise and fall of Lucas. Two years later, screenwriter Steven Zaillian introduced a 170-page scriptment to Scott. Original production plans were to commence in Toronto for budget purposes; however, production eventually relocated permanently to New York City. Because of the film's rising budget Universal canceled production in 2004. After negotiations with Terry George, it was later revived with Scott at the helm in March 2005. Principal photography commenced over a period of five months from July to December 2006; filming took place throughout New York City and concluded in Thailand.
American Gangster premiered in New York on October 20, 2007, and was released in the United States on November 2. The film was well-received by critics and grossed over $266 million worldwide. Many of the people portrayed, including Roberts and Lucas, have stated that the film took much creative license with the story, and three former DEA agents sued Universal claiming the agency's portrayal was demoralizing. American Gangster was nominated for twenty-one awards, including two Oscar nominations for Best Art Direction and Best Supporting Actress for Ruby Dee, who also won a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role.
Plot
In 1968, Frank Lucas is the right-hand man of Harlem mob boss Ellsworth "Bumpy" Johnson. When Johnson dies of a heart attack, Frank enters the heroin trade, buying directly from producers in Thailand and smuggling it into the U.S. through returning Vietnam War servicemen. Frank sells his heroin under the brand "Blue Magic", whose affordability and purity make it incredibly popular, eliminating much of his competition.
Newark Detective and aspiring lawyer Richie Roberts is ostracized in his precinct after handing in almost $1 million that he found in a mobster's car. Captain Lou Toback puts Roberts in charge of a special task force that targets major drug suppliers, after Roberts' partner overdoses on Blue Magic. Roberts is also depicted having a bitter divorce battle with his ex-wife over his infidelity.
Frank's heroin racket prospers; he eventually sells Blue Magic wholesale to many dealers in the New York Tri-State Area and expands his distribution through other criminal organisations. With this monopoly, Frank becomes Harlem's top crime lord, opening legitimate business fronts and maintaining a low profile, while befriending politicians and famous celebrities (such as Joe Louis). He buys a mansion for his mother and recruits his five brothers as his lieutenants. Frank eventually falls in love with and marries Eva, a Puerto Rican beauty queen. He attends the Fight of the Century with her, where Roberts spots Frank, notices he has better seats than the Italian mobsters, and begins investigating him. Frank also comes to odds with competing local gangster Nicky Barnes; corrupt NYPD detective Nick Trupo, who is among many people Frank is forced to bribe; and the Corsican mafia, who unsuccessfully attempt to assassinate Frank and his wife for putting them out of business.
One night, Roberts' detectives witness one of Frank's cousins, Jimmy Zee, shoot his girlfriend; he becomes their informant in lieu of being convicted. They make Jimmy wear a wire, through which they learn that Frank has negotiated one final shipment of heroin after the fall of Saigon. They identify and search one of the last planes carrying Lucas' stock, discovering that it is being smuggled through the coffins of dead servicemen. They follow the drugs into Newark's projects and obtain a warrant to raid Frank's heroin processing facility, which results in the death of Frank's nephew Stevie Lucas and the arrest of Frank's brother Huey. They then arrest the other four brothers, and finally Frank himself.
During a trial against Frank, Roberts offers him a chance at leniency if he will help him expose corrupt police officers, to which Frank agrees. Following Frank's cooperation, three-quarters of the New York DEA and many NYPD officers are arrested and convicted, while Trupo commits suicide. Roberts becomes a defense attorney and has Frank as his first client. Frank is sentenced to 70 years in prison, of which he serves 15 years and is released in 1991.
Cast
Production
Development and writing
In 2000, Universal Pictures and Imagine Entertainment purchased the rights to "The Return of Superfly", by Mark Jacobson, an article published in New York magazine story about the rise and fall of the 1970s heroin kingpin Frank Lucas. In 2002, screenwriter Steven Zaillian brought a 170-page script to director Ridley Scott, who expressed interest in making two films from it. However, Scott did not immediately pursue the project, choosing to make Kingdom of Heaven instead. In November 2003, Universal and Imagine entered negotiations with Brian De Palma to direct Tru Blu, with a script by Zaillian based on the life of Frank Lucas. Zaillian interpreted the account as one of "American business and race", focusing the script thematically on corporate business. Production was initially slated for a spring 2004 start.
In March 2004, the studio entered new negotiations with Antoine Fuqua to direct, as well as Denzel Washington to star in the film as Frank Lucas. The following May, Benicio del Toro entered negotiations to star as Detective Richie Roberts, who brought down Lucas. Production of Tru Blu was reset to begin in early fall 2004, with the film slated for a release date of June 3, 2005. In September 2004, Dania Ramirez entered negotiations to join the cast of the film, now titled American Gangster.
Universal Pictures reported that it greenlit American Gangster with a budget of $80 million, which escalated to $93 million, with $10 million for development costs and $3 million for the delay of the production start date. Sources close to the director insist that the budget was $93 million from the beginning. The studio also sought for American Gangster to be produced in Toronto rather than New York City to save money, but Fuqua resisted the re-location. The studio's parent company General Electric received tax credits in New York City, so production was moved to the city. This change increased the budget to $98 million. Fuqua's camp insisted that it was seeking ways to reduce the budget, but the studio argued about several aspects of the project under him. The director had wanted to film a Vietnam sequence in Thailand and to cast notable names such as Ray Liotta and John C. Reilly in minor roles. To add to the studio's budgetary concerns, Fuqua was rewriting the script during the pre-production process. The director did not have a shot-list, final locations, and supporting actors signed to initiate production.
Fuqua was fired on October 1, 2004, four weeks before principal photography would begin. The studio cited creative differences for its action. After Fuqua's departure, the studio met with Peter Berg to take over directing the film, and Denzel Washington had approved of the choice. Due to the search potentially escalating a budget already in the US$80 million range and the difficulty in recouping the amount based on the film's subject matter, Universal canceled production of American Gangster, citing time constraints and creative elements. The cancellation cost the studio $30 million, of which $20 million went to Washington and $5 million went to del Toro due to their pay or play contracts.
In March 2005, American Gangster was revived as Universal and Imagine entered negotiations with Terry George to revise Zaillian's script and direct the film, which was to be financed with a target budget of US$50 million. Will Smith was approached to replace Washington as Frank Lucas, though an offer would be postponed until George completed his revision of the script. George cut many key scenes, characters and Asian locations to reduce costs, but the project failed to progress given financial problems and producer Grazer feeling they "couldn't make it right" without the removed material.
After Scott and Zaillian met on another project, Zaillian brought up the "Gangster" project again with Scott, who decided he was ready to do it. Producer Brian Grazer and Imagine executive Jim Whitaker decided against pursuing George's attempt and to return to Zaillian's vision. In February 2006, Ridley Scott entered talks with the studio to take over American Gangster from George, returning to Zaillian's draft as the film's basis. Washington returned to his role as Lucas, and Russell Crowe was attached to star as Roberts. Crowe was drawn to the project based on his previous work with the director on Gladiator and A Good Year, Washington wanted to work with Crowe again, after 1995's Virtuosity. Production was slated for summer 2006.
Scott had discussed the script with Crowe as they worked on A Good Year in France, and they sought to take on the project. The director reviewed Zaillian's script, Terry George's rewrite, and a revision by Richard Price during the project's incarnation with director Antoine Fuqua. Scott preferred Zaillian's approach and chose to follow it. The director encountered a challenge in the script since the characters Frank Lucas and Richie Roberts do not encounter each other until twenty minutes before the end of the film. The director sought to flesh out the private universes of these characters, which would evolve, and to have scenes cut between the two characters to provide a balance. Elements such as Frank Lucas's interaction with his family and Richie Roberts's dysfunctional marriage were written to add to the characters' backgrounds. The rappers T.I., RZA, and Common were added to the cast to appeal to younger audiences.
Scott chose to direct American Gangster by highlighting the paradoxical values of Frank Lucas and Richie Roberts. The film somewhat focuses on the comparatively ethical business practices of the "wicked gangster" and the womanizing and failed marriage of the "do-gooder" police detective. Washington, who was not normally a fan of gangster films, chose to portray Lucas when he saw "the arc of the character", which ended by showing the prices that Lucas paid for his actions.
To prepare for their roles, the actors met the actual persons. In addition, Washington took on Lucas' Southern accent, and Crowe practiced to match Roberts's manner of speaking and body language, requesting tape recordings of Roberts to assist in his preparation. The following March, the studio rehired Zaillian to rewrite the script for American Gangster. The budget had escalated to $100 million, which Grazer stated was unexpected given "It's not a high-concept comedy, it's not a fantasy movie, it's not a four-quadrant movie". Grazer and Scott still had to pay back the studio $3 million for a budget overrun.
Filming
Principal photography began in July 2006 in New York City. American Gangster was filmed over a period of approximately four months in over 180 different locations, most of them across New York; it set the record for containing the highest number of filming locations of a movie. Two months were spent in New York, with all the city's five boroughs being used. Approximately fifty to sixty locations were set in Harlem alone. While in the neighbourhood, Scott stated that he found several interiors that had been untouched since the 1940s.
According to production designer Arthur Max, exhaustive location scouting was done to find parts of New York that could still resemble the city of the early 1970s, filming Lucas' headquarters at 116th Street 20 blocks north, on 136th Street. In his interview with ComingSoon.net, Scott stated that "[he] just walked in [...] and [...] just sho[o]t in the house." Several gas masks were brought by producers due to health hazards and sanitary concerns existing in the buildings. Scott found filming in Harlem to be difficult, commenting that the rapid gentrification in Harlem provided poor opportunities for shooting angles. Hand-held cameras were extensively used to depict a "guerrilla filmmaking" style.
Other locations for principal photography include the Brooklyn Navy Yard, the Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum, Old Westbury Gardens, a segment of the George Washington Bridge, and the Brooklyn Supreme Courthouse. Briarcliff Manor in upstate New York had the locations for both the Lucas farm and the estate Lucas buys for his family.Morgue scenes were filmed in Morristown, New Jersey. Filming locations began setting up in Thailand in November 2006, after Branko Lustig consulted with Suvit Yodmanee, the country's tourism minister. Filming for American Gangster concluded in Chiang Mai the following month.
Using his experience from visiting New York in the same time period in which the film's story took place, Scott sought to downplay a "Beatles" atmosphere to the film and to instead create a shabbier atmosphere, saying that "Harlem was really, really shabby, beautiful brownstones falling apart." Production and costume design was emphasized, transforming the location into the rundown streets of upper Manhattan from the late 1960s and early 1970s. Denzel Washington, as Frank Lucas, had 64 costume changes.
Music
In 2006, Greg Calloway was approached by producers to produce a soundtrack for the film. He presented the idea to Atlantic Records chairman Craig Kallman, and one of the company's artists, T.I., got an acting role in the film. However, the deal did not go further because Universal Pictures owned the rights to the film; "It was a Universal film and they were not going to give the soundtrack to WMG" (Atlantic's parent company). Thus Scott brought back Marc Streitenfeld, who had worked with him in A Good Year. The composer stated that "the overall tone needed to be something bigger and darker" given the characters' strong personalities, and while not being the original intention, he added shades of blues and soul music to fit the 1970s setting. The musical score for American Gangster was recorded between April and May 2007 by Streitenfeld, with the help of orchestrator Bruce Fowler and conductor Mike Nowak, using an 80-piece orchestra recorded in sections as well as acoustic pre-records, performed by Streitenfeld himself. Additional score material was composed and recorded by Hank Shocklee.
The official soundtrack album for American Gangster was released by Def Jam Recordings within a week of the film's release. In addition to Streitenfeld and Shocklee's score material, the soundtrack album also features songs influenced by music in the 1960s and 1970s, including from blues and soul musicians such as Bobby Womack, The Staple Singers, Sam & Dave, and John Lee Hooker. Grazer stated that "I wanted to introduce a visual and sonic world that is a contained entity of the '70s", and Scott felt it was vital to have "the brand of music that was Harlem at the time."
Denzel Washington pressed Grazer into inviting rapper Jay-Z to write the film's score, but the producer "just didn't think there'd be enough for Jay-Z to do" given the intentions to do a soundtrack filled with 1970s music. The film's trailer had already used Jay-Z's "Heart of the City (Ain't No Love)", and the rapper was invited to an advanced screening. The film had a profound resonance on the musician, who decided to create a concept album, also entitled American Gangster. The rapper recorded tracks that were prompted by specific scenes in the film. It was speculated that the album's release in conjunction with the film would attract a young audience and help Universal Pictures generate profits to recover from the film's troubled development history. According to Jay-Z:
Release
American Gangster premiered in Harlem at the Apollo Theater on October 20, 2007. Over two weeks before the release of American Gangster, a screener for the film leaked online. The film debuted in the United States and Canada on November 2, 2007, in 3,054 theaters.
Box office
In its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, it grossed an estimated $43.6 million, averaging $14,264 per theater, placing the film first in the weekend box office. It marked the biggest opening weekend out of any film in both Washington and Crowe's careers. In its second week, grosses declined by 44.8 percent to $24 million, being beaten out by Bee Movie. In contrast by its third week, screenings for American Gangster increased to 3,110 theaters as the film surpassed the $100 million mark. American Gangster finished its box office run in North America with $130,164,645.
The film experienced similar success overseas. American Gangster was released in the United Kingdom on November 16, and became the highest-grossing film of the week, garnering £2.6 million ($5.3 million) in the box office. It repeated the feat in its second week, grossing an estimated £1.82 million ($3.7 million) at the box office and beating out Beowulf two consecutive times. The weekend of November 16–18 saw American Gangster take $14.7 million from fourteen territories internationally. At the same time, American Gangster expanded in the European market; it received $2.8 million from 366 theaters in Germany and $3.6 million from 366 screens in France during its opening weekend.
Releases followed in Norway and Sweden the succeeding week, where it earned $392,608 and $465,238 from thirty-seven and fifty-nine theaters, respectively. The film was released in the United Arab Emirates during the film's sixth week and grossed a modest $281,922 at the box office during its first week in the emirate. Similarly, it earned $6.9 million in international markets during its sixth week, adding the total at the time to $40.9 million.
By January 25, 2008, American Gangster opened in thirty-seven markets, bringing international grosses to $93 million. In February, screenings for the film debuted in Mexico—with a modest $820,482 opening weekend—and Japan, where it opened at the box office with $2.3 million, landing in second place. American Gangster grossed over $266.5 million worldwide at the box office, with international grosses making up 51 percent ($136.3 million). It ranked as the 19th highest-grossing film of 2007 both domestically and worldwide.
Home media
American Gangster was released in DVD and HD DVD format on February 19, 2008. The home release included an unrated extended version of the film, featuring 18 additional minutes and an alternative ending. The film topped both the DVD sales charts with 4 million units during its first week in stores, more than three times as many copies as second place Michael Clayton, and the rental charts. American Gangster ended up as the 14th best-selling DVD of 2008. It also topped the high-definition charts despite being released in the same week Toshiba announced it would discontinue the HD DVD format. On October 14, the film saw its release on Blu-ray.
A mobile game based on the film was released by Gameloft on November 1.
Reception
Critical response
Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 81% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 218 reviews, with a rating average of 7.00/10, with the consensus being: "American Gangster is a gritty and entertaining throwback to classic gangster films, with its lead performers firing on all cylinders." On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean score out of 100 to reviews from film critics, the film has a score of 76 based on 38 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a perfect four-star rating and opined, "This is an engrossing story, told smoothly and well." Ebert also praised Crowe's performance, saying that his contribution to the storytelling was "enormous".
Paul Byrnes of The Sydney Morning Herald felt that American Gangster was "one of the most intelligent gangster films in years" and expressed that the film offers "the spectacle of grand themes and two bigger-than-life characters played by two of the best actors in cinema." Concluding his review, Byrnes gave the film four out of four stars.
IGN's Jim "Stax" Vejvoda rated the film four out of five stars, praising the acting—particularly of the two protagonists, "both dynamic presences on-screen, with neither actor outweighing the other's importance to the story"—and declaring that despite being preceded by other gangster stories such as Scarface and The Sopranos, American Gangster managed to justify its existence with "emphasis on the human and class elements of the story". Manohla Dargis of The New York Times strongly commended the film, opining that "greatness hovers just outside American Gangster." She continued: "It's a seductive package, crammed with all the on-screen and off-screen talent that big-studio money can buy, and filled with old soul and remixed funk that evoke the city back in the day, when heroin turned poor streets white and sometimes red." These sentiments were echoed by Sukhdev Sandhu of The Telegraph, who asserted that the storyline was "amazing".
In comparison, some reviewers were more critical of American Gangster. Jonathan Crocker of Time Out London was polarized with the film, criticizing its aesthetics. In his review, he wrote, "Scott's meticulous aesthetics can't touch the urban texture and deep focus of The French Connection, The Godfather, Serpico and Prince of the City – all looming heavily in intertextual nods." In contrast, Crocker praised Washington's acting, writing, "He's immense: centering every scene with tractor-beam charisma, that dangerous, easy charm hovering between a luxury smile or blazing violence." In conclusion, Crocker gave the film three out of five stars.
Similarly, Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a 'C−' grade, expressing that American Gangster is "never dull, but it could have used more good old-fashioned melodramatic intrigue." Gleiberman found Washington's performance to have "a ghastly ingenuity". Empires Ian Freer rated the film three stars out of five; he stated that it was "undeniably enjoyable" and praised the cast, but also noted that he felt that "very little in the movie feels fresh, re-treading scenes, riffs and imagery from the whole history of crime flicks" and that the film did not explore enough of Lucas' story and Scott's visual imagination.
Slant Magazine journalist Nick Schager harshly criticized the film, giving the film a one out of four stars rating. Schager remarked that the film was "dumb as a rock", and that it was "far too convinced of its import to be any fun." Giving American Gangster a two out of five stars, Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian was disappointed with Washington's acting, asserting, "He doesn't seem to relax and enjoy himself in the role, or even inhabit it very satisfyingly." He resumed: "He never has the menace of his dirty cop in Training Day, and we don't see anything like the transformation from street-hustler to leader in Malcolm X. That shoulder-shimmying swagger is rarely seen, and the brand-classic robes of American Gangster sit on him heavily."
Accuracy of the film
Lucas admitted to several news outlets that only a small portion of the film was true, and that much of it was fabricated for dramatic effect. In addition, Richie Roberts criticized the film for portraying him in a custody battle while in real life he never had a child. Roberts criticized the portrayal of Lucas, describing it as "almost noble".
Sterling Johnson Jr., a federal judge who served as a special narcotics prosecutor for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York and assisted the arrest and trial of Lucas, described the film as "one percent reality and ninety-nine percent Hollywood." In addition, Johnson described the real-life Lucas as "illiterate, vicious, violent, and everything Denzel Washington was not." Former DEA agents Jack Toal, Gregory Korniloff, and Louis Diaz filed a lawsuit against Universal saying that the events in the film were fictionalized and that the film defamed them and hundreds of other agents.
The lawsuit was eventually dismissed by US District Judge Colleen McMahon. While McMahon noted that the intertitle that appears at the end of the film, stating that Lucas' collaboration led to the arrest of many corrupt DEA agents, was "wholly inaccurate", in that Lucas' cooperation did not lead to the convictions, and opined that "[i]t would behoove a major corporation like Universal (which is owned by a major news organization, NBC) not to put inaccurate statements at the end of popular films", she stated that the film failed to meet legal standards of defamation because it failed to "show a single person who is identifiable as a DEA agent".
Many of Lucas' other claims, as presented in the film, have also been called into question, such as being the right-hand man of Bumpy Johnson, rising above the power of the Mafia and Nicky Barnes, and that he was the mastermind behind the Golden Triangle heroin connection of the 1970s. Ron Chepesiuk, a biographer of Frank Lucas, deemed the story a myth. Associated Press entertainment writer Frank Coyle noted that "this mess happened partly because journalists have been relying on secondary sources removed from the actual events."
Accolades
American Gangster earned various awards and nominations, in categories ranging from recognition of the film itself to its screenplay and music, to the performances of Ruby Dee and Denzel Washington. Prior to the film's release, it was observed as a candidate for the Academy Awards based on its style and the performances of its actors, including the possibility of an Academy Award for Best Director for Ridley Scott.
The film was recognized as a candidate for best film by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Broadcast Film Critics Association. In addition, the film was included on 54 reviewer lists of the ten best films of 2007, three of them at the top spot. Among the lists ranking American Gangster as one of the best of the year were those of The Miami Herald, Rolling Stone and the Associated Press.
See also
List of hood films
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
2007 films
2000s biographical films
2007 crime drama films
American crime drama films
American crime thriller films
American biographical films
Films about African-American organized crime
African-American films
Films about heroin
Films about race and ethnicity
Films based on newspaper and magazine articles
Films directed by Ridley Scott
Films produced by Ridley Scott
Films scored by Marc Streitenfeld
Films set in New York City
Films set in New Jersey
Films shot in New York City
Films shot in New Jersey
Films set in North Carolina
Films set in Vietnam
Films set in Thailand
Films set in the 1960s
Films set in the 1970s
Films set in the 1990s
Hood films
Imagine Entertainment films
Relativity Media films
Scott Free Productions films
Films with screenplays by Steven Zaillian
Crime films based on actual events
Universal Pictures films
Vietnam War films
Cultural depictions of Joe Louis
American neo-noir films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
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Family Force 5
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FF5 (formerly known as Family Force 5, The Phamily, Ground Noise and The Brothers) is an American Christian rock band from Atlanta, Georgia. The band formed in 2004 by brothers Solomon "Soul Glow Activatur" Olds, Joshua "Fatty" Olds, and Jacob "Crouton" Olds along with their two friends, Nathan "Nadaddy" Currin and Brad "20 Cent" Allen, who was later replaced by Derek "Chapstique" Mount. The group has released five studio albums, nine EPs, and two remix albums. They are often noted for their raucous, party-centric personae and eclectic mix of genres, ranging from rap metal to dance-pop.
In 2018, the remaining two members, Jacob and Joshua Olds, re-branded the group as FF5 and released the EP El Compadre on March 2 of that year. The band played their most recent show on March 17 of that year.
History
Formation (1993–2003)
Family Force 5 was formed in Atlanta, Georgia, under their original name, The Brothers. Three of the five original members, Solomon ("Soul Glow Activatur") and twins Joshua ("Fatty") and Jacob ("Crouton"), are sons of Jerome Olds, a Christian artist popular in the late 1980s. The Brothers released Fact and Reality in 1994 and RPM in 1995. Both albums were released on Star Song Records and produced by their father.
The group changed their name to "Ground Noise", which they classified as "a really bad version of Third Day". Shortly after, the three brothers added Derek Mount ("Chap Stique") and Nathan "Nate" Currin ("Nadaddy"). They then renamed their group The Phamily.
A decade later, the band signed with Maverick Records, for distribution to the mainstream market before signing to Gotee Records for the Christian market. Under the name "The Phamily", the band sought a dual recording deal to better distribute their music to both the mainstream and Christian markets. According to Solomon Olds, "To me, and pretty much anybody that's under my age, most Christian music is a turnoff. I don't want to be affiliated with that. I want to be affiliated with something that is great music. I feel that Maverick and Gotee together can pull that off." The group was then forced to change their name again, due to copyright issues with Prince's band, The Family.
Family Force 5 and mainstream success (2004–2007)
On March 21, 2006, the band released their first full-length album Business Up Front/Party in the Back under their new name "Family Force 5", which was an instant hit in both the Christian and mainstream markets spawning several hit singles such as "Love Addict" and "Earthquake". Both of these songs, like many others on the album, are heavily focused around the guitar. Their debut album has been both disparaged and praised by Christian and non-Christian critics respectively for not containing overtly Christian content in any of its tracks. In March 2007, their debut album was re-released as Business Up Front/Party in the Back: Diamond Edition, which contains three previously unreleased songs.
During this time, Family Force 5 contributed the song "Mind's Eye" for the compilation album Freaked! A Gotee Tribute to DC Talk's Jesus Freak. For Christmas, Family Force 5 released a few Christmas-themed audio blogs. They also recorded "Grandma", a cover of "Grandma Got Run Over by a Reindeer". Also a new unreleased song, "Whatcha Gonna Do with It", was added to the Hip Hope Hits: 2008 album. Another previously unreleased song, "Master of Disguise", was posted on YouTube. However, due to mixed fan reaction to the song it was not slated for release at the time.
Dance or Die (2008)
In June 2008, Family Force 5 released an EP entitled Dance or Die EP to debut three songs from their upcoming album Dance or Die. On August 19, 2008, the full-length album was released taking on a more club oriented, electronic dance sound than Business Up Front/Party in the Back with less guitar. The full-length album, Dance or Die, received a favorable review in World Magazine.
Blake Soloman of AbsolutePunk.net had the following to say about the album; "Even though Family Force 5 may be the musical equivalent of mixing Mentos and Coke—lots of build up for something that only ever happens one way—I find myself oddly pleased with Dance or Die."
Dance or Die sold 17,000 copies in its first week and debuted at 30 on the Billboard 200. By the end of January, the album had sold over 50,000 units and during early 2009 the band embarked on the AP tour from March to May promoting the album and headlining concerts throughout the U.S. In December 2008, the band won the Best Christian Rock Artist, Best Crunk Rock/Rap Artist and Best Rock Album for Dance or Die at the Rock on Request Awards.
Remix album and Christmas Pageant (2009)
In May 2009, the band debuted their remix album of Dance or Die; Dance or Die with a Vengeance. It featured remixes by The Secret Handshake, 3OH!3, Danger Radio, Jasen Rauch of Red, Matt Thiessen of Relient K, David Crowder of David Crowder Band, Alex Suarez of Cobra Starship, and more. The album debuted at No. 180 on the Billboard 200, No. 15 on the Christian Albums chart and No. 6 on the Dance/Electronic Albums chart.
Around this time, Solomon Olds created a remix of the song "Best Night of Our Lives" by Everyday Sunday.
On September 5, the band unveiled a new song called "Keep the Party Alive" which was featured on an EP, titled Keep the Party Alive EP. The EP was released exclusively at Target to promote the Halloween themed Skelanimals on September 15. Other tracks on the EP include three songs from Dance or Die with a Vengeance, two songs from Dance or Die, and two music videos. Next, The band embarked on their third Dance Rawr Dance Tour, along with Breathe Carolina, Cash Cash, Queens Club, and i-Rival.
On October 6, the band released a Christmas album titled Family Force 5's Christmas Pageant, containing ten tracks including their own version of "My Favorite Things". The album debuted at No. 14 on the US Dance charts.
In mid-November 2009, the band hit the road on the Christmas Pageant Tour. On this tour was House of Heroes, Remedy Drive, and All Left Out. On the tour they performed their versions of Christmas classics as well as their very own originals. On November 30 it was announced by lead singer Soul Glow Activatur's Twitter that Joshua (Fatty) had been admitted to the ICU of a local hospital and that a kidney specialist had been called in after his condition deteriorated. Later it was confirmed that he was suffering from kidney failure and that he was undergoing dialysis treatment. The band at first vowed to continue the current tour they were on, The Christmas Pageant Tour, so as not to disappoint fans. However, as Joshua's condition worsened, the band canceled a few shows, but then made a return for the rest of the tour. Joshua made a full recovery and returned to playing shows.
III (2010–2012)
In January 2010 the band toured Australia and New Zealand, playing shows for the Parachute Music Festival and its Australian offshoots. In February 2010, they toured with Cobra Starship in the United Kingdom. In March and April 2010, they were part of the lineup of the Rock and Worship Roadshow with Mercy Me, David Crowder Band, Francesca Battistelli, Fee, Remedy Drive, and more. During this time, the band also released their music to the UK market for the first time.
On March 2, 2010, Family Force 5 were confirmed to be playing the UK leg of the traveling festival, Sonisphere. This was the band's first UK festival appearance. The band also announced six UK and Ireland headline dates to coincide with their Sonisphere appearance.
In December 2010 the band did their second annual Christmas Pageant Tour in the United States, with main support from Forever The Sickest Kids. The tour also had a one-off date for a London show, however this was later cancelled due to weather.
The band confirmed a third studio album, which was tentatively slated for release in mid-2010. They stated that the third album will have more crunk-rock and "rock-and-roll" elements similar to Business Up Front/Party in the Back. The band released a three-song preview EP, entitled III, on April 15, 2011. In an interview with JesusFreakHideout.com, guitarist Chap Stique explained that the new album is tentatively titled III as well. He also mentioned that some of the tracks that may appear on the album are called "Paycheck", "Can You Feel It", "Get on Outta Here", "Not Alone", and "Tank Top", and that the album itself would contain more spiritual themes than the EP. In another interview with Alt Press, Soul Glow Activatur also confirmed that the album will be called III and revealed a new track title, "Crash Down", and claimed that the CD "runs the gamut" from "straight-up electro" to "a little bit of redneckness". Tooth & Nail Records announced that they would be publishing III, and revealed the cover and track list on August 9. The album was released on October 18, 2011. The album has received mixed reviews. Critics have praised the album's musical diversity, while criticizing the quality of the lyrics.
The band did a short spring tour called Tourantula, which ran from April 15 to May 15.
Family Force 5 played on the Warped Tour 2011 from July 26 through August 14.
The band's 2012 tour was called Rise Up, and was scheduled to run from March through September. It was inspired by Fatty's near-fatal experience, and featured a short film by Isaac Deitz called "Vital Sign". The film documented the band's experience during the unexpected illness and how it has affected them long-term.
An extended version of the album III called III.V was announced in April 2012. It was to feature five extra songs, two new ones and three acoustic. Instead, III.V was released as an EP of six songs, two new ones and four acoustic, on May 22, 2012.
Reanimated and departure of Soul Glow Activatur (2012–2013)
Beginning in November 2012, Soul Glow Activatur began hosting his own radio show "Phenomenon" for Christian Radio Station NGEN Radio every Friday Night at 10 pm. Several new songs have been debuted during the show including "Next Level", "Chainsaw", and title track, "Phenomenon", the latter two have been released as their own EP.
Several photos were posted on February 25, 2013, in which the band was shown recording in Tommy Lee's studio, confirming that the band was in the process of writing and recording a new album.
On May 3, 2013, the band released a music video for "Chainsaw" featuring an additional verse from Christian rapper Tedashii, and the same day released this new version of the song as a single.
Reanimated, an album featuring both new songs and remixes of older songs, was released on June 18, 2013, to reception ranging from mixed to negative.
The band announced on their website on September 23, 2013, that Soul Glow Activatur would be leaving the band to focus on songwriting, remixing, and DJ Phenomenon, but he would still be a behind-the-scenes part of the group. Pictures on the website and Facebook were updated to show the new band lineup, moving Crouton from the drums to lead singer, and adding Teddy "Hollywood" Boldt as the new drummer.
Time Stands Still (2014–2015)
On April 30, 2014, the band announced they had signed with Word Entertainment for their fourth studio album, set to release in the year. Their single "Let It Be Love" was released along with the news.
On May 23, 2014, Family Force 5 released their first music video from their upcoming album, BZRK. The song features Christian rapper KB. The band announced that the title of the upcoming album would be Time Stands Still, along with its artwork on May 26, 2014. On May 27, 2014, the band released the album for pre-order on iTunes.
The band was part of the 2015 Winter Jam Tour Spectacular in the central and eastern parts of the United States. They were also a part of the Winter Jam Tour 2015 West Coast.
Their remix album, Time Still Stands, was released on November 6, 2015, featuring six remixes of songs from the album Time Stands Still, and two new additional songs.
Label issues and additional line-up departures (2015–2018)
On May 3, 2017, lead guitarist Derek Mount (aka Chapstique) announced that he would be leaving the band to pursue other projects. Shortly after, keyboardist and original member Nathan Currin also parted ways with the group, although no statement has officially been given from either him or the band regarding his departure.
In April 2017, Family Force 5 announced that their fifth album, Audiotorium, was almost complete, but due to label conflicts could not be released yet. The band went on a tour in which they performed the unreleased album live in its entirety at each show.
In January 2018, Teddy Boldt, also known as Hollywood, announced his departure from the band, making the only remaining members Jacob and Joshua Olds.
Rebranding, and El Compadre (2018)
On January 18, 2018, they released the single "Fire on the Highway" and rebranded as "FF5": a duo consisting of two of the Olds brothers. They released the EP El Compadre on March 2. The band never formally broke up, but they played their most recent show on March 17 of that year.
Other projects
The band contributed a song to the Alice in Wonderland soundtrack (titled Almost Alice), called "Topsy Turvy". The song did not make the standard soundtrack, but it is one of three bonus songs on the special Hot Topic edition of the soundtrack. The song premiered on their MySpace page on February 8. It was released with the Almost Alice (Deluxe Version) on iTunes June 1, 2010.
Family Force 5's vocalist, Soul Glow Activator, was featured on the opening track of the 2008 concept album Nervosa by Christian post-hardcore band, Showbread.
"Radiator" and "Love Addict" have been released on the Rock Band network.
"Can You Feel It" was used in a trailer for the 2012 film Battleship.
The band also appeared on the album Punk Goes Pop 3 with their cover version of La Roux's "Bulletproof". The album was released on November 2, 2010.
The band's song "Kountry Gentleman" was used in the advertisements for the movie The Warrior's Way.
On December 8, 2010, Rock Sound gave out a free CD with their magazine containing a new version of "Love Addict" and a demo of their new song "Every Night of the Week". Also in promotion of their new album a clip of "Dang Girl" was posted on their YouTube channel.
On January 25, 2012, they released a new five-song EP titled Junk in the Trunk which included previously unreleased songs and alternate versions of others.
On January 8, 2013, Capital Kings released their self-titled debut album, Capital Kings, featuring Soul Glow Activatur on "The Paradigm".
The band's 2005 song, "Kountry Gentleman", was used in the 2019 film, El Camino: A Breaking Bad Movie.
Musical style
Family Force 5 has been cited as a crunk rock band, mixing a diverse set of music styles including punk, rap, post-hardcore, R&B, funk, dance, electronica, rap metal and nu metal with positive, party lyrics.
Band members
Current members
Jacob "Crouton" Olds – lead vocals (2013–present), drums, vocals (2004–2013)
Josh "Fatty" Olds – bass, vocals (2004–present)
Former members
Brad "20 Cent" Allen – lead guitar (2004–2005)
Derek "Chapstique" Mount – lead guitar, vocals (2005–2017), rhythm guitar (2013–2017)
Nate "Nadaddy" Currin – synthesizer, percussion (2004–2017)
Solomon "Soul Glow Activatur" Olds – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, synthesizer (2004–2013)
Teddy "Hollywood" Boldt – drums (2013–2018)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Christmas albums
Remix albums
EPs
The Phamily EP (2004)
Family Force 5 EP (2005)
Business Up Front, Party in the Back Diamond Edition EP (2006)
Dance or Die EP (2008)
Keep the Party Alive EP (2009) Target exclusive.
III EP (2011)
Junk in the Trunk EP (November 25, 2011)
III.V EP (May 22, 2012)
Crank It Like a Chainsaw EP (January 21, 2013)
FF5 EP (2017) online exclusive
El Compadre (March 2, 2018)
Singles
"Cray Button" (featuring Lecrae) (2012)
"Chainsaw" (featuring Tedashii) (2013)
"Let It Be Love" (2014)
"BZRK (featuring KB) (2014)
"Walk on Water" (featuring Melanie Wagner (of Young & Free)) (2015)
"Hold Your Hand" (2015)
"Fire on the Highway" (2018)
Non-album tracks
"Grandma Got Run Over By A Reindeer"
"Here Comes Santa Claus"
"Repeat the Sounding Joy"
"Every Night of the Week"
"Love Addict" (2011 demo)
Compilation appearances
Hip Hope Hits 2008, 2007 .... "Whatcha Gonna Do with It" [Gotee]
Freaked!: A Gotee Tribute to dcTalk's "Jesus Freak", 2006 .... "Mind's Eye" [Gotee]
Almost Alice: Songs Inspired by "Alice in Wonderland" (Hot Topic Edition), 2010 ... "Topsy Turvy"
Punk Goes Pop 3, 2010 .... "Bulletproof" originally recorded by La Roux
Jingle Jam'', 2010 ... "Here Comes Santa Clause" and "Repeat the Sounding Joy"
Awards
GMA Dove Awards
References
External links
American nu metal musical groups
American post-hardcore musical groups
Christian rock groups from Georgia (U.S. state)
Crunkcore groups
Gotee Records artists
Musical groups established in 2004
Musical groups from Atlanta
2004 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Word Records artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somers%20Isles%20Company
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Somers Isles Company
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The Somers Isles Company (fully, the Company of the City of London for the Plantacion of The Somers Isles or the Company of The Somers Isles) was formed in 1615 to operate the English colony of the Somers Isles, also known as Bermuda, as a commercial venture. It held a royal charter for Bermuda until 1684, when it was dissolved, and the Crown assumed responsibility for the administration of Bermuda as a royal colony.
Bermuda under the Virginia Company
Bermuda had been settled, inadvertently, in 1609 by the Virginia Company when its flagship, Sea Venture, was wrecked on the reefs to its east. The Admiral of the company, Sir George Somers, was at the helm as the ship fought a storm that had broken apart a relief fleet destined for Jamestown, the Virginian settlement established by the Company two years earlier. Somers had deliberately driven the ship onto the reefs to prevent its foundering, thereby saving all aboard.
The settlers and seamen spent ten months in Bermuda while they built two new ships to continue the voyage to Jamestown. During the building, Sea Venture'''s longboat was fitted with a mast and sent to find Jamestown. Neither it, nor its crew, was ever seen again. When Deliverance and Patience set sail for Jamestown, they left several people behind, some to maintain Somers' claim to the islands for England, some dead. Those aboard the two ships included Sir Thomas Gates, the military commander and future governor of Jamestown, William Strachey, whose account of the wrecking may later have inspired Shakespeare's The Tempest, and John Rolfe, who would found Virginia's tobacco industry, and who left a wife and child buried in Bermuda. Rolfe would find a new bride in the Powhatan princess Pocahontas.
Jamestown, and the sixty survivors of its original five hundred settlers, were found in such a poor state that it was decided to abandon the Jamestown settlement and return everyone to England. The timely arrival of another relief fleet under Thomas West from England granted the colony a reprieve. However, the food shortage was made more critical by the new arrivals. Somers returned to Bermuda on Patience, captained by his nephew, Matthew, to gather provisions for the Jamestown colony, but died on Bermuda in 1610. Matthew Somers was keen to receive his inheritance (Sir George and his wife were childless, but had raised his two nephews), and took Patience to Somers' hometown, Lyme Regis, and not to Virginia.
When news reached England of the adventures of Sea Venture's survivors, the royal charter of the Virginia Company was extended to include Bermuda on the 12th of March, 1612, at Westminster, with the archipelago granted by the Crown unto the Treasurer and Company of Aduenturers and Planters of the Cittie of London for the first colony in Virginia. The new colony was officially named Virgineola, although this was soon changed to The Somers Isles or The Somers Islands in honour of Sir George Somers.
A Governor, Richard Moore, arrived in 1612 with settlers, aboard Plough, to join those left behind by Sea Venture and Patience. The new settlers were primarily tenant farmers, who gave seven years of indentured servitude to the Company in exchange for the cost of transport. Although the primary industry was envisioned to be agriculture, the early Governors enthusiastically, if mostly unsuccessfully, attempted to develop other industries also. These included pearl diving (there are no pearls in Bermuda) and ambergris. The first two slaves to arrive in Bermuda, one black, one Native American, were brought in for their skills as pearl divers.
Free of the endemic warfare and other hardships which plagued the continental settlement, Bermuda thrived from the beginning, though it was never to be particularly profitable for its investors. Its population quickly surpassed that of Jamestown, and consideration was given to abandoning the North American continent and evacuating its settlers to Bermuda.
Formation of the Somers Isles Company
The Virginia Company ran Bermuda until 1613, when the colony was transferred to Sir William Wade et cetera in exchange for £2,000, who then resigned to the Crown in 1614. The Crown briefly administered the Colony directly before the adventurers (shareholders) of the Virginia Company formed a second company, the Somers Isles Company, to which Bermuda was transferred in 1615. The Virginia Company was dissolved in 1622, with the administration of its continental colony passing to the Crown. The Somers Isles Company, with its separate charter, continued to administer Bermuda for another six decades.
The original Adventurers of the Somers Isles Company listed in the letters patent were essentially the same as those of the Virginia Company. Major-General Sir John Henry Lefroy, Governor of Bermuda from 1871 to 1877, transcribed the list which was ordered by social rank, but commented that the original list began with Henry, Earl of Southampton:
Bedford, Lucie, Countess of
Cavendish, William, Lord
William, Lord Paget
Pembroke, William, Earl of
Southampton, Henrie, Earl of
Auger (Aucher) Sir Anthoine
Cranfield, Sir Lionel
Diggs, Sir Dudlie
Grobham, Sir Richard
Hide, Sir Lawrence
Hogan, Sir Thomas
Howard, Sir John
Mansell, Sir Richard (Robert)
Mericke, Sir John
Rich, Sir Robert
Sandys, Sir Edwin
Sandys, Sir Samuel
Smith, Sir Richard
Smith, Sir Thomas
Watts, Sir John
Winwood, Sir Ralphe
Caraway, William Esq.
Chamberlaine, Richard Esq.
Heydon, Jeremie Esq.
Hide, Nicholas Esq.
Martin, Richard Esq.
Thorpe, George Esq.
Walter, John Esq.
Westenholm, John Esq.
Wrath, John Esq.
Abbott, Maurice, merchant
Abby, Anthony
Adderlie, William
Anthonie, Charles, goldsmith
Banks, John, mercer
Barnard, John
Barkeley, George, merchant
Baron, Christopher
Benson, Nicholas
Bretton, John
Bishop, Edward
Brainfield, Arthur
Campage, William, merchant
Cartwright, Abraham
Casewell, Richard
Chamberlaine, Abraham
Chamberlaine, George, merchant
Church, Thomas
Clitherow, Christopher
Cotton, Allen
Conell, Thomas
Dawes, Abraham
De Laurie, Gideon
Delbridge, John
Dike, John
Ditchfield, Edward, salter
Edwards, Richard
Etheridge, George
Exton, Nicholas
Farrer, Nicholas, merchant
Ffellgate, William
Fletcher, John
Fletcher, Edward
Gearing, John
Giles, Ffrancis
Gore, Robert, merchant tailor
Greenwell, William, merchant tailor
Haleman, George
Hamer, Ralphe, merchant taylor
Harwood, Leonard
Herne, John
Heyward, John, clarke
Hinton, Anthonie, doctor of
Hodges, John
Jacobson, Philip
Jadwin, Thomas
John, Thomas
Johnson, Robert, grocer
Kerell, John
Kinge, Ralphe
Leuis, Thomas
Lukin, Edward
Maplesdon, Richard
Martin, Edward
Mercer, Richard
Nicholls, William
Norcott, Thomas
Offley, Robert, merchant
Osborn, John
Palmer, William
Payne, William Esquire
Phipps, Robert
Poulson, Richard
Prason, Hildebrand
Quick, William
Rich, George
Roberts, Elias, merchant tailor
Rogers, Richard
Scott, Edmon
Scott, George
Shepheard, Matthew
Smith, Cleophas
Smith, George, grocer
Smith, Robert
Smith, Waren
Speckhardie, Abraham
Swinow, George
Tomlins, Richard
Tymberdale, Henry
Wale, Thomas
Webb, Rice, haberdasher
Webb, Thomas
Webster, William
Weld, John
Welby, William, stationer
West, John, grocer
Wheatley, Thomas
Woddall, John
Bermuda as a company colony
Most of Bermuda was subdivided into eight equally sized tribes, later called parishes. These were named for shareholders in the Company, and were further divided (by tribe roads) into lots which equated to shares in the Company. The Company's return on investment came specifically from cash crops raised on that land. A ninth subdivision, now the easternmost parish, was Saint George's, comprising Saint George's Island, Saint David's Island, part of the Main Island, and various smaller islands and islets around Castle Harbour (then known as Southampton Harbour) and Saint George's Harbour. This area was held as common, or King's land, and was not subdivided for exploitation by the Company. This was where the capital, Saint George's Town was located. The choice of this location followed the original settlement created by Sea Venture survivors, and was also determined by the two eastern harbours being the only ones then readily accessible to shipping.
A surveyor, Richard Norwood, was hired to produce a survey of the colony, which also served as a census. This was completed in 1616, although he made later updates. In the process, he discovered that the total landmass of the eight commercial parishes was greater than originally estimated. His superior, Daniel Tucker, the Governor of Bermuda, appropriated a choice piece of land, equivalent to the excess, for himself.
Local government
The Company continued to appoint governors until its dissolution in 1684. In 1620, however, a colonial parliament was created, the House of Assembly. Suffrage was restricted to male land owners, and there was no upper house. An appointed council, composed primarily from the leading merchant families of the Colony, came to fill a role similar to both an upper house, and a cabinet, and often proved the true repository of power in Bermuda.
The immediate concern of the first governors was for the colony's protection from a feared Spanish or Dutch attack, and the building of fortifications, and the raising of militias, was sustained throughout the company's administration, and beyond. A review of the colony's defences was carried out by Captain John Smith.
Demographics and immigration
The immigration of European indentured servants underpinned the Bermudian economy during the Company's administration over the island, and this source of cheap labour meant that Bermuda never adopted a slavery-based economic system which came to characterise other European colonies in the West Indies. Though the majority of the Bermudian population was of English descent, a number of other ethnic groups were brought to Bermuda during the Company's administration; the first group being Irish and Scottish indentured servants, with both groups primarily consisting of prisoners of war captured during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (including the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland).
The second group were Native Americans from North America who were brought to Bermuda as slaves after being sold into slavery in the aftermath of various conflicts in colonial New England such as the Pequot War and King Philip's War. The third group were Africans; though a few were free people of colour from Spanish America, the majority were imported by European slave traders as part of the transatlantic slave trade. A rapid influx of Africans to Bermuda during the 17th century led to the white majority becoming uneasy, and resulted in the terms of indenture for African indentured servants to be raised from seven to ninety-nine years.
After the outbreak of the English Civil War (1642–1651), Bermuda remained sympathetic towards the Royalist cause, perhaps due to the fact that the shareholders of the Somers Isles Company consisted primarily of wealthy members of the upper-class. Despite the Royalist defeat during the conflict, Bermuda was largely spared the effects and aftermath of the Parliamentarian victory. Supporters of the Parliamentarians in Bermuda, which like their counterparts in England were similar to the Puritan and anti-Episcopalian demographic, were forced into exile by the Company administration, becoming the Eleutheran Adventurers who settled on the island of Eleuthera in the Bahamas.
Economy and industry
Agriculture remained the mainstay of the economy under the Somers Isles Company. The primary cash crop was tobacco, but the quantity and quality produced were very poor. The Bermuda cedar boxes in which the tobacco was shipped to England were said to be worth more than their contents, and much of the tobacco was destroyed on arrival. The Colony also had little success with other export crops. Additionally, the several acres of arable land that had been cut from the forest meant that each farmer had only a very small area under cultivation, by comparison to the granted to each settler in Virginia. Bermudian farmers had to raise as many as three crops a year in order to be economically viable. This meant that they could not allow fields to lie fallow, and the soil, already high in alkaline and low in magnesium (used by plants to form chlorophyll), became depleted. By the 1620s, Virginia's tobacco exports were increasing, and newer English colonies in the West Indies were also emulating Bermuda by focusing on growing tobacco for export, with the result of drastically reducing the profitability of growing tobacco for Bermudian farmers. Bermudian farmers increasingly turned to growing food crops and rearing livestock, both to reduce their dependence on overpriced imports, and to sell to other colonies. This growing trade created a need for Bermudian-owned ships to deliver their exports.
Bermudians began to turn away from agriculture quite early, building boats and developing the Bermuda sloop to pursue maritime trades. As the Company derived no income, except from tobacco sent to England aboard the company's magazine ships, it acted to stymie these activities. The building of vessels was banned without its license, and the first laws to protect the Bermuda cedar, which were passed early in the seventeenth century, may have been intended more to restrict shipbuilding than to conserve the resource.
Civil War
By the 1630s, the company had ceased sending Governors to Bermuda and began appointing a string of prominent Bermudians, such as William Sayle, to the role. As few Adventurers actually settled in Bermuda, with their properties instead managed by poorer relatives or tenants, the local House of Assembly was necessarily elected without a property qualification, unlike the House of Commons of England. This meant it was far more concerned with the interests of the islanders, rather than the Adventurers in England. By the mid-17th century, with tobacco exports failing, many Adventurers in England eagerly cut their losses by selling their shares to the tenants who occupied. Bermudians quickly became the majority of landowners, but the Adventurers who remained in England maintained control of the company by barring any shareholder who did not personally attend meetings in England from the decision-making process. Many of those English shareholders belonged to the gentry and anti-Episcopalian sects within the Church of England, and sided with the Parliamentarians during the 1642–1651 Civil War. Given the increasingly hostile relationship between Bermudians and the company, the majority of Bermudians sided with the Crown. With control of the military forces in Bermuda as well as the Assembly, the Royalists deposed the Company appointed Governor, Captain Thomas Turner, and elected John Trimigham in his stead. The colony's Independents, who sided with Parliament, were forced into exile, settling the Bahamas under the Cromwell-loyalist William Sayle as the Eleutheran Adventurers.
The response of Parliament to what was characterised as the rebellion of Bermuda (and of other colonies, particularly Virginia, Barbados, and Antigua) was the passage of An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego in October, 1650. This called for due punishment [to be] inflicted upon the said Delinquents, do Declare all and every the said persons in Barbada's, Antego, Bermuda's and Virginia, that have contrived, abetted, aided or assisted those horrid Rebellions, or have since willingly joyned with them, to be notorious Robbers and Traitors, and such as by the Law of Nations are not to be permitted any maner of Commerce or Traffique with any people whatsoever; and do forbid to all maner of persons, Foreiners, and others, all maner of Commerce, Traffique and Correspondency whatsoever, to be used or held with the said Rebels in the Barbada's, Bermuda's, Virginia and Antego, or either of them.''
Parliamentary privateers were authorised to act against English vessels trading with these colonies: Parliament made preparations to invade the Royalist colonies, but the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1651 was to engulf the British West Indies in war with France and Holland. A thousand miles distant, Bermuda was untouched by that war and reached a compromise with Parliament.
With the Restoration, Bermudians found they had a powerful ally in the Crown, which had its own interest in wresting control of the English Empire from corporations like the Somers Isles Company.
Revocation of charter and dissolution
It was worsening interference by the Company into the livelihoods of the islanders which led to its dissolution. A protest to the Crown resulting initially from the treatment of Perient Trott and his heirs, but expanding to include the company's wider mismanagement of the colony, was directed to the Crown. This led to a lengthy court case in which the Crown championed Bermudians against the company. This resulted in the company's Royal Charter being revoked in 1684, and from then on the Crown assumed responsibility for appointing the Colony's governors (it first re-appointed the last company governor). Freed of the company's restraints, the local merchant class came to dominate and shape Bermuda's progress, as Bermudians abandoned agriculture en masse and turned to the sea.
See also
History of Bermuda
History of Virginia
Jamestown, Virginia
List of trading companies
Virginia Company of London
Sea Venture
Virginia Company
References
External links
Roots Web Richard Norwood’s Survey of the Land and Landholder’s of Bermuda.
Bermuda Yellow Pages History of Bermuda.
Dan Byrnes. Com The Business of Slavery - Chapter 9.
History of Bermuda
Colony of Virginia
English colonization of the Americas
Chartered companies
Trading companies of England
Companies established in 1615
1615 establishments in the British Empire
1615 establishments in North America
1610s establishments in Virginia
Companies disestablished in the 1680s
1684 disestablishments in the British Empire
1684 disestablishments in North America
British North America
Economy of Stuart England
Trading companies established in the 17th century
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross%20Road%20Blues
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Cross Road Blues
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"Cross Road Blues" (commonly known as "Crossroads") is a song written by the American blues artist Robert Johnson. He performed it as a solo piece with his vocal and acoustic slide guitar in the Delta blues-style. The song has become part of the Robert Johnson mythology as referring to the place where he supposedly sold his soul to the Devil in exchange for his musical talent. This is based largely on folklore of the American South that identifies a crossroads as the site where such pacts are made, although the lyrics do not contain any references to Satan or a Faustian bargain.
"Cross Road Blues" may have been in Johnson's repertoire since 1932 and, in 1936, he recorded two performances. One was released in 1937 as a single that was heard mainly in the Mississippi Delta area. The second, which reached a wider audience, was included on King of the Delta Blues Singers, a compilation album of some of Johnson's songs released in 1961 during the American folk music revival.
Over the years, several bluesmen have recorded versions of the song, usually as ensemble pieces with electrified guitars. Elmore James' recordings in 1954 and 1960–1961 have been identified as perhaps the most significant of the earlier renditions. In the late 1960s, guitarist Eric Clapton and the British rock group Cream popularized the song as "Crossroads". Their blues rock interpretation became one of their best-known songs and inspired many cover versions.
Both Johnson and Cream's recordings of the song have received accolades from various organizations and publications. Both have also led the song to be identified as a blues standard as well as an important piece in the repertoires of blues-inspired rock musicians. Clapton continues to be associated with the song and has used the name for the drug treatment center he founded and the series of music festivals to raise money for it.
Recording
In October 1936, Johnson auditioned for the talent scout H. C. Speir in Jackson, Mississippi. Speir recommended Johnson to Ernie Oertle, then a representative for ARC Records. After a second audition, Oertle arranged for Johnson to travel to San Antonio for a recording session. Johnson recorded 22 songs for ARC over three days from November 23 to 27, 1936. During the first session, he recorded his most commercially appealing songs. They mostly represented his original pieces and reflected current, piano-influenced musical trends. The songs include "Terraplane Blues" (his first single and most popular record) along with "Sweet Home Chicago" and "I Believe I'll Dust My Broom", which became blues standards after others recorded them.
A second and third recording date took place in San Antonio after a two-day break. Johnson reached back into his long-standing repertoire for songs to record. The material reflects the styles of country blues performers Charley Patton and Son House, who influenced Johnson in his youth and are among Johnson's most heartfelt and forceful.
"Cross Road Blues" was recorded on Friday, November 27, 1936, during Johnson's third session in San Antonio. The recordings continued at an improvised studio in Room 414 at the Gunter Hotel. ARC producer Don Law supervised the recording, but it is unknown what input, if any, he had into Johnson's selection of material to record or how to present it. Two somewhat similar takes of the song were recorded.
Lyrics and interpretation
A crossroads or an intersection of rural roads is one of the few landmarks in the Mississippi Delta, a flat featureless plain between the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers. It is part of the local iconography and several businesses use the name, such as gas stations, banks, and retail shops. A crossroads is also where cars are more likely to slow down or stop, thus presenting the best opportunity for a hitchhiker. In the simplest reading, Johnson describes his grief at being unable to catch a ride at an intersection before the sun sets. Many see different levels of meaning, and some have attached a supernatural significance to the song.
Both versions of the song open with the protagonist kneeling at a crossroads to ask God's mercy; the second section tells of his failed attempts to hitch a ride. In the third and fourth sections, he expresses apprehension at being stranded as darkness approaches and asks that his friend Willie Brown be advised that "I'm sinkin' down". The first take of the song, which was used for the single, includes a fifth verse that is not included in the second take. In it he laments not having a "sweet woman" in his distress.
According to authors Bruce Conforth and Gayle Dean Wardlow, "many blues fans and even some scholars [have attempted] to link this song to some Satanic or Faustian bargain", as an explanation for how quickly Johnson progressed from being an average musician to an accomplished one. Folklore of the southern United States identifies a crossroads or graveyard as the site of a pact with the Devil, which music writer Elijah Wald identifies as a likely source of the myth. Another source may be Delta bluesman Tommy Johnson (no relation to Robert), who promoted himself as having made a deal with the Devil. Wald writes:
Although "Cross Road Blues" does not contain any references to Satan or a Faustian bargain, Robert Johnson later recorded two songs that include such themes: "Hellhound on My Trail" tells of trying to stay ahead of the demon hound that is pursuing him and in "Me and the Devil Blues" he sings, "Early this mornin' when you knocked upon my door, and I said 'Hello Satan I believe it's time to go. These songs contribute to the Faustian myth, but how much Johnson promoted the idea is debated. Music historian Ted Gioia believes that the use of satanic themes and imagery generated much needed publicity for blues musicians who were struggling through the Great Depression.
Blues historian Samuel Charters sees the song as having elements of protest and social commentary. The second verse includes "the sun goin' down now boy, dark gon' catch me here", a reference to the "sundown laws" or curfew during racial segregation in the United States. Johnson, as an African American, may be expressing a real fear of loitering charges or even lynching. Others suggest that the song is about a deeper and more personal loneliness. Writers Barry Lee Pearson and Bill McCulloch feel that the fifth verse in the single version captures the essence of the song: "left alone, abandoned, or mistreated, he stands at the crossroad, looking this way or that for his woman".
Composition
"Cross Road Blues" reflects Johnson's Delta blues roots and may have been in his repertoire since 1932. It is the first recording to show his mastery of his mentor Son House's style, particularly in his slide guitar work. Music historian Edward Komara identifies parts of "Straight Alky Blues" by Leroy Carr and Scrapper Blackwell (1929) along with Roosevelt Sykes' subsequent adaptation as "Black River Blues" (1930) as melodic precedents. Johnson infuses their relaxed urban approach with a more forceful rural one. Komara terms Johnson's guitar playing a "blues harp style". It contrasts with Johnson's finger-picking "piano style", which uses a boogie-style accompaniment on the bass strings while incorporating melody and harmony on the higher strings. Harp-style playing employs percussive accents on the bass strings (an imitation of the sharp draw used by harmonica players) and allows Johnson to explore different chord voicings and fills. Johnson uses this technique for "Terraplane Blues", which shares many elements in common with "Cross Road Blues".
The song's structure differs from a well-defined twelve-bar blues. The verses are not consistent and range from fourteen to fifteen bars in length. The harmonic progression is often implied rather than stated (full IV and
V chords are not used). Johnson uses a Spanish or open G tuning with the guitar tuned to the key of B. This facilitates his use of slide guitar, which is as prominent in the song as the vocal. The slide parts function more as an "answer" to the vocal than as accompaniment, the tension underscoring the dark turmoil of the lyrics. Charters characterizes the song's rhythm as ambiguous, imparting both a and feel. Music writer Dave Headlam elaborates on Johnson's rhythm:
The two takes of the song are performed at moderate, but somewhat different tempos. Both begin slowly and speed up; the first is about 106 beats per minute (bpm); the second is about 96 bpm. Johnson prepares to go into the fifth section for the slower second take, but the engineer apparently cut him off because of the time limits of ten-inch 78 rpm records. Along with the slower tempo, Johnson sings the verses at a lower pitch, although both takes are in the same key. This allows for greater variation and nuance in the vocal. Together with refinements to some guitar parts, the differences serve to help further distinguish the second take from "Terraplane Blues" and give it more of its own character.
Releases
ARC and Vocalion Records issued the first take of "Cross Road Blues" in May 1937 on the then standard 78 rpm record. With the flip side "Ramblin' on My Mind", it was the third of eleven singles released during Johnson's lifetime. Vocalion's budget labels Perfect Records and Romeo Records also released the single for sale by dime stores. Although sales figures are not available, the record was "widely heard in the Delta", and Johnson's tunes were found in jukeboxes in the region.
As with most of Johnson's recordings, the single version of "Cross Road Blues" remained out of print after its initial release until The Complete Recordings box set in 1990. The second take was released in 1961, in the later days of the American folk music revival. Producer Frank Driggs substituted it for the original on Johnson's first long-playing record album compilation King of the Delta Blues Singers. This take was also included on the 1990 Complete Recordings (at 2:29, it is 10 seconds shorter than the original 2:39 single version). King of the Delta Blues Singers sold around 12,000 copies; The Complete Recordings sold over one million and received a Grammy Award for Best Historical Album in 1991.
Elmore James versions
American blues singer and guitarist Elmore James, who popularized Robert Johnson's "Dust My Broom", recorded two variations on "Cross Road Blues". Author James Perone describes James' adaptation as "perhaps the most substantial post-Johnson recording [of a Johnson song] before the 1960s". Both titled "Standing at the Crossroads", they feature James' trademark "Dust My Broom" amplified slide-guitar figure and a backing ensemble; the lyrics focus on the lost-love aspect of the song:
James first recorded the song in August 1954 at Modern Records' new studio in Culver City, California. Maxwell Davis supervised the session and a group of professional studio musicians provided the backup. The song was produced in a newer style that Modern used successfully for B.B. King, and James' slide guitar was placed further back in the mix. Flair Records, another of the Bihari brothers' Modern labels, released the single, backed with "Sunny Land". The song became a regional hit, but did not reach the national charts. Releases associated with Modern included "Standing at the Crossroads" on several James compilation albums, such as Blues After Hours (Crown), The Blues in My Heart – The Rhythm in My Soul (Custom Records), and Original Folk Blues (Kent Records).
In 1959, producer Bobby Robinson signed James to his Fury/Fire/Enjoy group of labels. Along with new material, Robinson had James revisit several of his older songs, including "Standing at the Crossroads". James re-recorded it at Beltone Studios in New York City in late 1960 or early 1961 during one of his last sessions. Studio musicians again provided the backup and the horn section included baritone saxophone by Paul Williams. Bell Records' subsidiary labels released the song after James' death in 1965Flashback Records released a single with a reissue of "The Sky Is Crying" and Sphere Sound Records included it on a James compilation album also titled The Sky Is Crying. Both the 1954 and 1960–1961 versions appear on later James compilations, such as Elmore James: The Classic Early Records 1951–1956 (1993, Virgin America/Flair) and Elmore James: King of the Slide Guitar (1992, Capricorn).
Eric Clapton/Cream interpretation
Background
In early 1966, while still with John Mayall's Bluesbreakers, Eric Clapton adapted the song for a recording session with an ad hoc studio group, dubbed Eric Clapton and the Powerhouse. Elektra Records producer Joe Boyd brought together Steve Winwood on vocals, Clapton on guitar, Jack Bruce on bass guitar, Paul Jones on harmonica, Ben Palmer on piano, and Pete York on drums for the project. Boyd recalled that he and Clapton reviewed potential songs; Clapton wanted to record Albert King's "Crosscut Saw", but Boyd preferred to adapt an older country blues. Their attention turned to Robert Johnson songs and Boyd proposed "Crossroads", though Clapton favored "Traveling Riverside Blues". For the recording, Clapton developed an arrangement that drew on both songs.
Biographer Michael Schumacher describes the Powerhouse's performance as slower and more blues-based than Cream's. Elektra released the 2:32 recording, titled "Crossroads", on the compilation album What's Shakin' in June 1966. The song was later included on The Finer Things, a 1995 box set spanning Winwood's career. After the Powerhouse session, Clapton continued playing with Mayall. Author Marc Roberty lists "Crossroads" in a typical set for the Bluesbreakers in the earlier part of 1966.
Cream version
"Crossroads" became a part of Cream's repertoire when Clapton began performing with Jack Bruce and Ginger Baker in July 1966. Their version features a prominent guitar riff with hard-driving, upbeat instrumental backing and soloing. Clapton previously recorded "Ramblin' on My Mind" with Mayall and "From Four Until Late" with Cream using arrangements that followed Johnson's original songs more closely. He envisioned "Crossroads" as a rock song:
Clapton simplifies Johnson's guitar line and sets it to a straight eighth-note or rock rhythm. He and Bruce on bass continuously emphasize the riff throughout the song to give it a strong and regular metric drive combined with Baker's drumming. Johnson's irregular measures are also standardized to typical twelve-bar sections in which the I–IV–V blues progression is clearly stated. Clapton does not adapt Johnson's slide guitar technique or open tuning; instead he follows the electric guitar soloing approach of B.B. King and Albert King. He also employs a Johnson guitar innovation, the duple shuffle pattern or boogie bass line, while singing (Johnson only used it for two bars in "Cross Road Blues").
Clapton also simplifies and standardizes Johnson's vocal lines. Schumacher calls Clapton's vocal on "Crossroads" his best and most assured with Cream. As well as using Johnson's opening and closing lyrics, he twice adds the same section from "Traveling Riverside Blues":
During the instrumental break, Cream takes an improvisational approach characteristic of their later live performances. Bruce's bass lines blend rhythm and harmony, and Baker adds fills and more complex techniques typical of drummers in jazz trios. The momentum is never allowed to dissipate and is constantly reinforced. Cash Box called it "a new winner" for Cream and added "the blazing instrumental break gives this track a luster which will bring home the sales".
Clapton's appraisal
Clapton's guitar solo is praised by critics and fans, but in interviews, he expressed reservations about his performance. In 1985, he explained:
In 2004, he repeated his problem with finding the beat and added:
Recording and releases
Cream recorded the song on November 28, 1966, for broadcast on the BBC Guitar Club radio program. At under two minutes in length, it was released in 2003 on BBC Sessions. On March 10, 1968, Cream recorded it again during a concert at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco. The song became the opening number on the live half of Cream's Wheels of Fire double album, released in August 1968 by Polydor Records in the UK and Atco Records in the US. After the group's breakup, Atco issued the song as a single in January 1969, which reached number 28 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and 17 on Cashbox. Both the original album and single credit the songwriter as Robert Johnson or R. Johnson, although Clapton and Cream extensively reworked the song.
Cream played "Crossroads" during their final concert at the Royal Albert Hall on November 26, 1968. The expanded version of Cream's Farewell Concert film released in 1977 contains the performance. During their 2005 reunion, Cream revisited the song at the Royal Albert Hall and it is included on the Royal Albert Hall London May 2-3-5-6, 2005 album and video. After Cream's breakup in 1968, Clapton continued to perform "Crossroads" in a variety of settings, although in a more relaxed, understated style. Live recordings appear on Live at the Fillmore (with Derek and the Dominos), Crossroads 2: Live in the Seventies, The Secret Policeman's Other Ball (with Jeff Beck).
Possible editing on album version
Clapton biographer Schumacher writes: "Given the passion of the solo performances on 'Crossroads,' it seems almost miraculous that Cream is able to return to the song itself." Several music writers have explained that Cream's recording for Wheels of Fire was edited from a much longer performance that was typical for the trioin the notes for Clapton's Crossroads box set, Anthony DeCurtis credits the trimming to engineer Tom Dowd, but critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine attributes the editing to producer Felix Pappalardi, who "cut together the best bits of a winding improvisation to a tight four minutes", to allow the song's drive more continuity.
When asked if the recording had been edited, Clapton replied: "I can't remember... I wouldn't be at all surprised if we weren't lost at that point in the song, because that used to happen a lot." Barry Levenson, who produced Cream's 1997 box set Those Were the Days, commented:
Recognition and influence
In 1986, Robert Johnson's "Cross Road Blues" was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame in the "Classic of Blues RecordingSingle or Album Track" category. Writing for the foundation, Jim O'Neal said that "Regardless of mythology and rock 'n' roll renditions, Johnson's record was indeed a powerful one, a song that would stand the test of time on its own." In 1998, it received a Grammy Hall of Fame Award to acknowledge its quality and place in recording history. Rolling Stone magazine ranked "Cross Road Blues" at number 481 on its 2021 list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time". In 1995, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame listed both Johnson and Cream's renditions on its unranked list of the "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll". Rolling Stone placed Cream's version at number three on its 2003 list of "Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time".
Other versions and appearances
Several musicians have recorded renditions of "Cross Road Blues", usually using the title "Crossroads". In 1950, Texas Alexander recorded the song for Freedom Records and it became his last single. The choice shows continued interest in Johnson's song well after the original 1937 release. A review in Living Blues includes: "Texas Alexander rushes the beat so determinably on the Delta standby 'Cross Roads', it can't help but make you smile." Alexander provided the vocal, with accompaniment by backing guitarist Leon Benton and pianist Buster Pickens, who are listed as "Benton's Busy Bees".
Homesick James, who recorded and toured with his cousin Elmore James, recorded a rendition on July 23, 1963. Homesick derived his guitar style from Elmore, which music critic Bill Dahl calls "aggressive, sometimes chaotic slide work". Unlike Elmore, Homesick based the lyrics on Johnson's originals. The recording session produced his only single for Chicago-based USA Records, "Crossroads" backed with "My Baby's Sweet". Author Colin Larkin describes it as Homesick's "most famous track... Its pounding rhythms and heavily amplified bottle-neck made it a landmark in city blues".
Besides being a blues standard, "Crossroads" is popular among blues rock artists. In the band's early days, Lynyrd Skynyrd performed the song in concert as an encore before replacing it with "Free Bird". A live version is included on the 1976 album One More from the Road. The group follows Cream's arrangement, and it recalls their formative Southern rock sound. In 2004, Canadian rock group Rush recorded the song for Feedback, an EP of cover songs. Thom Jurek writes in an AllMusic review: "a romper-stomper wailing performance... [guitarist Alex] Lifeson leaves Eric what's-his-name in the dust [and bassist Geddy Lee in] his moment of glory in this cut tears the roof off the song". Rush also participated in an all-star jam of "Crossroads" at the 2013 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony. Some of the other jam participants include Chuck D, Darryl DMC, Gary Clark Jr., John Fogerty, Ann Wilson, Nancy Wilson, Dave Grohl, Taylor Hawkins, Tom Morello, and Chris Cornell.
The song has also been used in advertising. Author Greil Marcus identifies two major appearances that used rock-style versions by unidentified performers: in 1997, American brewer Anheuser-Busch used it during the launch of "Cross Roads Beer"; and Toyota's 2000 "Crossroads of American Values" automobile promotions used a version in ads run on the American "Big Three" television networks. According to Marcus, the jovial and celebratory settings portrayed in the advertising are incongruous with Johnson's lyrics. Years after he first recorded the song, Clapton made use of the name for the Crossroads Centre, a drug rehabilitation facility he founded, and for the Crossroads Guitar Festivals to raise money for the facility.
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Audio of Johnson's first take (1937 single) with video cartoon and added sound effects on Vevo (official)
Hall of Fame Inductee Super Jam"Crossroads" Live in 2013 video
Partial list of versions at Secondhandsongs.com
1936 songs
1937 singles
Robert Johnson songs
Blues songs
Songs written by Robert Johnson
Songs about roads
1950 singles
1954 singles
1965 singles
Elmore James songs
1963 singles
1969 singles
Cream (band) songs
Song recordings produced by Felix Pappalardi
Lynyrd Skynyrd songs
Rush (band) songs
Atco Records singles
Polydor Records singles
Vocalion Records singles
Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients
Song recordings produced by Don Law
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasile%20Pogor
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Vasile Pogor
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Vasile V. Pogor (Francized Basile Pogor; August 20, 1833 – March 20, 1906) was a Moldavian, later Romanian poet, philosopher, translator and liberal conservative politician, one of the founders of Junimea literary society. Raised in the aristocratic circle of Iași, and educated in the French Empire, he had a career in law. He was a civil servant during the United Principalities regime, held seats and commissions in the Assembly of Deputies, and, after the proclamation of the Kingdom of Romania, was Mayor of Iași City. Although he had a major role in creating the Conservative Party, by fusing together the various "White" political clubs and Masonic Lodges, Pogor was more loyal to the Junimist inner faction, and stood by it when it split with the other Conservatives.
An irreligious evolutionist, and taking an interest in Buddhist studies, Pogor represented the Positivist cell at Junimea. He was also one of the first locals to study the work of Henry Thomas Buckle, integrating Bucklean concepts into Junimeas critique of nation building. He supported Romania's Westernization within a conservative framework, tempering nationalist presumptions and valuing a culturally pluralistic society. The notoriously indolent and improvident Pogor had a preference for orality, and was sought after for his Voltairian wit. He left few written works, and many unfulfilled projects, but influenced Romanian literature as a cultural promoter, sponsor, and the first local expert on Charles Baudelaire. He was known to his Junimea colleagues as a one-man "contemporary library".
Pogor's final decades were spent away from the national scene, although he still took on assignments in the Conservative and Junimist chapters of Iași County. Casa Pogor, his main residence, is closely associated with Junimist history. Although sold by its debt-stricken owner in 1901, it was revived in the 1970s as a literary history museum, theater venue and concert hall. Married to the Russian aristocrat Elena Hartingh, Pogor left an illegitimate son, Vasile Panopol.
Biography
Origins and childhood
According to various accounts, the Pogors were a clan of yeomen from the eponymous Pogorăști, raised into boyar nobility ca. 1820. The family's own pedigree claimed otherwise, namely that its members had been "enjoying native privileges" since ancient times. On the basis of such claims, Vasile Pogor Sr had a steady climb through the Moldavian civilian and military bureaucracy: he began his career as a Serdar (1819), before being made a Comis for life. During his 1816–1823 mission into the Bessarabian Governorate, Russian Empire, Pogor kidnapped Zoița Cerchez, granddaughter of a local Clucer. From this marriage, he had three daughters—Antonia, Eleonora, Smaranda—and a son, the future poet. By the time of his birth, the family owned large boyar estates in both Vaslui County (including Buhăiești and Râșești) and Bessarabia.
As a political poet in the Age of Revolution, Comis Pogor looked back with disgust on the late Phanariote period and the Eterist invasion, satirizing the ambitions of Greek immigrants to Moldavia. In the late 1830s, he would be equally opposed to the Moldavian status quo, criticizing the heavy-handed Moldavian sovereign Mihail Sturdza. His rhyming pamphlets envisaged equality before the law, their author having signed up to the "Confederative Conspiracy", planned by Moldavia's proto-liberal boyardom. He still held several high political-judicial offices in the last quarter of Sturdza, including the Agie and the Justice Department chairmanship.
Pogor Sr's worldview also owed much to his familiarity with French literature. He corresponded with Chateaubriand, wishing to publish his poetry in a Moldavian edition, but is probably best known as Voltaire's first Romanian-language translator. His version of the Henriade was published in neighboring Wallachia by the liberal intellectual Ion Heliade Rădulescu. It and other translations by the Comis (Zaïre, Désastre de Lisbonne) may prove that Pogor the younger was already familiar with Voltaire and Voltarianism from early childhood.
Born in Iași, the Moldavian capital, Vasile Jr was selected for the most modern forms of education available to Moldavians living in the 1840s. He first attended the liberal arts' school of Frenchman Malgoverné, and, in addition to discovering an interest in literature, became a skilled amateur draftsman. In October 1849, young Pogor took the stagecoach ride to Kraków, and then the train to Paris, accompanied by the boyar heirs Heraclide, Porfiriu, Miclescu and Teodor Veisa, and chaperoned by Malgoverné himself. The scene of their departure from Iași is preserved in a sketch drawing by Veisa, which shows the enthusiastic adolescents leaning out the carriage doors.
French and German education
Pogor completed his education in France. He is widely seen as formed by French education, but, according to cultural sociologist Zigu Ornea, this is only part of the story: Pogor did not graduate from a lycée, but was actually trained at a Germanophone boarding school; was not introduced to Bonapartism, but to "the ideological principles of Restoration". As argued by author Gheorghe Manolache, Pogor was one of those who saw French culture as "speculative", and sought to amend its influence with German or Anglophone borrowings. In late 1851, he took an extended study trip through the German Confederation, in lieu of service in the Moldavian military forces. The Moldavian state granted him dispensation, and awarded him the rank of Cadet.
Pogor was subsequently enlisted at the University of Paris Law School, where he took his doctorate in law. His contact with the Parisian salons was of major formative importance: he was an avid reader and, as literary historian Tudor Vianu notes, "always open to new things, ready to defeat prejudice", if rather indiscriminate. Pogor's one constant was the study of the classics: he reread Homer's Iliad and Odyssey once every year. His other known pursuits were non-academic. Pogor discovered comédie en vaudeville theater, kept company with mature women, and began fantasizing about writing his own novels and short stories.
The Pogors enjoyed high political profiles during and after the Crimean War, when the Moldavian and Wallachian principalities became a condominium of the Great Powers. Before his death in 1857, Pogor Sr was head of the appellate court (Divanul de apel, later Curtea de apel), and one of the boyars tasked with welcoming in the foreign overseers. Upon his return to Moldavia, the young lawyer became sole owner of a palatial residence, Casa Pogor, built by his father in 1850, on land previously owned by the Cerchez and Coroi boyars. He also took assignments in the judicial apparatus. He was a judge in Iași from 1857 to 1858, and a member of the appellate court after March 1859. Although cutting the figure of an eccentric among the stern bureaucrats, he managed to impress Costache Negruzzi, his hierarchical superior and celebrated novelist. In his account, Pogor displayed "something rare in our folk": "a great feeling for justice".
The Pogors still maintained close links with the areas on the other side of the Prut River: Antonia Pogor became the wife of Bessarabian boyar Dumitru Bantîș. When he married the Bessarabian heiress Elena Hartingh, Vasile established a connection with Russian nobility. His father-in-law was a Karl "Scarlat" Hartingh (or Garting), owner of an estate in Pohrebeni. Elena's grandfather was Ivan Markovich Garting, an ethnic Finn who had served as Bessarabian Governor; her grandmother, "Elenco" Hartinga, was closely related to the high-ranking boyardom of Moldavia.
Junimea creation
From early 1859, Moldavia and Wallachia formed a single Romanian state, known as the "United Principalities" and ruled upon by Domnitor Alexandru Ioan Cuza. Still employed by the Moldavian appellate court under Cuza's regime, Pogor objected to the fiscal policies of Premier Nicolae Crețulescu, and resigned in September 1863, shortly followed by his colleague Alexandru Papadopol-Calimah. By then, he had resumed his literary projects. The first achievement of Pogor's work as a translator was his retelling of Goethe's Faust I, with Nicolai Skelitti as co-author, saw print in 1862. Samples of his own poetry were published by the pro-Cuza magazine Din Moldova, whose editor was a future enemy, the Romantic novelist and scholar Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu. In early 1863, Pogor split with the pro-Cuza camp, attempting to lead tax resistance in Moldavia; this resulted in him being stripped of his government job.
The United Principalities era saw Pogor's activity blending into the cultural projects of Junimea literary society. Founded in stages ca. 1863, that club was originally focused on literary debates and popular education. Its founders were five young graduates, all but one of them boyars. Pogor and Theodor Rosetti were French-trained; Petre P. Carp and Iacob Negruzzi (Costache's son) had studied in the German Confederation. The fifth was Titu Maiorescu, an upper-middle-class intellectual trained in both French and German schools, generally seen as the leading voice of Junimism, the cultural and political concept.
Little is known about the first years of Junimism. The five founders left only a handful of notes on the subject, and discouraged others from investigating the topic. Pogor himself mystified on the subject: he laughed off the historiographic attempts and, playfully reusing a literary cliché, informed newer members of the club that "Junimeas origin is lost in the mist of time". His version of events subverted other accounts, including the vague memoirs of Iacob Negruzzi. Pogor thus claimed that Junimea existed in large part because of him. In Pogor's account, the first manifestation of what would become Junimea was a study group comprising himself, Skelitti, Papadopol-Calimah, Theodor Aslan, Iorgu Gane, Ioan Ianov, and some other prominent Iași intellectuals; to the irritation of other Junimists, he constantly backdated Junimeas existence to 1862. His account is not validated by the written records, and other sources (themselves scanty) suggest that, although invited by Maiorescu, Pogor did not in fact attend the so-called "first Junimea meeting" (February 9, 1864).
Pogor was nonetheless present at other (possibly earlier) gatherings, which gave a more formal status to the reunions. In his half-mythical narrative of events, presented at later Junimea banquets, Pogor insisted that the first day of Junimism was a Friday (vineri), and that, as such, the club was under the divine patronage of Venus. Based on the available reconstructions of events, the club's name seems to have been selected by Rosetti, and ceremoniously validated by Pogor—whom the other founders already recognized as their enfant terrible. The resulting society had little in the way of a published program, but the generic lines, including efforts to rationalize the spelling of Romanian and to provide affordable education, survive in one of I. Negruzzi's letters.
Pogor's large townhouse is popularly understood as the Junimea headquarters, but, at least initially, the club also met at Maiorescu's place, and occasionally at Negruzzi's. Indirectly, the young boyar helped found the club's own printing press, which was donated to Maiorescu by Pogor's Bessarabian cousin, the philanthropist Nicolae Ștefan Casso, and, after 1867, the literary sheet Convorbiri Literare. The latter's mailing address was Casa Pogor. Pogor himself managed the publishing firm, but did a notoriously poor job. Described by Ornea as "a man for all the hasty projects" and as an "absent-minded" individual, Pogor ran heavy debts and frequently changed managers (Ioan Mire Melik, Al. Farra etc.). The Junimist publishing house was barely keeping afloat once Pogor took money out of the budget to create a book store—one of such niche appeal as to make Pogor the only buyer of his books.
Provocateur, anthologist, lecturer
At Junimea, Pogor was a picturesque figure. Ornea suggests that, despite being a respectable boyar and the oldest among the founders, Pogor was also the most "child-like" in his reactions. Witnesses recall that he was always amused by the literary works presented for analysis, laughing "till his new teeth jumped out of his mouth", and casually reclining on a sofa as the debates were taking place. Negruzzi recalled that, in defiance for "any social habit", Pogor left his guests unattended to read his books; he writes that, on first impression, Pogor appeared "cheeky and missing something upstairs". Moreover, Pogor embarrassed his friends with his obscene anecdotes, his name-calling, and his occasional outbursts, during which he would hurl his cape at them.
However, Pogor's lolling habit and thundering laughter soon became fashionable, and his yawning during the others' recitations was intentionally loud, provocative and contagious. He justified such heckling with the expression Entre qui veut, reste qui peut (French for "enters who wishes, stays on who can stand it"), later a Junimea motto. The slogan resonated with the caracudă ("small game") wing of Junimea—mostly passive youngsters who came in for entertainment, and who, Ornea notes, were "apparently immune to beauty and ignorant".
For all his unorthodox stances, Pogor was regarded by all his colleagues as a towering intellect, and referred to as "the contemporary library". The Junimist colleagues repeatedly noted that he was the man to bring in not just irreverence, but also genuine innovation. Vianu describes his "merciless gibes" as stemming from a conviction that the others were too uptight, and in general from a rejection of "dogmatism"; Pogor, he writes, would "embrace in turn all sorts of attitudes". Another scholar, Șerban Cioculescu, describes Pogor as by character "a free, unambitious, spirit, an epicurean of intelligence". Similarly, Ornea cautions: "If Maiorescu has conferred a consistent substance to Junimea, then Pogor gave it a pinch of salt, wit, humor and—an essential element—skepticism, that is to say a sense of relativity."
Encouraged by the other club members, Pogor became the anthologist of bad journalism and literature, scouring anti-Junimist periodicals and picking out the most amusing enormities and the most embarrassing platitudes. These he then pasted into his Dosar ("Dossier"), which is for most part a subtle political attack on the "Red" ideology of Romanian liberalism and Romantic nationalism. Ornea notes: "those who have discussed the Junimea Dossier as politics in disguise, practiced by a literary circle that had denied itself—under pain of sanction—any politically derived conversation, they were not at all in the wrong." Already in 1863, the Junimists had engaged in battle the literary representatives of Romanian liberalism, including Din Moldovas B. P. Hasdeu. The latter dedicated his activity as a journalist to deriding or condemning the Junimea group, Pogor included, accusing it of standing for values not complementary with the Romanian way: cosmopolitanism and Germanophilia, elitism and philosemitism.
While these debates gathered in notoriety, Pogor was also joining in the yearly cycle of Junimea conferences, or prelecțiuni. He, Maiorescu, and Carp were the core group of lecturers during the first age of the prelecțiuni. The subjects were broad and the inspiration spontaneous, but the speakers still followed Maiorescu's elaborate ceremonial, which reduced direct contact with the listeners. In 1864, Pogor discussed the French Revolution, and specifically its "impact on modern ideas". There was a break in the following year, with Maiorescu having been involved in a sex scandal, but the lecturers returned in 1866, when the common theme was "factors of national life throughout history". Pogor was also contributing to the Junimea who's who of Romanian poetry, selecting for reading pieces by the 18th-century boyar Ienăchiță Văcărescu. At the prelecțiuni, Pogor spoke about Ancient Greek art; in 1867, about Shakespearean tragedy; during later cycles, he discovered and introduced for the general public the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer. Still focused on national identity constructs and the philosophy of history, he promoted at Junimea the evolutionist treatise History of Civilization in England, by Henry Thomas Buckle.
Masonic conspirator and "White" organizer
Meanwhile, Pogor the politician was drawn into secretive, then conspiratorial, work. Pogor in Iași, and Carp in Bucharest, helped organize the February 1866 putsch against the authoritarian Cuza, and supported the interim government presided upon by both liberal "Reds" and conservative "Whites". On February 15, the Romanian Regency appointed Pogor Prefect of Iași County, and he was also a regional representative in the Assembly of Deputies (quickly elected for the drafting of a new constitution). On April 28, he was elected as one of its secretaries. For most of the year, he had a noted role in persuading his colleagues to accept bicameralism, and thus contributed to the establishment of the Senate of Romania. In March, he was also sent back to the appellate court, as section president, serving until January 1868. According to scholar George Călinescu, he began supplementing his revenue with "multiple and ephemeral" special commissions, including that of teacher certification examiner (October 1866).
Pogor was received into the Freemasonry (Oriental Rite of Memphis, Grand Orient de France) on March 14, 1866, and, only a year later, reached the 90th Masonic Degree. Within the divided Romanian Freemasonry, he sided with the Moldavian Lodge called "Star of Romania": he was the Orator under Venerable Master Iorgu Sutzu. Joined by most of the Junimist personalities, this institution would open up a new front against the "Reds", challenging their xenophobia and antisemitism. The Lodge opened its ranks to people of various backgrounds, including Romanian Jews, but was off-limits to the Moldavian liberals. The Lodge members, Pogor and Maiorescu included, set up and helped edit a "White" political sheet, Constituțiunea ("Constitution"), later Gazeta de Iassi. Initially, the paper joined the ranks of Moldavian regionalists, complaining about Iași's social, cultural, and demographic decline under Romanian rule; however, by March 30, Pogor and Maiorescu had also affiliated with the centralizing National Party, where they talked of finding other roles for the declining former capital. Against separatists such as Constantin Moruzi and the Free and Independent Faction, they sought a cemented union, proposing the selection of a foreign ruler from Romance-speaking Europe.
With the arrival on the throne of a German prince, Carol of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, the anti-Cuza coalition was again divided into competing factions. However, Ornea writes, just two Junimist leaders had openly engaged in party politics: "Petre Carp and—unbelievably so!—the freaky V. Pogor." This despite the fact that Iași's Masonic Lodge had become a junior wing of the "White" party, and was portrayed by the local "Red" polemicists as an anti-Christian fraternity. No longer committed to the principle of a "Latin" prince, Pogor openly supported the new Domnitor—he was one of 109 deputies (from a total 115) to ratify the April plebiscite. The "Star of Romania" Lodge invited Carol to join its ranks and become leader of the unified Freemasonry. Around 1867, against antisemitic agitation by the Free and Independent Faction, the Junimist core, Pogor included, signed up to a proposal for Jewish emancipation, meaning the Jewish minority's effective naturalization. Probably initiated by the "Star of Romania", their petition asked Domnitor Carol to "establish legal order" in front of "anarchy", noting that the liberals worked to "kidnap hundreds of Jews".
By 1869, Pogor and Carp had also rallied with the Society of Young Dynasticists, which conspired with dissident liberals such as Gheorghe Mârzescu to elect only monarchists into office—for instance, during 1869. The early 1870s transformed Junimea into a moderate conservative political movement, annexed to the "White" wing of the political spectrum. For Maiorescu, theirs was the cause of restoration and order in front of "Red" agitation (the Republic of Ploiești episode), but also adverse to the "arch-conservatives" who wanted a return of boyar privileges. Within this setting, Pogor found that his political status progressed quickly: from January 1869 to May 1870, he was president of the appellate court. Yet, as Tudor Vianu notes, he still treated political assignments "with a certain indifference."
At the beginning of that decade, "White" Premier Manolache Costache Epureanu opened his cabinet to Junimist experts, and Pogor was expected to take over a top administrative position. Carp, who negotiated the deal, vouched for Pogor's competence. Pogor resigned before the so-called "Hen and Fledgling" cabinet was even sworn in. Reportedly, he complained of dorsopathy, leaving Maiorescu worried that he had developed neurosyphilis. Pogor declared himself cured within a few days, announcing that he was ready to take over as Romania's Minister of Education. According to various sources, he actually held the office, if only briefly. His unexpected renunciation cleared the path for Maiorescu's own political ascent, moving him from a position in the background to the "Fledgling" Education portfolio.
Convorbiri Literare editor and 1871 mandate
Pogor still was a notable participant in polemics, taking Maiorescu's side. One such case was that of disputes between the Junimists and an ultra-"White" group headed by Epureanu. The latter wanted to institute an authoritarian regime favoring the upper class and favored some exotic policies—generalizing the death penalty or opening the country to massive German colonization. Probably wishing to maintain "White" unity, the Junimists, including Pogor, gave reluctant backing to the Epureanu program, and became targets for "Red" sarcasm, and were even chided by the dominant conservative club, that of Lascăr Catargiu. Pogor was also chairman of the Junimist "Society for Sending Young Romanians on Study Trips", noted for discovering and sponsoring the future atheistic philosopher Vasile Conta.
In parallel with his political chores, Pogor took up the task of translating some of Charles Baudelaire's Flowers of Evil. "Don Juan in Hell" and "Gipsies on the Road" were both published by Convorbiri in March 1870. Before this moment, Baudelaire's work had been entirely unknown to Romanians, and casually ignored by Maiorescu, who preferred German Romanticism. Later, Pogor published adapted samples from other modern French figures (Victor Hugo, Théophile Gautier, Leconte de Lisle, Sully Prudhomme, Jean Richepin) alternating them with classical works by Horace (Ode III.26, in 1871) and Virgil (Copa, in 1873). He and other Convorbiri Literare writers pioneered translations from American literature, most notably from the stories of Edgar Allan Poe. This was still just a fraction of Pogor's activity in the field. His papers reveal that he had also tried, but failed, to translate, among others, Rameau's Nephew by Diderot, Ludwig Uhland's "The Minstrel's Curse", and Volney's Les Ruines.
In addition to his translation projects, Convorbiri Literare hosted his original works, beginning with the autobiographical piece "A Marquise's Pastel" (September 1868). In January 1871, still independent of party politics, the journal was reorganized as a cultural monthly. Pogor was assigned to the editorial committee, a triumvirate also grouping Maiorescu and Negruzzi. He and Maiorescu resigned soon after, alleging that Negruzzi had failed to consult them about the editorial policy, possibly because of a polemical review inserted by Ștefan Vârgolici. This did not imply that they would cease to write for Convorbiri. Also that year, the magazine published a poem by Pogor's deceased father, newly discovered in the family archive. In October, when Junimea finally liquidated its publishing venture, Pogor was asked to take care of the debts and return the debit. Without Negruzzi's knowledge, the enterprise was purchased by the Jewish businessman Herșcu Goldner.
Meanwhile, Hasdeu's Columna lui Traian paper had made it its mission to host samples from Pogor's poetry, to show its readers how one was not supposed to versify. Hasdeu registered a moral victory when a short poem by an "M. I. Ellias" saw print in the July 15 issue of Convorbiri Literare. With Maiorescu in Bucharest, the piece had earned the approval of both Pogor and his younger rival, Mihai Eminescu. It was, in fact, a prank. Hasdeu had improvised the poem himself (calling it "a rhyming frivolity") so as to prove that Junimea writers lacked taste and patriotic feeling—"there is not a galimatias [...] that Convorbiri Literare won't rush in to grab and hold by its bosom, provided one essential condition is met: that it does not include anything Romanian."
During 1870, when Pogor and Maiorescu acted as autisde auditors for the festivities at Putna Monastery, they came into contact with both Eminescu and Ioan Slavici. Their selection of a festive speech, given by their colleague A. D. Xenopol, caused an uproar among more readical Romanian nationalists, who wished to boycott the event. The Junimist faction made its formal entry into Parliament after the 1871 election. As a result of these, the nation's Assembly of Deputies included five Junimist members, voting with the "White" group: Pogor, Maiorescu, Negruzzi, N. Gane, Gheorghe Racoviță. After the partial elections of 1874, they were joined by two others: Carp (previously serving Domnitor Carol as a diplomat) and Th. Rosetti. As noted by his contemporaries, Pogor, even though selected as Vice President of the Assembly, was not an asset for the Junimist faction. George Panu, the Junimea memoirist, noted that Pogor was an incompetent public speaker, rarely present at the rostrum. When he did address the Assembly, Pogor was unrecognizable and "embarrassing", turning "pale as a cadaver", his voice "shaking" with timidity.
Bucharest relocation and 1875 mandate
Pogor's own prolonged absences, like the political passions of other Junimist founders, were a cause for concern in Iași. Those who had stayed behind, Negruzzi included, complained that the club was dying out, with the reunions turning into glorified tea parties. As such, all the Junimea founders except Negruzzi were absent from the club's meeting on February 25, 1872. In the end, when Negruzzi also accepted a government job, the club was reestablished to the national capital, Bucharest. The small Iași section survived for a while as a caracudă hotspot, experiencing what Ornea called "a slow and embarrassing ending". Pogor paid the occasional visit and, according to caracudă leader Nicolae Gane, behaved with restraint ("against his nature"). This was the time of Pogor's polemics with Eminescu. The latter, a voice of national conservatism, and recognized by posterity as the Romanian national poet, read out his fantasy novella Sărmanul Dionis. As Junimea minutes will attest, Pogor and Maiorescu found the work to be all to cryptic, but still gave approval for its publishing. For a few months in 1874, Pogor allowed the penniless poet to lodge with him. Sources diverge on whether Eminescu lived at Casa Pogor or another one of the politician's townhouses, which has since been demolished.
By the close of his mandate in the Assembly, Pogor had involved himself in the Strousberg Affair dispute, suggesting (unsuccessfully) that ministers found guilty of misdeeds should have their revenue retained by the state. The Catargiu cabinet was facing a motion of no confidence over its stamp act proposal, with Pogor and Carp working to keep the two debates separate. He was again sent to the Assembly in the 1875 election, during which the "Red" opposition ran as a consolidated National Liberal Party (PNL). During this term, Pogor supported the establishment of a public railways authority, with compensation for other shareholders.
Despite the looming PNL threat, Pogor, who had also been reelected chairman of the Iași appellate court, and N. Gane were absentee deputies, and were probably convinced that the Catargiu cabinet was about to crumble. Maiorescu, the acting Minister of Education and proponent of an unpopular education reform, was perplexed by their decision: "Gane and Pogor should present themselves in Bucharest immediately [Maiorescu's italics]! Are we going to engage in politics or not? Is there any solidarity between those of you in Iași and me?" Their effective abandon contributed to Maiorescu's resignation in January 1876, then to the arrival in power of a PNL ministry, surprisingly headed by the formerly ultra-"White" Epureanu. In late June, as part of a "wave of liberal retributions", Pogor lost his government job, resigning "on the eve of they when they were meeting to have him sacked".
The Junimists were soundly defeated in the subsequent elections of July 1876. Pogor managed to preserve his seat in the new legislature, which voted on Romanian independence during the War of '77. He was thus involved in parliamentary discussions about the thorny issue of antisemitic discrimination favored by the PNL: in early 1878, he was one of the few deputies who questioned the law preventing Romanian Jews from trading in distilled beverages. Alongside Carp, Gane, and Maiorescu, he enlisted as a member of the reserve militia (or Civic Guard) in Iași, thus serving alongside some members of the Free and Independent Faction. Also in 1878, Pogor, who had been voted in as director of the Iași credit union, was elected to the City Council.
These were times of great disorder among the "Whites", who were hard pressed to come up with an answer to the PNL's success. In late 1877, it seemed that the "White" daily, Timpul, put out by Eminescu and Slavici, was about to go under, and Pogor was expected by his colleagues to help financially. Negruzzi was incensed, writing to Eminescu about Pogor's unresponsiveness: "He is not one to rely in for any sort of business. Nothing doing: Pogor is not one to snap out of his immobility and passivity, not for anything in this world." Pogor eventually joined up with the other Junimists in making peace with Catargiu, and in gathering funds for the newspaper—their assembly was the first step toward fusing together the major "White" factions. He agreed to contribute money for Eminescu and Slavici's wages, but asked for a receipt. Explaining his actions to Maiorescu, he noted: "You'd wish that in Romania, where all things float about like leaves on water, only Slavici and Eminescu be spared the sea tides and the waves of foam."
Conservative Party man, Buddhist scholar, and Iași Mayor
Pogor was again a prelecțiuni guest in 1875, by which time the younger Junimists (Xenopol, Vasile Burlă etc.) had taken over the task of popular education. Pogor and I. Negruzzi tacitly accepted their supremacy, and, like them, lectured on topics exclusively linked to the concept of national identity. Each speaker was to concentrate on one aspect of historical acculturation, from the Romanian contact with Byzantine Greeks to the reception of German influences, but the schedule was only partly respected. Pursuing his interest in Schopenhauer's work, Pogor discovered the Buddhist worldview. By the early 1880s, his study of Buddhist concepts had become more systematic: he read the scholarly works of Eugène Burnouf, then popularized Buddhist principles in a Convorbiri Literare series (1883–1884). With Maiorescu, and using German intermediaries, Pogor helped Romanians become acquainted with Classical Chinese poetry. While Maiorescu gave his touch to Zhuangzi, Pogor rendered an anonymous (and possibly irretrievable) piece, called "Lover Submitting". In tandem, he looked into Sanskrit literature, translating translations from Amaru.
On February 3, 1880, Pogor was one of 88 "White" spokesmen who signed the founding document of Romania's Conservative Party. The Kingdom of Romania, proclaimed in 1881, was thus effectively ruled by a two-party system. For three non-consecutive terms, Pogor was the Conservative and Junimist Mayor of Iași: February 10, 1880 to April 26, 1881; June 7, 1888 to June 7, 1890; May 30, 1892 to November 11, 1894. He entered history for his creative approach to the Romanianization measures, specifically those which required all shops to have Romanian-language signs. Although this resonated with the Junimist idea of standardizing the language, and even though the Moldavian retailers were on the verge of rebelling, Pogor is said to have had "great fun" dealing with the consequences. He proposed that all shops still carrying non-essential foreign words be taxed at three times the official rate.
Cultural history preserves his dialogue with a Jewish merchant, who told him that Romanian had no assimilated word for "liqueurs"; Pogor spontaneously approximated an equivalent, licheruri (or even its current form, lichioruri). Instead of the French term parfumerie ("perfume retailer"), he suggested parfumeraie or parfumăraie. Chaos followed, and the Romanianization campaign was abandoned. In the end, only one firm was touched the experiment, adopting the willingly absurd title of Șateaucs aucs fleurs—a macaronic rendition of the French Châteaux aux fleurs ("Flower Castles").
Pogor also took care of various other projects, ensuring that the city was compensated by the central government for having lost its status of state capital: 10 million lei entered the city budget (6 of which were compensation from the Romanian state), and 8 neighboring estates were merged into the metropolitan area. He moved the City Hall into Roznovanu Palace, ordering works to begin on the Iași National Theatre, public bathing facilities, ten primary schools, and a new Abattoir. Under Pogor, the streets of Iași were paved with macadam, gas lighting was extended, and sanitation works were started. Casa Pogor was the city's first electrically lit building. His mandates saw the erection of statues honoring the pioneer Moldavian historian Miron Costin (1888) and the Junimist poet Vasile Alecsandri (1890). From 1883, when Eminescu had fallen physically and mentally ill, Pogor also donated to his regular upkeep in a sanitarium.
Later assignments
Pogor was a factor in the rapprochement between the Maiorescu Junimists, who had again divorced the Catargiu Conservatives, and the moderate core of the PNL. Although Maiorescu himself rejected a ministerial appointment in the Ion Brătianu administration, he and the other self-styled "moderate conservatives" backed Brătianu's practical foreign policy. In February 1884, he promised that Pogor and other disgruntled Conservatives (Menelas Ghermani, Gheorghe Manu, Anastasie Triandafil etc.) would follow him in proclaiming conditional support for Brătianu. Maiorescu thus saved the government from a likely recall, and was embraced by an enthusiastic Brătianu while the Assembly looked on. The Junimist realignment gave the club a permanent representation at the epicenter of Romanian politics. Maiorescu received accolades from the cabinet and, in the November 1884 election, his men received nine seats in the Assembly, negotiated upon with the PNL, and three more for "independent" members; Pogor, Iacob Negruzzi, Ioan Mire Melik and Ioan Ianov were the Junimist deputies from Iași. As noted by Maiorescu, Pogor was somewhat harder to win over by the PNL's cartel: "Even Pogor, who had favored the reunified opposition, has grown tired of their parties and feels that he should stand with us".
The Junimists ambitions were frustrated by Brătianu only months after the election, when he still refused to include members of the club into his administration. Junimea reverted to independent politics, its conflict with the PNL exacerbated by a personal dispute between Maiorescu and National Liberal politico Eugeniu Stătescu. In December 1887, Pogor became a leading member of the Iași League of Resistance, which also included the former Factionalists such as Alecu D. Holban and Gheorghe Mârzescu. Pogor continued to suggest that Junimea should back the anti-PNL "United Opposition", betting Maiorescu that the latter would be called into power by the monarch. Maiorescu won: in early 1888, after a bloody incident in the Assembly sabotaged all communication between the two main parties, Carol appointed Th. Rosetti as Romanian Premier, and an all-Junimist cabinet was in power for just under a year. In September 1888, alongside Dimitrie Ghica-Comănești and Ilariu R. Isvoranu, Pogor negotiated an alliance with the mainline Conservatives, allowing Rosetti to secure his office.
In the election of October, Pogor did not rally with the Conservative–Junimist caucus, and joined the dissident Liberals of Dimitrie Brătianu, winning at ballotage for Iași County, Second College. He also continued to be listed as a Junimist, and took another seat in the race for the First College. Rosetti's cabinet was by then supported by the Conservatives, but fell when a Conservative deputy, Nicolae Moret Blaremberg, stirred political conflicts by proposing to indict the PNL's former governing team—such a project was regarded by Rosetti and the Junimists as entirely demagogic. Both Pogor and Maiorescu were also partly responsible for the PNL's return to power: they abstained form voting against the motion of no confidence which toppled Rosetti.
From 1889 to 1890, during the Junimists reestablishment as an independent party, and again after the 1891 election, Pogor was Vice President of the Assembly. As Panu recalls, he was making a mockery of this assignment: he doodled caricatures of his colleagues, pulled pranks on them "just like in school", and satirized parliamentary procedures with parody statements (such as "the motion has been defeated with a crushing minority"). In the early 1890s, he was firmly committed to the Conservative Party, and served on its Iași committee—alongside Holban, Ianov, A. C. Cuza, Nicolae Culianu, and Petru Th. Missir. Pogor was also drafted into the panel which negotiated an alliance with the Radical Party before the county elections of September 1895, and then into the nomination committee for the general election.
In December 1897, Pogor and his Junimist colleagues again withdrew from the Conservative caucus, only to return before the 1899 county election, in which Pogor and Missir stood as candidates. By November 1900, when the Conservatives and Junimists finally merged into one party, Pogor was again the chairman of the credit union. He also became a member of Iași's Conservative Party steering committee, involving himself in strategy planning ahead of the 1901 general election. Having poorly invested his own sizable fortune, he found himself pestered by his many creditors. One of his biographers, Liviu Papuc, noted that, overall, the first Junimist generation ran into financial trouble, and that Pogor ended his career on an "even score" with life. In 1901, he sold Casa Pogor to socialite Maria Moruzi. The Junimist co-founder died on March 20, 1906, at his other address—a vineyard in the Iași suburb of Bucium; according to his fellow Conservative Rudolf Șuțu, he "passed on among his family, placid and smiling, as he had lived". His tomb is located in Eternitatea cemetery.
Work
Anti-dogmatic Junimism and Parnassian poetry
Pogor's anti-dogmatism precluded his engagement on the more serious side of Junimism. When approving of Junimeas name, he staged a fake baptism, asking those present to pledge that they would "renounce pedantry". His philosophical dilettantism was still influential at Junimea: I. Negruzzi recalled that, during the club's sessions, Pogor systematically prevented historians and philologists from reporting on their concrete finds, and only listened to the generic conclusions. As Vianu notes, Pogor himself was virtually incapable of "choosing" between the many subjects that interested him at any one time. It is possible that Pogor is the author of an anonymous poem celebrating his own idleness and contrariness:
While the caracudă rejoiced, the club's more idealistic visitors were disturbed by Pogor's antics. On these grounds, Pogor fully supported only the most subversive and eccentric manifestations of Junimist literature. He was the only one in the group not to approve of poet laureate Vasile Alecsandri. Although he later helped build the Alecsandri monument, he once shouted out that Alecsandri had "a grocer's taste" in art. Instead, Pogor loved the work of peasant storyteller Ion Creangă, and, to the indignation of some other club members, encouraged him to read aloud from his erotic literature series, "the corrosives". Later, Pogor welcomed in and shed a spotlight on the cynical, streetwise, humorist Ion Luca Caragiale, who was a passing guest at Junimea. According to Șerban Cioculescu, Pogor differed from Eminescu in that he "freely enjoyed [Caragiale's] charming spontaneity and temperamental zigzags." Pogor's nonconformism could target even the group's doyen, Maiorescu. He coined the disparaging nickname Muierescu (from muiere, "broad", in reference to his colleague's alleged sexual misconduct).
His own work in poetry was reviewed with little sympathy by later critics and historians. They dismiss his original pieces as "anodyne" and not up to the test of time, although, as Rudolf Șuțu argues, they too helped engineer a literary language. Pogor was a Romanian Parnassian, reworking classical themes and seeking formal purity, and was especially influenced by Baudelaire and by Théophile Gautier. His verse includes an homage to Melencolia I, the famous engraving by Albrecht Dürer—similarly titled Melancolie. George Călinescu focuses his comments on the poem's atmospheric quality, noting that its "French structure" is exceptional in the Junimist context. The other Junimea bards, he suggests, still favored "accessible" poetry of the Young Germany kind. Beyond the Parnassian poems, Pogor applied his wit (or, as critic Cosmin Ciotloș calls it, "unbelievably malicious spirit") to the realm of parody. His joke poem, Vedenia ("The Apparition"), managed to impress rival Eminescu, who made the effort of transcribing it in his records of Junimea meetings.
Pogor's translation also produced mixed results. Scholar Dan Mănucă believes that the Romanian author found Baudelaire to be "more of a picturesque eccentric and, certainly, not at all a literary innovator"; for this reason, he only looked to Baudelaire's tamer writings, that excluded "scandal". Pogor's version of Hugo's "Conscience" made a positive impression, and was quoted by Grigore Pletosu in his propaedeutics to philosophy (1899). Pogor's other projects were often panned by experts. Classicist Nicolae Laslo sees Pogor's version of Horatian verse as mostly failed, "with lots of gaucheries and naivetes." The Pogor–Skelitti rendition of Goethe, although verified by the two Junimists through previous French versions (Gérard de Nerval, Henri Blaze), is also considered problematic. Germanist Corina Jiva indicates that they had only a vague understanding of the German words they translated into Romanian. Pogor may have been aware of the shortcomings, since, after Skelitti died, Convorbiri issued a second version of Faust I. It modified the first edition, and only credited one author: Pogor.
Pogor on religion and nationality
Vasile Pogor's roots were in Romanian Orthodoxy: his father was ktitor of the Misești Church. Pogor Jr was himself a student of Christian history, but his main focus was on Judaism, the Hebrew Bible, and the Christian Old Testament. He kept detailed notes on the minutiae of biblical lore, making notes about Gog and Magog, the Kinnor, the Purim etc. Albeit fascinated by Jewish and Buddhist practices, the poet was mainly a Freethinker, seen by Vianu as "of a Voltairian and Positivist extraction." The theories of Auguste Comte and positivist language in general were welcomed by Pogor and the other core Junimists even though, as Zigu Ornea notes, the leading exponents of Positivist discourse were secondary Junimists (Nicolae Xenopol, George Panu).
Pogor attacked religion as a lifeless institution, as seen in his poem Magnitudo parri, credited by some as his masterpiece. For Pogor, a swallow's effort to raise its offspring is more worthy of attention than the Byzantine church looming over its nest:
Historian Balázs Trencsényi argues that Vasile Pogor, like the other Junimist doyens, engineered "an epistemological break" with the predominating school of Romantic nationalism, as well as with the 18th-century philosophes, introducing instead Positivist and naturalistic approaches to social science. Taking his inspiration from Buckle, Pogor leaned toward environmental determinism as an explanation of historical processes. "Warmer" areas, he claimed, were predisposed to despotism, no matter how advanced there were materially. Trencsényi focuses on Pogor's proposal to separate the material and spiritual growth of a nation, thus contextualizing the Junimist critique of Romania's Westernization: "[Pogor's views] served as a critical perspective to judge societies which reached a certain level of socio-economic modernity without an overall mental adaptation to the Western patterns."
Although not explicitly extended to the Romanian paradigm, Pogor's introduction to Buckle formed an integral part of the Junimist discourse about nation building. As Ornea notes, Pogor struck the typical Junimist note with his critique of revolutionary doctrines, in pronouncements such as: "had politicians not been meddling in to prevent the natural flow of things, progress would have occurred at a quicker pace". Also according to Ornea, the study endures as both a relevant contribution to Junimism and a facet of Romanian philosophy in the 1870s. Trencsényi sees a direct link between the survival of "despotism" in post-modernization, as surveyed by Buckle and Pogor, and the Junimists rejection of Romania's top-to-bottom Westernization by the liberals. Pogor's vague critique is expanded upon by Th. Rosetti. Rosetti's essays postulate the unrelenting "primitivism" of Romanian society. The liberals stand accused of not having promoted a gradual, "authentic", modernization of Romanian institutions, and of having imposed their "hybrid forms" on the Romanian psyche.
Maiorescu himself suggested that Pogor's Bucklean discovery facilitated Junimisms transformation into a socio-political movement. Other such influences came from Schopenhauer, and from John Stuart Mill's Subjection of Women. Buckle influenced the main Junimist historical narratives, from Maiorescu's historical lectures to A. D. Xenopol's own History of Civilizations. Pogor's own belief, namely that Romania was essentially peripheral to European civilization, was not readily welcomed by the national conservative faction at Junimea. A glimpse of this is provided by a maverick Junimist, George Panu, as a purported clash between Pogor and the autochthonist Eminescu. According to Panu, Pogor openly ridiculed national historians: "What's all this about the history of the Romanians? Can't you see that we have no history? A people which has no literature, art, or past civilization—such a people is not worth the attention of historians... At a time when France could produce Molière and Racine the Romanians were in a state of utter barbarism." Eminescu retorted, promptly and (Panu notes) violently: "What you call barbarism, I call the settled wisdom of a people that develops in conformity with its own genius and shuns any mixing with foreigners" (alternatively translated as: "the wisdom of a nation, which progresses according to the rhythm of its own genius, away from any foreign interference").
Factual or merely symbolic, this showdown has been interpreted by later historians as a good introduction to the conflicting perspectives on Romanian nationhood. In 1997, scholar Lucian Boia suggested: "What we find summarized in these few lines is the great dilemma which has divided Romanian society for the last two centuries." Political scientist Ana Maria Dobre, who connects Pogor's supposed comments with Maiorescu's dismissal of early Romanian history as "oriental barbarism", introduces the Pogor–Eminescu exchange as "a profound dichotomy opposing the defenders of the traditional, specific national values of organization and the supporters of an unconditional modernisation and adaptation to the occidental model in order to depart from a rudimentary type of society."
Legacy
Visual portrayals of Pogor include a sketch by Eugen N. Ghika-Budești, first published in 1895. It shows the Junimist relaxing among lewd devadasis, "leaving behind him the boredom that is the Vice President's chair". A posthumous bust, the work of Iași sculptor Dan Covătaru, was also exhibited in the city. In literature, Eminescu's 1878 parody of the Odyssey, referencing a moment of Junimist crisis, portrays Pogor as "the swineherd Pogoros" (the club's own Eumaeus). In addition to his affectionate memoirs, Iacob Negruzzi also made Pogor the subject of an 1872 poem:
Pogor's work as poet and theorist was largely forgotten by later generations. This was noted by Junimea anthologist Eugen Lovinescu, who made the conscious effort of reviving the deterministic Parnassian, alongside other "minor Junimists", to evidence "what they still have that's viable." Pogor left one son, Vasile Panopol, a once-famous historiographer of Iași. Born out of wedlock, Panopol had a similar taste for pranks, and belonged to the infamous "black gang" of rebellious aristocrats. While the Pogor book collection was on sale, and divided, soon after its owner died, Casa Pogor survives as a major historical landmark of Iași. After the Moruzi purchase, it became the childhood home of Maria Moruzi's son by Ion I. C. Brătianu, the renowned historian Gheorghe I. Brătianu. The new owners made structural changes, and replaced the Pogor family monograms with Moruzi arms.
In the late 1930s, Brătianu rented Casa Pogor to the Iași's Royal Commissioner, and, during World War II, it was confiscated by Soviet representatives. With the advent of socialist realism, Pogor and Junimea were stricken out of the literary canon. In 1960, Dan Deșliu referred to Pogor as a "nonentity" whose writings reflected a "the aesthetic side of the conservative reaction". Two years later, Augustin Z. N. Pop investigated Pogor's indifference and "cynicism" when it came to Eminescu's material ruin. In this context, he spoke of Pogor as "Junimeas sarcastic eminence", with "witticisms as banal as they are foolish." Nationalized during the first decades of Communist Romania, his house was refurbished by the state only after 1968. It was ultimately created a museum in 1972 or 1973, and is a regional center of the Museum of Romanian Literature network (supervising other monuments, including, as of 1995, the Negruzzi Memorial House of Trifești). The main exhibit hall is mainly known for its Eminescu memorabilia, including the poet's death mask. Its tunnels and its halls have hosted art experiments, including an adaptation of Mircea Eliade's Domnișoara Christina (1999), an introduction to Senegalese music (2006), and a colloquium of the international avant-garde (2008).
Pogor has a following in the Romanian-speaking literary communities of Bessarabia, most of which is now the independent state of Moldova. During the period of Soviet rule in Bessarabia (the Moldavian SSR), references to Romanian cultural assets were usually shunned; this changed in the late 1980s, when Bessarabian cultural magazines were allowed to republish samples of classical Romanian literature. Nistru journal inaugurated the trend in 1988, choosing Pogor as the first contributor to revive. According to Moldovan essayist Maria Șleahtițchi: "Why the magazine's editors should have selected such a minor writer is the stuff of rhetorical questions."
Notes
References
Constantin Bacalbașa, Bucureștii de altădată. Vol. I: 1871 — 1884. Bucharest: Editura Ziarului Universul, 1935.
Gheorghe G. Bezviconi, Boierimea Moldovei dintre Prut și Nistru, Vol. II. Bucharest: National Institute of History, 1943.
George Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini pînă în prezent. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1986.
Șerban Cioculescu, Caragialiana. Bucharest: Editura Eminescu, 1974.
George D. Nicolescu, Parlamentul Romîn: 1866–1901. Biografii și portrete. Bucharest: I. V. Socecŭ, 1903.
Z. Ornea, Junimea și junimismul, Vol. I–II. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1998.
Augustin Z. N. Pop, Contribuții documentare la biografia lui Mihai Eminescu. Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1962.
Rudolf Șuțu, Iașii de odinioară, I. Iași: Tipografia Lumina Moldovei, 1923.
Balázs Trencsényi, "History and Character: Visions of National Peculiarity in the Romanian Political Discourse of the Nineteenth-century", in Diana Mishkova (ed.), We, the People: Politics of National Peculiarity in Southeastern Europe, pp. 139–178. Budapest & New York City: Central European University Press, 2009.
Tudor Vianu, Scriitori români, Vol. II. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1971.
A. D. Xenopol, Istoria partidelor politice în România. Bucharest: Albert Baer, 1910.
External links
Vasile Pogor profile at the Iași Museum of Literature site
1833 births
1906 deaths
19th-century philosophers
Philosophers of history
Romanian philosophers
Determinists
Positivists
Romanian classical scholars
19th-century Romanian historians
Romanian art historians
Romanian literary historians
Romanian historians of philosophy
Romanian orientalists
Buddhist studies scholars
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Burials at Eternitatea cemetery
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5018187
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20with%20surname%20Miller
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List of people with surname Miller
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Miller is a surname of English, Scottish and Irish origins. The name is of German origins when Miller is an anglicization of Müller (surname).
A–C
Aaron Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Adam Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Addie Dickman Miller (1859–1936), American college professor
Alan Gifford Miller (born 1969), American politician from New York
Alano Miller, American actor
Alexander Kennedy Miller (1906–1993), American eccentric recluse
Alexey Miller (born 1962), Russian energy executive officer
Alice Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Ally Miller (footballer)
Ally Miller (rugby union)
Alden H. Miller (1906–1965), American ornithologist
Amos Miller (c. 1865–1888), lynching victim
Amy Bess Miller (1912–2003), American historian, preservationist, and civic leader
Amy Miller (born 1980), Canadian filmmaker
Andre Miller (born 1976), American basketball player
Andrew Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Andy Miller (writer), British writer and editor
Ann Miller (1923–2004), American singer, dancer, and actress
Anthony Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Arjay Miller (1916–2017), president of Ford Motor Company
Arthur Miller (1915–2005), American playwright and essayist
Augustus S. Miller (1847–1905), Mayor of Providence, Rhode Island
Ben Miller, British Actor and Comedian
Benjamin Miller (born 1983), American figure skater
Benjamin K. Miller (judge), American judge
Bina West Miller (1867–1954), American businesswoman
Biscuit Miller (born 1961), American blues bassist, singer and songwriter
Bobbie Heine Miller (1909–2016), South African tennis player
Bode Miller (born 1977), American alpine skier
Bodil Miller (1928–2017), Danish actiress
Brad Miller (baseball), American Philadelphia Phillies infielder
Brian Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Brittney Miller (born 1974), American politician
Bryce Miller (baseball) (born 1998), American professional baseball pitcher
Buddy Miller (born 1952), American country singer
Burton Miller (1926–1982), American costume designer
Calvin Miller, Scottish footballer
Carey D. Miller (1895–1985), American food scientist
Carlos Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Casey Miller (1919–1997), American author
Casey Miller (KC Montero) (born 1978), Filipino-American radio DJ, VJ and host
Charles A. Miller (political scientist) (1937–2019), professor emeritus of politics and American studies Lake Forest College
Charles Darley Miller (1868–1951), at the 1908 Summer Olympics
Charles Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Cheryl Miller (activist) (1946–2003), American medical cannabis activist
Cheryl Miller (actress) (born 1943), American actress
Cheryl Miller (born 1964), American basketball player; sister of Reggie Miller
Christa Miller (born 1964), American actress
Christian Miller (American football) (born 1996), American football player
Christopher C. Miller (born 1965) former United States Secretary of Defense
Claudia S. Miller, author and immunologist
Coco Miller (born 1978), American basketball player; twin sister of Kelly Miller (below)
Cody Miller (born 1992), American swimmer
Cody Miller (Troy Montero) (born 1977), Filipino-American actor
Colby Miller (born 1980), American television personality
Colin Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Cole Miller (Born in 2007) American Football Player
D–F
Dan Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Daniel Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Danny Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Darius Miller (born 1990), American basketball player
Darrel R. Miller (1920-2010), American farmer and politician
Darren Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
David Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Dayton Miller (1866–1941), American physicist
Dean Miller (born 1965), American country music artist, son of Roger Miller
Dean Miller (athlete) (born 1989), English Paralympic athlete
Dennis Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Denny Miller (1934–2014), American actor
Derrick Miller, US Army Sergeant jailed for murder of Afghan civilian
Diana Miller (1902–1927), American actress
Donald Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Doris Miller (1919–1943), American sailor and war hero
Dorothy Canning Miller (1904–2003), American art curator
Dottie Leonard Miller, American business executive
Drew Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Dustin Miller, or D-Loc, American rapper
E. Spencer Miller (1817–1879), American Dean of the University of Pennsylvania Law School
Edmund King Miller (c. 1820 – 1911), Anglican headmaster and priest in South Australia
Edward Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Edwin E. Miller (died 1950), New York state senator
Elizabeth Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Eric Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Eve Miller (1923–1973), American actress
Evgenii Karlovich Miller (1867–1939), Russian general
Fishbait Miller (1909–1989), Doorkeeper of the United States House of Representatives
Flournoy E. Miller (1887–1971), American actor and composer
Frank Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Frank Stuart Miller (1927–2000), Canadian politician and Premier of Ontario
Frederick Douglas Miller (1874–1961), English photographer
G–J
Gabrielle Miller (born 1973), Canadian actress
Gabrielle Miller (Australian actress) (born 1986)
Gary Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Gene Miller (1928–2005), American journalist
Genevieve Cruz Miller, Meteorologist-in-Charge of the Weather Forecast Office of Guam
Geoffrey Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
George Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Gerrit Smith Miller Jr. (1869–1956), American zoologist
Gilbert Miller (1884–1969), American Broadway producer
Glenn Miller (1904–1944), American jazz musician
Gord Miller (sportscaster) (born 1964), Canadian television sportscaster
Gray H. Miller (born 1948), Senior United States District Judge for the Southern District of Texas
Greg Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people named Gregory or Greg Miller
H. B. Miller (politician) (1819–1889), politician in New York and Illinois
Hal Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Harold Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Harriet Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Harry Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Harvey Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Haynes Miller (born 1948), American mathematician
Heath Miller (born 1982), American football player
Henry Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Herb Miller (born 1997), American football player
Herman Miller (disambiguation), multiple people (1919–1999)
Hilary Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Hugh Miller (1802–1856), Scottish geologist
Ian Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Inger Miller (born 1972), American track and field athlete
J. C. P. Miller (1906–1981), English mathematician and computing pioneer
J. J. Miller (born 1933), Australian Jockey
J. R. Miller (James Russell Miller, 1840–1912), Christian author and pastor
J. T. Miller (born 1993), American ice hockey player
Jackson Miller (born 1967), American politician from Virginia
Jacques-Alain Miller (born 1944), French psychoanalyst
James Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Jan Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Jaroslav Miller (born 1971), Czech historian and university rector
Jarrell Miller (born 1988), American kickboxer and boxer
Jason Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Jeremy James Miller (born 1976), American television actor
Jerzy Miller (politician) (born 1952), Polish politician
Jess Miller (1884–1965), American politician from Wisconsin
Jimmy Miller (1942–1994), American record producer
Joaquin Miller (1837–1913), American poet, also known as Cincinnatus Heine Miller
Jodi Leigh Miller (born 1972), American bodybuilder
Jody Miller (1941–2022), American country singer
Joe Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Joel Miller, fictional protagonist of The Last of Us video game
John Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Johnny Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Jonathan Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Jonathan Miller (1934–2019), British television presenter, author, and neurologist
Jonny Lee Miller (born 1972), English actor
Jordan Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Joseph Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
José Miller (1925–2006), Cuban Jewish leader
Josh Miller (American football) (born 1970), American NFL football punter
Joshua Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Judah Miller (born 1973), American screenwriter
Judith Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
Julie Miller (born 1956), American country music singer
Julius Sumner Miller (1909–1987), American children's science television presenter
Justin Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, several people
K–M
Kae Miller (1910–1994), New Zealand conservationist and activist
Kari Miller (born 1977), American Paralympic volleyballist
Karlous Miller (born 1983), American comedian
Kate Miller-Heidke (born 1981), Australian singer-songwriter
Kathryn Bache Miller (1896–1979), American art collector and philanthropist
Kathryn Miller Haines, American novelist and actor
Kei Miller (born 1978), Jamaican poet
Keith Harvey Miller (1925–2019), governor of Alaska 1969–1970
Keith Miller (1919–2004), Australian cricketer
Kelly Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Ken Miller (gridiron football) (born 1941), American college football coach
Kendre Miller (born 2002), American football player
Kenneth Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Kenneth G. Miller (born 1956), American geologist
Kenneth R. Miller (born 1948), American biologist
Kenny Miller (born 1979), Scottish footballer
Keste Miller, Jamaican politician
Kolton Miller (born 1995), American football player
K'Andre Miller (born 2000), American ice hockey player
Lara Jill Miller (born 1967), American television/voice-over actress and lawyer
Larrissa Miller (born 1992), Australian gymnast
Larry H. Miller (1944–2009), American basketball franchise owner
Larry Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Laurence B. (Larry) Miller, American guitarist
Lawrence G. Miller (1936–2014), American politician from Connecticut
Leah Miller (born 1981), Canadian television personality
Lee Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Leon Parker Miller (1899–1980), American lawyer, politician, and judge
Leszek Miller (born 1946), Polish politician
Lewis Miller (philanthropist) (1829–1899), American inventor
Liam Miller (born 1981), Irish footballer
Lillian Miller (1897–1990), American television personality, also known as Miss Miller
Linda Lael Miller (born 1949), American romance novelist
Liz Miller (artist), American artist
Lois K. Miller (1945–1999), American geneticist and academic
Louise Miller (born 1960), English high jumper
Loye H. Miller (1874–1970), American paleontologist
Luke Miller (born 1966), British clergy, Church of England priest
Luke Miller (politician) (1815–1881), American businessman, physician, and politician
Mac Miller (1992–2018), stage name of American rapper and singer Malcolm James McCormick
Mack Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Madeline Miller (born 1978/1979), American novelist
Mandy Miller (born 1944), English child star
Marcus Miller (born 1959), American jazz musician
Mărgărita Miller-Verghy (1865–1953), Romanian novelist and critic
Marie-Chantal Miller, now Marie-Chantal, Crown Princess of Greece (born 1968), British-born Crown Princess of Greece
Marisa Miller (born 1978), American fashion model
Mark Miller (actor) (1924–2022), American stage and television actor
Mark F. Miller (born 1943), American politician from Wisconsin
Markus Miller (born 1982), German footballer
Marsha Miller (born 1969), American beach volleyball player
Marvin Miller (1917–2012), executive director of the Major League Baseball Players Association
Mary Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Matthew Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
McKaley Miller (born 1996), American actress
Meagan Miller, American opera soprano
Melvin J. Miller (1919–1974), American farmer and politician
Merton Miller (1923–2000), American economist and Nobel laureate
Mesina Miller (born 1953), American nude model
Michael Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Michelle Miller (born 1965), American television reporter
Midge Miller (1922–2009), American politician from Wisconsin
Mina F. Miller (born 1949), American musician
Mitch Miller (1911–2010), American singer and television personality
Montague Miller (1839–1920), Australian labour organizer
Mrs. Elva Miller (1907–1997), American singer
N–S
Nate Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people
Nathaniel Miller (born 1979), Canadian water polo player
Ned Miller (1925–2016), American country music singer-songwriter
Neil Miller (writer) (born 1945), American journalist and writer
Nick Miller (DJ), American DJ known as Illenium
Nicole Miller (born 1952), American fashion designer, cofounder of eponymous company
Noah Miller (water polo) (born 1980), Canadian water polo player
Norm Miller (born 1946), American Major League baseball player
Norton George Miller (1942–2011), American botanist
Ola Babcock Miller (1871–1937), American politician
Olga Miller (1920–2003), Australian historian, artist, author and Aboriginal elder of the Butchulla people
Oliver Miller (born 1970), American basketball player
Olivette Miller (1914–2003), American musician
Oskar von Miller (1855–1934), German engineer
Otis L. Miller (1901–1959), American baseball player and politician
Otis L. Miller Jr. (1933–2010), American educator and politician
Owen Miller (born 1996), American baseball player
Page Miller (born 1940), American public historian
Patrick Miller (basketball) (born 1992), American basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Patrick Miller (soldier) (born 1980), American prisoner of war
Paul Miller (disambiguation)
Paula Miller (born 1959), American politician from Virginia
Percy Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people
Perry Miller (1905–1963), American historian
Peter Schuyler Miller (1912–1974), American science fiction writer
Philip Miller (1691–1771), Scottish botanist
Pia Miller (born 1983), Indian Australian actress
Primo Miller (1915–1999), American football player
Quincy Miller (born 1992), American basketball player
Ralph Miller (1919–2001), American college basketball coach
Ralph Miller (1933–2021), American alpine ski racer
Ralph Willett Miller (1762–1799), British Royal Navy Captain
Rand Miller (born 1959), American computer game creator
Reggie Miller (born 1965), American basketball player; brother of Cheryl Miller
Reverend Jen Miller (born 1972), American actress and artist
Rex Miller (1939–2004), American author
Rhett Miller (born 1970), American singer and songwriter
Robert Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Robert C. Miller (1920–1998), American meteorologist and US Air Force officer known for tornado forecasting
Robin Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Robyn Miller (born 1966), American computer game creator
Roger Miller (rock musician), American singer and guitarist
Roger Miller (1936–1992), American singer and composer
Rudy Miller (1900–1994), American college athlete and professional baseball player
Russ Miller (baseball) (1900–1962), American baseball player
Russell Miller (born 1938), British journalist and author
Russell A. Miller (born 1969), American lawyer
Ruth Miller (actress) (1903–1981), American actress
Ryan Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Sammy Miller (rugby league), rugby league footballer of the 1930s for Salford
Samuel Freeman Miller (1816–1890), American Supreme Court Associate Justice
Sara Miller (1924–2016), American sculptor
Sara Miller McCune (born 1941), co-founder and Chair of SAGE Publications
Saul Miller (1917–1993), Canadian politician from Manitoba
Scott Miller (disambiguation), multiple people, multiple people
Sean Miller (disambiguation)
Sharee Miller (born 1971), American murderer
Shareef Miller (born 1997), American football player
Shelby Miller (born 1990), American baseball player
Sienna Miller (born 1981), American-English actress
Stanley Miller (born 1940), American artist better known as Stanley Mouse
Stanley L. Miller (1930–2007), American biologist and chemist
Stephanie Miller (born 1961), American comedian and radio host
Stephen Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Steve Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Campbell A. "Stretch" Miller (1910–1972), American sportscaster
Susan Miller (disambiguation)
T–Z
Terry Miller (disambiguation)
The Miller Sisters (disambiguation), multiple people
Theodore Miller (1816–1895), New York judge
Theodore Doughty Miller (1835–1897), American Baptist preacher
T. J. Miller (born 1981), American actor and comedian
Tommy Miller (born 1979), English footballer
Tony Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Tyson Miller (born 1995), American baseball player
Ventrell Miller (born 1999), American football player
Vernon C. Miller (1896–1933), American murder victim
Vern Miller (1928–2021), American politician and lawyer
Victor S. Miller (born 1947), American mathematician
Von Miller (born 1989), National Football League player
Wade Miller (Canadian football) (born 1973), Canadian football player
Wade Miller (born 1976), American baseball player
Walter M. Miller Jr. (1923–1996), American science fiction author
Walter Miller (footballer) (1885–?), English footballer
Warren Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Warren E. Miller (born 1964), American politician from Maryland
Wentworth Miller (born 1972), American-British actor
Whitey Miller (1915–1991), American baseball player
Willard Miller, American sailor and Medal of Honor recipient
William Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
William Hallowes Miller (1801–1880), British mineralogist and crystallographer
William Miller (Peruvian general) or Guillermo Miller (1795–1861), British soldier who participated in South American revolutions
Willie Miller (footballer, born 1910), Scottish footballer (Everton, Burnley)
Willie Miller (footballer, born 1924) (1924–2005), Scottish footballer (Celtic, Scotland)
Willie Miller (footballer, born 1969), Scottish footballer (Hibernian)
Willie Miller (born 1955), Scottish footballer (Aberdeen, Scotland)
Wyatt Miller (born 1995), American football player
Zell Miller (1932–2018), American politician from Georgia
See also
Justice Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Millar
Miller (disambiguation), multiple people
Occupational surnames
Miller
Miller
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5018757
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay%20Presson%20Allen
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Jay Presson Allen
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Jay Presson Allen (March 3, 1922 – May 1, 2006) was an American screenwriter, playwright, stage director, television producer, and novelist. Known for her withering wit and sometimes-off-color wisecracks, she was one of the few women making a living as a screenwriter at a time when women were a rarity in the profession. "You write to please yourself," she said, "The only office where there's no superior is the office of the scribe."
Early life
Allen was born Jacqueline Presson in San Angelo, Texas, the only child of Willie Mae (née Miller), a buyer, and Albert Jack Presson, a department store merchant. She was "never particularly fond of her given name", and decided to use her first initial when writing. She would spend every Saturday and Sunday in the movie house, from one o'clock until somebody dragged her out at seven. From that time on movies became very important to her, and Allen knew she would not be staying in West Texas. Allen attended Miss Hockaday's School for Young Ladies in Dallas for a couple of years, but came away, in her words, "having had no education to speak of." She skipped college and at 18 left home to become an actress. In New York, her career lasted "for about twenty-five minutes", Allen says, when she realized that she only liked rehearsals and the first week of performance, and would rather be "out there" where the decisions were being made.
In the early 1940s, Allen married "the first grown man who asked me," Robert M. Davis, a promising young singer, and they lived in Claremont, California, during World War II. She continued acting while in California; she has a small credited role (under the name Jay Presson) in the 1945 film An Angel Comes to Brooklyn and can be glimpsed briefly as "Miss Zelda" in the 1946 film Gay Blades.
Writing career
Allen became a writer by default, having always read constantly. Being able to write pretty well, she decided to "write her way out" of the marriage and set out to become financially independent of her husband. She always claimed her first husband's big fault was marrying someone too young.
Her debut novel, Spring Riot, was published in 1948 and got mixed reviews. Her next effort was a play, which she sent to producer Bob Whitehead. Because he had produced Member of the Wedding, she thought he would like it since her play was also about a child, but the play came back from Whitehead's office rejected. Allen waited for a couple of months and sent it back, rightly figuring that some reader had rejected it instead of Whitehead himself. This time Whitehead read the play and instantly optioned it, but due to casting problems her play was never produced on stage. The reader who had initially rejected her play was Lewis M. Allen, whom she would later marry.
Second marriage
Allen returned to New York and performed on radio and in cabaret, both of which she loathed, and would go through the whole performance wishing to be fired. In the meantime she started writing again, little by little, and sold some of her work to live television programs like The Philco Television Playhouse. When she married Lewis M. Allen in 1955, they moved to the countryside, where Lewis wrote and Allen in her words "didn't want to do anything." She had a baby, and spent two and a half "absolutely wonderful years in the country."
Eventually the couple came back to the city to work. By then, Bob Whitehead had become a good friend and encouraged Allen to write another play. She drew on her married life and wrote The First Wife, about a suburban working couple. It was made into the film Wives and Lovers in 1963, starring Janet Leigh and Van Johnson. When Allen read The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, by Muriel Spark, she instantly saw play potential where no one else did. After undergoing hypnotherapy to alleviate a yearlong bout of writer's block, Allen produced a draft of the play in three days.
Career
Marnie
While The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie was still an unproduced script, Alfred Hitchcock read it and offered Allen the script for Marnie (1964). Hitchcock brought Allen to California to work on the film at Universal Studios in the San Fernando Valley. Allen, who lived close by, would bicycle to work. This upset Hitchcock, who insisted that a limousine be sent for her every day, whether she wanted it or not. On days when she tried to walk to the studio, the limousine trailed along behind her.
In Allen's opinion, she could not learn fast enough to make a first-rate movie, although she thought Marnie did have some good scenes in it. Hitchcock would have made her a director but she told him no. Said Allen: "It seems perfectly clear to me that any project takes a minimum of a year to direct. I like to get things on and over with. ... Did you ever hear the phrase, 'the lady proposes, the studio disposes'? I didn't make it up. I would never propose myself as a director." Under Hitchcock's mentoring, Allen developed the screenwriting talent she would use the rest of her career. Allen wrote that she never felt discriminated against. While being one of the rare female screenwriters in Hollywood in the 1960s, she said "almost all of the men I worked with were supportive. If I was getting a bum rap somewhere, I didn't know it."
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, about an iconoclast Scottish girls' school teacher, did not premiere on the London stage until after Marnie'''s completion. Produced by Donald Albery, it premiered at the Wyndham's Theatre in May 1966 with Vanessa Redgrave and ran hundreds of performances. In January 1968, it opened in New York with Zoe Caldwell as Brodie and ran for an entire year. Allen also wrote the screenplay for the 1969 film starring Maggie Smith and Robert Stephens.
Said Allen: "All the women who played Brodie got whatever prize was going around at that time. Vanessa did, Maggie [Smith] did".
Forty Carats
After Jean Brodie, Allen had another success on Broadway with Forty Carats (1968). Her adaptation of the French boulevard comedy by Pierre Barillet and Jean-Pierre Gredy premiered in December 1968 with Julie Harris as the 42-year-old who has an affair with a 22-year-old man. Harris won a Tony Award for her performance. In 1973, Allen adapted her play for the screen, which turned out to be a critical and commercial disappointment.
Travels with My Aunt
Bobby Fryer, who had produced the Jean Brodie film, had collaborated with Katharine Hepburn to make the film version of Graham Greene's Travels with My Aunt (1972), specifically for George Cukor to direct. Cukor for some reason was not getting any work and Hepburn was casting around for projects. They asked Allen to come on board for the script, but she was busy and instead suggested Hugh Wheeler. After a few months, Fryer and Hepburn still weren't happy with Wheeler's script, so Allen agreed to work on the project and wrote a very straightforward script for them. But Hepburn had just starred in the disastrous adaptation of Madwoman of Chaillot and did not want, in Allen's words, "to play another crazy old lady." Hepburn was reluctant to let Cukor down and would not admit her reservations and began to find fault with the script, even rewriting many sections herself. Consequently, Allen finally gave up the endeavor, telling Hepburn that she ought to write it herself, which the actress did. Eventually, Hepburn provoked the studio into making her quit the project, leaving Fryer free to bring Jean Brodie's Maggie Smith onto the picture. One speech of Allen's remains in the script, otherwise it is all Hepburn's product. The Writer's Guild refused to put Hepburn's name on the script because she was not a guild member; Fryer refused to let Allen take her name off because she was the one he paid, and Wheeler was burned that he received no credit at all.
Cabaret
Structure was what Allen brought to the screenplay for Bob Fosse's Cabaret. The producers had not wanted to film the stage script by Joe Masteroff and John Van Druten, and felt that not portraying the male lead as a homosexual was dishonest to the story. They wanted to go back to Christopher Isherwood's original novel Goodbye to Berlin of 1939, but the Berlin stories weren't structured in any linear fashion and Allen had to diagram the entire story. Allen and Fosse got along badly from the start: she found him "so depressed that it took two hours just to get him in the frame of mind for work." In Allen's opinion most of the humor from the original was lost; she believed Fosse did not really like the lead character of Sally Bowles at all. She worked on the screenplay for ten months, but in the end Fosse and the producers were still unhappy with the final form, and having commitments elsewhere, Allen handed the script over to her friend Hugh Wheeler.
Funny Lady
In Allen's opinion, the problem with Funny Lady was that Barbra Streisand had not wanted to do a sequel to Funny Girl and was determined to give the director, Herbert Ross, a hard time. The picture does, however, contain some of Allen's most satisfying work, some of which she doesn't remember writing and just seems to have come out of nowhere.
Family
The idea for the television show Family was born in Aaron Spelling's kitchen, where he and Leonard Goldberg came up with the idea about a show that centered on the emotional life of a family. They pitched the idea to Allen and she liked it. Allen spent two weeks at the Beverly Hills Hotel while she knocked out a script. Len and Aaron loved it; it was touching and had marvelous moments of compassion, and was exactly what they had talked about in the kitchen. The pilot was great, but ABC did not buy it. It was not until two years later that ABC entered a production deal with Mike Nichols, who turned down all their ideas in favor of the script for Family that his Connecticut neighbor Jay Allen had shown him. It was Nichols who brought in Mark Rydell for the pilot, which premiered at 10:00 pm on March 9, 1976; the series went on to run for four years and 86 episodes. Later in life Allen would remark about television: "I hate it, I hate it because the buck doesn't stop anywhere."
Just Tell Me What You Want!
"Male characters are easier to write. They're simpler. I think women are generally more psychologically complicated. You have to put a little more effort into writing a woman." – Jay Presson Allen.
Allen wrote the novel Just Tell Me What You Want! in 1969, with the idea of turning it into a screenplay. After having trouble getting together a production, Allen sent it to Sidney Lumet, who surprisingly wanted to do it. In her opinion, Lumet was a wonderful structuralist but has his most difficult time with humorous dialogue; he had not found a way to shoot humorous dialogue as brilliantly as he shot everything else.
Prince of the City
When Allen read Robert Daley's book, Prince of the City (1978), she was convinced it was a Sidney Lumet project, but the film rights had already been sold to Orion Pictures for Brian De Palma and David Rabe. Allen let it be known that if that deal should fall through, then she wanted the picture for Sidney. Just as Lumet was about to sign for a different picture, they got the call that Prince of the City was theirs. Allen had not wanted to write Prince of the City, just produce it. She was put off by the book's non-linear story structure, but Lumet would not make the picture without her and agreed to write the outline for her. Lumet and Allen went over the book and agreed on what they could use and what they could do without. To her horror, Lumet would come in every day for weeks and scribble on legal pads. She was terrified that she would have to tell him that his stuff was unusable, but to her delight the outline was wonderful and she went to work. It was her first project with living subjects, and Allen interviewed nearly everyone in the book and had endless hours of Bob Leuci's tapes for back-up. With all her research and Lumet's outline, she eventually turned out a 365-page script in 10 days. It was nearly impossible to sell the studio on a three-hour picture, but by offering to slash the budget to $10 million they agreed.
When asked if the original author ever has anything to say about how their book is treated, Allen replied: "Not if I can help it. You cannot open that can of worms. You sell your book, you go to the bank, you shut up."
Deathtrap
Allen adapted Ira Levin's play Deathtrap (1982) for Lumet, exchanging a weak, confusing ending for a more directly resolved one. Though not being able to do what a screenwriter needs to do to a play – "opening it up," taking it outside the original set or sets, make it bigger – she was limited to bookending the script with scenes in a New York theater. The plotting was so very tight, which is what the studio executives had wanted when they bought it. It was up to Allen to cut away the underbrush, simplifying the rhetoric as much as possible and adding some realism to the characters.
La Cage Aux Folles
Allen returned to the stage with an adaptation for Angela Lansbury of A Little Family Business, a French boulevard comedy by Pierre Barillet and Jean-Pierre Gredy. She was also hired by Broadway producer Allan Carr to adapt Jean Pioret's non-musical 1973 play La Cage Aux Folles as a musical reset in New Orleans. The never-to-be-produced production was called The Queen of Basin Street, and was to be directed by Mike Nichols with Tommy Tune choreographing and Maury Yeston writing the songs. Nichols, who was a producing partner with Lewis Allen, eventually quit in a dispute over profits; Tommy Tune followed him and Carr fired Jay Allen. When Carr finally produced a musical version, Allen was forced to file suit for payment from her work on the adaptation.
The Verdict
"What I really like to do is a very swift rewrite for a great deal of money. Then I'm out of it. There's no emotional commitment at all – your name's not on it, you're home free", she would explain.
Twentieth-Century Fox brought Allen in for a rewrite when they were unhappy with the script that David Mamet had produced from Barry Reed's novel The Verdict, thinking he had deviated too much from the original material. She produced a script they were happy with, but then handed it to Robert Redford, who began to tinker it to fit his persona. Eventually the producers took it away from Redford and offered it to Lumet, who had just seen a production of Mamet's, American Buffalo with Al Pacino, and preferred to use Mamet's original script. In the end the studio had paid both Allen and Redford and ended up with Mamet's original script anyway.
Hothouse
Allen tried to recapture the success of Family with Hothouse for ABC in 1988; the drama about the lives and work experiences of the staff of a mental hospital lasted eight episodes. Personally Allen thought it was some of her best work, though its short life was a mixed blessing for her, said Allen: "Unfortunately, ABC didn't have the courage of their initial convictions. They skewered it, they turned tail on it. However if they had picked it up I'd have had to turn out 26 episodes. I'd be in Forest Lawn now. Television is a killer. It is really not for sissies."
Tru
The 1991 Broadway production of Tru starring Robert Morse as Truman Capote was actually a request of the lawyer for the Capote Estate. Allen was reluctant to write about Capote at first, but once she had researched him, she found the last ten years of his life not as off-putting as she had thought: "Capote had a kind of Gallantry in the face of a devastating situation." Friends of Capote were amazed at her accuracy portraying a man she had only met but not known, and there was much question about how many of the lines are Capote's and how many Allen's; she maintained that at least 70% of the dialogue is Capote's own.
Script doctor
When she was not writing, Allen and her husband were among the most visible of Manhattan's theater crowd. She would spend her later years as a script doctor and observing particularly salacious crime trials from the benches in Manhattan Criminal Court. Allen had just about given up writing any more movies from beginning to end, preferring to do lucrative rewrites. It had stopped being fun for her. Script 'development' translated to 'scripts written by committee', but the upside was that "developed" scripts tend to need rewrites – from outside the "development circle"."A production rewrite means that the project is in production. Big money elements – directors, actors – are pay or play. There is a shooting date. The shit is in the fan. And that's where writers like me come in. Writers who are fast and reliable. We are nicely paid to do these production rewrites... and we love these jobs. Without credit? Never with credit. If you go for credit on somebody else's work, you have to completely dismantle the structure. Who wants a job where you have to completely dismantle the structure? I only take things that I think are in reasonable shape. The director and the producer and the studio may not necessarily agree with me, but I think the script is in reasonable shape. Besides, no one but the writer ever knows how much trouble any one piece of work will be. Only the writer knows that. Only the writer. So I take what looks to me like something that is in good enough shape, yet which I can contribute to and make it worth the pay they are going to give me... There are more than one of us out there. These jobs are quick, sometimes they're even fun, and you don't have to take the terrible meetings. They're not breathing on you. They're just desperate to get a script. I've never taken anything that I knew I couldn't help. They pay good money."
In 1986, she had signed an agreement with Lorimar-Telepictures in order to help develop, write and produce projects, in collaboration with ABC Entertainment. Her last film work was her screenplay for the 1990 remake of the classic, Lord of the Flies. However, she disliked the finished product and had her name removed. The trick in adapting, Allen said in a 1972 interview with The New York Times, "is not to throw out the baby with the bath water. You can change all kinds of things, but don't muck around with the essence."
Death
Jay Presson Allen died May 1, 2006, at her home in Manhattan following a stroke, aged 84.
Awards and honors
In 1982, Allen was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award for outstanding women who, through their endurance and the excellence of their work, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry.
The papers of Jay Presson Allen and her husband Lewis M. Allen are held at the Harry Ransom Center in Austin, Texas.
Credits
Novels
Spring Riot (1948; as Jay Presson)
Just Tell Me What You Want (1975)
Film
Wives and Lovers (1963; play The First Wife)
Marnie (1964; screenplay)
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1969; screenplay; play)
Cabaret (1972; screenplay)
Travels with My Aunt (1972; writer)
40 Carats (1973; writer)
Funny Lady (1975; screenplay)
It's My Turn (1980; executive producer)
Just Tell Me What You Want (1980; screenplay from her novel; producer)
Prince of the City (1981; screenplay; executive producer)
Deathtrap (1982; screenplay; executive producer)
Lord of the Flies (1990; under the pseudonym Sara Schiff)
as an uncredited script doctor
Never Cry Wolf (1983; uncredited rewrite)
Copycat (1995; uncredited rewrite)
Stage plays
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1966), adaptation
Forty Carats (1968), adaptation
A Little Family Business (1982), adaptation
Tru (1989) and directed
The Big Love (1991) and directed
La Cage aux Folles (1995), uncredited adaptation
Television
Danger (1953; writer of 2 episodes, "Surface Tension" and "Inside Straight" as Jay Presson)
Armstrong Circle Theatre (1954; writer of 1 episode "Brink of Disaster" as Jay Presson)
The Philco-Goodyear Television Playhouse (1954; teleplay writer of 1 episode "Beg, Borrow or Steal" as Jay Presson)
Star Tonight (1955; writer of 1 episode "The Dark Search" as Jay Presson)
Goodyear Playhouse (writer of 1 episode "Do It Yourself" as Jay Presson)
The Borrowers (1973; teleplay)
Family pilot: "The Best Years" (1976; teleplay)
The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie (1978; teleplays)
Hothouse (1988; executive producer, creator)
American Playhouse: Tru (1992; teleplay)
References
Bibliography
Crist, Judith (1984), Take 22: Moviemakers on Moviemaking'' (New York: Viking)
External links
Jay Presson Allen Papers at the Harry Ransom Center
1922 births
2006 deaths
Film producers from Texas
20th-century American novelists
American women novelists
American women screenwriters
Screenwriters from Texas
Writers from Fort Worth, Texas
Writers Guild of America Award winners
20th-century American women writers
American women film producers
American women television writers
Hockaday School alumni
20th-century American screenwriters
21st-century American women writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamberg%20Cathedral
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Bamberg Cathedral
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Bamberg Cathedral (, official name Bamberger Dom St. Peter und St. Georg) is a church in Bamberg, Germany, completed in the 13th century. The cathedral is under the administration of the Roman Catholic Church and is the seat of the Archbishop of Bamberg. Since 1993, the cathedral has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Town of Bamberg".
It was founded in 1002 by King (and later Emperor) Heinrich II (Henry II) and consecrated in 1012. With the tombs of Henry II and his spouse Cunigunde, the cathedral contains the remains of the only imperial couple that was canonized. With the tomb of Pope Clement II (1005–47) it also contains the only papal grave in Germany, and north of the Alps.
After the first two cathedrals burned down in the 11th and 12th centuries, the current structure, a late Romanesque building with four large towers, was built in the 13th century.
The cathedral is about 94 m long, 28 m broad, 26 m high, and the four towers are each about 81 m high. It contains many works of art, including the marble tomb of the founder and his wife, the Empress Kunigunde, considered a masterpiece of the sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider, and carved between 1499 and 1513.
Another well-known treasure of the cathedral is an equestrian statue known as the Bamberg Horseman (). This statue, possibly depicting the Hungarian king Stephen I, most likely dates to the period from 1225 to 1237.
History
Background
Heinrich (Henry), son of Heinrich der Zänker became Duke of Bavaria in 995, replacing his banished father. His favourite dwelling was at Bamberg and he gave that property (probably in spring 1000) to his wife Kunigunde as a wedding gift. In 1002, Heinrich was elected King of Germany and he started to conduct his government business from Bamberg, giving the town various privileges (mint, tolls, market rights). Probably late in 1002 the decision was made to establish a diocese at Bamberg. Henry was pious, he and his wife had no children to leave the property to and the eastern border of his kingdom still lacked a diocese. Against the opposition of the Bishop of Eichstätt, who lost the northern rim of his territory, and of the Bishop of Würzburg, who lost all of the eastern part of his, the Reichssynode of All Saints' Day 1007 at Frankfurt established the Diocese of Bamberg. The Hochstift was endowed with royal territories, notably around Bamberg and near Villach. Kunigunde contributed Bamberg itself. The first bishop (1007–40) was , Heinrich's former chancellor. He took his home in the former Königspfalz. In 1007/1020 the diocese came under the direct authority of the pope, and was thus henceforth outside of the control of the Archbishop of Mainz. King Heinrich (he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor only in 1014) became a canon of the cathedral chapter.
Construction history
Construction of this first cathedral had begun in 1002, with work starting on two crypts. It was consecrated on Heinrich's birthday, on 6 May 1012. This first cathedral was a cruciform basilica with the main choir in the west and a second to the east, each above a crypt. Two towers were located on the eastern façade. The nave was covered by a flat wooden ceiling. This cathedral was smaller than the current structure (only around 75 m long). This cathedral burned down in the Easter week of 1081. Whilst the interior art was completely destroyed, damage to the structure was relatively minor. It was quickly rebuilt – by 1087 it was possible to hold a synode here. Bishop Otto had the church rebuilt completely and it was reconsecrated in 1111.
This rebuilt church also burned down in 1185.
In 1047, the body of Pope Clement II (Bishop of Bamberg, 1040–6) was transferred from Rome to Bamberg and was buried in the cathedral. With the destruction of the tomb of Pope Benedict V at Hamburg at the beginning of the 19th century, this became the only papal grave in Germany. All other popes are buried in France or Italy.
The current late Romanesque cathedral was erected (with short intermissions) by three men of the house of Andechs-Merania: (bishop from 1177 to 1196), (bishop 1203–37) and (1237–42).
The wealth of the cathedral chapter and the generosity of the House of Andechs-Merania resulted in a large, "splendid" building (see description below). It was consecrated on 6 May 1237.
Later history
Heinrich had been canonized in 1146, as was Kunigunde in 1200. In 1499–1513, Tilman Riemenschneider created the tomb of the founders (see below). Many other works of art were added during the Gothic period.
During the 17th century, the interior of the cathedral was changed to Baroque style in two waves. The first came under Bishop Johann Gottfried von Aschhausen. The medieval coloured windows were removed. After 1626 the interior was whitened, painting over frescoes. A second wave followed after the end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648–53 under Bishop Melchior Otto Voit von Salzburg. The tomb of Heinrich and Kunigunde was moved, the rood screens were demolished and new high altars set up in both choirs.
In 1729–33, Balthasar Neumann, architect of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Würzburg Residence added the chapter house with administration offices for the cathedral chapter.
In 1802/3, the Bishopric of Bamberg was secularized and became a part of the Electorate of Bavaria. In 1817, Bamberg became an archdiocese. The province includes the dioceses of Speyer, Würzburg and Eichstätt.
The Baroque alterations were removed in a "purification" in 1828–37 ordered in 1826 by Ludwig I of Bavaria, who saw the cathedral as a national monument. Altars and other sculptures were auctioned off in an attempt to return the church to its original, medieval state. Baroque art was replaced with Romanesque Revival art.
During a renovation of 1969–74, the church was changed in accordance with the Second Vatican Council, e.g. by moving the main altar from the eastern choir to a location in front of the western choir.
Description
Overview and exterior
The cathedral is about long, broad, high, and the four towers are each about high.
Due to its long construction process, several styles were used in different parts of the cathedral, particularly the Romanesque and Gothic ones. Between these two styles is the Transitional style, and this is the style which is characteristic of the nave.
The current structure is a late Romanesque building with four big towers. The eastern towers were originally lower, but raised to the western towers' height after 1766 by steep pointed gables, added by architect Johann Jacob Michael Küchel. The western towers are early Gothic.
Choirs
The cathedral has a choir at each end. The eastern choir is the oldest part of the cathedral, still in pure Romanesque style. The western choir is early Gothic and its vault was built from 1232.
The east chancel, elevated due to the presence of a crypt beneath, is dedicated to St. George. This symbolizes the Holy Roman Empire. Of the figures adorning the southern choir screen, the first three apostles pairs are attributed to the stonemasons who made the Gnadenpforte (see below). The others and the twelve prophets on the northern screen reflect a later style. The choir stalls with carved chimeras and lions date from the 14th century. The fresco in the apse is much younger. It was created in 1927/8.
The west chancel is dedicated to St. Peter symbolizing the Pope. It contains the cathedra (created in 1904) and behind it, the grave of Pope Clement II. To the left and right are Gothic (late 14th century) choir stalls, richly carved. In the back, the Kreuzaltar dominates the choir. The figures of Jesus, Mary, Mary Magdalena and John was created from gold-covered basswood in 1652/3 by , auctioned off during the purification in 1835, bought back in 1915 and erected in 1917. In the front is the 20th-century Volksaltar with a large wheel chandelier above. This sandstone base, fitted with various bronze plates showing scenes from the life of Jesus, was made in 1974/5 by .
Transepts
The northern transept holds a late Gothic (c. 1500) altar dedicated to Mary (Mühlhausener Altar). It was previously located in the Protestant parish church of Mühlhausen. In 1781, it was replaced and then sold off in 1891. Given to Archbishop Joseph von Schork, he gifted it in 1904 to the cathedral.
The southern transept contains a large Nativity altar made of basswood by the artist Veit Stoss in 1520–3. It was originally intended for a church in Nuremberg (Karmeliterkloster) but after Reformation came to that city in 1524 the council refused to allow it to be set up. Veit's son Andreas Stoss, who had moved to Bamberg in 1526, managed to have it brought to Bamberg in 1543, where it was erected in the church . It only came to the cathedral in 1937 and is on a permanent loan from the parish. The altar is incomplete (e.g. the predella was never made) and only some parts of it were made by Stoss himself rather than by his workshop.
Nave and side-aisles
The nave, which connects the eastern and western choir and accounts for about a third of the overall length of the church, contains the imperial tomb, the Bamberger Reiter, an early 19th-century pulpit and the organ.
Two more notable altars are located in the side aisles: The Kirchgattendorfer Altar and the so-called Riemenschneider Altar. The former is dedicated to Mary and dates from the 16th century. It came from the Protestant parish church of Kirchgattendorf in Upper Franconia and was set up here in 1921. The latter was assembled in 1926 from various individual figures of different origin, all dating from around 1500. It is named after the statue of St. Sebastian, which is attributed to the workshop of Riemenschneider.
Crypts
The western crypt was filled in with rubble but reopened in 1987–95. It was discovered that it still contained features of Heinrich's original cathedral. It now serves as the burial site for the Archbishops of Bamberg. The first to be buried there in 1998 was Josef Schneider (1955–76). Under the northwestern tower a chapel (Häupterkapelle) was created in 1997 to keep the skulls of the two founders, Heinrich and Kunigunde. They are contained within a glass shrine on a stele. Kunigunde's skull was previously kept in a cabinet in the eastern choir, behind the so-called Sonnenloch which gave access to the outside of the cathedral.
The eastern crypt was created alongside the current cathedral, c. 1200. The tombs now here were only relocated from the nave in the 19th and 20th centuries. These include bishops from the 11th and 12th centuries and the tomb of King Konrad III (Conrad III) who died at Bamberg in 1152 and was initially buried next to Heinrich and Kunigunde. There is also a well used for baptisms.
Chapels
Nagelkapelle
The former chapter hall beneath which members of the cathedral chapter were also buried (these bronze slabs have now been moved to the walls). A wooden Gothic altar from c. 1500 is located in the further, late-Gothic part of the room. The chapel is used to house a nail, supposed to come from the True Cross. This has been venerated at Bamberg since the 14th century.
Sakramentskapelle
Formerly the Antonius or Gertrude Chapel, this was rededicated in 1974 after the Second Vatican Council. It now serves to store the sacramental bread for the Eucharist. It contains a painting (Rosenkranzgemälde) attributed to Lucas Cranach the Elder (c. 1520).
Sculptures and carvings
There are many sculptures both inside the cathedral and adorning the exterior.
Tomb of Heinrich and Kunigunde
One of the most notable works of art of the cathedral is the tomb of Emperor Heinrich II, the founder of the cathedral, and his wife, Empress Kunigunde. It was made by sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider from polished Solnhofen limestone and marble from the Franconian Jura. It took him 14 years to carve: between 1499 and 1513. The tomb, located near the eastern choir, is slightly higher than floor level because below there is a crypt. The tomb rises about 1.7 m above the floor. The top is carved with the likeness of Emperor and Empress. Above is a late-Gothic canopy. The carvings round the sides, reflecting the influence of Renaissance art, tell of various episodes in the lives of the imperial couple: The Empress walks across red-hot ploughshares to prove her innocence after being accused of adultery, the payment of the workers who built , the Emperor being cured by Saint Benedict, the Emperor's death and the weighing of his soul by the archangel Michael. Reportedly they are based on sketches by Wolfgang Katzheimer.
Bamberger Reiter
Near the tomb, on the northwestern choir column, supported by an Acanthus corbel, stands an equestrian statue known as the Bamberg Horseman (Bamberger Reiter). There is no consensus on who this knight on horseback really was supposed to represent. During the cathedral's long history, the favoured version changed. The Romantics thought he was a German emperor from the Hohenstaufen family. The Nazis thought he was a knight who symbolized German perfection, looking towards the east for new lands to conquer. Pictures of the horseman were displayed in schools, hostels and dwellings.
It is now thought that he was probably the 11th century Hungarian king Stephen I. This is based on modern technology which has revealed the original colours used to paint the statue.
The sculptor carved only his mark into the sculpture, leaving his identity a mystery. He may also have been involved in the creation of figures on the eastern choir screen (Mary and Elisabeth) and possibly of the Last Judgment of the Fürstenportal. The Reiter is probably the oldest statue of a horseman created in post-Roman Germany.
Portals
Numerous carvings ornament the three major portals. The Adamspforte and Marienpforte (or Gnadenpforte) leading into the eastern towers are each guarded by a carved Romanesque lion, a weathered remainder of Heinrich's original cathedral. The former portal sports figures (replicas) of St. Stephen, Kunigunde, Heinrich II, St. Peter and Adam and Eve. The latter is a funnel-shaped portal of the Lombardian style. The tympanum shows Mary, venerated by St. Peter and St. George on one side and by Kunigunde and Heinrich on the other. Figures cowering in the corners are interpreted to be bishop Ekbert (left), a cleric possibly cathedral provost Poppo of Andechs-Merania (right) and a crusader in the centre, maybe based on one "frater Wortwinus", architect of the 1229–31 work.
The main portal, not in the west as usual due to the two-choir structure of the cathedral but in the centre of the north wall, is called Fürstenportal (princes' portal) and opened only on holy days. It accesses the northern side aisle and was started by late Romanesque artisans (prophets and apostles) but finished by early Gothic workers (Last Judgment in the tympanum). The statues (replicas) topping the columns are Ecclesia and Synagoga (the originals were moved in 1937). There are also statues here of Abraham and the Angel announcing the Last Judgement.
The Veitspforte is a minor entryway, dating to the early Gothic period. It was inspired by the style the Cistercians had brought from France to southern Germany, as at Ebrach Abbey. The portal gives access to the southern transept.
Papal grave
The tomb of Pope Clement II (1005–47) is made from silver-grey marble with carved reliefs from the first half of the 13th century on all four sides: the four Cardinal virtues, death of the pope and St. Michael, rivers of Paradise, and John the Baptist (or possibly Christ sitting in judgment over the world).
Others
Although many medieval bishops' tombs remain inside the cathedral, most of the later ones where transferred to the Michaelskirche during the 19th-century "purification" of the cathedral.
Organ
The cathedral first had an organ in 1415. The one that was built in 1868 gave many problems and had to be rebuilt five years later, but it was kept until 1940 because of its good sound.
The organ that is present in the cathedral today was built in 1976 by the organ builder Rieger. There are four angel figures in the corners of the organ case. The organ has four manuals and pedalboard. All the organs during the cathedral's history were built against the north wall because the sound was best there.
Every year about 40 concerts are given in the cathedral.
Bells
Further structures
The cloisters and the nearby chapter house by Balthasar Neumann today house the (cathedral museum).
The Domkranz is a terrace reached by two broad stairways from the Domplatz. From here the Adamspforte and the Gnadenpforte give access to the cathedral.
Domplatz
The cathedral square is also fronted by the Renaissance buildings of the and the Baroque , the palaces of the bishops from the 15th century to 1602 and from 1602 to 1803, respectively.
Originally known as Hofplatz or Burgplatz, after secularization the square was renamed Karolinenplatz in honour of the then Queen of Bavaria, Karoline. Only in 1949, did Domplatz become the official name for the area. Previously, this had been limited to just the immediate surroundings of the cathedral.
In Popular Culture
The Bamberg Cathedral (ingame name Regnitz Cathedral) is the Religious Castle Age Landmark of the Holy Roman Empire Civilization in Age of Empires IV
See also
Ulrich of Bamberg
References
External links
Official website
Bamberg Cathedral on the municipal tourist site
Free virtual visit of Bamberg Cathedral
Cathedral
Romanesque architecture in Germany
Roman Catholic cathedrals in Bavaria
Imperial cathedrals
Basilica churches in Germany
Burial places of popes
Registered historic buildings and monuments in Bavaria
Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor
Minor basilicas in Germany
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryuho%20Okawa
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Ryuho Okawa
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Ryuho Okawa (大川 隆法; Ōkawa Ryūhō; born Takashi Nakagawa (中川 隆; Nakagawa Takashi), 7 July 1956 – 2 March 2023) was a Japanese religious and political leader who was the CEO and founder of the Happy Science and the Happiness Realization Party. He was also chairman of two companies affiliated with the organization, and .
His organization has been widely criticised as a cult. Adherents of the religion worship Okawa, who claimed to be the current incarnation of a god called "El Cantare" and a number of other beings, including Hermes and Gautama Buddha.
Early life
Ryuho Okawa was born Takashi Nakagawa on 7 July 1956 in Kawashima (now Yoshinogawa), Tokushima Prefecture as the second son of (1921 – 2003) (later known by his pen name ) and . His older brother is named (born 1952) (later known as ).
Okawa said his family was religious; both of his parents believed in God and the Buddha, and Okawa believed in the existence of spirits and souls, and a world after death in childhood. Despite his beliefs, Okawa was not active in religious practice. Okawa and Tomiyama were raised in a strict home environment that was ordinary and not particularly rich nor poor.
Yoshikawa is said to be one of the most important influences on Okawa's life. Okawa said, despite not having a spiritual or religious master, Yoshikawa had an important influence. Yoshikawa edited journals for the Japanese Communist Party and later worked as an agricultural advisor in local government. He was deeply interested in spirituality and religion. He studied in the Christian Church as a teenager, as well as in a new religion called Seicho-no-Ie after World War II. He later became a follower of Shinji Takahashi, leader of the religious organization (GLA). He would also later serve as Happy Science's official adviser in its first few years. Yoshikawa was demanding on Okawa's success. Yoshikawa gave him and Tomiyama hour-long lectures after dinner at home. The lectures included religious topics like the Bible and The Gateless Barrier, as well as secular topics like Kantian philosophy and Marxism during elementary school, although Okawa was not successful in school.
Okawa wanted to be a scholar or a diplomat. He wanted to spread his ideas in academia, or broaden his view on life by experiencing different cultures as a diplomat. Because of this prospect, he started studying until late at night and became amongst the top of his class. He became particularly good at English. He was obese, weighing 60 kg when he was 143 cm tall.
During secondary school, Okawa was an active student. He fished, played tennis, and practiced kendo. He was involved in school activities; he was president of the student union and editor of the school newspaper.
Career
Education
In 1975, Okawa failed the entrance exam for Tokyo University. After studying for a year, he was accepted into the university's Liberal Arts Division. During his first year, he was not socially adjusted. He said he once wrote love letters to a girl, but was rejected. He felt uncomfortable amongst the students who were uninterested in spirituality. During his second year, a time he calls "the first stage in the 'awakening of wisdom'", he modeled his daily schedule after that of Immanuel Kant, whom he respected deeply. At 3 pm, he would take a walk while writing poetry. At 5 pm, he would go to the local bathhouse and stay there for an hour thinking about his day. Going home, he would have a cheap meal, and buy two books at a local bookstore. From 8:30 to 9 pm, he would read, then drink tea, and then read philosophy. The philosophy he read included those of Plato and Kitaro Nishida.
In April 1978, after his second year at university, he majored in politics and studied at the Faculty of Law. After his third year, he paused his studies for a year. At the end of the break, he failed a judicial exam and the exam for higher-level civil servants. In his fourth and last year, his interests started to change from philosophy to metaphysics. He read the works of Shinji Takahashi of GLA and Masaharu Taniguchi of Seicho-no-Ie. He accepted a job offer from (now Toyota Tsusho), a major Japanese trading company, because his grades were not sufficient for graduate school. After graduating in spring 1981, he took up his job. He was assigned to the foreign exchange department at the headquarters in Tokyo.
Spiritual contacts
On 23 March 1981, before graduating from university and working at TOMEN Corporation, Okawa said he experienced his "Buddha Enlightenment", his first contact with a high divine spirit. This spirit is believed to be that of Nikkō Shōnin, who was one of Nichiren's disciples. On that day, he had a sudden feeling that a person was trying to communicate with him. He grabbed a pencil and a card. His hand started to move on its own, and wrote "良い知らせ、良い知らせ" (good news, good news). Asking who the person is, his hand signed "日興", the name of Nikkō. A week later, the spirit of Nichiren started contacting Okawa. They then communicated every day from March to July 1981, when he was working at TOMEN. Okawa asked the spirit what mission he should pursue in life. The spirit replied "Love others, nurture others, and forgive others". This message later became the basis of Okawa's teachings about love.
In June 1981, the religious leader Shinji Takahashi's spirit told Okawa his destiny to found a new religion. His father Yoshikawa, upon hearing of this, went to Tokyo, later becoming one of his followers. The next month, the spirits spoke through Okawa, including those of Kūkai, Shinran, Confucius, Jesus Christ, Moses, and Nostradamus. Yoshikawa and Tomiyama taped the communications. The tapes were interviews between the interviewing Yoshikawa and the spirits. Okawa acted as a spiritual medium and answered Yoshikawa's questions. The tapes were transcribed and adapted into publishable formats by Yoshikawa. Yoshikawa's help allowed Okawa to continue working as a businessman at TOMEN Corporation. Without his help, Happy Science could possibly have started differently and at a later date, or even not have been founded at all. The spiritual messages were given to the publisher because they specialized in spiritual works.
Okawa published a vast number of spiritual messages from various spirits in order to prove the existence of the Spirit World to the public. His first thirteen books, published from 1985 to 1987, consisted of these spiritual messages; the first eight were published from 1985 to 1986 under Yoshikawa's pen name to avoid Okawa's authorship being found out by his employers. The first book, , was published on 15 August 1985. The last two spiritual messages were published in early 1991: (January 1991) and (February 1991). Both became best-sellers in Japan in 1991. After 1991, almost all spiritual message books were discontinued aside from the messages of Buddha.
The books of spiritual messages were replaced with newer versions when Okawa started publishing under his own name after the foundation of Happy Science. The new books were akin to collected and revised versions of the originals. They are presented as religious tractates which are divided into chapters, rather than interviews between Yoshikawa and the spirits.
Okawa told his readers to not let foreigners read the spiritual messages and to not translate the messages into English, Chinese, or Korean. He says that foreigners should not know about the messages "until the time is ripe" and that propagating them overseas would "only heighten the fear." Astley (1995) says the real reason Okawa discouraged readers from spreading the messages abroad may be because the messages seem to contain a large amount of plagiarism.
As the spirits continued talking to Okawa, he eventually realized that he is a reincarnation of Guatama Buddha, and the incarnation of the Highest Spiritual Being named El Cantare. Okawa believes that this was revealed to him by the consciousness of Guatama Buddha. This revelation convinced him that his mission was to spread Truth on earth.
Business career
Okawa's life as a businessman went normally despite his communication with the spirits, which continued throughout his business career. In August 1982, Okawa was sent to the company's US headquarters at the World Trade Center in New York for training. He took an English course at Berlitz Language School and he studied international finance at the City University of New York. He dropped out of university after experiencing an intensified inferiority complex from seeing a Taiwanese classmate who spoke fluent English. Around this time, he said he experienced the "second stage in the 'awakening of wisdom'". His inferiority complex went away when he thought about the knowledge he obtained from the over three thousand books he read thus far. In 1983, he returned to Tokyo, and was assigned to work on negotiations with banks. In March 1984, he was sent to Nagoya. By summer of 1985, he had read over four thousand books. Thoughts "spewed forth like water from a spring", and his inferiority complex changed into a sense of superiority.
Okawa earned a particular reputation at his work, where rumours about him spread. His former colleagues said he claimed to see spirits possessing people and offered to exorcise them. In June 1986, high spirits suggested he retire from work, leading him to dedicate his life to religion. On 15 July, he resigned from TOMEN Corporation and on October 6, founded Happy Science and adopted the name "Ryuho Okawa".
Happy Science
Study group
On 6 October 1986, Okawa opened the first office for Happy Science in Suginami, Tokyo, with four staff members. Happy Science's initial name was ("Happy Science, The Postgraduate School of Human Life"). The name "幸福の科学" originates from inspiration that Okawa said he received from Nichiren's spirit; the details were published in Okawa's first book Nichiren no reigen in 1985. At first, the organization presented itself as a "study group on human happiness" and consisted of readers and sympathizers of Okawa's spiritual works, who were friends and acquaintances of Okawa. However, the organization may have intended to be known as a religious body later.
On 23 November 1986, Okawa gave his first sermon to about 80 followers in Tokyo. This date is now known as one of the most important dates in Happy Science's history. It is known as the day of ("The First Turn of the Wheel of the Dharma").
In March 1987, Okawa gave what is known as his first official large public lecture, entitled "The Principles of Happiness", to an audience of about 400 people. In the lecture, he implied that he was a prophet, saying that while spiritual mediums and psychics cannot hear the voice of God, prophets can. He said that a prophet's task is to listen to the voice and spread the word of God. He stated that the early years of Happy Science would consist of study.
In June 1987, a new series of books, called the series, launched. The first three books, , , and , published from June to October, may be seen as the fundamental doctrinal text of Happy Science. The three books are collectively called . They were originally presented as the final revelations of the Buddha. The Laws of the Sun is the first book in which Okawa explained his own point of view and his teachings. While Okawa had published books before, they were all spiritual messages that came from spirits, not Okawa. The book contains "the core of [Happy Science]'s doctrine" and is "the starting point of its salvation movement". The book also contains an account of Okawa's early life. The Golden Laws is dedicated to "time and history in relation to the Truth". The Laws of Eternity focuses on the structure of the spirit world, which The Laws of Sun also covers, but the book explains it in greater detail. Each book in the trilogy has a subtitle which mentions the shaka. The subtitles would be changed in future editions following changes in Happy Science's doctrine.
At the end of 1989, with the publication of The Rebirth of the Buddha, Okawa officially declared that he is an incarnation of Buddha. His teachings were re-interpreted in light of this revelation. The doctrine of Happy Science was interpreted to be fundamentally Buddhist.
Okawa's audience at his lectures grew larger as Happy Science gained new members. The initial audience of 400 at his lecture in 1987 grew to 10,000 by 1990. The organization grew rapidly. In December 1989, the headquarters was moved to one of the most expensive business buildings in Tokyo in Kioichō, Chiyoda, next to Tokyo's main business and political area. The rent was known to be ¥25 million per month.
Religious organization
On 7 March 1991, Happy Science obtained legal status as a through the Religious Corporations Law by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. As a result, its name was simplified to . The group's government recognition allowed it to gradually grow by taking on new members from the general Japanese public. In that year, Happy Science started large-scale festivities. One of these was Okawa's , held on 15 July 1991, just after Okawa's 35th birthday. In the festival, Okawa was in front of an audience of 50,000 people, which included the mass media, in Tokyo Dome. He declared that he now had at least 1.5 million followers and that his real identity is "El Cantare", the Grand Spirit of the Terrestrial Spirit Group, also known as the "Buddha of Mahayana". El Cantare was revealed to have several reincarnations prior to the Buddha and Okawa.
In May 1994, a doctrinal shift occurred. Old publications were revised to reflect the new concept of El Cantare. This included an updated version of the Trilogy of Salvation, which was called the series. Each book in the trilogy had its subtitle revised, which now refers explicitly to El Cantare's name rather than the shaka as with the original versions. The revised version of The Laws of the Sun contains a different account of Okawa's early life compared to the original version. The new edition also contains a list of El Cantare's previous reincarnations.
Since the founding of Happy Science, Okawa has reportedly published over 500 books, most of which are transcripts of his video recorded lectures. There are 15 films based on his teachings: The Laws of the Sun, The Laws of Eternity, The Golden Laws, The Terrifying Revelations of Nostradamus, Hermes - Winds of Love, The Rebirth of Buddha, The Mystical Laws, The Final Judgement, The Laws of the Universe, I'm Fine My Angel, The World We Live In, and Daybreak.
Organization
Fukui (2004) notes that Okawa's leadership is consistent with sociologist Max Weber's theory about charismatic authority. Okawa's leadership comes from belief in his supernatural traits, as he identifies as the Buddha and El Cantare. Under his authority, Happy Science has undergone rapid changes, including changes in its projects, doctrine, and staff, who do not remain in the same post for a long time. Fukui (2004) says, citing Wallis (1983), that rapid change allows a charismatic leader to stay in power. Rapid change protects the leader from vulnerability stemming from disbelief in their supernatural claims, routinization, or dissenting leaders.
Since its founding, Happy Science has been organized like a secular company. This is reflected in titles of positions, which are secular. Okawa's original title was , with followers referring to Okawa as . In January 1997, with the inception of the "New Hope Project", Okawa's title was changed to and Okawa is called by members. Under Okawa, a Board of Directors, which manages Happy Science, and the Heads of Divisions exist. exist in and outside of Japan, with each office run by a . Fukui (2004) says, when visiting the headquarters' offices in Tokyo, it was difficult to "tell the difference between [Happy Science]'s offices and those of a business corporation." Most staff members were wearing business suits and doing paperwork at their desks. The usual office equipment are seen as well, such as telephones, fax machines, filing cabinets, photocopiers, and computers. Fukui (2004) says "apart from the presence of the gohonzon (the religious icon of worship) within the office of each division, it felt as though I was visiting a major trading house." Although the employees are (i.e. "renouncers who have left their secular lives"), they spent a considerable amount of time working in the office.
Happy Science has been widely criticised as a cult.
Role as Buddha and El Cantare
In Happy Science, Okawa is known as the Buddha, both the Enlightened One and the reincarnation of Guatama Buddha, and the embodiment of El Cantare, the Grand Spirit of the Terrestrial Spirit Group, called Lord El Cantare within Happy Science. The name "El Cantare" means "beautiful land of light, Earth". El Cantare is also known as the "Eternal Buddha". This Buddha is related to the Creator God, known as the "Primordial Buddha". Many members believe Okawa is an incarnation of the Creator. Okawa is believed to have many past incarnations. These include a king named La Mu on the continent Mu, a king named Thoth on the continent Atlantis, a king named Rient Arl Croud in the Inca Empire located in ancient South America, Ophealis in archaic Greece, Hermes in ancient Greece, and the Buddha in India.
As El Cantare, Okawa is the main figure of worship in Happy Science. Members have faith in El Cantare. Their worship gives them "comfort, energy, courage, hope, steadiness, and a sense of being guided and looked after." The organization's has a photo of Okawa as El Cantare. El Cantare is said to have chosen to be incarnated in Japan because both Eastern and Western civilizations are merged there. When the two civilizations coexist harmoniously, an element of the Utopia would be realized. Thus Japan is the ideal place for Okawa to run a utopian movement which will bring about a new age in the 21st century. Okawa said El Cantare has two roles: a Savior, like Amitabha Buddha, and Mahavairocana, the Buddha's essence which represents enlightenment.
El Cantare is believed to be needed in this world because the world is in a crisis. Dark thoughts exist in the world, which cause disasters, including wars and other conflicts. In Happy Science's doctrine, like attracts like; the cultivation of the Light of Buddha attracts more light, and the cultivation of dark thoughts attracts more dark thoughts. Dark thoughts currently outweigh the Light in the world, creating the need for a Utopia which reverses the situation. This Utopia is to be realized by El Cantare and his followers.
Because Okawa identifies as both the Buddha and El Cantare, Fukui (2004) believes that he fits both types of prophet which sociologist Max Weber believes exist: the exemplary type who leads people to salvation through exemplary living and the emissary type who declares their demands to the world. Okawa plays the exemplary role as the Buddha by embodying the correct way of living and by guiding people to enlightenment. Okawa fulfills the emissary role as El Cantare by providing "hopes of salvation."
Publications
A vast amount of literature has been dedicated to Happy Science's doctrine. Okawa said they all have the purpose of learning Happy Science's fundamental scripture, . Okawa's publications come in three different types. One are the books containing spiritual messages from Okawa's communication with various spirits. The second type are transcriptions of Okawa's lectures and seminar-talks. The third are Okawa's writings. Other authors have contributed as well. Okawa's wife, Kyoko, published books, mainly for the female audience. Some high-ranked disciples have produced titles. Others are published under the name of Happy Science or its Public Relations Department, which include books, magazines, comics, and textbooks.
Okawa is a prolific writer. By the early 1990s, he published about 20 to 30 books per year. He is said to have published over 300 books by 2004.
Many of Okawa's publications became best-sellers. Some of Okawa's books sold over a million copies. Okawa's main book The Laws of the Sun has sold the most copies, with ten million sold by January 2000. Happy Science said that by 1997, over 50 million copies of its titles were sold worldwide.
Unlike traditional religious text, Okawa's writings are very easy to read, with some parts being almost poetic. Okawa does not use old-fashioned, technical or complex language and avoids difficult kanji. He opts for the modern language, even using English loanwords. This simplicity may have helped give his books a popular appeal.
Rivalry with Aum Shinrikyo
Happy Science came into a bitter rivalry with the cult Aum Shinrikyo dating back to 1990, when Happy Science criticized the cult and its leader Shoko Asahara. Okawa called Asahara a frog, referring to Asahara's aquatic yogic acts. In response, Asahara criticized Okawa for not having undergone ascetic training and having a lack of doctrinal knowledge. In 1991, when Happy Science was going through heavy criticism from the public, academic , a critic of Happy Science, appeared to favor Aum Shinrikyo over Happy Science. Shimada favored Asahara because he went through ascetic training and had familiar knowledge of the doctrine of Buddhism. Okawa was criticized for having little knowledge of his own teachings and having faked his spiritual messages. He was challenged to prove his supernatural powers. Asahara published a book mocking Okawa's superficial knowledge of Buddhism. After the book's publication, Happy Science and Aum Shinrikyo were invited to a live television debate, but Okawa declined to participate. The hostility between the two groups culminated in an assassination attempt on Okawa by Aum Shinrikyo in February 1995. Aum members attempted to kill Okawa by putting the nerve agent VX in the air conditioning system of his car. The perpetrators did this by injecting the agent into the car's ventilation system with a needle-less syringe. The attempt failed for unknown reasons.
Happiness Realization Party
In September 2008, Okawa lectured at the New York branch of Happy Science, in which he talked about the political soft power of Happy Science:Happy Science is the most powerful and famous religion in Japan. I needed only 20 years to accomplish this. I was first asked for advice by Prime Minister Nakasone in 1988. Then we had Prime Minister Miyazawa who was a member of Happy Science, and after that, we produced a lot of Prime Ministers and Ministers. So I became one of the most influential kingmakers of Japan. The Japanese Prime Minister, Mr. Aso, visited Happy Science recently ... I gave him a strategy to become Japan's Prime Minister. He learned a lot and became the Prime Minister and came to New York to give a speech at the Assembly of the United Nations. It was based on just what I told him. So I am one of the kingmakers of Japan. I can choose a Japanese Prime Minister and I can have a Prime Minister quit in a month. It's a hidden secret of Japan ... Happy Science is the most influential power in Japan. So, if the American President cannot realize some diplomatic policy, he can just ask me and I can realize it in a week or so. It's a hidden secret. In Japan, religion has more power than politics.
A few months later, Okawa announced the founding of the Happiness Realization Party (HRP), the political wing of Happy Science. In April 2009, Okawa presented the party's . On 23 May 2009, the party was formally founded with as party leader. The party was founded in anticipation of the 2009 Japanese general election on 30 August 2009. The party is religious, conservative, and populist. The party does not make direct reference to the religious ideas of Happy Science.
Okawa's wife Kyoko became party leader on 4 June 2009. On 22 July, Okawa was appointed as president of the party. In that year's general election, the party fielded 337 candidates, including 75 women, in 288 out of the 300 constituencies in Japan. This number of candidates was rivalled only by the two major parties at the time, the Democratic Party of Japan and the Liberal Democratic Party. However, the party did not win any seats. It claimed to have just over one million votes, which is 1.4% of all votes cast, despite Happy Science having about ten million members. The party also unsuccessfully ran for the 2009 Sendai mayoral election. Kyoko stepped down as party leader and became head of the party's publicity department on 29 July before resigning from the party on 15 August. Okawa resigned as president on 12 September and a turnover of top party officials occurred.
In May 2010, the party gained its first seat in the House of Councillors when Yasuhiro Oe left the Democratic Party of Japan and joined HRP. On 21 April, Okawa was appointed honorary president of the party. A House of Councillors election was held in July, where no HRP candidates won. In December, Oe left HRP.
On 27 December 2012, Okawa was reappointed as president of the party.
Personal life
In April 1988, Okawa married , née , born on 22 August 1965. Kyoko had played a role as a spiritual leader alongside Okawa since 1987. Kyoko is a graduate of the University of Tokyo, where she studied English literature. Of his marriage with Kyoko, Okawa said it provided his life "with a stable basis that enabled me to concentrate even more on my task", and that it was "instrumental in the development of [Happy Science]". Kyoko became the Presidential Assistant of Happy Science in 1988, and the Head of Happy Science's women's group, called the "Society of Aphrodite" (). Like her husband, Kyoko has also published books for Happy Science, which mainly targeted the female audience. She also wrote an essay for each issue of Happy Science's monthly journal , which started in April 1987; she would address topics ranging from education to the family. Her essays were compiled into books. She was the joint president of the Happiness Realization party along with Okawa and later became the leader of the party. Okawa said that he and Kyoko were together in some of their past lives. The Society of Aphrodite and one of its subdivisions, , are named after the Greek goddess and Florence Nightingale respectively because they are believed to be previous incarnations of Kyoko.
In February 2011, it was reported that Okawa and Kyoko had divorced. Happy Science announced that she had been permanently expelled for allegedly causing great personal and administrative damage to the organization, libeling the organization in various newspapers, and besmirching the name of Lord El Cantare.
Okawa and Kyoko had five children: eldest son (born 24 February 1989), eldest daughter (born 16 February 1991), second son (born 1993), third son (born 1995), and second daughter .
Hiroshi worked for Happy Science after graduating from university. However, he stopped working there because he felt he was not competent enough for the job. He then worked at a construction company for three years before returning to Happy Science in 2016. Since January 2016, he was president of Happy Science's entertainment agency. He was involved in film production and music, working as an actor and a singer. He was intended to be Okawa's successor as leader of Happy Science. In October 2018, he declared that he broke up with Happy Science on his personal YouTube channel. In an interview with Shūkan Bunshun on 28 February 2019, he said the reason is because at the end of January 2017, he felt pressured by his father to marry the actress Fumika Shimizu, who became a member of Happy Science in February. On 18 November, when he refused the marriage, his father became furious, and after that day, Hiroshi left Happy Science. Happy Science has denied the accusation of Okawa pressuring Hiroshi to marry Fumika, saying that it was Hiroshi himself who was interested in marrying her. He has since renounced his father, stating "I believe what my father does is complete nonsense." He said that from an early age, he was taught that his father is a god. However, Hiroshi said he never thought of Okawa as a god and that he never wanted to follow in his father's footsteps nor has he ever wanted to do religious work.
Sayaka is said to be the managing director and general manager of Happy Science. In September 2015, she married , a member of the board of Happy Science. Happy Science has said that Sayaka would be the heir to the organization's leadership instead of Hiroshi. Masaki has been said to work for Happy Science since he was a student at university. He is serving as managing director and secretary general of science at Happy Science. In July 2016, he married , née , who serves as the chief of the president's office at Happy Science. Yuta works as director of Happy Science, general manager of the governor's office and staff officer for the promotion of the headquarters' government affairs. He has also published books for Happy Science.
In December 2012, Okawa married , née , born in 1985. She is believed by members of Happy Science to be the incarnation of the goddess Gaia.
Okawa had an aunt named (1919 – 1994). She was a novelist. In 2012, Okawa delivered a Happy Science sermon about her in which Shizuko's spirit was speaking through Okawa.
Death
On 28 February 2023, Okawa was hospitalized after fainting at his home in Minato, Tokyo. He died on 2 March, at the age of 66.
Controversy
Okawa was accused of having anti-Korean sentiment, although he denied this. He has also expressed beliefs that are widely associated with historical revisionism in Japan, including that Koreans had never been forced to labor by Japan, and that comfort women (euphemism for forced prostitutes) were also never forced to work. To this end, Okawa stated that:
See also
List of messiah claimants
Messiah complex
References
Notes
Sources
External links
1956 births
2023 deaths
Creator gods
Cult leaders
Deified Japanese people
Founders of new religious movements
CUNY Graduate Center alumni
Happiness Realization Party politicians
Japanese political candidates
Japanese religious leaders
New religious movement deities
People from Tokushima Prefecture
Political party founders
Politicians from Tokushima Prefecture
Prophets
Savior gods
Self-declared messiahs
University of Tokyo alumni
Yoshinogawa, Tokushima
Spiritual mediums
Channellers
Deified men
Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan
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